conference proceedings

ISDC 2014

INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT CONFERENCE 2014

CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS CD-Rom Version

Compiled by Ahmad Shukri bin Abdul Hamid Zakiyah binti Jamaluddin

ISBN 978-967-0474-74-8

Pusat Pengajian Pembangunan Sosial SCHOOL OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Universiti Utara Malaysia

2014

SECTION I SOCIAL WORK WITH INDIVIDUALS, FAMILIES, GROUPS AND COMMUNITIES

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PROFESSIONALISATION OF SOCIAL WORK THROUGH REGISTRATION: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FOR MALAYSIA Teoh Ai Hua* *[email protected] Malaysian Association of Social Workers

Abstract Social work as a profession may have been well established in many countries; nevertheless internationally its professional status and professionalisation process varies from country to country. Social work in Malaysia has come to a new chapter when the government endorsed a proposal to enact a Social Workers Bill as part of its commitment to enhance the quality of social workers and social work practice in the country. One significant aspect of the draft bill is the registration and licensing of social workers. Drawing examples from a few countries that have registration requirement, this paper attempts to highlight some issues and challenges that may arise when the registration and licensing begin after the bill has been enacted. Subsequently, suggestions and implications will be deliberated. Keywords: social work, professionalization, registration

INTRODUCTION Social work has developed as a profession, beginning in late 19th century in the United States, Britain, the Netherlands and Germany, and then in the 20th century introduced to other parts of Europe, Africa, Asia, Latin America, Oceania and the Middle East (Weiss, 2005). The professional development of social work internationally is, however, different from country to country although there are some common features like establishment of professional organizations, formulation of a code of ethics, development of a specific body of knowledge and placement of social work training in tertiary education (Weiss-Gal and Welbourne, 2008). Nevertheless, none of the countries in the study has a monopoly over fields of practice, only some has legislation on title protection, lack of control over training and entry into the profession, and also on enforcement of the code of ethics. Registration of social workers through a regulatory system did not start in the early days of the profession. Taking the United States for example, although the first state to legally regulate the profession was in 1934, most of the registration processes through licensing took place after the 70s and intensified in the 80s, and it took nearly 60 years for the last state to regulate the profession in 1992 (DeAngelis and Monahan, 2012). In the United Kingdom where social work also has a long history, the registration of all social workers only started in 2003 with the General Social Care Council (GSCC) (McInness and Lawson-Brown, 2007; Pierson, 2011). Internationally it is now seems that many countries are gearing towards registration of social worker aiming to raise standards and improving the status of the profession (Beddoe and Duke, 2009), accountability (McIness and Lawson-Brown, 2007), and protecting the public (DeAngelis and Monahan, 2012; van Heugten, 2011). Social work in Malaysia is of no exception. In 2010, the government has approved six measures to enhance the social work profession which include establishing the National Social Work Competency Standards, enacting a Social Workers Bill, establishing a national social work regulatory body, recruitment of qualified social workers, standardization of social work education and development of social work courses at certificate and diploma Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

level (Proposed, 2010). Subsequently a task force which is chaired by the Director General of Welfare has been set up to work on the six measures. The writer has been a member of the task force since its inception in 2010. It is with this backdrop that this paper wishes to discuss the different concepts of regulatory system, follows by a brief description of registration of social work in a few countries, and a brief outline of the proposed regulatory measures for social workers in Malaysia, before deliberating on some issues and challenges on registration and licensing of social workers in Malaysia.

UNDERSTANDING THE TERMINOLOGY Four terms are commonly used in reference to regulatory system in social work: credentialing, certification, registration and licensure (or licensing) (DeAngelis and Monahan, 2012) and it can be confusing even for social workers (Collins, Coleman and Miller, 2002). Credential is often referred as any document that verifies the qualification of a social worker, and commonly used for voluntary recognition from professional associations (DeAngelis and Monahan, 2012). It does not have any legal jurisdiction but merely served to promote the profession and professional holding them as having obtained knowledge and abilities that meet minimum competency requirement to become licensed. On the other hand, registration is used to describe a system of voluntary or mandatory registration with a government authority in order to use a prescribed restricted title. Although it is said that there are no legal distinction between certification and licensure, usually certification has a less rigorous regulatory structure than licensure which operates more comprehensively (DeAngelis and Monahan, 2012). The nature of certification can be voluntary but licensure definitely is mandatory. In legal regulation, the actual distinction is between practice legislation and title protection legislation. A practice act defines and regulates practice, establishes who can call themselves a social worker, and requires anyone engaging in these practice to hold a license which has a time limit (for renewal). Implemented parallel with a title protection act, social workers who have met the legal requirement can use the title “Licensed Social Worker”. However if the regulation is only a title protection act, then it is not as strict and does not prevent others who do not qualified from practicing, only for these people abstain from calling themselves by the regulated title, such as “Registered Social Worker” or “Licensed Social Worker”. In short, licensure (through practice act) is the strongest in terms of occupational control, follows by registration (through title protection act), certification and credentialing. Different countries will have their own way of regulating professionals which include social workers.

REGISTRATION OF SOCIAL WORKERS: COUNTRY EXAMPLES The United States Social work regulation in the US started after the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) adopted its first Code of Ethics in 1960 (DeAngelis and Monahan, 2012). Core values and formal ethical guidelines to guide the conduct of practitioners are the basis for profession regulation. The first voluntary professional certification, the Academy of Certified Social Workers (ACSW) was then introduced, targeting social workers with a master’s degree and 2 years of supervised postgraduate social work experience. At the same time, NASW developed an examination that would be the final requirement of the ACSW. From 1960s until 1980s, many states accepted ACSW certification as verification of qualifications for social work licensure, in lieu of a national licensing examination. In 1980, NASW developed a model social work licensing law and disseminated it to its chapters for them to advocate for state social work licensure regulation. 26 more states passed social work licensure during the 1980s and, by 1992, all states have legally regulated social workers. The American Association of State Social Work Boards (AASSWB) was established in 1978 as a networking for social work regulators to share information about the structure and issues in legal regulation. AASSWB began to offer national examinations in 1983 at three levels: Level A for baccalaureate social workers (BSW) upon graduation, Level B for master’s social workers (MSW) upon graduation, and an advanced Level C for master’s social workers with 2 years of supervised experience. By 1991, all states used AASSWB exams (DeAngelis and Monahan, 2012). At present, social work can include as many as four parts: BSW upon graduation, MSW upon graduation, independent after 2 years of supervised general experience, and clinical after 2 years of specific supervised clinical experience. Most states license social workers in two or more of these categories: BSW (36 states), MSW (43 states), independent but non-clinical (16 states), and clinical (52 states). 5 states have associate licensure for people who work in the social service field but do not have a formal social work degree (DeAngelis and Monahan, 2012). The regulatory development for social work in the US is to move from title protection to a practice act along with title protection, increase the categories of licensure, and remove exemptions from © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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licensure so that all social workers must be licensed.

The United Kingdom Although social work has a long history in the UK, social workers were employed in different services and has evolved into a modern, complex, bureaucratic profession without the support of a regulatory body and national standardization for a long time (McIness and Lawson-Brown, 2007). It was only after the Seebohm Report 1968 and the subsequent Local Authority Social Service Act 1970 that established social service (child care, care for the elderly and disabled people, and care for those with mental health problem) at the local authority level (Pierson, 2011). The consolidation of services into one generic department paved the way for the different associations representing social workers into one single national organization – the British Association of Social Workers (BASW) in 1970. The Central Council for Education and Training in Social Work (CCETSW) was then established in 1971 as the statutory authority responsible mainly for promoting education and training in social work, recognizing courses and awarding qualifications throughout the United Kingdom. It took nearly another 30 years before the Care Standards Act 2000 was enacted to establish the General Social Care Council (GSCC) in 2001 (CCETSW was then abolished) as a mechanism to regulate the workforce (social workers included). The GSCC was given the power to maintain a register of qualified social workers, social work students and social care staff, and to strike practitioners from that register (Peirson, 2011). Social work was established as a graduate profession with the entry set at 3 years undergraduate social work degree. However due to the UK government’s decision, GSCC only lasted for a decade when it was closed on 31 July 2012 and the regulation of the social work profession and education was transfer to Health Professions Council (HPC) which subsequently changed its name to the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) (GSCC, 2012).

New Zealand Like their UK counterparts, registration of social workers in New Zealand only started after the turn of the millennium. In 2003, the Minister for Social Development introduced the Social Workers Registration Act (2003) (SWRA), through voluntary registration, to improve standards and accountability of social workers in New Zealand (Beddoe and Duke, 2009). The SWRA established the Social Workers Registration Board (SWRB) which has 10 members appointed by the responsible minister. Six members were required to be social workers who would be eligible for registration under the act. The minister eventually appointed 9 members who are eligible to register to the first board and 1 lay person. The legislation only register social workers but the board was given the power to determine if the applicant should be registered fully, provisionally or temporary. Criteria for these categories were provided under the legislation (Beddoe and Duke, 2009). The registered social workers are also required to have a Competency certificate and have to apply for an annual practicing certificate. Since the registration is non-mandatory, all health social workers are not necessarily registered at this point of time (Beddoe and Duke, 2009). Nevertheless the numbers of registered social workers have increased from 2,485 for year 2009/10 to 4,029 for year 2012/13, and 86% of the registered social workers renewal their annual practicing license for year 2012/13 (SWRB, 2013). Registration has brought powerful markers of the professionalization that has been missing in the country (Beddoe, 2013).

Singapore Singapore introduced an accreditation system for social workers and social service practitioners on 1 April 2009. It was a joint effort by the Ministry of Social and Family Development, National Council of Social Service and Singapore Association of Social Workers. The Accreditation System is overseen by the Social Work Accreditation and Advisory Board (SWAAB) and administered by the Accreditation Secretariat of the Singapore Association of Social Workers. Practitioners with recognized Social Work qualifications acceptable to the SWAAB can either be accredited as Registered Social Worker (RSW) or Registered Social WorkersProvisional (RSW-P). The accreditation of Registered Social Service Practitioner (RSSP) has ceased since 1 July 2012 and the existing RSSP are encouraged to pursue a social work qualification to be accredited as RSW (http://accreditation.sasw.org.sg).

PROPOSED SOCIAL WORKERS BILL AND REGISTRATION IN MALAYSIA The Task Force or Technical Committee on the enhancement of the practice of social work has started the drafting of the Social Workers Bill since 2010. In the process, many meetings, workshops and road shows across © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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the nation were held to seek feedback from social workers, social welfare officers, and welfare organizations. Among the features of the proposed legislation include: a. Establish a statutory body named the Malaysian Social Work Council (MSWC) that undertakes the tasks of registration, licensing, complaints and discipline, continuing professional education and professional development of social workers in the country. Various committees will be set up for these tasks. b. The council members will be made up of a numbers of social workers eligible to be registered, the Director General of Social Welfare, Director of Social Welfare of Sabah and Sarawak, President of the Malaysian Association of Social Workers, and a lay person representing the public. All council members will be appointed by the Minister responsible for social welfare in the country. c. The proposed bill will set social work qualification at tertiary education (BSW or equivalent). Practitioner who wants to be recognized as Registered Social Worker (RSW) is required to register with MSWC. Practitioner without full social work qualification but with enough practice experience can be registered as Associate Social Worker (ASW). d. The nature of regulation is mandatory registration but a grandparenting or sunset period of seven years has been proposed where the council can review after the end of the stipulated period. The sunset period is meant for non-qualification practitioners to be registered as ASW and to undergo accredited social work training in order to be either upgraded to RSW or maintained as ASW after the sunset period. e. All practicing RSW or ASW has to obtain a practice license which has to be renewed after a few years (the length of the license renewal will be determined by the council). The criteria for renewal with Continuing Professional Education (CPE) points which means that all RSW and ASW have to accumulate required CPE points by attending accredited CPE training programs from time to time. f. Since the Malaysian Qualifying Agency (MQA) accredits all programs at the institutions of higher learning, MSWC will provide guidelines on tertiary social work education to MQA and prepare a list of recognized social work qualifications that eligible to register with the council.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES The proposed social workers bill indeed can be a new dawn for the development of social work in Malaysia. At the very least it provides a legal framework for the profession to decide what best measures to be taken to advance it competencies and status on par with their counterparts internationally. Nevertheless there are a few challenges that MSWC and the profession need to study and then to address them accordingly. a. Registration of title: professional social worker vs. non-qualification social worker The actual numbers of social workers with social work qualifications is undocumented as the membership of the Malaysian Association of Social Workers (MASW) is on voluntary basis. Moreover, studies conducted by MASW (2005, 2013) revealed extreme low percentages of social work trained practitioners were employed in both the public and non-governmental welfare services. The first issue that comes to registration for social workers in Malaysia is how to differentiate, in terms of title, between ‘professional social workers’ (PW) (social workers with social work qualification) and ‘functional alternative social workers’ (FA) (those without relevant qualifications but are employed to deliver social work service) (Hata, Ali, Subramaniam and Rauf, 2014)? The second issue is related to licensing – will there be any differences, in terms of functions and responsibilities, between PW and FA? These two issues are actually not new. Social work communities in the US and in the UK have gone through the challenges of hiring of paraprofessionals as social workers (Austin, 1978) and deprofessionalization where social workers were tasked with more administrative work than direct service (Dominelli, 1996). Government can, through legislation, to regulate who can be registered as professional (Svensson and Åström, 2013) but regulation cannot prevent non-qualified people being hired to deliver welfare and social work services due to the weak legal closure of social work (Harrits, 2014) where the profession lack the ability to have monopoly over its professional work. Another challenge to the entire social work profession in Malaysia is to demonstrate that PW is more competent than FA. They should be alarmed by the findings from a recent study by Hata, Ali, Subramanian and Rauf (2014) which compares PW and FA social workers. It was revealed that there were no significant differences between PWs and FAs in intervention, evaluation methods, work ethics, and values. On registration, the Task Force has agreed to embrace an inclusive approach that people who wish to be known as registered social workers can apply to register with MSWC. MSWC will then decide if the applicant to be registered as a social worker (RSW) or as an associate social worker (ASW) or to be rejected. The criteria taken into consideration would be qualification (degree or non-degree) and experience (length

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of service and scope of work). This approach is different from the accreditation used in Singapore which differentiates social workers and social service practitioners. In addition, MSWC may want to consider the model of New Zealand where practitioners without tertiary qualifications but with indigenous practice knowledge and skills can be considered for registration through special clause (Section 13). The proposed social workers bill will come with a sunset clause to allow practitioners without proper qualification to register with MSWC as ASW. ASW will be then encouraged to take up accredited social work courses during the sunset period to be promoted to RSW or remain as ASW after the sunset period. What it means is that after the sunset period, only those with relevant social work qualification can register with MSWC to be RSW or ASW. By then applicants with a degree in social work (BSW) or above are eligible to register as RSW. Applicants with non-graduate diploma or certificate in social work are eligible to register as ASW. MSWC will be given the authority to review by the end of the sunset period if extension is needed. b. Licensure – area of practice / continuing professional education / supervision Compares to registration which is a one-off process, licensure is much more complicated as it is a continuous process whereby all license holders need to renew the license after a stipulated period if they wish to continue practicing. The main challenge at the initial stage of issuing of licensure is the basis of accessing the applicants’ skills, knowledge and value. In another words, how to assess competencies? One document, the National Competency Standards on Social Work Practice, prepared by the DSWM and MASW in 2007, has been endorsed by the government in 2010 will be the key reference. However it has yet to be transferred or implemented in current social work education and training. Although the writing of the training modules for social work competency standards has been on-going for the last two years, it will require some time before the modules can be used for the training of trainers (TOT) and training of competency standards to be introduced nationwide. The next issue is how a license can be categorized that it only allows a license holder to practice according to his or her capability and competency, especially RSW and ASW who do not poses sufficient social work qualification and training? An examination like what the US is practicing may be costly and not feasible for many practitioners in Malaysia. The New Zealand and Singapore model of having full and provisional practice license or accreditation may be more practical. For example, RSW with full social work qualification can be given full practice license while RSW and ASW with limited social work training and experience can be given provisional practice license where they can only practice according to the specification according to their respective agency. If they are moving to another agency or another field of practice, they have to apply a new provisional license. There will be two requirements for license renewal: accumulation of Continuing Professional Education (CPE) points and supervision. When the Social Workers Act is implemented, MSWC will accredit training programs offered by qualified education and training providers as CPE for all registered social workers. All RSW and ASW will earn points by attending those accredited training programs to gain updated knowledge and skills in the profession and fulfilling one of the requirements for license renewal. Currently formal social work educations are only available in five public universities – USM, UUM, UKM, UNIMAS and UMS. UM has expertise on social administration while UPM has its strength on human development but not full fletched social work education. The Social Institute of Malaysia (ISM) only offers social work training for social welfare officers employed by the Department of Social Welfare (DSWM), while the Malaysian Council of Social Welfare and Development (MAKPEM) caters training for social care workers for welfare organizations registered with DSWM. MASW can offer professional social work training for welfare organizations with a fee but it does not have any funding to conduct training for free. These limitations can affect the quantity, availability and accessibility of CPE. Additionally, license renewal requires all license holders to have certain amount of supervision on a regular basis. Unfortunately professional social work supervision is severely lacking in many social or welfare agencies due to the limited numbers of qualified social workers employed and the command of supervision skills. To train sufficient social work supervisors and to establish a proper supervision structure will be an uneasy task, both in terms of cost and time. Cohen and Deri (1992) have reported an example in the state of Maine, US on CPE and supervision which can be a useful reference. When social work licensure became mandatory in Maine in 1984, 1,400 human services workers have become licensed social workers (LSWs) through a four year grandparenting provision. By 1989 the number increased to 2,767 of which slightly more than half have no formal education in social work. For license renewal, the LSWs must receive a minimum of four hours of consultation (supervision) per © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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month from a licensed MSW or a licensed clinical social worker, besides attending CPE. As a result many agencies employing LSWS but have no MSW had to engage consultants from outside the agency to meet the supervision requirement. At the same time members of the Maine chapter of NASW sourced the funding to organize a 10 hour curriculum seminar that aimed to enhance social work skills, values and theories as CPE for LSWs without formal social work education. It was reported that the response to the program was extremely positive and provided an opportunity for networking and additional training. The authors advocated that the profession itself must provide leadership in these endeavors. c. Resources One big question is how much the government is willing to invest in the training and the upgrading of social workers in the country. The MSWC will be established as a statutory body but at some points the government expects it to stand on its own financially. Nevertheless the aim of social work to gain higher professional recognition is not for professional glorification but should be for strengthening the ability of social workers to response to the plight of people who are constantly being excluded or marginalized in society (Lyon in Welbourne, 2009). A higher professional status does not guarantee better income. Therefore it will be crucial for MSWC and MASW to have long term plan to sustain the professionalization of social work in Malaysia. Taking the examples of Maine earlier, improving the overall quality and closing the gap between professional social workers and non-degreed social workers require a lot of efforts from all stakeholders. In the Malaysian context it will involve MSWC, DSW, MASW, social work academia and practitioners on the ground. The registration and training of social workers must not confine in the Klang Valley only but has to be made available, accessible and affordable as many non-government welfare organizations do not have resources for staff training. In this regard, apart from funding from the government, the stakeholders must also engage and convince the private sector to establish Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) programs for this purpose.

CONCLUSION The professionalization of social work does not end with the enactment of a Social Workers Act. It is the beginning of a long journey to bring the practice and education standards of our social work practitioners at par with international standards. There are many examples that we can learn from other countries that impose social work regulatory system. However Malaysia needs to know its strength and limitation in order to address the challenges in registration and licensing of social workers appropriately. Sufficient monetary and manpower resources are vital for the sustainability of enhancing the profession to the next level. Nevertheless the professionalization and the protection of the title of a registered social worker will only have significance to the marginalized people and vulnerable communities if the profession eventually has the capability and competency to protect, to deliver better quality services, and to bring positive changes to their lives.

REFERENCES Austin, M.J. (1978). Professionals and paraprofessionals. New York: Human Sciences Press. Bodde, L. (2013). Continuing education, registration and professional identity in New Zealand social work. International Social Work, published online 5 June. doi:10.1177/0020872812473139. Bodde, L. and Duke, J. (2009). Registration in New Zealand social work: the challenge of change. International Social Work, 52(6), 785-797. Cohen, M. B. and Deri, R. (1992). The dilemma of “grandparenting” in state licensure: confronting the training needs of nondegreed workers. Social Work, 37(2), 155-158. Collins, D., Coleman, H. and Miller, P. (2002). Regulation of social work: a confusing landscape. Canadian Social Work Review / Revue canadienne de service social, 19(2), 205-225. DeAngelis, D and Monahan, Mary J. (2012). Social work professional development. In Dulmus, C. and Sowers, K. (Eds). The profession of social work: guided by history, led by evidence. New Jersey: John Wiley. Dominelli, L. (1996). Deprofessionalising social work: anti-oppressive practice, competencies and Postmodernism. British Journal of Social Work, 26(2), 153-175. GSCC (2012). General Social Care Council : a decade of progress 2001-11. (retrieved from http://socialwelfare. bl.uk/subject-areas/services-activity/social-work-care-services/generalsocialcarecouncil/general12. aspx). Harrits, G. (2014). Professional closure beyond state authorization. Professions And Professionalism, 4(1). doi:10.7577/pp.567 Hatta, Z. A., Ali, I., Subramaniam, J. and Rauff, S. A. (2014). Professional and functional alternative social workers: © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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a case study of Malaysia. Asian Social Work and Policy Review, 8, 138–155. doi: 10.1111/aswp.12031 McInnes, A. and Lawson-Brown, V. (2007). ‘God’ and other ‘do-gooders’: a comparison of the regulation of services provided by general practitioners and social workers in England. Journal of Social Work, 7(3), 341-354. Proposed social workers act gets the govt’s nod. (2010, May 5). The Star, pp.6. Svensson, K., & Åström, K. (2013). The field of social regulation: How the state creates a profession. Professions And Professionalism, 3(2). doi:10.7577/pp.557 Van Heugten, K. (2011). Registration and social work education: a golden opportunity or a trojan horse? Journal of Social Work, 11(2), 174-190. Weiss-Gal, I., & Welbourne, P. (2008). The professionalisation of social work: a cross-national exploration. International Journal of Social Welfare, 17, 281–290. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2008.00574.x Welbourne, P. (2009). Social work: the idea of a profession and the professional project. Locus Social, 3, 19-35. (http://locussocial.cesss-ucp.com.pt/page7/files/artigo-007c-paper-welbourn_ls00233.pdf ).

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

ENACTMENT OF SOCIAL WORKERS BILL: ENHANCING COMPETENT SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE Chan Soak Fong* *[email protected] Department of Social Welfare

Abstract In the last five decades, Malaysia has undergone rapid economic, educational and technological growth as well as dramatic social cultural changes. Meanwhile, the nation is also increasingly challenged by multi-dimensional and high-risk social problems. With the growth in human service consumers and providers, there will be increasing risk of harm towards clients that problems may be exacerbated, or not addressed at all if service providers do not have the professional competency to respond appropriately to their needs. In this regard, qualified competent social workers are profoundly needed. Social work has been practiced over 68 years in Malaysia. Compared to other countries that have already recognized social work profession through legislation, in Malaysia, there is still a lack of professional body to monitor and regulate social work practice as well as education and training towards achieving professional standards. A regulation is needed to ensure professional accountability, ethics and competencies of social workers who provide services to the community most in need. Hence, the Social Workers Bill is enacted as a fundamental strategy in the Government’s initiative to introduce a new era of professionalism in social work. It aims to regulate the qualifications as well as strengthening the competence and professionalism of social workers through legislation to ensure quality of services and professionalism in social work. By regulating the professional competency of social workers, the Bill will strengthen the capacity and quality of overall social welfare services, especially for the care, safety and protection of the vulnerable in Malaysia.

INTRODUCTION In the last five decades, Malaysia has underdone dramatic socio-cultural changes in the forms of urbanization, changing family patterns, loosening of traditional support networks and emerging social problems which had leaded greater “needs” for professional social work practice. Social work addresses the barriers, inequities and injustices that exist in society. It responds to crises and emergencies as well as to everyday personal and social problems. Social work interventions range from primarily person-focused psychosocial processes to involvement in social policy, social legislation, management and administration, social planning and development, advocacy, education and training as well as social research. These include case work, group work, community work, as well as efforts to help people to regain their social functioning, improve their problem-solving skills, strengthen their resilience, obtain services and resources in the community and enhance their quality of life. There is an increasing risk of harm towards clients that problems may be exacerbated, or not addressed at all if social workers do not have the professional competency to respond appropriately to their needs. In this regard, qualified competent social workers are profoundly needed (National Competency Standard for Social Work Practice, 2010). Social work began in the late 19th Century and has been recognised as a profession in developed countries for more than 100 years. Social work was introduced into Malaysia after World War II with the establishment of Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

the Department of Social Welfare (DSW) in 1946. Over the years, there has been no regulation to oversee and monitor social work practice and education in this country. By recognizing the emergence of complex social problem and critical challenges in social welfare service, a regulation is crucially needed to ensure professional accountability, ethics and competencies of social workers who provide services to the community especially the vulnerable and marginalized groups.

ISSUES ARISING Social work is a profession that has been recognized in some developed countries and developing countries such as Australia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Singapore, Hong Kong, India and the Philippines. In this case, control over qualifications, competency and professionalism of social workers in the country concerned is based on the legislation of social workers (Meemeduma, 2002). In Malaysia, there is no professional body to monitor and regulate social work practice as well as education and training towards achieving professional standards. Drawing on the statistics of the DSW, social problems are increasing in numbers, as well as becoming more complex and multi-dimensional in nature (Statistics Book, DSW, 2008 to 2012). Individuals, families and other informal groups are not able to cope as in traditional society before. In modern society, there is declining capacity of the traditional informal care sector of families, kins and communities to respond to the complex and extended individual and social problems faced within society. Individuals can no longer assume family, kin, neighbours and communities are able and willing to assist in times of crisis and trouble. Families, neighbours and communities are frequently in transition and under stress as they seek economic betterment, new employment, educational and lifestyle opportunities (Mehr, 1998). In Malaysia, due to the pluralistic society, community development becomes complex (Tengku Mansor, 2006). Despite the availability of social support systems, not all social services are accessible to all communities which many people still have limitation on full access to the mainstream. Besides, individuals can no longer assume that the world they live in is socially, economically and politically safe and secure. People are facing problems in their daily living, such as problems in accessing resources to provide for the care, safety and well-being needs of self and others (Meemeduma, 2002). Social work practice is concerned with human service in the context of social environment. Along with the emergence of social problem, there is a growing expectation on the government to provide efficient, effective and appropriate social welfare services, as well as fund and regulate the provision of supportive services by the non-government welfare sector. In Malaysia, social work is done by social welfare officers mainly from the Department of Social Welfare and other agencies such as Ministry of Health, the National Anti-Drug Agency, the Department of Prisons, universities as well as non-governmental organization that provides communitybased services. Social workers help people who have problems. Being social workers, their main role is working towards the betterment of those in greatest need. However, the issues social workers encounter have become more dynamic and complicated, as well as the clienteles they serve have become more complex. Besides, most of the social workers have seen their workloads increase over time which pressure at work for them is greater than it’s ever been. Apart of this, the social welfare service providers and social work practitioners in the country are not sufficiently trained in social work. The “National Survey on Social Work Practice in Government Agencies and NGOs” (DSW & MASW, 2005) reported that less than 10% of social work practitioners had social work qualifications. This condition may cause negative effects on the quality of social work service delivered to target groups and may put the them at higher risk. In addition, poor supervision due to lack of qualified social work supervisors, lack of effort, access to, and opportunities for, continuing professional education are among challenges facing by social work practitioners in the country. This is supported by the “Study of Determining the Caseload and the Field Service Norm at the Department of Social Welfare” (DSW & MASW, 2012) which reported that more qualified social work trained officers need to be recruited in the public sector especially in the social service sectors. The study also claimed that more comprehensive social work training programmes for capacity building is fundamental for competent practice. The lacking of a structured professional supervision system in the organization is reported as an important issue that needs particular concern of the organization. In order to help people in need professionally and address social problems efficiently, it is important to assure that social workers are equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills to deliver quality, competent and ethical social work services. Therefore, there is a need to have clear national competency standards for social © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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work practice as a ‘benchmark’ against which practices and services can be measured. A regulation to manage, oversee and monitor the professional practice is also crucial through the enactment of Social Workers Bill. This will enable Malaysia to develop and implement effective protocols and procedures for monitoring practice, resolving grievances and complaints, as well as evaluating services (Meemeduma, 2002).

ENACTMENT OF SOCIAL WORKERS BILL The Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development (MWFCD) is committed to provide care, safety and protection to all people. This commitment is very important in addressing the needs of those in need, as well as those exposed to exploitation and threats. Towards fulfilling this commitment, the MWFCD in general, and DSW specifically are concerned to develop and establish the quality of social welfare services, including through smart partnership and collaboration with NGOs, private sectors and individuals. In view of this, MWFCD through DSW, in collaboration with the Malaysian Association of Social Workers (MASW), social work academicians from higher learning institutions, NGOs, and with the support of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the Social Workers Bill is enacted as a fundamental strategy in the Government’s initiative to introduce a new era of professionalism in social work. The Bill aims to regulate the qualifications as well as strengthening the competence and professionalism of social workers through legislation to ensure the quality of services and professionalism in social work. By regulating the professional competency of social workers, the Bill will improve the overall quality of social welfare services, especially for the care, safety and protection of the vulnerable in Malaysia. The objectives of Social Workers Bill are to: a. ensure the provision of competent social work practice in the delivery of social welfare services to vulnerable and marginalised populations of Malaysia; b. ensure the provision of quality social work education and training as well as continuing professional development for competent graduate outcome maintenance of practice competency; and c. improve international recognition and accreditation of social work practice and education. The overall expected outcomes of the Social Workers Bill are: a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

regulating social work practice and education produce competent social workers ensure recruitment of social work graduates into social work related sectors meet community expectation for quality services enhance the well-being of the target group consolidate social work profession Malaysia into a regional centre of excellence for social work

THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL WORKERS BILL The provision of quality social welfare services in Malaysia is dependent on the availability of a professionally competent workforce, which the service providers are able to demonstrate professional values, knowledge and skills to respond to the social welfare needs of the clients. This can be done through the implementation and enforcement of Social Workers Bill which a professional regulating body e.g. the Malaysian Social Work Council will be established to oversee and facilitate the best practice standards of social work practice in Malaysia. When the Social Workers Bill is enforced, an individual wishing to use the title "Social Worker" and carry out social work practice must be registered and obtain a license from the Malaysia Social Work Council. The Bill will ensure that only qualified and professional trained social workers are registered and licensed to provide social work service. In this regards, there are criteria required for pursing the professional credential. As a result, the capacity and quality of overall social welfare services in Malaysia will be strengthened through enhancing the ability, capability and competency of social work practitioners. The Social Workers Bill will also strengthen the provision of quality social work education and training for competent graduate outcome. Among those are the standardization of social work program at higher learning institutions and accreditation of social work program at different levels by recognized bodies. Currently there are seven universities, including Universiti Sains Malaysia, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Univerisiti Sabah Malaysia, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

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and Universiti Malaya, which offer social work education or some element of it at the Bachelor, Master or Doctor of Philosophy. There are lacking of certificate/diploma social work programmes in universities and colleges. It is important to ensure that all social work practitioners are equipped with the necessary values, skills and knowledge to deliver quality, competent and ethical social work service. By acknowledging that the majority of social workers in the nation do not held social work degrees, and more crucially, the social welfare service providers, mainly at the DSW are those in scheme social (S) grade 27 (S27) who do not acquire social work qualification but may hold certificate and diploma in various disciplines, efforts need to be made to ensure the provision of social work education and training is sufficient to address the human capital development in the organization. This includes mapping out the training avenues for social welfare/social work practitioners, such as the development and endorsement of social work certificate/diploma/degree/post graduate programmes in ISM, universities and recognized training institutions to certify social welfare/ social work practitioners. This effort will provide opportunities for individuals to acquire professional knowledge and to enhance their competency in order to become more accountable in undertaking social work practice. Apart of these, the Social Workers Bill allows a review of the public social services organisational structure, employment, recruitment, career path and designated positions for social workers in the country. It is important to ensure that only qualified and trained social workers are recruited into related human service sector. The Social Workers Bill also enable the provision of social work positions in different settings such as schools, hospitals, prisons, industries, care institutions, and any agency that provides community-based services. The Act will also enhance the professional standing of trained social workers and increase the pool of social work expertise needed to deal with the country’s escalating social problems. Regulation will also elevate Malaysian social work practice and education to global standards, thus opening the market for international social work employment.

CONCLUSION In Malaysia, the history of social work as a profession has begun since 1946 after World War II and with the set up of the Department of Social Welfare. Along with the role of social welfare gradually being recognized as an important component of ensuring the balanced development of this nation, there is a growing recognition of the importance of ensuring all social workers have the professional capacity to respond appropriately to the needs of clients they serve. It is hoped that by regulating social work practice and education through the Social Workers Bill will eventually enhance the professional standing of trained social workers and enrich the quality of social welfare services in Malaysia.

REFERENCES Department of Social Welfare Malaysia (2010). National Competency Standard for Social Work Practice. Putrajaya: Department of Social Welfare Malaysia. Department of Social Welfare Malaysia (2008 - 2010). Statistics Book. Putrajaya: Department of Social Welfare Malaysia. Department of Social Welfare Malaysia, and Malaysian Association of Social Worker (2010). National Survey on Social Work Practice in Government Agencies and NGOs. Putrajaya: Department of Social Welfare Malaysia. Department of Social Welfare Malaysia, and Malaysian Association of Social Worker (2012). Study of Determining the Caseload and the Field Service Norm at the Department of Social Welfare. Putrajaya: Department of Social Welfare Malaysia. Meemeduma, P. (2002). In National Competency Standard for Social Work Practice. Putrajaya: Department of Social Welfare Malaysia. Mehr, (1998), In National Competency Standard for Social Work Practice. Putrajaya: Department of Social Welfare Malaysia. Tengku Mansor & Tengku Rethwan (2006). Fostering Family and Community Development:Giving Meaning to the Ninth Malaysia Plan. Malaysia Social Matters, 6, 2006

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

ACADEMIC PARTNERSHIP TO ASSESS THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONALIZED CHILDREN IN JAMAICA Wendy Turner-Frey* *[email protected] University of Southern Indiana

Abstract For the past ten years, the author, who is a university professor in the United States, has been leading service-learning trips with college students to Jamaican orphanages and children’s homes. Five years ago, she created a developmental assessment instrument specific to institutionalized young children in Jamaica. She has used this instrument annually in measuring the cognitive, emotional, physical and social development of children in one specific children’s home. The undergraduate and graduate students who accompany the author on the service learning trips conduct the assessments with her supervision and oversight. The author then meets with the home’s director to discuss each child, noting changes that may have occurred since the previous year’s assessment. By completing these annual assessments, the author has been able to assist the home’s director in recognizing the needs of the children and assisting in planning for their long-term placement. This paper discusses the process in which the author developed this collaborative project with university students in the United States and social services in Jamaica. She identifies the pathways for creating a trusting relationship with service providers and explains how to engage university students in meaningful global service learning. She will also highlight how she tailored the intervention to the specific cultural and situational characteristics of the children served. Keywords: early childhood, developmental assessments, orphanages, developmental delays, special needs

INTRODUCTION The university where the author teaches is in a rural community and caters largely to students within the region surrounding it. Many of these students have not had much exposure to metropolitan communities within the United States, and most have not had any international experiences. In addition, the students seemed so naive and unprepared for their careers as future social workers. Researchers believe that adolescence now extends into a person’s twenties, as brain development continues years beyond what experts originally thought (Lebel & Beaulieu, 2011). Therefore, the author determined that the social work students she teaches could benefit from a global service-learning activity to enhance their development and maturity. Shortly after drawing that conclusion, quite serendipitously, the opportunity to take students to Jamaica occurred. This initial trip in May 2004 involved the author and a small group of students accompanying a local hospital that had a “sister” hospital in the northern coast of Jamaica. Although this first trip did not match the academic needs of social work students, the author did see tremendous potential for future trips. She immediately began working to design a service-learning trip that would benefit both the social work students, as well as the people of Jamaica. Jamaica is an island country in the Caribbean Sea with nearly 3 million inhabitants. Over one quarter of Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

those are children under the age of 14 (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). High unemployment (16.3%) and overwhelming poverty (CIA, 2014) mean that many families are not capable of caring for their children, especially those children with special needs. Currently there are 8 government facilities and at least 40 known private homes that provide care to children in Jamaica (Child Development Agency (CDA), 2014). According to the CDA’s 2008 Annual Report, there were 6,029 children in protective care during that year. During the first trip to Jamaica, the author recognized the potential needs of these children in care. Therefore, she collaborated with a non-profit organization, International Orphanage Relief (IOR) to design the service learning opportunities for her students. Once again, the author has to credit serendipity for much of the creation of the service-learning program. Through a chance encounter, she met a representative of IOR and discovered they work with orphanages in Jamaica. IOR has a large house in Mandeville, Jamaica in which they host groups that provide services to several area orphanages. At the time the author first met them, they were exclusively conducting mission trips for churches and youth organizations. She conferred with them regarding the feasibility of conducting a secular service-learning trip, and they began planning the author’s second trip to Jamaica.

METHODOLOGY In the first trip with the hospital, the author was only able to take five students. However, during the 2005 trip with IOR, the author took 24 graduate and undergraduate students. This first trip involved socialization with the children at the orphanages, as well as physical work projects, such as painting. It was important at this stage for the author to begin understanding how child services in Jamaica operated. Although there were similarities to child welfare practices in the United States, there were also significant differences due to lack of infrastructure and resources. The children’s homes that the author visited were privately operated homes that received financial support from faith-based organizations in the U.S., as well as a per diem from the Jamaican government. Their funding was very limited, and they were all doing so much for so little.

Building trust In coming into a new situation such as this, it is important for the outsider (i.e., the author) to be nonjudgmental. The people who operate these orphanages are the experts, and visitors should respect them for their expertise. Regardless of the author’s education and practice experience in the US, she was a novice in terms of Jamaican child welfare. Therefore, she spent the first several years learning. In addition, the directors of the children’s homes had each had some negative experiences with well-meaning outsiders in the past. These visitors had not understood what they observed in the orphanages and had reacted negatively to situations. In some cases, the visitors reported observations to the funders in the U.S. that led to negative consequences for the orphanages. Because of situations such as those, the directors did not immediately trust the author. Direct contact with the children, in some cases, was quite limited. The majority of the author and her students’ time were spent engaged in physical work projects. They built beds, painted rooms and buildings, dug gardens and even hung drywall. At the same time, however, they were doing something even more important: building trust. Prior to each trip, the author would contact the homes’ directors and find out what items they needed. The students and the author would collect those items while still in the U.S., and bring them to the orphanages. By returning every year to the same locations and providing them with the things they requested, the author demonstrated her commitment to the children’s homes. She began to develop relationships with the directors, as well as with the children. She did not criticize, demean or patronize the work that the orphanage staff did daily, and over time, they began to trust her.

Social work practice As trust in the relationships grew, so did the opportunities for students to begin engaging in less physical labor and more direct social work practice. In 2008, the group spent a grueling week scraping rust off metal bed frames at one orphanage. In 2009, upon the group’s arrival, the home’s director literally said, “OK. You’ve done enough scraping beds. Now you can do some social work.” She then allowed the students to facilitate psychoeducational groups with the boys at the children’s home. The following year, the author contacted the director of the home for younger children to inquire about their needs. The author knew that some of these younger children are eventually adopted or placed in permanent foster homes. She also knew that as a part of that process, these children had to travel to Kingston, Jamaica for various assessments. The assessments often did not generate quality information, as the children were

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often uncooperative due to traveling several hours and then being in an unfamiliar environment. Therefore, the author suggested to the director that she and her students could conduct the assessments at the home. Every child would be assessed without the need to travel to Kingston. The director was pleased with this idea, and the author began work on creating the assessment instrument.

Developmental assessments Persons in developed countries create most standardized developmental assessment tools for assessing children living with families in developed countries. The challenge for the author was to create an assessment that was not only culturally relevant to children in Jamaica, but also was sensitive to the unique situations of children living in orphanages. A standard tool in the U.S. might expect that a child can tie his or her shoes by age 4; however, the children in the Jamaican orphanages wear sandals. Their inability to tie shoes does not indicate a cognitive deficit, but simply is a result of their lack of exposure and opportunity. The author consulted with colleagues in the education department at her university to identify various standardized assessment tools, and reviewed each. She extracted relevant topic areas, but made modifications as necessary to create an instrument that she and the students could use to assess the children at the Jamaican facility. Because so many of the children in this facility have some type of special need, the instrument needed to be multi-faceted in order to identify all areas of strength and deficit. Therefore, instrument assesses children in cognitive, social, emotional and physical development. Some of the assessment tasks require toys or manipulatives to assess the child’s abilities. The author recognized that because these items would be transported by airplane and then used by 30 children, they needed to be especially durable. Whenever possible, she chose wooden, rather than plastic, items. Some examples include blocks, beads, stackable rings, balls and books. These are all stored in a large duffle bag that she brings with her each year. When conducting the assessments, the author pairs the students into teams. Two students are assigned to each child. This allows one student to record the information, while the other student engages with the child. Whenever possible, she pairs a graduate student, or one who has gone previously, with an undergraduate student. At times, the children are uncooperative in the beginning; however, because the group is there for an entire week, they can stop an assessment when a child is tired or unwilling and can try again the next day. Being at the home all week also allows the group to observe the children as they play, engage with each other and participate in their daily routines. This assists in conducting the assessments as well, and would not be possible if the tests were done off-site. After completing the assessments, the students meet with the author to discuss each child. The author then writes a summary report. The author gives these reports, as well as the assessment checklists, to the orphanage director, and the author discusses each child’s report with the director. If a child has been at the home for multiple years, the author will review the previous assessment reports and note areas of growth or decline for each child. She then makes recommendations to the director for feasible activities that she or her staff can do to assist the child in progressing to the next developmental level.

Service-learning The author has developed two university courses around these Jamaica trips; one is for undergraduate students and one is for graduate students. These are service-learning courses; therefore, the students have educational goals that each must achieve throughout the course of the service work abroad. The author has the students maintain journals, writing daily on their thoughts and reflections. In addition, each night the group processes the day’s events. They discuss the highpoints, as well as the lows and incorporate both into the students’ progress towards their service-learning goals. Some of the examples of goals for the course include increasing the students’ cultural awareness, developing assessment skills, improving their ability to communicate with children and gaining flexibility and adaptability. These are all skills that will transfer to their social work practice, regardless of location or population. As the reputation of this program has grown, students from disciplines outside of social work have also requested to participate. The author requires that each student enrolled in the program complete an introductory social work course, in order to ensure that each understands the basic values of the profession, as well as its foundation theories. Even with that requirement, over the past ten years she has taken students majoring in psychology, education, political science, Spanish, international studies and engineering. She recently had inquiries from a student in business, as well as some majoring in occupational therapy. This demonstrates how a program such as this can be applied in many disciplines other than just social work.

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RESULTS The author always tells the students who accompany her that they will gain so much more than they give during their service-learning experience. This is certainly true and was a lesson the author learned following her very first trip to Jamaica. During that trip, in addition to assisting the hospital personnel with conducting rural health clinics, the author and her students installed drywall in an addition that others built onto the hospital. They were quite proud of the accomplishment, particularly since none of them had any prior experience in construction. Just weeks after the group returned to the U.S., a hurricane struck Jamaica and removed the roof of the building in which they had installed the drywall. The subsequent downpour of rain ruined everything that had done. That is when the author recognized that the physical work, although of some benefit to the people of Jamaica, does not have the lasting effect that the emotional and educational benefits of such a trip have on students. They gain so much more than they give. In spite of this reality, there are tangible benefits to both the people of Jamaica, as well as the students, in the author’s service-learning trips.

Benefits to the children’s homes The assessments that the group performs at the home for young children have proved to be quite beneficial to the director and the children. When the home was recently reviewed for renewing its license to operate, the director states that she was commended for having the assessments of each child. She had documentation of the efforts made to know how the children are performing and awareness of any delays a child was experiencing. This information is also useful when children are moving into adoptive or foster families. The director has asked the author to speak to prospective parents via telephone and in person, on occasions, in order to assist the parents in understanding a child’s needs. The author has helped the parents to determine what type of educational, emotional or medical support a child may need as they leave the orphanage and move into a family setting. At the other orphanages, the group has been able to make physical improvements to the environment in which the children live. Although these improvements are always temporary, it does demonstrate to the children that people care about them. In addition, while the group is on site doing this work, they also interact with the children and begin establishing relationships. Many students in the group participate in the trip two or three times, so they return to see the children they befriended at the orphanages. It is always amazing how the children remember the group members and inquire about those who have come in the past. Many of the students begin corresponding with some of the older children via letters or Skype. The older children have expressed to the author that they become very bored with the routine at the orphanages. They look forward to the visits from the group, as it provides them with much needed social interaction and stimulation. The students read, sing, play sports and other games with the children. They allow the children to teach them the games that they do not know, such as marbles or dominoes, which is empowering to the children.

Benefits to students The relationship building described above is a huge benefit, not only to the children in the orphanages, but also to the students who participate in the trip. They feel so valued by the children. One does not have to be the smartest, the prettiest, or the most popular to be adored by a child. The positive affirmations the students receive from the children is an often-overlooked benefit of the service learning. The academic benefits of the trip are also easily achieved. The students, who are primarily Caucasian children from the Midwestern portion of the United States, are immersed into a culture where they are the minority. They instantly understand what it feels like to be different and to be judged by the color of one’s skin. This cannot help but increase their levels of cultural awareness. Many of the students who participate are in their second or third year of their academic studies, so that have not yet had any practical experience working with clients. The opportunity to conduct the assessments with the young children is often their first opportunity to engage in direct social work practice. They are able, in a well-supervised environment, to begin developing their assessment skills. Even for those who do not plan to pursue a career in social work, the opportunity to conduct the assessments teaching them critical thinking skills and enhances their abilities to gather information for decision-making. One of the greatest challenges for students is often the living arrangements for the trip. The overwhelming © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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majority of students are female, with usually only one or two male students attending each year. Therefore, the 18-20 female students sleep in bunk beds in two large rooms and share two bathrooms. Most have never shared such close quarters with so many others, and they must learn tolerance, patience and flexibility. Additionally, when traveling, there are always situations that may arise and alter plans. Flights can be delayed, bad weather can prevent the group from visiting a certain home, or even power failures can keep the students from having access to showers at times. The American students are often accustomed to instant gratification and instant access to resources, so the culture and environment of Jamaica forces them to adapt a slower pace. They begin to appreciate the position of privilege that each has held throughout his or her life. These are benefits that cannot be taught in the traditional classroom setting.

Benefits to the author The author has made thirteen trips to Jamaica during the past ten years. She looks forward to her return each year for various reasons. As a professor, she obviously takes great pleasure in seeing students learn and grow during the service-learning trips. She is proud to be part of something that can be life changing for the young people in her classes. She also develops strong relationships with these students, and continues to maintain contact with many of them for years after the trip. For example, she still maintains regular contact with three of the five who traveled with her on that first trip ten years ago. In addition to those relationships, the author has developed close ties with the children and staff at the orphanages. She has watched the children grow and has been a part of their lives consistently for a decade. Some are now adults, with whom she continues to stay in close contact. It can be bittersweet, at times, as some children leave the homes and she never sees them again. Some are adopted, return to their families, or move to another facility. Others age out of the system and move to other parts of the island. She may not have made a difference directly in those children’s lives, but they certainly made a difference in hers. The author returns every year because she recognizes that she is doing her tiny part in making the rest of the world aware of the challenges that face children who live in institutions in developing countries. She is teaching her students to be less ethnocentric and to have compassion for those who were not born into privilege. Research suggests that altruism provides intrinsic benefits (Batson, 2010), and the author is fortunate to be able to regularly reap those benefits.

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION There are many facets to the service-learning work the author has done in Jamaica. There are lessons she has learned throughout the process from which she hopes others can gain benefit. She also has a tool for assessing the development of institutionalized children, and she would like to see it modified to work in other environments.

Implication for assessment The author has visited orphanage in countries other than Jamaica to ascertain whether it could be modified for use in those settings. She knows that it works best with children under the age of ten, and is best used on a yearly basis. By completing those assessments annually, the institution can ascertain the pace at which a child is developing. In some situations, the child may just be progressing more slowly than other children may. In some cases, though, the child’s growth in an area is completely stunted. Routine use of the instrument can identify those situations. Persons interested in testing the instrument in their work with orphans should contact the author for more information. She is willing to collaborate with others in order to benefit as many children as possible.

Suggestions for service learning For academics who are interested in developing international experiences for their students, the author suggests that great care and consideration be applied in that development. There is a temptation to spontaneously gather a group of eager young people and take them to a location. However, the greatest benefits to all emerge when one has built relationships with the people whom they visit and serve. By returning to the same location every year, the author has developed a trusting relationship with the staff at the orphanages. The students are then covered by the umbrella of that trust and are permitted greater contact with the children. This trust was only created through patience and tenacity. Faculty should commit to building relationships in the countries they wish to visit and establishing his or her own niche within © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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the community. This happens by regularly and consistently returning to the same location. Many faculty, including the author, have such insatiable curiosity and wanderlust that they are tempted to visit as many different geographic locations as possible. Although this is wonderful for broadening the viewpoint of the individual faculty, it does not provide for the depth of experiences that can be shared with students when that person has an established presence within a country. In spite of making 13 trips in 10 years, the author is still developing and perfecting the service learning experience for her students. It took 5 years before she created the assessment instrument. It was not until the sixth year that she recognized her students should be dressing differently when they conduct the assessments. She, consequently, now requires students to wearing nursing scrubs. These are just two examples of the numerous changes the author has made over the course of time. Each year she uncovers something new that can enhance the trip for future students. If a person is willing to make such a commitment, the rewards to all concerned are immeasurable. As the author attempted to point out in this paper, there are tangible and intangible benefits that affect everyone involved in this type of global service learning.

CONCLUSION The author cannot emphasize enough the value she sees in the partnership between universities and organizations in developing countries. In the U.S., students are frequently graduating high school having already earned college credits. They are entering upper level courses, but many students lack the maturity and life experience to assist them in critical thinking. The author believes that service-learning experiences, such as the one she described in this paper, can be beneficial in helping these students to develop those necessary skills. In addition, these global service-learning trips can enhance relationships around and increase awareness of global issues. Those who participate leave as ambassadors representing their home countries, but return as advocates for the place they just visited. In that capacity, they continue to serve the host country long after the trip has concluded.

REFERENCES Batson, C.D. (2010). Benefits of Empathy-Induced Altruism. Altruism in humans. Oxford: University Press. Central Intelligence Agency. (2014). Jamaica. The world factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov.library/ publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sf.html Child Development Agency. (2014). Government Facilities Summary. Retrieved from http://www.cda.gov.jm Child Development Agency. (2008). Annual Report – 2007/08. Lebel, C. and Beaulieu, C. (2011).Longitudinal Development of Human Brain Wiring Continues from Childhood into Adulthood. Journal of neuroscience, 31(30), 10937 DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5302-10.2011

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

CONTINUITIES AND DISCONTINUITIES OF HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTIONS AND SOCIAL WELFARE IN TIMES OF DISASTERS: THE PHILIPPINE CASE Luz Maria Martinez* *[email protected] Miriam College

Abstract There is a need for social welfare development experts to take the lead in developing community and people-centered disaster preparedness and recovery plans from a position of empowerment that upholds international humanitarian instruments, and minimizes the break in the continuity of immediate humanitarian interventions. Interventions so that the delivery of human services transitions into ongoing-onsite social welfare development that is sustainable and community based. Social workers as social welfare professionals are in the position to bridges the gaps and bring into the humanitarian field the professions values and practice when responding to the rapid changing context. Social workers also have the capability to provide leadership, and help provide links that can bridge and thus provide the continuity of self-help among communities. Keywords: disasters, humanitarian interventions, social work, social welfare, build back better

INTRODUCTION In 2012 and 2013, the Philippines was hit by two super typhoons. These typhoons have left thousands of people dead, hundreds more missing and millions homeless, causing great numbers of already poor people to descend into severe poverty, as well as resulting in the loss of billions of pesos in damages. Typhoon Bopha, locally known as Typhoon Pablo was the strongest tropical cyclone to hit the Philippines in 2012, hitting the southern part of the Philippines on December 4. Typhoon Bopha winds of up to 175 miles per hour (mph), with torrential rains flattened entire villages (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon_Bopha) Local Government Units (LGUs) in the possible affected regions were given orders by the national government to minimize casualties, "in accordance with President PNoy’s marching orders to ensure zero casualties from disasters, as much as possible… We have our existing protocols, and it is just a matter of implementing them and making other necessary preparations as appropriate." Roxas, head of the National Disaster Council quoted. The LGUs were directed to activate the Department of the Interior and Local Government Disaster Monitoring System (DILG), and all LGUS in the affected areas to immediately convene their respective local disaster councils (LDRRMC), reactivate their respective disaster offices, assess local community vulnerability and institute appropriate measures such as preemptive evacuation in order to ensure the safety of all residents. They were to prevent fishermen from going to sea effective one day prior to the arrival of the typhoon, ensure that all early warning systems were working, immediately prepare evacuation centers, and to continue to coordinate with concerned government agencies. Approximately 86,000 people were evacuated before the storm. (Situation report on the effects of typhoon Pablo (NDRRMC), as of December 20, 2012, 7 a.m.)

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) put parts of the central and southeastern Philippines on high alert. Arrangements were made to have relief goods and medicines on standby, evacuation procedures along the country's eastern border were being prepared, and government-run radio station aired warnings, and a call for ‘all responsible government agencies, the media, non-government volunteer groups and volunteers to do their part in preparing for the typhoon. The Philippine National Police, the Philippine Coast Guard (PCG) and the Navy were on stand-by for Bopha's impact. "We are ready to conduct rescue operations in flooded areas. ..said PCG spokesman Commander Armand Balilo (philstar 2012/12/03) Yet with all of the best efforts by government the typhoon claimed 1047 people, 2,662 were reported injured, 841 missing, 6,203,826 affected people composed of 710,224 families. Total cost in damages in the range of $551,613,167 (P24,222,823,528.07) (NDRRMC, as of December 20, 2012) In 2013, the central part of the Philippines was hit by one of the strongest tropical cyclones ever recorded in the history of typhoons. Typhoon Haiyan, also known as Typhoon Yolanda in the Philippines, affected 11 million people. By the time the storm was over, there were 6,201 bodies, 28,626 injured, 1785 missing (NDRRMC Situation Report on the effects of Typhoon Yolanda, January 19, 2014). Numbers on this vary. According to Professor Berse of the University of the Philippines, the more recent figures of affected families puts the figure at 16,078181. A total of 12,139 barangays were affected, along with 591 municipalities, and 57 cities , 44 provinces and 9 regions within the central part of the country. If the human toll was already catastrophic, the cost to the country and the people affected is proportionately staggering. For example, damages to agriculture totaled to $165, 231, 346 (P7,634,314,370.29), livestock lost $65, 596,643 (P2,890,202,123.20) and the fisheries sector suffered close to $13 million dollars. These numbers are significant because in the regions affected, 33% of the population in the affected areas primarily sustain themselves through agricultural practices and/or combination of agriculture and fishing. (Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) Philippines Environmental Situational Overview 14 January 2014) For an area that is already considered one of the poorest regions in the country, this devastation has caused major livelihood disruptions. According to a 2009 government report, poverty incidence among families in Eastern Visayas increased from 31.1 percent in 2006 to 33.2 percent in 2009 where 1 in every 3 families in the region is poor (National Statistical Coordination Board–Regional Division March 2011). Even prior to the typhoon the unemployment rate of the region stood at 5% of the population with another 20.8% underemployed (Nayra 2014). These two major disasters were overwhelming for the country. In particular because they hit areas that normally do not experience disasters of such magnitude. This is not to say that these storms were aberration of nature, in the coastal areas of central Philippines, storms are a way of life and in the early 1900s, both of these regions had been hit by very similar super typhoons. Scientific data warned that super-storms were possible. But in both cases, officials were surprised by the magnitude of the typhoons and were not prepared for the level of destruction that their municipalities suffered. In both disasters, the local governments were overwhelmed and in the case of Haiyan, their own officials were not spared, they too were affected as individuals and their families. Both disasters warranted national and international humanitarian intervention. With Typhoon Haiyan, most developed and mid-developed countries pledged funds and/or sent relief goods. National and global humanitarian NGOs sent in teams of medical help, rescuers, psychologists, social workers. In short, professionals of all types were dispatched to help. Many countries not only sent money and goods but deployed their military and members of their national rescue teams. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs continues to support government relief work. International non-governmental organizations came in with their expertise to lend support; international funding agencies sponsored national NGOs to work in the affected regions, and the private sector both nationally and internationally contributed good, funds and expertise (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon_Haiyan#cite_note-7). Over 34 billion pesos were pledged in cash and goods but 6 months later, only 14 billion pesos have come in. This includes the offer of the World Bank for a $980 m loan , which the country is trying to avoid using and trying to raise reconstruction funds from the private sector This funding gap has contributed to the slow-down in rehabilitation (Berse, 2014). As in other countries, after a disaster there is a great amount of activity coming mostly from international humanitarian agencies. Those affected by the disaster welcome the rescue and relief work of the humanitarian organizations as well as government who is is trying to cope with the disaster. However after the immediate crisis settles down, the rehabilitation phase of the disaster commences. This is the difficult phase that requires the various stakeholders to join but more often, the local civil society organizations (CSO) are marginalized and the affected are treated as victims and not as partners in the reconstruction. 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plagued by 4 major gaps; funding, planning, implantation, participation and accountability. A major gap in the post reconstruction of Typhoon Haiyan is the lack of community participation in post disaster activities. The affected populations are seen as victims and not as partners. They are not represented in the policy making groups, and the needs of the community may not be the same as being articulated by government and the private sector. The ideal of long term rights based services are giving way to immediate humanitarian needs (Berse, 2014) One of the possible explanations to this gap in humanitarian work is the lack of social development frameworks to guide interventions. Interventions for the most part are guided under the ‘humanitarian imperative’, a principle that guides operations and actions with the prime motivation and purpose to save lives. and to alleviate human suffering. The principles state that individuals must be treated humanely, with dignity and respect, and have a full and equal right and ability to receive humanitarian assistance’. Humanitarian work needs to be carried out with Impartiality. Meaning that actions must be taken without any adverse distinction based on nationality, ethnic origin, religion, class, political opinion or on any ground that privileges unjust exclusion. The humanitarian action must be Independent -free from interference, whether political, ideological, economic or military. The Humanitarian action must not take sides (or be perceived) in an armed conflict or other dispute. Engagement should be done in act of Neutrality where actions and activities must be transparent, balanced and based on objective criteria. In general humanitarian actions are to ensure that interventions do not adversely affect individuals or their communities, partners or colleagues, and that they are not exposed to harm. This is called the Do no harm principle (The core principles of humanitarian action, 2007) It is through humanitarian interventions where international standards and tools are used. Take for example, the Sphere Handbook, a tool that is based on the Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response. This international humanitarian tool is one of the most widely known and recognized sets of common principles and universal minimum standards in life-saving areas of humanitarian response (http://www.sphereproject.org/about/) Other humanitarian tools look at how to implement services through a human rights framework on such issues as addressing gender related issues, services to children, psychological interventions, etc. These standards are established as benchmarks that show distinct humanitarian interventions, which are based on the multiple experiences of conflicts and disasters worldwide. Many of the tools are driven and devised by various United Nations offices as well as international NGOs. The question that is now being asked is that enough? Humanitarian organizations themselves are asking the question. The UN for example, is also assessing its role as a humanitarian organization in situations of conflict. In a recent report, problems occur once immediate humanitarian interventions are withdrawn. In situations of conflict there is a back-sliding into violence once again. This creates a situation that perpetuates the harm and dangers to the population caught in the midst of the conflict. The report calls for ‘experts’ who can serve as liaisons between the UN and the state experiencing war. Experts whose comprehensive knowledge in conflict can help establish processes that will ensure that civilians are not submitted again to suffering and the consequences of the lack of transitional support. While humanitarian interventions have undoubtedly saved many lives, have established benchmarks for humanitarian interventions worldwide, current questions of is this enough? And if its not, then what should be done? And how? Reflects the ‘grey’ area from the initial intervention to a mid-ground of sustainability. This discontinuity of engagement and hope to communities creates much suffering and frustration. This paper attempts to explore existing social development praxis that have emerged out of crisis and to see if social work as a professional field can help bridge these gaps and provide leadership in this ‘grey’ phase towards a continuum for empowerment and sustainability of individuals, groups and communities.

METHODOLOGY This paper is a concept note. The viewpoints have emerged from observation and experience from engaging with an Executive Course on International and National Humanitarian Tools and Standards, from which the Social Work Department of Miriam College has held for the past six years, a course that attempts to cater to the issues for practitioners in the field from both a social work and humanitarian perspective. In addition, it also encompasses my having taken part in a training team for local government officials in Quezon City, a training that focuses on creating a green and sustainable city that is, albeit, disaster ready. These perceptions are also influenced by my experience as a social worker and social justice advocate and, as an academic in the Social Work Department of Miriam College in the Philippines.

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The method of review is from literature review and descriptive. The paper intends to serve as a exploratory concept paper for possible research towards framework building.

Peoples Capacities to Withstand Disasters A major factor to consider in both of the disasters discussed is that they occurred in regions of where much of the population is poor. The vulnerability of people is what created these mega disasters. In both cases there were clear interplays of the social, political and economic confluence coming together to affect people and their ability to resist, cope and emerge unharmed out of a disaster. Literature on vulnerability to disasters identify ’underlying causes’ plus ‘dynamic pressures’ often blend to create ‘unsafe conditions’ and a major ‘hazard’ to create a disaster. Poverty is a key underlying cause as poverty puts large numbers of poor people in harms way often times because of the work they do and where they live. In the case of Typhoon Bopha, some of the villages at foot of hills were washed away buy mud slides and fallen tree logs. Logs, some CSOs claims they were from illegal logging. In both storms homes that were flattened were those of the poor. The shacks of the fisherfolks who live directly on the sea shores. In both cases there is environmental degradation that increased the vulnerability. In the case of Typhoon Bopha the mud-slides are being attributed to the diminishing forest not only due to illegal logging of which many of the poor who were living in the area partake in for income but also contribute to the degradation by cutting down trees for charcoal making, firewood for cooking and for repairing of homes and boats. Understanding that their options for livelihood are limited and the needs are immediate. Vulnerability is determined by social systems and power, not by natural forces. It needs to be understood in the context of political and economic systems that operate on national and even international scales: it is these which decide how groups of people vary in their vulnerability in relation to such things as health, income, building safety, location of work and home. (Wisner, 2003). However, to only look at the vulnerabilities of people and not factor in people’s capability for self-protection in too one sided. There is a need to look at people’s capability to resist. The capacity for self- protection and group action, to be able to avoid, adapt, and to use their abilities for creating security, either before a disaster occurs or during its aftermath (Wisner, 2003). The strategy to address needs to be multi-layered, the social, political and economic issues that have led to so many poor in the country needs to be addressed and in addressing the multiple layers of vulnerability the poor themselves have to be engaged in the process. With the predictions from climate change scientists that the country will continue to experience severe climatic change and that the earth’s plates are becoming more active in the Pacific Rim of Fire makes urgent the need to address vulnerabilities.

RESULTS Under law, local government units have responsibility for all pre-during and post disaster planning and activities. According to the Local Government Code of 1991, local government units (LGUS) are the frontliners to emergency situations in their communities and are to ‘ensure the general welfare of its constituents’. As first responders, they should be proactive in performing disaster-related activities, from preemptive evacuation to the restoration of people's livelihood. Every LGU should also create a Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (LDRRMP) covering 4 aspects of disaster response and risk mitigation as specified in NDRRMC's framework, namely: disaster preparedness, response, prevention and mitigation, and rehabilitation and recovery. The LDRRMP is to be implemented by Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Offices in every province, city and municipality in the country. The Philippines is divided into 14 regions, within these regions subdivided into provinces and the provinces are further partitioned into municipalities and cities. All municipalities and cities consist of constituency barangays. Each barangay has a Chairperson and Kagawads (Councilors). Each municipality and city has a mayor. Under the mayors there are vice-mayors and governing councils. Local Government Unit (LGUS) are comprised of provinces, cities and barangays. At the national level, the Philippines has the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDTTMC), a governing body that coordinates clusters, oversees incident command, oversees the role of LGUs in disasters. In the case of Typhoon Haiyan, the President established a coordinating and overseeing group to guide the rehabilitation process. This Office of the Presidential Assistant for Rehabilitation and Recovery © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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(OPAAR) is a temporary office only for the purposes of overseeing the reconstruction phase in the Typhoon Haiyan affected areas. Funding to support the LGU disaster plans is to come from their regular budget, where they should set aside at least 5% of their estimated revenue to support pre-disaster preparedness programs and post-disaster activities. From this set aside, 30% of the LDRRM Fund is allocated as Quick Response Fund (QRF) or stand-by fund for relief and recovery programs As stated in the LGU law, each of the municipalities has a social worker under their Office of the City Social Welfare and Development. This LGU code of 1991 also devolved the basic services of the Department of Social Welfare and Development to local government units At this point it is unclear how much involvement the social workers of the LGUS have in developing the plans and providing input and direction. This is an area that requires more research and investigation. But based on the terms of reference found in the city government charts, the work is defined as “tak(ing) care of services intended to alleviate the suffering of the disadvantaged and disabled members of the community”. As front liners in the delivery of basic services, tasks are those that have to do with immediate relief during and assistance in the aftermath of man-made and natural disaster and natural calamities in particular (http://www. candoncity.gov.ph/new/images/CITIZENS_CHARTER/CITIZEN'S_CHARTER.pdf ). In reviewing two sample job description for city and provincial social welfare officers the focus of the social welfare development officer are primarily to address the basic needs of the needy and to develop appropriate measures to improve the living conditions of those in need, to address abuse and exploitation in the community. There is a strong stress on the services and needs of children and youth, as well as the need to strengthen the families, including helping people develop their own readiness and capability to solve their own problems and improve quality of life. There are various levels in addressing the needs of women, the disabled, elderly, drug users, prisoners and parolees and to prevent juvenile delinquency, as a way to address poverty, and to engage youth in nation building. In sections that identify disasters, the tasks are in the provision of timely and appropriate assistance to help alleviate the conditions/situations of distressed and displaced individuals and families who is in crisis, victims of violation of human rights as it pertains to disasters. Tasks are to serve those in need of food, clothing, temporary shelter, emotional, moral support, etc.( http://carmonagov.net/home/for-residents/public-employment/126municipal-social-welfare-and-development-office.html)

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION With Local Governments Units being tasked to be at the front lines of intervention in times of disasters, the role of the LGU social worker needs be among the leadership within the process of developing all the phases of disaster planning, addressing the communities disaster preparedness, response, mitigation, management and re-building. While this is not currently the norm, The changing environmental landscape in the country and the experiences of the recent major disasters may require re-focusing bringing in those with expertise who can guide a multi-discipline disaster plan. Social workers in the Philippines have extensive training in human development, poverty alleviation, social functioning, social welfare delivery and management within a generalist helping process that is within the continuum of the micro-meso-macro practice for the purposes of developed, protective, preventive and/or therapeutic intervention (Article IV Competency Standards CHED Guidelines. 2010). Most importantly, social workers bring to the task professional ideologies. These refer to ideals and values that are based on the understanding that ‘citizens have the right and capacity to fully participate in determining their health and welfare needs. Social workers also understand the influence of culture in a society understanding the influences and its practice within communities. A cornerstone in social work practice is self-determination. A value that looks at the client as primordial in being able to take control over their lives and to engage in their own process of finding solutions to their problems. A value strongly stated in the Philippine Social Work Code of Ethics wherein the duties of social workers are to their clients. As stated—‘to accept primary responsibility and accountability to clients, respecting their right to self-determination and observe confidentiality in all my dealings with them; To uphold the basic human rights of clients and serve them without discrimination; To seek out the marginalized and ensure equal access to the resources, services and opportunities required to meet basic needs; and, To expand choice and opportunity for all persons, with special regard for disadvantaged or oppressed groups or persons. In line with this is the increasing adherence to working with people from a strengths based perspective. A working perspective that © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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is solution based focused, working with the strengths of the individuals, groups and communities that looks at issues from the strengths of those involved rather than assessing issues as problematic and pathological. In addition, social workers are knowledgeable about the legal frameworks that define state intervention and how the practice is undertaken. There are several Republic Acts that define the parameters of social work in the Philippines. Provisions that define social services and establish standards for the profession. Standards that are consistent with the Global Standards for Social Work Education and Training as set forth by the International Association of Schools of Social Work (CHED Memorandum Order No. 11, 2010). With the Philippines as signatory to major United Nations Conventions, human rights laws are integrated into national policies, international standards and guidelines. For example, Child protection services are guided by the Convention on the Rights of the Child; the Magna Carta for Women closely adheres to the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). In addition, this is a profession that is guided by a human rights framework. The Philippine Code of Ethics states specifically that social workers are ‘”to uphold the basic human rights of clients and serve them without discrimination”. There are laws and standards that bring into practice international human rights instruments. With a strong emphasis on community development, social workers are familiar on how to do community needs assessments and community- based interventions. The social work curriculum in the country places great emphasis in knowing how to work and organize within communities requiring students to practice 1000 hours of field work before graduation. In short, because of their rigorous training, ideological frameworks, intimate knowledge of the community before a disaster, during the disaster and aftermath, social workers, may be in a better position to guide local politicians in their disaster planning. The recognition that there needs to be ongoing services, support to states to take on the task of building back their communities, and opportunities for economic development after a disaster, are the main areas of the discussions taking place among humanitarian organizations, the UN, private sector and governments. The new slogan of “build back better” tries to capture this call for the next steps after a disaster. In a recent report by the Humanitarian Policy Group Overseas Development Institute, the build back better is seen as the latest iteration of a longstanding concern to
link immediate relief with longer-term processes of recovery and development. The list of ideas on how to build back better includes; Linking Relief, Rehabilitation and Development (LRRD) to early recovery, capacity-building, disaster risk reduction, sustainable development and, most recently, resilience (HPG Working Paper-Disaster as Opportunity? Building back better in Aceh, Myanmar and Haiti). In the Philippines, the disasters have exposed to the general public the high level of vulnerability in which many Filipinos live. Recent disasters have helped direct attention to multiple socio-economic issues. Scientist are talking about ‘hazardous’ living areas, CSOs are raising the issues of poverty and livelihood that make people vulnerable, more attention given to the impacts of environmental degradation, acknowledging climate change, questioning quality of homes, lack of zoning laws, the need for capacity building, trainings, etc. In short, disasters help draw attention to the many social issues that have already existed for a long time but are often confounded by mere analysis and fragmented solutions. Social development problems and their need for solutions go back many years. In Europe and the United States, major social welfare policies and programs emerged from their own economic crisis and post war rehabilitation. In this long history of social development analysis and human needs, social welfare praxis has been informed by psychology, political science, economics, cultural anthropology, education and religion. Social welfare as a body of knowledge has become multidisciplinary together to address the measures needed to meet the basic needs of individuals or groups of people when other institutions in society have failed to meet the most basic needs. It’s a system of knowledge that aims to empower individuals, groups, families, organizations and communities to improve their circumstances thus redefining social welfare as both an institution and an academic discipline (Zastrow, 2008) The social welfare framework, because of its history and accumulated body of knowledge, lends itself to move from crisis intervention to the rehabilitation phase as the model, based on the continuum of economic and social development as the underpinning value, because individuals, families and communities need to be at the center of rehabilitation. The social welfare model incorporates the need for such human services programs that meet the imperatives of the individual (casework, counseling, religion, therapy), protection services (fire prevention, police action and laws), information and maintenance services (child care, social security, welfare programs, etc). The term ‘social protection’ is often used interchangeably with social welfare but ‘social protection’ comes from © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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an economic model that looks at poverty alleviation as its main thrust. Welfare services connected to the social protection model are based on economic assistance. In the Philippines, the Department of Social Welfare and Social Development has adopted the term social protection for their poverty alleviation programs which includes the National Household Targeting System for Poverty Reduction (NHTS-PR), Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (Pantawid Pamilya) and Kapit Bisig Laban sa Kahirapan-Comprehensive and Integrated Delivery of Social Services (KALAHI-CIDSS). These programs are prioritized in disaster-affected areas (http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Social_Welfare_and_Development_(Philippines) The Philippines, it can be argued, has a well developed social welfare system. After all, the Department of Social Welfare and Development can be traced back to 1915 with the establishment of the first Social Welfare Board; in 1968 it was assigned a permanent status under the executive branch of government. The department also forms part of the NDRRMC's framework. However, social welfare in the Philippines is now seen as primarily to alleviate poverty, and not in step with the wholistic framework from which the practice of social welfare emerged. The Department of Social Welfare and Development is focused on issues of poverty and the multiple layers of social welfare are devolved into the local government units where political leaders define the framing of plans for social welfare needs Admittedly, the terms “social protection and build back better” are more appealing. The terms conjure images of happy people working together to build back their devastated communities. Social protection alludes to an image of government protecting its citizen’s well-being. However, new terms do not always define the theoretical framing that is necessary to address the multiple layers of problems inherent in vulnerabilities while increasing the capacity of individuals, groups, and communities to resist, adapt, challenge social and political power imbalances, and the many inequalities that created the vulnerability in the first place. As critics of the build back better theme point out, “discussions of build back better have provided neither the tools to help address these critical questions, nor the criteria against which agencies can assess the pros and cons of adopting a build back better approach” (Fan, 2013).

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The ‘new norm’ of climate change with severe climatic shifts that have a potential to trigger increased hazards in the Philippines, calls for a development strategy that is founded on peoples well being. There is a need to address the multiple vulnerabilities of the poor, the marginalized and less empowered. The imbalances of power needs to be addressed whether it be economic, political or within the family. The engagement of communities need to be addressed from a position of strength with the goal of communities to be able to to resist, cope, adapt and mitigate and to address the ‘grey’ phase in the disaster reconstruction process that needs frameworks from which strategies can be carried out towards a sustainable future. At the same time, local government units as the front liners to disasters but who may not all have strong understanding and experience in disaster planning will benefit from the guidance of social development experts that understand their communities and the strengths of the civil society organizations who they work with. A wholisitc and empowering people centered framework can emerge out of social work practice. It is because of this that I am proposing that as social development workers, we revisit social welfare theories for guidance in developing the next steps in bridging humanitarian interventions and building back better. There is whole body of academic work that has guided countless countries to address basic human needs after wars and crisis. There is no need to reinvent the wheel-there is no time to reinvent the wheel. The Philippines in particular has a well-established pool of experts who are trained and form part of the local government units that can work with their local councils to develop disaster plans that are people centered and grounded in theory and application. Local social workers need to be tapped as experts who know how to address the needs of individual, group and communities from a human rights framework. It is more cost efficient to upgrade the skills of the LGU social workers on disaster management than training political leaders who may not fully grasp the complexities of human and community development and where the trainings need to start from step one after elections. Social workers need to be part of the leadership at the LGUs at all levels of disaster planning and they should be allowed to provide leadership in this area. The Philippines as many other countries need to address the imbalanced power dynamics that keep so many in vulnerable positions. It needs to go beyond the rhetoric of poverty alleviation and address the new norms that confront communities.

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REFERENCES Bello, Walden, The Rise of the Relief and Reconstruction Complex, http://www.ic.ucsc.edu/~rlipsch/pol160A/ Bello.pdf Berse, Kristoffer, (2014). Coordinating Recovery: Reflecting on Gains and Gaps after Yolanda. Forum at Ateneo de Manila University, Manila, Philippines. http://carmonagov.net/home/for-residents/public-employment/126-municipal-social-welfare-anddevelopment-office.html (http://www.candoncity.gov.ph/new/images/CITIZENS_CHARTER/CITIZEN’S_CHARTER.pdf ). Commission on Higher Education Department (CHED) Memorandum Order No. 11, 2010, Philippines. Fan, Lilliane. (2013). Disaster as Opportunity? Building back better in Aceh, Myanmar and Haiti, HPG Working Paper, London, United Kingdom: Humanitarian Policy Group, pp 2. Global Protection Cluster Working Group, The core principles of humanitarian action Source: Handbook for the Protection of Internally Displaced Persons, 2007, pp. 15-16) NATIONAL STATISTICAL COORDINATION BOARD–REGIONAL DIVISION VIII 29 March 2011 FS-201103-R08-01, http://www.nscb.gov.ph/ru8/FactSheet/FS_on_Poverty.pdf (NDRRMC Situation Report on the effects of Typhoon Yolanda, January 19, 2014 (6:00 a.m.), Published: January 22, 2014. http://www.gov.ph/?s=Situation+report+on+typhoon+yolanda (http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2012/12/03/879227/super-typhoon-enters-phl). Official Gazette, (2012), Situation report on the effects of typhoon Pablo (NDRRMC), as of December 20, 2012, 7 a.m., Published: December 20, 2012. http://www.gov.ph/2012/12/20/situation-report-on-the-effectsof-typhoon-pablo-ndrrmc-as-of-december-20-2012-7-a-m Philippines Environmental Situational Overview, (2014), Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) 14 January 2014, http:// reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Philippines%20Haiyan%20Environmental%20 Situational%20Overview%2014-1-14.pdf Wisner, Blaikie, Cannon and Davis, (2003), At Risk: natural hazards, people’s vulnerability and disasters Second edition. The attached three chapters constitute Part I of the book, and have been made available in the public domain by the authors and Routledge as part of the UNDP follow up to the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon_Haiyan#cite_note-7 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon_Haiyan http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Social_Welfare_and_Development_(Philippines) Zastrow, Charles, (2008). Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare-Empowering People, Belmont California, Thompson Higher Education, pg-4-7.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

CONSENSUS BUILDING AS A WAY OF ENHANCING BASIC EDUCATION IN NIGERIA Danjuma Abdullahi*, Siti Alida John Abdullah & Kammaruddin Abdulsomad *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Modern government operate by networking with other institutions such as nongovernmental organizations, family, private organization, unions etc for the achievement of aims and objectives of the government policy, such networking depend on the commitment from the stakeholders or parties involved. But in Nigeria the delivery of basic education lacks collaboration which create problems in basic education such as poor infrastructures, dilapidated buildings, influx of teachers from the teaching profession in search for greener pasture and increase in drop out. The paper relied on interviews, documents, newspapers and periodic reports of the organization in focus. The findings revealed lack of proper coordination of the programme as a result there are many out of school children in the state, the paper recommends increase in collaboration between the stakeholder in order to achieved millennium development goals (primary education) as well as vision 2020. Keywords: consensus building, state and education

INTRODUCTION The paper examines the role of consensus building in enhancing basic education delivery particularly in Nigeria. All over the world the role of state is changing due to economic recession and government big size as well as the Weberian nature of the public administration. All over the world especially since the introduction of public management, the role of state is changing from provision of public goods to intervention and provision of subsidy to parastatals, NGOs, private sectors, family are complementing the role of government. The NGOs for instance plays a vital role in education development. In African countries like Burkina Faso, there are many NGOs, such as Borne Foonden and Save the Children Foundation which play a vital role in education provision. Similarly, in Gambia, there are several NGOs that provide education, like Future in Our Hands, Christian Children Fund in Mozambique, Mozanbican Association of Urban Development, German Agro Action and Canadian Cooperation International also play a vital role in education development (Birdsall, et al., 2005). Mongolia, Nicaragua and Nepal have adopted a pragmatic approach to reduce costs; teachers are recruited based on training, and the private sector also contributes significant amount of their revenue toward education development as well as monitoring of input and output (Birdsall et al., 2005). In Chile, besides the government injecting money into the education system, national performance award has been introduced in order to boost education. The policy recorded a tremendous success in education development (EFA, 2009). In Madagascar, the government adopted a policy of community involvement and strong local leadership and provided infrastructures. In Kenya, the school improvement system has worked towards promoting education development (Sunal, Sunal, Rufai, Inuwa & Haas, 2003).

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

The problem of classrooms and infrastructure are very prevalent in African countries; in Guinea for instance, 16% of its primary school classes lack chairs and tables; children sit on the floor due to shortage of infrastructure. The situation is worse in Burkina Faso, but in contrast, Malawi recorded tremendous achievements in the area of classroom provision as a result of increase in government spending in the sector. Also, in Ethiopia, the government works hand-in-hand with the private sector to enhance basic education provision, while at the same time, powers have been delegated to sub-units of the government through decentralisation (Birdsall, Levine & Ibrahim, 2005). In some states such as Uganda, Zambia, Ghana and Senegal, the government delegated the responsibility of financing primary education to local communities and the result proved successful. Evidences also show that community-driven measures increase the participation of people in decision making and prudent management of funds. In another development, evidence shows that collaboration with the stakeholders, i.e., the state, community, private organisations and the schools has led to improvement in funding and management of education (Birdsall, et al., 2005).

LITERATURE REVIEW Many decades ago, countries around the world started the journey of education provision which is similar to African conditions today. The secret of the education successes in most high achieving states is commitment to efficient resource allocation which metamorphoses into the achievement of policy objectives. For instance, in East Asian countries, their education success was the result of high rates of economic growth that the region experienced during the last five decades. The per capita income of Asian countries has grown tremendously. For example, in Korea, the GDP grew at 6.6 %, 5.1 % in Thailand and 6.3 % in Singapore; while in sub-Sahara Africa, their GDP fell between 1965 -1999. For example, Ethiopia experienced a decline at -0.3%, Ghana -0.7% and Madagascar -1.7% ( Peng & Fredriksen, 2008). East Asia also strongly prioritises primary education rather than higher education, in contrast to African countries giving high priority to higher education rather than primary education. In 1965, Singapore invested 58% of its budgetary allocation in education; similarly, Korea and Thailand invested 66% of their budgetary allocation in education (Peng et al., 2008). The population explosion in Africa is also a hindrance to education delivery. The region over the past few decades has experienced population growth; the economy is agrarian that did not generate much income for the public to contribute toward education development, while Asia is experiencing low facility rate as a result of literacy rate. Another reason for education development in East Asia is due to their strong institutions, including visionary and political will, leadership, quality of bureaucracy and building consensus (Peng et al., 2008). In Brazil, the government came out with education financing strategies; a share of state revenue was allocated to the education sector in order to complement government spending, and 60 % of the funds allocated were for teachers’ training and development. Only few countries in Sub-Sahara Africa have attained 50% literacy, i.e., South Africa, Kenya, Namibia, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, while the remaining are still facing problems ranging from poor funding which is as a result of lack of priority given to the education sector (EFA, 2009). Evidence from Asian countries also shows that some countries adopted policy girl child education and encouraged their children to attend school. The government also eliminated school fees as well as provided feeding and mother support programmes. Institutional factors also affect primary education delivery, such as lack of transparency, poor management, poor incentives, poor networking among parents and school and weak commitment (Birdsall et al., 2005). Lewis (2006) added that education failed to develop the world as a result of poor attitude to work, poor management and investment in unnecessary things. In an attempt to address the problems of basic education delivery, Uganda adopted top down approach, decentralisation of education system and reforming financial management. There was strong commitment by the president, involvement of civil society and good communication links. Vietnam, for instance, despite being a poor country, has recorded good performance in basic education provision; 90% of its workers are literate, and the government has injected substantial portion of the budget for education development. Analysis of government expenditure reveals that there is drastic increase in government spending from the state budget, while higher education is in the form of cost sharing between the parents and the government (Peng et al., 2008).

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Figure 1 - World ranking of high education achieving states

Source: World economic forum, 2013

Among high education achieving states, Finland came first, followed by Canada, Singapore, Switzerland, New Zealand and Estonia which was 20th in the ranking order. Korea is one of the high achieving states in education provision. Korea adopted low cost approach in education development, i.e., triple shift in education provision. The government adopted egalitarian policy in an attempt to promote education development; entrance examination was abolished and the government allocated more resources to the sector (Peng et al., 2008). In Thailand, despite the challenges of expanding education, government allocated more than 20% of budget to education; two thirds is for basic education development, primary education received more than 70% of the national budget and the government also introduced decentralisation of education (Peng et al., 2008). The problem of education in Sub–Sahara Africa is a product of neglect by successive administrations over a long period of time. There was high enrolment in the educational institution despite the low rates of growth, as the region still remains an under-developed part of the world (Banya & Elu, 2001). A study on Asian miracle which proliferated in the 1990s gave a range of explanations for the remarkable Asian higher performance. Education was the basis for their growth and development (World Bank, 1993). For instance, to facilitate the process of modernisation, the Singaporean government expanded education at all levels and re-oriented it toward the production of industrial, clerical and professional manpower. The expansion and improvement in education has been tailored to involve the masses who are to provide the semi-skilled labour, as well as the technicians and professionals (World Bank, 1993). Government spending on education in less developed countries is less compared to commitment to military expenditure to bolster security and counter threat. Increase in defense spending, consumption of scarce resources to support defense has adverse effect on education (Saadat, 1985). Government spending on economy is mixed. In Africa, government spending on agriculture and health is particularly not strong in promoting economic growth. Asia’s investments in agriculture, education, and defense has positive growthpromoting effects. However, all types of government spending, except health, are statistically insignificant in Latin America. SAP promoted growth in Latin America, but not in Africa. Also, the issue of fiscal federalism and vertical and horizontal fiscal imbalances since independence added to the problems. The search for appropriate mechanisms and method of sharing resources was particularly problematic (Shenggen & Neeth, 2003). Figure 2 shows the GDP of some African countries. The GDP of Nigeria on education is very low compared to countries like Ghana, Kenya, South Africa and Malawi. Also, Canada, US, New Zealand and UK introduced the system of funding that favoured pupils from disadvantaged families. Likewise, in Singapore, the success was as a result of better monitoring and research on best practices of education. The explanations for the high performance in the education sector in the world suggest that the system is based on meritocracy and the utilisation of good monitoring and effective instructions (Huff, 2012).

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Figure 2 - GDP spending of some African countries

Source: Yakubu (2011)

Figure 3 - World ranking of education performance (Africa)

Source: World economic forum, 2013

Likewise in Africa, Botswana ranked at 85th position, Kenya 90, Ghana 91, South Africa 92, Cameroun 96, Benin 109 and Nigeria 116. In Botswana, the government contributed 21% of education allocation to education; secondary education received 32%, vocational training received 23%, university 11%, teacher training 9% and others 4%. South Korea and Finland came top in high education performing status; these are countries with the best education system in the world. The secret of their success could be deduced from high investment in education; the culture also supports learning and at the same time, there is respect for teachers (Huff, 2012). In addition to that, schools are autonomous; there is better package for teachers, strong union and increase in private enrolment, decisions are made locally, there is adequate supply of instructional materials and proper utilisation of resources (Woessmann, 2001).

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Table 1 - World high education performing states from 60s-2000s

1960S-70s Israel New Zealand Japan France Belgium Hungary Germany Australia Finland UK Sweden Netherland

80s Japan Netherland Korea Rep. Hungary Hong Kong

90s Taiwan Korea Rep Japan Singapore Finland Slovakia Czech Rep. Australia Sylvania Hong Kong Bulgaria Australia Russia Netherland Hungary Sweden UK Canada

2000s Finland Korea Rep Taiwan Japan Singapore Estonia China. Australia Switzerland Hong Kong Belgium Czech Rep. France Australia Russia Netherland Hungary Sweden UK Canada Ireland

Source: Woessmann, 2001

Denmark spent three times of its national income on education as compared to Greece. The rate of education spending in the UK has declined. For instance, in 1975, it spent an average of 6.5 % of GDP on public education, while in the later 1990s, it declined to 4.5 % and then increased to 5.6 % in 2006 (Ansell, 2010). From the last decade of 21st century, a number of countries came out with some mechanism of funding education; notably New Zealand and Australia have introduced tuition fees to support basic education (Ansell, 2010). Most of the African countries spent less on education expansion compared to their European counterparts. Analysis of education spending between Lesotho and Equatorial Guinea revealed that the former spent 10 times more than the former with similar demographic figures; as a result, Lesotho has higher education attainment than Equatorial Guinea (Ansell, 2010).

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION The data were source through interviews. Interviews were conducted with the staff of UBE, as well as the parent teachers association, Non-governmental organizations, Nigerian union of teachers numbering ten. In order to validate the findings the study also reviewed past literatures such as text books, journals and newspapers. Figure 4 - The respondents interviewed

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The above table shows the respondents interviewed UBE (2), NGOS (2), PTA (2), NUT (2) and Alumni (2). Figure 5 - Qualification of the interviewees

From the table above primary certificate has (1), SSCE (1), OND/NCE (2), Degree (3) PGD(1) and MASTERS (2). Figure 6 - Occupational distributions of the interviewees

The above table shows that majority of the respondents are public servants with 7 respondents followed by farmers with 2 respondents and others one respondent respectively.

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Figure 7 - Age distributions of the interviewees

From the table above, the ages of interviewees ranges from 41-45 (2), 36-40 (2), 31-35 (2), 26-30 (3) and 25-25 (1).

FINDINGS Building consensus involves cooperation among different levels of governments and stake- holders, and attracting them to invest in education. The rate of consensus building is very weak in Nigeria as observed by respondents. The figure below shows the themes and the interviewees:Figure 8 - Interviewees and coding

As a result of the interviews conducted above, the following are the problems of consensus building in basic education provision based on the responses from the interviewees. Lack of enlightment: It is mandatory for every parent to enroll their wards to the school but due to lack of enlightenment, many parents did not enroll their children due to inability of government to provide adequate funding and lack of commitment (1:5, 2:5 & 4:1). Interviews conducted also indicated that there are inadequate resources to embark on massive enlightenment (3:5). Not too long ago, the ministry asked each and every school to form school based management committee but many schools have not responded (4:1, 5:1 & 6:1). Only in few places, such committees are playing their role, in some places, school management built schools, toilet and libraries (7:1 & 8:1). School management committee just came in recently to monitor what is going on in the schools as well as effective © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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implementation of the policy, to reduce political influence, the well to do among the committee members help in building and provision of infrastructure as well as enlightenment campaign (9:1). Even cooperation with the community is not there(10:1). Poor collaboration: Parents also contribute toward development of education of their wards in the form of advice, and there is also school based management committee in which parents contribute towards development of their children both financially and materially. They do build classrooms, provide instructional materials, as well as other input such as chalks (10:1). As observed by a respondent No awareness especially at the village level, people are not being mobilised to know the importance of basic education, there is need for government to intervene to create more awareness in order to promote educational development (6:3). The community needs to play a role in education but they are not being oriented even in the supervision which affects education development (2:3). In support of that, an interviewee stated that:It is also the role of government to establish collaboration with education stakeholders such as NGOs, alumni, international organisations, civil society but only few NGOs and international development partners are playing their roles (5:3). Local communities also have roles to play in delivery of basic education such as provision of enabling environment to ensure proper implementation of education for all (9:3). The community should assist in provision of human and materials resources, maintenance and safety of infrastructure, but it is not doing so as observed by a respondent (1:3). Poor coordination: The stakeholders, such as parents, NGOs, Alumni and community has a role to play in education but most of the stakeholders seem not play their role and responsibility in basic education delivery (6:4). The reason for poor enlightenment is because of inadequate funding of the organization (5.4). Another interviewee added that the problem has to do with the stakeholders - both the government, parents, NGOs, teachers etc. all of them have a role with regards to basic education, failure of stakeholders to play their role as and when due vividly affect education provision in Nigeria (3:1). Government is not giving much to the schools for the day-to-day running of the school, as a result the school came out with PTA charges in order to run the school effectively; the school charged N100 per student but many parents could not pay due to poverty” (10:4, 3:3, 2:2 & 9:4). Poverty: The cost of education is very high for the parents, for instance parents buy uniforms, books, and pay levy, nothing is free as far as basic education is concerned; as a result, they could not send all their children to the school at once, they have to send them in batches due to poverty (1:1, 2:1, 3:2, 4:5, 5:5 & 10:3). In addition many parents are poor they could not afford three square meals talk less of contributing money toward education advancement (6:5, 7:5, 8:5, 10:5 & 9:5). Lack of rapport with the community: The relationship between teachers and communities is not cordial, and for success of basic education, there must be good rapport between teachers and community which is lacking (1:4). Sometimes, governments allocate land but the community will deny them and see it as encroachment of their land which negates the progress of the schools (6:2). A teacher may be posted to a village but to get accommodation is a problem, that is why teachers sometimes don’t reside very close to school, at times, arrive late to the school which affects the basic education, in order to complement government efforts, the school came out with parents-teachers association in which parents contribute N100to buy chalks and other instructional materials needed in the schools but many parents always complain of lack of money (9:2). In order to address the problem of imbalance in education within the states, the federal government came out with a community initiative project known as community initiated self-help project, i.e., if communities are willing to support self-help projects in their various localities, the federal government would provide some money as inducement but many communities are not mobile and ignorant of such kind of arrangement (5:2). The essence of the self-help project is to enhance the participation of communities and private sectors in education development by coming out with viable programmes as well as administration of schools (10.2). There is weak synergy among the stakeholders in basic education (6:5). The stakeholders have a role to play in education but most of them are not aware of their responsibilities due to poor enlightenment; that is why there are many children begging for alms on the street. The law also prescribes punishment for parents who keep their children from school but lack of implementation of such laws renders the programme ineffective (Okafor & Anaduaka, 2013). In addition to the above, another interviewee stated that:Self-help project is designed to involve community in school affairs and encourage private participation, communities are expected to provide 10% but poverty constitutes the biggest problem toward such arrangement .The essence of self-help project is to provide basic infrastructure in the schools, improve © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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stakeholder relations but low participation renders the arrangement ineffective (3:4). Figure 9 - Self-help project by communities in Nigeria

Source: Impact Assessment of UBE (2012)

The figure above shows the self-help project embarked upon by various communities in Nigeria from 20052008. Due to the inability of the state to provide such goods and services, the self-help projects are decreasing due to poverty and lack of community participation. Figure 10 - Summary of the interviews

DISCUSSION From the interviews conducted with was discovered that one of the major problem affecting the institution is inadequate enlightment. People are not enlighten to know advantages of education as a result it led to poor funding and consequently affect the quality of education in Nigeria. The interviews also revealed that there is poor coordination with the stake holders which invariably affect the quality of education. The stake holders are not mobilize to know the importance of education, as a result there is no adequate collaboration between the government, private sector and informal organization which affect the growth and development of education in Nigeria. In addition to the above, the interviews also revealed poor coordination of the programme. This is as a result of poor enlightment and lack of commitment of the state to basic education provision.

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The rate of poverty has also increased which affect the education provision in Nigeria. The National Office of Statistics reported that over 112 million Nigerians lives below the poverty line and earn less than a dollar per day, therefore contribute nothing towards betterment of their children as a result affect education delivery in Nigeria. Finally, the relationship between the school and community is not cordial, the community see activities of school as encroachment of their land without full compensation which affect the education delivery.

CONCLUSION The problem under investigation is state and consensus building in basic education delivery in Nigeria, primary education being the bedrock of the educational system is beset with many problems which include poor commitment, poor coordination, lack of community involvement, poverty and poor stake holder collaboration. As a result it created problems such as pupils drop out and decrease in quality of education which is fueling insecurity of lives and properties and emergency of militancy and other groups such as Boko Haram, Niger Delta militancy, prostitution and armed robbery and kidnapping in Nigeria.

RECOMMENDATIONS The following are some of the recommendations with the hope that if put in place will help in addressing problems of universal basic education in Nigeria:a. Adequate funding: The major problem facing the commission is that there is no adequate funding of the programme; government should try as a matter of urgency to ensure adequate funding of programme based on the UNESCO threshold of 26% budgetary allocation of the country. b. Partnership and consensus building: The commission can also collaborate with private partnership and philanthropic donations which will contribute their quarter towards the development of primary education in Nigeria. The commission can also embark on annual launching so that philanthropic and well to do individuals will contribute their quarter towards primary education development in Nigeria. c. Also the unclear nature of role and responsibility of three tiers of government over which tier of government is solely responsible for the funding of the universal basic education in Nigeria contributes a lot to the failure of the programme, government should ensure that there is proper coordination of the responsibility of funding primary education in order to ensure efficiency. d. Government should enhance the autonomy of each an every tier of government especially state –local relations. The issue of joint account should be abolished. e. Also the commission should ensure proper record keeping of the income and expenditure of the commission. f. The government should ensure that the monies’ meant for enhancement of primary education commission is been spent judiciously in accordance to the lied down rules and regulations. This could be achieving through transparency and accountability. g. Establishing independent body charge with the responsibility of employment. h. Attracting and retaining the competent bureaucrats through motivation such as giving good package. It encourages hard work and lessen corruption (Hyden eel., 2003). i. Straightening the capacity of watchdog organizations such as public complaint commission.

REFERENCES Ansell, B.W.(2010). From the ballot to the black board: The redistributive political economy of education. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. Banya, K. & Elu J. (2001).Financing Higher education in sub- Sahara Africa. Journal of higher education vol. 42(1) 1-34. Birdsall, N. Levine, R, & Ibrahim, A.(2005).Toward universal primary education:Investments, incentives and institutions. London: Earthscan EFA(2011). EFA Global monitoring report. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/ themes/leading-the-international- agenda/efareport/ Huff, P. (2012). Best education in the world: Finland, South Korea country ranking rated average. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/27/best education-in-the-wor_n_2199795.html Lewis, M. (2004). Decentralizing education: Do communities and parents matter? Draft working paper. Center for Global Development Report, Washington, D.C. Okafor, C.F. & Anaduaka, S.U. (2013) The UBE programme in Nigeria: Problems and prospects. Journal of education research 2(3) 42-48. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Peng, T. & Fredrikson, B. (2008).An African exploration of the East Asian education experience. Washington D.C.: World Bank. Shenggen F. & Neetha R. (2003) Public spending in developing countries: trends, determination, and impact, Environment and production technology development. Retrieved from https://www.docstoc.com/ pass?docId=100978485&download=1 Sunal, C.S., Sunal, D.W. Rufai, R. Inuwa , A.& Haas,M.E.(2003). Perception of unequal access to primary and secondary education.: Findings from Nigeria. African studies journal 46(1) 93-116. Woessmann,L.(2001). Why students in some countries do better. International evidence on the importance of education policy 1(2) 67-74. World Bank (1993). World development report, Washington D.C Retrieved from http://wdronline.worldbank. org/worldbank/a/c.html/world_development_report_1993/back_matter/WB.0-1952-0890-0.back World Bank development indicator (2012).Public expenditure on education. Retrieved from http://wwwwds. worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/08/24/000.pdf Yakubu, O.S. (2011). Children literacy development and book industry in Nigeria: The EFA 2015 policy somersault, Malaysian Journal Of Media Studies, 13(1), 51-63.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

DEVELOPMENT OF AIDS-PREVENTION VOLUNTEER LEADERS ON A SUSTAINABLE BASIS Wanapat Sangkaew* *[email protected] Prince of Songkla University, Thailand

Abstract The objective of the study is to explore the motivation of the AIDS-prevention volunteer leaders in the AIDS-Prevention Volunteer Leaders Project and to examine the factors that motivate volunteer leaders to continue their works as well as guidelines for sustainable development. The samples consist of 322 students who serve as AIDS-prevention volunteer leaders. Data are collected by the questionnaire and analyzed using percentage, mean, standard deviation, Pearson correlation coefficients as well as comparing the differences between variables by one-way ANOVA. The findings of the study are as follows: Most of the samples are female whose ages between 10 and 18 years old and studying at Grade 10. Their average scholastic achievement of 2.04-4.00. They join the volunteer project through their teachers’ persuasion. The motivation level as a whole is very high. The most important motivation factor is usefulness of the project. The sustainability of the AIDS-prevention volunteer leadership as a whole is at high level because the samples are able to extend their works through forming groups to conduct other volunteer activities. Personal factors which account for the differences in volunteer work consist of age, rewards, benefits to self, benefits to society, and benefits derived from the project, which resulted in the sustainability in every aspect. The level of education affects volunteer work on a continual basis and groups are formed differently. The samples assessed themselves with a high level and committed that they will continue to be a volunteer in the future. In addition, they think that the AIDSprevention volunteer leader project is worthy, since it allows young people or youth to join volunteer work and provide appropriate knowledge about genders, life skills, and AIDS.. All these are useful to self and society. Moreover, the study recommends that a policy campaigning project for students in co-education schools should be provided to students at all ages and gender. It aims to attract targeted students’ interest in joining the activities. Additionally, the budget and volunteer teacher provisions for volunteer work at a practical level should be available. In addition, the project should develop concrete incentives in various forms, extend operational time and create activities that appeal to children. Last but not least, youth in schools and in the community should join the project on a regular and sustainable basis. Keywords: volunteer Leaders, AIDS-prevention

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY According to the rapid changes and interventions by the current capitalist society, resulted in people in the individualist societies are more attached to the development of technology. This may lead to the lack of social and psychological development of shared consciousness. Presently, people struggle with problems in social situations such as social, political and economic conflicts. People seem to have a few roles in the political, economic, social involvements. Comparing with those who are in the working population group whom driven the countries or adolescence who are a major group and considered as the future of the country. They are Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

expected to be a knowledgeable person and able to develop themselves in parallel with the development of the mind and its operations. To begin, it is essential to address the present problems found among young people which changed from the past. For example, the misuse of internet problem (pornography or Cam Frog) or the unawareness driving problem (motor-gangsters). These problems should be shared within society to realize that these things happened simultaneously and dangerously to the future citizen. Since, there were the lack of awareness of youth issues and values (Chiengmai News, 2008, p 6). It must be reconsidered that this is one of the most significant problems to be solved. One of the problems are the premature sex among teens which the age below 15 years old. This problem occurred because of the lack of knowledge, inadequate of sex-education provided to the adolescence. So the teenagers are at risk for a sexually transmitted disease or infection with HIV. Currently, the incidence of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection among teenagers are statistically increased compared to the past. However, the restrictions to prevent AIDS in Thailand are not comprehensive and effective as they should. Each year the new infected people reach to 17,000 people, which is concluded a lot numbers of youths. Due to risky sexual behavior and drug use data from a survey of the Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University (2006) found that the half of infected people are teenagers at age of 18-19. There were concerned upon the current issue of AIDS and the personnel assistant volunteers working on HIV. They care of AIDS patients and run the anti-AIDS campaign. However, it is important to note that the ratio of the HIV infections are increased while number of personal assistant volunteers who work on AIDS is decreased. As AIDS personnel assistant volunteers is the work which requires workers to be knowledgeable and understanding, to have a positive attitude toward HIV people. However, the incorrect understanding about the disease and prejudice against HIV infected people resulted in a shortage of volunteers. Therefore, it the awareness on HIV prevention in society should be created. For example, the campaign to prevent new HIV infections among teenagers. Also, the creation of volunteerism among young people would help teenagers to have better understanding about AIDS and the infections. At present, there are significant issues upon volunteers and volunteer spirits such as the public health workings as the important resources for conveying messages and giving information to the society. Besides, the Ministry of Social Development and Human Security has launched a guidance for certified social welfare of volunteers to the practitioners and supported the promotion of social welfare, No. 2, 2007. This can be confirmed the significances and the needs of the volunteers and volunteer spirits’ works to the society. Since there is a shortage of human resources in the field of HIV, resulted in the involvement of related agencies to create the project about HIV preventions among teenager. For instance, the Sukhothai Youth AIDS Prevention, projects empowering organizations to promote the prevention of HIV / AIDS among vulnerable youth in the North and Northeast. This present project is conducted in honor of H.R.H. Soamsavali Phra Worarachathinatdamat. The project focuses on HIV prevention among teenagers in order to achieve sustainability and produces teenagers’ volunteer work for AIDS. The purpose is to produce young volunteers and to have the teenagers to be the volunteer leader of the HIV prevention among young people especially in the educational institutions. The volunteer leader works willingly. The network of volunteer leader AIDS prevention project has produced and created an AIDS prevention volunteer role model. backbone of the society especially the sacrifices to volunteer to work on AIDS. This project was conducted with the school. In Bangkok and nearby provinces, 20 school leaders produced a total of 2,019 volunteers were trained on HIV, sexually transmitted diseases, volunteerism, communication skills, negotiation skills declined. To lead these students have taken the knowledge gained from training in project work. In the field of HIV prevention campaign with friends in a school with 49,002 students in 21 schools. Performance at the end of the first year found that volunteer youth leaders, the real work is left in each school are not equal. Some schools have a lot of Some schools have fewer Some youth leader Have the ability to work effectively both qualitative and quantitative. But another part of the trained youth are not able to perform the duties and carry out activities with the project after the training. Problems encountered since its origin.Number of youth volunteers are the mainstay of HIV prevention has decreased more than 60 percent, so the people who work for AIDS prevention in schools is not enough, though there was a youth leader, remaining over 30 percent of them. Development of AIDS-Prevention Volunteer Leaders on a Sustainable Basis. it is interesting to study, understand the characteristics of youth who are interested. And awareness of the AIDS volunteer. Volunteers to maintain sustainability. And guidelines for screening young people who are interested to volunteer. This saves money © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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and resources since production mainstay volunteers each requires both time and budget. Which is the high investment creating youth leaders, youth volunteers will be screened. In the youth projects sustainable, although a vocal part of these volunteers may have graduated from the institution to have been cultivated as a volunteer will be in consciousness throughout. And to build a model for a volunteer to do the social benefits further.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES a. To study the motivations of the volunteer in the anti-AIDS programs, in the AIDS-Prevention Volunteer Leaders Project in honor of H.R.H. Soamsavali Phra Worarachathinatdamat b. To study factors that led AIDS prevention volunteers continued to work steadily c. To study factors that led AIDS prevention volunteers developed to work sustainability

HYPOTHESIS a. Personal factor affects the sustainability working of volunteer b. Motivation factor affects the development of the sustainability working of volunteer

METHODOLOGY Two types of research methods are used; qualitative research and quantitative research. Qualitative data are retrieved from; a. Review of the related studies: researcher gained the related information by study the involved issues, and analyze information from electronic documents, books, theses and related studies such as motivation sustainability concepts. b. Studies from the field by using a data collection tool. The backbone network of volunteer AIDS from honor of H.R.H. Phra Chao Worawong Thoe Phra Ong Chao Soamsavali Phra Worarachathinatdamat Quantitative data are retrieved from 322 students in the school, using the questionnaire as a tool. In-depth interviews are also used as the qualitative data. It is collected by group discussion (focus group discussion) from a sample of three volunteers who work on AIDS in Yala Regional Hospital. There are three member of the ‘unite to friends’ group who are HIV infected were interviewed using in-depth interviews research method. , a structured conversation with this stage in the research study “Development of AIDS-Prevention Volunteer Leaders on a Sustainable Basis”. Thus the focus of the interview subjects in an AIDS patients in Yala. They understand the symptoms of HIV infection and AIDS as well. They are also considerate the problem situation and how to take care the HIV and AIDS patients.

The Study's Methods Researcher studied and researched on the involved issues then analyzed information from media and books, thesis papers. The data are collected from 322 students through a questionnaire. This is based on theories and related research. The questionnaire contains 4 parts. • • •

Part 1 is about the demographic information such as gender, age, grade level study, participating reasons to be identify including open-ended and close -ended questions. Part 2 and 3 contain information about motivation. The question is a closed -ended questions using the 5-degree of Likert - scale. Part 4 is the additional comments about the volunteer working sustainable HIV prevention

The questionnaires are distributed by randomization (Accidental Sampling) according to the proportion of the various schools until the sample reached 322 people. The statistics used Percentage (Percentage) in characterizing the general information of the sample and the average value (Mean) of the opinion the motivation to volunteer and the sustainability of HIV prevention as the mainstay volunteers. Standard deviation of the opinion the motivation to work. Volunteerism and sustainability of the volunteer leaders and one-way analysis of variance (One-way Analysis of Variance) and analyzed for correlation coefficients with permission of Pearson.

Validity and Reliability of the Questionnaire Tested the reliability and validity of the questionnaire of 30 sets, with the confidence coefficient alpha = 0.818. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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RESULT OF STUDY All the key points of interest for the study is discussed below

Demographic Information Participant in the present study are mostly female (79.4%) Age between 10-18 years (73.3%) with 90.0 % of GPA between 2.01 to 4.00 scales Table 1 - Demographic Data

Age

Number

Percentage

10-12 Years

2

0.6

13-15 Years

84

26.1

16-18 Years

236

73.3

322**

100.0

Total School record

Number

Percentage

1.00-2.00

28

9.1

2.01-3.00

131

42.5

3.01-4.00

149

48.3

Total

308

100.0

Education

Number

Percentage

School year 1

3

0.9

School years 2

18

5.8

School years 3

24

7.7

School years 4

125

40.4

School yeas 5

97

31.4

School years 6

42

13.6

309***

100.0

Total

Note : * Do Not Reply 1, **Do Not Reply 14 , *** Do Not Reply 13

The results of studies are noted as following;

1.

Personal information of the participant

It is found that 79.4 % of the participant were female, which is consistent with the ratio of women participating outnumber men. Projects including the school's women's studies program from the four school with 20 students in each school. The number of women participants are more than men, indicating that women are more interested in volunteering than men, while men 20.5% interest. Project Even in coed schools, women still outnumber men, which is consistent with the studies of Surasit Wachirakachorn (2005) which studied public policy analysis, social development and human security. Study revealed that teen youth policy, gender is also very different in many countries, such as learning opportunities, sexual relationships, and lack of restrictions to choose a career, and more so the women have to do more activities.

2.

Most students interested in participating as a volunteer

It is found that high school students who are studying at M. 4-6 (Grade 10-12) considered that joining the volunteering is a way to benefit their future education, because this kind of social services can provide them with the certificate of participation and pave their way in entering to the university.

3.

Most of the students participated in the program have a satisfied GPA

It is found that 48.3 % of students in the program have the result of the GPA between 3:01 to 4:00, and 42.5 % with grades between 2.01 to 3.00. Moreover, it is found that the students with high GPA tended to interest more in the program than the students with low GPA.Pratheep Jinngee(1997) studied the effects that stimuli into cognitive processes such as thinking, feeling and Kazdin (1978, cited in Somphot Eiamsupasit, 2006, p 308) © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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proposed basic principles of behavioral, cognitive concepts. A process revealed that changes the interpretation of underlying assumptions lead to changing external behavior. By behavioral, cognitive processes that are believed to affect the results in this behavior is a volunteer group with the higher cumulative grade point average may be a group. Initiative with a view to making the positive attitude towards society.

Motivation to be the volunteer: •

Results of the study found that the samples have a comment about why volunteer leaders joined the project, which recruits largely from the party (64.5%).Whereas, those who decided to be a volunteer themselves is only 35.4%. Teachers are the most important person to influence students to participate in the project. Especially, teachers who are the volunteer leaders. This result is consistent with the findings of Kannika Chaleryjit (2000); Nongnut prasomkum (1997) found that volunteer work still lacks a leader who are able to integrate the group of volunteers. The lack of creativity in organizing social activities and lack of leaders who are able to mobilize resources for the procedure. In this case, the volunteer leader teachers can be the role model to their students and stimulate interest in participating.

•

Doing volunteer work is beneficial to society. The study found that the samples with a focus on the social benefits are greater than the motivation to volunteer who mentioned the benefits to their own interest. They like spending time doing social activities, to help those infected, to act as a role model to their friends in school. Being in a group of friends who volunteering was seen as a social value. Some of them decided to do volunteer or social service work without expecting any return. They desire to help people in the community because the inadequate numbers of volunteers in the society. This is consistent with the Maslow’s hierarchy needs theory (Step 4). Once the Esteem Needs are achieved, then the need to be confidence and allowing others to see the value and importance of their own are required. They want praise, honor and respect. If a person meet the requirements at this stage, they are realizing the importance of their own lives that benefit society.

The interested results of the study in sustainability of volunteer working •

The average level of the aggregation group or club is at the high level. The samples have a comment about the sustainability of the volunteer leaders in the HIV prevention. For a continuous operation issue showed that the activities of the project and the AIDS volunteer leaders changed the attitude towards AIDS patients in a better way. Moreover, once the training project is done, the volunteer leaders still continue to be volunteer leaders in the HIV prevention Additionally, the average value of a comment about the sustainability of HIV prevention as the volunteer leader’s activities outside of schools’ activities are reasonably consistent with the sustainable development of Sumet Sangnimnual (2001, at 78-84). The study indicate that the development of every organization can proceed steadily, smoothly and seamlessly into existence forever, so development to achieve sustainability in this study is to develop the AIDS volunteer leaders to work. Also, the integration to a club or group should be continued or extended further. The volunteers are willingly to devote for the social benefits. Moreover, the activities enable the strength of the people and driving forces that causes the appropriate decision in both policy and practice level which lead to the sustainable development ( Chai-Anan Samudavanija , 2000 , p 11), for example , the founding of the group, or the club.

•

According to the personal information, it is found that the age and the sustainability of volunteer leaders in HIV prevention is significantly difference (0.05). The 73.3 % of the age of the sample were between 16-18 years and most of them were studying in the high school level. These volunteer leaders has the volunteer work, relationship in a class. The results of the study showed the age and education level of the sample are related. The participants in the present study are high school students’ whose age are between 16-18 years. This is consistent with developments in the adolescent sample match, especially in the development of gender. Since the present study is related to life skill and sex education which are appropriate to the age of the sample. Also, appropriate with the attention to learn and want to experience, want to make new friends, etc. of the participants.

•

Grades averaging of samples from the study found that the average academic performance has an impact on the sustainability of the volunteer leaders. This could explain that those with better grades will participate more in activities than those with lower academic performance. This result is consistent with the results of the study of the Royal College of Nursing, Ministry of Health, it compared the achievement and attitudes among nursing students of Nursing and Midwifery (Year 3-4) whose job characteristic is to highly devote themselves regardless the achievment to the academic performance.

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•

The motivation to contribute to the sustainability of this study showed that the correlation between incentives awarded to the sustainability of volunteer leaders in HIV prevention as the correlated in the opposite direction. While the benefits of self-motivation, socially beneficial incentives and motivation of the project is related in the same direction. This result of the present study is related with the study of Waraporn Wanchaithanawong(2008). The results of the study showed that the development should allow students to participate in volunteer activities that pose an ongoing volunteer. The steps include the implant to recognize the importance of volunteerism. Preparing both body, mind, knowledge and communication. This is to build confidence in themselves and encourage to participate in ongoing activities, which will enable the participants to have better experiences. This will make participant to aware and develop them to be a good people and live happily. The result of the study found the reversed relationship of the incentives rewarding and sustainability of the volunteer. The more the incentives rewarding, the less the sustainability of the volunteer and vice versa.

The in-depth interviews of volunteers who work with infected HIV / AIDS. According to the study of Volunteers who work on the issue of AIDS, the researcher launched the in-depth interviews with volunteers who are HIV infected in Yala Regional Hospital. The 3 patients admitted to Yala Regional Hospital, who are one male and two females. (Mr.Mung 42 years), (Mrs.Dah 40 years), and (Mrs.Sah 42 years). The three of them are the member of the ‘unite to friends’ group for more than 4 years. All three of them are HIV infected volunteers. Presently, there are more than 800 HIV infected and there are about 160 infected working as the volunteers to help each other. The interview topics are divided into the following issues;

Motivation to become a volunteer Acceding to the three volunteer, it is found that the initial stage of becoming a volunteer in ‘unite to friend’ group was similar. They decided to be the volunteers because they are the HIV infected and has admitted to Yala Regional Hospital. All three were feeling depressed, and wanted to commit a suicide. However, after consulted with the social worker in Yala Regional Hospital whom serves as a mentor and care for HIV and care volunteer groups ‘unite to friend’. They are persuaded to join the new HIV infections and help others infected. These activities create peer services and make them feel warm, and stimulate confidence to the patient to live on.

Responsibilities of the volunteers in ‘unite to friends’ group The group member will have a meeting a once a month with a group member of 160 person, one time for the progress. There are some activities to build a good relationship between old and new HIV infections. The assigned roles to the three person are to be a consultant to the patients in both the old and new cases. They are also the drug advisors and health care person for new patients. They also serves as guest speakers to the community to educate about AIDS. This is to prevent the spread of new HIV infections among young people. The three person served as volunteers for 8 days per month in the care of new HIV infections who receive treatment in hospital. The activities include a home visit care, counseling and encouragement to new cases in which the three of them receive income from a volunteer about 1,500 - 2,000 baht per month.

Development and supported The ‘unite to friend’ group receive the support from the hospital. They are trained to educate about health care and be a counseling to the social worker and a network of infection. It is hope to increase knowledge and skills of health care and give information about the side-effects of each drug so that volunteers can provide information to those with HIV infection. The sample said who that would serve a consultation or visit an infected or advice about medicines were not only the infected person but they must be well-trained in the hospital. For example, to counsel about the HIV antiretroviral symptoms of HIV infection, the home visits, the interview skills and the motivation skill. All of these are knowledge are necessary for volunteers to work with the HIV infected patients.

Possibility to work as a volunteer in the future; One member of the group ‘unite friends’, Mrs.Dah 40 years said that the volunteer work was a difficult task because no remuneration or less compensation. It is a work which have to do with the heart. Since the number of new HIV infected patients has significantly increased, but the number of the volunteers who care for HIV-

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positive or agency to oversee the healing of infections are less. Most HIV infected patients have to take care themselves which was found to be both advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are that they have better understanding of the symptoms and the side-effects of the drug. So if a volunteer is not infected, he/ she may not understand the symptoms of the disease or the side effects of medication or a real sense of the patient. Moreover, Mr.Mung (42 years) and Mrs.Sah (42 years) said that although in the future they would not receive compensation from the group, they would still serve as a volunteer. They like helping people that are suffering with the HIV and wanted to encourage new patients to be strong enough to live life without religious discrimination. Although the present number of the Buddhist infected volunteers who are fewer, they still serves on. In the future, they also intend to create a group of volunteers who care for HIV people in the hospitals in various districts such as in Betong Hospital and Thanto Hospitals.

Method to develop the volunteer leaders According to the mentioned findings above, it can be seen that the ages of the student who working as the volunteer are between 15-18 years. They are studying in high school and most of them are female. But one thing that reflects the clarity of motivation is the incentive scheme, which is an average of the entry to volunteer most ( = 4.09) . In addition, teachers have an important role in persuading the students to participate in such activities, more resources are pulled from the program used to create volunteers from the content of the project. Project activities including the budget support activities in the project used to create the volunteer leaders appropriately. The results of the study, in-depth interviews from a sample of HIV infection as volunteers ‘unite to friends’ who joined the volunteer as a patient in HIV hospital and was invited to participate. Group of friends unite to peer groups and social workers. Students are volunteer in the process of creating the volunteer leaders. The speaker or the transfer of knowledge through various activities will require good communication skills to convey the leader of those volunteers. As those with good communication skills. The problem is the audience and who can give advice to others, which is one of the most important skills in social work practice including the integration of work between teachers and students to create a group or club that has continued to volunteer. Both individual and community level. The students learn skills in social work with a give without expecting a return which is characteristic of the social groups and social communities. To motivate children and youth in the community to collectively volunteer more. Although current society focus on the assessment and the value of volunteering is to cultivate and generate awareness of social responsibility in making useful to others, but in the inner core of volunteers to volunteer, it is both beneficial to themselves and to others. Since students are the volunteer leaders was included on the portfolio (Portfolio), which can be used to determine when to go for school or work and competition. However other "reward" is not counted as the volunteers featured are what matter. It is to be noted that Reward relationship in contrast to the sustainability of the volunteer work. This reaffirms that volunteerism volunteer to work the next sustainable did not have a relationship with can be very rewarding in any way consistent with the findings of qualitative studies using in-depth interviews. HIV infected volunteers working without expectation of anything in return, even if in the future there would be no compensation, they would still be volunteers with a willingness to unite to friends. As well as the leadership in youth volunteering projects that contribute to society is what motivate the project which they have decided to join. Thus, when samples are volunteering to participate in the activities of the project, the developing of the volunteer leaders can do next, which Kalish (1981, reference in Pratheep Jinngee, 1997) indicated that the development of behavior can be done either directly or indirectly. Moreover, knowledge, ideas and feelings to achieve behavior change as well. This is consisted with the beliefs of Kazdin (1978) who believed that cognitive processes influence behavior and behavior change any content activities that result in both supplement the intelligence and behavior modification can be a source of development . The volunteer leaders are sustainable.

RECOMMENDATIONS a. The campaign and the various schools should aim to target at the coeducational school, so students of all ages have been developed to be the volunteer leaders. b. More budget support to various school activities such as financial plan support, campaign promoting AIDS, and to create a working group on AIDS among young people achieve sustainability. c. Sponsorship to the volunteer leader teachers; this is to provide training on AIDS Campaign and encourages teachers to motivate the students in the school.

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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY a. Assessed the work of volunteer leaders, both quantitative and qualitative b. The ways to push for inclusion of courses teaching about volunteering in the course of compulsory education should be studied c. The qualitative study of volunteers in various regions should be studied and the spread of the volunteers working on HIV prevention in other areas should be determined

REFERENCES Chai-Anan Samudavanija. (2000). Trend of research in the social sciences and humanities in the next decade. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University, Institute for Social Research. Kalish Harry, l. (1981). From behavior science to behavior modification. New York:Mc Graw-Hill Book Co. Kannika Chaleryjit. (2000). Promoting volunteering role of Public Welfare to support the province. Case studies : social work Ayuthaya office. Thesis Master, Thammasat University, Faculty of Social Administration. Kazdin, Alan E. (1978). History of behavior modification: Experimental foundations ofcontemporary research. US: University Park Press. Mahidol University, Institute for Population and Social Research. ( 2006). Prevention and reduction of HIV infection in adolescents and young adults.Nakornpathom: Author. Nongnuch Prasomkum. (1997). Role outstanding young people in society. Thesis master's, Bansomdejchaopraya Rajabhat Institute. Humanities, Social Sciences. Social development development. Pratheep Jinngee.(1997). Behavioral analysis and behavior modification. Teaching. Bangkok: University Srinakharinwirot Institute of Behavioral Science. Somphot Eiamsupasit. (2006). Theory and behavior modification techniques. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University. Sumet Sangnimnual. (2001). Personality leadership. Bangkok: bookbank . Surasit wachirakajorn (2005)., Analysis public policy social development and human security: a case study of youth policy. Journal of Development National Institute of Development Administration, 1 (05), 27-56. Waraporn Wonchaithanawong. (2008). Development process of the student volunteers. Chiang Mai: College of Nursing. Teens need to understand social problems to be solved. (2 December 2008). Chiang Mai News,p 6.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

SEKSUALITI DAN KEHAMILAN: PENGALAMAN REMAJA DI INSTITUSI PERLINDUNGAN DAN PEMULIHAN Zakiyah Jamaluddin*, Abdul Razak Abd Manaf & Rusimah Sayuti *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Kajian ini memfokuskan kepada isu remaja hamil tanpa nikah yang ditempatkan di beberapa buah institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan di Semenanjung Malaysia. Objektif kajian adalah untuk mengenal pasti pengalaman remaja dalam aktiviti seksual dan kehamilan mereka. Kajian ini bersifat kuantitatif di mana pengumpulan data dilakukan menggunakan kaedah tinjauan (survey) yang melibatkan responden di empat buah institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa majoriti responden (60%) melakukan hubungan seksual secara sukarela, 88% tidak menggunakan kondom sebagai pencegahan kehamilan dan 96% hamil kali pertama. Seramai 39 orang responden menyatakan mereka merasa bersalah apabila mengetahui diri mereka hamil manakala 38 orang lagi merasa malu. Namun, di sebalik perasaan bersalah dan malu itu, terdapat 48% yang menyatakan akan memelihara anak mereka sendiri selepas dilahirkan. Terdapat juga beberapa masalah dan kesukaran yang dialami semasa kehamilan seperti perasaan sedih, mudah menangis dan rasa lemah serta sakit di bahagian badan. Justeru, mereka memerlukan sokongan dari segi maklumat penjagaan diri ketika hamil, penjagaan pemakanan serta penjagaan kandungan. Keywords: seksualiti, kehamilan, pengalaman, remaja hamil tanpa nikah, institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan

PENGENALAN Remaja hamil tanpa nikah sering menjadi perhatian di akhbar-akhbar tempatan di Malaysia. Papamichael, Pillai & Yoong (2009) pula menganggap remaja hamil tanpa nikah ini adalah satu masalah kesihatan yang amat penting kerana ia seringkali dimasukkan dalam konteks ekonomi dan sosial. Remaja hamil luar nikah ditakrifkan sebagai remaja hamil yang berusia di bawah umur (biasanya di antara 13-19 tahun). Ia biasanya merujuk kepada remaja perempuan yang hamil yang belum mencapai usia dewasa yang sah (Hayward, 2011; UNICEF Malaysia, 2008). Statistik Pertubuhan Kesihatan Sedunia (WHO) juga mencatatkan bahawa terdapat lebih kurang di antara 14-15 juta kelahiran bayi dalam kalangan remaja hamil. Kebanyakannya adalah remaja di bawah usia 15 tahun dan tinggal di negara membangun (Hayward, 2011). UNICEF Malaysia (2008) pula melaporkan bahawa remaja hamil luar nikah berkait rapat dengan taraf pendidikan yang rendah dan kadar kemiskinan yang tinggi yang biasanya diulangi oleh kanak-kanak daripada ibu bapa usia remaja. Kehamilan luar nikah ini juga membawa stigma sosial dalam kebanyakan budaya dan komuniti (Hayward, 2011). Kehamilan luar nikah juga seringkali dikaitkan dengan kes pembuangan bayi. Statistik Polis DiRaja Malaysia (PDRM) menunjukkan antara tahun 2005 sehingga Januari 2011, sebanyak 517 kes buang bayi direkodkan. Sementara menurut Menteri Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga dan Masyarakat, Datuk Rohani Abdul Karim, statistik daripada Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat menunjukkan sepanjang tahun 2011, sebanyak 204 kes Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

kanak-kanak atau remaja bawah umur hamil manakala pada tahun 2012 sebanyak 172 kes. Dalam tempoh lima bulan pertama pada tahun 2013, dilaporkan peningkatan mendadak dalam kalangan kanak-kanak atau remaja perempuan bawah umur yang hamil luar nikah iaitu sebanyak 191 kes (Utusan Malaysia, 13 Ogos 2013). Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti pengalaman remaja dalam aktiviti seksual dan kehamilan mereka dalam empat buah institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan di Semenanjung Malaysia.

METODOLOGI Sebanyak empat buah institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan di Semenanjung Malaysia yang menempatkan remaja hamil telah dipilih dalam kajian ini. Persampelan yang digunakan ialah persampelan puposif (bertujuan) iaitu hanya remaja hamil tanpa nikah yang sedang mendapatkan perlindungan dan bersedia untuk dijadikan responden sahaja yang dipilih. Seramai 50 orang responden telah dijadikan sampel dalam kajian ini. Borang soal selidik digunakan bagi mengumpul data. Soal selidik dibina dan diubahsuai daripada Symptom Checklist-90-R bagi mengukur kesukaran psikologikal semasa kehamilan yang diukur melalui skala likert 5 poin iaitu dari 1 (Tidak sama sekali), 2 (sedikit), 3 (kadang-kadang), 4 (sangat banyak) dan 5 (teramat banyak). Bagi mengukur sokongan sosial pula, soal selidik dibina dan diubahsuai berdasarkan Social Support Network Questionnaire (SSNQ). Data dianalisis menggunakan kaedah SPSS-PC (Statistical Package for Social Science) versi 16. Maklumat dan data yang diperolehi akan dianalisis dengan menggunakan kaedah analisis statistik deskriptif yang melibatkan penganalisisan menggunakan peratus, jadual silang (cross tab) dan min. Ujian kebolehpercayaan yang dilakukan menunjukkan nilai kesan keadaan kepada diri sebanyak 0.742 dan kesukaran dialami sepanjang kehamilan sebanyak 0.870.

HASIL KAJIAN Kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa majoriti responden berumur 17 tahun (38%) dengan min atau purata umur responden ialah 17.44 tahun. Sebanyak 98% responden dalam kajian ini masih bujang dan 96% berbangsa Melayu dan masing-masing 2% bagi bangsa Cina dan India. Didapati sebanyak 80% responden tinggal bersama ibu bapa kandung, 4% tinggal bersama ibu angkat dan 2% tinggal dengan bapa tiri sebelum mereka ditempatkan di institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan. Rajah 1 menunjukkan sebab kehamilan responden. Majoriti responden (60%) menyatakan sebab kehamilan mereka adalah kerana melakukan hubungan seksual secara sukarela, 22% responden hamil disebabkan dipaksa melakukan hubungan seksual dan 18% responden hamil disebabkan dirogol. Rajah 1 - Sebab Kehamilan

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Majoriti responden (88%) mengakui tidak menggunakan kondom ketika melakukan persetubuhan kali terakhir. Didapati 96% responden mempunyai pengalaman kehamilan buat pertama kali manakala 4% responden menyatakan pengalaman hamil buat kali kedua dan pernah melakukan pengguguran terhadap kandungan sebelumnya. Responden juga telah ditanya mengenai perancangan mereka terhadap anak yang bakal dilahirkan. Majoriti responden (47%) menyatakan akan memelihara sendiri anak tersebut. Sebanyak 30% responden menyatakan akan menyerahkan anak tersebut kepada orang lain. Terdapat 4% responden menyatakan akan menyerahkan anak mereka kepada institusi kebajikan. Rajah 2 menunjukkan perasaan responden ketika mengetahui diri mereka hamil. Majoriti responden merasa bersalah (39 orang), malu (38 orang) dan marah (19 orang) ketika mengetahui diri mereka hamil. Rajah 2 - Perasaan Ketika Mengetahui Diri Hamil

Rajah 3 menunjukkan individu yang diberitahu oleh responden tentang kehamilan mereka. Rajah 3 - Individu yang Diberitahu Tentang Kehamilan

Respoden juga ditanya tentang reaksi individu yang diberitahu oleh mereka tentang kehamilan. Didapati bahawa beberapa reaksi yang ditunjukkan oleh idividu tersebut adalah marah (19 orang), sedih dan terkejut (7 orang), malu (5) dan kecewa (4). Rajah 4 menunjukkan reaksi teman lelaki apabila diberitahu tentang kehamilan. Beberapa reaksi yang ditunjukkan adalah teman lelaki mereka ingin bertanggungjawab terhadap kehamilan tersebut (10 orang), © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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gembira (lima orang) dan mengajak untuk berkahwin (2 orang). Namun, terdapat juga teman lelaki yang memberikan reaksi negatif seperti tidak mengaku (4 orang) dan menyuruh menggugurkan kandungan (4 orang). Rajah 4 - Reaksi Teman Lelaki Apabila Diberitahu Tentang Kehamilan

Rajah 5 pula menunjukkan kesan kehamilan ke atas diri responden. Sebanyak 38% responden mengalami kesan kehamilan ke atas diri yang sederhana, manakala 34% responden menyatakan sangat teruk kesan kehamilan terhadap diri mereka. Rajah 5 - Kesan Kehamilan Keatas Diri

Rajah 6 menunjukkan tahap kesukaran yang dialami sepanjang kehamilan. Majoriti responden yang mengalami kesukaran sepanjang kehamilan berada pada tahap sederhana (70%) responden. Item yang banyak menyumbang dalam tahap yang sederhana iaitu gementar, pengsan atau pening, hilang kehendak atau kepuasan seksual, rasa terperangkap, tiba-tiba takut tanpa sebab dan kemarahan yang tidak dapat dikawal. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Rajah 6 - Tahap Kesukaran yang Dialami Sepanjang Kehamilan

Skor Tahap: Rendah = <58; Sederhana = 59-92; Tinggi = 93

Rajah 7 - Perbandingan Nilai Min Kesukaran yang Dialami Sepanjang Kehamilan

Rajah 7 menunjukkan perbandingan nilai min kesukaran yang dialami sepanjang kehamilan. Kesukaran yang dialami sepanjang responden mengandung termasuklah rasa sedih (3.74), mudah menangis (3.56) dan rasa © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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lemah pada badan (3.56). Kesukaran yang dialami oleh responden menyebabkan mereka memerlukan sokongan sosial daripada pelbagai pihak seperti ibu bapa, adik beradik, teman lelaki dan staf di institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan yang mereka diami. Rajah 8 menunjukkan perbincangan berkaitan maklumat penjagaan diri ketika hamil. Kebanyakan responden berbincang dengan ibu (17 orang) dan bapa (10 orang) berkaitan maklumat penjagaan diri ketika hamil. Rajah 8 - Perbincangan berkaitan Maklumat Penjagaan Diri Ketika Hamil

Rajah 9 menunjukkan perbincangan berkaitan maklumat penjagaan kandungan. Majoriti responden berbincang dengan ibu ( 41 orang) dan bapa (25 orang). Rajah 9 - Perbincangan berkaitan Maklumat Penjagaan Kandungan

Sementara Rajah 10 menunjukkan perbincangan berkaitan maklumat pemakanan ketika hamil. Kebanyakan responden berbincang dengan ibu (35 orang) bapa ( 19 orang) dan staf (15 orang) berkaitan maklumat pemakanan ketika hamil.

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Rajah 10 - Perbincangan Berkaitan Maklumat Pemakanan Ketika Hamil

PERBINCANGAN, IMPLIKASI DAN CADANGAN Remaja hamil luar nikah dianggap satu masalah kesihatan awam yang penting kerana ia seringkali berlaku dalam konteks masalah ekonomi dan sosial (Papamichael, Pillai & Woong, 2009). Hasil kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa majoriti remaja yang hamil berusia 17 tahun, sedangkan kajian yang dilakukan di negara barat menunjukkan kadar hamil luar nikah bagi wanita berumur di antara 18-19 tahun (153 kehamilan bagi setiap 1000 wanita) adalah 2.5 kali ganda berbanding yang berusia di antara 15-17 tahun (62 kehamilan bagi setiap 1000 wanita) (Singh & Darroch, 1999; Darroch & Singh, 1999). Kajian ini mendapati bahawa 88% tidak menggunakan sebarang alat pencegahan kehamilan semasa melakukan hubungan seksual. Keadaan ini selari dengan kajian yang telah dilakukan oleh Hudson & Ineichen (1991) dan Handy (1982) yang mendapati majoriti golongan remaja yang aktif seksual jarang menggunakan kaedah pencegahan kehamilan. Lachance (1997) menyatakan sebanyak 62% remaja aktif seksual di Amerika yang tidak pernah menggunakan kaedah pencegahan kehamilan telah mengalami kehamilan sebelum kahwin. Di samping itu, bagi kalangan remaja yang menggunakan kaedah pencegahan kehamilan secara tidak konsisten, sebanyak 30% remaja sahaja telah hamil manakala bagi kalangan remaja yang sering menggunakan kaedah pencegahan kehamilan, hanya 7% sahaja telah hamil. Usia kehamilan yang sangat muda ini dikatakan boleh mengakibatkan krisis perkembangan kerana pada usia belasan tahun, remaja memikul dua tahap sekaligus iaitu sebagai remaja dan sebagai ibu (Rodriquez & Moore, 1996; McMurray, 2003: Quinlivan et al., 2004). Malah pilihan sama ada untuk meneruskan atau menamatkan kehamilan adalah satu keputusan yang akan memberi impak yang besar kepada remaja yang hamil tanpa nikah (McMurray, 2003). Kehamilan dalam kalangan remaja juga adalah tidak dikehendaki yang ditunjukkan oleh pengguguran yang dipaksakan. Kajian Aderibigbe, Araoye, Akande, Omotosha, Monehin & Babatunde (2011) menunjukkan 100% perempuan dan 87.5% lelaki dalam kajiannya melaporkan bahawa mereka atau pasangan mereka bertindak menggugurkan kandungan mereka. Begitu juga dengan dapatan kajian Abiodun & Balogun (2009) yang mendapati 63.5% pelajar perempuan berusia antara 15-24 tahun di institusi pengajian tinggi menggugurkan kandungan mereka. Alasan pengguguran dilakukan ialah kerana tidak berkahwin, terlalu muda, masih bersekolah dan pasangan tidak mahukan anak tersebut. Walaupun demikian, hasil kajian ini mendapati hanya segelintir (4%) responden sahaja yang bertindak menggugurkan kandungan mereka semasa hamil kali pertama.

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Selepas mengetahui diri mereka hamil, majoriti responden dalam kajian ini merasa bersalah, malu dan marah. Sepertimana yang dijelaskan oleh Hudson & Ineichen (1991) perasaan yang pertama dialami oleh remaja hamil adalah ketakutan. Ini kerana ketakutan tersebut berkemungkinan disebabkan oleh beberapa faktor iaitu cara untuk memberitahu ibu bapa tentang kehamilan, reaksi teman lelaki apabila mengetahuinya, dan juga pendedahan tentang aktiviti seksual yang dilakukan sebelum ini. Selain itu, perasaan marah yang dialami pula adalah sama ada pada diri sendiri, teman lelaki ataupun ibu bapa. Remaja akan merasakan tiada kekuatan dalaman bagi menghadapi kehamilan dan tanggungjawab harian dan seterusnya tekanan menyelubungi diri. Keadaan ini turut berkaitan dengan jangkaan terhadap kegagalan diri sendiri serta ibu bapa, dan kerjaya. Manakala emosi kemurungan merupakan salah satu reaksi yang biasa berlaku. Mereka diselubungi dengan perasaan kecewa, putus asa dan merasakan bahawa tiada penyelesaian bagi kemurungan tersebut. Mereka juga akan merasakan kegagalan dan tidak berharga lagi akibat kehamilan yang dialami. Dari sudut reaksi ibu bapa pula, keadaan yang sama ditunjukkan dalam kajian ini berdasarkan beberapa reaksi yang ditunjukkan oleh ahli keluarga seperti marah, sedih, terkejut, malu dan kecewa. Motjelebe (2009) dalam kajiannya mendapati bahawa kebanyakan ibu bapa memberi reaksi yang negatif, marah, dan kecewa apabila mengetahui tentang kehamilan anak remaja mereka. Ibu bapa berasa malu dan segan serta bimbang apabila menjadi bahan bualan orang lain. Kajian mendapati bahawa perasaan pertama remaja apabila mengetahui tentang kehamilan adalah mereka sering menyatakan tentang kerisauan terhadap apa yang akan dikatakan oleh ibu mereka (Ineichen, 1986; McQuire, 1981; Sharpe, 1987). Hasil kajian ini mendapati bahawa majoriti remaja yang hamil membuat keputusan untuk memelihara bayi yang bakal dilahirkan dan ada juga yang ingin menyerahkannya kepada ihak lain dan institusi kebajikan. Menurut Graig (1996), remaja hamil biasanya menghadapi masalah tiada persefahaman di rumah atau telah pun mempunyai konflik dengan ibu bapa. Oleh itu, sekiranya mereka berkahwin, mereka tidak mempunyai pilihan melainkan terus tinggal di rumah dalam situasi berdikari semasa dan selepas kehamilan. Plotnick (1993) menyatakan bahawa remaja hamil berhadapan dengan beberapa pilihan iaitu sama ada meneruskan atau menghentikan kehamilan tersebut. Jika kehamilan tersebut diteruskan, mereka perlu memutuskan sama ada untuk membesarkan anak tersebut sendirian atau memberi anak tersebut kepada orang lain sebagai anak angkat. Menurut Faber (1991), keputusan yang dibuat perlu selari dengan nilai-nilai peribadi atau keluarga, pegangan atau kepercayaan terhadap pengguguran dan pemberian anak angkat, serta kesucian hidup dan keluarga. Walau bagaimanapun, kehamilan di usia remaja boleh membawa risiko yang lebih besar iaitu masalah kehamilan, bayi kekurangan berat badan, bayi pra matang dan keperluan kepada penjagaan rapi terhadap bayi yang baru lahir (McMurray, 2003; Skinner & Hickey, 2003). Seterusnya bayi yang dilahirkan oleh ibu-ibu remaja cenderung menunjukkan perkembangan kognitif yang lebih rendah dan pencapaian pendidikan yang rendah; mereka cenderung menunjukkan masalah tingkah laku kanak-kanak dan tingkah laku remaja antisosial; dan berisiko tinggi mengalami kekurangan nutrisi, penderaan, pengabaian dan ditinggalkan (Hillis et al., 2004). Kajian ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa responden memerlukan sokongan daripada pelbagai pihak terutamanya ibu mereka berkaitan dengan penjagaan kandungan berikutan usia mereka yang muda dan kurang atau tiada pendedahan tentang kehamilan dan penjagaan kandugan. Selain penjagaan kandungan, maklumat berkaitan penjagaan pemakanan juga adalah sangat enting. Hal ini kerana, kekurangan nutrisi dan melahirkan anak di usia muda menyebabkan golongan wanita muda mengalami risiko kesihatan yang serius semasa hamil dan kelahiran. Antara risiko yang yang dialami adalah kecederaan sistem peranakan, komplikasi kehamilan seperti anemia, tekanan darah tinggi, ketidakseimbangan cephalopelvic, kematian ibu, kematian semasa dan selepas kelahiran, dan bayi yang kekurangan berat badan (Agarwal & Reddaiah, 2005; World Health Organization, 2003). Berdasarkan hasil kajian, maka adalah dicadangkan agar pihak ibu bapa, keluarga dan staf yang berada di institusi terutamanya dapat memberi sokongan sosial kepada remaja yang hamil dalam menghadapi cabaran yang mereka lalui. Perasaan bersalah, malu, marah dan kecewa yang dihadapi oleh remaja yang hamil dan ibu bapa mereka sedikit sebanyak telah menyebabkan mereka memilih untuk meneruskan kandungan dan ditempatkan di institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan, serta tidak bertindak untuk menggugurkan atau membuang bayi mereka. Mungkin menyedari kesalahan dan kesilapan yang telah dilakukan, maka mereka masih mengharapkan agar keluarga tidak membuang dan terus menyayangi mereka. Walau bagaimanapun, kekurangan maklumat dan pengetahuan tentang kehamilan dan penjagaan kehamilan menyebabkan mereka masih berharap untuk terus bergantung kepada individu lain termasuk ibu bapa, keluarga, teman lelaki dan staf di institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan.

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PENUTUP Remaja yang hamil tanpa nikah mempunyai pelbagai risiko yang mereka hadapi semasa hamil dan selepas melahirkan bayi. Kesukaran yang ditanggung mereka adalah juga berpunca daripada kehamilan pada usia yang muda, tidak matang dan kurang pendedahan tentang kehamilan. Oleh itu, mereka sangat memerlukan sokongan sosial daripada pelbagai pihak terutamanya ibu bapa, keluarga dan staf yang berada di institusi.

RUJUKAN Abiodun, O. M., & Balogun, O. R. (2009). Sexual activity and contraceptive use among young female students of tertiary educational institution in Ilorin, Nigeria. Contraception, 79(2), 146-149. Aderibigbe, S. A., Araoye, M. O., Akande, T. M., Omotosho Ibrahim Musa, Monehin, J. O., & Babatunde, O. A. (2011). Teenage pregnancy and prevalence of abortion among in-school adolescent in North Central, Nigeria. Asian Social Science, 7(1), 122 – 127. Agarwal, N., & Reddaiah, V. P. (2005). Factors affecting birthweight in a suburban community. Health and Population-Perspectives and Issues, 28(4), 189 – 196. Darroch, J., & Singh, S. (1999). Why is teenage pregnancy declining? The roles of abstinence, sexual activity and contraceptive use. New York: Alan Guttmacher Institute. Faber, N. B. (1991). The process of pregnancy resolution among adolescent mothers. Adolescence, 26, 697 – 716. Graig, C. J. (1996). Human development. Prentice Hall Publishers, United States of America. Handy, J. A. (1982). Psychological and social aspects of induced abortion. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21, 29 – 41. Hayward, G. (2011). Teenage pregnancy and it’s health implications. International Journal of Public Health Research, Special Issue, 100-102. Hillis, S. D., Anda, R. F., Dube, S. R., Felitti, V. J., Marchbanks, P. A., & Marks, J. S. (2004). The association between adverse childhood experiences and adolescent pregnancy, long-term psychosocial consequences, and fetal death. Pediatrics, 113(2), 320 – 326. Diakses pada 21 April, 2007, daripada http://web. ebscohost.com.ezproxy.utas.edu.au/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=13&sid=c6bbb18f-aef3-4off-8958def58f9d1649%40sessionmgr107 Hudson, F., & Ineichen, B. (1991). Taking it lying down, sexuality and teenage motherhood. Hong Kong: MacMillan Education Ltd. Ineichen, B. 1986. Contraceptive use and attitudes to motherhood among teenage mothers. Journal of Biosocial Science, 18(4), 387 – 394. Lachance, L. (1997). Teenage pregnancy highlights: an Eric/Caps fact sheet Kid Source. Available at: www. kidsource.com. McMurray, A. (2003). Community health & wellness – A socioecological approach (2nded.). Marrickville: Mosby. McQuire, P. (1981). It won’t happen to me, teenagers talk about pregnancy. New York: Delta. Motjebede, N. J. (2009). The social support network of teenage mothers in Botshabelo. Thesis for the degree of Master of Social Work, University of Stellenbosch. Papamicheal, E., Pillai, R., & Yoong, W. (2009). Children having children: outcome of extreme teenage pregnancies (13-15 years). Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica, 88, 1284 – 1287. Plotnick, K. R. D. (1993). The effect of social policies on teenage and child bearing.Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 74(6), 324 – 328. Quinlivan, J. A., Tan, L. H., Steele, A., & Black, K. (2004). Impact of demographic factors, early family relationships and depressive symptomatology in teenage pregnancy. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 38, 305 – 310. Diakses pada 12 Mac, 2007, daripada http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/ doi/abs/10.1111/j.1440-1614.2004.01336.x?cookieSet=1&journalCode=anp Rodriquez, C., & Moore, N. (1996). Perceptions of pregnant /parenting teens:reframing issues for an integrated approach to pregnancy problems. Adolescence, 30(119), 685-706. Sharpe, S. (1987). Falling in love. London: Vigaro. Singh, S., & Darroch, J. (1999). Trends in sexual activity among adolescent American women:1982-1995. Family planning perspectives. 31(5), 212-219. Skinner, S. R., & Hickey, M. (2003). Current priorities for adolescent sexual and reproductive health in Australia. The Medical Journal of Australia, 179, 158-161. Diakses pada 21 April, 2007, daripada http://www.mja. com.au.ezproxy.utas.edu.au/public/issues/179_03_040803/contents_040803.html. Social Support Network Questionnaire (SSNQ). Symptom Checklist-90-R. 1990 UNICEF Malaysia Communications. (2008). Young people and family planning: teenage pregnancy. www. unicef.org/malaysia/Teenage_Pregnancies_-_Overview.pdf. Diakses pada 28 Mei 2012. Utusan Malaysia, (2013), 13 Ogos. Kes remaja hamil luar nikah serius. Diakses di http://www.utusan.com.my/ © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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utusan/Dalam_Negeri/20130813/dn_12/Kes-remaja-hamil-luar-nikah-serius pada 20 Ogos 2013. World Health Organization (WHO). (2003). Towards adulthood: exploring the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents in South Asia. Geneva: World Health Organization, 244. World Health Organisation (WHO) Report. (2008).

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PENGETAHUAN DAN KEMAHIRAN PEKERJA SOSIAL KLINIKAL DALAM SETING KESIHATAN MENTAL DI MALAYSIA Fatimah Zailly Ahmad Ramli*, Yusmarhaini Yusof & Norfarahin Mohd Noor *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstrak Profesion pekerja sosial adalah bidang yang memerlukan pengetahuan dan kemahiran untuk membuat dokumentasi, penilaian terhadap masalah utama klien, memperkasakan serta menyelesaikan masalah klien berpandukan kaedah dan teori bersesuaian. Peningkatan ilmu serta kemahiran dalam membuat penilaian psikososial di kalangan pekerja sosial klinikal yang terbabit dalam seting kesihatan mental adalah penting bagi menangani masalah sosial yang dihadapi klien. Kajian kualitatif dengan kaedah temubual bersemuka bersama responden yang mempunyai pengalaman kerja dalam bidang kesihatan mental telah dilakukan. Responden terdiri daripada individu yang bekhidmat di Unit Kerja Sosial Perubatan dan institusi kesihatan mental. Soalan separa berstruktur dikemukakan untuk mengenalpasti pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang diperlukan oleh seorang pekerja sosial klinikal dalam seting kesihatan mental. Hasil temubual dianalisis menggunakan kaedah analisis bertema berdasarkan objektif kajian serta dilakukan dengan cara kod berwarna mengikut tema yang telah dikenalpasti. Dapatan kajian membincangkan aspek pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang diperlukan oleh seorang pekerja sosial dalam bidang kesihatan mental terbahagi kepada empat komponen iaitu (i) pengetahuan untuk melaksanakan penilaian; (ii) pengetahuan mengenai penyakit mental dan penguasaan pelbagai teori berkaitan; (iii) pengetahuan minimum kelayakan dan (iv) kemahiran tambahan sebagai pekerja sosial kesihatan mental. Keywords: pekerja sosial, kesihatan mental, kajian kualitatif

PENGENALAN Seseorang pekerja sosial itu hendaklah mempunyai pengetahuan dan kemahiran untuk membuat dokumentasi, penilaian terhadap masalah utama klien serta mampu untuk membantu memperkasakan dan menyelesaikan masalah klien dengan menggunakan kaedah dan teori tertentu dalam bidang kerja sosial sesuai dengan situasi masalah klien (Maguire, 2002). Dokumentasi melibatkan proses perekodan perancangan rawatan klien secara terperinci dan jelas merangkumi masalah klien, matlamat, objektif serta perancangan intervensi. Maguire (2002) menjelaskan terdapat empat bentuk penilaian yang boleh dilakukan oleh pekerja sosial klinikal terhadap kliennya iaitu (i) penilaian sistem; (ii) penilaian psikodinamik; (iii) penilaian tingkah laku dan (iv) penilaian kognitif. Pengetahuan mengenai kaedah membuat ekomap, genogram atau gambar rajah jaringan sosial selalunya diperlukan untuk melakukan penilaian sistem. Penilaian psikodinamik pula perlu melihat kepada sejarah kehidupan klien dari kecil secara terperinci dan memerlukan pengetahuan mengenai pembentukan personaliti seseorang berdasarkan teori-teori yang terdapat dalam kerja sosial. Selain itu, penilaian ini juga mengkehendaki seseorang pekerja sosial klinikal itu

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

mempunyai pengetahuan dan kemahiran untuk menggunakan pengukuran projektif yang dapat mengukur atau menyelami keadaan bawah sedar sedar klien seperti Rorschach. Seseorang pekerja sosial klinikal itu juga mestilah mempunyai pengetahuan untuk membina jadual atau carta yang dapat melihat pola, magnitud atau tempoh sesuatu tingkah laku yang ditunjukkan oleh klien. Hal ini dapat membantu pekerja sosial klinikal untuk melihat corak tingkah laku yang ditonjolkan oleh klien dalam tempoh masa yang tertentu. Penilaian kognitif pula memerlukan seseorang pekerja sosial klinikal itu mempunyai pengetahuan mengenai pembinaan gambar rajah atau merekod hubungan antara kognitif, emosi dan tingkah laku klien. Hal ini jelaslah menunjukkan bahawa adalah penting bagi seseorang pekerja sosial dalam seting kesihatan mental untuk membuat dokumentasi sesi intervensi yang dilaksanakan serta memahami pelbagai teori dan pendekatan yang boleh digunakan dalam menilai masalah sebenar klien supaya rawatan pemulihan yang diberikan adalah lebih efektif. Ilmu pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang diperlukan oleh pekerja sosial klinikal itu turut dibincangkan oleh Australian Association of Social Workers (AASW) dalam dokumen mengenai piawaian amalan pekerja sosial kesihatan mental (MHSW) di Australia yang telah dihasilkan oleh persatuan itu (Australian Association of Social Workers, 2008). Ianya disentuh pada seksyen satu dokumen tersebut di bawah subtopik “Underpinning Knowledge, Values and Skills” Antara ilmu asas atau pengetahuan yang diperlukan oleh MHSW itu ialah konsep dan teori mengenai individu dalam masyarakat, pengetahuan tentang komuniti tersebut, kaedah penyelidikan kerja sosial serta pengetahuan mengenai kesihatan mental dan sakit mental. Hal ini bermakna, seseorang pekerja sosial kesihatan mental perlulah mempunyai pengetahuan dan kefahaman tentang aspekaspek tersebut dari segi konsep dan teorinya.

METODOLOGI Kajian ini merupakan kajian berbentuk kualitatif dengan menggunakan kaedah temubual individu. Temubual separa struktur telah dijalankan secara bersemuka. Kaedah ini dipilih dengan tujuan untuk memperoleh data yang berciri seperti berikut: a. memberi makna dan penting kepada responden kajian, b. memperolehi data yang tidak dijangka atau diandai oleh penyelidik, c. mendapatkan data yang mendalam serta dapat menjelaskan sesuatu isu yang dikaji (Mack, Woodsong, MackQueen, Guest dan Namey, 2005). Kaedah temubual separa strukur ini membolehkan responden memberikan pendapat mereka secara bebas dan dalam masa yang sama, penyelidik dapat memperolehi maklumat yang luas berdasarkan penceritaan responden. Hal ini kerana, temubual separa struktur adalah bersifat fleksibel (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Sharan, 1998).

Responden kajian Pemilihan responden adalah berdasarkan persampelan bertujuan. Empat orang responden tersebut adalah individu yang bekerja dalam seting kesihatan mental iaitu di hospital kerajaan, institusi penjagaan kesihatan mental (Hospital Bahagia) dan pusat khidmat komuniti bagi pesakit luar untuk kes kesihatan mental. Kesemua responden ini bersetuju untuk bekerjasama dalam temubual yang dijalankan. Walau bagaimanapun, seorang daripada responden tidak mengizinkan penyelidik untuk merakam temubual yang dijalankan atas faktor tertentu tetapi membenarkan penyelidik untuk menulis isi-isi penting temubual yang dijalankan. Kesemua responden ini dipilih kerana ingin melihat kefahaman dan pandangan mereka mengenai keperluan terhadap pekerja sosial klinikal dalam bidang kesihatan mental. Oleh kerana kajian ini bersifat kualitatif dan berskala kecil, dapatan kajian ini tidak boleh digeneralisasikan tetapi boleh menjadi panduan untuk kepentingan pekerja sosial klinikal dalam seting kesihatan mental di Malaysia.

Analisis data Tema dalam analisis ini dibentuk berdasarkan objektif kajian. Analisis terhadap setiap tema yang digariskan ini dilakukan dengan cara kod berwarna mengikut tema yang telah dikenalpasti. Warna yang digunakan adalah berbeza untuk setiap tema. Selain itu, kod berwarna ini juga digunakan untuk melihat persamaan dan perbezaan pendapat atau pandangan yang dikemukakan oleh semua responden dalam setiap tema. Dengan cara ini, maklumat yang dikemukakan oleh responden dapat dilihat dengan lebih jelas. Nama samaran diberikan kepada semua respoden yang terlibat di dalam kajian ini. Tema yang telah dikenalpasti untuk pengetahuan dan kemahiran pekerja sosial klinikal dalam kajian ini ialah: © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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a. b. c. d.

pengetahuan untuk melaksanakan penilaian; pengetahuan mengenai penyakit mental dan penguasaan pelbagai teori berkaitan; pengetahuan minimum kelayakan; kemahiran tambahan sebagai pekerja sosial kesihatan mental.

DAPATAN KAJIAN Demografi Responden Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa responden berusia dalam lingkungan 32 hingga 53 tahun. Responden terdiri daripada dua orang perempuan dan dua orang lelaki. Daripada segi status perkahwinan, dua orang daripada responden sudah berkahwin dan dua orang lagi masih bujang. Selain itu, dua orang responden mempunyai latar belakang pendidikan dalam bidang perubatan yang khusus kepada kesihatan mental. Manakala dua orang responden lagi mempunyai latar belakang pendidikan dalam bidang kerja sosial dan sains kemanusiaan. Di samping itu, seorang responden merupakan seorang jururawat terlatih dan dua orang responden lagi merupakan Pegawai Kerja Sosial Perubatan (PKSP). Seorang responden merupakan seorang doktor psikiatri. Kesemua responden mempunyai pengalaman kerja di bawah 20 tahun. Jadual 1 - Demografi responden

Responden

Umur

Jantina

Status

Tahap Pendidikan

Jawatan

Pengalaman Kerja

Nurul (R1)

45

Perempuan

Berkahwin

Diploma Kejururawatan (Post-Basic Psychiatry)

Jururawat Terlatih (U29)

14 tahun

Karim (R2)

36

Lelaki

Bujang

Ijazah Sarjana Muda Sains Kemanusiaan

Pegawai Kerja Sosial Perubatan (S44)

11 tahun 2 bulan

Husna (R3)

32

Perempuan

Bujang

Ijazah Sarjana Muda Pengurusan Kerja Sosial

Pegawai Kerja Sosial Perubatan (S44)

6 tahun 3 bulan

Ramli (R4)

53

Lelaki

Berkahwin

Ijazah Sarjana Perubatan (Psikiatri)

Ketua Jabatan dan Pakar Perundingan Kanan (Gred Khas B)

17 tahun

Dapatan kajian membincangkan aspek pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang diperlukan oleh seorang pekerja sosial dalam bidang kesihatan mental. Ia terbahagi kepada empat komponen iaitu (i) pengetahuan untuk melaksanakan penilaian; (ii) Pengetahuan mengenai penyakit mental dan penguasaan pelbagai teori berkaitan; (iii) pengetahuan minimum kelayakan dan (iv) kemahiran tambahan sebagai pekerja sosial kesihatan mental.

Pengetahuan untuk melaksanakan penilaian Semua responden membincangkan mengenai keperluan seseorang pekerja sosial klinikal untuk mengetahui kaedah melaksanakan penilaian yang sistematik. Hal ini kerana penilaian merupakan cabang tugas yang penting untuk dilaksanakan oleh seorang pekerja sosial. Responden pertama, Nurul menyatakan bahawa seseorang pekerja sosial itu perlulah mempunyai pengetahuan untuk membuat penilaian terhadap pesakit. Hal ini kerana, penilaian ini akan banyak membantu dalam proses rawatan pesakit semasa dan selepas sakit. Contohnya pekerja sosial membuat penilaian terhadap kekuatan yang dimiliki oleh pesakit untuk menangani masalah kesihatan mental yang dihidapinya. Nurul menyatakan: “Kena belajar macam mana nak nilai kekuatan yang ada dalam diri setiap pesakit. Benda ni semua penting sebab setiap orang ada kekuatan masing-masing. Jadi dengan kekuatan ni kita boleh gunakan untuk bantu pesakit ni bergaul dengan orang lain.” Manakala responden kedua, ketiga dan keempat pula menekankan bahawa pekerja sosial dalam seting psikiatri ini perlu mempunyai pengetahuan untuk membuat penilaian psikososial pesakit. Ketiga-tiga mereka © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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menyatakan pekerja sosial itu perlu memahami konsep biopsikososial untuk membuat penilaian terhadap pesakit. Hal ini kerana, kefahaman tersebut akan dapat membantu pekerja sosial untuk lebih memahami aspek apa yang perlu dinilai dan diberi perhatian. Hal ini boleh dilihat melalui pernyataan responden kedua, Karim iaitu: “Kemahiran penilaian contohnya menilai ‘support family’. Apa dia bila kita cakap support family ni. Awak tau ke apa yang kita nak ukur apabila kita pergi ke rumah pesakit? Doktor cakap pergi nilai ‘family support’, apa benda yang awak nak nilai tu? Itu kena belajar. Nilai tu tak bermakna tengok sikit je. Orang tu senyum, orang tu baik, orang tu masam, orang tu jahat... Jadi sebab itu kita kena belajar ‘structured’ macam mana nak menilai ‘support’. Justeru, penilaian merupakan satu elemen yang penting untuk difahami oleh semua pekerja sosial terutamanya dalam seting kesihatan mental. Karim juga menjelaskan bahawa: “Jadi penting penilaian ni sebab penilaian ni bagi saya, inilah kemahiran kita (pekerja sosial). Inilah kemahiran (yang perlu ada) tak ada benda lain.” Pengetahuan mengenai penyakit mental dan penguasaan pelbagai teori berkaitan Kesemua responden menyebut tentang perlunya pengetahuan dari segi memahami simptom-simptom dan jenis penyakit mental. Nurul menyatakan pengetahuan dalam perkara ini akan dapat membantu seseorang pekerja sosial itu untuk menangani klien. Hal ini kerana, setiap simptom yang dialami oleh pesakit mental itu adalah tidak sama sepenuhnya walaupun menghidapi penyakit yang sama. Menurut Nurul: “...Pekerja sosial tu dia kena tau juga tentang penyakit-penyakit mental macam simptom dia, apa cara nak ‘tackle’ pesakit yang macam ini sebab penyakit-penyakit ni semua tak sama. Penyakit ni macam ni. Penyakit tu macam lain pula.” Jadi amat penting untuk seseorang pekerja sosial itu mempunyai kefahaman dalam perkara ini. Responden kedua pula menambah bahawa pengetahuan mengenai penyakit mental juga merangkumi kaedah merawat pesakit, ubat-ubatan yang digunakan, faktor penyebab penyakit itu berlaku dan faktor berlakunya pengulangan penyakit. Husna dan Karim pula menekankan pekerja sosial itu perlu mempunyai pengetahuan dalam Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV (DSM IV). Husna menegaskan: “...you should know the diagnosis la kan. DSM IV [sewaktu kajian dijalankan DSM 5 belum dicetak] tu kena khatam la kan. OK diagnosis tu important!” Pengetahuan ini akan dapat membantu pekerja sosial untuk berurusan dengan pesakit mental dengan lebih cekap dan dalam masa yang sama sentiasa mengamalkan sikap berhati-hati serta mengetahui limitasi intervensi psikososial yang akan dilakukan. Ini disebabkan oleh tingkah laku dan tindakan pesakit mental yang tidak dapat diduga. Selain daripada pengetahuan tentang penyakit mental, pekerja sosial juga perlu untuk mendalami serta menguasai pelbagai teori. Menurut Karim dan Husna, penguasaan teori-teori berkaitan adalah perlu kerana pekerja sosial itu akan menggunakan pelbagai pendekatan dalam proses merawat pesakit. Pelbagai teori akan diaplikasikan sepanjang proses perawatan berlangsung. Karim menjelaskan: “... contohnya saya kata the ‘hierarki of needs’ (Teori Maslow) tadi tu.... Biasalah benda tu semua orang boleh fikir. Nombor satu makanan... tempat tinggal, keselamatan kan tapi ‘framework’ begitu kita perlu sebab senang kita nak bagi prioriti (pada tugasan yang akan dilaksanakan)...”

Pengetahuan minimum kelayakan (pendidikan dan latihan) Pendidikan Tiga orang responden iaitu Karim, Husna dan Ramli menyentuh isu berkaitan kelayakan yang diperlukan daripada aspek pendidikan. Karim dan Ramli menyatakan bahawa untuk menjadi seorang pekerja sosial klinikal dalam seting kesihatan mental, seseorang itu mestilah mempunyai sekurang-kurangnya Ijazah Sarjana Muda dalam bidang kerja sosial. Hal ini kerana pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang dipelajari pada peringkat pendidikan ini merupakan asas kepada profesion kerja sosial: Penyelidik: ... dekat UUM kita orang belajar tak ada pengkhususan atau major dalam bahagian mana-mana. Kita orang belajar secara... Responden 4: General? Penyelidik: Ya secara general je.... paper untuk kesihatan mental hanya diajar dalam satu semester sahaja jadi pada pendapat doktor

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Responden 4: But at least, I trust and I think a medical social worker profession ok (mencukupi), saya rasa that is the minimum

qualification... sebagai satu bidang profesional kita perlukan you (social worker), mungkin akan ada need (pada masa akan datang)... need to be trained dan sebagainya untuk memantapkan, cuma apa yang you (social worker) belajar dekat “U” tu cuma di peringkat asas saja.” Aspek pengkhususan pula dinyatakan oleh Husna yang menyatakan setiap disiplin dalam kerja sosial itu perlu ada pengkhususannya sendiri bermula di peringkat pembelajaran di universiti lagi. “... bila kita belajar dalam universiti kita tidak ada ‘majoring’, kita belajar secara menyeluruh ‘and majoring is important’ la sebab ‘social work’ ni kalau kita tengok, kita keterbelakang. Memang kita ada banyak universiti yang ada menawarkan bidang kerja sosial di dalam Malaysia tetapi tidak ada pengkhususan. So, bila tidak ada pengkhususan, tidak ada majoring so, bila kita bekerja dengan ‘different type of people like’ penagih dadah, kanak-kanak, remaja dia memerlukan beberapa ‘methods’ yang tertentu. So, you kena ‘majoring’ dalam bidang itu dalam bentuk lama baru you boleh ‘transfer’ pergi ke komuniti.” Husna turut menyatakan bahawa pengkhususan ini adalah sangat penting bagi memartabatkan profesion kerja sosial itu sendiri: “... kalau untuk memartabatkan pekerja sosial ni, di mana-mana kita perlu ada ‘majoring’ dan pengkhususan even Thailand pun ada ‘majoring’... Singapore lagi lah tak yah cakap lah Singapore kan ada majoring, kita tak ada majoring. Kita belajar kat mana la UUM, USM, “U” mana lagi, ada majoring tak, tak ada. You belajar semua, you tak ada majoring. So, tak ada majoring apa gunanya.” Selain daripada aspek pendidikan khusus dalam bidang kerja sosial, pekerja sosial klinikal dalam seting kesihatan mental juga perlu menerima latihan pemantapan bagi meningkatkan mutu kerja mereka. Latihan pemantapan dibincangkan seperti di bawah.

Latihan Semua responden menyentuh berkenaan latihan. Latihan dilihat sebagi satu perkara penting yang perlu diterima oleh semua pekerja sosial. Hal ini kerana, pengetahuan dan kemahiran seseorang pekerja sosial itu perlu sentiasa diperbaharui. Nurul menyatakan bahawa sesuatu latihan itu akan memantapkan pengetahuan dan kemahiran pekerja sosial terutamanya dari segi untuk menangani pesakit. Karim pula menyatakan, pekerja sosial dalam seting kesihatan mental perlu menghadiri kursus penilaian pesakit mental. Hal ini penting kerana pengetahuan dan kemahiran mengenai kaedah penilaian sentiasa berubah dan berbeza antara pekerja sosial perubatan. Manakala, Husna menyatakan pekerja sosial perlu menerima latihan di luar negara seperti Singapura dan Australia. Dengan cara ini, pekerja sosial dalam bidang kesihatan mental di Malaysia akan dapat pendedahan dan pengetahuan khusus mengenai seting kesihatan mental. “... pekerja sosial ini juga perlu dihantar ‘training’ ke luar negara juga lah sebab selama ni seting kita berbeza dengan luar negara.... pekerja sosial ni dihantar pergi ke negara-negara yang membangun macam Singapore dan Australia, perlu diberi pendedahan itu lah...” Walau bagaimanapun, responden keempat, Ramli menyatakan bahawa pekerja sosial turut menerima latihan pemantapan semasa bekerja. Hal ini berlaku semasa melaksanakan tugas seperti ward round bersama multidisiplin paramedik yang lain, temubual bersama pesakit dan sebagainya. “I think through clinical interaction. I believe that medical social worker won’t be doing their punya own job sorang-sorang. Dia mesti to be in multidicipline team and from there you will learn with each other... melalui kita punya ward round, perbincangan dari jabatan dan sebagainya. OK dengan cara itu skill akan bertambah lagi lah.” Kemahiran tambahan sebagai pekerja sosial kesihatan mental (kemahiran komunikasi, kemahiran kaunseling dan kemahiran mencari sumber)

Kemahiran komunikasi Dapatan kajian mendapati kemahiran komunikasi telah dibincangkan oleh semua responden. Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa kemahiran komunikasi ini perlu diberi penekanan oleh pekerja sosial dalam seting kesihatan mental. Nurul menjelaskan kemahiran komunikasi adalah penting kerana isu kesihatan mental ini melibatkan pelbagai kelas masyarakat dan cara mereka berinteraksi adalah berbeza berdasarkan status dan geografi. Oleh itu, seorang pekerja sosial itu perlu menguasai cara komunikasi berkesan dengan pesakit dan juga setiap lapisan masyarakat. Karim pula menyatakan pekerja sosial hendaklah mempunyai kemahiran komunikasi yang sangat baik dengan pesakit dan persekitaran sosialnya dari segi lisan dan bukan lisan. Kemahiran ini boleh diperoleh apabila ianya sentiasa diasah melalui latihan semasa kerja. “Macam mana kita nak berkomunikasi dengan pesakit, macam mana kita nak bercakap dengan dia, macam mana kaedah kita nak memahami ‘body language’ pesakit-pesakit mental ni pun penting sebab kita nak faham orang sebelum kita tolong.” Husna pula berpendapat bahawa kemahiran berkomunikasi ini adalah penting untuk memberikan bantuan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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kepada pesakit mental. Hal ini dapat dilihat dari aspek pembentukan dan pengekalan jaringan sosial dengan agensi lain dan badan bukan kerajaan (NGOs) yang dapat memberi khidmat bantuan kepada pesakit mental. Manakala Ramli pula menyatakan seseorang pekerja sosial itu perlu mempunyai kemahiran komunikasi yang bagus bagi memastikan aktiviti-aktiviti pemulihan yang dijalankan akan memberi impak yang lebih positif kepada pesakit: “Kemahiran tu pekerja sosial must have a very good communication skill, ok macam intervensi psikososia, providing penyiasatan sosial tentang pesakit di rumah, maklumat dari keluarga dan sebagainya. Pekerja sosial should have that skill ok!” Selain daripada kemahiran komunikasi, dapatan kajian menunjukkan kemahiran kaunseling juga perlu dimiliki oleh pekerja sosial dalam bidang kesihatan mental seperti yang dibincangkan di bawah.

Kemahiran kaunseling Kemahiran kaunseling telah dinyatakan oleh dua orang responden iaitu Karim dan Husna. Kedua-dua responden bersetuju bahawa kemahiran kaunseling ini penting untuk dikuasai oleh seorang pekerja sosial klinikal di unit psikiatri. Karim menyatakan kemahiran kaunseling banyak membantu pekerja sosial untuk berkomunikasi dengan pesakit secara lebih berstruktur terutamanya ketika proses mendapatkan maklumat. Kemahiran ini memerlukan banyak latihan kerana ianya akan berkembang menjadi lebih baik melalui pengalaman yang ditimba. Karim menyatakan: “... mungkin kita tak buat macam kaunseling buat bersesi-sesi, tapi benda tu akan tolong kita macam mana kita nak bercakap dengan pesakit, cara kita nak faham dia, dia bantu kita banyak. Menurut Husna, seorang pekerja sosial itu perlu mempunyai pengetahuan dan kemahiran kaunseling. Hal ini kerana kaunseling merupakan salah satu daripada elemen kemahiran yang digunakan oleh seorang pekerja sosial dalam proses merawat pesakit. Oleh itu, kemahiran kaunseling perlu dikuasai oleh seorang pekerja sosial supaya proses pemulihan pesakit dapat dijalankan dengan lebih lancar.

Kemahiran mencari sumber Kemahiran mencari sumber dibincangkan oleh responden kedua dan ketiga. Menurut Karim, pekerja sosial perlu untuk mempunyai kemahiran mencari sumber bantuan berdasarkan jaringan sosial yang dibentuk bersama agensi lain. Hal ini termasuklah dari aspek bantuan kewangan, peralatan, barangan dan perkhidmatan. Responden ketiga, Husna berpendapat, seorang pekerja sosial itu perlu mempunyai kemahiran mencari dan menggunakan sumber-sumber bantuan yang ada untuk membantu klien. Oleh itu, pekerja sosial perlulah sentiasa peka dan sedia bekerja dengan badan bukan kerajaan (NGOs) yang menyediakan bantuan kepada pesakit mental. Jadi, jaringan sosial pekerja sosial itu perlu luas dan hubungan itu hendaklah sentiasa dijaga dengan baik. Rapport yang bagus akan dapat membantu membina hubungan jaringan dengan lebih baik. Pekerja sosial juga perlu pandai untuk menggunakan segala sumber yang ada di sekelilingnya untuk membantu pesakit. “... pekerja sosial kena pandai mencari sumber-sumber bantuan. Bantuan tak semestinya daripada kerajaan.... Kita kena guna all the sumber yang kita ada di persekitaran pesakit untuk membantu pesakit. Pekerja sosial kena aware lah tentang itu.”

PERBINCANGAN, IMPLIKASI DAN CADANGAN Berdasarkan dapatan kajian, didapati untuk menjadi seorang pekerja sosial dalam bidang kesihatan mental, seseorang itu perlu mempunyai pengetahuan dan kemahiran khusus. Antaranya ialah pengetahuan untuk membuat penilaian. Hal ini adalah penting bagi mendapatkan penilaian yang tepat dan telus. Kemungkinan tanpa pengetahuan ini sesuatu maklumat penilaian itu menjadi tidak lengkap memandangkan pesakit tidak mampu berfikir secara rasional sepanjang masa. Jadi, pekerja sosial juga perlulah mempunyai pengetahuan mengenai penyakit mental dan teori-teori berkaitan. Hal ini kerana, pengetahuan-pengetahuan ini akan membantu pekerja sosial untuk lebih faham keadaan pesakit. Justeru, ada kemungkinan dengan cara ini pekerja sosial dapat menilai dan menyaring maklumat yang diperolehi dengan lebih berkesan. Dapatan kajian ini menyokong kenyataan Davies, Finlay dan Bullman (2000) yang menyatakan bahawa tanpa teori dan falsafah, pekerja sosial akan menghadapi kesukaran untuk menyelesaikan kompleksiti yang dihadapi dalam tugas mereka kerana ianya adalah asas kepada bidang kerja sosial. Selain itu, dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa pekerja sosial dalam bidang kesihatan mental perlu mempunyai kemahiran mencari sumber. Hal ini memerlukan seseorang itu untuk mempunyai jaringan sosial yang luas. Jadi, dalam hal ini pekerja sosial itu juga perlu mempunyai kemahiran komunikasi yang baik supaya mudah untuk membentuk jaringan sosial. Kemahiran komunikasi yang kurang kukuh mungkin akan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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menyukarkan proses untuk membina dan mengekalkan hubungan jaringan sosial yang baik. Kemahiran ini perlu diberi perhatian kerana selain digunakan untuk mencari sumber bantuan, ianya juga digunakan sewaktu membuat intervensi, berinteraksi dengan komuniti dan banyak lagi. Koprowska (2007) menyokong dapatan kajian ini. Menurut beliau, kemahiran komunikasi merupakan kemahiran utama dalam bidang kerja sosial memandangkan pekerja sosial perlu berinteraksi dengan pelbagai lapisan masyarakat yang berbeza cara interaksinya. Drench, Noonan, Sharby dan Venture (2012) menyatakan bahawa kemahiran kaunseling merupakan salah satu komponen yang perlu ada ketika membuat penilaian. Kemahiran kaunseling yang baik akan membantu pekerja sosial menghasilkan penilaian yang lebih efisien. Hal ini adalah sama dengan dapatan kajian yang diperoleh penyelidik yang menjelaskan bahawa kemahiran kaunseling yang baik diperlukan oleh seorang pekerja sosial dalam bidang kesihatan mental. Kemahiran kaunseling akan membantu kelancaran sesi intervensi dan terapi yang dilaksanakan. Pekerja sosial perlu menjalani latihan pemantapan bagi memantapkan lagi pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang dimiliki. Pekerja sosial dalam bidang kesihatan mental di Malaysia perlu dibekalkan dengan latihan daripada pekerja sosial dalam seting ini di luar negara. Hal ini berkemungkinan disebabkan oleh kerja sosial dalam bidang kesihatan mental masih “baru” di Malaysia. Latihan perlu dilakukan untuk memberi pendedahan dan meningkatkan moral kerja pekerja sosial. Malah, dapatan kajian juga menyatakan bahawa seseorang pekerja sosial klinikal dalam seting psikiatri perlulah mempunyai sekurang-kurangnya Ijazah Sarjana Muda dalam bidang kerja sosial. Hal ini kerana, ilmu yang dipelajari pada peringkat ini akan menjadi asas penting kepada tugas yang akan dilaksanakan. Dapatan kajian ini juga selari dengan kajian Dulmus dan Sowers (2012) yang menjelaskan profesion kerja sosial memerlukan pekerja sosial yang terlatih melalui latihan dan pengajian yang diterima di peringkat sarjana muda mahupun sarjana bagi melahirkan pekerja sosial yang berkualiti tinggi. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa terdapat responden yang menyatakan sistem pembelajaran kerja sosial di peringkat universiti (Ijazah Sarjana Muda) perlu mempunyai pengkhususan bidang tertentu. Walau bagaimanapun, Watkins dan Holmes (2012) dalam Dulmus dan Sowers (2012) juga menyatakan bahawa berdasarkan Council nn Social Work Education (CSWE), pengkhususan dan kepakaran dalam sesuatu bidang hanya diterima pada peringkat Ijazah Sarjana dan Doktor Falsafah. Pembelajaran yang diterima pada peringkat Ijazah Sarjana Muda adalah pengetahuan asas atau generik mengenai bidang kerja sosial secara keseluruhannya sahaja (Watkins dan Holmes, 2012 dalam Dulmus dan Sowers, 2012). Melalui penyelidikan ini, penyelidik mendapati ada keperluan untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan dan kemahiran terhadap pekerja sosial yang fokus di dalam bidang kesihatan mental di Malaysia. Justeru, diharap dapatan kajian ini dapat memberi maklumat dan kesedaran kepada pihak berkaitan untuk pertimbangan mewujudkan jawatan pekerja sosial perubatan yang khusus dalam bidang kesihatan mental memandangkan kehadirannya berpotensi membawa perubahan positif kepada bidang kesihatan mental di Malaysia. Cadangan lain juga adalah memfokuskan agar pekerja sosial klinikal di seting kesihatan mental supaya meningkatkan latihan dan penyeliaan kepada pekerja sosial sedia ada dalam bidang kesihatan mental supaya dapat memantapkan pengetahuan dan kemahiran berkenaan bidang tugas mereka setanding dengan pekerja sosial di negara luar dan sekaligus mendapat kepercayaan penuh oleh klien dan ahli keluarga klien.

KESIMPULAN Melalui temubual yang dijalankan, penyelidik mendapati bahawa pekerja sosial memainkan peranan yang besar untuk membantu klien iaitu dari sekecil-kecil sehingga ke sebesar-besar bantuan. Selain itu, penyelidikan ini juga dapat memberi kesedaran kepada penyelidik tentang etika selaku seorang pekerja sosial. Pekerja sosial bukan sahaja perlu berminat dan cenderung untuk melakukan tugas tetapi perlu berdepan dengan pelbagai isu yang dijangka mahupun tidak dijangka. Secara umumnya, objektif kajian ini dapat dicapai iaitu mengenal pasti pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang diperlukan untuk menjadi seorang pekerja sosial klinikal di seting kesihatan mental. Melalui kajian ini, penyelidik mendapati perlunya pengetahuan dan kemahiran dipertingkatkan terhadap pekerja sosial yang fokus di dalam bidang kesihatan mental di Malaysia. Justeru, diharap dapatan kajian ini dapat memberi maklumat dan kesedaran kepada pihak berkaitan untuk mempertimbangkan untuk mewujudkan jawatan pekerja sosial perubatan yang khusus dalam bidang kesihatan mental memandangkan kehadirannya berpotensi membawa perubahan positif kepada bidang kesihatan mental di Malaysia.

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RUJUKAN Australian Association of Social Workers. (2008). AASW practice standards for mental health social worker. Kertas yang dibentangkan pada Mesyuarat Lembaga Persatuan Pekerja Sosial Australia. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77101. Davies, C., Finlay, L., & Bullman, A. (Ed.) (2000), Changing practice in health and social care, 62-72. London: SAGE Publications. Drench, M. E., Noonan, A. C., Sharby, N., & Ventura, S. H. (2012). Psychosocial aspects of health care (3rd ed.). USA: Pearson. Dulmus, C. N., & Sowers, K. M. (Ed.) (2012), The profession of social work: Guided by history, led by evidence, 35-50. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Koprowska, J. (2007). Communication skills in social work. Dalam Lymbery, M., & Postle, K. (Ed.), Social work: A companion to learning, 123-133. London: SAGE Publications. Mack, N., Woodong, E., MackQueen, K. M., Guest, G., & Namey, E. (2005). Qualitative research methods: A data collectors field guide, family health international, research triangle park. NC: FHI. Maguire, L. (2002). Clinical social work: Beyond generalist practice with individuals, groups and families. USA: Brookes/Cole Thompson Learning. Sharan, B. M (1998). Qualitative research and case study apllications in education (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Watkins, J. M., & Holmes, J. (2012). Educating for social work. Dalam Dulmus, C. N., & Sowers, K. M. (Ed.), The profession of social work: Guided by history, led by evidence, 35-50. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

SOFT SKILLS CHARACTERISTICS FOR SOCIAL WORKERS TOWARDS SOCIAL WELL-BEING OF SOCIETY Fuziah Shaffie*, Ruzlan Md. Ali & Fahainis Mohd. Yusof [email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Social workers play an important role in maintaining and promoting social well-being of society. Social workers must be competence with their helping skills and also need to be guided to acquire relevant soft skills. Hence, social workers need to have soft skills in order to become competent professionally and socially. This paper discusses conceptualizations of the soft skills within the current perspective, based on an exploratory study recently carried out. A social work expert was asked to describe the experiences of, and viewpoints on, soft skills as part of the professional socialization of social workers to become professionally and socially competent. It is important to raise awareness of soft skills competencies among Malaysian social workers to help them in assessing themselves, and identify where and how they could actively seek to improve themselves as social workers within the context of their workplaces. Embedding the soft skills competencies into their career as social workers is assumed as one of the effective and efficient method of achieving both professional and social competence. The propose soft skills, perhaps, provide early ideas and initiatives which can serve as guideline when facilitating and guiding future qualified social workers in Malaysia. Keywords: soft skills, social competence, social workers, social work education

INTRODUCTION Acquisition of soft skills competencies is an essential aspect in Malaysian higher learning institution. Unemployment phenomenon that occurs today shows us that there are graduates who are lacking in these soft skills themselves despite obtaining excellent results in the examinations. Many employers have problems in the recruitment of graduates to work. The graduates are said not to perform tasks according to job specifications. This issue arises because the graduates are lacking in additional skills they are supposed to have before they are employed. Their failure to acquire soft skills during the time of their studies in higher education could result in the unemployment problem. Thus, higher learning institution is the most suitable venue for polishing soft skills among students as well as producing Malaysian social workers. It is inevitable that social workers must be competence with their helping skills and also need to be guided to acquire relevant soft skills.

SOFT SKILLS COMPETENCIES The terminology used to refer to soft skills differs in various countries. The range of terms includes: ‘key competencies’, ‘soft skills’, or ‘employability skills’ (Australia); ‘key skills’ or ‘core skills’ (United Kingdom); ‘essential skills’ (New Zealand); and ‘necessary skills’, ‘employability skills’ or ‘workplace know-how’ (United States). Soft Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

skills are defined as intra- and inter-personal (socio-emotional) skills, essential for personal development, social participation and workplace success. They include skills such as communication, ability to work on multidisciplinary teams, adaptability, etc. These skills should be distinguished from technical, or ‘hard skills’ in order to emphasize the fact that they can be learned or developed by suitable training efforts, and they can also be combined, towards the achievement of complex outcomes within the workplace. As soft skills are characterized skills which are applicable and useful in various contexts, thus they can be supposedly transferred among different work occupations. Based on the Philosophy of Education, the main goal of education is to produce a balanced and harmonious individual who is intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically, on a firm belief and faith in God. Higher educational institution is reckoned the most suitable venue for polishing soft skills among students. Higher education needs to have the desire and ability to participate in the formation and development of human capital with first class mentality. In order to equip students with soft skills, the educators themselves ought to also possessed the required soft skills as well. The literature revealed that soft skills are a widespread concern of employers’ world-wide. One example of the depth of the concern is evident in a series of interviews with executives of information technology companies. Those interviewed stated that it was not the lack of technical skills that caused projects to fail; rather, it was the lack of interpersonal/soft skills. Students, in addition to the technical skills required for their careers, also need to develop social or emotional intelligence (Golemon, 2004). This can be accomplished by helping them to equip themselves with professional skills like writing, speaking out, presenting, decision making and teamwork. In order to achieve this, new concepts, strategies and methodologies need to be introduced into the teaching. In the old paradigm, teachers were considered as the sole source of information and students approached them for every possible solution for problems encountered (Jayaprakash, 2005). It is recognized that teaching methods can influence the development of several social intellectual abilities such as cooperation, leadership, responsibility, self-confidence, independence, ability to make decisions and communication skills (Riccio, 2008; Kermis, 2009).

SOCIAL WORK The Dictionary of Social Work defines social work as “the paid professional activity that aims to assist people to overcoming serious difficulties in their lives by offering care, protection and counselling” (Thomas & Pierson, 1995, p. 357). To the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW): “Social work is a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people. Principles of social justice, human rights, collective responsibility and respect for diversities are central to social work. Underpinned by theories of social work, social sciences, humanities and indigenous knowledge, social work engages people and structures to address life challenges and enhance wellbeing” (www.iassw.org). Social workers play an important role in maintaining and promoting social wellbeing of society. In providing social care and promoting social wellbeing of clients, social workers need to use a variety of social interventions in the context of development, prevention and not only subjected to recovery and social treatment. In order to meet the social expectations of the community and also the profession itself, Malaysia should have trained social workers who can solve social problems and restore effectively the social functioning of their clients. Singapore Accreditation Council of Social Workers (SACSW) defines the term social workers only to those who have a degree and post-graduate degree in Social Work or those who have qualifications in a recognized field of Social Work (http://www.sasw.org.sg). Generally, social workers can be divided into two categories. The first is that they are trained, who obtained qualifications recognized by professional bodies in the field of Social Work (Americana, 1987: 139). This group is seen as a social worker or professional Social Work practice with the advantages of belonging to a degree. The second category is those who do not possess a degree or certificate in the field of Social Work, but directly involved doing charitable work or community work in the long term either in government agencies, private or voluntary bodies recognized by the government. Experience and knowledge possessed by the latter can sometimes be stretched or they can be made to be more skilled than the former (Wan Ab Rahman Khudzri, Wan Ibrahim, Fuziah Shaffie, Ab Aziz & Azizan Bahari, 2013).

SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA Most of the issues currently faced by social work professions today have references to the past, characterizing much of the professions’ development. Social work as a profession does not appear to have developed as much as in other developed or developing countries. In Malaysia generally, scholars do not devote much attention

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to this aspects. Thus, to better understand the current structure of social work education in Malaysia, it is helpful to consider the past. Viewing from the historical perspective would increase knowledge concerning social work professions and depict the emergence and development of social work education. Social work education is relatively new in Malaysia though Abdullah (2003) claims “the excuse that social work is a new profession in this country is no longer valid… there seems to be a sense of frustration among many social workers that it has not made much progress over the years” (p.3). The development of social work education in Malaysia appears to be slow. Prior to 1952, the Department of Social Welfare (DSW), as the statutory social service agency and the largest agency that employs social workers, had to hire expatriate officers in social welfare from the United Kingdom while sending Malaysian staff for social work training abroad (Yasas, 1974; Fuziah, 2006). Locally, the majority of social welfare workers were trained in social work at the National University of Singapore, which was formally known as the University of Malaya in 1952. Prior to the formation of social work programme at the University Sains Malaysia (USM) in 1975, it was estimated there were about 150 Malaysian social workers were trained at this department. Even though the programme was called social studies, its curriculum was very much based on the philosophy of Social Work. The establishment of social work program at USM was also a conscious effort on the part of Ministry of Social Welfare to meet the demand for professionally qualified social workers. The main objective of its formation was to produce more graduates and trained professionals in the field of social work (Baba, 1992; Yasas, 1974). In 1990s, the major development of social work education at other institutions of higher learning in Malaysia took place. By this time, six universities i.e. Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM), Universiti Sarawak Malaysia (UNIMAS), University Malaya (UM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) have introduced Social Work programme. Social Work as a profession is still having its own problems especially in building its own identity. The public still perceives social work as a voluntary work that does not require professional training. As a result, many claim that they are ‘social workers’ when the actual fact is they are merely volunteers. Even though the country had produced many graduates in social work, the relevant ministries such as the Department of Social Work and the Ministry of Health are still hiring graduates who are not trained in social work. Concurrently, graduates in social work are complaining that they are unable to secure jobs in Social Work.

SOCIAL COMPETENCE AND PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE The Malaysian Cabinet approved several proposals by the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development in 2010 to establish, among others: a. b. c. d.

A National Social Work Competency Standards; A Social Workers Act to implement the competency standards; A Social Work Council under the Act to regulate social work practitioners and educators; To standardize programs in social work education in institutions of higher learning;

Nevertheless, the Social Work Act is still pending until the present day for cabinet’s approval (Ismail, 2012). The issue of whether or not social workers in Malaysia are professional is still being debated. It will not be resolved until the country is able introduce its own Social Work Act and develop a proper infrastructure for competency and a set of practice standards. Social work continues to flourish as a ‘profession’ and has been recognized as a discipline that needs further development despite our own diversified perceptions on the discipline (Ismail & Fuziah, 2014). The growth of social work education and the social work profession have become more visible, at least intellectually, in terms of their usefulness, particularly after seven universities have decided to offer social work education in the country. The development of these programs also suggested that Malaysia recognized the need to train more social workers in order to address its own social problems. Ismail and Fuziah (2014) further point out that the emergence of these education programs has served as a social indicator that Malaysia needs to develop competence social workers and quality social services for its people.

METHODOLOGY The broader study – which is still an ongoing qualitative study – is carried out to explore the conceptions of soft skills among experienced higher institutions educators, as well as their thinking about what soft skills are relevant to higher institutions educators or what soft skills should educators at higher institutions level must have. The central research question that is being address in this paper is to what extent are the Malaysian © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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educators’ soft skills competencies applicable for the development of professional and social competence within working contexts? The study set out to gauge educators’ understandings of soft skills competencies and the ways in which they incorporate the delivery of these skills into their working contexts. At the same time, it is important to determine the critical elements of effective acquisition of these skills. The next part of this paper provides a glimpse of the preliminary findings from the interviews that were carried out with an expert social worker (hereafter referred to as SWE1 – Social Work Expert 1), who has been involved in social work education in Malaysia for more than 20 years. An in-depth interview was carried out with purposively selected participants from higher education institutions expert in the field of social work. Two phases of interviews were carried out, whereby in Phase 1, the participant was asked about his interpretations of ‘soft skills’. His responses during Phase 1 were fully transcribed and analysed, whereby emerging themes were identified together with identification of responses that warrant further clarification form the participants. Phase 2 was a ‘follow-up’ interview to seek further clarification and meanings based on the responses he had given in Phase 1. The questions that guided the focus of the interviews are (i) How would you conceptualize the soft skills for social workers?, and (ii) What are the soft skills that you perceived as relevant for social workers currently and for years to come? In Phase 2, the participant was interviewed on the relevant soft skills which he believed social workers must have to ensure that they could execute their role as social workers efficiently and competently.

SOCIAL WORKERS AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS To be a social worker, one requires certain types of personality and characteristics and one of the attributes the profession is interested in is humanity i.e. kindness, empathy, emotional intelligence, good manner and ability to work with everyone (Ismail & Fuziah, 2014). Social work is a profession that requires skills, knowledge, and values. The profession has its own standard and work ethics that the social workers must observed and followed. The personal attributes needed for social workers include work ethic, teamwork, problem solving and critical thinking and communication skills. Social work is fundamentally dependent on good communication. Qualified social workers must be able to demonstrate sound communication skills. However there is a big gap between being able to communicate and being able to communicate effectively. Social workers need to communicate effectively with service users and carers, other social workers, and other professionals (Fuziah, 2013). It is necessary for social workers to have effective communication skills if they are to promote self-help and empowerment (Lishman, 2009). Without effective communication skills, a social worker may not be able to obtain or convey that information, thereby causing detrimental effects to clients. SWE1 was asked how he would conceptualize soft skills among social workers. To him, “Social workers certainly need to have soft skills as well because they need to show the best … they need to become an effective role model”. When asked what he meant by ‘effective role model’, SWE1 said, “the social workers need to actually do what they preach. These soft skills would be the social and human touch … something very relevant with the role of social workers”. During the interview, SWE1 had identified ‘communication skill’ as one of the relevant soft skills that social workers need to have for now and for the future as well. His justification was: “…the main problem …there is conflict…because of communication problem …in whatever situations…because conflict can happen when there is communication problem…when there is communication breakdown. So, I think if we need to have communication skills… good communication skills. Communication skills also have values …so that it makes you to be considerate and so on. So, I think …if we can enhance communication skills …in its true sense, I think we can enhance our relationship with other people …our friendship…our understanding”. SWE1 had also mentioned about having appropriate values within context. He expounded that: “ …the importance of soft skills …like for Social Work, for counselling, …for clinical…psychologists… I think they emphasize on issues related to soft skills. For instance … when we want to shape an individual …guide him or her on how to have good relation with the client. We are taught about basic values …but the basic contexts for these values are not emphasized. That is the reason why there are differences in interpreting the values. Islam stresses on values…but differences in background … different social environment…make them interpret the same value differently”. The social workers’ behaviour may influence the social work students’ competence (SWE1, 2014). To SWE1, social work students may learn a lot of things related to soft skills and values from their educators. As mentioned by him: © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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“…there are differences because of the values which we brought from the society we came from…or even from our teachers…our lecturers…from the role models which we got… it could be from our teachers, parents, our brothers or sisters …our relatives ...or even from our readings”. In enhancing the communication skill, social workers “must also be a reflective person” (SWE1, 2014). When asked why the need to be reflective, SWE1 responded by saying: “Social worker also needs to be reflective…about …whether I am on the right directions or not…or whether what I am saying is right or wrong. Yes, I think that to be able to reflect is very much in the communication skill also. In communication skill, we also teach our students on how to confront the clients …and know how to deal with the clients who are trying to take advantage out of us. So, the clients won’t feel defensive …and all these are related to communication skill”. SWE1 had also highlighted the need for competence in communication skill among the social workers within the context of Malaysia. According to him: “As for the context of unity in Malaysia, I still think the most important is communication skill because we are a very much multi-ethnic, multi-religion… multi-cultural as well… I think the main problem is when conflict arises in communication… conflict happen because of communication problem…communication breakdown. So, we must have good communication skill because in communication skill we also have values …for instance being considerate. So, I think if we can enhance the communication skill in its true sense, I think our friendship… or any other sort of relationship…we can be more understanding”.

CONCLUSION Social workers do certainly need to have appropriate soft skills as emphasized by the Scottish government: “Social Work has a strong ethical basis that emphasises the importance of building a positive, professional relationship with people who use services as well as with professional colleagues. Social workers must be able to balance the tension between the rights and responsibilities of the people who use services. They must also be able to understand the implications of, and to work effectively and sensitively with, people whose cultures, beliefs or life experiences are different from their own. They must recognise and put aside any personal prejudices they may have, and work within guiding ethical principles and accepted codes of professional conduct” (http://www.scotland.gov.uk). Social work is an art and science of helping others. Regardless of how the current situation of Social work is in Malaysia, social work is bound by its values and ethics. These values and ethics are very much reflected in client self-determination and respect for client. Social worker should try to maximize his/her clients to cope and adjust in his/her own environment (Cummins, Sevel & Pedrick, 2006). The social workers will also need to be sensitive when dealing with different clients. As a very diverse society, the future social workers in Malaysia should be culturally competence including across cultures.

REFERENCES Abdullah, M. B. (2003). Management of social work in Malaysia. In Zakiyah Jamaluddin (Ed.). Pengurusan perkhidmatan kerja sosial di Malaysia. pp. 3-10. Sintok: University Utara Malaysia Press. Americana. (1987). The Encyclopedia 25. USA: Grolier. Cummins L., Sevel, J. & Pedrick, L. (2006). Social work skills demonstrated: Beginning direct practice. Pearson: Boston, USA. Fuziah Shaffie. (2006). British colonial policy on social welfare in Malaya 1946-1957: Child welfare services. Unpublished Ph.D thesis. Universiti of Warwick. United Kingdom. Fuziah Shaffie. (2013). Komunikasi dalam kerja sosial. Sintok: Universiti Utara Malaysia Press. Golemon, D. Boyatzis, R. & McKee, A. (2004). Primal leadership: Learning to lead with emotional intelligence. New York: Perseus Publishers. International Association of Schools of Social Work (http://www.iassw.org) Ismail Baba. (1992). ‘An effort towards building a caring society’ Cho K. S. and Ismail M. S. (Eds.) Caring society: Emerging issues and future directions. Kuala Lumpur: ISIS. Ismail Baba (2012). Kerja Sosial di Malaysia: Peranan Institusi Pengajian Tinggi dalam Transformasi Kesejahteraan Psikososial Negara. Paper presented at the National Convention on Strengthening Leadership of the Higher Learning Institution’s. Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi and Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11-12 October 2012. Double Tree Hotel by Hilton, Kuala Lumpur. Ismail Baba & Fuziah Shaffie (2014). Indigenization or Culturally Relevant vs. Advancing Universal of Social Work Education and Practice in Malaysia. Asian Center for Welfare in Societies (ACWelS), Social Work Research Institute, Japan College of Social Work © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Jayaprakash, J.C. (2005). “Strategies in teaching accounting in higher education”. Teaching and Learning Forum 2005.http://otl.curtin.ed.au/tif/tif2005/refereed/jayaprakashj.html. Journal of Instructional Pedagogies Professional presence and soft skills, p.10. Kermis, G.F. & Kermis, M.D. (2009). Model for the transition from ethical deficit to a transparent corporate culture: A response to the financial meltdown. Journal of Academic and Business Ethics, Fall 2009. Lishman, J. (2009). Communication in social work (2nd ed.). London: The Macmillan Press. Riccio, E.L. (2008). Internet published paper, “Teaching – Learning methods in accounting education – An empirical research in the Brazilian scenario”. University of Sao Paolo – Brazil. Thomas, M. & Pierson, J. (Eds.) (1995). Collins educational dictionary of social work. London: Collins Education Ltd. Wan Ab Rahman Khudzri Wan Abdullah, Wan Ibrahim Wan Ahmad, Fuziah Shaffie, Ab Aziz Yusof & Azizan Bahari (2013). Penyertaan pekerja perkhidmatan sosial dalam keusahawanan sosial pertubuhan sukarela Islam di Utara Malaysia. Prosiding seminar hasil penyelidikan sektor pengajian tinggi ke-3, vol.3. pp 1495-1503. Yasas, Frances Maria (1974). A report to the government of Malaysia on the establishment of a professional course in social work and community development training at the bachelor's level at the Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang. In co-operation with United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2003/01/16202/17019 http://www.sasw.org.sg/public/accreditation/Accreditation% 20v8.html

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

DOCUMENTATION OF THE BEST PRACTICES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF KALAHI-CIDSS IN THE MUNICIPALITY OF BESAO Cezanne B. Panay [email protected] Mountain Province State Polytechnic College

Abstract This study sought to document the Best practices of Besao in the implementation of Kapitbisig Laban sa Kahirapan-Comprehensive and Integrated Delivery of Social Services. Approaches and processes have become part of a development framework. The highlights in the evolution of processes and approaches are the changing dole-out paradigm to inclusive growth development paradigm and from the top to bottom planning to bottom to top planning. In general, the objective of KALAHI-CIDSS is: 1) Improve the responsiveness of local government to community needs; 2) Encourage communities to engage in development activities. 3) Deliver benefits to barangay residents through the individual sub-projects. KALAHI-CIDSS follows a community driven Strategy (People Centered Approach). CDD is operationalized through five-stage, three cycle community mobilization process called the Community empowerment Cycle or CEAC. The Three Cycle is progressive and was married with the existing cultural practices and this bore out Best Practices that can be adopted and pursued in the light of achieving Community Development. Implementation of KALAHICIDSS in Besao so far has undertaken notable implication. Findings show the following factors or practices which emerged during the implementation: 1) Inter-local Cooperation, 2) Harmonization of the KALAHI-CIDSS Processes in the Local Council Proceses 3) Adoption of the Community Plan in the Municipal Strategic Development Plan 4. Environmental Management, and 5) People’s participation and empowerment through synergized efforts between the Local Government Units and the PO’s and NGO’s. In terms of its sustainability, the interviewees observed the following challenges: interference of politics, existing laws contradicting to the procurement process of KALAHI-CIDSS, and the continuity of functionality of the organized operation and maintenance group and the organized sector.

INTRODUCTION The reduction of incidence of poverty has been a focus for decade among many nations says World Bank findings in 2006. Two years after, the World Bank upgraded its findings and came to a figure of about 1.29 billion people who are living in absolute poverty. Overcoming global incidence of poverty, by any measure, remains a tremendous challenge. In the Philippines, the national poverty incidence shows that more than onethird (34 percent) of the country’s population, or 26.5 million Filipinos, lived below the poverty line in 2005. In 2012, poverty incidence in the country was estimated at 27.9%. The absolute figures however vary in the Geographic regions of the country. In 2002, for example, poverty incidence was 5.7% in the National Capital Region, but much higher in rural areas—reaching 49% in Region V and 57% in the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). The statistics on poverty incidence in the National Capital Region when compared to the Cordillera Administrative Region is quite alarming. The percentage of poverty incidence at 21% in 2006 did not decrease substantially in 2012 at 19.7%.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Approaches in the strategy of fighting poverty have contributed less in improving the reduction significantly. For instance, the ADB study conducted by Ernie Pernia and Arsenio Balisacan observed that, “the decline in poverty rates did nothing to improve the country's notoriously inequitable income distribution. Despite the more-or-less sustained economic growth from 1985 to 1997, the poorest 20% of the population only improved their income 0.5% for every 1% growth in average income. In other words, they slipped further behind and income inequality became even more extreme.” The effects of poverty are lingering. According to Amnesty International (1995), the lingering picture demand a corresponding responsibility to respond in addressing the roots in accordance to the call for human decency as defined by legally binding international human rights obligations, instruments and standards.

CAUSES OF POVERTY IN THE PHILIPPINES Poverty in the Philippines is a complex issue that stems from various structural defects such as in the legal system of land ownership and weak governance. Most affected populations by these structured defects are the Indigenous Peoples and those living in the rural areas. Understanding this complex issue would be beneficial as this paper would attempt to discuss 2 salient issues, namely: a. Inequitable Land Distribution b. Low Political Leadership/Weak Governance

Inequitable Land Distribution According to Llanto and Ballesteros (2005), access to land and productive inputs is a strong predictor for poverty alleviation. In the Philippines, the poor are strongly dependent on access to land for their livelihood and welfare. Rural Families make a living from agricultural and fisheries activities and for many urban poor families, the house serves as base for income-generating activities (e.g. food vending, tailoring, and processing of recyclable materials). Thus, sustainable economic activities that could address poverty alleviation in agriculture, the fisheries and in urban economy depend on an efficient and socially accepted distribution of land. The Filipino people, long before the era of colonization, were subsistent but not as many were poor. Surpluses were traded with other Asian Countries. But the picture has changed when the “Encomienda System” was introduced by the Spanish colonizers. It was this system that eventually dictated the coming out of legal structure in defining land ownership by the few wealthy while majority of the Filipinos soon became merely tenants and laborers - a factor that has contributed to the poverty in the countryside. The legal structure was improved by the American colonizers and later incorporated in the 1935, 1976 and 1987 Philippine constitution. Attempts to remedy the structural defects came in the form of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP). On June 10, 1988, Congress passed the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law. Tenanted vast lands in the lowland were the subject of land distribution to the tenants. About 80 percent of the targeted lands for distribution were accomplished up to the Marcos Administration (R.E.Dolan 1991). Land reforms in the country have been long running but it was also enveloped with difficulty. Some of the contributory factors are lack of sustained political will, and landlord resistance. In 1997, Republic Act 8371 or known as “the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997” is another social legislation that attempts to remedy the structural defects concerning land territories held by Indigenous Communities/ Indigenous Peoples. The law recognizes the Rights of IPs to their ancestral domains to ensure their economic, social and cultural well-being (RA 8371). This strengthened the rights of the IPs to their ancestral domains as a jump-start to productivity, employment, opportunities and poverty reduction. In Mountain Province, for instance, terraces were carved as production areas for rice and edible plants. Land ownership is likewise dictated by one’s labor where the landed few are treated as “kadangyans” but their land ownership are not being tenanted. The clash between customary and legal rights on claimed ancestral domain and lands contributed to the persistence of low productivity, unemployment and poverty.

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Low Political Leadership/Weak Governance Effective governance has been described by the United Nations Development programme (UNDP) as the “missing link” between national anti-poverty efforts and poverty reduction. Other national agencies likewise identify good governance among the pillars of their development work. Senator Angara also accepts that there is a direct correlation between good government and economic development. According to World Bank, good governance is epitomized by predictable, open and enlightened policymaking, a bureaucracy embedded with professional ethos acting in furtherance of the public good, the rule of the law, transparent processes, and a strong civil society participating in public affairs. Poor governance, on the other hand, is characterized by arbitrary policy making, unaccountable bureaucracies, unenforced or unjust legal systems, the abuse of executive power, a civil society unengaged in public life, and widespread corruption. In the Philippine context, the whole meaning of public office is deferred to self-interest and interest of the few. Public Office is used to divert funds from its actual use, and this diversion diverts millions of pesos from what should be priority projects for the benefit of the greater number of people. This millions diverted disturbs the efforts aimed at economic development. Rivas & Nael (2012) in their book quoted and stated that public office – is a public trust - it is not to be understood as a position of honor, prestige and power but a position of rendering service to the public. Senator Angara et.al. (2005 ) said that the increasing petty forms of corruption in the governance system both in local and national government has marred the participation of local citizenry or the citizenry’s gamble to be given little support by political leaders. Because of this Community development effort is less participated and less sustainable. This is even explained by UNDP study that corruption has weakened national institutions, inequitable social services, and blatant injustice in the courts, along with widespread economic inefficiency and unchecked environmental exploitation. It is also evident that corruption hits the poor the hardest, who often depend heavily upon public services and natural environment and are least able to pay bribes for services that should be theirs by right. As a result communities and families have less access to National Funds and productive assets.

POVERTY ALLEVIATION STRATEGIES In 2000, a delegation to the United Nations crafted the Millennium Development Goal, the number one goal is to eradicate poverty this coming millennium. (United Nation, 2013). As a member of the United Nation, the Philippines adopted the MDG in response to the worldly call. With the MDG as a guide, the government came out with processes and strategies which aimed to accelerate the eradication of poverty incidence. Approaches and processes have become part of a development framework. One of the highlights in the evolution of processes and approaches are the changing dole-out paradigm to inclusive growth development paradigm. The dole-out paradigm focused strongly on the need to meet basic needs (GHK Research and Training, 2001), while the inclusive growth development paradigm would not only met the basic needs of man but also the wholeness of man. One of the advocated calls is to pursue human development Approach defined human development as about much more than the rise or fall of national incomes. It is about creating an environment in which people can develop their full potential and lead productive, creative lives in accord with their needs and interests. People are the real wealth of nations. Development is thus about expanding the choices people have to lead lives that they value. And it is thus about much more than economic growth, which is only a means—if a very important one—of enlarging people’s choices. This backs up the strategies like the bottoms up planning and implementation of projects. This planning and project implementation style is related to the approach locality development approach (Rothman 1979), the basic belief is that communities have some common needs and interests and once the people realize this need and work together democratically they can take appropriate steps to improve the quality of life. This contradicts the widely used traditional development approach which uses the Top to Bottom planning and implementation. This approach sees community as lacking with capacity to solve their own problem. This usually results to low maximization of government projects leading to less impact to the community.

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Through the years, scaling up of approaches and process has been part of changes in development concepts. It is in this definition that the government came out with the three (3) core Programs being initiated by the Department of Social Welfare and Development Office. These 3 programs are called the “TATSULO”, or the Pantawid Pamilya Programs or 4P’s, the KAPIT BISIG LABAN SA KAHIRAPAN (KALAHI-CIDSS) and the SLP. These Programs were implemented in selected communities like Besao, Mountain Province, Philippines. In the exercise of prudence in implementing projects, it is imperative to capture the different innovations and unique development interventions. Hence, documentation plays a vital role not only to display accounts of the past but also a rich source for educational purposes. Take for example the learning of Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development. The workers account that documentation of their past refreshes the earnest to cope with the respond to the challenges of the times. It is also used to gaze on the condition of the time, premises of the decisions, the opportunities and the challenges they faced, and the lasting impacts of the achievements. All this provide a better view of what went through in the past and what is required in the coming years. (PCARRD Legacy, 1973-2008). In addition, proper documentation of events was also emphasized by Joseph (2013), as essential for providing the contemporary professionals and future generations the opportunities to know, learn, and benefit from the past knowledge and experience. Documentation comes in the form of oral and written. However, written documents would leave a more profound meaning to men. It would be likened to a compass that would navigate the mind of the reader to a glorious escape of the activities of the past and illumines the future. And it would also be likened to the experience of Cordillera in the implementation of KALAHI-CIDSS. Development work in the Cordillera has been long running yet has trickle less influence in the life of the family and community. Studying the best practices of the implementation of the KALAHI in Besao will open avenues to understand how development can be achieved in the Mountain Province. As of February this year, the said community-led and community-driven poverty reduction program already has a total of P130.95 million in project grants in 288 barangays in the Cordillera. One of the recipients in the cordillera is the Municipality of Besao. This year, the town is concluding its third cycle of implementation. In 2011, the town was awarded as Best in Sub-Project Implementation because of the excellent performance of the communities. The following year, the town was likewise acknowledged as model local government unit in harmonizing participation, transparency, and accountability in governance system. The municipality is one among five other municipalities in the country that were recognized by the National Project Management Office of Kalahi-CIDSS as good performing towns (Midland Courier, February 17, 2013).

METHODOLOGY Three different methodologies were employed to provide an overview of the implementation of the KALAHICIDSS in Besao. First, there was a literature review of the implementation of the KALAHI-CIDSS-Besao from 2010-2013. Second, a series of exploratory interviews was conducted with people from selected Local Government Officials, community, volunteers such as the members of the Barangay Sub-project Management Council of the 14 Barangays of the Municipality. Third were interviews with KALAHI-CIDSS staff/Department Social Welfare and Development staff and the stakeholders which include members of the PO’s and NGO’s on selected barangays who were involved in the project implementation.

OVERVIEW OF BESAO Besao is a 5th class municipality in the province of Mountain Province, Philippines. According to the latest census, it has a population of 7,295 people in 1,735 households with a total land area of 173.62 km2 . Poverty incidence of the Municipality in 2009 is 26.9%. Besao is presently composed of 14 barangays, namely: Agawa, Ambagiw, Banguitan, Besao West, Besao East, Catengan, Gueday, Kin-iway, Lacmaaan, Laylaya, Padangaan, Payeo, Suquib and Tamboan.

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RESULTS This research’s purpose is to document the successful implementation of the KALAHI-CIDSS in the Municipality of Besao which includes the contributory factors from the community and the processes of the KALAHI-CIDSS. It revealed a great deal of promising innovations and some significant policy and practical challenges if the “innovations” potentials are to be fully realized. The findings indicated that in the community of Besao, 98% belongs to the Indigenous People called the “Applai”. Historically, the people of Besao use participative governance wherein there is a high engagement of the community and individual in the planning of the community affairs. With the entry of formal government systems, it slowly made changes in the governing affairs of the Indigenous People. It was found out that the participation of the community in the planning and implementation of development initiatives has declined within the 14 barangays. The Traditional planning and implementation approach or top to bottom planning is used. The local council determines the needs, craft the strategic plan, allocates the funds and supervises the implementation with less consultation from the community. As a result, public office is marred with suspension of corruption and public office has become a gold mine to secure power and status in the community. It was also found out that despite the clash in the indigenous governance and formal governance, the Besao People were able to sustain practices and traditions that contribute in the development of their locality given the technical and funding supports. Some of the practices preserved are the “ub-ubbo” and “galatis”. Ub-ubo is a practice where community members help each other in a completion of a certain task and this is usually done in the building of houses. Galatis is a practice wherein the community give free labor in support of certain endeavour. Findings indicated a number of contributory factors during the implementation that was sustained from the 3 cycles of implementation of the project. First is the inter-local cooperation wherein the barangays in the Municipality worked as one entity and casting boundaries. This was extended in terms of funds and local resources. This is rooted in the nature and practice of “ub-ubo” . Case1. One, Barangay (Gueday) during the selection process and budgetary allocation withdraw and the Barangay and the Municipal Local Government instead funded the sub-project of the Community. Due to the withdrawal, one barangay, particularly Barangay Agawa, was included in the allocation of funding thereby able to continue the processes of KALAHI-CIDDS. Barangay Gueday implemented the project with the funding from the Municipal and Barangay Local Government using the Second, the Institutionalization and Harmonization of the KALAHI-CIDSS CDD processes in the Local Government processes. This was underpinned by a strong legal foundation, in the form of a regulation enacted by a Local Government Council. The enactment also is an evidence of the strong involvement and support of the Local Government Unit both in the Municipal and Local Council Unit (community). Third, the adoption community plan which is the fruit of the Participatory Situational Analysis during the Social Preparation Stage in the strategic Development plan of the Municipality and Local Council. This was enacted by the Municipal and Local Councils which formally bind the inclusion of the prioritized needs and strategies indicated in the plans. This is not only necessary but this will be an engine to drive the sustainability and further power innovations in the local community with its Local Councils as it works to implement these plans. Fourth, the adoption of the Indigenous environmental Management and strethening of the Pos and NGO’s on the implementation of the project, operation and maintenance and, sustainability. This is defined by strengthened local organizations that manage the operation and maintenance of local infrastructures which is defined by local traditions and practices. Local traditions such as “galatis” to maintain infrastructures such as the water systems, irrigations canals for protection of communities and rice farms.

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION Findings also indicated a number of areas in which further work should be conducted in order to improve the processes and its implementation. First, the KALAHI-CIDSS’s objective is sometimes overshadowed by the sub-project implementation instead of the community absorbing the transformational processes brought about by the program. Second, the complexity of regulatory and compliance requirements were real barrier to volunteers considering that some of them are not college graduate. Requirements in the processes are highly technical and sometimes © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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cannot be grasped by the volunteers. Third, less participation/engagement of the younger generations due to study endeavour outside the community. Fourth, need for capacity building of volunteers and the local officials. The above analysis shows that KALAHI-CIDSS was accepted by the community as a new technology to alleviate their community from poverty. The acceptance of this new technology is shown in the interfacing of this new technology in the existing cultural practices in the locality. This is also evident in high participation and success of the implementation. With the participation of the community in the processes, they were able to understand the real meaning of the partnership of people and its local government in achieving Community Development. To further and sustain the success of the implementation there is a need to; a. To mainstream the processes with commitment in the Local government processes. b. To document the best practices and to integrate this in the local processes or to scale the KALAHI-CIDSS approach. c. To sustain the projects objectives there is a need to establish a monitoring team in the implementation of the Local community Plan which was a fruit of the Participatory Analysis and was submitted and enacted in the Municipal Development Plan. d. To link the organizations such as the Water System Management Association and farmers Association to line agencies such as the Department of Agriculture, for technical support and to sustain the operation and organization of this groups.

CONCLUSIONS Effectiveness of Development strategies lies in the actual implementation of the processes and their effects in the behavior of the community. It must not only be properly designed and planned by technical team and thrown to the community for implementation, but must also be sponsored and upheld sincerely by political leaders and community. Implementation of KALAHI-CIDSS was able to give life to the Indigenous practices of community and aligning it to new technologies and innovations of the government. Through its processes community realized achievement of development as partnership endeavor. In addition, innovations in intermarrying cultural practices and new technologies have brought out innovations counted as best practices. This includes inter-local cooperation due to practice such as “ub-ubbo” which is innate in the community. Above all, positioning the community as stakeholders who participate in the design of delivery of services gave life as well in the development endeavors in the community. Accountability and transparency which are the key governing imperatives of the good governance was strengthened within the Local Councils. With the strengthened participation of the Local Government and its community, reducing incidence of poverty in the community/rural areas will achieved in larger measure.

REFERENCES World Bank Report. (2006). Community-Driven Development and Social Capital: Designing a Baseline Survey in the Philippines (Impact Analysis of KALAHI-CIDSS) Amnesty International. (1995). Human rights for Human Dignity: A primer on economic, social and cultural rights. GHK Research and Training. (June 2001). Addressing Poverty through City Development Strategies, unpublished by GHK Research and Training Department of Social Welfare and Development. (2010). Danggay KALAHI-CIDSS: Mga Kuwentong Tagumpay mula sa Barangay. UNESCO, Culture and Development “Culture and Development”: cultural diversity is an engine for development http://www.unescobkk.org/ Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and natural resources research and Development (PCARRD). (2008). Legacy 1973-2008 John A. Joseph (2013) Process Documentation. www.unesco.org/education/aladin/paldin/pdf/course02/ unit_01.pdf Villanueva, N. (2013, February 17). Besao is model LGU in Kalahi–CIDSS project. Midland Courier. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Asian Development Bank. (2012) sharing knowledge on community Driven Development. Lucila L. Salcedo, Ana maria R. Peralta, Adelaida A. Ronquillo & Socorro C. Espiritu (1999). Social Issues, katha publishing, Co., Inc. p.4. Jeffrey Ford and Laurie Ford, (June 18, 2012). Leadership Effectiveness for people at Work, http://professorford. com/my-books/ H.E. Ambassador John W. Ashe, Remarks (September 25, 2013), President of the 68th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ Ronald E. Dolan, ed. Philippines: A Country Study (1991). Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress Dionesio C. Rivas & Michael M. Nael, Politics (2012), Governance and the Philippine Constitution. Rex Bookstore, Inc. G.M. Llanto and M.M. Ballesteros, Land issues in poverty reduction strategies and the development agenda: the Philippines [165] - Philippine Institute for Development Studies.

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SECTION II

RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY IN SOCIAL WELFARE

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

LIFELONG DREAM OF PERFORMING THE HAJJ. HOW HAPPY WILL YOU BE WHEN YOU PERFORMING THE PILGRIMAGE? THE EXPERIENCES OF MALAYSIAN HAJJ PILGRIMS Salahuddien Ayob*, Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim, Zulkarnain Ahmad Hatta & Jasni Sulong *[email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract Hajj is once-in-a-lifetime pilgrimage required for every able-bodied Muslims who can afford it. To perform the hajj is a lifelong dream for most Muslims. Anecdotal evidence by those who have completed the hajj describe it as a psychologically and spiritually fulfilling journey, that lead to some degree of positive transformation at the conclusion of it. The present study describes the relationships between cognitive and affective aspects of subjective wellbeing, as reported by the Malaysians who were performing the pilgrimage. With support and permission from Tabung Haji Malaysia, questionnaires were distributed during the 2013 hajj pilgrimage period. 300 male and female Malaysian pilgrims responded to Malay language version of Satisfaction with Life Scale (Pivot & Diener, 1993) and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988). The two scales describe an overall picture of happiness, laymen’s term for subjective well-being, among the pilgrims. Data indicates that the Malaysian Hujjaj are happier than other sample tested using the same measures. Analysis of data showed that these cannot be generally attributed to gender, age, formal religious education, previous Hajj experience, previous experience in visiting Makkah or performing the umrah. These indicate the need for further studies on this matter. Keywords: hajj, happiness, subjective well-being, life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect

INTRODUCTION Hajj is a once in a lifetime obligation to all adult Muslims who are physically and financially able to afford it. From psychological perspective, Hajj is a positively rewarding act of faith. Despite significant associated health and safety risk (Gatrad & Sheikh, 2005) with possible experiences of behavior, mood and sleep problems (Masoud, et al, 2007), many people who performed the pilgrimage throughout the centuries have reported significant positive experiences after performing the Hajj (Wolfe, 1997). Recent comprehensive research on hajj have found that people who performed the Hajj have showed increased belief in peace, in equality and harmony among adherents of different religions (Clingingsmith, Khwaja, & Kramer, 2009). Reviews of literature have shown that specific psychological research on the relationships between happiness, subjective well-being and hajj is basically non-existent. Although an overlooked research area by the scientific community, the author believe that hajj is an institution that can promote happiness and subjective well-being (Ayob, Ahmad Hatta, & Naing, 2012). The pilgrimage posses the characteristics of a positive institution that is associated with positive psychology. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) describe positive psychology as Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

the scientific study of the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. They also recognize that people and their experiences are embedded in a social context. Thus, positive institutions like hajj must be taken into account when we study human positive experiences such as happiness and subjective well-being. Although not specifically on hajj, there are reports on related studies on the area religiosity. In essence, it was argued that religion provides a coherent belief system that allows people to find meaning in life and hope for the future (Seligman, 2002). A study by Fazel & Young (1988) have found Tibetan refugee in Northern India to have greater life satisfaction compared to the locals due to their belief that stress self-contentment and their pleasure of being in the presence of Dalai Lama, their living god. Another study conducted on religious Christians by Salsman, et al, (2005) found positive relationship between intrinsic religiousness, prayer fulfillment and life satisfaction. Mediated by optimism and social support, religious people with life distress tend to posses greater life satisfaction compared to others. Seligman (2012) believed that there are five essential elements that are crucial for lasting state of subjective well-being. These elements are positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. To delve deeper, it is argued here that Hajj is an institution that promotes all of the five elements. Firstly, Hajj pilgrims are encouraged to have positive attitude throughout their pilgrimage and avoid negative emotions from disturbing their hajj experiences. The second element of engagement in Hajj means that when one is truly engaged in the pilgrimage, that person will experience a state of flow: time seems to stop, sense of self is lost, and the concentration is intensely focused on the present (i.e. fully concentrated on the act of faith itself ). Third, as humans are "social beings," they require good relationships as core to their well-being. Anecdotal accounts by many hujjaj that those that maintain meaningful, positive relationships with others throughout the pilgrimage are happier than those who do not. Fourthly, the sense of meaning comes from serving a cause bigger than oneselves. This is one of the main objectives of Hajj, as to truly subjugate oneselves to Allah for the whole course of the pilgrimage. Lastly, for those who strive to perform their Hajj without any fault, the completion of the pilgrimage gives them a huge sense of accomplishment. This accomplishment is another important thing that contributes to our ability to be happy, to flourish, and to have an excellent sense of subjective well-being. The objective of this present study is identify the level of cognitive aspects (Life Satisfaction) and affective aspects (Positive Affect, Negative Affect) of subjective well-being among Malaysian hujjaj. Further investigations were also done on the relationship with demographic characteristics such as gender, age cohorts, education level, formal religious education, and previous experience with Hajj rituals and the location where the pilgrimage was performed.

METHODOLOGY This present study is a part of a greater PhD research with quasi-experimental, correlational study design. The main aim of this research is to identify long-term positive psychological changes that occur when one perform the Hajj pilgrimage. For this purpose, it was planned that data will be collected during and after the pilgrimage (intra- and post-Hajj time periods). Post-hajj data with long-term effect on subjective well-being will be obtained via in-depth interview 6-months after the hajj. This described study is the intra-Hajj part of the study. For the purpose, 408 Malaysians who perform the Hajj with Tabung Haji Malaysia were invited to participate in this research. Participants were asked to complete a set of questionnaires during the week of Hajj pilgrimage at their respective accommodation, during their leisure time, in Makkah.

Participants For the record, out of 408 that were distributed, only 300 completed questionnaires were returned back with response rate of 73.5%. Mean age of the participants is 50.86 years (SD=11.48), with youngest is 18 years and oldest is 82 years. The sample is equally distributed among the gender with 151 male and 149 female. More detailed descriptive statistics of the participants are described in Table 1. The participants were asked whether they have attended any formal religious education or training. 95 (31.7%) of the participants posses formal religious education ranging from pondok-education, public religious school, to university degrees. 171 (57%) of the participants reported that they posses no formal religious education, while 34 (11.3%) did not report any information on this matter. Lastly, participants were asked whether they have any previous experience in performing the hajj as well as previous umrah trip to the Holy Land. More than half of the participants (n=186; 62%) have never performed © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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the hajj and it was their first trip to Makkah. 82 of them (27.3%) have visited the Holy Land, with 32 (10.7%) of them have previously performed the Hajj. Table 1 - Descriptive Statistics of Participants with Respect to Gender and Age

Gender Age Groups

Male n

Total

Female %

n

%

n

%

Under 20 years old

6

4

0

0

6

2

21-30 years old

10

6.6

5

3.4

15

5

31-40 years old

15

9.9

18

12.1

33

11

41-50 years old

35

23.2

50

33.6

85

28.3

51-60 years old

52

34.4

61

40.9

113

37.7

61-70 years old

25

16.6

13

8.7

38

12.7

71-80 years old

8

5.3

2

1.3

10

3.3

151

100

149

100

300

100

Total

Measures The measures that were used in the questionnaire are the Malay language version of Satisfaction with Life Scale (Pavot & Diener, 1993) and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988). The Malay version of the scales used in this study were translated and used for a different study by R. Ibrahim (2012). The English version of The Satisfaction With Life Scale was designed to measure one’s satisfaction with one’s personal life. There are 5 items in the scale. An example of the items is: “In most ways, my life is close to my ideal, and I am satisfied with my life”. Responses are rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale that ranges from 1 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree). The English version of SWLS was reported to have high internal consistency, with alpha Cronbach values ranging between .89 and .79. In this study, the internal consistency of the scale was .82 (Cronbach’s alpha). The alphas, if any individual item was deleted, range from 0.738 (item #1) to 0.893 (item #5). Item five, “If I could live my life over again I would change almost nothing,” showed the lowest overall mean (M = 3.76). The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule is a 20 items scale that includes ten positive emotions (Positive Affect; PA) and also ten negative emotions (Negative Affect; NA). Participants were asked to identify how much they experiences the positive and negative emotions such as “interested”, “active”, “inspired”, “upset”, “scared”, and “nervous”. Responses are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale that ranges from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely). Watson et al (1988) reported internal consistency of the scale for PA is .88 and .87 for NA. The Cronbach’s alpha for this study is .85 (PA) and .86 (NA). The alphas for individual items range from .829 to .865 for PA and .840 to .869 for NA. Combined together, the SWLS, PA, and NA describe an overall rating of subjective well-being (a.k.a. happiness) among the Malaysian pilgrims. The score for subjective well-being is calculated by adding the reported score of SWLS and PA, and subtracting the score of NA.

RESULTS A. Hujjaj’s State of Subjective Well-being Descriptive statistics for all the reported measures are described in Table 2. Table 2a - Descriptive Statistics of Participants’ Life Satisfaction, Positive Affect, Negative Affect, and Subjective Well-being

Variables

Mean Score

SD

Subjective Well-being

42.56

12.63

Life Satisfaction

24.83

5.90

Positive Affect

37.29

6.89

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Negative Affect

19.56

6.95

For comparison purpose, the following are the scores of selected measures by selected population of Malaysia (R. Ibrahim, 2012; Ayob, 2006), Turkey (Eryılmaz, 2010), America (Pavot, Diener, Colvin, & Sandvik, 1991; Watson, Clark, Tellegen, 1988), and Europe (Simpson et al, 2014). Table 2b - Descriptive Statistics Life Satisfaction, Positive Affect, and Negative Affect

Variables

N

Positive Affect

Negative Affect

M

SD

M

SD

M

SD

Malaysian hujjaj

300

24.83

5.90

37.29

6.89

19.56

6.95

Malaysian manufacturing workers1

1220

22.31

5.75

32.62

6.0

21.79

6.79

Malaysian medical students2

290

23.29

5.17

Turkish students

432

23.48

5.87

34.41

6.06

22.75

7.07

American university students4

271

24.5

6.3

American university students5

660

29.7

7.9

14.8

5.4

Older American adult4

39

33.48

5.9

14.05

5.0

3

Older European adult

24.2

6.9

188

6

1

Life Satisfaction

R. Ibrahim, 2012; Ayob, 2006; Eryılmaz, 2010; Pavot, Diener, Colvin, & Sandvik, 1991; Watson, Clark, Tellegen, 1988; Simpson et al, 2014 2

3

4

5

6

B. Gender Differences on Hujjaj’s Subjective Well-being Table 3 shows that male hujjaj did not differ significantly from female on Life Satisfaction, Negative Affect, and overall score of Subjective Well-being. However, male hujjaj were significantly different from females on Positive Affect (p=.002). Inspection of the two groups indicates that the average PA score of female (36.07) is significantly lower than the males 38.5. The difference between the two means is 2.43 on a 50-points scale. The effect size d is approximately .36, which is a small to medium sized effect (Cohen, 1988). Table 3 - Comparisons of Male and Female Malaysian Hujjaj on the scores of SWB, SWLS, PA, and NA (n=151 males and 149 females)

Variable

M

SD

Subjective Well-being Male

43.25

12.31

Female

41.87

12.95

Life Satisfaction Male

24.80

5.75

Female

24.86

6.07

Positive Affect Male

38.50

6.73

Female

36.07

6.85

Negative Affect Male

20.05

7.31

Female

19.05

6.56

t

df

p

.941

298

.348

-.09

298

.933

3.1

298

.002

1.25

298

.214

C. Age Differences on Hujjaj’s Subjective Well-being A review of the differences between hujajj’s age group showed that there are no significant differences between them on overall subjective well-being, reported positive affect, and reported negative affect. However, a statistically significant difference was found on life satisfaction (Satisfaction With Life Scale), with F(7,292)=2.20, p=.03. However, post hoc Tukey HSD Tests indicate no significant difference in their SWLS scores. Table 4a shows the mean score and SD for each age groups and Table 4b summarizes findings on the statistical analysis. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Table 4a - Means and Standard Deviations Comparing Age Groups of Malaysian Hujjaj on the scores of SWB, SWLS, PA, and NA

Age Groups

N

SWB

SWLS

PA

NA

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Below 20

6

34.33

10.54

20.67

4.46

32.83

2.99

19.17

6.31

21-30

15

34.60

11.17

21.93

5.69

37.27

8.04

24.60

7.17

31-40

32

41.88

14.16

23.78

5.90

38.66

6.18

20.56

8.40

41-50

85

43.39

12.81

24.16

5.82

37.58

7.67

18.35

5.72

51-60

113

43.26

11.81

25.69

5.80

36.95

6.74

19.38

7.14

61-70

38

42.74

13.45

25.55

6.29

37.05

6.39

19.87

7.30

71-80

10

47.30

11.80

27.60

4.45

38.70

5.27

19.00

5.33

Above 81

1

31.00

.

31.00

.

30.00

.

30.00

.

Total

300

42.56

12.63

24.83

5.90

37.29

6.89

19.56

6.95

Table 4b - One-Way Analysis of Variance Summary Table Comparing Age Groups of Malaysian Hujjaj on the scores of SWB, SWLS, PA, and NA

Source

df

SS

MS

F

p

1.68

0.11

2.20

0.03*

0.82

0.57

1.99

0.06

Subjective Well-being Between groups Within groups Total

7

1844.15

263.45

292

45875.65

157.11

299

47719.8

7

520.95

74.42

292

9887.38

33.86

299

10408.33

7

274.36

39.19

292

13925.42

47.69

299

14199.77

7

657.34

93.91

292

13796.7

47.25

299

14454.04

Life Satisfaction Between groups Within groups Total Positive Affect Between groups Within groups Total Negative Affect Between groups Within groups Total

D. Effects of Formal Religious Education on Hujjaj’s Subjective Well-being Table 5 shows that participants who have attended any form of formal religious education have no significant difference with those who have not attended religious school. This is true on the four measures used for this study. Table 5 - Comparisons of Attendance to Formal Religious Education among Malaysian Hujjaj on the scores of SWB, SWLS, PA, and NA (n=171 no formal religious education and n=95 attended formal religious education)

Variable

M

SD

Subjective Well-being No Relig. Edu.

42.59

12.54

Attend Relig. Edu.

43.88

12.29

Life Satisfaction No Relig. Edu.

24.42

t

df

p

-0.81

264

0.42

-1.62

264

0.11

6.00

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Variable Attend Relig. Edu.

M

SD

25.61

t

df

p

-0.29

264

0.77

-0.17

264

0.87

5.26

Positive Affect No Relig. Edu.

37.58

6.90

Attend Relig. Edu.

37.83

6.59

Negative Affect No Relig. Edu.

19.41

7.11

Attend Relig. Edu.

19.56

6.49

E. Effects of Previous Hajj Experience on Hujjaj’s Subjective Well-being Table 6a shows that there are no significant differences between those who have previously performed the Hajj and those who are first-time hujjaj. Also, in Table 6b, there are no significant differences between those who have previously visited Makkah (e.g. had taken umrah trip) and those who are first-time visitor to Makkah. Table 6a - Comparisons of First-time Hujjaj and those with previous hajj experience among Malaysian Hujjaj on the scores of SWB, SWLS, PA, and NA (n=268 First-time hujjaj and n=32 those with previous hajj experience)

Variable

M

SD

Subjective Well-being First-time Hajj

42.55

12.68

Previous Hajj

42.69

12.43

Life Satisfaction First-time Hajj

24.81

5.89

Previous Hajj

24.97

6.09

Positive Affect First-time Hajj

37.28

7.07

Previous Hajj

37.34

5.21

Negative Affect First-time Hajj

19.55

6.87

Previous Hajj

19.63

7.77

t

df

p

-0.06

298

0.95

-0.14

298

0.89

-0.06*

45.89*

0.95

-0.06

298

0.95

* The t and df were adjusted because variance were not equal

Table 6b - Comparisons of first-time trip to Makkah and those with previous trip experience to Makkah among Malaysian Hujjaj on the scores of SWB, SWLS, PA, and NA (n=186 first-time trip to Makkah and n=114 those with previous trip experience)

Variable

M

SD

Subjective Well-being First-time Hajj

42.92

12.73

Previous Hajj

41.98

12.51

Life Satisfaction First-time Hajj

24.66

6.31

Previous Hajj

25.11

5.17

Positive Affect First-time Hajj

37.66

6.88

Previous Hajj

36.68

6.89

Negative Affect First-time Hajj

19.40

6.73

Previous Hajj

19.81

7.33

t

df

p

0.62

298

0.53

-0.66*

274.01*

0.51

1.19

298

0.23

-0.49

298

0.63

* The t and df were adjusted because variance were not equal

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DISCUSSION The results indicate that the Malay translation of the scales shares similar psychometric properties as of the original English version. For the Malays version of SWLS, the internal consistency of the scale was .82 (Cronbach’s alpha). The alphas, if any individual item was deleted, range from 0.738 (item #1) to 0.893 (item #5). For PANAS, the obtained Cronbach’s alpha is .85 (PA) and .86 (NA). The alphas for individual items range from .829 to .865 for PA and .840 to .869 for NA. This supports the use of the Malay translation for this study. The mean score for general subjective well-being of Malaysian hujjaj was 42.56, which is higher than any other reported study among Malaysians (22.31 for manufacturing workers; 23.29 for medical students), Turkish students (23.48), American students (24.5), and older American adults (24.2). The facts that these Malaysian hujjaj appeared to be slightly happier than the rest of the sample warrant more investigation. It is highly possible that the hajj pilgrimage contributes to the higher scores. Malaysian Hujjaj also reported higher mean of positive affect (37.29) compared to others (between 29.7-34.1) and lower mean of negative affect (19.56) to other Malaysian and Turkish sample. However, American university students and older European adult reported lower mean negative affect (14.8 and 14.05 respectively). Higher means of positive affect and lower negative affect may indicate that hujjaj have embraced positive attitude and at the same time attempted to avoid negative emotions while performing the hajj. However, lower negative affect among American and European sample may indicate cross-cultural differences. No gender differences are detected on overall subjective well-being. This result is parallel with literature on the subject matter (Fujita, 191). The fact that subjective well-being is experienced subjectively, it does not favor specific gender groups. Similar findings are reported on life satisfaction and negative affect. However, on positive affect, female hujjaj were reported to experience lower level of positive affect compared to male hujjaj. No possible explanation can be given from the literature as most study reported no significant differences between the genders. Research participants were grouped into several age groups, of which are below 20 years old, 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, 51-60, 61-70, 71-80, and above 81. Statistical analysis showed no significant differences between the age groups on overall subjective well-being, reported positive affect, and reported negative affect. Although statistically significant difference was reported on reported life satisfaction, post hoc Tukey HSD Tests indicate no significant difference in their SWLS scores. One possible explanation on this is that, although ANOVA indicates possible evidence that the age groups are different, not enough data are available to indicate which group are different than the other. Another possible explanation is that these grouping are based on an arbitrary decision, thus is a matter of conjecture. Having formal religious education at some point in life does not lead to happiness during the pilgrimage. This result does not rule out the need for religious knowledge in performing the hajj. However, it is possible that the weekly training (ceramah) around the country sponsored by Tabung Haji for would-be pilgrims before the pilgrimage have its effects. Further investigation will be conducted on the effect of these trainings on hujjaj’s well-being. Lastly, this study tried to understand whether any previous experience with the pilgrimage or previous experience with Makkah had any effect on the hujjaj’s subjective well-being. Comparisons between firsttime hujjaj and those who have previously performed the pilgrimage showed no significant difference on the scores of subjective well-being, life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect. Those with first-time trip experience to Makkah also reported no significant difference as well compared to those who have visited Makkah more than once before.

CONCLUSION The present study indicates that Malaysian Hujjaj who were performing the pilgrim were generally happy with their lives. They are also reported to be happier than other sample tested using the same measures of subjective well-being and life satisfaction. Their emotions are quite predictable, having higher level of positive affect and lower level of negative affect while performing the hajj. However, analysis of data showed that these cannot be generally attributed to gender, age, formal religious education (to an extent, the level of religious knowledge), previous experience in performing the hajj, nor to previous experience in visiting Makkah or performing the umrah. The present study indicates the need for further investigation on this matter. The researcher will focus on the five essential elements that are crucial for lasting state of subjective well-being: positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment.

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ACKNOWLEDMENTS The main author is a Graduate Research Assistant under USM Hajj Kluster LRGS Grant PTS6728002. Data collection in Makkah during the 2013 Hajj season was made possible by the grant. Permission and assistance from Tabung Haji Malaysia for this purpose is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES Ayob, S, Ahmad Hatta, Z., and Naing, N. N. (2012). Hajj as a positive institution that promotes happiness and subjective well-being. Jurnal Pengurusan JAWHAR, 6(1), 150-155. Ayob, S. (2006). An Investigation of Religiousness and its Relationship to Subjective Well-being. Comparisons between Sample of Australian and Malaysian University Students. Unpublished raw data, Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. Clingingsmith, D., Khwaja, A. I., & Kremer, M. (2009). Estimating the impact of the Hajj: religion and tolerance in Islam's global gathering. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 124(3), 1133-1170. Cohen, A. B. (2002). The Importance of Spirituality in Well-being for Jews and Christian. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, 287-310. Eryılmaz, A. (2010). Turkish Adolescents’ Subjective Well- Being with Respect to Age, Gender and SES of Parents. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 4, 38-41. Fazel, M. K., & Young, D. M. (1988). Life Quality of Tibetans and Hindus: A Function of Religion. Journal for The Scientific Study of Religion, 27(2), 229-242. Fujita, F. (1991). An Investigation of the Relation Between Extroversion, Neuroticism, Positive Affect, and Negative Affect. Master’s Thesis, University of Illinois. Gatrad, A. R., & Sheikh, A. (2005). Clinical review- Hajj: Journey of a lifetime. British Medical Journal, 330, 133137. Masood, K., Gazzaz, Z. J., Ismail, K., Dhafar, K. O., & Kamal, A. (2007). Pattern of Psychiatry Morbidity During Hajj Period at Al-Noor Specialist Hospital. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 37(2), 163172. Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the satisfaction of life scale. Psychological Assessment, 5(2), 164-172. Pavot, W., Diener, E., Colvin, C. R., & Sandvik, E. (1991). Further Validation of the Satisfaction With Life Scale: Evidence for Cross-method Convergence of Well-being Measures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57, 2-13. R Ibrahim, R. Z. A. (2012). Psychosocial Work Environment, Organisational Justice and Work Family Conflict as Predictors of Malaysian Worker Wellbeing. (Unpublished Doctoral Thesis). Victoria University, Melbourne. Salsman, J. M., Brown, T. L., Brechting, E. H., & Carlson, C. R. (2005). The Link between Religion and Spirituality and Psychological Adjustment: the Mediating Role of Optimism and Social Support. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(4), 522-535. Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. Free Press: New York. Seligman, M. E. P. (2012). Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-being. Free Press. Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive Psychology: an introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14. Simpson, E. E. A, Maylor, E. A., McConville, C., Stewart-Knox, B., Meunier, N., Andriollo-Sanchez, M., Polito, A., Interro, F., McCormack, J. M., Coudray, C. (2014) Mood and Cognition in Healthy Older European Adults: The Zenith Study. BMC Psychology, 2.11. Retrieved from http://www.biomedcentral.com/20507283/2/11 Watson, D., Clark, L.A., & Tellegen, A. (1988) Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070 Wolfe, M. (1997). One thousand roads to Mecca: Ten centuries of travelers writing about the Muslim pilgrimage. New York: Grove Press.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

ENHANCING WELL-BEINGS VIA THE SACREDNESS OF ‘EDUCERE’ Nor’adha Abd Hamid*, Suziana Hanini Sulaiman , Ahmad Yani Ismail, Siti Noor Binti Ahmad, Imran Kamal Basah, Intan Fadzliana Ahmad, Khairunnisa’ Ismail, Ahmad Misbah Mohd Helmi, Mohd Norzi Nasir,Wazzainab Ismail, Raj Ali Zahid Elley, Suhana Md. Lip *[email protected] International Islamic University College Selangor (KUIS)

Abstract The loss of ‘educere’ in the nature of its sacredness within human well beings should be a concern to everybody. In today’s needs to improve, stabilize and enhance the well-beings of individuals or insan, family and the society at large, the real concept of ‘educere’ and its landscape needs vital attention. In the life of insan, learning takes different forms depending on the surrounding and the situation including the process of informal learning which exceeds formal studies. Enhancing and incorporating values and skills in the process of learning are required in addressing the ever changing and challenging psychosocial issues within society. Education needs the map of ‘educere’ and the true practice of learning process. This paper will highlights the sacredness of ‘educere’ and its map of knowledge, the true concept of learning, the process of spiritual cleansing towards seeding the adab and a return to fitrah as insan. The authors suggesting that all elements will lead to the acceptance of real understanding of knowledge in order to mould, improve and enhance the well-beings from the beginnings in today’s rampant and challenging psychosocial issues surrounding world life. Keywords: Educere, fitrah, insan, education

INTRODUCTION Education today inclines to core competency which emphasises aspects of professional skills and competency with religion applied as cosmetics. In reality, education through the Islamic perspective should be the core through tauhid education and Islam as Core should be manifested via a core curriculum. This is because the aim of education is to form insan from their ‘fitrah’ as well beings with the role of khalifah of Allah SWT in prospering the earth. The development and enhancement of character (adab) is the element of utmost importance, which is to be raised from the nature of insan, and should be the core before cultivating other forms of knowledge.

GAINING BACK THE TRUE MEANING OF EDUCATION FOR THE BENEFITS OF ENHANCING WELL BEINGS Insufficient awareness of the great educational achievements of the past in Islam bears the risk of not recognizing the genuineness field of education in Islam as compared to conflicting values. Without realizing the history of education in Islamic realms, we may fail to achieve the level of true education in Islam, its Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

understanding and reasoning reached by great generations while, at the same time, keeping ourselves busy adopting western and non-fitrah concepts of education, while ignoring the true solutions to which have long been available in the stores of historical knowledge in Islamic perspectives. Insan’s ‘fitrah’ is the back in origin concept. We have to begin a journey to be back in origin. It is a journey to ensure that a student graduated from university will be what a graduate should be; one equipped with knowledge, skills and ability but more, their souls strengthened with adab (KUIS 2011). It is academically useful to understand and analyze etymological definition of ‘education’. In English word, ‘‘education’’ which was derived (normally Greek or Latin) to come out either from educere or educure. In the first sense to educate is to ‘‘lead out or bring out, ’’ while in the second it means ‘‘to form or train.’’(Ahmad 1998). Ibnu Khaldun, a classical muslim philosopher and sociologist in fourteenth century, expresses the view that education consists of intellectual, social, and moral training through which hidden potentialities are developed, traits of character are built and culture of the people is conveyed to the coming generations. Aristotle defined education as process necessary for the creation of a sound mind in a sound body, which the aim and objective of education is to create good and virtuous citizens. Dewey, in twentieth century, defined as: "Education is a process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is development of all those capacities in the individual that will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities." The British scholar, G. Langford expressed that education is an activity which aims at practical results in contrast with activities which aim at theoretical results. (Qadri 2012). It will be generally agreed that education forms the most important link between man’s past and future. In fact, it constitutes that process of evaluation and transmission, of coping with the present and planning for the future, which determines a community’s survival. It is through education that the cultural heritage, knowledge, and values of a social group are preserved and the continuity of its collective life ensured. In short, education imparts meaning to the existence of a culture and helps it sustain its worldview. The term ‘education’ in Islam is understood and comprehended in a totally different manner to what is understood within Western societies. As education in Islam is a very essential tool to mould human thought and life, so its educational system has the potential to lead civilization to the pinnacle. Islam seeks to set up its own civilization on the earth. Therefore, the mission of all prophets was to establish al-Din covering all aspects include the values of religion, the faith and belief, the mode and path of life as muslims. In order to understand what the teachings of Islam are, one has to be able to see via the Prophetic standards and Muhammad SAW is the best of all models. The Prophet SAW established a full-fledged Islamic society in Arabian Peninsula which continued flourishing for several centuries. It was not merely religious society but represented Islamic principles in all walks of life and total angles such as in social, political, economic, moral, cultural, military, international relations and education. Surah 39, ayah 9 reveals: "Are those equal, those who know and those who do not know?". Surah 2, ayah 269 reveals: "Allah grants wisdom to whom He pleases and to whom wisdom is granted indeed he receives an overflowing benefit." The Holy Quran, in fact, stimulates Muslim scholarship to study the Universe in its various facts. “About 750 verses of the holy Quran exhort the believers to study nature, to make best use of ‘Aql (Reason/ intellect) in their search and to make acquisition of knowledge and scientific comprehension as there are signs of Allah’s power for mankind”. Holy Quran says “Verily in the creation of the Heavens and the Earth, and in the alternation of night and the day, there are indeed signs (revelations and proofs) for men of understanding” (3:190). Thus the aims and objectives of education or contents of education can be understood from the last Revealed Book, the Quran. We quote a verse of the Quran, ”Certainly did Allah confer [great] favor upon the believers when He sent among them a Messenger from themselves, reciting to them His verses and purifying them and teaching them the Book and wisdom, although they had been before in manifest error” (3:164). The verse identifies aims and objectives of education and among others are the faith plantation, the knowledge advancement, the wisdom enhancement and the manner development. Ones needs to realize the importance of the map of knowledge as the mould elements of organic and emergent values of insan as to living by objective in this world as ‘khalifatullah’. The best formula to instill in education is the recipe of nurturing ‘adab’ to achieve the wholesome ‘insan ta’dibi’ as ‘khalifatullah’ through the vertical elements of having the faith in Allah SWT. We should come back to the nature of fitrah of practising ‘Know, Do, Be’ and be ready to ‘Unlearn, Learn and Relearn’ in life to regain the glory of the way of life based on Islam. Through these phases of learning, the faith among us will be planted steadily and the cycle of knowledge and wisdom advancement will take place, while developing after all the good manners or adab of insan. Having all these in place, and as citizens and one big society, we should be able to minimize those challenging psychosocial issues within us.

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ROLE OF UNIVERSITY IN ENHANCING WELL-BEINGS AND INSTILLING ‘ADAB’ THROUGH ‘EDUCERE’ Education is the inculcation of adab into the spirit of insan while adab is the mirror of the wisdom of insan Ta’dibi. Al-Ghazali in his Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din, said that the noble aim of education is its coherence with the objective of the creation of mankind, that is, to master knowledge about Allah SWT. This life is a journey to prepare oneself for life in the Hereafter and not for the sake of power, influence or wealth. Universities should mould students who are wholesome, being imbued with wisdom and morals, and are able to lead and shape their lives. This, however, is rarely achieved now. How many of the local institutions of higher education emphasise on the cultivation of adab and the moulding of insan ta’dibi and place these as the aim of the institution? The university, as a cultural institution closely linked to skills and values, needs to continuously evaluate the appropriateness of culture and practical implications on its programmes and orientation (Wan Mohd Noor Wan Daud, 2013). The growth of a university transcends time and plays a crucial role in not only aspects of teaching and learning but in other significant roles in developing the society and nation. However, the tremendous advancement in the globalisation, information technology and communication era and changes in the lifestyles of the society have caused the university to shift its focus to be abreast with the demands of time. The First World Conference on Islamic education which commenced in Makkah al-Mukarramah (1977) which discussed the concept of true Islamic education decided that education institutions should not be alienated from education philosophy and Islamic universities should not adopt philosophies and policies which are not founded on the teachings of Islam (Syed Ali Ashraf Shaikh Abdul Mabud, 1977). The true meaning of education with its aim to bear witness to the Oneness of Allah SWT has long been deviated. The advent of the colonial era saw the adaptation of an education system from the West, structured on eurocentrism which is secular and upholds materialism. This produced graduates who entered the industry devoid of the insan nature and without a sense of being servants to their creature (al-khalik), when they failed to comprehend the meaning of life on this world which is just a mere bridge to the Next. We often learn exclusively for a career-life and not for living a human-life. Of these, then, would there emerge leaders, shapers of the education systems, and policy makers that would contribute to the endless cycle of mass generic product moulded by the West. Trans-formation (beyond the formation) in the governance of education involves not only change from the outside but further, it starts with tasawwur or correct worldview (Chittick & Murata, 1994). Since change in the education institution involves insan, it should start internally, understanding the purpose of education itself. To start with correct understanding, it begins with philosophy. This then will lead to implementation of action through the formation of principles, procedure and process. If the philosophy is flawed, it affects the principles, procedure and process of the administration of an institution of education. Trans-formation is not an outer garment, but it should start from within, with the philosophy, to process, which then will be appreciated by members of the whole organisation. Philosophy acts as a compass that will show administrators the correct direction of where an institution should be taken. In dealing with insan, the University has very undivided roles and responsibilities, among others are:

University: An Undivided Function of Nurturing Insan The quality of education has always been intriguing as it reflects the development of insan and society. Education is only arrived at the soul (Al-Ghazali 1058-1111). Without “soul” education is blind, disconnected and only create the gadgets operating in machine language or robot in flesh for our future society which could lead to various psychosocial issues in society. Education is a full set of study plan for the emergence of the organic values of insan. Technically, it is a systematic learning experience which focuses on achieving the learning objectives and it is beyond an instrument to educate the younger generation in developing their promptness, talent, strength and personality. University must be able to educate and equip insan via education with the ability to uphold their responsibility as khalifatullah towards al-khaliq, towards themselves and their religion, their families and the society. The emergence of numbers of higher learning institutions which provide graduates from various disciplines, but with debatable motive to gain is the sign of our worry in education development. The phenomena must be closely linked and tackled through the curriculum structures and developments. The social and moral decadence in society which has affected the human systems such as the economy, politics, law and family institutions has triggered a question whether the curriculum is lacking of certain values since some of the graduates are lack of adab and moral values as if they are just ‘robots in flesh’(KUIS 2011).

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Education is about ‘éducere’ or drawing/bringing out from the student of what is innate, in essence, the education of the human should be about bringing out the potential in them. Taken in the context of life teleology, it seems obvious that education is about nurturing human potential to carry out the covenant with the al-khaliq. Only an education system that recognizes a transcendental presence would be able to bring out the ability of the human to place the role of al-khaliq in their equation of life through having the appropriate value system. Al-Attas (1954, 1980) appropriately argued that mainstream education without emphasizing on character formation has practically no value in Islam. This goes beyond just observable mannerism of an individual to comprise too, the dominion of one’s internal governance and intellectual discipline. This type of education that allows for the cultivation of adab is what Al-Attas (1980) rendered as ta’dib. We view the humans or makhluq who have undergone this type of education as insan ta’dibi. Today’s development of too much commercialization of programs sparks one major question to ask. This fundamental question that needs to be answered by all Institute of Higher Education (IHE) is “What is the purpose of University?” Part of the answer to this question can be traced back in 1977 in the First World Conference on Muslim Education whereby Muslim scholars from around the globe agreed on a definition for the aim of Islamic education as being, ‘The aim of education is the creation of the good and righteous man who worships Allah SWT in the true sense of the term, builds up the structure of his earthly life according to the Shariah and employs it to sub serve his faith.’ The Conference called for muslims worldwide to re-implement the education based on Al-Quran and Al-Sunnah and to indirectly elevate knowledge based on Al-Tawhid (the ‘oneness’ concept). Fast forward, global Muslim educationists gathered in Malaysia on 19-20 October 2010 at The Muslim Universities Vice-Chancellors’/Presidents’ Forum (MUVCF – OIC, ISESCO) (MOHE 2010), to deliberate on ‘Charting New Directions for Muslim Universities: Must We Subscribe to Western Ideological and Philosophical Constructs?’ and has passed 11 resolutions (Arfah, 2010). Overall Forum, urged us to return to the true educational system based on Islam through a total separation from Eurocentrism and to focus on the priority in developing the ummah as well as implementing the concept of a university based on Islam. This noble call could be strongly supported by Resolution 1 and Resolution 11 of total 11 resolutions passed by them. Those 2 important resolutions should be considered as second or third wake up call after the First World Conference on Muslim Education held in 1977. Unfortunately, are we now taking any first or further steps preparing ourselves and university towards the transformation of total Islamic based education landscape by returning the ‘soul’ to the education, or are we in the standstill position? It is best then if we do not have concrete good answer for ourselves to start analyzing the ‘spirit’ and big agenda of the Resolution 1 and Resolution 11 of the Forum, as follows:

Resolution I The Muslim Universities Vice-Chancellors’/Presidents’ Forum (MUVCF – OIC, ISESCO), Malaysia, October 2010 declares the urgent need to look for an Islamic approach to higher education, collectively, for developing minds with Islamic and universal values.

Resolution II The strong need for an Islamic education model does not necessarily give rise to the need to establish a new ‘physical’ university to implement the model. A virtually university concept could be adopted and/or enhanced to operationalise such a model. Resolution I clearly spelt out the consensus among the global Muslim IHE’s captains of the compelling need to relook at the approach to higher education for developing minds with Islamic and universal values. Resolution II calls for an Islamic education model that is the map of educere. In establishing an IHE, the emphasizes should be more on developing the appropriate worldview of Islamic university based on the principles of Islam and at the same time appropriate infrastructure is in proper place. Great emphasize on the physical aspect serves little purpose if the essence of education from the Islamic perspective is absent. In an effort to reclaim Islamic tradition as the alternative, if not as mainstream model for HE, the appropriate approach is to disseminate the right philosophy and worldview of education and the role of university in Islam. A worldview that clarify the purpose of human existence in this temporary world as khalifatullah, places human in its right and proper place as insan ta’dibi. The model of HE must be one that allows for the recognition and acknowledgement for things to be put in the right and proper place in the order of creation, in agreement with what Al-Attas (1980) describes as adab.

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Practising ‘Know, Do, Be’ and ‘Unlearn, Learn and Relearn’ In Enhancing Well Beings The ideal form of education is one that nurture from the roots; one that instils the serene values at the beginning of education. Schools should infuse young minds with a sense of ta’dib that would one day flourish into a worldview that mirrors good values in its true sense. While skills and abilities are honed in higher levels of education, they will not be empty or devoid of the treasures of our heart. Their senses would no longer be numb to what portrays real achievement in life – a life that is fulfilling in this world and promising contentment in the hereafter. They would be insan kaffah or perfection as insan is achieved. In this journey to attain the perfection as insan, we really need to look forward to unlearn everything which is non-positive in order to learn ourselves of all positive values and what Islam commands us. The process of re-learn is the real fitrah journey for those who want to change for the sake of their religion and the purpose of human being.

Upholding Insan Governance (Ihsan) in Education So As to Enhance Well Beings The first and most crucial obligation on us is to acquire knowledge and secondly to practice and preach this knowledge. The word ‘Islam’ and ‘Muslim’ should not serve as a label or slogan that does not reflect its true essence as ‘Muslim’ and in the religion of ‘Islam’. Hence, no man becomes truly a Muslim without knowing the meaning of Islam, because he becomes a Muslim not through birth but through knowledge. Throughout the twentieth century, Muslim scholars called for a revival of the Islamic intellectual tradition in order to address the moral and spiritual malaise which has too long afflicted Muslim people the world over. The loss of insan governance is one of the major factor of this malaise which rarely undeniable by some experts. Human governance is something beyond what is achieved by the senses, experience, mind or feeling. It returns the core of one’s being through the vertical dimension and dependence upon Allah SWT. A selected leader will value integrity or trustworthiness or what is known in Islam as ihsan with specific behaviour and adab. Insan governance moves from within or from the spirit to physical actions. Hence, when discussing insan as the basic subject, reference has to be made to components of inner characteristics, awareness and spirit. Insan governance stresses on aspects of spiritual development of leaders leading an institution of education. Leadership is about being human because as a leader, one leads insan and not robots or machines. Insan is formed with adab and controlled with ihsan (Chittick & Murata, 1994). Ihsan means doing something with the feeling of trust, responsibility and the sensation of being watched. The meaning of ihsan is given in a hadith where Rasulullah says, “Ihsan is performing one’s ibadah as if one sees Allah (watching him), even if one does not see Him, remember that He sees you (Hadith related by Bukhari dan Muslim). Human governance is rooted in religion to guide worldview, way of thinking, decision making and actions of a leader. Malik Bennabi once said that colonisation has internally damaged the native society in terms of problems regarding the spirit, mind and culture which have opened paths to a new kind of dominance, that of the mind. The most critical problem facing the Muslim world now is the problem of knowledge which results in social, economic and political upheavals. This is admitted by scholars such as (Al-Attas, 2011; Fauziah Md Taib & Hafiz Zakariya, 2012; Syed Ali Ashraf Shaikh Abdul Mabud, 1977). His Majesty Duli Yang Maha Mulia, Pemangku Raja Perak Darul Ridzuan, Raja Nazrin Shah in Kongres Majlis Agama Islam Negeri Seluruh Malaysia held on the 26th of September 2011, said that Islamic institution such as the State Islamic Religious Council should play a role in shaping the development of Muslims through various fields. It requires a paradigm shift, work ethos and change in administration. The purpose and direction of future education should be emphasised by administrators of universities in their attempt to achieve transcendence in education. This is to ensure that knowledge given is in line with fitrah and leads to the truth. The education institution should be different from business institutions or corporate bodies which have profit aims solely. Insan governance, run by insan for insan should be meaningful so education could return to its original purpose, that is to mould insan ta’dibi, responsible to himself and to his God, does justice to himself and his fellow men, while attempting to achieve perfection (Wan Mohd Noor Wan Daud, 2005). By upholding this insan governance or ihsan, the well beings of insan should be enhanced accordingly as it is their original fitrah for being in good governance and adab.

CONCLUSION The life cycle of the butterfly in which it starts from unattractive caterpillar which is later on transform into a beautiful butterfly, after going through several phases in its life that consist of a lot of difficulties and patience, is the best cycle for self-reflection. Self-reflection of oneself can be trained through the process of learning to always transforming via ‘Unlearn, Learn and Relearn’ and to achieve the ‘Know, Do, Be’ package as insan. Apart from this, muslims must realize of their best models on this earth. The prophets and messengers, they © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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are all our best models in the building of sahsiah, who should be emulated by us (KUIS 2011). It is also a great responsibility for those insan in University, from the top to the bottom and from the bottom to the top to uphold the philosophy of education in its true sense in an attempt to enhance and mould insan ta’dibi. Its function is to bringing back values of the ‘educere’ concept as to repeat and step in the footsteps of the prophetic standards. In achieving this goal, one should highlight that the educational systems can be developed and evaluated even though the maturation process of education gauged in a long period of time. We must assume a huge responsibility to alter the landscape of education in its aims towards enhancing well beings and making adab the mainstream in education. The sacredness of education and insan is the absorption of adab in one’s self. The actualization of adab in insan composing society as a collective entity reflects the condition of justice; and justice itself is a reflection of wisdom, which is the light that is lit from the lamp of prophecy that enables the recipient to discover the right and proper place for a thing or a being to be. The responsibility of University as the place of embodiment and enhancement of insan as insan ta’dibi and as high quality in character, based on the recognized quality of benchmark of shariah itself via the sacredness of education or ‘educere’, proved to be the true function of University. The map of ‘educere’ representing education in life comprises the realms of Islamic teachings, the fitrah in us as insan and our sacredness as khalifatullah who possess noble personalities and caliphate values. Through it, knowledge are acquired, the soul, the mind, the body, the senses and the emotions are well trained in order to address the ever changing and challenging psychosocial issues within us. It is also to enhance and mould a well-mannered and well-disciplined learned insan for a never-ending cycle and responsibilities in temporary worldly and permanent life.

REFERENCES Al-Qur’an Al-Karim 'Arabi, I. (1993). Adab and Revelation. Ahmad, A. (1998). "The Concept of Education in Islam." The Quarterly Journal of the Al-Quran Academy, 3(1): 70. Al-Attas. S. M. N (1977). Islam Faham Agama dan Akhlak. Kuala Lumpur: ABIM. Al-Attas, S. M. N. (1980, 1999, 2011). The Concept of Education in Islam: The Framework for An Islamic Philosophy of Education. ISTAC.KL Al-Ghazali (1058-1111). Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din. (2007). Islamic Book Trust. Chittick, W., Murata, S (1994). The Vision of Islam. New York: Paragon, Arfah, S. (2010). Way Forward: Operationalising a Higher Education Model Based on Islam. The Muslim Universities Vice-Chancellors'/Presidents' Forum. Kuala Lumpur, Ministry of Higher Education. Hafiz Zakariya, Fauziah Md. Taib (Editors) (2012). Charting New Directions For Muslim Universities. Penang: Penerbit USM. Syed Ali Ashraf, S.A.M (1977). Organizing Secretary of the First World Conference on Muslim Education, Mecca 1977. KUIS, S. T. K. (2011). Transformation of KUIS, Research Development Center KUIS. MOHE (2010). Resolution of Muslim Universities Vice-Chancellors'/Presidents' Forum. The Muslim Universities Vice-Chancellors'/Presidents' Forum. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, MOHE. Qadri, M. I. (2012). "An Islamic Perspective towards Philosophy of Education". Retrieved 10 Oct 2012, 2012, from http://ezinearticles.com/?Contents-of-Education&id=6012984. Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud (2005, 2013). Falsafah dan Amalan Pendidikan Islam Syed Naquib Al-Attas: Satu Huraian Konsep Asli Islamisasi

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PERAKAUNAN ZAKAT PADI DAN HUBUNGKAITNYA DENGAN KESEJAHTERAAN SOSIAL PETANI: KAJIAN KES DI NEGERI PERLIS Mohd Shukri Hanapi* *[email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract Kertas kerja ini bertujuan meneliti dan menganalisis hubungkait antara perakaunan zakat padi dengan kesejahteraan sosial para petani di Negeri Perlis. Penelitian dan penganalisisan ini dibuat berdasarkan buku panduan dan amalan perakaunan zakat pertanian di Negeri Perlis. Menurut Manual Pengurusan Pengiraan Zakat yang dikeluarkan oleh Jabatan Wakaf, Zakat dan Haji (JAWHAR), perakaunan zakat pertanian dibuat dengan menolak kos pengeluaran daripada pendapatan kasar. Setelah itu barulah dikeluarkan zakat pertanian. Salah sebuah negeri yang didapati mengguna pakai manual JAWHAR ini ialah Negeri Perlis. Mereka bukan sahaja mengguna pakai manual ini, malah lebih daripada itu kerana selain menolak kos pengeluaran pertanian mereka juga menolak kos sara hidup. Hal ini bermakna, perakaunan zakat pertanian di Negeri Perlis dibuat dengan menolak kos pengeluaran pertanian dan kos sara hidup. Persoalannya, kenapakah Perlis mengamalkan hal sedemikian sedangkan fatwa yang dikeluarkan oleh majoriti negeri di Malaysia tidak membenarkan kos pengeluaran pertanian ditolak daripada pendapatan kasar? Kenapakah Perlis membenarkan kos sara hidup ditolak? Apakah hujah dan alasan mereka dalam hal ini? Adakah mereka mengambil kira aspek kemaslahatan kesejahteraan sosial para petani? Bagi menjawab kesemua persoalan ini, perbincangan dalam kertas kerja ini dibahagikan kepada tiga bahagian. Pertama, membincangkan pandangan fuqaha’ tentang kos pengeluaran dan kos sara hidup; kedua, membincangkan keselarian amalan perakaunan zakat padi di Negeri Perlis dengan pandangan fuqaha’; dan ketiga, membincangkan hubungkait antara perakaunan zakat padi di Negeri Perlis dengan kesejahteraan sosial para petani. Berdasarkan analisis kandungan terhadap data sekunder dan data primer, kertas kerja ini mendapati amalan perakaunan zakat padi di Negeri Perlis adalah selari dengan pandangan fuqaha’. Mereka mempunyai hujah-hujah yang kukuh dan turut mengambil kira aspek kemaslahatan kesejahteraan sosial para petani. Keywords: perakaunan, zakat, usahawan tani, kos pengeluaran, dan kos sara hidup

PENGENALAN Hasil pertanian yang dikenakan zakat di Malaysia ialah padi. Padi yang diproses menjadi beras merupakan makanan asasi di Malaysia. Padi di utara semenanjung Malaysia iaitu di Negeri Kedah, Perlis, Pulau Pinang dan Perak menjadi sumber pendapatan dan diusahakan sama ada sekali atau dua kali setahun. Kewajipan zakat hasil padi ini adalah mengikut musim tuaian setelah mencukupi nisab tanpa perlu syarat hawl (tempoh masa). Dalam melaksanakan kewajipan ini, setiap negeri mempunyai kaedah perakaunan zakat hasil padi masingmasing. Perakaunan zakat hasil padi yang diamalkan di negeri-negeri di utara semenanjung Malaysia agak berbeza antara satu sama lain. Perbezaan perakaunan zakat hasil padi ini boleh dibahagikan kepada tiga kategori. Pertama, zakat hasil padi dikenakan terhadap pendapatan kasar; kedua, zakat hasil padi dikenakan Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

terhadap pendapatan bersih setelah ditolak kos pengeluaran; dan ketiga, zakat hasil padi dikenakan terhadap pendapatan bersih setelah ditolak kos pengeluaran dan kos keperluan asasi. Kebanyakan negeri mengenakan zakat hasil padi terhadap pendapatan kasar dan terhadap pendapatan bersih setelah ditolak kos pengeluaran, kecuali Negeri Perlis. Di Perlis, perakaunan zakat hasil padi dikenakan terhadap pendapatan bersih setelah ditolak kos pengeluaran (modal pertanian) dan kos sara hidup (keperluan asasi) pada kadar 10 peratus (Temu bual Haji Mohd Nazim Mohd Noor, 27 Februari 2014). Sebenarnya, perakaunan zakat hasil padi di negeri Perlis ini bukan sahaja menuruti Manual Pengurusan Pengiraan Zakat yang dikeluarkan oleh Jabatan Wakaf, Zakat dan Haji (JAWHAR) (2008:46), iaitu perakaunan zakat pertanian dibuat dengan menolak kos pengeluaran daripada pendapatan kasar, malah lebih daripada itu kerana selain menolak kos pengeluaran pertanian mereka juga menolak kos sara hidup. Persoalannya, kenapakah Perlis mengamalkan hal sedemikian sedangkan fatwa yang dikeluarkan oleh majoriti negeri di Malaysia tidak membenarkan kos pengeluaran pertanian ditolak daripada pendapatan kasar? Kenapakah Perlis membenarkan kos sara hidup ditolak? Apakah hujah dan alasan mereka dalam hal ini? Adakah mereka mengambil kira aspek kemaslahatan kesejahteraan sosial para petani? Untuk menjawab kesemua persoalan ini, kertas kerja ini mempunyai tiga objektif utama. Pertama, mengenal pasti pandangan fuqaha’ tentang kos pengeluaran dan kos sara hidup; kedua, menganalisis keselarian amalan perakaunan zakat padi di Negeri Perlis dengan pandangan fuqaha’; dan ketiga, merumuskan hubungkait antara perakaunan zakat padi di Negeri Perlis dengan kesejahteraan sosial para petani. Untuk mencapai kedua-dua objektif ini, kajian kualitatif ini melibatkan kedua-dua jenis data iaitu data primer dan sekunder. Data primer diperoleh melalui temu bual tidak berstrukur dengan Tuan Haji Mohd Nazim Mohd Noor, Pengurus Baitulmal, Majlis Agama Islam dan Adat Istiadat Melayu Perlis (MAIP), pada 27 Februari 2014 yang lalu. Manakala data sekunder pula diperoleh melalui kajian perpustakaan. Kesemua data ini dianalisis menggunakan kaedah analisis kandungan. Secara umumnya, hasil penganalisian ini dibahagikan kepada empat bahagian utama. Pertama, membincangkan pandangan fuqaha’ tentang kos pengeluaran dan kos sara hidup; kedua, membincangkan keselarian amalan perakaunan zakat padi di Negeri Perlis dengan pandangan fuqaha’; dan ketiga, membincangkan hubungkait antara perakaunan zakat padi di Negeri Perlis dengan kesejahteraan sosial para petani.

ASAS PERAKAUNAN ZAKAT PADI Perakaunan zakat hasil padi yang diamalkan di Perlis adalah berasaskan dalil-dalil daripada al-Qur’an dan Hadith tentang zakat pertanian kerana padi adalah sejenis tanaman pertanian. Antaranya firman Allah SWT yang bermaksud: “Dan Dia-lah (Allah) yang menjadikan (untuk kamu) kebun-kebun yang menjalar tanamannya dan yang tidak menjalar; dan pohon-pohon tamar (kurma) dan tanaman-tanaman yang berlainan (bentuk, rupa dan) rasanya; dan buah zaiton dan delima, yang bersamaan (warnanya atau daunnya) dan tidak bersamaan (rasanya). Makanlah daripada buahnya ketika ia berbuah, dan keluarkanlah haknya (zakatnya) pada hari memetik atau menuainya; dan janganlah kamu melampau (pada apa-apa jua yang kamu makan atau belanjakan). Sesungguhnya Allah tidak suka kepada orang-orang yang melampau” (al-An‘am, 6:141) Firman-Nya lagi yang bermaksud: “Wahai orang-orang yang beriman! Belanjakanlah (pada jalan Allah) sebahagian daripada hasil usaha kamu yang baik-baik, dan sebahagian daripada apa-apa yang Kami keluarkan dari bumi untuk kamu. Dan janganlah kamu sengaja memilih yang buruk daripadanya (lalu kamu dermakan atau kamu jadikan pemberian zakat), padahal kamu sendiri tidak sekali-kali akan mengambil yang buruk itu (kalau diberikan kepada kamu), kecuali dengan memejamkan mata padanya. Dan ketahuilah, sesungguhnya Allah Maha Kaya, lagi sentiasa terpuji” (alBaqarah, 2:267)

Kedua-dua ayat ini menerangkan kewajipan seseorang individu yang memiliki hasil pertanian daripada usaha penanaman yang dilakukannya untuk memenuhi keperluan sosial dengan mengeluarkan zakat (alTabari, 1992:362; Ibn Kathir, 1992:188; al-Qurtubi, 1993:208). Sebenarnya, zakat pertanian seperti padi adalah berbeza dengan zakat-zakat lain. Sifat khusus yang membezakan antara zakat pertanian dengan zakat-zakat hasil ternakan, emas dan perak serta zakat barang perniagaan ialah zakat pertanian merupakan zakat yang dikenakan terhadap hasil sahaja, sedangkan zakat-zakat tersebut merupakan zakat ke atas hasil dan modalnya sekali. Oleh yang demikian, tidak seperti zakat-zakat yang lain, zakat hasil pertanian tidak tertakluk kepada hawl. Walau bagaimanapun, kedua-dua ayat ini tidak menjelaskan nisab dan kadar zakat yang wajib dikeluarkan ke atas sesuatu hasil pertanian yang diperoleh. Kadar zakat pertanian tersebut hanya dijelaskan dalam Hadith Rasulullah SAW. Antara hadith yang menjadi asas kepada perakauan zakat ini ialah: © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Diriwayatkan daripada ‘Attab bin Usaid r.a. katanya: Rasulullah SAW telah memerintahkan agar anggur basah dianggarkan kadarnya ketika ia menjadi anggur kering sebagaimana juga tamar basah dianggarkan kadarnya ketika ia menjadi tamar kering dan zakatnya diambil dalam bentuk anggur kering (zabib-kismis) sebagaimana zakat kurma diambil dalam bentuk tamar kering (Riwayat Abu Daud, Hadith no. 1603, al-Khin, al-Bugha & alSyarbaji, 2009:26) Diriwayatkan daripada Abu Sa‘id al-Khudri r.a. bahawa Rasulullah SAW bersabda: “Tidak dikenakan zakat terhadap hasil tanam-tanaman dan buah-buahan yang tidak mencukupi kadar lima awsaq” (Riwayat al-Tirmizi, Hadith no. 622, al-Mubarakfuri, t.t.:210). Diriwayatkan daripada ‘Abd Allah bin ‘Amru r.a. katanya: Rasulullah SAW bersabda yang bermaksud, “Tanaman yang diairi oleh hujan, sungai-sungai dan mata air atau yang mendapat air dari saliran (atau melalui akarnya) hendaklah dikeluarkan (zakatnya) sepersepuluh (1/10). Tanaman yang diairi dengan unta pengangkut air atau dengan penimba, hendaklah dikeluarkan seperduapuluh (1/20)”. (Riwayat al-Bukhari, Hadith no. 1483, Ibn Hajar, 1989:443). Kedua-dua hadith ini berperanan sebagai pentafsir kepada ayat 141 daripada Surah al-An‘am dan ayat 267 daripada Surah al-Baqarah yang dikemukakan sebelum ini. Ketiga-tiga hadith ini bukan sahaja menjelaskan kewajipan zakat pertanian, malah ia menjelaskan nisab dan kadar zakat yang wajib dikeluarkan ke atas sesuatu hasil pertanian termasuklah padi. Dalam taksiran zakat pertanian, terdapat dua kaedah asas yang diterangkan oleh nas sebagai panduan kepada para petani untuk mengeluarkan zakat hasil padi, iaitu cukup nisab sebanyak lima wasaq dan kadar yang perlu dikeluarkan zakat pula ialah 5 peratus atau 10 peratus daripada hasil tanaman bergantung kepada jenis pengairan yang digunakan oleh petani. Rajah 1- Nisab dan Kadar Zakat Hasil Padi

Zakat Hasil Padi = 5% @ 10% x 5 wasaq

Persoalannya, adakah kadar lima wasaq diukur daripada hasil tanaman kasar atau setelah ditolak terlebih dahulu kos penanaman dan kos sara hidup para petani? Kemajuan dan perkembangan dalam sektor pertanian memerlukan petani juga mengamalkan pertanian moden. Mereka perlu membeli benih yang bermutu tinggi dan pelbagai jenis baja untuk mendapat hasil tanaman yang baik dan berkualiti contohnya seperti tanaman padi. Pokok padi juga terdedah kepada pelbagai jenis penyakit seperti penyakit karah, virus merah, hawar seludang, hawar bakteria, bintik perang dan pelbagai jenis penyakit lagi yang akan mengakibatkan kerugian kepada para petani. Para petani perlu membeli pelbagai jenis racun untuk mengawal dan merawat penyakitpenyakit tersebut. Selain itu, petani padi juga menggunakan jentera untuk memudahkan dan mempercepatkan proses penanaman, penuaian dan pengangkutan padi ke kilang pemprosesan padi. Semua aktiviti ini akan menambah kos penanaman padi berbanding penanaman padi yang dijalankan secara tradisonal pada zaman dahulu yang menggunakan kos yang sangat minimum.

PANDANGAN FUQAHA’ TERHADAP MODAL KOS PENANAMAN Tidak ada nas yang menjelaskan sama ada wang yang dikeluarkan oleh para petani untuk dijadikan modal pertanian ditolak terlebih dahulu daripada hasil perolehan tanamannya dan baki bersih tanamannya barulah dikeluarkan zakat sekiranya cukup nisab. Majoriti fuqaha’ berpendapat bahawa kos penanaman mestilah ditanggung oleh petani dan nisab zakat dikira apabila petani memperoleh hasil tanaman dan tidak perlu menolak kos penanaman apabila hendak mengeluarkan zakat (al-Zuhayli, 1989:812). Menurut pandangan majoriti fuqaha’ ini, kos penanaman tidak perlu ditolak terlebih dahulu kerana tiada nas yang menyatakan perlu menolak kos penanaman. Nas yang ada hanyalah menerangkan kadar pengeluaran zakat sebanyak 5 peratus atau 10 peratus berdasarkan kaedah pengairan yang digunakan. Nas-nas yang ada hanyalah membezakan kadar pengeluaran zakat berdasarkan jenis pengairan yang digunakan oleh petani sama ada tanaman yang menggunakan pengairan semula jadi atau pengairan yang menggunakan tenaga buruh. Berdasarkan hujah majoriti fuqaha’ ini, maka kos penanaman perlu ditanggung oleh petani dan zakat diwajibkan ke atas semua hasil tanpa perlu menolak terlebih dahulu kos penanaman. Oleh itu, kadar pengeluaran zakat pertanian ialah 5 peratus atau 10 peratus berdasarkan bentuk pengairan tanaman tersebut. Menurut al-Buhuti (1999:274), kadar 10 peratus dikenakan jika pengairan yang sampai ke ladang tidak mengeluarkan modal © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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yang banyak atau kerja yang berat kerana beban pengairan menyebabkan tinggi rendahnya kadar tersebut. Tanaman yang dikenakan zakat pada kadar 5 peratus ialah tanaman yang diairi dengan bantuan binatang, kincir air, jentera dan sebagainya. Hal ini berbeza dengan pandangan al-Qaradawi (1969:396-397) yang menyatakan kos penanaman perlu ditolak terlebih dahulu kerana ia merupakan satu bebanan bagi petani. Dalam hal ini, beliau mengemukakan tiga hujah mengapa kos penanaman perlu ditolak terlebih dahulu. Ketiga-tiga hujah beliau adalah seperti berikut: a. Bebanan dan kos merupakan faktor yang memberi kesan dalam hukum. Kadar pengeluaran zakat berbeza disebabkan adanya bebanan dan kos. Contohnya, bagi pengairan yang memerlukan peralatan atau tenaga manusia kadar pengeluaran zakat ialah 5 peratus sahaja. b. Bagi zakat binatang ternakan pula, sekiranya penternak perlu mencari makanan untuk binatang ternakannya sepanjang tahun maka binatang ternakan tersebut tidak dikenakan zakat ternakan. Oleh sebab itu adalah wajar kos yang digunakan untuk mengusahakan tanaman itu tidak dikenakan zakat. c. Zakat diwajibkan kerana adanya pertumbuhan. Apabila adanya pertumbuhan ini bererti wujud pertambahan. Dalam konteks ini, pertambahan tidak mewujudkan kekayaan kerana kos penanaman juga besar. Pandangan al-Qaradawi (1969) ini boleh dikuatkan dengan athar yang dilaporkan oleh Abu ‘Ubayd (1988:611) bahawa Jabir bin Zaid r.a telah diminta pandangan mengenai tindakan seorang lelaki yang telah berhutang dan menggunakan wang tersebut untuk perbelanjaan keluarga dan ladangnya. Jabir menjelaskan bahawa: “Ibn ‘Abbas r.a berpandangan bahawa lelaki itu boleh membelanjakan hutangnya itu kepada ladangnya. Ibn ‘Umar r.a. pula berpendapat orang itu boleh membelanjakannya untuk ladang dan keluarganya”. Menurut Abu ‘Ubayd (1988:611), dalam hal ini Ibn ‘Abbas r.a. dan Ibn ‘Umar r.a. bersependapat bahawa zakat pertanian dikeluarkan setelah petani menolak hutang yang dijadikan modal untuk kos perbelanjaan bagi mengusahakan sesuatu penanaman. Oleh itu, dapatlah disimpulkan bahawa adalah wajar untuk menolak hutang kos penanaman sebelum dikenakan zakat terhadap tanaman tersebut berdasarkan pandangan Ibn ‘Abbas r.r. dan Ibn ‘Umar r.a. itu (Muhammad Kamal ‘Atiyyah, 1995:28). Jelaslah bahawa sekiranya seseorang petani itu berhutang untuk membeli bahan input untuk penanaman padinya seperti berhutang untuk membeli baja, racun, biji benih, upah menuai, membajak dan sebagainya, maka petani tersebut dibenarkan menolak terlebih dahulu kos tersebut daripada pendapatan kasar. Hasil tanaman bersih barulah dikenakan zakat.

PANDANGAN FUQAHA’ TENTANG KOS SARA HIDUP Syarat utama kewajipan zakat adalah apabila seseorang itu mempunyai lebihan kekayaan. Sekiranya kekayaan yang dimilikinya sekadar cukup untuk memenuhi keperluan dirinya dan orang yang berada di bawah tanggungannya seperti isteri, anak-anak, ibu bapa yang uzur dan sebagainya, maka tidak wajar dipungut zakat daripada orang tersebut. Keperluan di sini ialah keperluan asasi seorang manusia mengikut tahap keperluan semasa seperti makanan, pakaian, tempat tinggal, pendidikan dan juga keperluan-keperluan asas yang lain sesuai dengan keperluan semasa (Asmak Ab. Rahman & Pazim@Fadzim Othman, 2005) Sebenarnya tiada nas yang menjelaskan kos sara hidup wajar ditolak terlebih dahulu sebelum dikenakan zakat. Walaupun Ibn ‘Abbas r.a. dan Ibn ‘Umar r.a. bersependapat bahawa hutang yang digunakan untuk dijadikan modal penanaman ditolak terlebih dahulu sebelum dikenakan zakat, tetapi mereka tidak bersependapat tentang hutang yang dibelanjakan untuk kos sara hidup petani. Ibn ‘Umar r.a. sahaja yang berpendapat bahawa zakat dikira setelah ditolak hutang kos pengeluaran pertanian dan juga hutang kos sara hidup (Abu ‘Ubayd, 1988:611; Yahya Ibn Adam, t.t.:162; Ibn Qudamah, 1997:265). Dari segi penolakan kos sara hidup sebelum dikenakan zakat tiada nas yang menerangkan tentang perkara tersebut. Walau bagaimanapun, satu asas dalam pengeluaran zakat harta ialah orang yang mengeluarkan zakat mestilah orang kaya kerana penerima zakat ialah golongan fakir miskin. Hal ini berdasarkan amalan pada zaman Rasulullah SAW, iaitu baginda telah memerintahkan supaya zakat dipungut daripada orang kaya sebagaimana sabdanya yang bermaksud: “Ambillah daripada orang-orang kaya dan kembalikan kepada orang yang miskin” (Riwayat al-Jama‘ah, Hadith no. 1531, alSyawkani, 1996:431-432)

Sebenarnya indikator kekayaan seorang petani itu tidak hanya dilihat pada hasil tanamannya yang mencukupi kadar nisab tanpa mengambil kira sama ada pendapatan daripada hasil pertaniannya mencukupi untuk keperluan perusahaan pertanian dan perbelanjaan keluarganya. Oleh sebab nafkah adalah satu tanggungjawab © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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kepada ketua keluarga, sudah tentu seseorang itu perlu menunaikan tanggungjawab tersebut terlebih dahulu sebelum membelanjakan kekayaannya untuk perbelanjaan-perbelanjaan lain. Prinsip ini berdasarkan kisah yang berlaku pada zaman Rasulullah SAW yang diriwayatkan oleh Jabir bin Abdullah r.a. bahawa Rasulullah SAW berkata kepada seseorang dengan sabdanya yang bermaksud: “Berikanlah terlebih dahulu untuk kepentingan dirimu; apabila lebih berikanlah untuk isterimu; apabila masih lebih berikanlah kepada keluarga yang terdekat dengan mu; dan apabila masih lebih berikanlah kepada yang lain-lain” (al-Nawawi, 1997:53-54) Jelas di sini bahawa kos sara hidup wajar diambil kira dan perlu ditolak terlebih dahulu sebelum dikenakan zakat hasil tanaman padi kerana Rasulullah SAW sendiri amat mengambil berat tentang kesejahteraan sosial para petani. Mengikut amalan Rasulullah SAW, baginda meminta supaya penaksir zakat menolak 1/3 atau 1/4 daripada hasil tanaman dan zakat ditaksir berdasarkan 2/3 atau 3/4 daripada hasil tanaman. Hal ini sebagaimana yang dilaporkan oleh Sahal bin Abu Hathrnah yang bermaksud: “Apabila kamu membuat penaksiran hendaklah kamu ambil zakatnya dan tinggalkan 1/3. Jika kamu tidak tinggalkan 1/3 hendaklah tinggalkan1/4” (Abu ‘Ubayd, 1988:585)

PERAKAUNAN ZAKAT HASIL PADI DI NEGERI PERLIS Perlis satu-satunya negeri yang mengamalkan perakaunan zakat hasil padi dengan menolak kos pertanian (modal) dan kos sara hidup (keperluan asasi) daripada pendapatan kasar. Hasil pendapatan bersih daripada penolakan itu dikenakan zakat dengan kadar 10 peratus (Majlis Agama Islam dan Adat Istiadat Melayu Perlis, 2001:16-20). Sebenarnya, perakaunan zakat hasil padi di negeri Perlis ini bukan sahaja menuruti Manual Pengurusan Pengiraan Zakat yang dikeluarkan oleh Jabatan Wakaf, Zakat dan Haji (JAWHAR), iaitu perakaunan zakat pertanian dibuat dengan menolak kos pertanian daripada pendapatan kasar, malah lebih daripada itu kerana selain menolak kos pengeluaran pertanian mereka juga menolak kos sara hidup. Menurut Haji Mohd Nazim Mohd Noor (Temu bual pada 27 Februari 2014), perkara ini telah diputuskan oleh Majlis Fatwa Negeri Perlis. Lagipun, dalam Undang-Undang Tubuh Negeri ada dinyatakan bahawa Perlis tidak terikat dengan sebarang mazhab dalam pengamalan hal-hal keagamaan. Contoh Pengiraan1: • • • • • • •

Mula Mengusaha Tanah Hasil Diperoleh Jumlah Hari Hasil Perolehan Padi Bersih Penolakan Kos Pengeluaran Penolakan Kos Keperluan Asasi (Sara Diri) Jumlah Perlu Bayar Zakat

: 1 Muharram 1414 : 19 Rejab 1414 : 195 hari : RM12,000 (tidak termasuk subsidi) : (lihat Jadual 1) : (lihat Jadual 2) : RM250.48 (lihat perkiraan di bawah)

Pendapatan Kasar (RM12,000.00) – Kos Pengeluaran + Kos Keperluan Asasi (RM2,356.00 + RM7,139.20 = RM9,495.20) = RM1,459.80 (Pendapatan Bersih) RM1,459.80 melebihi nisab RM542.69 Jumlah zakat yang perlu dibayar = RM2,504.80 x 10%

RM250.48

*** Nisab zakat pertanian iaitu 2 kunca 7 naleh atau 986.7 kg bersamaan RM542.69. Jika baki mencapai jumlah RM542.69 atau lebih, maka baki itu didarab dengan 10%

Jadual 1: Kos Pengeluaran

Perkara

Kos (RM)

Sewa Tanah (Jika Disewa)

-

Membajak Dan Menanam

1,250.00

Harga Baja Racun Serangga

6.00 250.00

1)  Contoh pengiraan ini dibuat berdasarkan Panduan Mengeluarkan Zakat yang dikeluarkan oleh Majlis Agama Islam dan Adat Istiadat Melayu Perlis (MAIPs) (2001) dan temu bual dengan Haji Haji Mohd Nazim Mohd Noor, Pengurus Baitulmal, MAIPs, pada 27 Februari 2014, jam 4.00 pm hingga 5.00 pm, bertempat di Pejabat Baitulmal.

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Perkara

Kos (RM)

Upah Menuai

650.00

Upah Pengangkutan

200.00

Jumlah kos pengeluaran

2,356.00

Jadual 2: Kos Keperluas Asasi

Perkara

Kos (RM)

Diri RM14.12 x 195 hari

2,754.00

Isteri RM8.47 x 195 hari

1,652.00

Anak RM3.38 x 195 hari x 2 orang

1,318.20

(maksimum RM5000.00 setahun) (maksimum RM3000.00 setahun) (maksimum RM1,200.00 setahun untuk seorang anak)

Pemberian Kepada Ibu Bapa (Jumlah yang sebenar jika diberi)

-

Perubatan

140.00

Ibu bapa

300.00

Hutang Daruriyyat • Kenderaan • Rumah

975.00 -

(perbelanjaan sebenar)

Jumlah Kos Keperluan Asasi

7,139.20

Jelas di sini bahawa perkaunan zakat hasil padi yang diamalkan di Negeri Perlis didapati masih lagi selari dengan kehendak syarak. Meskipun Perlis membenarkan petani menolak kos pengeluaran dan kos sara hidup, namun tidak menjadi halangan sekiranya ada dalam kalangan petani yang mahu mengenakan zakat terhadap pendapatan kasar (Temu bual Haji Mohd Nazim Mohd Noor, 27 Februari 2014).

HUBUNGKAIT PERAKAUNAN ZAKAT HASIL PADI DI PERLIS DENGAN ASPEK KESEJAHTERAAN SOSIAL PARA PETANI Berdasarkan perakaunan zakat hasil padi yang diamalkan di Negeri Perlis sebelum ini, jelas mempamerkan bahawa perakaunan zakat hasil padi di Negeri Perlis bukan sahaja selari dengan kehendak syarak, malah turut mengambil kira aspek kesejahteraan sosial para petani. Dalam hal ini, pihak pengurus zakat di Negeri Perlis melihat kos pengeluaran dan kos keperluan asasi sebagai satu bebanan bagi petani. Bebanan dan kos merupakan faktor yang memberi kesan terhadap hukum dan kehidupan para petani, maka ia perlu ditolak. Bagi membuktikan lagi bahawa perakaunan zakat hasil padi di Negeri Perlis mementingkan aspek kesejahteraan sosial, kekayaan seseorang petani tidak hanya dilihat pada hasil tanamannya yang mencukupi nisab untuk dikeluarkan zakat. Sebenarnya indikator kekayaan seseorang petani itu tidak cukup jika hanya dilihat pada pertambahan hasil tanamannya yang mencukupi kadar nisab tanpa mengambil kira sama ada pendapatan daripada hasil pertaniannya mencukupi untuk menampung kos penanaman dan perbelanjaan keluarganya atau tidak. Misalnya, pada masa kini kemajuan dan perkembangan dalam sektor pertanian memerlukan petani mengamalkan pertanian moden. Mereka perlu membeli benih padi yang bermutu tinggi dan pelbagai jenis baja untuk mendapat hasil tanaman yang baik dan berkualiti. Oleh sebab tanaman padi sering terdedah kepada pelbagai jenis penyakit seperti penyakit karah, virus merah, hawar seludang, hawar bakteria, bintik perang dan pelbagai jenis penyakit lagi yang boleh mengakibatkan kerugian terhadap para petani, maka para petani perlu membeli pelbagai jenis racun untuk mengawal dan merawat penyakit-penyakit tersebut. Selain itu, petani padi juga menggunakan jentera untuk memudahkan dan mempercepatkan proses penanaman, penuaian dan pengangkutan padi ke kilang pemprosesan padi. Semua aktiviti ini akan menambah kos penanaman padi berbanding penanaman padi yang dijalankan secara tradisonal pada zaman dahulu yang menggunakan kos yang sangat minimum. Di samping kos penanaman, seseorang petani itu juga mempunyai tanggungjawab terhadap keperluan dirinya dan orang yang berada di bawah tanggungannya seperti isteri, anak-anak, ibu bapa yang uzur dan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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sebagainya. Keperluan di sini ialah keperluan asasi seorang manusia mengikut tahap keperluan semasa seperti makanan, pakaian, tempat tinggal, pendidikan dan juga keperluan-keperluan asas yang lain sesuai dengan keperluan semasa. Jika kos keperluan asasi ini tidak ditolak, maka ia menjadi satu bebanan kepada para petani. Berdasarkan aspek bebanan yang ditanggung oleh para petani inilah, maka amalan perakaunan zakat hasil padi di Negeri Perlis tidak dikenakan pada pertambahan kasar hasil padi semata-mata. Meskipun ada pertambahan hasil padi, namun disebabkan bebanan yang perlu ditanggung oleh para petani seperti hutang kos pertanian dan keperluan asasi ahli keluarga yang agak besar, maka pertambahan seperti itu tidak mewujudkan kekayaan.

KESIMPULAN Berdasarkan perbincangan sebelum ini dapatlah dirumuskan bahawa perakaunan zakat hasil padi yang diamalkan di Negeri Perlis, iaitu zakat dikenakan terhadap pendapatan bersih setelah ditolak kos pengeluaran dan kos sara diri adalah selari dengan kehendak syarak. Di samping selari dengan kehendak syarak, ia juga jelas mengambil kira aspek kesejahteraan sosial para petani. Aspek kekayaan tidak hanya dilihat pada hasil tanaman yang mencukupi nisab untuk dikeluarkan zakat, tetapi melihat kepada kecukupan pendapatan daripada hasil pertaniannya untuk menampung keperluan perusahaan pertanian dan perbelanjaan keluarganya atau tidak. Tidak bermakna jika zakat dikenakan pada hasil padi semata-mata, sedangkan seseorang petani itu mempunyai bebanan yang perlu ditanggung seperti hutang kos pertanian dan keperluan asasi ahli keluarganya.

Penghargaan: Kertas kerja ini adalah sebahagian daripada hasil kajian yang berjudul Perakaunan Zakat Pertanian Usahawan Tani di Malaysia (1001/PSOSIAL/816218) yang dibiayai oleh Geran Universiti Penyelidikan (RUI), Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.

SENARAI RUJUKAN Abu ‘Ubayd, al-Qasim bin Salam. (1988). Kitab al-Amwal. Beirut, Lubnan: Beirut Dar al-Fikr. Al-Buhuti, Mansur bin Yunus bin Idris. (1999). Kasyf al-Qina‘, Jil. 2. Beirut, Lubnan: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-‘Arabi. Al-Kasani, Abu Bakr bin Mas’ud. (1998). Bada’i‘ al-Sana’i‘, Jld. 2. Beirut, Lubnan: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-‘Arabi. Al-Khin, Mustafa.; al-Bugha, Mustafa.; & al-Syarbaji, ‘Ali. (2009). Al-Fiqh al-Manhaji, Jld. 2, terjemahan Zulkifli Mohamad al-Bakri. Bangi, Selangor: Darul Syakir Enterprise. Al-Mubarakfuri, Abi al-‘Ula Muhammad ‘Abd al-Rahman Ibn ‘Abd al-Rahim. t.t. Tuhfah al-Ahwazi bi Sayrh Jami‘ al-Tirmizi, Jld. 3. Beirut, Lubnan: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah. Al-Nawawi, Muhyi al-Din Abi Zakariyya Yahya bin Syarf. (1997). Sahih Muslim bi Syarh Imam al-Nawawi, Jld. 7. Beirut, Lubnan: Dar al-Ma‘rifah. Al-Qaradawi, Yusuf. (1969). Fiqh al-Zakah Dirasah Muqaranah li Ahkamiha wa Falsafatiha fi Daw’ al-Qur’an wa al-Sunnah. Beirut, Lubnan: Dar al-Irsyad. Al-Qurtubi, Abu ‘Abd Allah Muhammad bin Ahmad al-Ansari. (1993). Al-Jami‘ li Ahkam al-Qur’an, Jld. 3. Beirut, Lubnan: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah. Al-Syawkani, Muhammad bin ‘Ali. (1996). Nayl al-Awtar min Ahadith Sayyid al-Akhyar Sayrh Muntaqa alAkhbar, Jld. 4. Beirut, Lubnan: Dar al-Khayr. Al-Tabari, Abi Ja‘far Muhammad bin Jarir. (1992). Tafsir al-Tabari al-Musamma Jami‘ al-Bayan fi Ta’wil al-Qur’an, Jld. 5. Beirut, Lubnan: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah. Al-Zuhayli, Wahbah. (1989). Al-Fiqh al-Islam wa Adillatuh, Jld. 2. Damsyiq: Dar al-Fikr. Asmak Ab. Rahman & Pazim@Fadzim Othman, (2005). Kaedah Taksiran Zakat Padi dan Kesannya Terhadap Petani: Kajian di Selangor, Jurnal Syariah, 13(1), 37-63. ISSN 0128-6730. Ibn Hajar, Ahmad bin ‘Ali bin Hajar al-‘Asqalani. (1989). Fath al-Bari Syarh Sahih al-Bukhari, Jld. 3. Beirut, Lubnan: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah. Ibn Kathir, al-Hafiz Abi al-Fida’ Isma‘il. (1992). Tafsir al-Qur’an al-‘Azim, Jld. 2. Beirut, Lubnan: Dar al-Ma‘rifah. Ibn Qudamah, Mawaffaq al-Din ‘Abd Allah Ibn Ahmad al-Maqdisi. (1997). Al-Mughni, 4. Riyad: Dar ‘Alam alKutub. Jabatan Wakaf, Zakat dan Haji (JAWHAR), (2008). Manual Pengurusan Pengiraan Zakat. Putrajaya: JAWHAR, Jabatan Perdana Menteri. Majlis Agama Islam dan Adat Istiadat Melayu Perlis (MAIPs), (2001). Panduan Mengeluarkan Zakat. Kangar, Perlis: Majlis Agama Islam dan Adat Istiadat Melayu Perlis. Muhammad Kamal ‘Atiyyah, (1995). Perakaunan Zakat: Teori dan Praktis, terjemahan Mohd Nor Ngah. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Temu bual Haji Mohd Nazim Mohd Noor, Pengurus Baitulmal, Majlis Agama Islam dan Adat Istiadat Melayu Perlis (MAIPs), pada 27 Februari 2014, jam 4.00 pm hingga 5.00 pm, bertempat di Pejabat Baitulmal. Yahya Ibn Adam. t.t. Kitab al-Kharaj. Beirut, Lubnan: Dar al-Ma‘rifah.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

HUDUD SEBAGAI JAMINAN KESEJAHTERAAN MASYARAKAT: PERLAKSANAANNYA DI MALAYSIA Mansor Sulaiman* *[email protected] Universiti Malaysia Pahang

Abstract Kertas kerja ini akan membicarakan berkenaan perlaksanaan hudud di Malaysia pada hari ini sebagai suatu mekanisme yang mampu menjamin kesejahteraan masyarakat. Walaupun telah banyak tulisan berkenaan isu ini tetapi kertas kerja ini akan cuba mengupas berkenaan aspek positif daripadanya iaitu sebagai suatu jaminan kesejahteraan masyarakat atau disebutkan sebagai jaminan maslahah menurut istilah fiqh al-Islami serta ruang-ruang yang sedia ada bagi perlaksanaannya menerusi kerangka perlembagaan dan undangundang negara. Seterusnya kertas kerja ini cuba menonjolkan bahawa hudud bukanlah suatu perkara asing bagi masyarakat Islam di Malaysia malahan berdasarkan sejarah ia pernah bertapak dengan lama di negara ini dan perlaksanaannya sepatutnya bukanlah suatu yang mengundang kontroversi. Bagi mencapai sasaran ini, maka tulisan ini akan menumpukan kepada analisis terhadap dokumen dan tulisan yang berkaitan hudud ini seperti perlembagaan perseketuan, kanun prosedur jenayah dan sebagainya. Selain itu, tulisan-tulisan ulama Islam klasik juga akan dirujuk sebagai asas kepada perbincangan berkenaan hukuman hudud ini. Akhirnya diharapkan kertas kerja ini akan memberi manfaat kepada rujukan dalam usaha perlaksanaan hudud di Malaysia. Kata kunci: hudud, perlaksanaan hudud di Malaysia, undang-undang jenayah Islam, hukum Islam, Islam.

PENDAHULUAN Hudud adalah merupakan suatu hukuman atau undang-undang yang dikemukakan Islam sebagai pelengkap kepada Islam sebagai suatu cara hidup. Kewujudan hudud adalah bertujuan untuk memelihara masyarakat agar terpelihara daripada jenayah-jenayah berat yang sentiasa menghantui manusia sepanjang zaman. Jenayah-jenayah hudud1 ini akan timbul walau di mana dan pada bila-bila masa sahaja sekiranya manusia gagal mengawal nafsunya. Realiti jenayah-jenayah ini yang semakin meningkat di Malaysia dari hari ke hari menunjukkan keperluan kepada undang-undang yang lebih sesuai, iaitu hukuman hudud. Justeru, kertas kerja ini akan mengupas perlaksanaan hudud di Malaysia dalam aspek ruang-ruang perlaksanaannya dalam realiti hari ini. Walaupun begitu, perbincangan ini akan didahului dengan perbincangan berkenaan kedudukan undang-undang Islam di Malaysia sebagai pendahuluan.

METODOLOGI Tulisan ini cuba membincangkan dua perkara utama iaitu pertama hukuman hudud sebagai mekanisme yang mampu menjamin kesejahteraan masyarakat dan kedua ruang-ruang yang memungkinkan perlaksanaan 1)  Jenayah-jenayah yang dikenakan hukuman hudud ialah mencuri, merompak, zina, qazaf (tuduhan zina terhadap orang yang tidak dibuktikan kesalahannya), minum arak, murtad dan bughah (pengkhianat negara) Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

hukuman hudud di Malaysia. Dua perkara ini dikemukakan disebabkan ia mempunyai hubung kait yang sangat rapat terutama sekali dalam wacana berkenaan kewajaran perlaksanaannya di Malaysia hari ini. Sehubungan itu, tulisan ini akan merujuk tulisan-tulisan sedia ada meliputi jurnal, makalah, kitab muktabar dan buku-buku yang berkenaan bagi mendapatkan gambaran berkenaan dua perkara ini. Selain itu, tulisan ini juga akan merujuk rujukan berkaitan perlembagaan dan undang-undang negara. Seterusnya tulisan ini akan menganalisis tulisan-tulisan tersebut seterusnya mengemukakan ulasan selari dengan tajuk yang diutarakan. Berhubung perkara ini, pemilihan tulisan-tulisan sedia ada di samping rujukan-rujukan lain adalah disebabkan kajian terdahulu penulis menunjukkan bahawa usaha untuk mengenengahkan hukuman hudud sebagai hukuman yang mampu menjamin kesejahteraan masyarakat serta usaha memastikan hukuman ini dilaksanakan di Malaysia adalah merupakan usaha yang telah dijalankan sejak sekian lama. Iaitu sejak undangundang Islam dipinggirkan dalam negara ini berikutan dominasi penjajah. Tulisan ini hanyalah sebagai suatu usaha memberikan nafas baru kepada usaha yang telah dijalankan sejak sekian lama tersebut. Akhirnya, di penghujung tulisan ini akan dikemukakan rumusan dalam bentuk kesimpulan berkenaan tajuk ini.

HUKUMAN HUDUD SEBAGAI JAMINAN KESEJAHTERAAN MASYARAKAT Perkataan Hudud berasal daripada perkataan dalam Bahasa Arab iaitu “al-had” yang bermaksud pencegahan. Terdapat banyak perkataan Arab yang membawa kepada maksud pencegahan menggunakan perkataan alhad sebagai kata asalnya. Di antaranya ialah penjaga rumah dan penjaga penjara digelar sebagai haddad (kata asalnya, al-had) disebabkan tugas mereka yang bersifat pencegah kepada sesiapa yang tidak berkenaan daripada keluar masuk rumah atau penjara. Begitu juga bagi menggambarkan maksud hukuman, perkataan hudud digunakan dalam Bahasa Arab disebabkan peranannya yang bersifat pencegahan daripada tindakantindakan yang boleh membawa kepada dikenakan hukuman-hukuman tersebut (Bahnasi,1983). Manakala dari sudut istilah, para ulama telah mengistilahkan hudud sebagai hukuman-hukuman yang ditetapkan kadar dan bentuknya oleh syarak serta wajib dilaksanakan. Berdasarkan takrifan ini, para ulama telah mengkategorikan hukuman hudud sebagai hukuman yang tergolong dalam kategori hak Allah (Audah, 1992) Penetapan hukuman hudud sebagai kategori hak Allah menunjukkan hubungan yang kukuh antara hudud dan jaminan kesejahteraan masyarakat. Ini disebabkan dari sudut syariat Islam, sesuatu yang dikira sebagai hak Allah adalah merujuk kepada perkara pengarahan atau pencegahan daripada Allah yang menjanjikan kebaikan dan kemanfaatan kepada masyarakat umum sekiranya diikuti oleh hambanya (manusia). Sesuatu yang dinisbahkan kepada Allah juga menunjukkan kedudukannya yang besar (Bahnasi,1983). Manakala dari sudut ilmu perundangan, Dr. Abd al-Qadir Audah (1992) menyatakan bahawa hak Allah ini diterjemahkan sebagai perkara-perkara yang menyentuh maslahah2 umum atau dikenali dalam istilah popular zaman sekarang sebagai hak awam atau hak masyarakat (public right). Selain itu, ia juga bermaksud bahawa hudud merupakan suatu hukuman yang tidak boleh ditarik balik atau diubah sama ada oleh individu atau kumpulan manusia disebabkan peranan menarik balik atau mengubahnya hanya merupakan hak Allah sematamata (Audah 1992). Berhubung perkara ini, Imam al-Qarafi (1925) telah merumuskan maksud Hak Allah dalam hukuman hudud ini dengan berkata: “Segala sesuatu yang hamba (manusia) mempunyai hak untuk menggugurkan ketetapannya dikira sebagai hak hamba (manusia) manakala sesuatu yang mereka tiada hak untuk menggugurkannya dikira sebagai hak Allah” Ketetapan hudud sebagai hak Allah ini memberi implikasi bahawa hukuman ini adalah ditentukan Allah secara mutlak dan bukan melalui penentuan akal dan lojik manusia yang mudah berubah-ubah melalui pelbagai faktor. Ia menafikan secara langsung campurtangan hawa nafsu syahwat yang selalunya lebih cenderung kepada kerosakan dan melebihkan maslahah peribadi daripada maslahah umum (Abu Zahrah, t.th.). Walaupun begitu, ia tidak bermaksud bahawa Islam menafikan kepentingan penjagaan maslahah peribadi, bahkan Islam menerimanya sebagai maslahah yang hakiki (maslahah yang diiktiraf ) sekiranya ia bertepatan atau tidak bertentangan dengan maslahah umum. Ini adalah disebabkan, pandangan Islam dalam penentuan perlakuan-perlakuan yang dikira sebagai jenayah adalah berdasarkan pertentangannya dengan maslahah hakiki (Abu Zahrah, t.th.). Selain itu, sebagai suatu hukuman yang mementingkan kesejahteraan masyarakat, hukuman Hudüd tidak boleh dijatuhkan dengan sewenang-wenangnya oleh penguasa. Ia mempunyai pelbagai prinsip dan prosedur yang perlu dipatuhi sebelum seseorang penjenayah dikenakan hukuman bagi memastikan hukuman tersebut menepati konsep keadilan yang dianjur dan diperjuangkan oleh Islam. Kaedah-kaedah Fiqh dan perundangan Islam yang begitu masyhur yang bermaksud "Seseorang itu pada asalnya adalah bebas daripada sebarang 2)  Maslahah pada asalnya adalah merupakan suatu yang berkonsepkan penghasilan manfaat dan penolakan kemudaratan. Maslahah yang dikemukakan oleh syariat Islam bertujuan memelihara matlamat penurunan syariat iaitu memastikan dan memelihara maslahah-maslahah manusia dan mengelakkan mereka daripada kemudaratan berteraskan kepada pemeliharaan 5 perkara iaitu agama, diri, akal, zuriat dan harta. Sebarang tindakan yang merosakkan 5 perkara ini dikira sebagai mafsadah (kerosakan) manakala memeliharanya pula dikira maslahah (al-Ghazali, t.th.)

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tanggungan", "Pembuktian ke atas pendakwa dan mengangkat sumpah ke atas yang ingkar", "Diketepikan hudud disebabkan kesamaran", begitu juga dengan kaedah seterusnya "Ketepikan hudud daripada orangorang Islam mengikut kemampuanmu kerana kesilapan imam (hakim) dalam pengampunan adalah lebih baik daripada kesilapannya dalam menjatuhkan hukuman" dan sebagainya jelas menunjukkan bagaimana hudud tidak boleh dilaksanakan tanpa mengikut prosedur-prosedur yang tertentu. Selain daripada itu, kitabkitab karangan ulama silam dan moden yang membicarakan berkenaan prosedur penghukuman dalam Islam secara terperinci seperti al-Turuq al-Hukmiyah fi al-Siyasah al-Syari’yyah karangan Ibn Al-Qayyim Al-Jauziyah, al-Qada 'ft al-Islam karangan Muhammad Sallam Al-Madkur, Nazariyat al-Ithbat ft al-Fiqh al-Jina'iy al-Islami karangan Ahmad Fathi Bahnasi dan sebagainya juga menunjukkan hudud merupakan hukuman yang mempunyai prosedur-prosedur penghukuman yang tersusun (Hashim 1996). Secara umumnya, hukuman hudud yang didasari oleh nas-nas al-Qur'an dan al-Hadith meletakkan keadilan sebagai perkara utama yang perlu ditegakkan mampu memberi jaminan kesejahteraan kepada masyarakat. Dalam konteks hari ini, ia bukanlah suatu yang mustahil untuk dilaksanakan di negara Malaysia, terutama sekali dalam membendung masalah peningkatan jenayah yang semakin membimbangkan akhir-akhir ini.

RUANG-RUANG KE ARAH PERLAKSANAAN HUKUMAN HUDUD DI MALAYSIA Ruang Dalam Perlembagaan Malaysia Hukuman hudud secara asasnya adalah termasuk dalam kategori undang-undang Islam. Oleh kerana itu, sekiranya dirujuk perlembagaan negara maka dikategorikan sebagai di bawah bidang kuasa negeri. Ini disebabkan kedudukan undang-undang Islam dari sudut perundangan di Malaysia sepertimana yang disebutkan oleh Perlembagaan Persekutuan adalah dalam Senarai II, Jadual kesembilan, terletak di bawah bidang kuasa badan perundangan negeri. Melalui peruntukan yang diberikan ini, badan perundangan negeri diberikan kuasa untuk menggubal dan seterusnya melaksanakannya dalam negeri yang berkenaan. Manakala bagi Wilayah Perseketuan Kuala Iumpur dan Labuan, akta undang-undang Islamnya diluluskan oleh Parlimen. Berhubung perkara ini, Perlembagaan Malaysia sebagai hasil ciptaan manusia, tentunya mempunyai banyak kelemahan dan perlu diubah mengikut perubahan dan kesesuaian zaman yang sentiasa berubah berbanding dengan perlembagaan yang dicipta Allah iaitu al-Qurán yang bersifat sempurna dan lengkap. la dapat dilihat bagaimana selepas beberapa tahun penggubalan perlembagaan negara ini, telah banyak pindaan dilakukan di samping beberapa peruntukan baru yang dimasukkan ke dalamnya. Selain daripada itu, terdapat banyak daripada peruntukan di dalamnya didatangkan dalam bentuk umum dan boleh ditafsir dengan pelbagai tafsiran. Di sinilah ruang yang boleh digunakan bagi meletakkan hudüd sebagai salah satu daripada hukuman yang boleh dijalankan dalam perundangan di Malaysia. Ruang pentafsiran ini perlulah digunakan dengan sebaik mungkin dan ia perlu dilihat melalui pentafsiran yang bijaksana serta mengikut tafsiran Islam yang sebenar. Di antara peruntukan-peruntukan dalam perlembagaan yang boleh dimanipulasikan bagi memberi jalan kepada perlaksanaan hukuman hudud melalui pentafsiran dalam perundangan Malaysia ialah: i. Pentafsiran maksud agama Islam dalam Perkara 3(1): "Islam adalah agama bagi Perseketuan tetapi agama-agama lain boleh diamalkan dengan aman dan damai di mana-mana bahagian Persekutuan" Peruntukan ini didatangkan dengan penggunaan bahasa yang kabur dan boleh ditafsirkan dengan pelbagai tafsiran. Walaupun begitu, perkataan agama Islam dalam peruntukan ini ketika mana penggubalannya telah disempitkan kepada perlaksanaan Islam untuk upacara-upacara rasmi sahaja seperti membolehkan sembahyang dilakukan dengan baik, upacara pertabalan yang dipertuan agung dan sebagainya(Hamid 1995). Laporan suruhanjaya Reid terhadap Perlembagaan Persekutuan di perenggan 169 jelas menyatakan pentafsiran yang sempit terhadap agama ini iaitu “Telah pun dimasukkan dalam Perlembagaan Perseketuan yang dicadangkan itu bahawa Islam adalah agama rasmi perseketuan. Hal ini tidaklah memberi ruang untuk memberi kesan terbadap kedudukan perseketuan ini sebagai negara sekular”. Pentafsiran seperti ini adalah merupakan pentafsiran yang terseleweng daripada maksud Islam yang sebenar walaupun pada hakikatnya ia merupakan maksud sebenar yang dikehendaki oleh pihak yang merangka perlembagaan tersebut. Berhubung perkara ini, beberapa orang tokoh perundangan negara telah memberikan komen berbeza yang boleh membuka jalan kepada perlaksanaan hukuman hudüd di Malaysia, di antaranya apa yang disebutkan oleh Profesor Ahmad Ibrahim (Hassan, 1999): “Apa yang menyedihkan ialah Mahkamah Agung nampaknya bersedia menerima hujah bahawa perkataan Islam yang terdapat dalam perkara 3 Perlembagaan Perseketuan hendaklah difahamkan sebagai meliputi hanya perkara-perkara yang berhubung dengan upacara dan adat istiadat agama sahaja. Telah dikatakan bahawa inilah yang dimaksudkan oleh pihak mereka yang merangka perlembagaan itu dan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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ia adalah akibat pemerintahan tidak langsung British dalam masa penjajahan dahulu dan wujudnya institusi sekular. Apakah kita masih terikat dengan kedudukan penjajah itu sedangkan kita sudah mencapai kemerdekaan”. Hakim Hashim Yeop Sani juga telah memberikan reaksi yang agak serupa dengan Prof Ahmad Ibrahim ketika mana memberikan sanggahan terhadap pandangan tokoh perundangan barat iaitu Syaridan dan Groves yang telah menyempitkan maksud agama Islam dalam Perlembagaan Perseketuan kepada aspek upacara resmi sahaja dengan katanya (Hassan, 1999): “Saya menentang keras pendapat ini kerana tidak berdasarkan kepada apa-apa peruntukan dalam perlembagaan ini, dan ini adalah satu tafsiran yang berjiwa crusader, oleh sebab perkara 3 perlembagaan itu sangat jelas dan tidak boleh diputarbelitkan lagi bahawa agama negara ini adalah agama Islam, maka mana-mana tafsiran yang mewujudkan satu percanggahan di antara dokumen ciptaan manusia (perlembagaan) dengan perintah Allah (al-Qur'an dan al-Sunnah) maka tafsiran itu tidak boleh dipakai”. Oleh kerana perlembagaan merupakan suatu yang boleh berubah dan boleh ditafsirkan mengikut pelbagai tafsiran selagimana tidak bercanggah dengan prosedur pentafsiran perlembagaan yang telah ditetapkan maka Hassan Bahrom (1999) dalam artikelnya telah bersetuju dengan pendapat kedua tokoh perundangan negara tersebut yang lebih cenderung kepada memberikan pentafsiran agama Islam mengikut perspektif Islam yang tulen sambil menyatakan "Kita akur dengan apa yang telah ditafsirkan oleh para penggubal undang-undang perlembagaan dulu, tetapi kita tidak terikat dengan apa yang telah diputuskan oleh para penggubal undang-undang perlembagaan tersebut". Pandangan-pandangan seperti di atas tidak boleh dianggap sebagai suatu yang asing di negara ini disebabkan sebelum kewujudan Perlembagaan Perseketuan ini telah ada undang-undang bertulis di beberapa negeri di Tanah Melayu yang meletakkan Islam sebagai agama rasmi dengan pentafsiran yang tidak sesempit Perlembagaan Persekutuan. Bab 51 Perlembagaan Negeri Terengganu, 1911 menyebutkan: “Sesungguhnya dengan ini diisytiharkan, dimaktubkan dan ditubuhkan bagi setiap masa dan ketika, bahawa kerajaan Terengganu ini adalah kerajaan Islam yang menganut agama Islam dalam Malaya dan ianya dipanggil agama negara dan agama rasmi dan bahawasanya, tiada agama lain sekalipun boleh ditubuhkan atau dirujukkan sebagai agama negara, walau seberapa ramai sekalipun penganut dan bangsa lain atau keturunan lain yang dilindungi dan bernaung di bawah negeri Terengganu dan segala jajahan takluknya”. Perkara 57 Undang-undang tubuh kerajaan negeri Johor 1895 juga jelas menunjukkan keluasan pengertian agama Islam sepertimana yang disebutkan: “Sesungguhnya, apa yang dinamakan 'Agama Islam'(State Religion) bagi negeri Johor dan segala jajahan takluknya ialah agama Islam dan dalam hal sedemikian itu, agama Islam hendaklah terus dan selama-lamanya diiktiraf sebagai agama negara, iaitu tidaklah boleh manamana agama lain dijadikan agama negara atau dirujuk sebagai agama negara bagi negeri ini, walaupun segala agama lain dibenarkan dan boleh dibenarkan sekiranya sesuai dan patut dibenarkan diamalkan secara aman dan sejahtera oleh orang-orang yang menganut agama sedemikian di mana-mana bahagian dalam negeri Johor dan segala jajahan takluknya”. Pentafsiran Islam sebagai agama atau sistem yang menepati perspektif Islam yang sebenar dalam Perlembagaan Perseketuan dapat dilihat dalam kes saman seorang bapa terhadap sebuah sekolah yang telah membuang anak beliau disebabkan memakai serban ketika waktu persekolahan yang telah diputuskan pada 6 Ogos 1999 oleh Mahkamah Tinggi Seremban bahawa pihak sekolah telah melanggar peruntukan Perlembagaan Perseketuan. Oleh itu, tindakan membuang sekolah tersebut dikira sebagai tidak sah dan pihak berkuasa dikehendaki mengambil semula pelajar tersebut di samping dikenakan membayar ganti rugi kepada pelajar berkenaan. Dalam penghakiman tersebut, mahkamah telah memutuskan bahawa dasar pakaian sekolah yang telah ditetapkan oleh Kementerian Pendidikan bercanggah dengan Perlembagaan Perseketuan yang meletakkan Islam sebagai agama rasmi. Hakim juga dilaporkan menyatakan bahawa dalam keadaan pihak kementerian tidak membuat apa-apa peraturan melarang pelajar-pelajar sikh mengenakan turban, pihak sekolah berkenaan telah bertindak keterlaluan dengan mengharamkan pemakaian serban di kalangan pelajar Islam di sekolah tersebut (Abd. Aziz, 1999). Kes Meor Atiqurrahman Bin Ishak & Ors vs Fatimah Sahid ini ([2000] 5 MLJ :375) telah membuka suatu ruang kepada pentafsiran peruntukan agama Islam sebagai agama rasmi menurut pentafsiran yang tidak sesempit pentafsiran-pentafsiran sebelum daripada kes ini yang mana para hakim lebih cenderung untuk mentafsirkannya dalam batasan upacara-upacara rasmi sahaja sepertimana yang dicadangkan dalam pembentukannya sebagai perlembagaan negara walaupun telah terdapat kecenderungan di kalangan sesetengah hakim di Mahkamah Tinggi bermula pada era 80an untuk memutuskan hukuman berdasarkan hukuman Islam dalam perkara-perkara yang selain daripada dasar dan undang-undang umum negara (Hamid, 1995). Di antara contoh yang dapat dilihat ialah keputusan Tun Salleh Abas yang pada ketika itu merupakan Hakim Mahkamah Persekutuan telah memutuskan kes Re Dato Bentara Luar ([1982] 2 MLJ 264) dengan berkata: “Kesahan atau tidak wakaf itu hendaklah diputuskan hanya dengan rujukan kepada undang-undang yang difahami, diikuti dan ditafsirkan oleh ulama Islam yang dilatih dan arif dalam hukum syara’. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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ii. Pentafsiran maksud pengamalan agama dalam perkara 11( 1 ):"Tiap-tiap orang adalah berhak menganuti dan mengamalkan agamanya dan tertakiuk kepada fasal (4), mengembangkan agamanya". Peruntukan ini menunjukkan bahawa perlembagaan negara seolah-olah tiada halangan terhadap segala pengamalan terhadap ajaran agama Islam itu sendiri. Sekiranya pentafsiran pengamalan ini dikembalikan kepada pentafsiran mengikut ajaran Islam yang sebenar maka perlaksanaan hukuman hudüd dalam perundangan Malaysia juga tidak boleh dihalang oleh Perlembagaan Malaysia berikutan ia merupakan salah satu daripada kefarduan yang perlu dilaksanakan dan diamalkan oleh umat Islam dalam konteks sebuah negara. Peruntukan ini telah diperkuatkan oleh peruntukan yang lain dalam perkara 11 (3) yang menjelaskan bahawa: "Tiap-tiap kumpulan agama adalah berhak menguruskan hal ehwal agamanya sendiri, menubuh dan menyelenggara yayasan bagi maksud-maksud agama atau khairat dan memperolehi dan mempunyai harta serta memegang dan mentadbirkannya mengikut undang-undang" iii. Pentafsiran maksud undang-undang Islam dalam perkara 4(1): "Perlembagaan ini adalah undang-undang utama Perseketuan dan apa-apa undang-undang yang diluluskan selepas hari merdeka dan yang berlawanan dengan perlembagaan ini hendaklah terbatal setakat yang berlawanan itu" Sekiranya dirujuk kepada kedudukan undang-undang Islam itu sendiri yang lahir lebih awal3 daripada kewujudan Perlembagaan Malaysia, jelas menunjukkan bahawa ia terkecuali daripada pembatalan kesahannya menurut peruntukan ini. Selain daripada itu, peruntukan ini juga boleh ditafsirkan bahwa ia hanya menyentuh undang-undang bertulis yang digubal oleh badan perundangan dan bukan undang-undang Islam yang termasuk dalam kategori hudüd dan qisas yang diturunkan secara terus daripada Allah s.w.t. dan tidak digubal oleh badan perundangan (Ahmad, 1995). Perkara ini telah digambarkan oleh Tun Salleh Abas dalam kes Re Dato Bentara Luar decd. Haji Yahya Bin Haji Yusof & Anor v. Hassan Bin Othman & Anor([1982]2 M.L.J.264) dengan kata-katanya: “Undang-undang Islam bukan undang-undang dengan makna ia dibuat oleh badan perundangan manusia. Enakmen pentadbiran undangundang Islam tiada mencuba untuk memperuntukkan undang-undang Islam dalam mana-mana perkara, akan tetapi hanya memberi cara pentadbiran bagi pihak kerajaan mengenakan undang-undang itu. Undang-undang Islam itu ialah wahyu daripada Allah s.w.t. yang terdapat dalam al-Qur'an atau hadith iaitu perjalanan Nabi Muhammad atau tafsiran bagi sesuatu atau kedua-dua perkara itu. Oleh kerana undang-undang itu undang-undang Allah, undang-undang itu tidak berubah”.

Ruang Dalam Bentuk Persediaan Perlaksanaan Persiapan ke arah perlaksanan hukuman hudüd di Malaysia secara umumnya dapat dilihat telah berlaku secara tidak langsung melalui proses-proses yang sedang dilaksanakan oleh pihak kerajaan dalam meningkatkan perlaksanaan undang-undang syariah di negara ini. Berikut merupakan antara persediaan tersebut:

i.

Persediaan Mahkamah Syariah

Sistem kehakiman Islam yang dijalankan di Malaysia pada hari ini iaitu Mahkamah Syari'ah secara umumnya telah diletakkan di bawah suatu pentadbiran yang tersendiri bagi memastikan kebebasan dan menjelaskan kedudukannya sebagai suatu institusi yang boleh berdiri dengan sendiri. Kebanyakan Mahkamah Syari'ah yang pada suatu ketika dahulu berada di bawah suatu pentadbiran yang sama dengan Jabatan Hal Ehwal Agama dan Pejabat Mufti tidak dapat berfungsi dengan baik disebabkan pelbagai masalah yang timbul. Pengasingan ini dapat lebih meningkatkan mutu pentadbiran Mabkamah Syariah itu sendiri. Di samping itu, struktur Mahkamah Syari'ah pada hari ini juga telah lebih diperjelaskan melalui penetapan tiga peringkat mahkamah syari'ah dan bidangkuasa iaitu Mahkamah Rendah, Mahkamah Tinggi dan Mahkamah Rayuan. Di antara perubahan paling jelas yang dapat dilihat kini ialah penstrukturan semula Mahkamah Syariah sepertimana yang telah dijelaskan dan juga beberapa pindaan kepada Perlembagaan Perseketuan iaitu pindaan kepada perkara 54 dan perkara 121. Pindaan perkara 5 telah menunjukkan satu proviso telah dimasukkan ke dalam fasal (4) perkara 5 bagi Mahkamah Syari'ah iaitu “Dan dengan syarat selanjutnya dalam hal penangkapan bagi sesuatu kesalahan boleh dibicarakan oleh Mahkamah Syariah. Sebutan-sebutan dalam fasal ini mengenai seorang majistret hendaklah ditafsirkan sebagai termasuk sebutan-sebutan mengenai seorang hakim Mahkamah Syariah”. Pindaan ini bertujuan meletakkan kuasa hakim Mahkamah Syariah setaraf dengan hakim Mahkamah Majistret melalui kesan pindaannya iaitu antara lainnya membolehkan seseorang yang ditangkap atas kesalahan yang boleh dibicarakan di Mahkamah Syariah dikenakan perkara yang sama sepertimana beliau dibicarakan oleh Mahkamah Majistret. Sebagai contohnya, sekiranya seseorang itu ditangkap atas sesuatu kesalahan, beliau hendaklah di bawa ke hadapan hakim Mahkamah Syariah dalam 3)  Dari sudut sejarah hukuman hudud telah digunapakai di beberapa negeri Tanah Melayu sebelum kemerdekaan pada tahun 1957. 4)  Perkara 5 adalah berkaitan dengan kebebasan diri.

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masa 24 jam daripada masa ditangkap tanpa kelengahan yang tidak munasabah. Sekiranya beliau hendak ditahan lebih lanjut maka kebenaran daripada Mahkamah Syariah perlu didapatkan terlebih dahulu (Hassan, 1999). Pindaan perkara 121 pada 1988 pula memberikan suatu kekuatan baru kepada pentadbiran Mahkamah Syariah sekiranya dilaksanakan manakala mengabaikannya akan merendáhkan taraf Mahkamah Syariah itu sendiri. Antara lain, pindaan itu telah memasukkan fasal (1A) yang memperuntukkan, "Mahkamah-mahkamah yang disebutkan dalam fasal (1) tidak boleh mempunyai bidangkuasa berkenaan dengan apa-apa perkara dalam bidang kuasa Mahkamah Syariah." Pindaan ini memberikan kesan kepada jaminan terhadap kewibawaan Mahkamah Syari'ah yang tidak boleh dicampurtangan oleh mahkamah-mahkamah tinggi dan bawahan. Mahkamah-mahkamah tersebut juga tidak boleh mempertikaikan apa-apa perkara yang diputuskan atau yang berada di bawah bidang kuasanya. Walaupun begitu, dari sudut praktikal perlaksanaan Mahkamah Syari'ah ini sebenarnya masih lagi terhad disebabkan masih tertakluk di bawah pelbagai akta dan sekatan yang tertentu. Antaranya, dalam bidangkuasa yang diberikan didapati masih banyak undang-undang Persekutuan yang terpakai mengatasi undangundang Islam, umpamanya dalam bidang harta pusaka, tugas hakim syarii atau Mahkamah Tinggi Syariah hanya mengesahkan bahagian-bahagian yang diperuntukkan kepada waris-waris di bawah hukum faraid sahaja manakala keputusan-keputusan yang lain akan dibuat dan diuruskan oleh pegawai harta pesaka kecil atau pemegang amanah raya (Mohd. Ridzuan, 1998) yang terpisah daripada Mahkamah Syariah berdasarkan Probate And Administration Act (Act 97) dan Small Estate (Act 98). Manakala dalam bidang jenayah juga, peranan dan bidang kuasa Mahkamah Syari'ah masih terhad. la hanya mengendalikan kes-kes yang melibatkan orang Islam sahaja dan terhad kepada bidang yang berkaitan dengan aqidah, ibadat dan juga kes-kes yang berkaitan dengan jenayah syariah yang telah disempitkan skopnya manakala bidangkuasa melaksanakan hukumannya pula juga telah dibataskan kepada batasan yang tertentu yang jelas tidak menggambarkan röh syari'ah Islamiyah melalui Akta Bidangkuasa Mabkamah Syariah 1965 (pindaan 1984). Kes Public Prosecutor v Dato Seri Anwar Ibrahim (No 3) (Augustine Paul J) ([1999] 2 MLJ 11) jelas menunjukkan pindaan Perkara 121 telah diabaikan berikutan Dato' Seri Anwar dituduh dengan lima tuduhan meliwat di bawah seksyen 377B Kanun Keseksaan sedangkan sepatutnya ia dibawah bidang kuasa Mahkamah Syariah.5 Keputusan kes ini juga boleh mengikat kes-kes yang seterusnya yang membabitkan bidangkuasa Mahkamah Syariah disebabkan ia dibicarakan di Mahkamah Tinggi. la secara tidak langsung bakal memperlekehkan pindaan Perkara 121 tersebut. Secara ringkasnya, walaupun terdapat pelbagai sekatan dan halangan terhadap Mahkamah Syariah dalam proses merealisasikan undang-undang Islam dalam ertikata yang sebenar termasuk perlaksanaan hudud, tetapi telah berlaku suatu perubahan secara sedikit demi sedikit ke arah lebih baik. Ia secara tidak langsung memberi harapan kepada perlaksanaan undang-undang Islam secara menyeluruh termasuk hudud di bawah sistem Mahkamah Syariah negara ini.

ii.

Persiapan Menyediakan Tenaga-Tenaga Pelaksana

Persiapan menyediakan tenaga-tenaga pelaksana kepada perlaksanaan hudüd di Malaysia didapati telah berlaku sekian lama dengan ramainya bilangan yang mempelajari bidang pengajian Islam yang antara lainnya adalah bidang syariah Islam di dalam dan luar negara. Sejarah menunjukkan bahawa proses ini telah berlaku sejak sebelum kemerdekaan Malaysia berdasarkan ramainya penuntut-penuntut yang mempelajari bidang pengajian Islam di Timur Tengah dan juga institusi-institusi pengajian pondok di tanahair dan juga rantau Asia Tenggara seperti di selatan Thailand dan Indonesia. Malahan ada juga pelajar Malaysia yang melanjutkan pelajaran di universiti-universiti di luar negara termasuk di barat di peringkat yang Iebih tinggi seperti peringkat sarjana dan doktor falsafah dalam bidang Syariah Islam. Manakala di Malaysia juga tidak kurang ramainya bilangan pelajar yang mengikuti kursus pengajian Islam dalam bidang syariah Islam di universiti-urnversiti tempatan seperti di Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Universiti Malaya dan Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia yang menawarkan kursus-kursus yang berkenaan. Malahan telah terdapat kursus-kursus dalam bentuk pengajian perbandingan antara undang-undang Islam dan undang-undang ciptaan manusia yang diamalkan di negara kita di universiti-universiti tersebut.

iii. Persiapan Menerusi Rujukan Perlaksanaan Hudud di Negara-Negara Islam Semasa Pada hari ini, terdapat beberapa negara Islam yang melaksanakan undang-undang jenayah Islam yang 5)  Seksyen 25 Akta Kesalahan Jenayah Syariah (Wilayah-Wilayah Perseketuan) 1997 [Akta 559] jelas memperuntukkan bahawa liwat di bawah bidangkuasa Mahkamah Syariah.

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terkandung di dalamnya hukuman hudüd. Terkini, Brunei dalam proses perlaksanaan. Secara umumnya, negara-negara yang melaksanakan undang-undang jenayah Islam ini pernah berada di bawah undangundang jenayah bukan Islam sepertimana yang dihadapi oleh negara kita. Sebagai contohnya Pakistan, sejarah perundangannya menyaksikan bahawa ia sebelum ini pernah berada di bawah perundangan yang tidak berunsur kelslaman disebabkan berada di bawah pemerintahan British. Undang-undang jenayah yang pernah digunakan sebelum daripada ini ialah panel kod yang berasaskan kepada sistem common law Inggeris. Selepas kemerdekaannya daripada Inggeris, beberapa perubahan telah dilakukan kepada sistem perundangannya yang membabitkan beberapa pindaan dan gubalan ke arah perlaksanaan undang-undang Islam sepenuhnya. Antara undang-undang berkaitan hudud dalam perundangan negara Pakistan adalah sepertimana berikut: a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

Offences against property (enforcement of hudood) ordinance, 1979 (VI of 1979) Offence of zina (enforcement of hudood) ordinance, 1979 (VII of 1979) Offence of qadf (enforcement of hadd) ordinance, 1979 (VII of 1979) Execution of the punishment of Whipping ordinance, 1979 (IX of 1979) Prohibition (enforcement of hadd) order, 1979 (IX of 1979) Baluchistan prohibition (enforcement of hadd) rules, 1979 Punjab prohibition (enforcement of hadd) rules, 1979

Menurut Syed Agil Barakhbah(1996), bahawa sekiranya ditinjau peruntukan-peruntukan undang-undang dan hukuman hudud yang dilaksanakan di Pakistan sahaja, ia telah menjelaskan secara terperinci perjalanan perlaksanaannya yang boleh diguna pakai oleh negara kita sebagai rujukan dalam melaksanakan hukuman hudüd di dalam perundangan. Kesimpulannya, perlaksanaan hudud di negara-negara Islam lain, walaupun mungkin terdapat beberapa kelemahan, boleh dijadikan rujukan kepada Malaysia dalam perlaksanaannya dalam realiti semasa hari ini. Kemungkinan Malaysia boleh menampilkan perlaksanaan yang lebih baik dan menepati syariah seratus-peratus berdasarkan pelbagai kemudahan dalam bentuk modal insan dan prasarana yang terdapat di negara ini.

Ruang Dalam Perlaksanaan Undang-Undang Terdapat banyak persamaan umum antara undang-undang jenayah Islam dan juga undang-undang jenayah Malaysia walaupun pada hakikatnya ia mempunyai perbezaan yang amat ketara terutama dari sudut sumber, skop dan matlamatnya. Dalam penulisan ini, diutarakan beberapa persamaan dari sudut prinsip penghukuman dan undang-undang prosedur sahaja yang melibatkan undang-undang hudud dan undang-undang jenayah Malaysia bagi menunjukkan bahawa kerangka perundangan sedia ada boleh digunakan bagi perlaksanaan hudud di Malaysia. Sekiranya perlukan pengubahsuaian maka ia bukanlah pengubahsuaian yang menjejaskan keseluruhan kerangka sedia ada. Berikut dikemukakan persamaan tersebut:

i.

Persamaan dari sudut prinsip penghukuman: •

"Seseorang tidak dikira bersalah dan tidak boleh dikenakan hukuman melainkan setelah disabitkan dengan kesalahan"

Di dalam perundangan Islam, setiap seseorang yang dibawa ke mahkamah dikira sebagai tidak bersalah sehinggalah ia disabitkan dengan kesalahan yang dipertuduhkan ke atasnya berdasarkan kaedah fiqh yang mempunyai persamaan dengan prinsip yang digunakan oleh undang-undang prosedur jenayah Malaysia yang berbunyi "An accused person is persumed to be innocent until he is proven guilty". Kaedah fiqh Islam itu adalah sepertimana berikut:

Maksudnya: “Pada asalnya seseorang itu bebas daripada sebarang tanggungjawab”. Dalam konteks perundangan Islam, kaedah ini digunakan bagi menjelaskan sesuatu penghakiman terhadap sesuatu kes agar tetap di atas landasan keadilan. Sebagai contohnya, seseorang yang dituduh sebagai berzina tanpa dibawakan saksi-saksi yang menepati syarat-syarat yang berkenaan tidak boleh dikatakan sebagai pesalah, malahan mereka yang menuduh boleh dikenakan hukuman qazaf kerana menuduh seorang yang tidak dapat dibuktikan kesalahannya. •

Prinsip kesamarataan dalam undang-undang (equality before the law)

Islam mengenengahkan prinsip kesamarataaan semua pihak menurut pandangan perundangan Islam. la © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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bermaksud bahawa tiada seseorang pun yang boleh menjangkaui atau diketepikan daripada undang-undang berdasarkan konsep umum perundangan yang telah dijelaskan melalui firman Allah s.w.t.

Maksudnya: “Sesungguhnya Allah s.w.t. menyuruh kamu menyampaikan amanat kepada yang berhak menerimanya, dan (menyuruh kamu) apabila menetapkan hukum di antara manusia supaya kamu menetapkannya dengan adil. Sesungguhnya Allah adalah Maha Mendengar lagi Maha Melihat”. (al-Quran; Surah an-Nisa’ 4:58) Prinsip ini telah ditunjukkan oleh Rasulullah secara praktikal ketika golongan 'Arab Quraish memohon untuk dilepaskan seorang wanita yang telah disabitkan kesalahan mencuri dan dikenakan hukuman potong tangan setelah melalui prosedur-prosedur penghukuman mengikut perundangan Islam. Oleh kerana kedudukannya yang tinggi dalam masyarakat pada ketika itu, maka pihak Quraisy cuba untuk menyelamatkannya daripada dikenakan hukuman tersebut. Lalu mereka meminta bantuan Usamah Bin Zaid yang rapat dengan Rasulullah agar memujuk baginda. Setelah mendengar permintaan pihak Quraisy tersebut Rasulullah telah menolaknya dan telah berkhutbah pada keesokan harinya dengan menyebut: “Sesungguhnya kebinasaan yang ditimpakan ke atas kaum yang sebelum daripada kamu adalah disebabkan apabila terdapat di kalangan mereka yang mencuri dari golongan atasan, mereka lepaskan dan apabila yang mencuri itu dari kalangan bawahan, mereka menjalankan hukuman had, dan demi Allah, sekiranya Fatimah Binti Muhammad mencuri, nescaya aku potongkan tangannya”. (al-Nawãwi, alMinhaj: Juz. 11: 188)

Perkara yang sama juga boleh dilihat diketengahkan dalam perundangan Malaysia dan telah disentuh oleh perlembagaan Malaysia dalam perkara 8(1) yang berbunyi "Semua orang di negara ini samarata di sisi undangundang dan berhak mendapat perlindungan samarata di sisi undang-undang."

ii.

Persamaan dari sudut prosedur perlaksanaan:

Persamaan dari sudut prosedur perlaksanaan hukuman hudud dengan undang-undang prosedur jenayah di Malaysia hari ini boleh dilihat antaranya menerusi perlaksanaan hukuman hudud terhadap penzina pada zaman Rasulullah. Di bawah dikemukakan dua riwayat yang dipetik daripada Sahih Bukhari berkenaan pemuda yang telah membuat pengakuan di hadapan Rasulullah bahawa beliau telah melakukan zina . Dalam riwayat yang pertama disebutkan bahawa pemuda tersebut telah mendatangi Rasulullah sambil membuat pengakuan berkenaan perlakuan zina yang telah dilakukannya. Tetapi setiap kali beliau membuat pengakuan tersebut, Rasulullah berpaling daripadanya. Akhirnya pada pengakuannya yang keempat Rasulullah telah bertanya kepadanya: "Adakah anda tidak waras (gila)?" Jawab pemuda tersebut: "Tidak wahai Rasulullah." Rasulullah bertanya: "Adakah kamu telah berkahwin?" Jawab pemuda tersebut: "Ya wahai Rasulullah." Rasulullah pun berkata kepada sahabat yang berada disekelilingnya: "Bawa pemuda ini pergi dan rejamlah ia!" (al-Bukhäri, Sahih, Kitab al-Hudüd, Bil. 6825). Dalam riwayat kedua pula iaitu setelah pemuda tersebut selesai membuat pengakuan melakukan kesalahan zina, beliau telah ditanya oleh Rasulullah seperti berikut: "Kemungkinan kamu hanya menciumnya atau rnerabanya atau melihatnya sahaja" Jawab pemuda tersebut: "Tidak wahai Rasulullah." Berkata Rasulullah: "Kamu telah berzina dengannya?" Serentak dengan itu Rasulullah telah mengarah sahabat untuk merejamnya. (al-Bukhari, Sahih, Kitab al-hudud, Bil 6824) Petikan-petikan kisah di atas telah menunjukkan beberapa prosedur keterangan dan penghakiman yang telab diambil oleh Rasulullah sebelum menjatuhkan hukuman terhadap dua pesalah yang telah memberi keterangan berkenaan kesalahan mereka. Antara lain prosedur-prosedur tersebut ialah: a. Keterangan diambil di hadapan tertuduh: Kedua-dua riwayat ini telah menyaksikan bagaimana Rasulullah telah mengambil keterangan di hadapan tertuduh. Prosedur yang sama boleh didapati dalam seksyen 264 Kanun Prosedur Jenayah.6 b. Hakim perlu memastikan kesahihan keterangan atau pengakuan yang dikemukakan: Dalam riwayat yang pertama Rasulullah hanya memberi respon kepada pemuda itu selepas pengakuannya yang keempat tetapi baginda tidak terus menerima pengakuan tersebut, sebaliknya baginda terlebih dahulu bertanya tentang kewarasannya. Manakala dalam riwayat yang kedua pula Rasulullah telah meminta kepastian yang lebih jelas daripada pemuda tersebut yang terlebih dahulu telah membuat 6)  Seksyen 264. Keterangan hendaklah diambil di hadapan tertuduh.

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pengakuan kesalahan zinanya dengan katanya: "Kemungkinan kamu hanya menciumnya atau merabanya atau melihatnya sahaja?" c. Hakim mengemukakan semula keterangan yang telah didengarinya kepada pemberi keterangan. Riwayat kedua telah menunjukkan bagaimana Rasulullah telah mengulangi pengakuan yang telah dibuat oleh pemuda tersebut dengan katanya: "Kamu telah berzina dengannya?". Prosedur yang hampir sama boleh didapati dalam seksyen 269(i) Kanun Prosedur Jenayah.7 d. Hakim menerangkan hukuman yang dijatuhkan terhadap pesalah. Kedua-dua riwayat tersebut menunjukkan bahawa Rasulullah telah menyatakan hukuman terhadap pesalah di hadapan pesalah. Prosedur yang hampir sama boleh didapati dalam seksyen 279 Kanun Prosedur Jenayah.8 Selain daripada contoh-contoh di atas, terdapat banyak lagi persamaan umum seperti di atas yang boleh didapati melalui pengkajian terhadap penulisan-penulisan berkaitan perundangan Islam berkenaan undangundang prosedur dan prinsip undang-undang jenayah Islam oleh ulama-ulama silam. Sebagai contohnya, dalam persoalan pertuduhan, Seksyen 153(i) 158(i) dan (ii) kanun prosedur jenayah menjelaskan bahawa setiap pertuduhan hendaklah menyatakan nama, seksyen yang berkaitan, masa dan tempat kesalahan itu dilakukan. Manakala dalam seksyen 170 pula memperuntukkan bahawa mahkamah boleh meminda atau menambah pertuduhan itu pada bila-bila masa sebelum keputusan dibuat dan pemindaan tersebut mestilah dibacakan kepada yang tertuduh. Peruntukan-peruntukan tersebut juga dikemukakan dalam undang-undang prosedur jenayah Islam berdasarkan konsep-konsep umum iaitu peruntukan meminta agar dinyatakan nama pertuduhan sebagai contohnya pertuduhan zina, mencuri dan sebagainya telah dijelaskan dalam kitab Mu’in al-Hukkam, peruntukan meminta untuk menyebutkan undang-undang dan seksyen, pengamalan dalam hukuman hudud boleh dirujuk dalam kitab al-Mughni, peruntukan yang menyatakan bahawa mahkamah dikehendaki memanggil tertuduh bagi menjawab sama ada hendak mengaku bersalah atau bersedia dibicarakan atas pertuduhan yang telah dirangka atau diubah atau ditambah mengikut keperluan perbicaraan dibahaskan dengan parjang lebar dalam beberapa kitab-kitab Fiqh Islam seperti Sharh Fath al-Qadir, al-Mughni dan al-Tasyri’ al-Jina'iyy al-Islamiy (Abdullah, 1988). Secara umumnya, kisah-kisah dan penjelasan di atas menggambarkan bahawa perlaksanaan hukuman hudüd sejak permulaan Islam lagi telah mempunyai prinsip-prinsip dan prosedur-prosedur yang tertentu sebagai pengawal kepada perlaksanaan hukuman tersebut agar tidak terkeluar daripada lingkungan keadilan. Dalam masa yang sama didapati bahawa prinsip dan prosedur ini mempunyai persamaan dengan undang-undang bukan hudud yang sedang digunapakai di negara ini. Ia secara tidak langsung menunjukkan kekuatan yang ada pada hukuman hudud yang walaupun digembar-gemburkan sebagai suatu yang kuno dan tidak sesuai tetapi secara realitinya kerangka yang menyokong kekuatan keadilannya menerusi prinsip dan prosedur ini sedang digunapakai oleh undang-undang negara kita.

KESIMPULAN Hukuman hudud merupakan suatu hukuman yang mampu menjamin kesejahteraan masyarakat. Perkara ini dapat dilihat menerusi hukuman itu sendiri yang merupakan hukuman yang bersumberkan daripada Allah dan bukan daripada manusia. Prinsip dan prosedur di sebalik perlaksanaan hukuman ini juga memperlihatkan kekuatan hukuman ini untuk dilaksanakan dalam konteks hari ini. Bahkan persamaan-persamaan yang wujud antara prinsip dan prosedur hudud dengan undang-undang jenayah di Malaysia menguatkan lagi hujah keupayaannya dalam menjamin kesejahteraan masyarakat. Selain itu, tulisan ini juga mendapati bahawa perlaksanaan hukuman hudüd di Malaysia tidaklah merupakan suatu perkara mustahil untuk dipraktikkan memandangkan kepada senario perlaksanaan perundangan Islam di Malaysia yang mula menampakkan perubahan ke arah lebih tersusun dan sedikit demi sedikit telah ditingkatkan tarafnya melalui pelbagai tindakan daripada pihak kerajaan sendiri. Kebuntuan merealisasikan perlaksanaan hukuman hudüd di Malaysia yang selama ini digembar-gemburkan bertitik-tolak daripada halangan Perlembagaan Malaysia juga telah dapat dipecahkan melalui pentafsiran-pentafsiran baru berkenaan Islam sebagai agama rasmi dan juga beberapa peruntukan perlembagaan sepertimana telah disentuh dalam tulisan ini. Sifat perlembagaan itu sendiri yang boleh berubah dan boleh ditafsirkan dengan pelbagai tafsiran sepertimana telah ditunjukkan dalam pelbagai peristiwa yang berlaku sejak akhir-akhir ini juga menunjukkan ía boleh digunakan untuk 7)  Seksyen 269(i). Keterangan bagi tiap-tiap saksi yang diambil dalam siasatan di bawah Bab XI dan XVII hendaklah dibacakan semula kepadanya pada waktu tertuduh hadir dan pada pendengarannya (atau peguambelanya, sekiranya ia dibela oleh peguambela) dan jika perlu hendaklah dibetulkan. 8)  Seksyen 279. Penghakiman hendaklah diterangkan kepada tertuduh dan salinannya dibekalkan

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memberi ruang kepada hukuman hudud untuk dilaksanakan dalam perundangan negara ini. Kesimpulannya, hukuman hudud boleh dilaksanakan di Malaysia pada hari ini berdasarkan kerangka sedia ada dalam sistem perundangan negara di samping kekuatan modal insan sedia ada dan pengalaman yang boleh dicedok dari negara luar yang telah melaksanakannya dalam dunia moden hari ini.

RUJUKAN Abdullah Abu Bakar. (1988). Ke Arah Pengkanunan Acara Jenayah Islam. Dlm. Ahmad Ibrahim (pnyt.). Makalah Undang-Undang Menghormati Ahmad Ibrahim. (55-72). Kuala Lumpur: DBP. Abu Zahrah, Muhammad. (1987). Ahkam al-Jarimah wa al-cUqubah fi al-Fiqh al-Islami, Jordan : Maktabah alManar. Abu Zahrah, Muhammad (t.th.), al-cUqubah, t.tp. : Dar al-Fikr al-cArabi. cAudah, cAbd al-Qadir (1992) al-Tasyric al-Jina’i al-Islami Muqaranan Bi al-Qanun al-Wadci, Beirut: Muassasah al-Risalah. Ahmad Ibrahim. (1992). Hukum Islam Di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Bahagian Hal Ehwal Islam (JPM) Ahmad Ibrahim. (1995). Undang-Undang Islam di Mahkamah Sivil. Dlm. Ahmad Ibrahim (pnyt.) al-Ahkam. (23). Kuala Lumpur: DBP. Al-Ghazali, Imam Abu Hamid Muhammad Ibn Muhammad (t.th.). al-Mustasfa Min Ilmi al-Usul. Beirut: Dar alKutub al-Ilmiyah. Aziz Bari. (1998). Serban Di Mahkamah Tinggi Seremban: Kesannya Terhadap Tafsiran Islam Dalam Perlembagaan. Eksklusif. 30 Ogos-5 September: 17. Bahnasi, Ahmad Fathi. (1983). Al-Siyasah al-Jinaiyyah Fi al-Syariah al-Islamiyah. Beirut: Dar al-Syuruq Bahnasi, Ahmad Fathi. Madkhal al-Fiqh al-Jinaii al-Islami. Beirut: Dar al-Shuruq. Bukhari, Abi Abdillah Muhammad Ibn Ismail, al-. t.th. Sahih Bukhari. Kaherah: Dar Nah al-Nil Toba’ah Nashr Wa Tauzi’. Hamid Jusuh. (1995). Pemakaian Undang-Undang Islam Kini Dan Masa Depannya Di Malaysia. Dlm. Ahmad Ibrahim (pnyt.). al-Ahkam. (73-78). Kuala Lumpur: DBP. Hashim Mehat. (1998). Prosedur Jenayah di Mahkamah Syariah. Abdul Basir Bin Haji Mahmud & Jafril Khalil (pnyt.) Isu Syariah Dan Undang-Undang, 5, 95-96, 107. Hassan Bahrom. (1999). Perlembagaan: Isu Perlaksanaan Undang-Undang Islam. Jurnal Syariah 7, 1, 90-95, 96. Hooker, M.B. (1992). Undang-Undang Islam di Asia Tenggara. Terj. Rohani Abd. Rahim et al. Kuala Lumpur: DBP. Mohd. Shauki Abd. Majid. (1995). Hudud Kelantan: Hukum Syarak Atau …… Dakwah, Februari: 7-13. Nawawi, al-Imam Mahyu al-Din, al-. (1994). Al-Minhaj Bi Syarh Sohih Muslim. Ibn. Al-Hajjaj. Beirut: Dar alMa’rifah. Report of The Federation Of Malaya. (1957). State Religion. Kuala Lumpur. G.A. Smith. Syed Agil Barakbah. (1996). Kedudukan dan Perlaksanaan Undang-Undang Jenayah Islam di Pakistan. Dlm. Abdul Monir Yaakob & Sarina Othman (pnyt.) Tinjauan kepada perundangan Islam. (443-444 490).

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

SPIRITUALITI, FATWA DAN TAKSIRAN ZAKAT USAHAWAN PADI DI MALAYSIA Zahri Hamat * [email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract Kertas ini bertujuan menganalisis taksiran zakat pertanian dalam kalangan usahawan padi di Malaysia dari perspektif spiritualiti, fatwa dan amalan di institusi zakat. Hal ini kerana maqasid zakat adalah untuk membersihkan dan mensucikan jiwa dan harta pemilik kekayaan. Dalam manual terbitan Jabatan Wakaf, Zakat dan Haji (JAWHAR), taksiran zakat pertanian dibuat setelah ditolak kos pengeluaran pertanian. Persoalannya, fatwa yang dikeluarkan oleh majoriti negeri di Malaysia tidak membenarkan kos pengeluaran pertanian ditolak? Apatah lagi kos sara hidup para usahawan padi. Bagaimanakah untuk mengharmonikan antara fatwa dan amalan taksiran zakat supaya aspek spiritualiti dalam maqasid zakat dapat direalisasikan? Berdasarkan analisis kandungan terhadap data sekunder dan data primer, perbincangan kertas ini dibahagikan kepada tiga kategori. Pertama, menyorot maqasid zakat diwajibkan dari perspektif spiritualiti sebagai latar belakang kertas ini. Kedua, menganalisis tulisan klasik tentang kos pengeluaran dan kos sara hidup. Ketiga, menganalisis kaedah taksiran zakat pertanian yang sedang diamalkan oleh institusi-institusi zakat di Malaysia. Dihujahkan dengan mengambil kira bentuk pertanian pada masa kini, maka penilaian semula kaedah taksiran zakat pertanian adalah diperlukan kerana maqasid zakat adalah untuk membersihkan dan mensucikan jiwa dan harta. Keywords: spiritualiti, fatwa, maqasid, kos pengeluaran pertanian, dan kos sara hidup

PENDAHULUAN Perakaunan zakat bermaksud menentukan kekayaan yang diwajibkan zakat, menentukan kadar zakat terhadap kekayaan tersebut dan membuat taksiran zakat yang patut dikenakan.1 Taksiran zakat pula adalah sebahagian daripada perakaunan zakat. Dengan kata lain, taksiran lebih bermaksud perkiraan zakat yang sepatutnya dikenakan. Perakaunan zakat kerap mengalami perubahan. Hal ini antara lain disebabkan sifat kekayaan yang diwajibkan zakat itu sendiri. Syeikh Mahmud Syaltut, bekas Syeikh al-Azhar, antara lain menyebut seperti berikut: “....kita dapati bahawa jurang perbezaan antara para pemerintah dan fuqaha’ dalam melaksanakan kefarduan zakat ini begitu luas sekali.... Sebagai contoh, fuqaha’ ini mengenakan zakat atas hasil pertanian yang diusahakan oleh manusia dan fuqaha’ yang lain pula enggan mengenakan zakat...” (Mahmood Zuhdi Abd. Majid, 2003) Kekayaan yang diwajibkan zakat meliputi antaranya adalah emas, binatang ternakan, barangan perniagaan, pendapatan pertanian, penggajian dan sewaan. Namun, semua kekayaan tersebut boleh dibahagikan kepada dua bentuk. Pertama, dalam bentuk harta seperti emas, binatang ternakan dan barangan perniagaan. Kedua,

1)  Perakaunan zakat dalam bahasa Arab adalah muhasabah al-zakah. Proses perakaunan zakat melibatkan lima tahap. Pertama, menentukan hartaharta yang diwajibkan zakat. Kedua, menilai harta-harta yang diwajibkan zakat. Ketiga, menentukan kadar zakat yang sesuai. Keempat, mengagihkan pungutan zakat kepada penerima zakat. Kelima, menyediakan laporan kepada pihak berkuasa mengenai pungutan dan agihan zakat. Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

dalam bentuk pendapatan seperti pendapatan pertanian, penggajian dan sewaan. Persoalannya, apakah maqasid atau tujuan sesuatu kekayaan yang dimiliki oleh umat Muslim diwajibkan zakat? Adakah zakat mempunyai sifat spiritualiti selain daripada sifat kekayaan itu sendiri? Apakah fatwa tentang hasil padi yang perlu dibayar oleh usahawan padi di Malaysia? Bagaimanakah taksiran zakat yang diamalkan oleh kalangan usahawan tani tersebut? Bagi menjawab semua persoalan tersebut, perbincangan dalam kertas ini dibahagikan kepada tiga bahagian. Pertama, menyorot tentang maqasid dari perspektif spiritualiti kefarduan zakat khususnya zakat pertanian sebagai latar belakang. Kedua, menganalis tulisan klasik tentang kos pengeluaran dan kos sara hidup khususnya pertanian yang diusahakan secara komersial. Ketiga, menganalisis kaedah taksiran zakat pertanian yang sedang diamalkan oleh institusi-institusi zakat dan petani padi di Malaysia.

MAQASID KEFARDUAN ZAKAT TERHADAP PEMILIKAN KEKAYAAN Maqasid Syariah dalam kalangan ulama usul fiqh ditakrifkan sebagai tujuan yang dikehendaki Syarak dalam mensyariatkan sesuatu hukum bagi kemaslahatan umat manusia. Menurut Wahbah al-Zuhaili (1996), maqasid Syariah bermaksud makna dan tujuan yang dititikberatkan dalam semua hukum atau sebahagian besarnya atau ialah matlamat daripada Syariat dan rahsia-rahsia yang diletakkan oleh syarak dalam setiap hukum. Dari segi keutamaan Syariah, maqasid dibahagikan kepada tiga kumpulan. Pertama, al-dharuriyat iaitu perkara yang tidak boleh dipisahkan dalam hidup seseorang insan yang mana jika dipisahkan daripadanya akan menyebabkan huru-hara dan terungkainya makna hidup seseorang insan. Kedua, al-hajiyat iaitu perkara yang diperlukan oleh manusia untuk memudahkan kehidupan mereka yang sekiranya tidak dimiliki akan mendatangkan kesempitan, namun tidak sampai kepada peringkat memberikan kesan kepada keseluruhan hidupnya. Ketiga, al-tahsiniyat iaitu perkara yang berkaitan dengan kesempurnaan hidup seperti akhlak dan juga tuntutan lain yang berkaitan dengan manusia untuk memberikan kerehatan yang lebih selesa dalam rangka menjalani hidup sebagai seorang insan. Spiritualiti dalam maqasid zakat paling tidak dapat dibahagikan kepada dua kategori. Pertama, tentang membersih dan menyucikan pembayar zakat (muzakki) itu sendiri. Kedua, tentang membersih dan menyucikan harta kekayaan yang dimiliki oleh pembayar zakat (muzakki). Hal ini antara lain berdasarkan firman Allah SWT yang bermaksud: “Ambillah zakat daripada sebahagian harta mereka, dengan zakat itu kamu membersih dan menyucikan mereka” (al-Taubah, 9: 103). Dengan kata lain, zakat mampu membersih dan menyucikan muzakki daripada sifat kedekut. Hal ini kerana manusia itu menurut kebiasaannya bersifat kedekut (al-Nisa’, 4: 120). Sesiapa yang terpelihara daripada sifat kedekut tersebut, maka mereka adalah orang yang beruntung (al-Hasyr, 59: 9). Rasulullah SAW bersabda yang bermaksud: “Tiga perkara yang menjahanamkan: Perasaan kedekut yang dipatuhi, hawa nafsu yang diikuti, dan kebanggaan seseorang dalam dirinya” (al-Tabrani dalam Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal)

Dengan mengeluarkan zakat, sifat kedekut pada sesorang dapat dikikiskan sedikit demi sedikit. Di samping mengikiskan sifat kedekut, zakat turut melatih seseorang belanja dengan betul. Sifat berbelanja dengan betul adalah sebahagian daripada sifat takwa (Mahmood Zuhdi Abd Majid, 2003). Dengan kata lain, sifat orang bertakwa antara lain menafkahkan rezeki yang dianugerahkan kepada mereka (al-Baqarah, 2: 3). Bagi memenuhi tuntutan maqasid itulah, maka berlaku perubahan dalam taksiran zakat. Perubahan tersebut begitu terserlah semasa Khulafa’ al-Rasyidin. Paling tidak perubahan yang berlaku semasa Khulafa’ al-Rasyidin boleh dibahagikan kepada tiga kategori. Pertama, mengkaji semula pelaksanaan hukum zakat yang telah ditetapkan sebelumnya dan mengubahnya bersesuaian dengan keadaan dan suasana semasa. Khalifah Umar al-Khattab misalnya mengenakan zakat ke atas kuda walaupun di zaman Rasulullah SAW kuda dikecualikan daripada zakat. Semasa pemerintahan Khalifah Ali b. Abi Talib pula kuda tidak dikenakan zakat. 2 Kedua, memperluaskan asas zakat dengan mengenakan zakat terhadap harta yang baharu ditemui atau baharu wujud dalam kalangan masyarakat. Khalifah Úmar al-Khattab misalnya memperluaskan asas zakat ternakan dengan mengenakan zakat ke atas kuda, asas zakat pertanian dengan mengenakan zakat ke atas kacang, kapas dan buah zaitun serta beberapa jenis hasil keluaran laut.

2)  Perubahan hukum ini disebabkan tujuan dan maksud kuda yang diternak telah berubah. Semasa Khalifah Umar al-Khattab, kuda diternak untuk tujuan komersial, sebaliknya semasa Khalifah Ali b. Abi Talib, kuda diternak untuk tujuan pengangkutan dan pembajakan.

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Ketiga, membuat perubahan kadar zakat yang dikenakan. Khalifah Úmar al-Khattab misalnya mengenakan kadar 5 peratus - 10 peratus terhadap zakat madu mengikut guna tenaga yang digunakan dalam memproses hasil tersebut. Khalifah Úthman b. Áffan mengenakan zakat ke atas harta bersih. Dengan itu, semua hutang pembayar zakat ditolak terlebih dulu sebelum dikenakan zakat. Zakat dikenakan ke atas baki kekayaan yang ada sahaja. Khalifah Áli b. Abi Talib pula memperkenalkan kadar zakat untuk setiap lima ekor unta boleh diganti dengan unta yang lebih muda atau tua dengan syarat dibayar ganti rugi kepada tuannya dua ekor kambing biri-biri atau 10 dirham. Perubahan dalam taksiran zakat ini berlaku antara lain disebabkan perkataan kekayaan wajib zakat yang disebut dalam al-Qur’an. 3 Allah SWT menyebut kekayaan yang diwajibkan zakat dalam dua bentuk. Pertama adalah dalam bentuk umum; dan kedua adalah dalam bentuk spesifik. Dalam bentuk umum, al-Qur’an hanya menyebut perkataan sebahagian harta (al-Taubah, 9: 103) atau harta-harta (al-Dhariyat, 51: 19). Dalam bentuk spesifik pula, al-Qur’an menyebut emas dan perak (al-Taubah, 9: 34), pendapatan pertanian (An’am, 6: 141), pendapatan perniagaan dan hasil galian (al-Baqarah, 2: 267).4 Kedua-dua bentuk tersebut turut terdapat dalam al-Sunnah Rasulullah SAW. Dalam bentuk umum, Rasulullah SAW hanya menyebut perkataan harta-harta, manakala dalam bentuk spesifik, Rasulullah SAW menyebut jenis-jenis harta, iaitu emas dan perak, barangan perniagaan, hasil pertanian seperti gandum, barli dan anggur, ternakan seperti kambing, lembu dan unta, dan hasil galian. Jika begitu bentuk ayat-ayat al-Qur’an dan alSunnah Rasulullah SAW, maka dijangka perubahan dalam taksiran zakat akan berlaku secara berterusan.

KOS PENGELUARAN DAN KOS SARA HIDUP MENURUT TULISAN KLASIK Dalam al-Qur’an, hasil pertanian diwajibkan zakat disebut secara umum. Antara lain adalah makanlah buahnya apabila ia berbuah dan berkanlah haknya (zakat) pada waktu memetik hasilnya (al-Anám, 6: 141). Zakat hasil pertanian pula antara lain disebut zakat dikenakan ke atas lebihan daripada keperluan. Allah SWT berfirman yang bermaksud: “Dan mereka bertanya pula kepadamu, apakah yang mereka akan belanjakan (zakatkan)? Katakanlah: “(Infaq) yang berlebihan dari keperluan (kamu)” (al-Baqarah, 2 : 219). Ketika membuat tafsiran ayat dan mereka bertanya pula kepadamu apakah yang mereka akan belanjakan, Ibn Kathir (1993) menyebut, Ibn Ábbas mengatakan ayat ini bermaksud apa yang kamu miliki melebihi daripada keperluan keluarga kamu. Menurut Ibn Kathir (1993) lagi, Ibn Úmar, Mujahid, Ata, Ikrimah, Sa’id b. Jubayr, Muhammad b. Ka’b, Al-Hasan, Qatadah, Al-Qasim, Salim, Ata Al-Khurasani dan Ar-Rabi b. Anas turut berpendapat sedemikian. Keperluan keluarga kamu itu adalah bermaksud kos sara hidup. Namun keperluan tersebut tertakluk kepada keadaan semasa. Ia ditentukan oleh golongan yang pakar dan pihak pemerintah sendiri (Yusuf al-Qaradawi, 1991). Zakat dikenakan ke atas baki kekayaan yang dimiliki setelah ditolak kos sara hidup. Dalam tulisan klasik kos sara hidup ini dibahaskan di bawah topik hutang. Antara lain ialah Abu Úbayd (1991) dalam kitab al-Anwal. Misalnya Abu Úbayd meriwayatkan daripada Al-Said Ibn Yazid, Khalifah Úthman b. ‘Affan berkata seperti berikut: “Bulan ini adalah bulan zakat kamu. Maka sesiapa menanggung hutang, dia hendaklah membayar hutang itu terlebih dahulu, sebelum mengeluarkan zakatnya. Sesiapa yang tidak mempunyai baki kekayaan, zakat tidak diambil daripadanya” (Abu Úbayd, 1991: 372). Abu Úbayd (1991) membahaskan secara terperinci tentang hal ini. Beliau memfokuskan kepada dua isu. Pertama adalah tentang kos pengeluaran pertanian; kedua adalah tentang kos sara hidup. Bagi kedua-dua kos ini, Abu Úbayd merakamkan satu riwayat daripada Jabir Ibn Zayd yang bermaksud: “Kata Ibn ‘Abbas, dia perlu membayar apa yang dia belanjakan untuk kebunnya sahaja. Kata Ibn Úmar pula, dia perlu membayar apa yang dia belanjakan atas kebunnya dan kepada keluarganya” (Abu Ubayd, 1991: 424). Menurut Abu Úbayd, terdapat dua pendapat yang berlainan. Ibn Úmar berpendapat kos pengeluaran pertanian dan untuk kos sara hidup keluarga dibenarkan. Ibn Ábbas pula berpendapat kos pengeluaran pertanian sahaja dibenarkan. Abu Úbayd turut mengemukakan satu lagi riwayat daripada Ibrahim Ibn Ábdullah berkata seperti berikut: 3)  Perkataan harta adalah terjemahan daripada perkataan Arab iaitu amwal. Perkataan amwal boleh juga diterjemahkan sebagai kekayaaan (wealth). 4)  Meskipun al-Qur’an menyebut jenis-jenis harta tertentu dikenakan zakat (al-Taubah, 9: 34; An’am, 6: 141; dan al-Baqarah, 2: 267) namun, tidak ada apa-apa kenyataan atau isyarat yang ia secara bersama menghadkan pengertian umum yang terdapat dalam ayat 103 surah al-Taubah dan ayat 19 surah al-Dhariyat. Ketiga-tiga ayat tersebut hanya menerangkan beberapa jenis harta yang diwajibkan zakat tetapi ia tidak bermakna harta-harta lain tidak diwajibkan zakat (Mahmood Zuhdi Abd. Majid, 2013).

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“Umar Ibn Ábd. Aziz telah menulis surat kepada Ábdullah Ibn Áuf, gabenornya di Palestin tentang tanah milik orang Islam yang dikenakan cukai kharaj. Beliau menyuruh gabenornya itu memungut zakat sesudah ditolak cukai berkenaan” (Abu Ubayd, 1991: 425). Abu Úbayd berpegang dengan pendapat Ibn Úmar. Ini dipamerkan daripada kesimpulan dibuat oleh Abu Úbayd seperti berikut: “Jika sekiranya hutang itu benar-benar sah diketahui ditanggung oleh pemilik tanah, maka zakat gugur daripadanya kerana hutang itu. Ini menurut pendapat Ibn Úmar, Tawus, Áta dan Makhul. Ia berasaskan al-Sunnah kerana Rasulullah SAW menjelaskan bahawa zakat diambil daripada orang kaya dan diagihkan kepada orang fakir miskin? Orang itu menanggung hutang dan tidak punya harta, apakah dia masih merupakan pembayar zakat? Lalu bagaimanakah zakat itu harus diambil daripadanya? Apakah mungkin dia boleh menjadi orang kaya dan orang miskin dalam masa yang sama? Malah sebagai seorang yang berhutang, dia termasuk dalam kalangan dua asnaf zakat (miskin dan gharimin)” (Abu Úbayd, 1991: 425). Menurut Abu Úbayd, zakat diambil daripada orang kaya dan diagihkan kepada orang miskin. Apakah mungkin seseorang boleh menjadi orang kaya dan orang miskin dalam masa yang sama? Menurut beliau lagi, seorang yang berhutang adalah termasuk dalam kalangan dua asnaf zakat (miskin dan gharimin) yang layak menerima zakat. Apatah lagi, ia merupakan pegangan kalangan ulama Iraq yang berpegang pendapat Ibn Úmar, Tawus, Áta dan Makhul (Abu Úbayd, 1991: 424). Dalam tulisan kontemporari turut mempamerkan kos pengeluaran pertanian dibenarkan ditolak daripada hasil pertanian yang diperoleh. Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1999) misalnya berpendapat, penetapan kadar zakat sama ada 5 peratus atau 10 peratus berdasarkan semata-mata kepada kaedah pengairan dan kos yang terlibat bagi tujuan tersebut. Kos-kos lain seperti pembajakan dan sebagainya hendaklah ditolak bersama cukai tanah sebelum zakat dikenakan sama ada 10 peratus atau 5 peratus. 5 Dalam hal kos sara hidup, Ibn Kathir (1993) telahpun menjelaskannya. Beliau mengemukakan pendapat Ibn Ábbas iaitu zakat apa yang kamu miliki melebihi daripada keperluan keluarga kamu. Menurut Ibn Kathir (1993) lagi, Ibn Úmar, Mujahid, Ata, Ikrimah, Sa’id b. Jubayr, Muhammad b. Ka’b, Al-Hasan, Qatadah, Al-Qasim, Salim, Ata Al-Khurasani dan Ar-Rabi b. Anas turut berpendapat sedemikian. Maka asas membenarkan kos sara hidup ditolak daripada hasil padi adalah kuat. Ini disokong dengan pendapat Ibn Úmar yang membenarkan belanja untuk keluarga. Dengan kata lain, kos sara hidup dibenarkan ditolak daripada hasil padi yang diperoleh. Apatah lagi nafkah adalah tanggungjawab kepada ketua keluarga. Ia perlu diselesaikan terlebih dahulu sebelum membelanjakan bagi urusan lain. Ini berdasarkan satu riwayat daripada Jabir bahawa Rasulullah SAW berkata yang bermaksud: “Berikanlah terlebih dahulu untuk kepentingan dirimu, apabila lebih berikanlah untuk isterimu, apabila masih lebih berikanlah kepada keluarga dekatmu apabila masih lebih berikanlah kepada yang lain-lain”. Keperluan sebenar kos sara hidup tersebut adalah tertakluk kepada keadaan semasa. Dengan kata lain, amaun kos sara hidup mestilah ditentukan oleh mereka yang berkelayakan dan mendapat persetujuan pihak pemerintah. Dalam hal kos pengeluaran pertanian Abu Úbayd menyebut Ibn Úmar berpendapat kos pengeluaran pertanian dibenarkan. Ibn ‘Abbas turut berpendapat kos pengeluaran pertanian dibenarkan. Malah Úmar Ibn Ábd. Aziz telah menulis surat kepada Gabenor Palestin iaitu Ábdullah Ibn Áuf memungut zakat sesudah ditolak cukai kharaj. Lebih menarik lagi adalah ulasan Abu Úbayd iaitu Rasulullah SAW menjelaskan zakat diambil daripada orang kaya dan diagihkan kepada orang fakir miskin. Oleh itu sekiranya seseorang menanggung hutang dan tidak punya harta mana mungkin mereka boleh menjadi pembayar zakat tidak mungkin seseorang boleh menjadi orang kaya dan orang miskin dalam masa yang sama. Malah orang yang berhutang itu sendiri merupakan asnaf zakat. Oleh sebab itulah Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1999) berpendapat, kos pengeluaran perlu ditolak terlebih dahulu kerana ia merupakan satu bebanan kepada petani. Menurut beliau, bebanan dan kos merupakan faktor yang mempengaruhi penentuan hukum. Misalnya kaedah pengairan yang digunakan mempengaruhi penentuan kadar zakat pertanian. Kadar zakat berbeza disebabkan adanya bebanan dan kos, misalnya bagi kaedah pengairan yang menggunakan peralatan atau tenaga manusia kadar zakatnya ialah 5 peratus sahaja.

5)  Walaupun terdapat pendapat kontemporari bahawa kos pengeluaran pertanian dibenarkan ditolak, namun majoriti ulama berpendapat bahawa kos pengeluaran mestilah ditanggung oleh petani. Mereka berpendapat kos pengeluaran tidak perlu ditolak terlebih dahulu kerana tiada nas yang menyatakan perlu menolak kos pengeluaran. Nas yang ada hanyalah menerangkan kadar zakat sebanyak 5 peratus ataupun 10 peratus berdasarkan kaedah pengairan yang digunakan (Wahbah al-Zuhaili, 1994).

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AMALAN TAKSIRAN ZAKAT PERTANIAN DI MALAYSIA Di Malaysia, zakat pertanian hanya diwajibkan terhadap hasil pertanian yang dijadikan makanan asasi. Dengan itu, hanya padi yang diwajibkan zakat pertanian. Padi diwajibkan zakat pertanian sama ada ia diusahakan secara tradisional ataupun komersial.6 Perubahan dalam taksiran zakat hasil padi boleh dibahagikan kepada tiga kategori. Pertama, zakat padi dikenakan terhadap pendapatan kasar sama ada pada kadar 5 peratus ataupun 10 peratus. Kedua, zakat padi dikenakan terhadap pendapatan bersih setelah ditolak kos pertanian atau kos pengeluaran pada kadar 10 peratus. Ketiga, zakat padi dikenakan terhadap pendapatan bersih setelah ditolak kos pengeluaran dan kos sara hidup pada kadar 10 peratus. Kategori pertama diamalkan di negeri Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Terengganu, Melaka, Perak, Pahang, Kedah, Kelantan dan Johor. Mesyuarat Jawatankuasa Perunding Hukum Syara’ Selangor misalnya memutuskan fatwa pada 22 Mei 2001 zakat padi adalah 5 peratus daripada pendapatan kasar tanpa menolak kos pengeluaran. Hal ini kerana dalam penanaman padi para petani perlu mengeluarkan kos yang tinggi termasuk perkhidmatan air dan jentera untuk mendapatkan hasil yang baik dan lumayan. Jawatankuasa Fatwa Negeri Perak pada 2 November 2010 turut mengeluarkan fatwa bahawa zakat pertanian dikeluarkan zakat pada kadar 5 peratus daripada hasil kasar. Ini berbeza dengan keputusan mesyuarat Jawatankuasa Fatwa Negeri Terengganu pada 2 Jun 1990. Bagi petani yang mendapat bekalan air daripada tali air dikenakan zakat pada kadar 10 peratus pendapatan kasar. Hal ini kerana penanam padi tidak bersusah payah dan tidak pula memerlukan apa-apa tenaga untuk mendapatkan air. Sementara itu, cukai air dikenakan oleh pihak kerajaan pula pada kadar tidak membebankan dan dengan itu tidak mengubahkan kadar zakat yang ditetapkan itu. Jawatankuasa berpendapat bahawa bayaran sewaan terhadap tanah yang diusahakan tidak boleh ditolak daripada ppendapatan pertanian. Keputusan yang sama dibuat oleh Jawatankuasa Fatwa Negeri Kedah yang mengenakan zakat terhadap hasil kasar padi yang diperoleh tanpa ditolak kos sewa jentera pembajak, racun dan sebagainya seperti yang diputuskan pada1 Januari 1970. Kaedah yang sama diamalkan di negeri Kelantan. Kategori kedua diamalkan antara lain di negeri Sarawak, Pulau Pinang dan Perlis. Kadar zakat di Sarawak ditentukan berasaskan kaedah diusahakan dan sumber air. Padi yang diusahakan dengan menggunakan tenaga manusia atau lain-lain seperti binatang, jentera atau perbelanjaan yang banyak, maka zakat dikenakan pada kadar 5 peratus. Jika sekadar menggunakan sumber air hujan atau air sungai, maka zakat dikenakan pada kadar 10 peratus. Antara kos yang dibenarkan ditolak di negeri Sarawak adalah kos baja, racun, sewaan, upahan tenaga kerja, penuaian, dan kos pengangkutan. Jika nilai jualan padi pada musim pertama kurang daripada nisab, maka hendaklah dicampurkan ke musim kedua dalam tahun yang sama. Zakat dikenakan sama ada pada kadar 5 peratus, 7.5 peratus atau 10 peratus mengikut kaedah yang digunakan. Kaedah yang sama turut diamalkan di Pulau Pinang. Bagaimanapun zakat dikenakan pada kadar 10 peratus ke atas nilai bersih selepas ditolak kos baja, racun, sewaan, upahan tenaga kerja dan pengangkutan. Nisab ditentukan selepas tolakan semua kos berkenaan. Sekiranya harga padi selepas ditolak kos tersebut kurang daripada RM715.00, maka zakat tidak diwajibkan. 7 Di Kelantan bagaimanapun agak berbeza, jika tanaman padi tersebut diusahakan secara komersial. Mesyuarat Jemaah Ulama’ Majlis Agama Islam dan Adat Istiadat Melayu Kelantan pada 12 September 1999 tentang zakat padi daripada projek penanaman padi yang diusahakan secara ladang telah membuat fatwa seperti berikut: a. Bahawa padi yang dihasilkan dari projek penanaman padi secara estet diwajibkan zakat ke atas pemilikpemilik tanah apabila cukup nisabnya berdasarkan atas pendapatan bersih masing-masing setelah ditolak kos pengurusan projek yang dikeluarkan oleh agensi pelaksana. b. Bagi tujuan menyelaras serta memudahkan urusan pengeluaran zakat tersebut, agensi pelaksana boleh mengeluar zakat bagi pihak pemilik-pemilik tanah setelah mendapat persetujuan masing-masing. Kategori ketiga hanya diamalkan di negeri Perlis. Kos yang dibenarkan ditolak adalah kos baja, racun, sewaan, upahan tenaga kerja, penuaian, dan kos pengangkutan. Di samping kos-kos tersebut, petani turut dibenarkan menolak kos sara hidup. Kos sara hidup tersebut boleh dibahagikan kepada dua kategori. Pertama, keperluan asasi iaitu keperluan keluarga yang asas seperti tempat perlindungan, makanan, pakaian dan pengangkutan. Kedua, tanggungan seperti keperluan diri sendiri, belanja isteri dan anak-anak, ibu bapa dan tanggungan lain seperti adik-beradik, anak angkat, orang gaji dan seumpamanya. Zakat dikenakan zakat pada kadar 5 peratus 6)  Temua bual dengan Dato’ Muhamad Shukri Muhamad, Mufti Kerajaan Negeri Kelantan di Pejabat Mufti Negeri Kelantan pada 28 Julai 2013. 7)  Kadar nisab berbeza-beza mengikut negeri misalnya Johor adalah RM697.50, Kedah adalah 975.30, Terengganu adalah 703.12, Selangor adalah 979.50, Melaka adalah RM1,089, Kelantan adalah RM698.10, Pahang adalah RM1,089.00, Negeri Sembilan adalah RM979.50, Perak adalah RM1,044.75 dan Perlis adalah RM740.03 (Asmak Ab. Rahman et. al., 2010).

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daripada hasil bersih. 8 Kepelbagaian kaedah taksiran ini sebenarnya telah mendapat perhatian di peringkat nasional. Panduan Zakat di Malaysia (JAKIM, 2001) dan Manual Pengurusan Pengiraan Zakat (JAWHAR, 2008) telah diterbitkan antara lain bermaksud untuk menerangkan taksiran zakat hasil pertanian. Menteri di Jabatan Perdana Menteri ketika itu, Dr. Ahmad Zahid Hamidi berharap Manual Pengurusan Pengiraan Zakat yang diterbitkan itu diguna pakai oleh semua negeri di Malaysia. Beliau menyatakan harapan tersebut seperti berikut: “Saya sangat berharap agar Manual Pengurusan Pengiraan Zakat ini diguna pakai dan dijadikan panduan oleh semua Majlis Agama Islam Negeri dalam membuat pengiraan zakat. Sesuatu kaedah atau prosedur kerja itu akan menjadi lebih bermanfaat jika ia dipraktiskan dan bukan hanya sekadar teratur di dalam buku sahaja” (JAWHAR, 2008, ii). Beliau turut berharap pada akhirnya penyelarasan dan penyeragaman taksiran zakat termasuklah taksiran pertanian dapat direalisasikan (JAWHAR, 2008). Manual tersebut menetapkan kadar nisab zakat padi ialah 363 gantang atau 1,300 kg padi bersamaan dengan nilai RM715. Nilai ini boleh berubah berdasarkan kepada harga semasa padi. Kadar zakat pula ditentukan berdasarkan sumber air yang digunakan. Pertama, bagi tanaman yang dijaga dengan sumber percuma seperti air hujan, maka kadarnya ialah 10 peratus. Kedua, bagi tanaman yang dijaga dengan sumber yang dibeli, maka kadar zakatnya ialah 5 peratus. Ketiga, bagi tanaman yang dijaga dengan menggunakan kedua-dua sumber tersebut, maka kadarnya ialah 7.5 peratus (JAWHAR, 2008). Zakat padi dikenakan berdasarkan hasil bersih (JAWHAR, 2008). Terdapat empat jenis kos pengeluaran padi yang dibenarkan ditolak. Pertama, kos baja dan racun; kedua, kos sewa jika berkaitan; ketiga, kos upah tenaga kerja dan penuaian; dan keempat, kos pengangkutan yang terlibat. Bagaimanapun, bagi kos sara hidup, manual tersebut tidak menyebutnya semasa membahaskan taksiran zakat padi. Dengan kata lain, ini mempamerkan kos sara hidup tidak dibenarkan ditolak daripada hasil kasar padi yang diperoleh. Maka tidaklah pelik kos sara hidup tidak ditolak oleh kebanyakan negeri di Malaysia. Hal ini berbeza dengan kaedah taksiran zakat pendapatan. Bagi taksiran zakat pendapatan, kos sara hidup dibenarkan ditolak daripada pendapatan kasar (JAWHAR, 2008). Kos sara hidup tersebut meliputi pertama, keperluan asasi, iaitu keperluan keluarga yang asas seperti tempat perlindungan, makanan, pakaian dan seumpamanya. Kedua, belanja-belanja lain seperti keperluan diri sendiri, belanja isteri dan anak-anak, ibu bapa dan tanggungan lain seperti adik-beradik, anak angkat, orang gaji dan seumpamanya. Ketiga, simpanan di institusi yang telah membayar zakat bagi pihak penyimpan seperti simpanan di Lembaga Tabung Haji. Keempat, caruman wajib seperti caruman dalam Kumpulan Wang Simpanan Pekerja kerana pencarum tidak mempunyai milik sempurna ke atas caruman tersebut. Kos tanaman padi untuk satu-satu musim agak mahal. Dianggarkan kos tersebut antara RM3,000 hingga RM3,500 sehektar. Bagi mempastikan petani mendapat keuntungan, mereka perlu memperoleh hasil padi melebihi 4.5 tan sehektar. Jika tidak mereka mereka akan mengalami kerugian.9 Kos penanaman padi sepatutnya ditolak daripada hasil kasar semasa membuat taksiran zakat. Ini ditegaskan oleh Wan Mohd. Fadhli Wan Mamat yang antara lain menyebut seperti berikut: “Saya berpendapat kos tanaman perlu ditolak kerana dua sebab. Pertama, petani padi memerlukan modal yang besar untuk setiap musim. Kedua, kos ini semakin meningkat dari semasa ke semasa terutamanya untuk input pertanian seperti benih, baja dan racun.” Untuk melihat amalan para petani tentang zakat padi ini, maka seramai 10 orang petani yang mengusahakan tanaman padi antara 20 - 25 hektar secara komersial di kawasan Lembaga Kemajuan Pertanian Kemubu (KADA), Kelantan telah ditemu bual. Dapatan mempamerkan amalan taksiran zakat pertanian boleh dibahagikan kepada tiga kategori. Pertama, zakat dibayar pada kadar 10 peratus daripada hasil kasar. Kos tanaman dan kos sara hidup tidak ditolak daripada hasil yang diperoleh. Kedua, zakat dibayar pada kadar 10 peratus daripada hasil bersih setelah menolak kos tanaman sahaja. Ketiga, zakat dibayar pada kadar 10 peratus daripada hasil bersih setelah menolak kos tanaman dan kos sara hidup. Seramai tiga petani tergolong dalam kategori pertama. Mereka tidak bersetuju kos tanaman dan kos sara hidup ditolak terlebih dahulu. Ini merupakan amalan beliau semasa mengeluarkan zakat pertanian. Secara lebih khusus Masdira Hamat menyebut seperti berikut: 10 “Saya tidak setuju jika kos tanaman dan kos sara hidup ditolak sebelum mengeluarkan zakat. Perkara ini sudah menjadi kebiasaan bagi saya

8)  Temu bual dengan Mohd. Nazim b. Mohd. Noor, Pengurus Besar Baitulmal, Majlis Agama Islam dan Adat Istiadat Melayu Perlis (MAIPs) pada 27 Februari 2014. 9)  Temu bual dengan Wan Mohd. Fadhli Wan Mamat, Jurutera Seksyen Padi, Lembaga Kemajuan Pertanian Kemubu (KADA), Kelantan pada 3 Februari 2014. 10)  Temu bual dengan Masdira Hamat pada 25 Januari 2014. Beliau menanam padi seluas 25 hektar.

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untuk mengeluarkan zakat padi pada hasil kasar sebelum ditolak dengan apa-apa kos.” Kaedah tersebut merupakan amalan sebilangan petani padi sejak dahulu lagi. Hassan Daud misalnya menjelaskan seperti berikut: 11 “Saya tidak setuju jika kos tanaman dan kos sara hidup ditolak terlebih dahulu sebelum mengeluarkan zakat. Ini kerana zakat padi harus dikeluarkan tanpa menolak apa-apa kos sekali pun. Kita sudah praktis sejak zaman orang tua kita dahulu lagi. Zakat padi dikenakan pada hasil kasar.” Seramai tiga orang petani tergolong dalam kategori kedua. Mereka bersetuju kos tanaman dibenarkan ditolak daripada hasil kasar yang diperoleh. Hal ini kerana modal yang besar diperlukan ketika mengusahakan tanaman secara besar-besaran. Nor Azmi Mahmud memberi alasan seperti berikut:12 “Kos tanaman perlu ditolak terlebih dahulu sebelum zakat dibayar. Kita terpaksa mengeluarkan kos yang banyak dalam mengusahakan padi secara besar-besaran. Bagi kos sara hidup pula, ia tidak perlu ditolak kerana tidak terlibat dalam proses penanaman padi yang kita usahakan.” Kenyataan tersebut disokong oleh Mat Ghani Isemail. Beliau menegaskan, bagi yang menanam padi secara besar-besaran, ia melibatkan kos yang tinggi. Kos sara hidup pula merupakan tanggungjawab ketua keluarga. Mat Ghani Isemail selanjutnya menyebut seperti berikut:13 “Seperti yang saya pratiskan sebelum ini, kos tanaman perlu ditolak terlebih dahulu sebelum zakat dikeluarkan. Hal ini kerana kita memerlukan kos yang tinggi untuk membuat penanaman yang luas. Dan bagi kos sara hidup, saya rasa tidak perlu ditolak kerana ia merupakan tanggungjawab atau keperluan biasa yang tidak berkaitan dengan proses penanaman padi yang diusahakan.” Seramai empat orang petani tergolong dalam kategori ketiga. Mereka bersetuju kos tanaman dan kos sara hidup sepatutnya ditolak terlebih dahulu sebelum zakat padi dikeluarkan. Hal ini kerana petani terpaksa menanggung kos tanaman yang sangat besar jika penanaman padi dijalankan secara komersial. Mustapha Mamat antara lain menyebut seperti berikut: 14 “Kos tanaman dan kos sara hidup sepatutnya ditolak terlebih dahulu sebelum zakat padi dikeluarkan. Bagi petani yang mengusahakan tanaman secara komersial turut memerlukan kos tanaman yang besar. Malah ia semakin meningkat pada masa ini. Kos sara hidup sepatutnya ditolak terlebih dahulu. Hal ini kerana kos perbelanjaan bulanan semakin besar dengan terpaksa membayar bil-bil dan juga keperluan harian yang lain.” Pendapat beliau tersebut disokong oleh Amat Hassan. Menurut Amat Hassan, kos sara hidup sekarang semakin meningkat terutamanya belanja tetap bulanan seperti bil eletrik dan air. Oleh itu sememang patut kos hidup dibenarkan ditolak. Beliau menyebut seperti berikut:15 “Kos tanaman dan kos sara hidup sepatutnya ditolak. Hal ini kerana petani terpaksa menanggung kos tanaman yang besar jika padi ditanam secara besar-besaran. Kos sara hidup juga patut ditolak kerana haerga barang semakin tinggi selain daripada terpaksa membayar bil-bil pada setiap bulan.” Pendapat yang sama turut dikongsi oleh Kamarul Zaman Salleh. Beliau antara lain menyebut seperti berikut: 16 “Makin luas kawasan tanaman, maka makin besar modal yang diperlukan. Kos sara hidup pula semakin meningkat. Apa lagi saya yang mempunyai 11 orang tanggungan. Belanja untuk bil bulanan dan persekolahan anak-anak semakin besar. Itu tidak termasuk lagi dengan barangan dapur untuk hari-hari.” Semua perbincangan di atas mempamerkan bahawa terdapat perubahan dalam taksiran zakat serta perlu bersesuaian dengan perubahan masa dan keadaan setempat. Perubahan dalam taksiran zakat telahpun berlaku sejak Khulafa’ al-Rasyidin lagi. Malah ia dijangka akan terus berlaku. Di Malaysia, perubahan dalam taksiran zakat perniagaan begitu terserlah. Perubahan dalam taksiran zakat pertanian turut berlaku khususnya dalam zakat padi yang dilaksanakan secara komersial. Asas dalam perubahan taksiran zakat pertanian begitu kuat baik bersumberkan al-Qur’an, Hadith, pendapat sahabat dan tabi’in. Ia berpotensi untuk diamalkan oleh petani Muslim di negara lain.

11)  12)  13)  14)  15)  16) 

Temu bual dengan Hasan Daud pada 11 Januari 2014. Beliau menanam padi seluas 23 hektar. Temu bual dengan Nor Azmi Mahmud pada 7 Februari 2014. Beliau menanam padi seluas 22 hektar. Temu bual dengan Mat Ghani Isemail pada 17 Januari 2014. Beliau menanam padi seluas 20 hektar. Temu bual dengan Mustapha Mamat pada 3 Januari 2014. Beliau menanam padi seluas 30 hektar. Temu bual dengan Amat Hassan pada 20 Disember 2013. Beliau menanam padi seluas 30 hektar. Temu bual dengan Kamarul Zaman Salleh pada 21 Disember 2013. Beliau menanam padi seluas 25 hektar.

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KESIMPULAN Dengan mengambil kira semua perbahasan sebelum ini, dua kesimpulan dapat dibuat. Pertama, berdasarkan hujah daripada al-Qur’an, pendapat Ibn Úmar, pendapat Abu Úbayd dan amalan untuk taksiran zakat pendapatan di Malaysia, amat wajar kos pengeluaran pertanian dan kos sara hidup para petani dibenarkan ditolak daripada hasil kasar pertanian padi yang diperoleh. Kedua, selain daripada hujah tersebut, taksiran zakat hasil pertanian perlu membenarkan kos pengeluaran ditolak disebabkan pertanian pada ketika ini lebih bersifat komersial. Jika ia tidak dibenarkan, tidak mustahil terdapat para petani bertukar daripada pembayar zakat kepada penerima zakat khususnya semasa bencana alam melanda sawah mereka. Apatah lagi terdapat negeri yang membenarkan kos pengeluaran dan kos sara hidup ditolak daripada hasil kasar yang diperoleh.

PENGHARGAAN Penulis merakamkan ucapan terima kasih kepada Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) atas pembiayaan kajian ini melalui geran penyelidikan universiti 1001/PSOSIAL/816218.

BIBLIOGRAFI Abu Úbayd al-Qasim b. Salam. (1991). Terjemahan Noor Mohammad Ghiffari, Kitab al-Amwal. Islamabad: Pakistan Hijra Council. Asmak Ab Rahman, Pazim@Fadzim Othman, Siti Mashitoh Mahamood, Nor Aini Ali & Azizi Che Seman. (2010). Assessment Method for Agricultural Zakah in Malaysia: An Institutional Perspective. World Applied Sciences Journal, 11(12), 1500 - 1508. Ibn Kathir. (1993). Tafsir al-Quran al-‘Azim. Beirut: Dar al-Ma’arif. Jabatan Wakaf, Zakat dan Haji (JAWHAR). (2008). Manual Pengurusan Pengiraan Zakat, Putrajaya: Jabatan Wakaf, Zakat dan Haji. Mahmood Zuhdi Abd. Majid. (2003). Pengurusan Zakat. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Wahbah al-Zuhaili. (1994). Terjemahan Md. Khir Hj. Yaacob et al. Fiqh & Perundangan Islam. Jld. III. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Yusuf al-Qaradawi. (1999). Terjemahan Monzer Kahf. Fiqh az-Zakat: A Comparative Study. London: Dar Al Taqwa Ltd. Zahri Hamat. (2011), Perubahan Dalam Perakaunan Zakat di Malaysia. Jurnal Pengurusan JAWHAR, 5(1), 19 34. Zahri Hamat. (2013). Perakaunan Zakat Perniagaan di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

HUBUNGAN TAHAP RELIGIOSITI DENGAN KEBIMBANGAN AKIBAT MUSIBAH LUAR JANGKAAN Md Zawawi Abu Bakar*, Wan Ibrahim Wan Ahmad, Wan Ab Rahman Khudzri Wan Abdullah, Yahaya Mahamood & Fuziah Shaffe * [email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Musibah yang melanda adalah ujian dalam kehidupan seseorang manusia. Ia datang dalam pelbagai bentuk seperti kemalangan, bencana alam, malapetaka, sakit dan sebagainya. Justeru, ia mendorong kebimbangan dalam diri. Ketidakpastian dan kegagalan menjangka sesuatu tragedi boleh mengancam hati untuk merasa bimbang dalam tahap yang berbezabeza. Kertas kerja ini cuba menjelaskan musibah banjir yang berlaku pada bila-bila masa tanpa dijangka boleh menggamit kerisauan penduduk yang pernah mengalaminya. Kebimbangan berkait pula dengan strategi daya tindak untuk mendepaninya. Salah satu daya tindak adalah amalan religiositi. Justeru itu kajian ini ingin meneroka tanda-tanda kebimbangan, serta mengenal pasti tahap religiositi mangsa banjir di daerah Kubang Pasu, Kedah. Untuk mencapai tujuan ini, seramai 113 responden di daerah Kubang Pasu, Kedah telah dipilih secara bertujuan untuk diambil datanya. Hasil kajian mendapati responden mangsa banjir menunjukkan tanda-tanda seperti tidak boleh rileks, takut perkara buruk berlaku, degupan jantung yang laju, rasa tidak kukuh, perasaan takut, perasaan bimbang, takut mati, dan cemas. Tahap religiositi sebahagian besar responden adalah tinggi. Hasil analisis menunjukkan nilai pekali korelasi, r = - 0.694 dan signifikan pada paras 0.01. Ini menunjukkan terdapat hubungan negatif yang signifikan di antara religiositi dengan kebimbangan. Oleh itu responden yang mempunyai pegangan agama yang kuat mampu mengawal kebimbangan berkaitan banjir. Oleh itu kajian ini mencadangkan amalan religiositi digunakan untuk berdepan dengan apa jua musibah. Keywords: musibah, religiositi, banjir, ujian Allah, kebimbangan

PENDAHULUAN Musibah adalah perkataan asal daripada Bahasa Arab yang bermaksud malapetaka (Kamus al Mawrid, 2005). Ia turut dikenali sebagai ujian hidup yang merupakan lumrah dalam kehidupan setiap insan. Musibah itu sama ada kecil atau besar, lemah atau kuat akan berbeza antara individu. Menurut Kamus Dewan, musibah bermaksud bencana, celaka, malapetaka dan sebagainya (Kamus Dewan, Edisi Keempat). Sesuatu musibah atau bencana yang berlaku adalah sebahagian dugaan Allah SWT untuk menguji sejauhmana kesabaran dan keimanan hambanya (al Baqarah, 153). Ujian daripada Allah SWT boleh datang dalam dua bentuk iaitu bencana dan nikmat. Ujian berupa bencana adalah seperti kemalangan, banjir, tsunami, kemarau, sakit dan sebagainya. Manakala ujian berbentuk nikmat ialah harta, kekayaan, ilmu, kecantikan dan pangkat. Melalui nikmat, Allah SWT menguji sejauhmana hambanya menngunakan nikmat yang di perolehi ke arah kebaikan. Justeru, terdapat individu yang berjaya mendepani musibah atau ujian tersebut dan ada yang sebaliknya. Menurut ajaran Islam, musibah atau ujian mesti diharungi oleh umat Islam untuk meningkatkan keimanan dan ketakwaan (al Ankabut: 2-3). Sejarah Islam telah membuktikan setiap para nabi dan rasul juga diberi ujian Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

oleh Allah SWT. Semakin tinggi ujian dan musibah diterima semakin tinggi darjat seseorang nabi dan rasul. Justeru, dalam kalangan nabi dan rasul itu terdapat lima orang daripada mereka digelar sebagai ulul azmi yang antaranya Nabi Muhammad SAW, Nabi Musa a.s, Nabi Isa a.s, Nabi Nuh a.s dan Nabi Ibrahim a.s. Kelimalima Nabi ini digelar sebagai ulul azmi kerana antara Rasul yang paling banyak menghadapi cabaran yang berat dan berjuang dengan pengorbanan dan kesabaran yang tinggi. Justeru, sebagai insan biasa musibah atau ujian yang diterima juga merupakan jalan Allah SWT untuk meningkatkan darjat hambanya. Oleh itu, kertas kerja ini cuba memperlihatkan kaedah yang boleh digunakan untuk mendepani musibah seperti amalan religiositi.

MUSIBAH BANJIR DAN KESAN TERHADAP PSIKOLOGI MANUSIA Kertas kerja ini cuba menjelaskan berkenaan musibah banjir yang sering kali di hadapi oleh rakyat Malaysia amnya dan di Kedah khasnya. Banjir adalah antara musibah yang digeruni kerana ia memusnahkan harta benda dan juga nyawa. Selain itu, apabila banjir berlaku semua pihak akan terkesan sama ada dari golongan atasan atau bawahan. Musibah banjir di negeri Kedah telah berlaku dalam beberapa siri banjir besar iaitu pada 17 hingga 26 Disember 2005, 17 hingga 20 September 2007 dan 6-9 September 2008 yang mengakibatkan kerugian harta benda (Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran, 2009). Banjir, gempa bumi, atau tsunami boleh meningkatkan tahap tekanan dan mendatangkan masalah-masalah psikologi lain kepada mangsa (Nasir, Zainah, & Khairudin, 2012). Terdapat banyak kajian yang memperlihatkan hubungan antara masalah, psikologi dengan bencana alam dalam kalangan mangsa mahupun golongan penyelamat (Norris et al., 2005; Stevens & Slone, 2005; Pynoos et al., 1987). Antara masalah yang boleh timbul akibat musibah ini ialah kebimbangan, stress dan tekanan emosi. Menurut Horwitz, Horwitz dan Cope (1986), kebimbangan itu berkait dengan perasaan tertekan, ketakutan, gementar dan kerisauan yang seterusnya dapat membangkitkan perasaan gementar secara automatik. Prince (2002) menyatakan kebimbangan bukan saja menerbitkani tanda-tanda stres tetapi juga boleh menghasilkan toksik. Mangsa-mangsa bencana seperti ribut taufan, puting beliung, gempa bumi, tsunami, mahupun bencana akibat perbuatan manusia dan keganasan menghadapi risiko tekanan emosi yang tinggi (Assanangkornchai, Tangboonngam, & Edwards, 2004). Kajian menunjukkan masalah kesihatan mental yang sering dialami oleh mangsa bencana adalah seperti stres, kebimbangan, dan kemurungan (Green & Lindy, 1994; Staab, Fullerton, & Ursano, 1999). Farj Abd al-Qadir (1993) menyatakan seseorang yang mengalami kebimbangan akan turut merasai ketakutan dan stres. Menurut Tawfiq (1998) perasaan ini biasanya diiringi dengan perubahan fisiologi di samping merasa ketakutan terhadap sesuatu yang tidak diketahui puncanya. Norris (2005) juga menjelaskan kesan bencana alam adalah seperti tekanan, kebimbangan, kemurungan yang tidak menentu, gangguan kognitif, cemas, dan pelbagai masalah kesihatan. Menurut Freud (1924), kebimbangan merupakan emosi yang tidak menyenangkan, yang dialami oleh individu yang mempunyai kebimbangan neurosis, dihantui oleh ketakutan atau jangkaan terhadap sesuatu yang menakutkan. Keadaan ini dianggap sebagai keresahan. Antara simptom-simptom fisiologi kebimbangan adalah denyutan jantung yang kuat, ketegangan otot, menggigil, sesak nafas atau sukar untuk bernafas, rasa mual, dan pening. Nasir, Zainah, dan Khairudin (2012) menjalankan kajian tentang kesan psikologi terhadap mangsa-mangsa banjir di Johor pada tahun 2006/2007. Kajian ini bertujuan melihat kesan-kesan psikologi daripada aspek kognisi, perasaan, emosi, dan tingkah laku. Kajian mereka menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dengan temubual responden secara bersemuka. Mereka mendapati mangsa-mangsa banjir mengalami gangguan kognitif, emosi dan tingkah laku seperti ketakutan, kebimbangan, putus asa, tidak berdaya dan tekanan. Kebimbangan juga boleh mendatangkan kemudaratan sekiranya kebimbangan itu berada pada tahap yang tinggi seperti kemurungan, sedih, tidak menaruh sebarang harapan dalam hidup, tidak mampu bergembira seperti orang lain serta sering berasa lesu dan pesimistik terhadap kebolehan diri sendiri (Hairunnaja, 2002; Mubayyad, 1995). Beberapa kajian lain seperti (Dewey, 1988; Walls & Zarit, 1991; Pargament, 1986) menunjukkan agama merupakan faktor penting dalam menampan tindak balas trauma. Kajian-kajian yang dijalankan juga mendapati wujudnya hubungan antara agama dan kesihatan mental (Yeung & Chan, 2007; Koenig & Larson, 2001). Agama dikatakan menjadi sumber yang dominan bagi kebahagiaan, jangkaan, kepercayaan, kesejahteraan, dan keselesaan (Koenig, H. G., George, L. K., & Peterson, B. L., 1998; Koenig, H. G., George, L. K., & Titus, P., 2004; Park & Cohen, 1993; Mitchell, 2003). Pargament (1997) menjelaskan agama dapat memberi lebih keselesaan kepada manusia ketika menghadapi krisis mahupun trauma. Keselesaan itu wujud kerana agama dapat menjadi sumber untuk mencari ketenangan sama seperti kerohanian. Islam menganjurkan mangsa yang ditimpa apa jua bencana atau musibah bersabar kerana ujian daripada Allah SWT kepada hambanya. Manusia boleh diuji dengan kesenangan atau kesempitan. Begitu juga dengan musibah banjir ianya adalah ujian daripada Allah SWT. Ujian ini didatangkan daripada Allah SWT untuk menilai © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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tahap keimanan hamba-Nya. Justeru umat Islam hendaklah bersabar, dalil Al Quran yang bermaksud: “Sesungguhnya Allah bersama orang-orang yang sabar.” (al-Baqarah, 1: 153) Selain itu hadis Rasulullah SAW yang bermaksud: “Sabar sebahagian daripada iman.” (Riwayat Bukhari) Dalil-dalil di atas menunjukkan Islam mempunyai kaedah dalam menangani musibah, antaranya dengan sifat sabar. Imam al-Ghazali (dipetik Harian Metro, 16/2/12) menyatakan, jika ditimpa musibah, ada lima cara bagaimana seseorang itu perlu berdepan ujian iaitu: • • • • •

Pertama - jika menerima musibah atau ujian yang terlalu besar dan berat bagi dirinya, seseorang itu perlu bayangkan bahawa ada ujian lebih besar dan lebih teruk menimpa orang lain berbanding apa dialaminya. Kedua - datangnya bencana itu mungkin sekali sebagai musibah kerana kekurangan taatnya dalam agama. Ketiga - takutilah jika musibah itu menimpa secara berterusan di dunia hingga akhirat. Oleh itu, terimalah ujian itu dengan sabar kerana lebih baik diseksa di dunia saja dengan harapan semoga Allah tidak melanjutkan ujian itu hingga semua makhluk dihidupkan semula di akhirat. Keempat - setiap bencana atau musibah ditentukan secara pasti dan tercatat tanpa ada kuasa mampu mengubahnya selain Allah SWT. Kelima - ketahuilah bahawa pahala diterima seseorang lebih besar sewaktu mereka ditimpa musibah.

Sehubungan itu, musibah yang dialami seharusnya diterima dengan tenang tanpa kebimbangan dan menerimanya dengan sabar kerana ia ujian Allah SWT bagi menguji kekuatan iman hamba-Nya. Para nabi, sahabat dan ilmuan Islam turut menerima ujian dalam kehidupan. Rentetan itu, kertas kerja ini cuba menjelaskan berhubung musibah yang dihadapi oleh mangsa banjir. Oleh itu satu kajian telah dilakukan untuk melihat tahap religiositi dan amalan agama yang dipraktiskan oleh responden tatkala mendepani musibah banjir.

METOD KAJIAN Kajian ini menggunakan reka bentuk kuantitatif, khususnya kajian tinjauan untuk mendapatkan data kajian. Instrumen kajian ini telah diubahsuai daripada kajian Vincent A. P (2010). Sebelum diedarkan kepada responden instrument ini telah melalui pilot test untuk menguji kebolehpercayaannya terlebih dahulu. Seramai 113 penduduk di daerah Kubang Pasu, Kedah telah dipilih secara bertujuan untuk dijadikan responden. Soal selidik yang diperolehi dianalisis secara deskriptif dengan dibantu oleh perisian SPSS.

HASIL KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Hasil kajian dan perbincangan ini ditumpukan kepada tiga aspek, iaitu (1) profil sosiodemografi responden, (2) tahap religiositi mangsa banjir, (3) tanda-tanda kebimbangan, dan (4) hubungan religiositi dengan kebimbangan.

Profil Sosiodemografi Merujuk kepada Jadual 1 responden lelaki seramai 56 orang dan perempuan 57 orang. Dari segi umur kebanyakan responden berumur antara 53 hingga 62 tahun iaitu 32.7 peratus. Ini diikuti responden yang berumur 63 tahun ke atas dan 43 hingga 52 tahun masing-masing berjumlah 16.8 peratus. Manakala dari segi taraf perkahwinan pula, responden yang berstatus bujang adalah 19.5 peratus, berkahwin 68.1 peratus, bercerai 2.7 peratus dan balu 9.7 peratus. Dari segi pendidikan, secara majoriti responden adalah berpendidikan rendah iaitu 47.8 peratus. Dalam aspek pekerjaan pula, bekerja sendiri merupakan kerja sebahagian besar responden, iaitu 33.8 peratus, diikuti suri rumah tangga 22.1 peratus dan swasta 16.8 peratus. Jadual 1: Profil Sosiodemografi

Profil

f

Peratus

Jantina Lelaki

56

49.6

Perempuan

57

50.4

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Profil

f

Peratus

Umur 13 tahun – 22 tahun

12

10.6

23 tahun – 32 tahun

13

11.5

33 tahun – 42 tahun

10

8.8

43 tahun – 52 tahun

19

16.8

53 tahun – 62 tahun

37

32.7

63 tahun ke atas

19

16.8

Tidak Menjawab

3

2.7

Bujang

22

19.5

Kahwin

77

68.1

Bercerai/berpisah

3

2.7

Balu/duda

11

9.7

Ijazah dan keatas

7

6.2

Sijil/Diploma

4

3.5

SPM/STPM

26

23.0

Rendah dan ke bawah

54

47.8

Tidak Menjawab

22

19.5

Kerajaan

2

1.8

Swasta

19

16.8

Sendiri

38

33.8

Suri Rumah

25

22.1

Taraf Perkahwinan

Kelulusan Akademik

Pekerjaan

Tidak Bekerja/Penganggur 8

7.1

Tidak Menjawab

18.6

21

f = Frekuensi; N = 113

Tahap Religiositi Kajian telah mengenalpasti satu aspek yang diukur dalam kajian ini iaitu berkenaan tahap religiositi mangsa banjir. Hasil kajian menunjukkan responden mangsa banjir juga menunjukkan tahap religiositi yang tinggi dengan nilai min 183.3992. Daripada seramai 113 orang mangsa banjir yang menjadi responden kajian, sebahagian besar mereka mempunyai tahap religiositi yang tinggi, iaitu 74 orang, berbanding 39 orang yang mempunyai trahap religiositi sederhana (Jadual 2). Ini menujukkan dalam berdepan dengan musibah banjir responden seramai 74 orang tidak lupa akan ajaran agama Islam. Bahkan mereka terus istiqamah dengan amalan-amalan yang dianjurkan Islam, seperti, umpamanya bersabar (al Baqarah, 1: 153). Hasil analisis ini didapati selari dengan hasil-hasil kajian di luar Negara seperti kajian yang dilakukan oleh Pargament (1997). Beliau mendapati nilai-nilai agama boleh dijadikan sebagai mekanisme dalam mendepani ujian dan musibah. Jadual 2: Frekuansi Responden Mengikut Tahap Religiositi

Tahap Religiositi Rendah (46-107)

Jumlah

Peratus -

-

Sederhana (108-169)

39

35

Tinggi (170-230)

74

65

113

100

Jumlah

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Oleh itu pengkaji cuba mengenal pasti antara amalan religiositi yang diamalkan oleh responden. Amalan agama samada amalan wajib atau sunat tetap diamalkan oleh responden tatkala musibah banjir melanda. Antaranya item-item berkaitan amalan religiositi yang telah di soal ialah “Saya memperuntukkan masa untuk membaca ayat-ayat suci Al Quran walaupun sibuk” iaitu responden memilih sangat kerap dengan 31.9% dan kerap 28.3%. Manakala bagi item “Saya mengutamakan amalan yang sedikit tetapi berterusan” iaitu sangat kerap 31.0% dan kerap 38.1 peratus. Item lain ialah “Saya mengingati Allah apabila ditimpa musibah” iaitu sangat kerap 60.2 peratus dan kerap 23.9 peratus. Dalam soalan lain “Saya berusaha menambahkan kekerapan dalam melakukan solat-solat sunat” sangat kerap 23.9 peratus, kerap ialah 28.3 peratus. “Saya berusaha mematuhi peraturan Allah S.W.T dalam sebarang situasi” iaitu sangat kerap 46.9 peratus, kerap iaitu 27.4 peratus. “Saya melakukan solat sunat di mana sahaja saya berada” iaitu sangat kerap 26.5 peratus, kerap 19.5 peratus. “Saya suka membantu sesiapa yang memerlukan” sangat kerap iaitu 40.7 peratus, kerap 22.1 peratus. Dapatan ini menunjukkan bahawa amalan religiositi kerap dilakukan oleh responden dalam kehidupan mereka.

Tanda-Tanda Kebimbangan Kajian ini juga berusaha untuk meneroka tanda-tanda kebimbangan yang ditunjukkan oleh mangsa banjir. Responden telah dikenalpasti mengalami sindrom kebimbangan berdasarkan tanda-tanda yang telah dikenalpasti. Tanda-tanda kebimbangan ini termasuklah tidak boleh rileks, takut perkara buruk berlaku, degupan jantung yang laju, rasa tidak kukuh, perasaan takut, perasaan bimbang, takut mati dan perasaan cemas dan lain-lain.

Tidak Menjawab

Teruk

Sederhana

Item

Sedikit

Tidak Sama Sekali

Jadual 2: Taburan responden dengan tanda-tanda kebimbangan

f

%

f

%

f

%

f

%

f

%

Mati rasa atau kebas

62

54.9

44

38.9

5

4.4

1

0.9

1

0.9

Rasa panas-panas badan

41

36.3

59

52.2

12

10.6

-

-

1

0.9

Kaki rasa bergoyang

72

63.7

31

27.4

5

4.4

-

-

5

4.4

Tidak boleh rilek

67

59.3

24

21.2

11

9.7

6

5.3

5

4.4

Takut jadi perkara buruk

62

54.9

26

23.0

13

11.5

3

2.7

9

8.0

Pening

59

52.2

41

36.3

7

6.2

-

-

6

5.3

Degupan jantung yang laju

63

55.8

34

30.1

10

8.8

1

0.9

5

4.4

Rasa tidak kukuh

56

49.6

29

25.7

19

16.8

3

2.7

6

5.3

Perasaan takut

50

44.2

41

36.3

14

12.4

5

4.4

3

2.7

Perasaan bimbang

59

52.2

32

28.3

8

7.1

7

6.2

7

6.2

Perasaan lemah

59

52.2

35

31.0

8

7.1

3

2.7

8

7.1

Tangan menggigil

85

75.2

22

19.5

2

1.8

-

-

4

3.5

Menggelatar

79

69.9

29

25.7

1

0.9

-

-

4

3.5

Takut hilang kawalan

77

68.1

24

21.2

6

5.3

2

1.8

4

3.5

Sukar bernafas

83

73.5

20

17.7

5

4.4

1

0.9

4

3.5

Takut mati

67

59.3

28

24.8

7

6.2

6

5.3

5

4.4

Perasaan cemas

65

57.5

30

26.5

6

5.3

4

3.5

8

7.1

Makanan tidak hadam dan senak perut

69

61.1

27

23.9

13

11.5

-

-

4

3.5

Rasa hendak pengsan

86

76.1

21

18.6

3

2.7

-

-

3

2.7

Rasa merah muka, panas muka

71

62.8

30

26.5

9

8.0

-

-

3

2.7

Berpeluh bukan kerana panas

73

64.6

28

24.8

9

8.0

-

-

3

2.7

f= frekuensi

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Merujuk Jadual 2, antara tanda-tanda kebimbangan yang teruk dalam kalangan responden ialah mangsa tidak boleh rilek (6 orang), perasaan bimbang (7 orang), takut mati (6 orang), perasaan cemas (4 orang) diikuti tiga orang yang mempunyai kebimbangan teruk seperti takut jadi perkara buruk, rasa tidak kukuh dan perasaan lemah. Manakala responden yang mempunyai tanda kebimbangan secara sederhana pula ialah rasa tidak kukuh (19 orang), takut jadi perkara buruk (13 orang), perasaan takut (14 orang), makanan tidak hadam dan senak perut (13 orang). Berdasarkan item tanda-tanda kebimbangan yang di soal kepada responden didapati secara keseluruhannya responden tidak sama sekali mempunyai kebimbangan. Keadaan ini disebabkan responden mempunyai kaedah meredakan kebimbangan ketika berdepan musibah banjir. Kebimbangan akibat musibah banjir telah mendorong mangsa banjir mencari jalan untuk mengatasi atau mengurangkan kebimbangan tersebut. Hasil kajian mendapati kebanyakan mangsa banjir apabila berhadapan dengan musibah ini, khususnya apabila timbul kebimbangan, mendorong mereka mengamalkan ajaran agama seperti solat, membaca doa, membaca al quran, atau berzikir. Mereka percaya amalan agama ini dilakukan untuk mengurangkan rasa bimbang, mengatasi rasa takut dan mereka sedaya upaya untuk redha dengan ketentuan Allah SWT.

Hubungan Religiositi Dengan Kebimbangan Berdasarkan dapatan juga, responden yang terlibat dalam kajian ini mempunyai tanda-tanda kebimbangan terhadap musibah banjir yang dihadapi adalah rendah. Hasil kajian berhubung tahap religiositi menunjukkan tahap amalan religiositi dalam kalangan responen adalah tinggi. Oleh itu, kebimbangan yang lazimnya dialami oleh mangsa-mangsa bencana atau musibah dapat dikurangkan dengan melakukan amalan-amalan agama seperti membaca al Quran, berzikir, bersabar, solat dan sebagainya. Religositi dalam kajian ini diukur dengan menggunakan skala yang mengandungi 20 pernyataan yang diberikan pilihan jawapan daripada (1) sangat tidak kerap hingga kepada (5) sangat kerap. Bagi mengukur kebimbangan pula, kajian ini juga menggunakan skala yang mengandungi 20 pernyataan yang diberikan pilihan jawapan daripada (1) sangat bimbang hingga kepada (5) sangat tidak bimbang. Untuk menganalisis hubungan di antara religiositi dengan kebimbangan, skor religositi dikorelasikan dengan skor kebimbangan yang diperolehi. Hasil analisis menunjukkan nilai pekali korelasi, r = -0.694 dan signifikan pada paras 0.01. Ini menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang negatif yang signifikan di antara religiositi dengan kebimbangan (r = -0.694, p < 0.01). Hubungan negatif ini bererti semakin tinggi tahap religiositi semakin berkurang kecenderungan mangsa banjir mengalami kebimbangan. Responden yang mempunyai tahap religiositi yang tinggi akan mempunyai tahap kebimbangan yang rendah. Hal ini kerana responden yang mempunyai pegangan agama yang kuat mampu menghadapi apa sahaja musibah, termasuk kebimbangan berkaitan dengan banjir. Terdapat banyak alasan yang boleh menerangkan mengapa responden yang mempunyai tahap religiositi yang tinggi akan mempunyai trahap kebimbangan yang rendah. Salah satu penerangan yang boleh digunakan ialah, orang yang mempunyai tahap pegangan agama yang kuat selalunya akan mempunyai tahap kesabaran yang lebih tinggi dan lebih redha dalam menghadapi musibah. Mereka menyedari apa sahaja musibah yang diterima adalah ujian daripada Allah bagi menguji kekuatan iman hamba-Nya. Setiap manusia akan diuji oleh Allah sama ada melalui kesenangan, ataupun dengan kesusahan. Orang yang mempunyai tahap religiositi yang tinggu juga selalunya mampu melihat kesabarannya menghadapi apa sahaja musibah, termasuk musibah banjir ini akan memperolehi pahala yang besar kerana bagi orang Islam, sesungguhnya Allah bersama orang-orang yang sabar. Orang yang mempunyai tahap religiositi yang tinggi juga selalunya melihat bencana yang didatangkan oleh Allah kepadanya berkemungkinan akibat kekurangannya dalam mentaati Allah, atau kjelemahan lain dalam kehidupannya yang mungkin tidak disukai Allah. Dalam hal ini bencana yang menimpanya bolehlah dianggap sebagai salah satu cara Allah ingin membersihkan dosa-dosanya yang lalu itu. Hal-hal seperti ini menjadikan seseorang yang mempunyai tahap religiositi yang tinggi mempunyai kemampuan atau kecenderungan untuk men ghadapi musibah banjir.

KESIMPULAN Musibah atau ujian adalah lumrah dalam kehidupan manusia. Kajian mendapati responden mempunyai tandatanda kebimbangan biarpun rendah. Namun jika dilihat kepada tahap religiositi dan amalan-amalan agama yang kerap dilakukan responden, ia menunjukkan bahawa agama dapat mengurangkan kebimbangan jika timpa musibah. Justeru, kajian ini mencadangkan agar dalam menangani musibah, bencana atau malapetaka yang melanda, amalan religiositi merupakan kaedah terbaik yang sepatutnya di tekankan khususnya untuk mengurangkan kebimbangan dalam diri mangsa.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

BEBERAPA ASPEK PENYERTAAN PENGAMAL KERJA PERKHIDMATAN SOSIAL NGO ISLAM DI NEGERI KEDAH DAN PERLIS DALAM KEUSAHAWANAN SOSIAL Wan Ab Rahman Khudzri Wan Abdullah*, Wan Ibrahim Wan Ahmad & Fuziah Shaffie *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Akhir-akhir ini keusahawanan sosial dilihat sebagai satu komponen penting dalam pembangunan negara. Bagaimanapun tidak ramai penduduk yang berminat melibatkan diri dalam keusahawanan sosial ini. Makalah ini memaparkan sebahagian daripada hasil penyelidikan yang dilakukan ke atas penyertaan pengamal kerja perkhidmatan sosial pertubuhan sukarela Islam dalam keusahawanan sosial di negeri Kedah dan Perlis, Malaysia yang dilakukan pada akhir tahun 2011. Makalah ini secara khususnya, bertujuan untuk menganalisis beberapa aspek penyertaan pekerja perkhidmatan sosial pertubuhan sukarela Islam dalam keusahawanan sosial. Untuk mencapai tujuan ini seramai 76 orang pekerja pertubuhan sukarela Islam telah dipilih secara bertujuan daripada pelbagai pertubuhan sukarela Islam yang terdapat di negeri Kedah dan Perlis, sebagai responden kajian. Data dikumpulkan melalui temu bual bersemuka di pertubuhan sukarela Islam yang telah dikenalpasti. Hasil kajian menunjukkan pekerja pertubuhan sukarela Islam ini terlibat dalam 14 buah pertubuhan sukarela Islam yang terdapat di negeri Kedah dan Perlis, yang sebahagian besarnya secara sambilan. Kebanyakan responden yang ditemui menyertai pertubuhan sukarela ini di antara tahun 2001 - 2010, malah ada yang telah melibatkan diri sejak tahun 1980-an dahulu lagi. Keywords: social entrepreneurship, development, social service worker practitioner, Islamic NGOs

PENGENALAN Keusahawanan sosial adalah penting dalam pembangunan negara. Kepentingan keusahawan sosial ini dapat dilihat dalam pelbagai aspek seperti ekonomi, sosial dan politik. Dalam aspek ekonomi, usahawan sosial dapat merangsang kemajuan ekonomi negara dengan mencari cara baru atau cara yang lebih berinovatif dalam usaha untuk menyelesaikan permasalahan sosial. Manakala dari aspek sosial, pengamal kerja sosial yang berorientasikan keusahawanan sosial lebih menggunakan peluang dan kesempatan yang ada untuk memperbaiki sistem masyarakat, mengilhamkan pendekatan baru dan juga memikirkan cara penyelesaian yang terbaik terhadap permasalahan masyarakat sekeliling. Seterusnya dari aspek politik pula usahawan sosial mempunyai daya saing, berilmu dan bekemahiran tinggi serta mempunyai nilai-nilai etika yang baik. Mereka tahu tanggungjawab yang perlu dimainkan dan peranan yang perlu dimainkan terhadap masyarakat dan negara. Mereka tahu permasalahan sosial yang dihadapi oleh sesebuah negara turut mempengaruhi kestabilan politi negara berkenaan. Oleh yang demikian pengamal kerja sosial yang berorientasikan keusahawanan sosial dikatakan penting kepada pembangunan negara.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Pengamal kerja sosial mempunyai kaitan yang erat dengan keusahawanan sosial. Kedua-dua entiti ini mempunyai matlamat yang sama iaitu memberikan perkhidmatan bantuan kepada masyarakat. Dalam konteks keusahawanan sosial, pengamal kerja sosial merujuk individu yang mempunyai penyelesaian inovatif kepada masalah sosial yang sedang melanda masyarakat dengan menawarkan idea-idea baru dengan mengambil alih tugas dan tanggungjawab yang lazimnya diambil oleh kerajaan atau masyarakat biasa (http:// www.ashoka.org). Idea yang kreatif, inovatif dan adaptatif malahan bersifat mesra pengguna berlandaskan etika daripada mereka dilihat amat penting untuk pembangunan masyarakat setempat. Makalah ini memaparkan sebahagian daripada hasil penyelidikan ke atas penyertaan pengamal kerja perkhidmatan sosial pertubuhan sukarela Islam dalam keusahawanan sosial di negeri Kedah dan Perlis yang dilakukan pada akhir tahun 2011. Daripada penyelidikan tersebut, banyak data telah dihasilkan. Makalah ini secara khususnya, bertujuan untuk menganalisis beberapa aspek penyertaan pekerja perkhidmatan sosial pertubuhan sukarela Islam dalam keusahawanan sosial.

BEBERAPA ASPEK PENYERTAAN PENGAMAL KERJA PERKHIDMATAN SOSIAL NGO ISLAM DI NEGERI KEDAH DAN PERLIS Latar Belakang Responden Perbincangan bahagian ini diarahkan kepada perbincangan mengenai profil responden kajian yang menekankan aspek-aspek latar belakang responden, seperti taburan jantina, umur, tempat asal, pendidikan tertinggi, status perkahwinan, pekerjaan utama, tempoh bekerja dan pendapatan(Jadual 1). Responden dalam kajian ini berjumlah 76 orang. Daripada jumlah tersebut, kebanyakan responden yang ditemui adalah perempuan, berjumlah 41 orang (53.95 peratus) berbanding responden lelaki, iaitu 35 orang (46.05 peratus). Ini menunjukkan sebahagian besar responden yang terlibat dalam kajian ini terdiri daripada golongan wanita. Dari segi umur, responden dikategori kepada tiga kategori umur iaitu; (1) 24 tahun dan ke bawah, (2) 25 hingga 39 tahun dan, (3) 40 tahun dan ke atas. Jumlah responden yang berada dalam kategori umur antara 40 tahun dan ke atas adalah paling ramai berjumlah 51 orang (67.10 peratus) daripada 76 orang responden. Kategori umur 25 hingga 39 tahun pula berjumlah 20 orang (26.32 peratus) diikuti kategori umur 24 tahun dan ke bawah hanya mempunyai lima orang (6.58 peratus) responden sahaja (Jadual 2). Jadual 1: Taburan Responden Mengikut Jantina

Jantina

Jumlah

Peratus

Lelaki

35

46.05

Perempuan

41

53.95

Jumlah

76

100.00

Jadual 2: Taburan Responden Mengikut Umur

Umur 24 tahun dan ke bawah

Jumlah

Peratus

5

6.58

25 hingga 39 tahun

20

26.32

40 tahun dan ke atas

51

67.10

Jumlah

76

100.00

Profil tempat asal responden pula dikelaskan kepada luar bandar, pekan kecil, pinggir bandar dan, bandar. Ramai responden yang berasal dari kawasan luar bandar, iaitu 32 orang (42.10 peratus) diikuti responden dari bandar yang berjumlah 22 orang (28.95 orang). Kawasan pinggir bandar pula mempunyai 14 orang (18.42 peratus), manakala responden dari pekan kecil berjumlah lapan orang (Jadual 3). Jadual 4 menunjukkan taburan dan jumlah responden yang mendapat pendidikan tertinggi di kawasan kajian. Pendidikan tertinggi yang diterima oleh setiap responden dikategorikan kepada tidak bersekolah, sekolah rendah, SRP, SPM, STPM, Diploma/Sijil dan Universiti. Daripada 76 orang responden yang ditemui, sebahagian besar daripadanya mempunyai pendidikan universiti, iaitu 43 orang (56.59 peratus) manakala SPM berjumlah 11 orang (14.47 peratus). Bagi responden yang berpendidikan SPM dan Diploma/Sijil, masing-masing mencatatkan jumlah yang sama iaitu sembilan orang (11.84 peratus) sementara responden yang bersekolah rendah dan SRP juga mempunyai jumlah yang sama iaitu dua orang (2.63 peratus).

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Jadual 3: Taburan Responden Mengikut Tempat Asal

Tempat Asal

Jumlah

Peratus

Luar Bandar

32

42.10

Pekan Kecil

8

10.53

Pinggir Bandar

14

18.42

Bandar

22

28.95

Jumlah

76

100.00

Jadual 4: Taburan Responden Mengikut Pendidikan Tertinggi

Pendidikan Tertinggi

Jumlah

Peratus

Tidak Bersekolah

0

0.00

Sekolah rendah

2

2.63

SRP

2

2.63

SPM

11

14.47

STPM

9

11.84

Diploma/Sijil

9

11.84

Universiti

43

56.59

Jumlah

76

100.00

Status perkahwinan responden dikelaskan kepada bujang, janda/duda, balu/kematian pasangan dan berkahwin (Jadual 5). Sebahagian besar responden telah berkahwin (89.5 peratus). Selain itu, terdapat enam orang (7.9 peratus) berstatus bujang manakala dua orang (2.6 peratus) responden yang bergelar janda/ duda. Profil pekerjaan utama responden ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 6. Empat kategori pekerjaan utama yang diketengahkan, iaitu bekerja sendiri, pekerja kerajaan, pekerja swasta dan, pekerja pertubuhan sukarela. Kebanyakan responden adalah pekerja kerajaan yang berjumlah 60 orang (80 peratus). Terdapat lapan orang (10.7 peratus) responden yang terlibat dalam sektor swasta diikuti empat orang (5.3 peratus) yang terlibat dalam pertubuhan sukarela dan tiga orang (4.0 peratus) responden yang bekerja sendiri. Jadual 5: Taburan Responden Mengikut Status Perkahwinan

Status Perkahwinan

Jumlah

Peratus

Bujang

6

7.9

Janda/Duda

2

2.6

Berkahwin

68

89.5

Jumlah

76

100.00

Jadual 6: Taburan Responden Mengikut Pekerjaan Utama

Pekerjaan Bekerja Sendiri

Jumlah

Peratus

3

4.0

60

80.0

Pekerja Swasta

8

10.7

Pekerja Sukarela

4

5.3

Tak ada jawapan

1

Pekerja Kerajaan

Jumlah

76

100.00

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Jenis dan Tujuan Pertubuhan Kajian ini melibatkan sejumlah 76 orang responden daripada 14 buah pertubuhan. Pertubuhan sukarela ini termasuklah PERKIM Changlun, PERKIM Langkawi, PERKIM Alor Setar, IKRAM Arau, IKRAM Pulau Pinang, IKRAM Sungai Petani, ABIM Georgetown, ABIM Alor Setar, JIM Georgetown, JIM Jitra, JIM Sungai Petani, JIM Arau, HALUAN Kangar, YAYASAN NUSRAH Jitra (Jadual 7). Jadual 7: Senarai Nama Pertubuhan

Nama Pertubuhan

Jumlah Responden

PERKIM CHANGLUN

1

PERKIM LANGKAWI

7

PERKIM ALOR SETAR

3

IKRAM ARAU IKRAM PULAU PINANG

4

IKRAM SUNGAI PETANI

22

ABIM GEORGETOWN

8

ABIM ALOR SETAR

13

JIM GEORGETOWN

1

JIM JITRA

1

JIM SUNGAI PETANI

2

JIM ARAU

1

HALUAN KANGAR

1

YAYASAN NUSRAH JITRA

1

Responden yang ditanya mengenai tujuan utama penubuhan pertubuhan yang mereka sertai telah menjawabnya seperti di dalam Jadual 8. Jadual 8: Tujuan Utama Penubuhan

Nama Pertubuhan

Tujuan Utama Penubuhan

PERKIM Changlun

•

Dakwah

PERKIM Langkawi

•

Memberi bantuan kepada saudara baru

PERKIM Alor Setar

•

Dakwah, pelajaran, kebajikan, kerjasama dalam bidang agama

IKRAM Arau

•

NGO (Badan Pertubuhan Kerajaan)

IKRAM Pulau Pinang

•

Tarbiah dan dakwah

•

Dakwah dan kebajikan

•

Kebajikan dan dakwah

•

Mendaulatkan syariat Islam dengan penubuhan

•

Daulah Islamiyah

•

Kerja sosial

ABIM Georgetown

•

Pergerakan Islam

ABIM Alor Setar

•

Perjuangan belia Islam

JIM Georgetown

•

Dakwah, tarbiyah Islam dan kebajikan

JIM Jitra

•

Dakwah, tarbiyah dan kebajikan

JIM Sungai Petani

•

Dakwah dan kebajikan

JIM Arau

•

Kebajikan dan Dakwah

HALUAN Kangar

•

Dakwah dan tarbiyah

YAYASAN NUSRAH Jitra

•

Keagamaan dan pemantapan ekonomi

IKRAM Sungai Petani

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Semua pertubuhan ini adalah berkaitan dengan dakwah, tarbiyah Islam dan kebajikan Islam. Bagi IKRAM pula bertujuan melaksanakan tugas tarbiah dan dakwah, dakwah dan kebajikan serta melakukan kerja sosial. PERKIM, ABIM, JIM dan HALUAN ditubuhkan untuk pergerakan Islam, memberi bantuan kepada saudara baru, kebajikan dan kerjasama dalam bidang agama, sebagai wadah perjuangan belia Islam dan dakwah, tarbiyah dan kebajikan. YAYASAN NUSRAH pula ditubuhkan selain untuk kegiatan keagamaan, juga beertujuan untuk pemantapan ekonomi.

Status Penglibatan Responden terlibat secara sambilan dan sepenuh masa. Lebih daripada 50 orang daripada 76 orang responden terlibat secara sambilan. Di samping itu, 22 orang responden lagi terlibat secara sepenuh masa dalam keusahawanan (Jadual 9). Jadual 9: Status Penglibatan

Status Penglibatan

Jumlah

Peratus

Sambilan

54

71.05

Sepenuh Masa

22

28.95

Jumlah

76

100.00

Kedudukan Dalam Pertubuhan Responden didapati terlibat dalam pertubuhan sama ada sebagai majikan, pengurus, rakan kongsi, pekerja mahupun sukarelawan (Jadual 10). Terdapat 53 responden terlibat sebagai sukarelawan dalam pertubuhan yang disertai manakala sejumlah 18 orang adalah berstatus sebagai pekerja dalam pertubuhan yang disertai, tiga orang terlibat sebagai majikan, dan dua orang sebagai pengurus. Jadual 10: Kedudukan Dalam Pertubuhan Kedudukan dalam Pertubuhan

Jumlah

Peratus

Majikan

3

3.95

Pengurus

2

2.6

Pekerja

18

23.7

Sukarelawan

53

69.7

Jumlah

76

100.00

Tempoh Penglibatan Dalam Pertubuhan Analisis berasaskan tempoh penglibatan responden dalam pertubuhan yang disertai mereka dikelaskan kepada (1) 1 hingga 5 tahun, (2) 6 hingga 10 tahun, (3) 11 hingga 15 tahun, (4) 16 hingga 20 tahun dan, (5) 21 tahun ke atas (Jadual 27). Sejumlah 46 orang responden terlibat dalam pertubuhan di antara 1 - 5 tahun. Tempoh lain yang agak ramai ialah tempoh antara 11 - 15 tahun. Tempoh lain tidak ramai (Jadual 11). Jadual 11: Tempoh Penglibatan Responden

Tempoh Penglibatan

Jumlah

Peratus

1 hingga 5 tahun

46

60.5

6 hingga 10 tahun

6

7.9

11 hingga 15 tahun

11

14.47

16 hingga 20 tahun

7

9.21

21 tahun ke atas 6

6

7.9

76

100.00

Jumlah

PENUTUP Makalah ini secara khusus telah menganalisis beberapa aspek penyertaan pekerja perkhidmatan sosial pertubuhan sukarela Islam dalam keusahawanan sosial. Seramai 76 orang pekerja pertubuhan sukarela Islam © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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telah dipilih daripada pelbagai pertubuhan sukarela Islam yang terdapat di negeri Kedah dan Perlis, sebagai responden kajian. Telah didapati pekerja pertubuhan sukarela Islam ini terlibat dalam 14 buah pertubuhan sukarela Islam, yang sebahagian besarnya secara sambilan. Kebanyakan responden yang ditemui menyertai pertubuhan sukarela ini di antara tahun 2001 - 2010, malah ada yang telah melibatkan diri sejak tahun 1980an dahulu lagi.

RUJUKAN Wan Ab. Rahman Khudzri, Fuziah Shaffie, Ab. Aziz, Azizan Bahari & Wan Ibrahim Wan Ahmad. 2011. Pengetahuan Pengamal Kerja Perkhidmatan Sosial Dalam Keusahawanan Sosial Pertubuhan Sukarela Islam di Utara Malaysia. Research report submitted to RIMC Universiti Utara Malaysia.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

INSTITUSI MASJID SEBAGAI EJEN PEMBANGUNAN KOMUNITI: ANALISIS BERASASKAN KERANGKA PROSES SOSIAL DAN STRUKTUR SOSIAL Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamid* *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstrak Meskipun banyak telahan yang dibuat tentang kepelbagaian fungsi dan peranan masjid dalam komuniti Islam di negara ini, kebanyakannya hanya tinggal retorik. Ini kerana, meskipun masjid dan surau wujud hampir di segenap pelusuk komuniti, potensi sebenar institusi ini gagal direalisasikan secara praktik, termasuk sebagai ejen pembangun masyarakat. Kegagalan ini boleh dilihat sebagai berpunca daripada kurangnya kefahaman tentang perkaitan di antara institusi tersebut dengan proses interaksi sosial yang berlaku di sekitarnya. Dari perspektif sosiologi, terdapat kaitan rapat di antara proses sosial yang berlaku dalam interaksi seharian dengan penjelmaan struktur sosial dalam sesebuah komuniti dan proses dialektik yang berlaku di sana. Melalui asas teoritikal ini, artikel berikut membincangkan hasil kajian kualitatif ke atas komuniti berasaskan agama (kariah) yang telah menghasilkan kerangka analisis yang menghubungkaitkan dua entiti sosiologikal tersebut, iaitu proses interaksi dan struktur sosial, dalam menjelaskan tentang peranan institusi masjid dalam komuniti. Dari sudut aplikasi terhadap proses pembangunan sosial dan komuniti, hasil dapatan kajian ini menjurus kepada justifikasi serta saranan agar institusi masjid dijadikan ejen pembangun masyarakat aliran utama, terutama dalam komuniti beragama Islam. Ini berikutan hasil kajian tersebut mendapati terdapat tiga domain fungsional dalam seting kariah yang berpotensi dimanfaatkan sebagai pemangkin pembangunan komuniti. Keywords: strukturasi, masjid, kariah, struktur sosial, pembangunan komuniti

PENGENALAN Sejak sekian lama, institusi masjid dianggap sinonim dengan tempat ibadah dan bukannya pembangunan. Persepsi yang sempit ini tidak hanya terhad kepada masyarakat Islam di negara ini. Di great Britain misalnya, persepsi sempit tentang peranan masjid masih ketara, bahkan seperti yang disebut oleh Maqsood (2005), masjid di sana hanya dilihat sebagai ‘prayer clubs for men.’ Hakikatnya seperti yang digariskan oleh Islam dan tradisi amalan Rasulullah s.a.w., masjid merupakan pencetus kepada pembentukan dan seterusnya perkembangan komuniti. Ini termaktub dalam lipatan sejarah Islam terutamanya sewaktu berlaku peristiwa Hijrah di mana setelah berhijrah dari Mekah ke Madinah, tindakan pertama yang diambil oleh Rasulullah s.a.w. ialah membina masjid. Di bawah naungan masjid, Baginda s.a.w. menyatukan dua kelompok manusia yang berlainan asal usul sehingga wujudnya ummah yang bersaudara. Dalam tradisi yang sama, Rasulullah s.a.w. memperlihatkan bagaimana masjid bukan sahaja berfungsi sebagai tempat ibadat yang wajib tetapi juga berperanan sebagai pusat aktiviti komuniti, pusat penyebaran ilmu, medan wacana politik, pusat dakwah dan di waktu peperangan, turut menjadi pusat pentadbiran dan pengurusan ketenteraan (Zakaryya Mohamed Abdel-Hadey, 2010; Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood, 2005).

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Malangnya aspirasi yang ditunjukkan oleh Rasulullah s.a.w. tentang peranan masjid sebagai nadi komuniti hanya tinggal retorik. Masjid dibina dengan penuh kegemilangan tetapi pengisiannya tidak mampu direalisasikan sepertimana yang digariskan oleh Islam. Dari satu sudut, seperti yang ingin dihujahkan dalam artikel ini, kegagalan ini adalah berpunca daripada kurangnya kefahaman tentang perkaitan di antara kehadiran institusi tersebut dengan proses interaksi sosial yang berlaku di sekitarnya. Dari sudut pengamatan sosiologi, terdapat kaitan rapat di antara proses sosial yang berlaku dalam interaksi seharian dengan penjelmaan struktur sosial dalam sesebuah sistem sosial (komuniti) dan impak timbal balik yang terhasil daripadanya (Giddens, 1979, 1984). Pengasingan di antara ‘aktiviti keduniaan’ dan ‘aktiviti masjid’ yang masih ketara dalam pemikiran masyarakat boleh dikatakan sebagai punca kenapa kedua-duanya itu gagal diharmonikan secara praktik, meskipun model masjid sebagai institusi yang holistik telah wujud dalam sejarah Islam. Kesannya potensi sebenar masjid dalam konteks pembangunan dan kemsyarakatan tidak mampu direalisasikan. Pemerhatian ini membawa kepada fokus kertas kerja ini, iaitu meneroka secara teoritikal, berasaskan dapatan kajian yang dilakukan ke atas dua kariah, bagaimana potensi dan peranan masjid boleh dikenalpasti dan dieksploitasikan untuk tujuan pembangunan masyarakat setempat. Artikel ini membincangkan hasil kajian kualitatif ke atas komuniti berasaskan agama (kariah) yang telah menghasilkan kerangka analisis yang menghubungkaitkan dua entiti sosiologikal yang disebutkan tadi, iaitu proses interaksi dan struktur sosial, dalam menjelaskan tentang peranan institusi masjid sebagai ejen pembangun masyarakat aliran utama.

PROSES SOSIAL DAN STRUKTUR SOSIAL – SUATU KERANGKA SOSIOLOGIKAL Bagi tujuan memahami proses pembentukan dan perkembangan komuniti, dalam tradisi pemikiran sosiologi terdapat beberapa ‘alat’ yang boleh digunakan. Salah satu daripadanya ialah konsep struktur sosial. Dalam disiplin sosiologi, konsep struktur sosial telah dibincangkan secara mendalam oleh tokoh-tokoh pemikir klasik serta kontemporari seperti Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, Karl Marx dan Anthony Giddens. Gedung ilmu yang terbina hasil pemikiran tokoh-tokoh ini amat bernilai dan berpotensi besar untuk digunakan sebagai asas untuk para pengkaji kontemporari menjana konseptualisasi tentang komuniti dan pembentukannya. Hasil sintesis teori dan pemikiran ini boleh dijadikan asas untuk digunakan bagi tujuan memahami dinamisme proses sosial dan penjanaan struktur sosial yang berlaku dalam sesebuah komuniti. Hasilnya akan terbentuk satu kefahaman bersifat teoritikal atau konseptual tentang apa yang berlaku dalam realiti sosial yang kompleks.

Struktur Sosial Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan struktur sosial? Terdapat beberapa interpretasi yang pernah dikemukakan tentang konsep ini. Salah satu interpretasi kontemporari telah dikemukakan oleh ahli sosiologi British, Anthony Giddens. Menurut Giddens (1979, 1984, 1989, 1991), struktur sosial merupakan gabungan antara sumber-sumber dan aturan-aturan yang wujud hasil daripada tindakan atau tingkah laku sosial individu (aktor) yang terdapat dalam sesuatu konteks sosial. Berbeza dengan interpretasi tokoh terdahulu daripada beliau yang mengandaikan struktur sosial sebagai entiti berupa kerangka bersifat tegar yang dihasilkan oleh sesebuah masyarakat (melalui budaya dan praktis sosial), Giddens berpandangan bahawa struktur sosial adalah berbentuk jelmaan abstrak yang hadir sewaktu perlaksanaan tingkah laku individu dalam konteks sosial tertentu. Berkaitan ini Giddens (Giddens & Pierson, 1998: 87)menjelaskan: There are only structural forces, to repeat, in so far as there are established conventions that people follow. There are structures in so far as people constantly reproduce those conventions in what they do and they give structured form to institutions. Institutions incorporate at the same time forms of power but they are not like physical structures. Struktur sosial, menurut beliau, tidak boleh disamakan dengan struktur fizikal atau dibuat analogi dengan struktur organisme sepertimana lazim diperkatakan oleh kebanyakan tokoh terdahulu. Sebaliknya struktur sosial muncul dan hilang selari dengan perilaku sosial yang dipraktikkan oleh individu dalam konteks sosial. Ini kerana struktur hanya muncul dalam bentuk konvensyen (kebiasaan) yang diterima pakai oleh individu atau kelompok. Oleh yang demikian, gambaran bahawa struktur sosial boleh disamakan dengan struktur fizikal yang tetap sifatnya tidak lagi sesuai digunakan. Jelmaan struktur sosial berkait rapat dengan tingkah laku aktor. Struktur sosial menjelma apabila aktor bertindak dalam konteks tertentu, lazimnya melibatkan struktur sosial yang telah terbentuk hasil tindakan aktor sebelumnya. Apabila seseorang aktor berinteraksi dengan aktor lain, maka proses interaksi itu mewujudkan struktur yang baharu (structural reproduction) pada waktu itu. Sebaik sahaja interaksi tersebut berakhir, struktur sosial yang terhasil tadi akan lenyap, kecuali dalam bentuk memori dalam minda pelakunya. Perbandingan yang dibuat oleh Giddens bagi menggambarkan ciri dan sifat struktur sosial ini ialah dengan memerhatikan bagaimana bahasa wujud dalam masyarakat manusia (Giddens, 1979). Bahasa merupakan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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gabungan sumber (i.e. perkataan, makna, simbol) dan aturan (i.e. tatabahasa, sintaks) yang muncul hasil tindakan oleh individu yang mempraktikkannya. Bahasa muncul setiap kali ianya dipertuturkan dan akan hilang apabila ia tidak lagi digunakan, kecuali dalam pemikiran individu yang menggunakan bahasa tersebut. Bagi Giddens, struktur sosial, sepertimana bahasa adalah bersifat subjektif dan hanya wujud atas inisiatif individu yang mengamalkannya.

Proses Sosial Salah satu implikasi besar idea struktur sosial seperti yang dikemukakan oleh Giddens ini ialah wujudnya hubungan timbal balik antara kehadiran struktur sosial dengan interaksi antara aktor sosial. Selagi mana aktor sosial mempraktikkan sesuatu corak tingkah laku, maka selagi itulah sturktur sosial yang berkait dengan tingkah laku itu tadi wujud dan menjadi sebahagian daripada sistem sosial yang berkaitan. Manakala apabila corak tingkah laku yang seharusnya dipraktikkan tidak lagi diamalkan, maka struktur sosial itu akan lenyap. Tingkah laku individu dalam melakukan proses interaksi ini adalah sebahagian daripada proses sosial yang berfungsi menjana struktur. Konsepsi penjanaan struktur melalui interaksi ini dikenali sebagai kedualan struktur (duality of structure) (Giddens, 1984). Prinsip kedualan struktur menggambarkan bahawa proses sosial adalah sebahagian daripada proses pembentukan struktur sosial. Kedua-dua elemen ini bersatu dalam satu konfigurasi yang bersifat kitaran (dialektik) atau timbal balik. Menurut Giddens, tradisi pemikiran teori sosiologi pada dasarnya terbahagi dua, iaitu perspektif strukturalisme dan perspektif agensi. Perspektif strukturalisme terfokus kepada kepentingan struktur dalam memahami teori sosial, sehingga aktor sosial tidak diberikan penekanan dalam konteks pemahamannya. Perspektif agensi pula terfokus kepada memahami aktor sebagai agen yang mewujudkan realiti melalui pemikiran dan interpretasi subjektif, sehinggakan struktur dilihat sebagai sesuatu yang berada dalam pemikiran aktor semata-mata. Dalam merumuskan idea Giddens tentang perbezaan antara kedua orientasi ini, Stones (2005: 14) menjelaskan: These two traps from which social theorising needs to free itself are objectivism and subjectivism. The first, objectivism, places all the emphasis on impersonal forces and subject-less structures, in which agents, if they are considered at all, are no more than the playthings or puppets of reified social systems. The second, subjectivism, reduces the whole of social life to the actions of individual agents or groups, their actions, interactions, their goals, desires, interpretations and practices. Subjectivism uproots agents from their soci-cultural context, treating them as deracinated, free-floating, individuals, whereas objectivism treats them so derisively that they sink without trace... Giddens melihat jurang teoritikal ini sebagai tidak konstruktif. Pemisahan yang begitu ketara di antara dua gambaran tentang masyarakat ini tidak boleh diharmonikan, lantas menyebabkan gambaran menyeluruh tentang sifat sistem sosial itu tidak mampu dihasilkan. Realiti, menurut beliau adalah sesuatu yang berkesinambungan merentas masa dan ruang, dan sifat realiti itu bukanlah terpisah-pisah di antara struktur dan prosesnya. Di sinilah pentingnya para penganalisis melihat proses penstrukturan sebagai bersifat dualan (duality), iaitu proses sosial dan struktur sosial berada dalam kesinambungan, bukannya terpisah. Atas dasar ini Giddens mencadangkan bahawa apa yang dilakukan oleh aktor sosial merupakan sebahagian daripada proses strukturasi (structuration), iaitu proses yang mendasari kesinambungan kewujudan struktur dan menyumbang kepada penjanaan sistem sosial. Dalam erti kata yang lain, terdapat proses timbal balik yang berlaku melibatkan interaksi sosial antara individu di satu pihak dengan penghasilan struktur sosial di pihak yang lain. Hasil daripada proses sosial (interaksi, komunikasi, dsb.) mewujudkan realiti sosial dalam bentuk struktur sosial (institusi, norma, peraturan, dsb.) yang secara relatifnya lebih tekal berbanding situasi interaksi itu sendiri tetapi masih lagi bersifat subjektif sehingga ianya boleh luput sekiranya interaksi yang berperanan menghasilkannya tidak lagi berlaku.

APLIKASI KERANGKA ANALISIS SOSIOLOGIKAL: SIGNIFIKAN MASJID DALAM KOMUNITI Kerangka yang terbina daripada pengamatan oleh Giddens itu tadi boleh dijadikan asas untuk memahami dan menerokai dinamisme hubungan antara institusi masjid dan komuniti di sekelilingnya. Aplikasi kerangka ini membolehkan pengkaji melihat peranan masjid dalam komuniti dalam konteks yang lebih kritikal dan sistematik, disamping berlandaskan kesarjanaan sosiologi kontemporari. Seksyen berikut ini akan membincangkan hasil kajian kualitatif yang dilakukan di dua kariah di negeri Kedah. Dapatan kajian ini akan menjadi input kepada kerangka analisis yang dibincangkan tadi. Dalam seksyen berikutnya akan diperihalkan implikasi kerangka analisis seperti ini kepada pemahaman tentang peranan masjid dalam komuniti.

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LATAR KAJIAN DAN METODOLOGI Satu kajian yang menggunakan kaedah kualitatif telah dijalankan melibatkan dua kariah yang berasingan di Daerah Sungai Petani, Kedah. Seramai 33 orang informan terlibat dalam kajian ini yang menggunakan temubual sebagai proses perolehan data yang utama. Data temubual direkodkan menggunakan alat rakaman suara dan kemudiannya dipindahkan ke dalam bentuk transkrip untuk dianalisis. Metodologi yang dipilih untuk tujuan kajian ini adalah kaedah grounded theory (GT) (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Glaser, 1978, 1992; Strauss, 1987; Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1994, 1998), memandangkan matlamat utama kajian ini adalah untuk menghasilkan suatu kerangka teori tentang fenomena masjid dan peranannya dalam kehidupan masyarakat setempat (kariah). Secara ringkasnya, prosedur GT yang digunakan dalam kajian ini merangkumi dua proses utama. Proses pertama ialah pengumpulan dan analisis data. Berbeza dengan pendekatan konvensional, pendekatan GT melibatkan proses pengumpulan dan analisis data secara serentak (Glaser, 1978). Aktiviti pengumpulan data dilakukan berselang-seli dengan analisis bagi membolehkan tema atau konsep yang muncul sewaktu analisis digunakan bagi tujuan memantapkan proses kutipan data berikutnya. Data yang diperolehi melalui temubual diproses menggunakan kaedah microanalysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1994, 1998), iaitu menganalisis perbualan informan secara terperinci menggunakan prosedur constant comparison (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Glaser, 1978). Konsep-konsep asas yang dizahirkan sewaktu temubual digabungkan melalui prosedur pengabstrakan (conceptual abstraction) bagi mewujudkan kategori yang lebih umum. Proses kedua melibatkan penjanaan kerangka analisis, pengekodan secara teori (theoretical coding) dan sintesis hasil penemuan dengan kajian terdahulu. Setelah konsep dan kategori muncul, kerangka analisis boleh dibentuk dengan menggabungkan kesemua konsep dan kategori tersebut ke dalam kerangka yang koheren. Bagi menghasilkan kerangka yang koheren, prosedur GT menggunakan kod teori (theoretical codes) sebagai panduan (Glaser, 1978). Kod teori boleh muncul dari pelbagai sumber, seperti bahan kepustakaan, kajian terdahulu, teori sedia ada, kerangka analisis dari disiplin yang berbeza dan dari refleksi pengkaji itu sendiri (melalui proses memo). Dalam kajian ini kod teori dihasilkan daripada sintesis teori dan konsep sosiologi yang berbeza seperti konsep strukturasi (structuration)(Giddens, 1979, 1984), pendekatan morfogenetik (morphogenetic approach)(Archer, 1995), hubungan mikro-makro (micro-macro relationship) (Alexander, Giesen, Munch & Smelser, 1987; Coleman, 1990; Turner, 2010), mekanisme sosial (social mechanism) (Hedström & Swedberg, 1998; Hedström & Ylikoski, 2010), jelmaan (emergence) (Sawyer, 2005; Archer, 1995; Bhaskar, 1998), dan kuasa struktur sosial (causal power of social structure) (Sawyer, 2004, 2005; Elder-Vass, 2010). Setelah terhasilnya kerangka yang koheren dan logikal, proses sintesis dilakukan dengan merujuk kepada kajian terdahulu, serta kesimpulan dibuat berkaitan hasil kajian.

DAPATAN KAJIAN Hasil kajian telah menghasilkan dua (2) kategori konseptual umum dalam komuniti yang berpusatkan institusi masjid. Elemen pertama yang dilabelkan sebagai elemen interaksi merujuk kepada konsep yang memperihalkan tentang bentuk-bentuk tingkah laku atau interaksi. Manakala elemen kedua yang dilabelkan sebagai elemen struktur pula merujuk kepada unsur jelmaan yang muncul sebagai hasil daripada elemen proses. Hasil sintesis telah meletakkan kedua-dua elemen ini ke dalam konfigurasi teoritikal seperti tertera dalam Rajah 1. Elemen interaksi merupakan elemen asas mewakili konstruk tingkah laku atau interaksi yang sering disebut dalam kepustakaan dan teori sosiologi sebagai unsur mikro. Manakala elemen struktur pula merupakan elemen jelmaan yang muncul pada tahap makro dan bersumberkan interaksi pada tahap mikro tadi. Hubungan antara kedua-dua tahap ini pula digambarkan sebagai bersifat dialektik (berkitar) sepertimana yang ditunjukkan oleh panah bertanda (a) dan (b). Daripada dua kategori umum ini, kajian turut mendapati bahawa terdapat sekurang-kurangnya tiga (3) sub elemen dalam kategori interaksi dan tiga (3) sub elemen dalam kategori struktur yang membentuk kerangka pemahaman teoritikal tentang kehidupan komuniti berasaskan agama (kariah).

Elemen interaksi Hasil analisis data telah menzahirkan tiga konsep yang boleh dikategorikan sebagai elemen interaksi. Elemen tersebut adalah elemen normatif, elemen tindakan dan elemen autoriti. Ketiga-tiga elemen ini didapati muncul dalam seting komuniti pada tahap mikro, iaitu melibatkan tingkah laku atau corak perhubungan serta situasi nyata yang berlaku dalam kalangan ahli komuniti. Dalam elemen normatif terangkum corak tingkah laku yang berkait rapat dengan kehadiran norma dan nilai. Antara contoh tingkah laku ahli komuniti yang terangkum dalam elemen normatif ialah penganjuran majlis kenduri perkahwinan yang dilakukan mengikut saranan yang dikemukakan oleh pihak masjid. Dalam konteks ini pihak masjid berperanan sebagai pengawal © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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nilai dan norma dengan menentukan pengisian majlis kenduri yang bakal dilaksanakan oleh anak kariah. Sekiranya masjid memiliki pengaruh yang kuat dalam kehidupan komuniti, anak kariah akan merujuk dan akur dengan saranan yang dikemukakan oleh pihak masjid tentang tatacara yang betul dalam menganjurkan majlis kenduri. Dalam konteks kajian yang dilakukan, fenomena ini didapati berlaku bukan sahaja melibatkan aktiviti kenduri tetapi juga banyak aktiviti lain seperti menyambut perayaan, cara berpakaian, berinteraksi / berkomunikasi sesama ahli komuniti dan bertingkah laku sewaktu berlaku kematian. Rajah 1 - Gambaran konseptual kedudukan dan interaksi antara elemen interaksi dan struktur

Elemen kedua adalah elemen tindakan. Elemen tindakan merujuk kepada perilaku berupa tindakan zahir yang ditonjolkan oleh anak kariah. Berbeza dengan elemen normatif, fokus elemen tindakan adalah kepada tingkah laku nyata yang ditonjolkan oleh individu dalam konteks sosial tertentu. Elemen tindakan wujud dalam banyak keadaan yang melibatkan perhubungan individu dengan institusi masjid dan juga sewaktu interaksi sesama ahli komuniti. Kehadiran anak kariah ke kuliah agama, majlis ilmu atau penglibatan dalam aktiviti gotong royong di bawah anjuran pihak masjid merupakan antara contoh elemen tindakan yang diperhatikan wujud dalam konteks kajian ini. Majlis ilmu seperti kuliah mingguan, misalnya banyak disertai oleh kaum wanita berbanding lelaki. Dalam konteks ini kaum wanita didapati sangat aktif dan berminat dengan program yang dianjurkan sehingga wujud corak-corak perilaku tertentu yang dikenalpasti oleh ahli kariah sebagai suatu amalan biasa (konvensyen) dalam kehidupan kaum wanita di situ. Penglibatan individu dalam aktiviti sebegini mewujudkan situasi sosial yang berfungsi bukan sahaja untuk kepentingan ahli komuniti, bahkan turut berfungsi mengimarahkan masjid. Elemen ketiga adalah elemen autoriti. Ia merujuk kepada kehadiran individu atau kelompok tertentu yang dikenalpasti berperanan sebagai pemangku kuasa yang ada dalam komuniti. Individu seperti imam, pengerusi jawatankuasa masjid dan setiausaha masjid adalah antara individu penting dalam struktur autoriti kariah. Kehadiran dan peranan aktif yang mereka mainkan dalam komuniti menyediakan ruang untuk transaksi sosial berlaku yang melibatkan hubungan antara ahli komuniti sesama mereka dan juga dengan institusi masjid. Kehadiran individu yang berautoriti seperti ini juga bersifat instrumental kepada kewujudan corak hubungan sosial sesama ahli komuniti. Misalnya kehadiran imam secara tetap di masjid membolehkan solat secara berjemaah berlangsung secara tetap dan ini membuka ruang kepada ahli kariah untuk bersamasama melakukan ibadat solat sambil saling berinteraksi di antara satu sama lain. Begitu juga dalam konteks hubungan sesama ahli komuniti, diperhatikan wujud tahap keperhatinan yang tinggi dalam kalangan ahli kariah (terutama melibatkan golongan yang memerlukan bantuan seperti anak yatim dan fakir miskin) hasil perantaraan interaksi sesama mereka oleh pihak pengurusan masjid.

Elemen struktur Tiga konsep yang muncul dalam elemen struktur pula adalah medan normatif, medan tindakan dan medan autoriti. Ketiga-tiga elemen ini mewakili medan tahap makro dalam kehidupan komuniti yang muncul (menjelma) hasil proses yang berlaku pada tahap mikro. Oleh kerana itu kewujudan medan ini boleh dilihat sebagai selari dengan apa yang berlaku pada tahap mikro. Kewujudan medan yang berbeza ini menunjukkan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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bahawa tingkah laku yang dipraktikkan oleh individu mampu menjelmakan unsur struktural dalam kehidupan komuniti. Medan normatif muncul dari perilaku ahli komuniti yang melibatkan aspek kepatuhan serta pengamalam norma-norma dan nilai tertentu. Medan normatif boleh digambarkan sebagai dimensi kehidupan komuniti yang dicorakkan oleh nilai dan norma yang menjadi konvensyen dalam ahli komuniti. Mengambil contoh terdahulu seperti yang diperhatikan berlaku dalam konteks kajian ini, penganjuran kenduri oleh ahli komuniti lazim mengikut saranan yang digariskan oleh pihak masjid, maka dari tindakan itu boleh dikatakan muncul satu set norma terpakai (konvensyen) yang menjadi pegangan ahli komuniti. Ini berlaku dengan syarat sebilangan besar ahli komuniti mengikuti dan akur dengan set norma yang sama. Tanpa perkongsian dalam bentuk persetujuan atau tindakan oleh ahli komuniti, apa juga norma yang ada (termasuk perkara yang terkandung dalam ajaran agama) tidak mampu dijelmakan dalam bentuk struktur kepercayaan seperti ini. Di sini letaknya kepentingan pengaruh masjid sebagai pengawal atau pelaksana (moderator) norma, kerana kepatuhan terhadap norma hanya boleh muncul hasil kekuatan institusi masjid sebagai ejen pengawal. Medan kedua ialah medan tindakan. Medan tindakan merujuk kepada kewujudan suatu set preskripsi tingkah laku yang diterima oleh ahli komuniti yang berlandaskan norma dan nilai tertentu. Namun begitu, penekanan konsep medan tindakan ini bukan terletak pada norma atau nilai yang dipatuhi itu. Sebaliknya ia terletak kepada sejauh mana ahli komuniti akur dan melaksanakan sesuatu tindakan sehingga membolehkan medan ini wujud sebagai unsur jelmaan bersifat struktur. Misalnya aktiviti kenduri secara bergotong-royong memerlukan penglibatan sebilangan besar ahli komuniti. Tanpa tindakan ahli untuk turut serta dalam aktiviti sedemikian, maka tidak akan muncul amalan sedemikian sebagai sebahagian ciri atau struktur komuniti tersebut. Kewujudan medan tindakan sebagai sebahagian struktur komuniti menunjukkan bahawa ahli komuniti sentiasa bersedia dari segi masa dan sumber untuk disumbangkan kepada komuniti. Dari satu segi ia boleh ditafsirkan sebagai suatu bentuk sub budaya yang muncul di tengah-tengah komuniti. Institusi masjid berperanan dalam konteks ini dengan mewujudkan situasi yang kondusif untuk membolehkan aktiviti sedemikian berlangsung lantas mewujudkan medan tindakan sebagai sebahagian struktur komuniti. Sebagai contoh, pihak masjid menyediakan pelbagai kemudahan fizikal untuk kegunaan ahlinya, seperti kemudahan dewan dan peralatan kenduri. Melalui tindakan moderasi ini ahli kariah akan turut serta menyumbang tenaga apabila ada dalam kalangan ahlinya ingin menganjurkan kenduri atau apa juga aktiviti yang melibatkan keterlibatan ahli seperti aktiviti gotong-royong. Medan ketiga adalah medan autoriti. Sepertimana konsep sebelum ini, medan autoriti merujuk kepada elemen struktur (makro) yang muncul dari proses sosial (interaksi) pada tahap mikro. Ia boleh diertikan sebagai struktur kuasa dalam komuniti yang muncul hasil kewujudan individu tertentu yang berpengaruh, seperti imam atau ketua komuniti. Dalam konteks kariah, imam dan ahli jawatankuasa masjid merupakan individu yang memiliki pengaruh yang kuat. Pun begitu, dalam konteks struktural, medan autoriti bukanlah bergantung kepada individu semata-mata, sebaliknya medan ini wujud atas dasar kewujudan bidang kuasa yang diwakili oleh individu. Maknanya individu yang memegang tampuk kuasa boleh bertukar akan tetapi medan autoriti akan kekal wujud dalam tampuk kuasa. Oleh itu, kehadiran medan autoriti adalah atas dasar pengiktirafan yang diberikan oleh ahli komuniti kepada tampuk kuasa, dan bukannya individu yang memegang kuasa tersebut. Implikasi daripada kehadiran medan autoriti ini boleh diperhatikan dari segi peranannya mengawalselia aktiviti dan hal ehwal komuniti. Ia mewakili unsur birokrasi dan organisasi yang diperlukan oleh komuniti bagi tujuan menguruskan hal ehwal komuniti. Kelangsungan kuasa atau autoriti (misalnya apabila berlaku pertukaran ahli dalam struktur organisasi masjid) akan memastikan struktur komuniti berada dalam keadaan baik dan memudakan pengurusan kariah.

Hubungan dialektik antara interaksi dan struktur Seperti yang dicadangkan oleh Giddens (1984), struktur sosial muncul sebagai sebahagian daripada strukturasi melibatkan interaksi pada tahap agensi. Dengan kata lain terdapat perhubungan dialektik antara kedua-dua tahap realiti sosial ini sehingga mewujudkan satu kelangsungan realiti sosial. Mengambil prinsip yang sama, kehadiran struktur sosial yang dikaitkan dengan peranan masjid dalam mengatur kehidupan ahli komuniti seperti yang diperihalkan dalam perbincangan di atas boleh dijelaskan dalam bentuk saling pergantungan antara apa yang berlaku dalam interaksi ahli komuniti pada tahap mikro dengan bentuk penghasilan struktural yang muncul pada tahap makro. Konsepsi ini menzahirkan suatu fenomena yang tidak boleh diperhatikan secara langsung tetapi boleh digarap melalui analisis kerangka teoritikal seperti yang tertera dalam Rajah 2. Jika digabungkan kedua-dua dimensi mikro dan makro melibatkan keenam-enam konsep yang muncul dalam analisis di atas, maka akan muncul tiga domain dalam kehidupan komuniti yang berpusatkan institusi masjid seperti yang tertera dalam Gambarajah 2. Domain komunal, asosiatif dan birokratik merujuk kepada kategori analitikal yang muncul daripada gabungan antara ketiga-tiga konsep yang mewakili proses interaksi (mikro) dan struktur (makro) yang muncul dalam kehidupan kariah. Secara rumusnya, sesebuah kariah boleh dilihat © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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sebagai memiliki sekurang-kurangnya tiga domain yang befungsi mengatur kehidupan ahlinya. Domain komunal dicirikan oleh perkongsian nilai dan norma amalan yang sama. Tingkah laku yang terbentuk apabila ahli komuniti bertindak mematuhi sesuatu set nilai dan norma secara konsisten mampu menzahirkan ciri komuniti yang boleh dikongsikan oleh keseluruhan kariah. Bahkan ia mampu menjana identiti bagi komuniti terbabit. Domain asosiatif pula dicirikan oleh penglibatan ahli kariah dalam kepelbagaian aktiviti yang berlaku dalam komuniti. Sumbangan yang diberikan oleh ahli kariah, terutama dalam bentuk tenaga dan penglibatan secara fizikal merupakan pencetus kepada kewujudan suasana komuniti yang saling menyokong di antara satu sama lain. Situasi ini menepati konsep komuniti atau ummah yang menjadi tema utama bagi sesebuah masyarakat Islam. Domain birokratik pula dicirikan oleh kewujudan struktur kuasa dan pengurusan dalam kariah. Domain ini muncul hasil perlaksanaan kuasa dan autoriti oleh pihak yang mewakili institusi masjid dengan berbekalkan pengiktirafan oleh ahli kariah. Unsur sebegini penting bagi tujuan merealisasikan fungsi masjid itu sendiri sebagai institusi yang holistik dalam kehidupan ahlinya dan bukan sekadar tempat ibadat semata-mata. Ini termasuklah fungsi masjid sebagai ejen kawalan sosial yang mampu memastikan aspek komuniti lain seperti kepatuhan kepada nilai dan norma agama terjaga. Rajah 2 - Model strukturasi menggambarkan kemunculan tiga domain analitikal dalam seting kariah

Oleh kerana kesemua konsep ini lahir dalam konteks kajian komuniti berpusatkan masjid, maka penghasilan yang berlaku, terutama melibatkan pengertian ketiga-tiga domain tersebut adalah atas pengaruh masjid. Institusi masjid menjadi pemangkin yang membolehkan unsur proses sosial berlaku dan akhirnya menghasilkan struktur sosial yang lebih kekal sifatnya. Ketekalan pihak masjid dalam mendorong ahli kariah melibatkan diri dalam ketiga-tiga domain seperti yang dibincangkan di atas menyebabkan komuniti itu sendiri mampu wujud secara signifikan dalam bentuk ekosistem sosial yang fungsional.

MASJID SEBAGAI PEMANGKIN PEMBANGUNAN KOMUNITI Hubungan timbal balik antara proses interaksi dengan penstrukturan kehidupan kariah seperti diperihalkan sebelum ini menghasilkan suatu kesimpulan tentang peranan institusi masjid dalam peningkatan kualiti kehidupan berkomuniti. Melalui analisis terhadap ketiga-tiga domain yang disebutkan di atas, institusi masjid boleh dilihat sebagai pemangkin kepada kehidupan komuniti yang fungsional. Ini selari dengan konsep pemahaman dalam masyarakat Islam bahawa kehadiran masjid merupakan batu asas kepada pembinaan komuniti dan ia membantu mewujudkan karakter kepada komuniti. Namun hakikat ini tidak mampu digarapi dengan sempurna dengan hanya melihat masjid sebagai binaan tempat manusia beribadat semata-mata. Daripada dapatan kajian yang dibincangkan di sini, sejauh mana fungsi dan karakter tersebut mampu direalisasikan bergantung kepada proses yang berlaku dalam kehidupan ahli komuniti dan apakah bentuk jelmaan struktur yang terhasil daripadanya. Ia melibatkan sejauh mana ahli komuniti melalui tindakan mereka, a) mematuhi kehendak berbentuk norma dan nilai yang digariskan oleh agama melalui perantaraan institusi masjid, b) melibatkan diri dengan menyumbang tenaga dan sumber dalam aktiviti di bawah naungan institusi masjid lantas menyumbang kepada kehidupan berkomuniti, dan c) mengiktiraf hegemoni masjid sebagai sebuah institusi yang dominan dalam kehidupan mereka. Sekiranya unsur-unsur interaksi ini wujud © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings 136

dan dipraktikkan, maka ia boleh mendorong kepada munculnya institusi dalam kehidupan komuniti yang a) mampu menyediakan asas tingkah laku dan identiti untuk dikongsi bersama oleh ahlinya, b) mewujudkan suasana komuniti yang bekerjasama, integratif dan fungsional, dan c) mewujudkan keteraturan melalui institusi yang berautoriti yang mampu menyusun atur kehidupan mengikut prinsip yang di gariskan oleh agama. Atas dasar ini, maka aktivis pembangun komuniti memiliki tiga asas yang boleh dimanfaatkan untuk membantu membangunkan komuniti. Dalam ketiga-tiga aspek ini fokus utama adalah terhadap peranan institusi masjid. Asas yang pertama terletak pada keupayaan masjid menjadi pengawal kepada tingkah laku individu. Proses pembangunan komuniti amat bergantung kepada kewujudan kesepakatan dari segi nilai pegangan dan norma yang boleh memandu arah tingkah laku (Sindzingre, 1999). Justeru, sebagai repositori kepada nilai dan norma bersama, institusi masjid berada dalam kedudukan yang strategik yang membolehkan penerapan nilai berlaku dalam minda ahli komuniti dan ini akan diikuti oleh kepatuhan kepada norma-norma. Projek pembangunan komuniti yang diasaskan kepada kekuatan kolektif sebegini memiliki potensi kejayaan yang lebih besar berbanding pergantungan kepada motivasi kendiri ahli komuniti (Mathbor, 2008). Asas kedua adalah berkaitan dengan penyertaan ahli komuniti dalam aktiviti yang melibatkan kepentingan mereka. Perancangan sesuatu projek boleh dilakukan dengan rapi dan sempurna, akan tetapi di penghujungnya apa yang penting adalah penglibatan golongan sasaran dalam projek yang diusahakan itu. Kepentingan penyertaan ahli komuniti dalam proses pembangunan tidak dapat dinafikan kerana lazim bagi sesuatu usaha pembangunan mensasarkan penyertaan atau penambahbaikan kendiri (self-help) sebagai intipati program yang dilaksanakan itu (Barker, 1991). Bahkan ia turut menjadi sebahagian daripada definisi pembangunan komuniti itu sendiri (Mathbor, 2008). Dalam konteks ini keupayaan pihak masjid menjana penyertaan adalah sesuatu yang akan banyak membantu dalam sebarang usaha pembangunan yang ingin dilaksanakan. Asas yang ketiga merujuk kepada kewujudan struktur organisasi dan elemen birokrasi dalam komuniti. Pembangun komuniti perlu bergerak dalam kerangka yang sedia ada dalam sesebuah lokaliti. Logiknya, semakin kuat elemen pengorganisasian yang wujud dalam seting komuniti, semakin mudah aktiviti pembangunan dibawa masuk dan dilaksanakan. Pihak pengurusan masjid dan struktur organisasi yang wujud serta berpaksikan institusi masjid berpotensi menjadi gerbang kemasukan bagi pembangun komuniti. Apa yang perlu adalah kesediaan pihak pengurusan masjid untuk menerima sebarang aktiviti pembangunan yang ingin dilaksanakan. Ini lazimnya tidak akan menjadi masalah sekiranya organisasi masjid itu sendiri memiliki wawasan dan keinginan untuk memajukan komuniti sekeliling, disamping unsur pembangunan yang cuba dibawa itu tidak bertentangan dengan prinsip agama. Oleh yang demikian, adalah disarankan di sini agar institusi masjid tidak lagi dipinggirkan dalam perancangan atau aktiviti pembangunan komuniti. Masjid berpotensi dijadikan aset pembangunan yang mapan dengan syarat peranannya serta kedudukannya dalam masyarakat atau komuniti difahami. Dalam hubungan ini masjid memiliki kepentingan strategik dalam apa jua program pembangunan yang bakal berlaku dalam komuniti di mana ia berada. Melalui pengamatan tentang sifat timbal balik yang wujud antara proses interaksi dan pembentukan institusi, kelestarian masjid sebagai institusi turut bergantung kepada proses interaksi yang berlaku antara ahli komuniti. Ini selari dengan saranan yang dibuat oleh Giddens (1984) bahawa institusi sosial merupakan jelmaan daripada interaksi sosial. Tanpa interaksi yang berterusan kewujudan institusi akan lenyap dari pemikiran manusia. Jika keadaan ini berlaku kewujudan institusi itu sendiri akan terancam. Justeru, masjid perlu memastikan perhubungan yang sihat wujud secara berterusan dengan persekitarannya. Daripada hasil kajian dan perbincangan ini boleh dirumuskan bahawa pihak yang bertanggungjawab menguruskan masjid sebagai sebuah institusi mempunyai tanggungjawab yang besar dalam memastikan bahawa kehadiran masjid bukan hanya sebagai sebuah binaan semata-mata. Sama penting dengan kehadiran binaan itu (sebagai simbol atau totem) adalah pengisian dan keupayaan menarik minat serta penyertaan masyarakat sekeliling untuk turut serta secara aktif dalam pengisian tersebut.

KESIMPULAN Artikel ini membincangkan secara teoritikal fenomena komuniti berasaskan agama (kariah) menggunakan analisis sosiologi. Kerangka utama yang digunakan dalam perbincangan ini adalah teori strukturasi oleh Anthony Giddens. Teori strukturasi memperihalkan tentang sifat realiti sosial yang terdiri daripada dimensi struktur dan agensi. Realiti sosial digambarkan sebagai bersifat dialektik, iaitu wujud kitaran berterusan antara proses bersifat asasi yang berlaku pada tahap mikro dan penghasilan struktur pada tahap makro. Konsepsi teoritikal ini berguna bagi tujuan memahami fenomena sosial yang kompleks, seperti apa yang berlaku dalam seting komuniti berasaskan agama. Bersumberkan dapatan kajian kualitatif yang dilakukan ke atas dua kariah di negeri Kedah, suatu kerangka teoritikal telah dihasilkan tentang proses dan struktur yang wujud dalam seting komuniti yang berpaksikan institusi masjid dan bagaimana konseptualisasi ini boleh membantu mewujudkan kefahaman tentang realiti © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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sosial dalam konteks tersebut. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan wujud sekurang-kurangnya tiga domain tipikal dalam kehidupan komuniti kariah, iaitu domain komunal, domain asosiatif dan domain birokratik. Domain komunal merujuk kepada wujudnya perkongsian nilai dan norma dalam kalangan ahli kariah yang muncul di bawah pengaruh masjid, manakala domain asosiatif merujuk kepada kepentingan interaksi serta penglibatan aktif ahli komuniti dalam kehidupan kariah dan domain birokratik pula menggambarkan wujudnya struktur autoriti dan organisasi yang menjadikan sesebuah komuniti itu berfungsi dan bergerak secara teratur. Bagaimana ketiga-tiga dimensi ini dikonseptualisasikan dan berfungsi dalam kehidupan kariah beserta implikasinya telah dibincangkan melalui kacamata teori strukturasi. Kefahaman yang muncul hasil aplikasi teori ini dilihat sebagai berguna untuk difahami terutama oleh para pengkaji dan pengamal pembangunan komuniti bagi tujuan pembangunan sosial yang lebih sesuai dengan lanskap komuniti. Dihujahkan juga agar institusi masjid yang menjadi ikon kepada kehidupan kariah dijadikan ejen pemangkin pembangunan komuniti. Ini diasaskan kepada analisis yang mendapati bahawa, sekiranya masjid ditadbir dengan sempurna, maka akan muncul apresiasi terhadap kewujudannya serta penghayatan fungsinya. Lantaran itu ia berpotensi menjadi institusi yang fungsional kehidupan komuniti, menjangkaui persepsi umum yang melihatnya sebagai tempat ibadat semata-mata.  

RUJUKAN Zakariyya Mohamed Abdel Hayy. (2010). The masjid, yesterday and today. CIRS Brief. Goergetown University. Alexander, J. C., Giesen, B., Munch, R., & Smelser, N. J. (1987). The micro-macro link. Berkeley: University of California Press. Archer, M. S. (1995). Realist social theory: The morphogenetic approach. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. Barker, R. (1991). The social work dictionary (2nd. ed.) Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers. Bhaskar, R. (1998). Societies. Dlm. M. Archer, R. Bhaskar, A. Collier & T. Lawson (Penyunting), Critical Realism: Essential Readings (206-257), London: Routledge. Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of social theory. Cambridge: Belknap Press. Elder-Vass, D. (2010). The causal power of social structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Giddens, A. (1979). Central problems in social theory. Basingstoke: MacMillan Press. Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society : Outline of the theory of structuration. Cambridge Cambridgeshire: Polity Press. Giddens, A. (1989). A reply to my critics. Dlm. D. Held, & J. B. Thompson (Penyunting). Social Theory of Modern Societies: Anthony Giddens and His Critics. (249-301). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Giddens, A. (1993). New rules of sociological method: A positive critique of interpretative sociologies Stanford University Press. Giddens, A. (1995). A contemporary critique of historical materialism (Jilid 1). Stanford: Stanford University Press. Giddens, A. dan Pierson, C. (1998). Conversations with Anthony Giddens: Making Sense of Modernity. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Glaser, B. G. (1978). Theoretical sensitivity. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. London: Widenfeld & Nicolson. Hedström, P. (2005). Dissecting the social: On principles of analytical sociology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hedström, P. (2009). The analytical turn in sociology. Dlm. P. Hedstrom & B. Wittrock (Penyunting), Frontiers of Sociology. The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill. Hedström, P., & Bearman, P. (2009). What is analytical sociology all about? An introductory essay. Dlm. P. Hedström & P. Bearman (Penyunting). The Oxford Handbook of Analytical Sociology (3-24). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hedström, P., & Swedberg, R. (1998). Social mechanisms: An introductory essay. In P. Hedström & R. Swedberg (Penyunting), Social Mechanisms: An Analytical Approach to Social Theory (1-31). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Hedström, P., & Ylikoski, P. (2010). Causal mechanisms in the social sciences. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 49-67. Mathbor, G. M. (2008). Effective community participation in coastal development. Chicago: Lyceum Books, Inc. Reimer, B., Lyons, T., Ferguson, N., & Polanco, G. (2008). Social capital as social relations: The contribution of normative structures. The Sociological Review, 56(2), 256-274. Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood (2005). The role of the mosque in Britain. The Muslim Parliament of Great Britain, London. Sindzingre, A. N. (1999). Values, norms and measurement: Main issues. A Consultation on WDR 2000/1: Poverty and Development. Kertas kerja dicapai pada 12 May 2014, dari http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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INTPOVERTY/Resources/WDR/johannesburg/sindzingre.pdf Sawyer, R. K. (2004). The mechanisms of emergence. Philosophy of the Socia Sciences, 34(2), 260-282. Sawyer, R. K. (2005). Social emergence: Societies as complex systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stones, R. (2005). Structuration theory. London: Palgrave MacMillan. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park: Sage Publications. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1994). Grounded theory methodology: An overview. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Penyunting), Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Turner, J. H. (2010). Theoretical principles of sociology: Microdynamics (Jilid 2). New York: Springer.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PENGARUH KESEDARAN AGAMA KE ATAS TINGKAHLAKU JEMAAH HAJI: KAJIAN PADA LIMA AMALAN DALAM IBADAT HAJI Jasni Sulong, Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim, Zulkarnain Ahmad Hatta, Noraida Abd Ghani, Nurulhuda Ramli Universiti Sains Malaysia Zarina Mat Saad Universiti Utara Malaysia Shukran Abd Rahman & Nor Diana Mohd Mahudin Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia

Abstract Agama adalah cara hidup. Peraturan agama yang terdiri daripada suruhan dan tegahan mempunyai hikmah yang tersendiri di mana ia membentuk cara hidup yang baik dan tersusun sehingga menjadi ummah terbaik (wasatan). Dengan kata lain, kesedaran agama membentuk akhlak atau peribadi Muslim. Sebaliknya, individu yang jauh daripada didikan agama akan terdorong untuk melakukan perkara yang bertentangan dengan norma masyarakat. Ini kerana mereka berperilaku yang dikawal sepenuhnya oleh kemahuan peribadi dan nafsu logik. Tingkahlaku mereka akan lebih mementingkan diri, demi kebaikan untuk diri sendiri tanpa menghirau keperluan atau hak orang lain yang juga perlu dititikberatkan. Tingkahlaku ini akan lebih menyerlah dalam ibadat haji apabila ramai umat Islam berkumpul serentak dan menumpu pada ibadat yang sama. Suasana sesak dan padat mendorong tingkahlaku tertentu muncul dalam kalangan jemaah. Walaupun semua yang hadir adalah untuk melaksanakan ibadat kepada Allah s.w.t., namun tingkahlaku yang terhasil kadangkala di luar jangkaan apabila terlalu ramai manusia berada di sesuatu lokasi dengan cuaca yang panas, kemudahan yang terhad dan kawasan yang sempit. Justeru, kajian telah dilakukan ke atas jemaah haji yang dikhususkan kepada jemaah haji Malaysia dengan memfokus pada lima amalan dalam ibadat haji iaitu ketika wuquf, berada di Mina, melontar di jamrah, tawaf dan saie. Kajian ingin meneliti tahap pendidikan dan kesedaran agama yang mempengaruhi tingkahlaku dan persepsi mereka ke atas jemaah lain. Sebanyak 408 buah kertas soal-selidik telah diedarkan dalam kalangan jemaah haji yang terpilih dengan pemilihan sample dilakukan secara rawak mudah dan selesa (convenience sampling). Dapatan kajian menunjukkan, pendidikan agama tidak begitu mempengaruhi tingkahlaku jemaah sehinggalah mereka mempunyai kesedaran agama yang tinggi. Kesedaran agama dapat memberi nilai tambah kepada tingkahlaku mereka sebelum melakukan sesuatu dengan menyedari tujuan kedatangan untuk beribadat dan mengharapkan ibadat mendapat penerimaan yang tertinggi daripada Allah s.w.t. Kata kunci: Pengaruh agama, Islam, haji, tingkahlaku, akhlak

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

PENDAHULUAN Ibadat haji adalah merupakan rukun Islam yang kelima. Justeru, ia adalah amalan yang wajib yang dituntut ke atas seseorang Islam yang mukallaf untuk menunaikannya, sekali seumur hidup. Allah s.w.t ada berfirman dalam al-Qur’an yang berbunyi1:

Maksudnya: "Mengerjakan haji adalah kewajiban manusia terhadap Allah, iaitu (bagi) orang yang sanggup melakukan perjalanan ke Baitullah. Barangsiapa mengingkari (kewajiban haji), maka sesungguhnya Allah Maha Kaya (tidak memerlukan sesuatu) dari semesta alam." Tuntutan yang wajib ini menghendaki seseorang Islam untuk bermusafir dan berkumpul di Mekah pada tarikh tertentu dalam bulan Zulhijjah Tahun Hijrah bagi menyempurnakan tuntutan syarak ini. Dalam ayat ini, perintah untuk menunai ibadat haji ini dikaitkan dengan kemampuan. Justeru, beban dan tanggungjawab bagi melaksanakan ibadat ini hanya dikenakan ke atas mukallaf yang berkemampuan sahaja. Jelasnya, kemampuan menjadi aspek yang dinilai bagi menentukan tahap seseorang yang beragama Islam itu wajib untuk hadir ke Tanah Suci Mekah bagi menunaikan tuntutan rukun Islam ini. Manakala berdasarkan al-Hadis, Rasulullah s.a.w ada bersabda yang bermaksud, “wahai manusia! Sesungguhnya telah difardukan kepadamu haji, oleh sebab itu berhajilah”. Kemudian seorang lelaki berdiri dan bertanya, “wahai Rasulullah! Apakah setiap tahun?” Rasulullah s.a.w tidak menjawab sehingga sampai pertanyaan tersebut diulang sebanyak tiga kali. Kemudian Baginda s.a.w bersabda, “kalau aku jawab (ya), maka akan wajib dan kamu sekalian tidak akan mampu melaksanakannya”. Jelasnya berdasarkan hadis ini, ibadat haji adalah merupakan satu fardu yang wajib sekali dilakukan untuk seumur hidup. Ketekunan manusia untuk beribadat dan tumpuan ramai umat Islam pada setiap masa di Tanah Suci adalah dinisbahkan pada sabda Rasulullah s.a.w yang bermaksud, “tidak ada ganjaran bagi ibadat haji yang mabrur kecuali syurga”. Para ulama membicarakan ibadat haji sebagai ibadat yang bukan sahaja melibatkan aktiviti fizikal, malah juga merlibatkan aktiviti rohani. Ia adalah merupakan kemuncak pada ibadat zahir yang wajib dilaksana oleh seseorang Muslim. Oleh kerana itu, seseorang yang melaksanakan ibadat ini mesti mempunyai kekuatan fizikal, mental dan kewangan. Kekuatan fizikal adalah daripada segi anggota badan untuk bermusafir beriburibu kilometer dari kampung halaman, seterusnya berpindah-pindah dari satu tempat ke satu tempat yang lain semasa di Mekah seperti dari tempat penginapan ke padang Arafah, ke Muzdalifah, ke Mina dan kemudian ke Masjidil Haram. Malah Rasulullah s.a.w telah menyempurnakan haji dengan pengorbanan Baginda bersama Sahabat-sahabat yang bermusafir dari Madinah al-Munawwarah ke Makkah al-Mukarramah selama 9 hari. Kekuatan mental dan rohani pula daripada segi meninggalkan sanak keluarga untuk berpisah buat seketika semasa menunaikan ibadat ini, meninggalkan tugas dan kampung halaman, menghadapi keluarga baru semasa bermusafir dengan bersama teman sebilik yang baru, ahli rombongan yang ramai, berhadapan dengan bangsa lain yang berkongsi tempat ibadat dan menyucikan diri, dengan pelbagai kerenah dan nilai sama ada daripada aspek kebersihan, kesopanan dan disiplin budaya. Dalam membina kekuatan mental dan rohani ini, pelbagai sekatan dikenakan oleh syarak sewaktu seseorang Muslim berada dalam ihram haji demi untuk melatih dan menyediakan individu Muslim yang berakhlak mulia. Rasulullah s.a.w bersabda: “Barangsiapa melaksanakan haji tanpa melakukan kejahatan seksual dan tidak melakukan tindakan kefasikan, maka ia kembali seperti saat dilahirkan oleh ibunya”. Dalam maksud yang lain sabda Rasulullah s.a.w yang bermaksud: “Sesiapa yang mengerjakan ibadat Haji dan tidak sekali-kali menyetubuhi isterinya juga tidak melakukan maksiat nescaya dia kembali suci bersih sebagaimana hari dia dilahirkan.” Manakala kekuatan kewangan pula ialah kemampuan untuk menanggung perjalanan yang jauh ini dan kos makan dan minum semasa berada di perantauan. Justeru, tanpa kewangan yang mencukupi serta kekuatan anggota badan untuk mudah bergerak dan berpindah; di samping mempunyai nilai kesabaran dan adab sopan yang secukupnya, maka seseorang Muslim itu akan mengalami kesukaran untuk menunaikan ibadah haji ini. Tuntutan ini yang mengkhususkan masa yang tertentu dan tempat yang khusus menyebabkan semua

1)  Ali Imran: 97

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umat Islam dari seluruh dunia akan tertumpu ke Tanah Suci Mekah pada musim ibadat haji wajib dilakukan. Keadaan ini akan mengakibatkan perkumpulan ramai umat Islam yang menyaksikan jutaan manusia yang berada di sesuatu tempat di Mekah. Keadaan yang sesak dan padat ini menimbulkan kesukaran untuk bergerak, mendapatkan kemudahan fasiliti, untuk makan, minum, menyucikan diri ataupun untuk beribadat. Justeru dalam sesetengah keadaan, kepadatan yang ramai ini akan menimbulkan masalah tingkahlaku dan emosi dalam kalangan jemaah haji sehingga mungkin mencetuskan keadaan bertolak, berebut dan bergaduh sesama Muslim. Islam telah menjangkakan mengenai suasana ramai dan padat semasa ibadat haji ini. Justeru, salah jika menyatakan bahawa Islam tidak menyediakan garis panduan etika dalam menghadapi situasi ini, iaitu berdepan dengan banyak gerombolan manusia daripada segenap ceruk dunia. Berdasarkan sejarah, ibadat haji yang difardukan pada tahun ke-6 Hijrah telah membawa kepada Rasulullah s.a.w membawa 1500 orang Islam untuk mengerjakan haji pada tahun berikutnya tetapi dihalang oleh Quraisy Mekah. Pada tahun ke-7 Hijrah, Rasulullah s.a.w telah membawa kira-kira 2000 Sahabat untuk mengerjakan umrah, dan pada tahun ke-9 Hijrah ibadat haji mula dilakukan diketuai oleh Saidina Abu Bakar dengan 300 orang jemaah. Nabi Muhammad s.a.w telah menunaikan fardhu haji sekali sahaja semasa hayatnya, dan haji tersebut dinamakan “Hijjatul Wada’/ Hijjatul Balagh/ Hijjatul Islam atau Hijjatuttamam Wal Kamal kerana selepas itu tidak berapa lama kemudian baginda pun wafat. Ibadat haji ini berlaku pada tahun 10 Hijrah bersama yang ditunaikan bersama isteri dan sahabat-sahabatnya seramai lebih 90,000 orang Islam. Jumlah ini tentulah bukan sedikit jika dibandingkan dengan komposisi umat Islam pada waktu tersebut. Pada hari ini, kesesakan jemaah haji di Tanah Suci berlaku semakin ketara dan keadaan ini dapat dilihat melalui perkembangan semasa yang berikut: a. Kawasan tawaf diperluaskan untuk menampung jumlah jemaah haji pada musim haji. Akibat daripada proses ini, Kerajaan Arab Saudi juga telah melakukan kerja-kerja pembaikian masjidil haram. Oleh itu, setiap negara terpaksa menerima pengurangan kuota jemaah haji sebanyak 20% daripada peruntukan yang sedia ada. b. Kawasan Mina telah diperluaskan sehingga sebahagiannya memasuki kawasan Muzdalifah. Berdasarkan proses perluasan Mina di al Marhalah al-Thalithah, yang mana sebahagiannya termasuk dalam kawasan Muzdalifah berdasarkan persempadanan yang ditentukan oleh Kerajaan Arab Saudi. Bagaimanapun, hukum jemaah yang bermabit di kawasan tersebut sebagai tujuan bermabit Muzdalifah adalah sah untuk malam 10 Zulhijjah. Begitu juga sah bermabit di tempat yang sama bagi tujuan bermabit di Mina pada malam 11, 12, dan 13 Zulhijjah kerana ia merupakan sambungan khemah di Mina.2 c. Jemaah semasa berada di Arafah, Mina dan Muzdalifah diharuskan melaksanakan solat secara jama’ penuh (tamam) kerana masyaqqah iaitu akibat kemudahan asas yang amat terhad seperti tempat wuduk dan tandas, yang telah menimbulkan pelbagai kesulitan dalam kalangan jemaah haji khususnya warga emas.3 Pendapat ini adalah berdasarkan pendapat Ibn Sirin, al-Qafal al-Kabir al-Syasyi, Abi Ishaq al-Marwazi yang menyatakan harus jamak solat semasa bermuqim/tidak musafir kerana keperluan (al-Hajat).4 Justeru, kertas ini akan membincangkan mengenai tahap pengaruh kesedaran agama dalam diri seseorang Muslim, atau jemaah haji tersebut dalam menghadapi cabaran dalam menunaikan kefarduan ibadat haji ini.

SOROTAN KAJIAN Sorotan kajian ini akan membincangkan beberapa tema yang bersangkutan dengan tajuk kertas kerja iaitu teori teologi mengenai pengaruh agama dan akhlak, Kajian mengenai haji dan kesesakan, dan kajian semasa berhubung pengaruh agama ke atas tingkah laku. (a)

Teori teologi mengenai pengaruh agama dan akhlak

Teori asas dalam Islam bahawa agama diutuskan untuk mengajar tingkahlaku umat manusia supaya mematuhi peraturan yang Allah telah tetapkan, sama ada berkaitan dengan hubungan dengan Allah (ibadat) atau hubungan antara sesama manusia atau dengan alam (muamalat). Kedudukan ini jelas melalui hadis yang diriwayatkan oleh Anas bin Malik yang bermaksud sesungguhnya aku diutuskan untuk menyempurnakan akhlak yang baik.5 Perutusan agama yang dibawa oleh Rasulullah s.a.w antara lain adalah rahmat dan pembentukan tingkah laku manusia.6 Malah perilaku Rasulullah s.a.w sendiri digambarkan berdasarkan

2)  Kertas Kerja Ketiga, dalam Muzakarah Haji Peringkat Kebangsaan Kali Ke 21 Musim Haji 1426H pada 5 – 7 Jun 2005 3)  Kertas Kerja Ketiga, dalam Muzakarah Haji Peringkat Kebangsaan Kali Ke 22 Musim Haji 1427H pada 5 – 7 Mei 2006 4)  Abu Zakariya Yahya bin Syaraf al-Nawawi, Raudah al-Talibin, Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiah, j.1, h. 503; al-Nawawi, al-Majmuk Syarh al-Muhazab, Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath, j.4, h. 264. Dalam Muzakarah Haji Peringkat Kebangsaan Kali Ke 25 Musim Haji 1430H pada 3 – 5 Mei 2009 5)  Imam Malik, Al-Muwatta’, j. 8 6)  Surah al- Anbiya’, ayat 107

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wahyu agama yang dibawa iaitu akhlak Baginda seperti al-Quran.7 Rasulullah s.a.w adalah manusia yang paling baik akhlaknya.8 Pengaruh pembinaan akhlak ini dapat dilihat dalam amalan agama yang disyariatkan. Allah s.w.t berfirman dengan maksudnya: “Sesungguhnya sembahyang itu mencegah daripada perbuatan keji dan terlarang”.9 Ayat ini menjelaskan bahawa seorang yang mentaati Allah dengan selalu menunaikan sembahyang, akan dapat menjadikan dirinya jauh daripada segala tingkahlaku yang tidak baik. Ibn Abbas mengulas ayat ini dengan menyatakan bahawa sekiranya sembahyang seseorang itu tidak dapat mencegahnya daripada perbuatan mungkar tersebut, maka orang tersebut tidak memiliki cukup ilmu agama.10 Ini menunjukkan bahawa amalan agama dapat menjaga tingkahlaku seseorang. Amalan agama ini tidak akan berlaku tanpa penghayatan dan manifestasi pada tingkahlaku. Justeru, seseorang yang baik dan mulia ialah seorang yang memiliki ilmu agama yang mendalam dan mengamalkannya. Ini selari dengan hadis yang diriwayatkan daripada Mu'awiyah r.a. bahawa Rasulullah s.a.w bersabda, yang bermaksud “barang siapa yang Allah kehendaki baginya kebaikan, maka Allah akan memahamkan baginya urusan agama”. Berdasarkan hadis ini, kefaqihan agama menjadi kunci untuk mendapat kebaikan. Rasulullah s.a.w menisbahkan seseorang yang memiliki ilmu agama sebagai mendapat kebaikan kerana agama diyakini dapat membentuk arah kehidupan yang betul bagi seseorang. Semakin baik penguasaan agama seseorang Islam, menunjukkan semakin dalam iman yang dimiliki. Iman ini akan terserlah melalui tingkahlaku yang dizahirkan (ihsan). Berhubung ketinggian iman ini, Rasulullah s.a.w ada bersabda yang bermaksud “seorang mukmin yang sempurna imannya ialah seorang yang mempunyai akhlak yang baik”.11 Jelasnya, apabila iman seseorang itu sempurna dan kukuh maka ia akan memberi impak pada tingkahlaku seseorang. Hadis ini selari dengan riwayat yang disampaikan oleh Abdillah bin ‘Amr bin al-‘Ash r.a. yang menyatakan bahawa Rasulullah s.a.w bukanlah orang yang suka berkata keji dan tidak pula dalam perbuatannya. Baginda s.a.w bersabda iaitu “sesungguhnya sebaik-baik kalian adalah orang yang paling baik budi pekertinya”.12 Berdasarkan nas-nas ini, agama mempunyai pengaruh yang besar dalam membentuk tingkahlaku seseorang individu. Malah ia merupakan inti pati kepada ajaran agama supaya berbuat baik, berlaku adil dan tidak menyakiti sesama manusia. (b)

Kajian mengenai haji dan kesesakan

Sesetengah penulisan mengenai pemusafiran ke Tanah Suci untuk menunaikan ibadat haji adalah ini sebagai suatu yang bersifat pelancongan kerohanian. Tujuannya adalah bagi memenuhi tuntutan agama dengan aktiviti ibadat dan tanggungjawab sebagai hamba-Nya.13 Para jemaah haji dikenali sebagai pelancong rohani, iaitu memenuhi terminologi berikut:14 Someone who visits a specific place out of his/her usual environment, with the intention of spiritual meaning and/or growth, without overt religious compulsion, which could be religious, non-religious, sacred or experiential in nature, but within the Divine context, regardless of the main reason for travelling. Walaupun ia diibarat sebagai pelancongan namun oleh kerana tujuannya adalah ibadat, maka aspek persediaan, pembelajaran dan ketaatan perlu wujud dan diusahakan.15 Justeru, perbuatan dan amalan semasa melakukan ibadat tersebut secara khususnya dan semasa berada di tanah Suci secara amnya sepatutnya selaras dengan kehendak agama. Kehadiran ramai umat Islam pada musim haji pada setiap tahun turut mendapat perbincangan daripada sudut kesesakan atau kepadatan (crowd) jemaah pada sesuatu masa. Oleh kerana pihak Kerajaan Arab Saudi mengenakan peraturan visa yang ketat. Tujuannya adalah untuk mengawal populasi umat Islam yang berada di Tanah Suci pada satu-satu masa, dengan itu dapat mengurus suasana yang sesak serta mengelak risiko akibat perkara tersebut ke atas umat Islam. Justeru, tidak semua orang Islam bebas untuk hadir ke Tanah Suci dan pada masa yang sama orang bukan Islam tidak dibenarkan memasuki kawasan ini.16 Banyak kajian lalu telah dijalankan berhubungan dengan persoalan haji, sejak tahun 1979.17 Manakala dalam persoalan tingkah

7)  Riwayat Muslim 8)  Surah al-Qalam, ayat 4; Sahih Muslim, bab masjid, 367; Sunan Abi Dawud, kitab adab, 1 9)  Surah al-Ankabut ayat 45 10)  Lihat Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Surah al-Ankabut ayat 45 11)  Riwayat al-Tirmizi 12)  HR Bukhari dan Muslim 13)  Cohen 1992, h. 36. Lihat Farooq Haq, John Jackson (2009), “Spiritual journey to Hajj: Australian and Pakistani experience and expectations”, dalam Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 6 (2), h. 142 14)  Haq and Bretherton (2005); Haq and Jackson (2006a-c, 2007) 15)  Timothy dan Iverson (2006), “Tourism and Islam: Considerations of Culture and Duty”, dalam D. J. Timothy and D. H. Olsen (eds). Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys, New York: Routledge, h. 188 16)  Farooq Haq, John Jackson (2009), op.cit, h. 144 17)  Long, D. E. (1970), The Hajj Today: A Survey of Contemporary Pilgrimage to Makkah. New York: State University of New York Press.

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laku, beberapa kajian mengenai jemaah haji telah dilakukan misalnya; a. Kajian mengenai tingkah laku yang berkaitan dengan jantina semasa ibadat haji. Perbincangan juga menyentuh layanan yang berbeza yang diberikan ke atas jemaah haji wanita berdasarkan latar belakang budaya asal mereka.18 b. Kajian ke atas pengurusan ibadat haji dan mengenalpasti tingkahlaku para jemaah dalam kerangka yang luas.19 c. Terdapat juga kajian yang mengkaji mengenai tingkahlaku jemaah haji dan faktor persekitaran. Tingkahlaku mereka sama ada rasional atau tidak rasional adalah bertitik-tolak daripada pengaruh luar yang mempengaruhi mereka, akibat tekanan semasa berada di Tanah Suci dan dorongan daripada aktiviti semasa.20 Bentuk-bentuk kajian awal di atas memberi kerangka kepada satu penyelidikan lapangan dalam mengenalpasti salah satu pengaruh yang boleh mempengaruhi tingkahlaku para jemaah, iaitu kesedaran agama. Secara umumnya, tidak semua mereka yang ingin pergi beribadat melakukan persediaan agama yang cukup. Pada masa yang sama, terdapat juga daripada mereka yang memiliki persediaan dan ilmu agama sebagai bekalan. Turut memainkan peranan ialah faktor persekitaran dalam mencorak tingkahlaku seseorang jemaah pada sesuatu masa. Dalam hal ini, teori ada menyatakan bahawa “environtment has more effects on individual than heredity”, iaitu faktor persekitaran lebih berpengaruh terhadap tingkahlaku manusia daripada faktor keturunan. (c)

Kajian semasa berhubung pengaruh agama ke atas tingkahlaku

Terdapat beberapa kajian yang mengkaji hubungan pengaruh agama ke atas sesuatu perkara. Daripada analisis mendapati bahawa terdapat keadaan yang pengaruh agama ada memainkan peranan ke atas tingkahlaku seseorang dan terdapat juga keadaan yang sebaliknya.

(1)

Agama mempengaruhi Tingkahlaku: a. Kajian Mohd Kamal Azman (2014)21 mendapati aliran pendidikan agama adalah faktor penting yang mempengaruhi tahap kefahaman konsep hutang dalam Islam, berbanding pendidikan aliran kebangsaan dan aliran teknik. Responden yang berpendidikan agama didapati mempunyai tahap hutang yang sederhana dan tidak serius, serta lebih tepat ketika membayar hutang. b. Dalam kajian oleh Mohamad Zanisahli Azizi Bin Md Khalid (2011),22 beliau mendapati bahawa tahap sosialisasi agama sememangnya mempengaruhi tahap amalan disipilin diri pelajar. Dalam kajian ini, sekolah tempat kajian dijalankan mempunyai rekod disiplin yang baik apabila menerapkan tahap sosialisasi agama yang tinggi dalam kalangan pelajar. Sosialisasi agama didapati mampu untuk membantu mempertingkatkan kualiti pelajar yang cemerlang, berkemahiran, berketrampilan seterusnya mewujudkan pembentukan modal insan kelas pertama. Terdapat 3 elemen penting yang dikaji oleh penyelidik dalam pembentukan sosialisasi agama dalam kajian ini iaitu tahap kefahaman ilmu agama, persekitaran agama dan amalan disiplin pelajar. c. Kajian Jaffary Awang, Rozmi Ismail, Kamaruddin Salleh dan Hairunnizam Wahid (2008)23 mendapati tahap sosialisasi pelajar sekolah agama adalah baik, sekali gus mencerminkan bahawa sekolah agama adalah berkesan dan sangat relevan dalam melahirkan pelajar yang cemerlang dari aspek moral dan akademik. Berdasarkan nilai purata skor persepsi terhadap akhlak dan amalan murid menunjukkan secara umumnya guru melihat akhlak dan prestasi akademik pelajar adalah baik. Ini menyokong hipotesis awal yang meramalkan pelajar di sekolah agama mempunyai akhlak dan budi pekerti yang mulia. Analisis perbandingan persepsi terhadap akhlak dan tingkahlaku yang dibuat ke atas kesemua sekolah agama menunjukkan kesemua pelajar di sekolah agama di Selangor

18)  Young, W. C. (1993). “The Kaba, Gender and The Rites of Pilgrimage”, dalam International Journal of Middle East Studies. 25 (2), 285-300 19)  Raj, R dan Morpeth, N. D. (ed)(2007). Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Festivals Management: An International Perspective. Oxford: CABI 20)  Willy Wahyu Mulyana, Teddy Surya Gunawan (2010), Hajj Crowd Simulation Based on Intelligent Agent, International Conference on Computer and Communication Engineering (ICCCE 2010) 21)  Mohd Kamal Azman bin Jusoh (2014), “Konsep Hutang dalam Islam: Satu Kajian terhadap Kefahaman dan Amalan Kakitangan UiTM”, Tesis Phd, Pusat Pengajian Ilmu Kemanusiaan, Universiti Sains Malaysia, h. 290 22)  Mohamad Zanisahli Azizi Bin Md Khalid (2011), Sosialisasi Agama Dalam Mempengaruhi Tingkahlakudisiplin Pelajar Sekolah Menengah Teknik Johor Bahru, Laporan Penyelidikan untuk Ijazah Sarjana Muda Teknologi Serta Pendidikan (Kemahiran Hidup), Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Mei 2011 23)  Jaffary Awang, Rozmi Ismail, Kamaruddin Salleh dan Hairunnizam Wahid (2008), Sosialisasi Agama Di Kalangan Pelajar-Pelajar Sekolah Agama Di Selangor, Kertas kerja dibentangkan di National Seminar Science, Technology and Social Science 2008. Anjuran UiTM Pahang, 3-4 Jun 2008, M.S Garden Hotel, Kuantan Pahang, Kumpulan Kajian Dunia Melayu & Islam, Institut Alam dan tamadun Melayu (ATMA), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

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mempunyai tingkah laku yang baik. d. Manakala kajian yang dijalankan oleh Sharifah et al., (2010)24 mendapati remaja yang mendapat bimbingan yang positif daripada keluarga serta mempunyai kesedaran agama yang tinggi mampu berdepan dengan cabaran persekitaran negatif dan secara tidak langsung berupaya untuk mencegah mereka daripada terlibat dengan tingkah laku berisiko. e. Mahmood et al., (1997)25 pula mendapati bahawa remaja yang mempunyai tahap pengetahuan dan keagamaan yang tinggi kurang berisiko untuk terdedah dengan gejala sosial yang boleh merosakkan masa hadapan mereka. f. Di Barat, kajian oleh Donahue, & Benson, 1995;26 Gorsuch, 1995;27 Francis, 1997; 28 Johnson, Tomkins, & Webb, 2002;29 Steinman, 200430 mendapati agama berupaya bertindak sebagai faktor penghalang kepada tingkah laku agresif yang menyalahi undang-undang seperti memeras ugut, samun, merompak dan terlibat dengan aktiviti penyalahgunaan dadah. Berasaskan penyelidikan mereka, remaja yang mempunyai pegangan agama yang kukuh menunjukkan tahap keterlibatan yang rendah dengan aktiviti yang tidak sihat termasuklah terlibat dengan gejala penyalahgunaan dadah. g. Menurut Poulson et al., (1988),31 Greenwald (2000)32 dan Stylianou (2004)33 pula, mereka mendapati seseorang individu yang mempunyai kepercayaan yang tinggi terhadap agama akan kurang terdedah dengan aktiviti yang tidak berakhlak seperti penggunaan alkohol atau tingkah laku seksual yang berisiko tinggi. h. Selari dengan penemuan ini, kajian Jessor, et al., 2006;34 Kogan, et al., 2005;35 dan Wallace, et al., 200336 mendapati bahawa agama merupakan faktor penghalang seseorang individu untuk melakukan perkara yang bertentangan dengan norma dan nilai-nilai masyarakat termasuklah terlibat dengan aktiviti penyalahgunaan dadah. i. Agama merupakan benteng yang kuat untuk menghalang perlakuan yang tidak bermoral. Kajian oleh Hodge, Cardenas, & Montoya (2001)37 mendapati bahawa pengaruh agama boleh bertindak sebagai penolakan kepada perbuatan yang bercanggah dengan kepercayaan agama dan dapat membentuk kumpulan masyarakat yang positif yang dapat berkongsi sikap, kepercayaan dan nilai. Ini dapat mengelak daripada terlibat dengan aktiviti yang tidak bermoral. j. Corcoran, & Nichols-Casebot, 2004;38 McCullough dan Willioughby, 2006;39 dan Wallace, et al., 200740 merumuskan bahawa pengetahuan agama yang kukuh mampu menjadi 24)  Syarifah, M.N., Turiman, S., Syamsilah, R., Rahil, M., Haslinda, A., Ismi Arif, I. & Mursyid, A. (2010).Laporan Kajian Fenomena Merempit dan Potensi Remaja Lasak di FELDA. Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia 25)  Mahmood, N.M., Nadiah Elias, Noor Azizah Ahmad, Saedon Awang & Ahmad Martadha. (1997). Kajian Gaya Hidup Remaja Negeri Kedah. AlBukhary Foundation, Kedah Islamic Development Foundation and Kedah Youth Council Research Grant: Contract Research Report, UUM-MBK 26)  Donahue, M. & Benson, E. L. (1995). Religion and the well-being of adolescents. Journal of Social Issues, 51(2), 145-160 27)  Gorsuch, R. L. (1995). Religious Aspects of Substance Abuse and Recovery. Journal of Social Issues, 51 (2): 65-83 28)  Francis, L.J. (1997). The impact of personality and religion on attitudes towards substance use among 13-15 year olds. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 44 (2-3): 95-103 29)  Johnson, B. R., Tomkins, R. B. & Webb, D. (2002). Objective hope: Assessing the effectiveness of faithbased organizations: A review of the literature. Research Report: University of Pennsylvania Center for Research on Religion and Urban Civil Society 30)  Steinman, K. J. (2004). Religious activity and risk behavior among African American adolescents: Concurrent and developmental effects. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25 (1):117-122 31)  Poulson, R.L., Eppler, M.A, Satterwhite, T.N, Wuensch, K.L. & Bass, L.A. 1988. Alcohol Consumption, Strength of Religious Beliefs Aand Risky Sexual Behavior In College Students. Journal of American College Health, 46 (5): 227-232 32)  Greenwald, S. (2000). Religiosity and Substance Use and Abuse Among Adolescents in the National Comorbidity Survey. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39 (9): 1190-1197 33)  Stylianou, S. (2004). The Role of Religiosity in the Opposition to Drug Use. International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology, 48 (4): 429-448 34)  Jessor, R., Costa, F. M., Krueger, P. M. & Turbin, M. S. (2006). A developmental study of heavy episodic drinking among college students: The role of psychosocial and behavioral protective and risk factors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67 (1): 86-94 35)  Kogan, S. M., Luo, Z., Murry, V. M. & Brody, G. H. (2005). Risk and protective factors for substance use among African American high school dropouts. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 19 (4): 382-391 36)  Wallace, J. M., Brown, T. N., Bachman, J. G. & Laveist, T. A. (2003). The influence of race and religion on abstinence from alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana among adolescents. Journal of Studies onAlcohol, 64 (6): 843-848 37)  Hodge, D. R., Cardenas, P. & Montoya, H. (2001). Substance use: Spirituality and religious participation as protective factors among rural youths. Social Work Research, 25 (3): 153-161 38)  Corcoran, J. & Nichols-Casebot, A. (2004). Risk and resilience ecological framework for assessment and goal formulation. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 21: 211-235 39)  Mc Cullough, M.E. & Willioughby, L.B. 2006. Religion, Self-Regulation and Self Control: Association, Explanation and implication. Psychological Bulletin, 135 (1): 69-93 40)  Wallace, J. M., Brown, T. N., Bachman, J. G. & Laveist, T. A. (2003). The influence of race and religion on abstinence from alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana among adolescents. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64 (6): 843-848

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pelindung kepada generasi muda yang berada di peringkat pembesaran dan sedang mencari identiti diri. Mereka akan mampu mengatur kehidupan dengan lebih tenang, sempurna dan sejahtera.

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Agama tidak mempengaruhi tingkah laku: a. Bagimanapun dalam kajian Zalmizy Hussin (2003),41 dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa faktor kurangnya penghayatan dan pendidikan agama bukanlah faktor penting responden terlibat dalam tingkah laku agresif. Faktor yang paling mempengaruhi responden terlibat dalam tingkah laku agresif adalah berpunca daripada faktor diri sendiri dan rakan sebaya berbanding faktor keluarga dan faktor kurangnya penghayatan dan pendidikan agama.

BIMBINGAN AGAMA DI BAWAH TABUNG HAJI Di Malaysia, kursus dan pendidikan mengenai tatacara dan panduan kepada para jemaah haji diurus sepenuhnya oleh Lembaga Urusan dan Tabung Haji (LUTH). Para jemaah bukan sahaja diajar dan dibimbing mengenai perkara fardu dan wajib ketika menunaikan ibadat haji, malah turut dimasukkan aspek kerohanian dan adab-adab semasa berada di Tanah Suci. Ini bertujuan untuk memberi panduan dan membentuk jemaah haji yang berakhlak mulia ketika berada di Tanah suci, lebih-lebih tujuan kedatangan adalah untuk beribadat dan menyembah diri kepada Allah s.w.t. Pada sejarah awal penubuhan LUTH pada tahun 1963, kursus bimbingan kepada jemaah haji hanya dijalankan selama 4 jam sahaja. Ia dijalankan dalam 2 hari dan terkumpul di dalamnya segala pengisian kursus mengenai ibadah haji dan umrah serta mengenai pentadbiran dan kesihatan. Secara umum pula, media massa seperti suratkhabar, televisyen dan radio akan turut membantu memberi bimbingan dalam masa sebulan sebelum musim haji.42 Namun pada hari ini, kursus bimbingan haji diuruskan dengan lebih baik di bawah Bahagian Bimbingan, Jabatan Haji LUTH yang melibatkan lebih daripada 50 jam. Di bawah program yang dinamakan sebagai Program Pembangunan Jemaah Haji Malaysia, terdapat empat kursus sebelum seseorang jemaah berangkat ke Tanah Suci, iaitu: a. b. c. d.

Kursus Asas Haji Kursus Intensif Haji Kursus Khas Haji Kursus Perdana Haji

Bagi Kursus Asas Haji (KAH), ia adalah kursus haji peringkat pertama yang terbuka diadakan pada setiap hujung minggu di masjid-masjid pilihan iaitu selama 2 jam bagi setiap siri dan diadakan sebanyak 17 siri. Modul kursus merangkumi pendedahan asas tajuk-tajuk berkaitan ibadat haji, kesihatan dan pengurusan haji. Kursus Intensif Haji (KIH) pula adalah kursus praktikal selama 2 hari untuk bakal jemaah haji sebelum berangkat ke Tanah Suci. Seterusnya bagi Kursus Khas Haji (KKH), ia adalah lanjutan kepada Kursus Intensif Haji selama 1 hari di mana penekanan secara lebih khusus kepada latihan praktikal ibadat dalam kelompok kecil. Akhir sekali Kursus Perdana Haji (KPH), ia adalah kursus haji peringkat akhir yang akan diikuti oleh bakal jemaah haji sebelum berangkat ke Tanah Suci. Kursus ini juga diadakan selama 1 hari. Penekanan lebih kepada praktikal ibadat haji dalam kelompok jemaah yang lebih ramai. Bakal jemaah haji akan bermalam di tempat kursus. Di samping jemaah, Bahagian Bimbingan LUTH juga ada menyediakan program bagi melatih pembimbing jemaah haji yang dinamakan Program Pembangunan Pengkursus Ibadat Haji Tanah Air (PEKTA) dan Program Pembimbing Ibadat Haji Tanah Suci (PIHTAS). Bagi kedua-dua pembimbing ini, mereka akan mengikuti lima kursus sebelum dapat dilantik untuk membimbing para jemaah haji, iaitu: a. b. c. d.

Bengkel Penilaian Ibadat Haji Tanah Suci Muzakarah Haji Peringkat Kebangsaan (Resolusi Muzakarah 1434H) Kelas Intensif Tafaqquh Haji dan Umrah Kursus Pengukuhan Pembimbing Ibadat Haji Tanah Suci (PIHTAS)

41)  Zalmizy Hussin (2003). Faktor-Faktor Yang Mempengaruhi ‘Mat Rempit’ Terlibat Dalam Tingkah Lakuagresif Di Pulau Pinang, Proceeding of the Global Conference on Business, Economics and Social Sciences, 25-26 June 2003, h. 378-404 42)  Ibrahim bin Haji Ismail, Noorhafizan Mohd. Noor, Abdul Razak bin Othman, Suhaina Abu Talib, Roziana Othman, Lina Muhammad (1987), “Kaji Selidik Mengenai Penyediaan Kemudahan dan Perkhidmatan Bagi Jemaah Haji Sebelum dan Semasa Mengerjakan Haji di Tanah Suci yang Disediakan oleh Lembaga Urusan dan Tabung Haji”, Kertas Projek, Diploma In Business Studies, Kajian Perniagaan Dan Pengurusan, Institut Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam Selangor, h.14

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e. Kursus Training of Trainers (TOT) Pembimbing Baru Program-program ini penting untuk diadakan bagi membentuk PEKTA/PIHTAS yang berilmu, seragam dan selaras dalam bimbingan yang diberikan serta mampu membimbing jemaah haji di Malaysia dan Tanah Suci dengan baik dan berkesan. Antara pengisian bimbingan haji yang pernah diberikan adalah seperti pemerkasaan hidup kerohanian dalam masa melaksanakan ibadat haji,43 rahsia kerohanian disebalik ibadat haji 44 dan peranan haji dalam membangunkan modal insan.45 Berdasarkan kedudukan ini, jelas bahawa walaupun jemaah yang pergi menunaikan haji terdiri daripada pelbagai latar belakang pendidikan dan asuhan agama, namun dengan kewujudan program bimbingan ini telah dapat menyuntik elemen agama, kerohanian dan akhlak kepada jemaah ketika berada di Tanah Suci.

HIPOTESIS KAJIAN Dalam mengenalpasti impak perbezaan tahap pendidikan, pendidikan agama dan pengalaman mengerjakan Haji terhadap tingkahlaku, emosi dan kognitif jemaah Haji, beberapa hipotesis kajian telah dikenalpasti seperti berikut: H1: Terdapat perbezaan tingkahlaku yang diperhatikan, emosi dan kognitif semasa mengerjakan Haji berdasarkan tahap pendidikan tertinggi jemaah H2: Terdapat perbezaan tingkahlaku yang diperhatikan, emosi dan kognitif semasa mengerjakan Haji berdasarkan pendidikan agama secara formal yang dimiliki oleh jemaah H3: Terdapat perbezaan tingkahlaku yang diperhatikan, emosi dan kognitif semasa mengerjakan Haji berdasarkan pengalam mengerjakan Haji sebelum ini oleh jemaah

METODOLOGI Persampelan Kaedah pungutan secara persampelan selesa melalui edaran borang soal-selidik telah dilakukan dalam Kajian Pengalaman Haji Jemaah Malaysia 2013. Persampelan selesa merujuk kepada proses mendapatkan maklumat daripada sampel yang mudah diperolehi dan berupaya memberikan maklumat yang diperlukan (Sekaran, 2003). Persamplean ini dipilih kerana dalam keadaan jemaah yang ramai dan masa yang singkat, hanya jemaah Malaysia yang senang didekati dan boleh memberikan respons dikehendaki terpilih sebagai responden kajian.

Instrumen kajian Terdapat empat bahagian utama dalam borang soal-selidik. Bahagian pertama mengenai maklumat demografik responden (jantina, umur, tahap pendidikan dan sebagainya), manakala bahagian kedua hingga ke-empat mengandungi persepsi responden terhadap tingkahlaku yang diperhatikan, emosi dan kognitif mereka sepanjang mengerjakan ibadah Haji. Persepsi ini telah diukur menggunakan lima mata skala Likert iaitu 1- sangat tidak bersetuju, 2 - tidak bersetuju, 3 - agak bersetuju, 4 - setuju dan 5 - sangat setuju. Terdapat tujuh skala pengukuran bagi tingkahlaku yang diperhatikan, lima skala pengukuran bagi emosi dan empat skala pengukuran bagi kognitif.

Analisis data Data telah direkodkan dan dianalisis menggunakan perisian SPPP versi 20. Analisis frekuensi dijalankan untuk melihat pecahan responden berdasarkan ciri-ciri demografi (lihat Jadual 1). Bagi pengujian hipotesis, dua jenis ujian tak berparameter telah dijalankan iaitu ujian Mann-Whitney U dan Kruskal-Wallis H. Ujian tak berparameter adalah alternatif kepada ujian berparameter apabila data yang diperolehi adalah sangat kecil bagi sesetengah kumpulan perbandingan, data tidak menunjukkan populasi mempunyai taburan normal dan kaedah persampelan yang tidak rawak (Pallant, 2011), yang dilihat sesuai untuk digunakan dalam kajian ini. Ujian Mann-Whitney U sebagai anternatif kepada ujian ANOVA sehala, digunakan untuk melihat perbezaan pangkat nilai purata antara dua kumpulan yang tidak bersandar. Manakala ujian Kruskal-Wallis H sebagai 43)  Kertas Kerja 1, dalam Muzakarah Haji Peringkat Kebangsaan Kali Ke 26 Musim Haji 1431H pada 4 – 7 Mac 2010 44)  Muhammad Uthman El-Muhammady, Kertas Kerja 1: Muzakarah Haji Peringkat Kebangsaan Kali Ke 25 Musim Haji 1430H pada 3 – 5 April 2010 45)  Kertas Kerja 2, dalam Muzakarah Haji Peringkat Kebangsaan Kali Ke 23 Musim Haji 1428H pada 20 – 22 April 2007

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alternatif kepada ujian-t tak bersandar pula melihat perbezaan pangkat nilai purata antara lebih dari dua kumpulan yang tidak bersandar. Aras keertian telah ditetapkan pada nilai 0.05.

DAPATAN KAJIAN Ciri-ciri Demografi Responden Seramai 208 orang responden telah terlibat dalam kajian ini, dengan 108 orang (52%) adalah jemaah lelaki dan 100 orang (42 %) jemaah perempuan (lihat Jadual 1). Majoriti jemaah adalah berumur dalam lingkungan 41-60 tahun (66%), diikuti dengan lingkungan umur 21-40 tahun (19%) dan 61 tahun ke atas (13%). Lebih daripada separuh responden adalah berkelulusan pendidikan tinggi (kolej, universiti dan sebagainya) iaitu 54%, lulusan pendidikan menengah pula sebanyak 33% dan lain-lain (termasuk pendidikan tidak formal) sebanyak 3%. Responden juga telah ditanya mengenai sama ada mereka pernah mendapat pendidikan agama Islam secara formal (sekolah agama, sekolah pondok dan sebagainya) atau tidak. Hasilnya sebanyak 30% yang menyatakan ‘ada’, dan 62% menyatak ‘tiada’ dan selebihnya tidak dinyatakan. Manakala 88% daripada responden merupakan jemaah Haji pada pertama kali dan hanya 22% pernah mempunyai pengalama mengerjakan Haji sebelum ini. Jadual 1: Statistik deskriptif (n=208)

Ciri demografi

Frekuensi

Peratus (%)

Lelaki

108

51.9

Perempuan

100

48.1

2

1.0

21-40 tahun

40

19.2

41-60 tahun

137

65.9

27

13.0

Pendidikan rendah

18

8.7

Pendidikan menengah

68

32.7

112

53.8

Lain-lain

6

2.9

Tidak dinyatakan

4

1.9

129

62.0

Ada

63

30.3

Tidak dinyatakan

16

7.7

182

87.5

26

12.5

Jantina

Umur Bawah 20 tahun

61 tahun ke atas Tahap pendidikan tertinggi

Pendidikan tinggi

Pendidikan agama secara formal Tiada

Pengalaman mengerjakan haji Pertama kali Lebih dari sekali

Tahap Pendidikan Tertinggi Ujian Kruskal-Wallis H digunakan untuk melihat perbezaan pangkat nilai purata antara kumpulan tahap pendidikan rendah, pendidikan menengah, pendidikan tinggi dan lain-lain terhadap tingkahlaku yang diperhatikan, emosi dan fikiran jemaah. Hasil analisis tertera pada Jadual 2. Terdapat perbezaan yang © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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signifikan dari aspek tingkahlaku Mempertahankan (nilai-p=0.000) dan Melindungi (nilai-p=0.002), dan aspek kognitif Pemikiran tentang keselamatan (nilai-p=0.001). Golongan yang mepunyai tahap pendidikan lainlain (termasuk pendidikan tidak formal) mempunyai pangkat nilai purata yang paling tinggi dalam aspek tingkahlaku Mempertahankan (pangkat purata=135.3) dan kognitif Pemikiran tentang keselamatan (pangkat purata=183.5). Manakala golongan tahap pendidikan tinggi mempunyai kecenderungan dalam aspek tingkahlaku Melindungi (pangkat purata=114.3). Jadual 2: Ujian Kruskal-Wallis H bagi tahap pendidikan tertinggi

Pangkat Nilai Purata Bagi Tahap Pendidikan Tertinggi Sig.

Keputusan Terhadap Hipotesis Nol

74.75

0.491

Dikekalkan

108.88

80.08

0.169

Dikekalkan

81.48

116.6

135.25

0.000*

Ditolak

84.67

93.91

109.8

80.58

0.123

Dikekalkan

74.89

89.67

114.29

62.25

0.002*

Ditolak

Toleransi

103.17

93.64

105.51

108.08

0.605

Dikekalkan

Tindakan bahaya

103.75

103.49

98.92

104.58

0.942

Dikekalkan

Positif

83.03

100.25

103.1

107.42

0.579

Dikekalkan

Negatif

118.29

90.41

102.81

116.25

0.232

Dikekalkan

Positif selesa

85.58

113.67

92.99

127.17

0.051

Dikekalkan

Negatif selesa

109.15

103.41

93.04

134.25

0.183

Dikekalkan

Positif rohani

82.64

97.36

107.9

66.75

0.125

Dikekalkan

Pemikiran rohani

87.28

89.28

105.57

152

0.053

Dikekalkan

Pemikiran tentang pengurusan haji

98.33

93.23

100.68

174

0.052

Dikekalkan

Pemikiran negatif terhadap orang lain

84.17

86.47

107.84

98.63

0.07

Dikekalkan

99.5

82.35

105.68

183.5

0.001*

Komponen Tingkah Laku

Rendah

Menengah

Tinggi

Lain-lain

109

107.38

99.12

Mententeramkan

103.42

90.4

Mempertahankan

69.69

Mengelak Melindungi

Tingkah laku yang diperhatikan Agresif

Emosi

Kognitif

Pemikiran tetang keselamatan

Ditolak

*Perbezaan signifikan pada aras keertian 0.05

Pendidikan Agama Secara Formal Hasil dapatan Ujian Mann-Whitney U bagi mengenalpasti perbezaan antara golongan ada dan tiada latar belakang pendidikan agama secara formal terhadap tingkahlaku yang diperhatikan, emosi dan kognitif jemaah tertera dalam Jadual 3. Secara keseluruhannya, tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan dalam kesemua aspek yang dikaji. Jadual 3: Ujian Mann-Whitney U bagi pendidikan agama secara formal

Pangkat Nilai Purata Bagi Pendidikan Agama Secara Formal Komponen Tingkah Laku

Tiada

Ada

Sig.

Keputusan Terhadap Hipotesis Nol

Tingkah laku yang diperhatikan Agresif

94.08

99.90

.491

Dikekalkan

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Tiada

Ada

Sig.

Keputusan Terhadap Hipotesis Nol

Mententeramkan

99.30

87.84

.174

Dikekalkan

Mempertahankan

100.25

85.92

.090

Dikekalkan

Mengelak

94.04

98.44

.599

Dikekalkan

Melindungi

93.46

99.61

.463

Dikekalkan

Toleransi

96.02

94.45

.852

Dikekalkan

Tindakan bahaya

94.27

96.47

.773

Dikekalkan

Positif

95.58

93.85

.837

Dikekalkan

Negatif

95.04

94.93

.990

Dikekalkan

Positif selesa

93.27

96.94

.662

Dikekalkan

Negatif selesa

91.37

97.65

.432

Dikekalkan

Positif rohani

95.51

95.48

.997

Dikekalkan

Pemikiran rohani

94.62

91.21

.682

Dikekalkan

Pemikiran tentang pengurusan haji

98.55

83.16

.065

Dikekalkan

Pemikiran negatif terhadap orang lain

97.96

82.91

.071

Dikekalkan

Pemikiran tetang keselamatan

93.96

91.04

.726

Dikekalkan

Emosi

Kognitif

*Perbezaan signifikan pada aras keertian 0.05

Pengalaman Mengerjakan Haji Jadual 4 menunjukkan hasil analisis ujian Mann-Whitney U bagi mengenalpasti perbezaan antara golongan yang pertama kali dan pernah mengerjakan Haji sebelum ini terhadap tingkahlaku yang diperhatikan, emosi dan kognitif jemaah. Terdapat satu aspek kognitif yang mempunyai perbezaan signifikan iaitu Pemikiran rohani (nilai-p=0.017) dengan pangkat purata golongan pertama kali lebih tinggi (pangkat purata=105.2). Jadual 4: Ujian Mann-Whitney U bagi pengalaman mengerjakan Haji

Pangkat Nilai Purata Bagi Pengalaman Haji Komponen Tingkah Laku

Pertama kali Lebih dari sekali

Sig.

Keputusan Terhadap Hipotesis Nol

Tingkah laku yang diperhatikan Agresif

103.93

104.48

0.965

Dikekalkan

Mententeramkan

103.71

102.02

0.892

Dikekalkan

Mempertahankan

104.40

97.27

0.567

Dikekalkan

Mengelak

105.75

87.92

0.149

Dikekalkan

Melindungi

101.18

115.50

0.245

Dikekalkan

Toleransi

104.68

95.33

0.450

Dikekalkan

Tindakan bahaya

102.95

103.37

0.971

Dikekalkan

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Pertama kali Lebih dari sekali

Sig.

Keputusan Terhadap Hipotesis Nol

Emosi Positif

103.66

94.54

0.460

Dikekalkan

Negatif

102.86

100.04

0.818

Dikekalkan

Positif selesa

100.60

112.00

0.362

Dikekalkan

Negatif selesa

100.33

105.74

0.649

Dikekalkan

Positif rohani

103.58

99.00

0.712

Dikekalkan

Pemikiran rohani

105.23

76.23

0.017*

Ditolak

Pemikiran tentang pengurusan haji

103.34

89.04

0.240

Dikekalkan

Pemikiran negatif terhadap orang lain

102.61

86.38

0.181

Dikekalkan

Pemikiran tetang keselamatan

102.30

92.27

0.410

Dikekalkan

Kognitif

*Perbezaan signifikan pada aras keertian 0.05

PERBINCANGAN DAN KESIMPULAN Secara umumnya, kajian daripada sudut tahap pendidikan tertinggi yang dimiliki oleh para jemaah haji, didapati bahawa terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan daripada aspek tingkahlaku untuk mempertahankan46, dan melindungi47, dan daripada aspek pemikiran tentang keselamatan48 ketika mereka berada dalam keadaan yang sesak. Ini menunjukkan bahawa pendidikan tertinggi memainkan peranan dalam memastikan jemaah atau ahli keluarga atau kumpulannya berada dalam keadaan selamat. Mereka akan cuba melindungi daripada sebarang masalah, dan mempertahankan diri jika berhadapan dengan risiko kerana kognitif mereka adalah tentang keselamatan semasa berada di tanah Suci. Manakala bagi golongan yang mepunyai tahap pendidikan lain-lain (termasuk pendidikan tidak formal), pangkat nilai purata yang paling tinggi didapati pada tingkah laku mempertahankan49 dan pemikiran50 tentang keselamatan51. Manakala bagi golongan tahap pendidikan tinggi, mereka mempunyai kecenderungan dalam aspek tingkahlaku melindungi. Kesemua ini menunjukkan bahawa pendidikan mempunyai hubungan dengan pemikiran keselamatan dan cuba melindungi daripada sebarang masalah. Bagaimanapun bagi pendidikan agama secara formal, kajian mendapati tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan yang mempengaruhi tingkahlaku, emosi dan kognitif para jemaah haji. Ini menunjukkan bahawa latar belakang agama jemaah haji tidak memainkan peranan dalam mempengaruhi tingkahlaku, emosi atau pemikiran seseorang jemaah haji. Dapatan ini ternyata berlainan dengan teori teologi dan beberapa dapatan ke atas kajian yang lain mengenai hubungan agama dan tingkahlaku.

PENGHARGAAN This material is based upon work supported by the Hajj Research Cluster, USM No. 203.PTS.6720008.

RUJUKAN Abu Dawud, Sulayman bin al-Asy‘ath bin Ishaq al-Azdi al-Sajastani (1952), Sunan Abi Dawud, Mesir: Matba‘at 46) nilai-p=0.000 47) nilai-p=0.002 48) nilai-p=0.001 49)  pangkat purata=135.3 50)  pangkat purata=183.5 51)  pangkat purata=114.3

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PENGARUH KECERDASAN EMOSI (EQ) DAN KECERDASAN SPIRITUAL (SQ) KE ATAS TINGKAH LAKU AGRESIF PELAJAR Norrosni Shaari* & Noor Azniza Ishak *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Dewasa ini isu tingkah laku agresif dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah kerapkali menjadi perbualan masyarakat. Isu ini mencerminkan keruntuhan akhlak dan sahsiah dalam kalangan golongan bakal pewaris kepimpinan negara. Kajian ini membincangkan peranan dan kepentingan kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) ke atas tingkah laku agresif pelajar berdasarkan kajian-kajian terdahulu dan kajian yang telah dijalankan oleh pengkaji sendiri. Kajian telah dijalankan ke atas 100 orang pelajar ‘high risk’ bermasalah tingkah laku agresif. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ), tahap kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) dan tahap tingkah laku agresif. Objektif kajian ini untuk mengenal pasti pengaruh di antara kecerdasan emosi (EQ0 dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) dengan tingkah laku agresif. Instrumen yang digunakan adalah Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Short EQ-IS untuk mengukur kecerdasan emosi (EQ), instrumen Spiritual Quotient Questionnaire (SQQ) untuk mengukur kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) dan instrumen Aggresion Questionnaire (AQ) untuk mengukur tingkah laku agresif. Hasil kajian menunjukkan 76% responden berada pada tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ) rendah dan 24% responden berada pada tahap sederhana. Manakala 91% dan 9% responden berada pada tahap kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) rendah dan sederhana. Sementara itu, kajian menunjukkan 91% responden berada pada tahap agresif yang tinggi. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan terdapat pengaruh yang signifikan di antara kecerdasan emosi (EQ), kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) dengan tingkah laku agresif. Secara keseluruhannya, kajian ini mempunyai implikasi penting tentang usahausaha yang perlu dilaksanakan untuk meningkatkan aspek kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) dalam kalangan pelajar yang bermasalah tingkah laku agresif. Beberapa cadangan tentang implementasi kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) dalam pendidikan juga dikemukakan berdasarkan pespektif pendidikan. Keywords: kecerdasan emosi, kecerdasan spiritual, agresif

PENGENALAN Sejak kebelakangan ini, pelbagai pihak mula menyatakan kebimbangan terhadap peningkatan pelbagai gejala sosial dan tingkah laku agresif dalam kalangan pelajar. Peningkatan kes-kes melibatkan permasalahan sosial dan tingkah laku agresif golongan ini memberikan satu gambaran awal, negara sebenarnya sedang berhadapan dengan satu masalah serius yang perlu ditangani segera. Keruntuhan moral dan perilaku agresif ini menunjukkan bahawa kita mengalami masalah kelestarian kepimpinan untuk masa hadapan. Golongan pelajar merupakan generasi yang bakal memimpin negara pada masa hadapan. Namun, isu yang berlaku amat membimbangkan. Kebimbangan ini telah mengundang pelbagai andaian tentang punca golongan ini bertingkah laku agresif (Abdullah Sani Yahya, 2005). Dapatan kajian-kajian terdahulu menunjukkan beberapa Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

faktor yang menjadi punca keagresifan pelajar. Antara faktornya ialah kegagalan institusi kekeluargaan dalam aspek pembentukan sahsiah dan pendidikan (Asmah, Nurulhuda & Mascilla, 2011; Mohamed Hatta, 2003; M.Nisfiannor & Eka Yulianti, 2005; Nike Rahayu, Taufik & Nurfarhanah, 2013; Reitz, Dekovic & Meijer, 2006; Zainudin & Norazmah, 2011). Selain itu faktor hubungan rakan sebaya turut menjadi penyebab tingkah laku agresif (Fitzpatrick & Bussey, 2011; Orpinas & Frankowski, 2011; Lopez, Olaizola, Ocha & Ferrer, 2006). Oleh itu, sejajar dengan peningkatan permasalahan tingkah laku agresif golongan pelajar ini, maka sensitiviti terhadap aspek kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) juga perlu diambil kira. Kajian-kajian terkini mendapati bahawa kecerdasan intelek (IQ), kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) berupaya meramal kejayaan seseorang dalam kehidupan termasuklah dari aspek pembentukan sahsiah dan perilaku. Justeru, pengkaji melihat aspek kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) sebagai satu aspek penting yang perlu bagi menangani krisis permasalahan tingkah laku agresif golongan pelajar ini. Kedua-dua aspek kecerdasan ini lebih penting dan bersifat holistik berbanding kecerdasan intelek (IQ) (Mohd Azhar Hamid, 2006). Jika kecerdasan intelek (IQ) membantu seseorang individu melaksanakan tugas harian dengan bijak, kecerdasan emosi (EQ) memberikan individu itu perasaan atau emosi, sementara kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) pula akan memberikan keseimbangan dan pertimbangan bersifat spiritual ke atas apa yang dilakukan (Ari Ginanjar Agustian, 2001a). Oleh itu, kejayaan seseorang dalam kehidupan dan kematangan diri tidak hanya diukur dengan memiliki kecerdasan intelek (IQ) yang tinggi, tetapi memerlukan ketinggian kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ). Kecerdasan emosi (EQ) mempunyai peranan yang besar dalam dunia pendidikan. Namun, kewujudan dan kepentingannya agak kurang dititikberatkan. Ini kemungkinan berlaku disebabkan keutamaan intelektual dalam menentukan tahap kecemerlangan seseorang pelajar. Kecemerlangan seseorang pelajar hanya ditentukan oleh pencapaiannya dalam ujian dan peperiksaan berbentuk menguji kecerdasan intelek iaitu IQ. Hakikatnya kecerdasan emosi (EQ) itu seharusnya menjadi pendukung kepada kecerdasan intelek (IQ) dalam menjamin kualiti kecemerlangan seseorang pelajar. Mayer, Caruso dan Salovey (1999), menyatakan bahawa kecemerlangan individu bergantung kepada kecerdasan emosinya. Secara khususnya seseorang yang memiliki kecerdasan intelek (IQ) akan lebih cemerlang sekiranya turut juga memiliki kecerdasan emosi (EQ) yang tinggi. Menyedari kepentingan kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dalam membentuk kecemerlangan yang menyeluruh, maka aspek ini telah difokus dan diserapkan dalam matlamat Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan (FPK). Kandungan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan menyatakan: Pendidikan di Malaysia adalah suatu usaha yang berterusan ke arah memperkembangkan potensi individu secara menyeluruh dan bersepadu untuk mewujudkan individu yang harmoni dan seimbang dari segi intelek, rohani, emosi dan jasmani berdasarkan kepada kepercayaan kepada Tuhan. Usaha ini adalah untuk melahirkan rakyat Malaysia yang berilmu pengetahuan, berakhlak mulia, bertanggungjawab dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraan diri serta memberi sumbangan terhadap keharmonian dan kemakmuran masyarakat dan negara. Berdasarkan falsafah ini, kepentingan kecerdasan emosi (EQ) sangat jelas malahan keutamaannya sama penting dengan aspek kecerdasan intelek (IQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ). Walau bagaimanapun, dewasa ini, masyarakat sering dikejutkan dengan pelbagai isu yang berkaitan dengan tingkah laku agresif dalam kalangan pelajar. Hasilnya pelbagai spekulasi dibuat bagi mencari faktor yang menyumbang ke arah gejala tidak sihat itu. Antara faktor yang mempengaruhi gejala ini adalah masalah yang berkait rapat dengan ketidakseimbangan dari segi emosi dan rohani dalam kalangan para pelajar remaja ini. Oleh itu pelbagai usaha dilaksanakan bagi memastikan setiap pelajar mampu menangani ketidakstabilan emosi mereka dengan baik. Justeru, setiap sekolah di seluruh negara mempunyai sekurang-kurangnya seorang Guru Bimbingan dan Kaunseling Sepenuh Masa (GBKSM) yang terlatih bagi membantu pelajar menangani ketidakstabilan emosi mereka. Malahan kewujudan Guru Bimbingan dan Kaunseling Sepenuh Masa ini akan membantu meningkatkan tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ) pelajar melalui pelbagai aktiviti dan program atau sesi kaunseling yang dijalankan. Keprihatinan pihak Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia terhadap kepentingan kecerdasan emosi (EQ) telah termaktub dalam salah satu misi Perkhidmatan Bimbingan dan Kaunseling itu sendiri iaitu: ”Melahirkan murid yang mempunyai kepintaran intelek (IQ), emosi yang tinggi (EQ), dan berakhlak mulia (SQ).” Begitu juga dalam aspek kecerdasan spiritual (SQ). Apabila kecerdasan emosi mula-mula diperkenalkan kepada manusia sejagat, ramai sarjana dan pemikir mempertikaikan keperluan dan signifikannya kecerdasan tersebut dalam kehidupan. Namun selepas beberapa tahun diperkenalkan oleh para sarjana psikologi dan pelbagai perspektif kajian dilakukan, barulah wujud kesedaran tentang peri pentingnya kecerdasan emosi (EQ) kepada individu. Perkembangan pesat pengkajian tentang aspek kecerdasan emosi (EQ) ini telah mencetus ilmu baru kepada para pemikir bagi mengkaji kewujudan kecerdasan yang lebih memfokuskan kepada keabadian diri © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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dengan nilai-nilai luhur dan spiritual. Justeru, tidak lama selepas kecerdasan emosi (EQ) diperkenalkan, satu lagi cabang kepintaran manusia iaitu kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) telah diperkenalkan. Kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) adalah kecerdasan paling asas dan dipercayai lebih penting daripada semua bentuk kecerdasan. Kecerdasan spiritual ini sebenarnya memberi makna dan nilai yang tinggi dalam kehidupan manusia. Ia akan membantu individu melihat kehidupan dalam konteks yang lebih luas dan bermakna (Ari Ginajar Agustian, 2001a). Dalam konteks dunia pendidikan, aspek kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) ini juga telah termaktub dalam Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan yang mengutarakan keseimbangan dari aspek rohani. Keseimbangan pembentukan seseorang pelajar mestilah berteraskan unsur-unsur rohani berdasarkan pegangan agama dan kepercayaan para pelajar. Setiap pelajar dididik menjadi individu seimbang mengikut kefahaman agama masing-masing. Kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) bermaksud ukuran tahap hubungan manusia dengan Tuhannya (Anis Abd Wahab, 2011). Seseorang yang mempunyai kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) akan mempunyai hubungan yang baik dengan Tuhannya dan juga sesama manusia. Kekuatan spiritual akan memberi kesan yang mendalam kepada diri seseorang. Kekuatan spiritual yang tinggi akan melahirkan individu pelajar yang mampu mengawal segala bentuk tingkah laku negatif. Secara menyeluruhnya aspek kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) ini menjadi benteng dalam sebarang tingkah laku negatif. Oleh itu, dalam konteks cabaran dunia pendidikan sekarang, kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) akan berupaya mengawal seseorang pelajar remaja daripada terjebak dalam kancah gejala yang negatif dan merosakkan akhlak. Dalam pengajaran Pendidikan Agama Islam, para pelajar dididik dengan dengan penuh tarbiyah menyedari kewujudan jasad dan roh. Secara menyeluruhnya pengajaran dan pembelajaran Pendidikan Agama Islam mengingatkan pelajar tentang kewujudan manusia itu melibatkan aspek fizikal, emosi, intelektual dan rohani. Malahan apa yang paling penting, pelajar diajar memahami tentang kewujudan alam ghaib melibatkan emosi, roh, nyawa dan jiwa. Begitu juga dengan agama-agama lain. Sememangnya penciptaan manusia itu memerlukan kepercayaan kepada alam ghaib yang menjadi tempat hati seseorang berpegang. Tidak mengira apa juga kepercayaan agama pelajar sama ada agama Buddha, Kristian mahupun Hindu. Justeru, dalam membentuk kecerdasan spiritual dalam dunia pendidikan ia bukanlah suatu yang boleh dipegang dengan nyata sebaliknya perlu melalui tingkah laku atau penzahiran ibadah (Mohd Azhar Hamid, 2006). Memandangkan alam remaja merupakan alam penuh cabaran, maka setiap individu remaja berstatus pelajar perlulah utuh sifat kerohaniannya. Kebanyakan remaja akan mengalami sebahagian besar daripada gejalagejala seperti perlakuan memberontak, tabiat suka mencuba sesuatu yang baru dan berisiko, dan pelbagai kelakuan-kelakuan yang aneh pada pandangan mata orang dewasa. Perlakuan-perlakuan ini didasari oleh perubahan fizikal dan psikologi yang hebat berlaku dalam diri mereka. Malahan dalam masa yang sama, remaja juga perlu memahami perkembangan pemikiran, akhlak dan pendidikan di sekeliling mereka (Mohamed Hatta Shaharom, 2003). Justeru sekiranya keperibadian dapat dibina dengan utuh melalui kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) yang mantap maka remaja tidak mudah tersasar dari landasan sebenar makna kehidupan ini dan akan berjaya mengharungi cabaran dunia remaja dengan jayanya. Sistem yang ada sekarang seharusnya menyediakan pelajar ruang untuk melatih diri mereka meningkatkan tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ). Peranan guru dan seluruh warga pendidikan seharusnya menyedari kepentingan aspek kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) ini dan tidak hanya mengukur kecemerlangan seseorang pelajar berdasarkan pencapaian inteleknya semata-mata. Kita tidak menafikan sistem pendidikan negara sekarang sudah pun memenuhi hasrat untuk mengimbangi ketiga-tiga aspek kecerdasan ini melalui Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan, namun implementasinya perlulah diperkukuhkan lagi dan memerlukan komitmen semua pihak dan bersifat multidisplinary approach. Berdasarkan senario yang dibincangkan, artikel ini mengutarakan dapatan utama kajian yang dijalankan untuk mengenal pasti tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ), kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) dan tingkah laku agresif dalam kalangan pelajar berisiko tinggi. Selain itu, kajian juga dijalankan untuk mengenal pasti pengaruh antara kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) terhadap tingkah laku agresif serta implikasi penting tentang usaha-usaha untuk meningkatkan kedua-dua aspek kecerdasan ini.

METODOLOGI Sampel Kajian Kajian ini telah dijalankan terhadap 100 orang pelajar ’high risk’ bermasalah disiplin kategori agresif. Semua responden berumur 16 tahun dan sedang belajar di tingkatan 4 di sekolah-sekolah seluruh Daerah Kubang Pasu, Kedah Darul Aman. Semua responden ini dipilih khusus untuk kajian ini semasa melaksanakan Program © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Jati Diri peringkat daerah Kubang Pasu.

Pengumpulan Data Data telah dikumpulkan dengan menggunakan borang soal selidik semasa melaksanakan Program Jati Diri peringkat daerah Kubang Pasu, Kedah Darul Aman. Soal selidik ini telah dibahagikan kepada empat bahagian dengan menggunakan skala tertentu seperti berikut: Bahagian A Bahagian B Bahagian C Bahagian D

: : : :

Maklumat demografi asas Kecerdasan Emosi (EQ) Kecerdasan Spiritual (SQ) Tingkah laku Agresif

Skala likert lima point digunakan sebagai pilihan jawapan bagi setiap bahagian kecuali bahagian demografi. Instrumen yang digunakan seperti dalam Jadual 1. Jadual 1 Instrumen Yang Digunakan

Aspek

Instrumen

Jumlah item

Kecerdasan Emosi (EQ)

Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Short EQ-IS (Reuvan Bar-On, 1997)

51 item

Kecerdasan Spiritual (SQ)

Spiritual Quotient Questionnaire (SQQ) (MySkill Profile. com, 2002)

73 item

Tingkah laku Agresif

Aggresion Questionnaire (AQ) (Bush & Perry, 1992)

29 item

Analisis Data Data yang dikumpul, dianalisis secara deskriptif dan inferensi melalui penggunaan pakej statistik SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). Untuk analisis deskriptif, kajian ini menggunakan peratusan dan min. Manakala untuk analisis inferensi, kajian ini menggunakan analisis regresi linear.

DAPATAN KAJIAN Data Demografi Jadual 2 memaparkan ciri latar belakang responden yang terdiri daripada 62 orang (62%) responden lelaki, manakala 38 orang (38%) responden perempuan. Dapatan data demografi berkaitan status perkahwinan ibu bapa, menunjukkan seramai 72 orang (72%) responden berstatus ibu bapa masih tinggal bersama. Manakala 26 orang (26%) ibu bapa telah berpisah atau bercerai dan 2 orang (2%) ibu bapa sudah meninggal dunia. Dari segi lokasi sekolah, jumlah dan peratusan antara bandar dan luar bandar adalah seimbang iaitu masingmasing 50 orang (50%). Manakala dari segi bilangan adik beradik, jumlah bilangan adik beradik antara 3 hingga 4 orang paling ramai diwakili oleh responden iaitu seramai 38 orang (38%). Seterusnya diikuti bilangan adik beradik antara 5 hingga 6 orang seramai 30 orang (30%) responden. Jumlah bilangan adik beradik antara 7 hingga 8 orang dan seorang hingga 2 orang masing-masing 18 orang (18%) dan 14 orang (14%). Semua responden berumur 16 tahun dan sedang belajar di tingkatan 4 sekolah menengah kebangsaan di sekitar daerah Kubang Pasu, Kedah Darul Aman. Jadual 2 - Ciri Demografi Responden

Responden

N

%

Lelaki

62

62

Perempuan

38

38

Tinggal bersama

72

72

Berpisah/bercerai

26

26

Meninggal dunia

2

2

Jantina

Status perkahwinan ibu bapa

Lokasi sekolah

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Responden

N

%

Bandar

50

50

Luar Bandar

50

50

1-2 orang

14

14

3-4 orang

38

38

5-6 orang

30

30

7-8 orang dan lebih

18

18

Bilangan adik beradik

Tahap Kecerdasan Emosi (EQ) Jadual 3 menunjukkan tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ) yang dimiliki oleh responden. Secara keseluruhannya, didapati majoriti responden berada pada tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ) yang rendah iaitu seramai 76 orang (76%). Manakala seramai 24 orang (24%) responden berada pada tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ) yang sederhana. Jadual 3 - Tahap Kecerdasan Emosi (EQ) Responden

Tahap

Kecerdasan Emosi (EQ) Kekerapan

%

Rendah (51-119)

76

76

Sederhana (120 -188)

24

24

Tinggi (189-255)

0

0

Tahap Kecerdasan Spiritual (SQ) Jadual 4 pula menunjukkan tahap kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) yang dimiliki oleh responden kajian. Dapatan analisis deskriptif min dan peratusan menunjukkan 91 orang (91%) responden berada pada tahap kecerdasan spiritual yang rendah. Manakala bakinya seramai 9 orang (9%) responden berada pada tahap kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) yang sederhana. Jadual 4 - Tahap Kecerdasan Spiritual (SQ) Responden

Tahap

Kecerdasan Emosi (EQ) Kekerapan

%

Rendah (73-170)

91

91

Sederhana (171 -268)

9

9

Tinggi (269-365)

0

0

Tahap Tingkah laku Agresif Jadual 5 pula menunjukkan dapatan kajian berkaitan tahap tingkah laku agresif dalam kalangan responden. Secara keseluruhannya, didapati 91 orang (91%) responden berada pada tahap agresif yang tinggi, sedangkan hanya 9 orang (9%) responden sahaja berada pada tahap agresif sederhana. Jadual 5 - Tahap Tingkah laku Agresif Responden

Tahap

Kecerdasan Emosi (EQ) Kekerapan

%

Rendah (19-68)

0

0

Sederhana (69 -108)

9

9

910

91

Tinggi (109-145)

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Pengaruh Kecerdasan Emosi (EQ) dan Kecerdasan Spiritual (SQ) Ke atas Tingkah Laku Agresif Jadual 6 menunjukkan keputusan ujian regresi linear yang telah dijalankan ke atas kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) sebagai peramal terhadap tingkah laku agresif pelajar. Hasil analisis mendapati kecerdasan emosi (EQ) menyumbang kepada 20.5% varians terhadap tingkah laku agresif pelajar. Nilai F = 25.224 adalah signifikan pada aras keyakinan p<.00. Manakala, hasil analisis menunjukkan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) pula menyumbang kepada 12.7 % varians terhadap tingkah laku agresif pelajar. Nilai F = 14.218 juga signifikan pada aras keyakinan p<.00. Berdasarkan kepada nilai Beta, analisis menunjukkan kecerdasan emosi (EQ) (Beta = -.452, p<.00) merupakan peramal yang lebih tinggi ke atas tingkah laku agresif pelajar berbanding kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) (Beta =-.356, p<.00). Jadual 6 - Peramal EQ, SQ ke atas Tingkah laku Agresif Pelajar

Peramal EQ

B

Beta

t

Sig.

-.41

-.452

-5.02

.00

-.31

-.356

-3.77

.00

R = .205 F = 25.224, p<.00 SQ R = .127 F = 14.218, p<.00

PERBINCANGAN, IMPLIKASI DAN CADANGAN Secara umumnya, analisis min menunjukkan bahawa responden berada pada tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ) yang rendah dan sederhana iaitu sebanyak 76% dan 24%. Ini bermakna majoriti responden dalam kajian mempunyai kecerdasan emosi (EQ) tahap kritikal yang memerlukan suatu usaha untuk meningkatkannya. Ini sejajar dengan pandangan Mohd Azhar (2006) yang menyatakan bahawa aspek kecerdasan emosi (EQ) boleh ditingkat dengan pelbagai cara sama ada dengan mengukur dan menggambarkan diri sendiri atau menilai diri. Malahan Abdul Ghani, Abdul Rahman & Abdul Rashid (2011) berpendapat bahawa mengajar kecerdasan emosi (EQ) perlulah didasari oleh kurikulum yang berupaya memberi impak yang diharapkan. Ini kerana, hanya melalui kurikulum sahaja kita berupaya memberikan kefahaman menyeluruh kepada pelajar tentang punca mereka sering berfikir dan bertingkah laku tidak efektif. Oleh itu, pembentukan tabiat emosi positif yang mendasari kecerdasan emosi (EQ) boleh dipupuk dan persekitaran sekolah merupakan persekitaran ideal untuk diimplimentasikan. Selain itu, dapatan kajian ini mengesahkan lagi pendapat Rita Fefriawati (2010) yang menyatakan kerendahan tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ) seseorang pelajar mendorong mereka bertingkah laku agresif. Justeru, apabila tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ) pelajar berada pada tahap tinggi, indikator ini akan berupaya mengawal tingkah laku negatif seperti bertingkah laku agresif. Begitu juga dengan tahap kecerdasan spiritual (SQ). Dapatan kajian menunjukkan 100% responden berada pada tahap kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) yang rendah dan sederhana. Ini bermakna, responden kajian tidak memiliki sepenuhnya empat dimensi kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) iaitu keupayaan untuk berfikir sesuatu yang melampaui batasan fizikal atau kebendaan (Transendens); melalui pengalaman mistik (Mistik); keupayaan untuk melakukan aktiviti harian atau mengalami pengalaman dengan kemurniaan (Kemurniaan); serta menggunakan sumber-sumber spiritual sebagai cara menyelesaikan masalah dalam kehidupan seharian (Daya tindak). Rendahnya tahap kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) dalam kalangan responden membuktikan mereka tidak seimbang sebagai individu. Ini selaras dengan pendapat Ari Ginanjar Agustian (2001a) yang mengutarakan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) bertindak sebagai aspek yang mengimbangi apa yang dilakukan oleh seseorang dalam kehidupan seharian. Ini membuktikan pelajar yang memiliki ketidakseimbangan spiritual akan berpotensi bertingkah laku agresif akibat tiada pertimbangan bersifat spiritual dalam menjalani rutin kehidupan. Dapatan ini relevan dengan dapatan kajian Ratna Faradisa (2003) yang menunjukkan seseorang pelajar yang mengalami kemerosotan tahap kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) akan mempunyai perilaku antaranya bersikap nakal, agresif, bergaul dengan rakan yang bermasalah yang sama, mudah marah, bersikap kasar terhadap orang lain, keras kepala dan suka menipu. Selain itu, dapatan kajian juga menyokong andaian Teori Kecerdasan Spiritual. Menurut teori ini, kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) adalah kecerdasan yang boleh dipelajari dan dikembangkan apabila meningkat dewasa. Manakala, analisis min juga menunjukkan majoriti responden kajian berada pada tahap agresif yang tinggi dan sederhana iaitu sebanyak 91% dan 9%. Ini menunjukkan majoriti responden memiliki tahap agresif © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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yang agak membimbangkan. Secara keseluruhan, sekiranya situasi ini dibiarkan berterusan tanpa sebarang tindakan ‘merawatnya’, maka negara akan berdepan dengan masalah besar pada masa akan datang. Masalah keagresifan pelajar ini juga memberikan cabaran besar kepada dunia pendidikan (Azizi, Halimah & Faizah (2011). Justeru, penyelesaian dan pendekatan terbaik perlu dilaksanakan untuk menangani masalah perlakuan agresif ini. Malahan menurut (Azizi et al., 2011) lagi, masalah keagresifan pelajar ini perlu dianggap serius oleh Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia agar ianya dapat ditangani dengan segera. Hasil analisis daripada ujian regresi linear menunjukkan kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) masing-masing menyumbang sebanyak 20.5% dan 12.7% varians terhadap tingkah laku agresif pelajar. Dapatan ini membuktikan bahawa kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) merupakan faktor yang mempengaruhi tahap tingkah laku agresif pelajar. Dapatan kajian ini disokong oleh Model Bagan Meta Kecerdasan SQ (2003) yang membuktikan dengan jelas pengaruh dan perkaitan antara aspek kecerdasan emosi (EQ), kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) dan kecerdasan intelek (IQ) yang bertindak mengawal emosi dan perilaku individu. Dapatan kajian ini juga selaras dengan dapatan kajian-kajian yang telah mengenal pasti hubungan dan pengaruh kedua-dua aspek kecerdasan ini dengan tingkah laku agresif (Aldina Awin Septanti, 2010; Che Su, Nuredayu & Munif, 2004; Dhana Fithri, 2006; Djuwariyah, 2002; Nuraeni, 2005; Rahmat & Retno, 2006; Ratna Faradisa, 2003; Rita Fefriawati, 2010). Ini menunjukkan bahawa kerendahan tahap kedua-dua aspek kecerdasan ini mempunyai hubungan dengan tingkah laku agresif. Kerendahan tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ) akan menjadikan seseorang pelajar tidak berupaya mengurus emosi, tidak berupaya menghargai dan berempati terhadap orang lain serta bermasalah dalam pergaulan. Manakala kerendahan tahap kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) pula secara relatifnya akan merosakkan hubungan seseorang dengan Tuhannya, merosakkan hubungan dengan sesama manusia, tidak berupaya menjaga tingkah laku dan tutur kata. Ini sejajar dengan pendapat Ary Ginajar (2001b) yang menyatakan seseorang yang memiliki kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) yang tinggi akan sentiasa memelihara komunikasinya dengan orang sekeliling dan menjaga tingkah laku agar tidak menyakiti orang lain. Ini kerana apa yang berlaku di dunia ini sentiasa dilihat dan dihitung oleh Tuhan. Oleh itu, individu yang tinggi kecerdasan spiritualnya akan memiliki ciri-ciri berupaya memberi makna dalam kehidupan, sentiasa bertingkah laku baik, mudah menolong orang lain dan sentiasa merasakan dirinya dilihat Tuhan.

KESIMPULAN Secara ringkasnya, tahap tingkah laku agresif dalam kalangan pelajar berada pada tahap membimbangkan. Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan aspek kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) merupakan antara faktor yang mempengaruhi tingkah laku agresif golongan ini. Justeru, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia perlu lebih fokus kepada pembentukan kedua-dua aspek kecerdasan ini dalam usaha memperkasakan dan mentransformasikan pendidikan negara. Menurut Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia (2013-2025), pada anjakan ke-3 telah menjuruskan matlamat untuk melahirkan rakyat Malaysia yang menghayati nilai. Matlamat ini disasarkan dengan memperkukuhkan subjek Pendidikan Islam dan Pendidikan Moral serta mempertingkatkan elemen Sivik. Justeru, besarlah harapan kita agar matlamat ini dapat diimplementasikan dengan mantap serta berupaya menekankan aspek kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ). Selain itu, pihak kumpulan pelaksana pendidikan iaitu para guru haruslah lebih menekankan nilai kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran sama ada secara langsung mahupun tidak langsung. Para guru tidak wajar hanya mengutamakan penyampaian ilmu sematamata tanpa memperdulikan pembentukan sahsiah dan rohani para pelajar didikannya. Di samping itu, para pelajar yang berisiko tinggi di sekolah perlulah diberikan satu pendekatan pragmatik sama ada dalam bentuk kaunseling berfokus ataupun pendekatan berdasarkan modul-modul tertentu supaya dapat membantu meningkatkan aspek kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) mereka. Peningkatan tahap kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) akan membantu mereka bijak bertindak dalam mengawal emosi dan tingkah laku. Kesimpulannya, dapatan kajian menunjukkan pentingnya aspek kecerdasan emosi (EQ) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) dalam pembentukan kecemerlangan serta perkembangan seseorang pelajar. Komponen emosi dan spiritual adalah aspek yang akan mengimbangi kejayaan seseorang dalam kehidupan. Kejayaan intelektual semata-mata tidak menjamin kejayaan mutlak seseorang. Ini sejajar dengan pendapat Goleman (1995) yang menyatakan 80% kejayaan seseorang bergantung kepada kecerdasan emosi (EQ)nya berbanding hanya 20% sahaja disebabkan kecerdasan mentalnya (IQ). Manakala kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) pula bertindak

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sebagai kecerdasan utama yang wajib ada dalam diri setiap individu memandangkan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) ini adalah dasar kepada kecerdasan-kecerdasan yang lain (Rajendra Kartawiria, 2006).

RUJUKAN Abdul Ghani, Abdul Rahman & Abdul Rashid. (2011). EQ: Menjana kecerdasan emosi. Selangor: PTS Profesional Publishing Sdn. Bhd. Abdullah Sani Yahya. (2005). Mengurus disiplin pelajar. Pahang: PTS Profesional Publishing Sdn. Bhd. Agustian, A.G. (2001a). Emotional spiritual quotient (ESQ). Jakarta: Arga Publishing. Agustian, A.G. (2001b). Kecerdasan emosi dan spiritual: Rahsia sukses membangun kecerdasan emosi dan spiritual. Indonesia: Penerbit Arga. Aldina Awin Septanti. (2010). Aktualisasi EQ dan SQ siswa sebagai upaya meningkatkan kualitas diri dalam proses pembelajaran di SMAN 1 Malang kelas X. Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang. Skripsi Sarjana Pendidikan IPS. Anis Abd. Wahab. (2011). Hubungan kecerdasan spiritual dengan kualiti kehidupan staf sokongan Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. UTM: Tesis Sarjana (Tidak diterbitkan). Asmah Subuh, Nurulhuda Azizi & Mascilla Hamzah. (2011). Masalah salah laku agresif di kalangan pelajar sekolah rendah dan hubungannya dengan gaya keibubapaan. Journal of Education Pschology and Counseling, 1, 77-93. Azizi Yahaya, Halimah Ma’alib & Faizah Idris. (2011). Persepsi pelajar terhadap perlakuan agresif yang berlaku di lima buah sekolah menengah di kawasan bandar Johor Bahru. Journal of Educational Psychology and Counseling, 1, 1-24. Che Su Mustaffa, Nuredayu Omar & Munif Zurrirudin Fikri Nordin. (2004). Antesedan kecerdasan emosi, kecerdasan spiritual dan kecerdasan emosi spiritual (ESQ) dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah berasrama penuh dan institusi pengajian tinggi. Journal of Techo-Social 19, 82-98. Dhana Fitri. (2006). Hubungan antara kecerdasan emosional dengan perilaku agresif pada polisi anti huruhara di Poltabes Yogyakarta. Fakultas Psikologi Universitas Ahmad Dahlan. Tesis Pascasarjana. Djuwariyah. (2002). Hubungan antara kecerdasan emosi dengan agresivitas remaja. Jurnal Psikologika, 7(3). Fitzpatrick, S., & Bussey, K. (2011). The development of social bullying involvement scales. Journal Aggression Behavior, 37, 177-192. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Bantam Books. Lopez. E.E., Olaizola, H.J. Ochoa, M.G. & Ferrer, M.B. (2006). Aggressive and nonaggressive rejected students: An analysis of their differences. Journal Pschology In the Schools, 43(3), 387- 400. M.Nisfiannoor & Eka Yulianti. (2005). Perbandingan perilaku agresif antara remaja yang berasal dari keluarga bercerai dengan keluarga utuh. Jurnal Psikologi, 3, 1-18. Mayer, J.D., Caruso, D., & Salovey,P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standard for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27, 267-298. Mohamad Azhar Abd. Hamid. (2006). EQ: Panduan meningkatkan kecerdasan emosi. Selangor: PTS Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd. Mohamed Hatta Shaharom. (2003). Psikologi & kaunseling remaja: Panduan remaja membimbing diri sendiri. Pahang: PTS Profesional Publishing Sdn. Bhd. Nike Rahayu, Taufik & Nurfarhanah. (2013). Hubungan antara intimasi dalam keluarga dengan tingkah laku agresif pada siswa. Konselor Jurnal Ilmiah Konseling. 2 (1), 197-201. Nuraeni. (2005). Faktor prasangka sosial, identitas sosial dalam perilaku agresif pada konflik warga. Sekolah Pascasarjana Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta. Tesis Pascasarjana. Orpinas, P., & Frankowski, R. (2001). The aggression scale: A self report measure of aggressive behavior for young adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21, 150-167. Rahmat Aziz & Retno Mangestuti. (2006). Pengaruh kecerdasan intelektual (IQ), kecerdasan emosional (EI) dan kecerdasan spiritual (SI) terhadap agresivitas pada mahasiswa UIN Malang. Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengembangan, 1(1). Rajendra Kartawiria. (2006). 12 langkah membentuk manusia cerdas. Kuala Lumpur: PTS Millenia Sdn. Bhd. Ratna Faradisa. (2003). Hubungan antara kecerdasan emosi, kecerdasan spiritual dan prestasi belajar siswa kelas XI SMAN Turen. Fakultas Psikologi, Universitas Malang. Skripsi Sarjana. Reitz, E., Dekovic, M. & Meijer, A.M. (2006). Relations between parenting and externalizing and internalizing problem behavior in early adolescence: Child behavior as moderator and predictor. Journal of Adolescent, 29(30), 419-436. Rita Fefriawati. (2010). Hubungan antara kecerdasan emosional dengan perilaku agresif remaja di SMKN 5 Padang tahun 2010. Fakultas Kedokteran: Universitas Andalas. Zainudin Sharif & Norazmah Mohamad Roslan. (2011). Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi remaja terlibat dalam masalah social di Sekolah Tunas Bakti, Sungai Lereh, Melaka. Journal of Education Psychology & Counseling, 1, Mac 2011. 115-140. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

TAHAP KEPUASAN DAN MASALAH PENYERTAAN PENGAMAL KERJA PERKHIDMATAN SOSIAL WANITA NGO ISLAM DALAM KEUSAHAWANAN SOSIAL DI KEDAH DAN PERLIS Wan Ibrahim Wan Ahmad*, Wan Ab Rahman Khudzri Wan Abdullah & Fuziah Shaffie * [email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Usahawan sosial ialah individu yang bergiat aktif dalam aspek keusahawanan sosial. Sebagai seorang usahawan sosial, mereka bertanggungjawab secara sosialnya mencari idea baru dan pendekatan yang sesuai bagi menjana kemajuan ekonomi untuk dimanfaatkan oleh semua golongan dalam masyarakat. Oleh itu tujuan makalah ini ialah untuk menganalisis penyertaan pengamal kerja perkhidmatan sosial wanita NGO Islam dalam keusahawanan sosial dengan tumpuan khusus ke atas tahap kepuasan dan masalah yang mereka hadapi dalam penyertaan tersebut. Data untuk makalah ini asalnya diambil daripada satu penyelidikan yang dilakukan untuk menganalisis penyertaan pengamal kerja perkhidmatan sosial pertubuhan sukarela Islam dalam keusahawanan sosial di Utara Malaysia. Untuk mencapai hasrat ini sejumlah 41 orang wanita Islam pengamal kerja perkhidmatan sosial telah ditemubual. Mereka ini dipilih daripada pelbagai pertubuhan sukarela Islam yang terdapat di negeri Kedah dan Perlis, Malaysia. Data dikumpulkan melalui temu bual bersemuka yang dijalankan di pertubuhan sukarela yang telah dikenalpasti sebelumnya. Hasil kajian menunjukkan wanita Islam pengamal kerja perkhidmatan sosial ini terlibat dalam 14 buah pertubuhan sukarela Islam yang terdapat di negeri Kedah dan Perlis, yang kebanyakannya secara sambilan. Wanita ini kebanyakannya berumur dalam lingkungan 40 tahun, dan mereka sebahagian besarnya berpuas hati dengan penyertaan mereka dalam pertubuhan sukarela Islam. Hasil kajian juga menunjukkan di antara masalah yang mereka sering hadapi dalam penyertaan ialah kewangan, karenah birokrasi, karenah masyarakat, kekangan masa, sokongan kerajaan, sokongan masyarakat dan sokongan keluarga. Sebagai rumusannya, dapatlah dikatakan walaupun wanita ini menghadapi pelbagai masalah dalam penyertaan, tetapi kebanyakan mereka berpuas hati dengan penyertaan mereka dalam keusahawan sosial.

PENGENALAN Keusahawanan sosial merupakan satu bidang baru yang semakin mendapat perhatian para pengamal yang terlibat di dalam sektor perkhidmatan kemanusiaan di seluruh dunia. Matlamat utama makalah ini ialah untuk memperihalkan tahap kepuasan dan masalah penyertaan pengamal kerja perkhidmatan sosial wanita NGO Islam dalam keusahawanan sosial di Kedah dan Perlis. Maklumat dalam makalah ini merupakan sebahagian daripada hasil penyelidikan yang bertajuk “penyertaan pengamal kerja perkhidmatan sosial NGO Islam dalam keusahawanan sosial di Utara Malaysia” yang dilakukan pada tahun 2011 dan diserahkan kepada RIMC pada tahun 2012 (Wan Ab Rahman Khudzri Wan Abdullah, Wan Ibrahim Wan Ahmad, Fuziah Shaffie, Azizan Bahari,

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

dan Ab Aziz Yusof, 2012). Tumpuan perbincangan dalam makalah ini ialah ke atas tahap kepuasan, dan masalah penyertaan pengamal kerja perkhidmatan sosial wanita NGO Islam dalam keusahawanan sosial. Kini kedudukan wanita dalam pembangunan semakin penting. Malah kepentingannya dalam ekonomi telah lama diakui. Munshi Abdullah (Kassim Ahmad, 1960), dalam catatan perjalanannya melalui Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah bersama Granpre dan Baba Ko An dari Singapura ke Pahang, Terengganu dan Kelantan pada abad ke-19 untuk membawa surat Sir George Bonham, Gabenor Straits Settlements kepada Sultan Kelantan mengakui wanita adalah penggerak kegiatan ekonomi di negeri yang dilawatinya ini. Ramai wanita di negeri ini terlibat dalam kegiatan tidak formal menjual makanan seperti penganan, cucur, rendang pisang, keladi rebus, buah melaka dan pelbagai bahan makanan lain di kedai-kedai.

PENYERTAAN PENGAMAL KERJA PERKHIDMATAN SOSIAL WANITA NGO ISLAM DALAM KEUSAHAWANAN SOSIAL DI KEDAH DAN PERLIS Profil Usahawan Wanita Sebelum makalah ini membincangkan penyertaan pengamal perkhidmatan sosial wanita NGO Islam dalam keusahawanan, dalam bahagian ini terlebih dahulu dibincangkan profil wanita NGO Islam yang terlibat sebagai responden kajian. Profil sosiodemografi adalah satu aspek yang luas. Tumpuan perbincangan dalam makalah ini tertumpu kepada lima aspek utama, iaitu umur, status perkahwinan, pendidikan, pekerjaan dan pendapatan. Analisis menunjukkan sebahagian besar usahawan wanita yang terlibat dalam NGO Islam berumur 40 tahun dan ke atas. Daripada 41 orang usahawan wanita yang menjadi responden kajian, 23 orang daripadanya adalah berumur 40 tahun dan ke atas. Dalam jumlah yang agak besar juga adalah mereka yang berumur di antara 30 hingga 39 tahun. Tidak ramai usahawan wanita yang terlibat dalam NGO Islam yang berumur 29 tahun dan kurang. Dalam konteks status perkahwinan, hampir keseluruhan wanita ini berkahwin; iaitu berjumlah 34 orang daripada 41 orang usahawan wanita. Selebihnya, lima orang wanita bujang serta seorang janda. Dari segi pendidikan, sebahagian besar mereka berpendidikan lepas menengah (termasuk graduan IPT). Usahawan wanita yang berpendidikan lepas menengah melebih mereka yang berpendidikan sekolah rendah, malah melebihi juga wanita yang berpendidikan setakat sekolah menengah. Wanita ini pula, sebahagian besarnya bekerja di sektor swasta. Jumlah mereka yang bekerja dengan kerajaan juga agak ramai, tidak jauh berbeza dengan usahawan wanita yang bekerja di sektor kerajaan. Tidak ramai wanita ini yang melaporkan bekerja sendiri. Sebahagian besar usahawan wanita yang menjadi responden mempunyai pendapatan di antara RM651 hingga RM3000, iaitu seramai 29 orang (70.7%). Usahawan wanita yang berpendapatan di bawah RM651 atau melebihi RM3000 adalah tidak ramai.

Tempoh Penglibatan Dalam NGO Tempoh penglibatan usahawan wanita ini dalam NGO Islam adalah bervariasi, daripada seawal 4 tahun dan kurang kepada 10 tahun dan lebih. Analisis menunjukkan sebahagian besar wanita responden terlibat dalam NGO Islam ini dalam tempoh masa 4 tahun dan kurang, iaitu 29 orang. Dalam jumlah yang agak besar juga adalah mereka yang terlibat dalam NGO Islam ini untuk tempoh masa 10 tahun dan lebih. Hanya dua orang usahawan wanita yang melaporkan baru dua tahun terlibat dalam NGO Islam ini (Jadual 1). Jadual 1: Tempoh Penglibatan Dalam NGO

Tempoh

Jumlah

Peratusan

4 tahun dan (-)

29

70.7

2

4.9

10 tahun dan (+)

10

24.4

Jumlah

41

100.0

5 - 9 tahun

Tidak ramainya usahawan wanita yang terlibat dalam NGO Islam ini, barangkali kerana kebanyakan mereka yang terlibat dalam NGO Islam tidak terus terlibat selepas mereka bergraduat dari IPT. Mereka ini lebih cenderung untuk berusaha memastikan kedudukan ekonomi mereka selamat dahulu, baru mereka memikirkan untuk melibatkan diri dalam NGO. Dalam konteks Malaysia, seseorang boleh merasa agak selesa dari segi pendapatannya selepas berumur 40 tahun. Melihat kepada sebahagian besar wanita berumur dalam lingkungan 40 tahun, sebab itu didapati tidak ramai wanita ini yang telah terlibat dalam NGO Islam dalam

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tempoh masa yang boleh dikatakan sudah agak lama, melebihi empat atau lima tahun.

Galakan Keluarga Ada banyak teori yang menyatakan minat dan galakan ibu bapa amat penting mempengaruhi perilaku seseorang. Agama Islam menekankan keluarga adalah model atau penentu kepada perilaku naka-anak. Dalam khazanah Melayu juga terdapat banyak ungkapan atau peribahasa yang menunjukkan pentingnya keluarga, khususnya ibu bapa dalam mencorakkan perilaku anak-anaknya. Peribahasa seperti ke mana tumpahnya kuah kalau tidak ke nasi, bapa borek anak rintik, bagaimana acuan begitulah kuehnya, sekadar beberapa contoh, semuanya menunjukkan pentingnya keluarga ke atas tabiat dan perilaku anak-anak. Dalam konteks kajian ini galakan ibu bapa tidak terbukti benar jika dilihat berasaskan kepada galakan yang diberikan untuk anak-anak mereka terlibat dalam NGO Islam. Hampir separuh responden melaporkan mereka tidak pernah mendapat galakan daripada ibu bapa mereka. Malah responden yang menyatakan ada mendapat galakan ibu bapa pula, galakan ini hanya kadang-kadang sahaja. Terlalu kecil usahawan wanita yang menyatakan mendapat galakan ibu bapa secara kerap (Jadual 2). Bagaimanapun galakan dari ibu bapa ini adakalanya diperolehi secara tidak langsung, umpamanya daripada perilaku ibu bapa itu sendiri, dan kemudian ditiru anak-anak. Ibu bapa selalunya menjadi model kepada perilaku anak-anak. Jadual 2: Galakan Keluarga Supaya Terlibat Dalam Keusahawanan

Galakan Keluarga

Jumlah

Peratusan

Tidak Pernah

19

46.3

Kadang-kadang

18

43.9

4

9.8

41

100.0

Kerap Jumlah

Tahap Kepuasan Usahawan Wanita Aspek penting yang dianalisis dalam makalah ini ialah tahap kepuasan usahawan wanita dalam penglibatan mereka dalam NGO Islam. Kepuasan amat penting dalam penerusan sesuatu aktiviti. Seseorang yang ada kepuasan dalam penglibatan dalam sesuatu aktiviti lebih cenderung untuk terus melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti tersebut. Tahap kepuasan usahawan wanita dalam penglibatan mereka dalam NGO Islam yang dikaji ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 3. Analisis menunjukkan hampir keseluruhan usahawan wanita yang menjadi responden menyatakan mereka berpuas hati dengan penglibatan mereka dalam NGO Islam. Jumlah wanita yang menyatakan mereka berpuas hati berjumlah 30 orang daripada 41 orang wanita yang menjadi responden kajian. Jumlah mereka yang menyatakan kurang serta tidak berpuas hati pula kecil dan tidak signifikan. Besarnya jumlah wanita yang menyatakan berpuas hati boleh dikaitkan dengan banyak sebab. Salah satu sebab ialah, seperti yang diberitahu oleh salah seorang responden, selain mereka dapat bergaul dan mengenali orang ramai, mereka juga merasa puas disebabkan dapat melakukan sesuatu kepada masyarakat. Bagi mereka, hidup yang berguna ialah hidup yang dapat menyumbang untuk kesejahteraan orang lain; dan dengan melibatkan diri dalam NGO, mereka mempunyai banyak ruang menyumbangkan tenaga, idea dan masa untuk kesejahteraan orang lain, menjadikan mereka merasa puas. Jadual 3: Taburan Tahap Kepuasan Usahawanan Wanita

Tahap Kepuasan

Jumlah

Peratusan

Tidak Puas

4

9.8

Kurang

7

17.1

Puas Hati

30

73.2

Jumlah

41

100.0

Taburan Masalah Usahawan Wanita Semasa pengumpulan data dilakukan, usahawan wanita ini juga diminta untuk memberikan jawapan kepada bentuk-bentuk masalah yang kemungkinan mereka hadapi dalam penglibatan mereka dalam NGO Islam. Pertanyaan ini bertujuan untuk meneroka apakah sebenarnya masalah yang dihadapi usahawan wanita dalam penglibatan mereka. Bentuk-bentuk masalah yang biasa dihadapi mereka dipaparkan dalam Jadual 5. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Jadual 5: Masalah Usahawan Wanita

Masalah

Jumlah

Peratusan

Kewangan

21

51.2

Masa

16

39.0

Birokrasi

14

34.1

Karenah Masyarakat

14

34.1

Sokongan Kerajaan

9

22.0

Sokongan Masyarakat

6

14.6

Sokongan Keluarga

7

17.1

Disebabkan usahawan wanita ini terlibat dalam NGO yang merupakan satu pertubuhan sukarela, maka masalah utama mereka adalah kewangan. Boleh dikatakan semua aktiviti yang dirancang pada umumnya memerlukan kewangan; banyak ataupun sedikit. Banyak NGO Islam tidak mempunyai sumber kewangan yang kukuh. Banyak NGO bergantung hidup kepada sumbangan sama ada dari kerajaan, ataupun daripada organisasi tertentu serta orang ramai. Oleh itu kewangan NGO ini adalah tidak tetap. Oleh kerana NGO ini tidak mempunyai sumber kewangan yang kukuh dan tetap maka masalah utama mereka dalam menjalankan kegiatan harian yang dirancangkan adalah kewangan. Selain kewangan, masa juga menjadi masalah besar kepada usahwan wanita ini. Masalah masa ini adalah wajar kerana kebanyakan mereka terlibat dalam NGO ini adalah secara sambilan. Mereka ini ada mempunyai pekerjaan mereka tersendiri. Mereka menjalankan kegiatan yang dirancang NGO adalah mengikut masa lapang mereka; sedangkan masa lapang bagi wanita yang bekerja adalah terlalu sedikit. Lebih-lebih bagi wanita yang sudah berkahwin, mereka terpaksa membahagikan masa mereka kepada pekerjaan di pejabat, anak-anak dan rumah tangga. Oleh itu, masa merupakan masalah besar. Selain itu birokrasi dan karenah masyarakat juga merupakan masalah besar kepada wanita ini. Birokrasi ini umumnya dirasai apabila mereka terlibat dengan badan-badan rasmi lain, termasuk badan-badan kerajaan yang selalunya memerlukan usahawan wanita ini berjumpa dengan pelbagai lapisan pegawai sebelum mereka dapat berjumpa dengan pegawai yang sepatutnya mereka berjumpa. Dalam konteks karenah masyarakat pula, ia menjadi masalah kerana tahap kesedaran masyarakat di Malaysia kepada kerja-kerja sukarela masih lagi di tahap rendah menyebakan mereka sukar memberikan kerjasama. Masalah lain adalah tidak besar.

RUMUSAN Sebagai rumusan, makalah ini membincangkan tahap kepuasan dan masalah penyertaan 41 orang wanita Islam pengamal kerja perkhidmatan sosial dalam NGO Islam di Utara Malaysia, khususnya di Kedah dan Perlis. Perbincangan ini dirasakan penting kerana akhir-akhir ini semakin ramai wanita Islam pengamal kerja perkhidmatan sosial dalam NGO Islan yang terlibat dalam keusahawanan sosial. Hasil kajian menunjukkan wanita Islam pengamal kerja perkhidmatan sosial ini terlibat dalam 14 buah pertubuhan sukarela Islam yang terdapat di negeri Kedah dan Perlis. Wanita ini berumur dalam lingkungan 40 tahun, dan kebanyakan mereka terlibat dalam NGO Islam secara sambilan. Hasil kajian juga menunjukkan wanita Islam ini sebahagian besarnya berpuas hati dengan penyertaan mereka dalam NGO Islam. Akan tetapi walaupun mereka berpuas hati dengan penyertaan mereka, namun mereka ada menghadapi masalah terutamanya dari segi kewangan, karenah birokrasi, karenah masyarakat, masa, sokongan kerajaan, sokongan masyarakat dan kekangan keluarga.

RUJUKAN Kassim Ahmad. (1960). Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah. Kuala Lumpur. Oxford University Press. Wan Ab. Rahman Khudzri, Fuziah Shaffie, Ab. Aziz, Azizan Bahari & Wan Ibrahim Wan Ahmad. (2011). Pengetahuan Pengamal Kerja Perkhidmatan Sosial Dalam Keusahawanan Sosial Pertubuhan Sukarela Islam di Utara Malaysia. Research report submitted to RIMC Universiti Utara Malaysia.

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SECTION III

HEALTH AND MENTAL HEALTH

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

KESAN OBESITI KE ATAS PSIKOSOSIAL REMAJA Norfadilawati Alias* & Fuziah Shaffie *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Natijah perkembangan ekonomi Malaysia yang pesat telah meningkatkan taraf hidup sekaligus mengubah gaya hidup rakyat. Perubahan gaya hidup yang lebih moden ini telah meningkatkan kadar kes obesiti secara drastik daripada 4.4 peratus (1996) kepada 15.1 peratus (2011). Malahan, Malaysia merupakan negara yang mempunyai jumlah penduduk obesiti tertinggi dalam kalangan negara ASEAN dan tempat ke enam di rantau Asia Pasifik. Pada tahun 2011, dianggarkan 2.6 juta individu dewasa dan 500 ribu yang berusia 18 tahun ke bawah mengalami masalah obesiti yang diasosiasikan dengan pelbagai komplikasi kesihatan fizikal dan psikososial. Artikel ini akan membincangkan dengan lebih lanjut mengenai kesan obesiti dari aspek psikososial melalui tinjauan literatur. Pengalaman diejek berkaitan berat badan, tingkah laku buli, penolakan dan pengasingan sosial serta kemunduran akademik merupakan antara implikasi yang sering dilaporkan berlaku oleh remaja obesiti dari aspek sosial. Manakala dari aspek psikologi, kemurungan, amalan diet, gangguan pemakanan dan tahap kualiti hidup, penghargaan kendiri serta imej tubuh badan yang rendah dikenalpasti antara masalah yang mempunyai hubungan dengan obesiti. Justeru itu, pendekatan kerja sosial melalui pelaksanaan intervensi yang bersesuaian amat wajar bagi membantu remaja obes yang menghadapi masalah psikososial memperoleh kehidupan yang sejahtera. Keywords: Obesiti, Remaja, Psikologi, Sosial, Kerja Sosial.

PENGENALAN Malaysia telah mengalami perkembangan ekonomi yang begitu pesat sehingga menyebabkan penduduknya menikmati peningkatan taraf hidup yang lebih baik dan mengubah gaya hidup rakyat yang lebih moden. Walaupun faktor genetik dianggap penting dalam perkembangan obesiti, namun peningkatan drastik masalah obesiti di seluruh negara telah mengubah fokus kepada faktor persekitaran obesogenik yang dianggap lebih bertanggungjawab menyebabkan fenomena obesiti. Obesogenik didefinisikan sebagai keadaan yang menggalakkan perkembangan obesiti seperti gaya hidup yang berorientasikan gabungan amalan pemakanan yang mengandungi jumlah gula, lemak dan kalori yang tinggi serta peningkatan aktiviti sedentari. Pengumpulan lemak dalam tubuh badan yang berlebihan daripada kadar yang sepatutnya di bahagian tisu adipos merupakan antara definisi yang boleh menghuraikan keadaan obesiti. Selain memberi kesan kepada kemajuan negara, obesiti yang berlaku disebabkan oleh pengambilan tenaga yang tidak seimbang dengan kadar keperluan tenaga yang digunakan boleh membahayakan kesihatan individu merangkumi kesihatan fizikal, psikologi, sosial. Sebagai penyakit yang tidak berjangkit dan berlaku tanpa had umur, obesiti turut dikenalpasti kelazimannya dalam kalangan remaja dan menunjukkan tahap yang membimbangkan di Malaysia. Remaja merupakan zaman peralihan yang paling kritikal mereka akan mengalami perkembangan dan pembentukkan identiti diri. Sekiranya remaja dibebani dengan pelbagai masalah psikososial semasa tempoh ini, kesihatan fizikal, mental dan sosial serta kesejahteraan hidup akan terjejas. Pelaksanaan intervensi yang komprehensif melalui pendekatan kerja sosial boleh membantu remaja obes lebih bijak menghadapi

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

dan menangani masalah psikososial yang membelenggu kehidupan.

KESAN KESIHATAN SOSIAL Kehidupan yang berkualiti dan sejahtera boleh dikecapi sekiranya individu mempunyai kesihatan sosial yang baik. Malangnya, remaja obes tidak dapat lari daripada kenyataan bahawa masalah sosial seperti ejekan berkaitan berat badan, buli, pengasingan dan penolakan sosial serta kemunduran akademik merupakan sebahagian pengalaman yang perlu dilalui dalam menelusuri perjalanan hidup mereka. Bagi memperoleh gambaran mengenai keadaan kesihatan sosial dalam kalangan remaja obes, bahagian ini akan meninjau isuisu sosial berkaitan remaja obes berdasarkan tinjauan literatur.

Ejekan dan Buli Ejekan berkaitan berat badan dan buli merupakan antara masalah sosial yang mempunyai hubungan obesiti dalam kalangan remaja (Neumark-Sztainer, Falkner, Story, Perry, Hannan, Mullet, 2002; Puhl, Luidicke, Heuer, 2011; Hayden-Wade, Stein, Ghaderi, Saelens, Zabinski, Wilfely, 2005). Neumark-Sztainer et al., (2002) mengkaji tahap kelaziman ejekan berkaitan berat badan dalam kalangan 4,747 remaja yang menyertai Project EAT (Eating Among Teens). Hasil kajian mendapati, 63 peratus remaja perempuan obesiti dan 58 peratus remaja lelaki obesiti dilaporkan menjadi sasaran ejekan berkaitan berat badan oleh rakan sebaya berbanding 21 peratus remaja perempuan dan 11 peratus remaja lelaki yang mempunyai berat badan yang normal. Kajian oleh Puhl et al., (2011) turut mendapati 92 peratus pelajar dilaporkan pernah melihat pelajar yang mempunyai berat badan berlebihan dan obesiti diejek mengenai berat badan, diancam secara lisan dan menerima gangguan secara fizikal di sekolah. Malahan, 84 peratus pelajar yang mengalami berat badan berlebihan dan obesiti melaporkan mereka sering menerima ejekan berkaitan berat badan ketika menjalani aktiviti fizikal di sekolah, 66 hingga 77 peratus pula dilaporkan tidak dihiraukan dan dikecualikan daripada menyertai aktiviti sosial, penyebaran khabar angin yang buruk mengenai diri mereka serta turut diejek semasa mengunjungi kafeteria sekolah. Hayden-Wade et al., (2005) telah melakukan perbandingan mengenai pengalaman ejekan berkaitan berat badan berdasarkan 70 orang kanak-kanak obesiti dan 86 orang kanak-kanak tidak obes (10 hingga 14 tahun) dari beberapa sekolah awam yang menjadi sampel kajian. Hampir 90 peratus kanak-kanak obesiti dilaporkan sering menjadi sasaran ejekan berkaitan berat badan berbanding 30 peratus kanak-kanak yang tidak obes. Kajian turut mendedahkan 78 peratus remaja yang berlebihan berat badan diejek mengenai penampilan mereka manakala 89 peratus diejek mengenai berat badan mereka. Ejekan mengenai berat badan turut diasosiasikan dengan tahap kebimbangan mengenai berat badan dan aktiviti sedentari yang tinggi dan mempunyai keyakinan penampilan fizikal yang rendah. Ejekan berkaitan berat badan bukan sahaja diterima daripada kalangan kawan-kawan, malahan remaja obes turut menerimanya daripada ahli keluarga dan menganggu psikologi mereka. Terdapat perbezaan kesan gangguan psikologi berdasarkan sumber ejekan yang diterima oleh remaja obes. Kajian Keery, Bountelle, van de Berg dan Thompson (2005) mendapati remaja obes yang menerima ejekan dari ibu lebih cenderung mengalami kemurungan manakala gangguan pemakanan iaitu bulimia, penghargaan kendiri dan imej tubuh yang rendah serta kemurungan pula daripada bapa. Manakala kajian Hayden-Wade et al., (2005) melaporkan 29 peratus remaja perempuan yang diejek mengenai berat badan oleh adik beradik mereka mempunyai tahap kemurungan yang tinggi berbanding mereka yang tidak diejek. Selain itu, terdapat beberapa kajian lagi yang mendapati ejekan mengenai berat badan mempunyai hubungan dengan aspek kesejahteraan hidup seperti penghargaan kendiri yang rendah (Kutob, Senf, Crago, Shisslak , 2010), penurunan kualiti kehidupan (Stern, Mazzeo, Gerke, Bryan, Laver, 2007), diet dan gangguan pemakanan (Puhl & Latner, 2007; Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2002; Haines, Neumark-Sztainer, Eisenberg, Hannan, 2006), kesunyian, kebimbangan, dan penurunan aktiviti fizikal (Puhl & Latner, 2007; Storch, Milsom, DeBraganza, Lewin, Geffken, Silverstein, 2007). Lebih membimbangkan, ejekan mengenai berat badan juga turut menyebabkan remaja obes cenderung mempunyai idea untuk membunuh dirimalah pernah melakukan percubaan untuk membunuh diri (Eisenbergh, Neumark-Sztainer & Story, 2003). Ejekan yang diterima mengenai berat badan mereka berlarutan dalam jangka masa yang panjang. Kajian Eisenberg, Neumark-Sztainer, Haines dan Wall (2006) mendedahkan 61 peratus remaja obes masih berterusan menerima ejekan dan mempunyai penghargaan kendiri yang rendah, ketidakpuasan terhadap imej tubuh badan serta mengalami simptom kemurungan yang tinggi walaupun selepas tempoh lima tahun. Selain daripada ejekan berkaitan berat badan, remaja obes didapati turut terlibat dengan masalah buli (Janssen, Craig, Boyce, Pickett, 2004; Bergh, Simonsson, Ringqvist, 2005; Griffiths, Wolke, Page, Horwood, 2006). Janssen et al., (2004) telah menjalankan kajian bagi mengenalpasti hubungan antara obesiti dan tingkah laku © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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buli dalam kalangan 5, 749 kanak-kanak dan remaja di Kanada (11 hingga 16 tahun). Hasil kajian melaporkan kanak-kanak dan remaja obesiti lebih cenderung menjadi mangsa buli secara lisan contohnya dipanggil dengan diejek berkaitan berat badan, panggilan atau diberi gelaran nama yang tidak menyenangkan, tingkah laku buli secara fizikal contohnya menendang, memukul dan menolak, dan tingkah laku buli dalam perhubungan seperti memutuskan persahabatan, menyebarkan cerita negatif dan penipuan. Remaja obes juga tidak hanya menjadi mangsa sebaliknya turut dilaporkan menjadi pembuli. Bergh et al., (2005) mendapati 40 peratus remaja obes turut bertindak sebagai pembuli manakala 33 peratus remaja lelaki obes mengakui pernah ditendang dan dipukul berdasarkan kajian keratan rentas dalam kalangan 989 remaja lelaki yang berusia 15 tahun di Sweden. Malahan kajian Griffiths et al., (2006) turut meramalkan bahawa kanak-kanak obes akan menjadi mangsa buli apabila memasuki alam remaja sekiranya mereka kekal obes berdasarkan kajian longitunidal ke atas 8,210 orang kanak-kanak di Southwest, England.

Penolakan dan Pengasingan Sosial Selain daripada ejekan berkaitan berat badan dan masalah buli, penolakan dan pengasingan sosial merupakan antara masalah sosial yang dilaporkan berlaku dalam kalangan remaja obes (Puhl et al., 2011; Puhl & Latner, 2007; Berg et al., 2005; Boneberger, von Kries, Milde-Bush, Ruckinger, Rochat, Bolte, 2009; Pearce, Boerges & Prinstein, 2002; Strauss & Pollack, 2003; Jodkowska, Oblacinska, Tabak, Radiukiewicz (2010). Kajian Puhl et al., (2011) mendapati kira-kira 66 hingga 77 peratus remaja obes sering dikecualikan dari menyertai aktiviti sosial. Malahan, remaja obes didapati lebih cenderung melibatkan diri dengan rangkaian sosial di internet dan mengalami pengasingan sosial dalam masyarakat. Ini berdasarkan kajian oleh Strauss dan Pollack (2003) yang telah meninjau mengenai penggunaan rangkaian sosial yang melibatkan sampel kajian 90, 119 orang remaja (13 hingga 18 tahun) di Amerika Syarikat. Manakala kajian oleh Bergh et al., (2005) mendapati remaja lelaki obes dua kali lebih sukar menemui rakan baru dan tiga kali ganda dilaporkan tidak mempunyai rakan atau hanya memiliki seorang kawan rapat sahaja. Masalah berkaitan kesukaran mendapat rakan bukan hanya berlaku di peringkat remaja sahaja dalam kalangan penghidap obesiti malahan dilaporkan berlaku seawal usia 5 hingga 6 tahun berkemungkinan disebabkan oleh stigma masyarakat yang menggangap kanak-kanak obesiti sebagai pemalas, bodoh, hodoh, jahat dan memiliki kehidupan yang tidak bahagia (Puhl & Latner, 2007). Berbanding remaja lelaki obes, remaja perempuan obes didapati lebih berisiko mengalami penolakan dan pengasingan sosial (Boneberger et al., 2009). Malahan, kajian Pearce et al., (2002) mendapati remaja lelaki dan perempuan obesiti tidak berpuas hati dengan status hubungan romantik mereka dan remaja perempuan obesiti mempunyai tahap penglibatan hubungan romantik yang lebih rendah berbanding remaja perempuan yang memiliki berat badan yang normal. Selain itu, Jodkowska et al., (2010) turut melaporkan bahawa pelajar yang mempunyai berat badan berlebihan sering menerima komen negatif dari guru yang menyebabkan mereka rasa sedih dan kecewa lalu mengelakkan diri dari menyertai sebarang aktiviti sosial teruatamanya aktiviti fizikal di sekolah.

Kemunduran Akademik Aspek akademik turut menerima kesan akibat masalah obesiti. Kajian keratan rentas yang dilakukan melibatkan 9,957 remaja mendapati remaja yang memiliki berat badan berlebihan diramalkan mempunyai masa hadapan pendidikan yang kurang memuaskan berdasarkan pencapaian akademik di sekolah yang rendah (Mellin, Neumark-Sztainer, Sory, Ireland, Resnick, 2002). Mankala kajian Falkner, Neumark-Sztainer, Story, M., Jeffery, R., Beuhring, T., Resnick (2001) mendapati remaja perempuan obes 1.5 kali lebih cenderung mengulang satu tahun di sekolah dan 2.1 kali lebih cenderung menjadi pelajar yang corot berdasarkan keputusan akademik. Bagi remaja lelaki obes, mereka juga 1.5 kali lebih cenderung menjadi pelajar yang corot dan 2.2 kali lebih cenderung berhenti belajar berbanding remaja lelaki yang mempunyai berat badan yang normal. Beberapa kajian mendapati bahawa kanak-kanak obesiti lebih banyak ketinggalan dari segi kehadiran ke sekolah berbanding kanak-kanak yang tidak obesiti. Kajian Geir, Foster, Womble, McLaughlin, Borradaile, Nachmani (2007) mendapati kanak-kanak yang berlebihan berat badan mempunyai rekod ketidakhadiran ke sekolah dengan purata 12 hari dalam setahun berbanding 10 hari dalam kalangan kanak-kanak yang tidak obesiti berdasarkan kajian ke atas 1069 orang kanak-kanak dari sembilan buah sekolah rendah awam. Hal ini berkemungkinan disebabkan oleh masalah kesihatan yang disebabkan oleh obesiti (Daniels, 2006). Tambahan lagi, obesiti semasa remaja diasosiasikan dengan kecenderungan yang rendah untuk mendapat ijazah dari kolej berdasarkan kajian ke atas populasi sampel di United State (Fowler-Brown, Ngo, Phillips, Wee, 2010). Dalam kajian lain di United States mengenai remaja, Crosnoe (2007) mendapati remaja perempuan obesiti 50 peratus kurang cenderung untuk mendapat peluang belajar di kolej berbanding rakan sebaya yang tidak obesiti. Malahan, kajian mendapati remaja perempuan obesiti kurang cenderung untuk menghadiri kolej berbanding mereka yang tidak obes (Needham, Crosnoe, Muller, 2004).

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KESAN KESIHATAN PSIKOLOGI Obesiti disifatkan sebagai ancaman yang menganggu keupayaan remaja untuk menjalani kehidupan yang sejahtera. Selain daripada berpotensi menyebabkan masalah sosial yang menjadi petunjuk kepada kualiti kehidupan yang rendah, obesiti turut meninggalkan impak negatif kepada aspek kesihatan psikologi remaja. Kemurungan, diet, dan gangguan pemakanan merupakan antara masalah berkaitan kesihatan psikologi yang sering dilaporkan dalam kalangan remaja obes selain daripada masalah penghargaan kendiri, imej tubuh badan dan kualiti kehidupan yang rendah.

Kemurungan Kajian oleh Luppino, de Wit, Bouvy, Stijnen, Cuijpers, Penninx, Zitman (2010) dan Daniels (2005) menemui hasil kajian yang mendapati terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara obesiti dan kemurungan dalam kalangan remaja. Malahan, kajian Herva, Laitinen, Miettunen, Veijola, Karvonen, Lakshy, Joukamaa (2006) turut mendedahkan bahwa individu dewasa yang mempunyai mempunyai pengalaman obesiti semasa berusia 14 tahun mengalami tahap kemurungan yang lebih tinggi berbanding mereka yang mempunyai berat badan yang normal ketika usia remaja. Selain mempunyai hubungan dengan obesiti, masalah kemurungan turut meningkatkan risiko kepada pelbagai komplikasi kesihatan lain yang menghalang individu daripada menjalani kehidupan berkualiti (Flegal et al., 2010; Daniels, 2006). Obesiti sememangnya berpotensi menyebabkan masalah kemurungan. Namun begitu, kajian oleh Richardson, Davis, Poulton, McCauley, Moffitt, Caspi (2003) mendapati remaja perempuan yang mengalami kemurungan juga berisiko untuk mengalami obesiti semasa dewasa. Lebih buruk, remaja yang pernah mengalami kemurungan akan berterusan melaluinya dalam jangka masa yang panjang. Ini berdasarkan hasil dapatan kajian oleh Anderson, Cohen, Naumova, Must (2006) yang melaporkan bahawa remaja perempuan Amerika Afrika dan White yang mengalami kemurungan akibat masalah obesiti akan terus mengalami simptom-simptom kemurungan apabila dewasa. Pengalaman yang dilalui oleh remaja obes turut bertanggungjawab menyebabkan masalah kemurungan berlaku secara tidak langsung. Neimary, Shim, Mattox, Holden (2012) melaporkan remaja obesiti mengalami kemurungan disebabkan oleh pengalaman menjadi mangsa buli dan ejekan berkaitan berat badan mereka. Malahan, Daniels (2006) mendedahkan kemurungan dalam kalangan remaja obesiti turut menyebabkan mereka kurang mempunyai kawan dan sering berasa terpinggir dari rakan mereka. Kajian oleh Herva et al., (2006) mendedahkan individu dewasa yang mempunyai pengalaman obesiti pada usia 14 tahun mempunyai kadar kemurungan yang lebih tinggi berbanding mereka yang mempunyai berat badan normal ketika usia remaja. Tambahan lagi, Anderson et al., (2006) menemui remaja perempuan obesiti yang menderita masalah kemurungan berisiko menderita masalah obesiti dan akan terus mengalaminya dalam jangka masa yang panjang. Walau bagaimanapun, obesiti dan kemurungan menunjukkan perbezaan signifikan berdasarkan jantina. Merten, Wickrama, Williams (2008) mendapati remaja perempuan obes lebih cenderung mengalami kemurungan berbanding remaja lelaki yang obes. Needham dan Crosnoe (2005) mencadangkan ia disebabkan oleh faktor remaja perempuan lebih sensitif mengenai isu berkaitan tubuh badan berbanding lelaki. Jestard, Boutelle, Ness and Stice (2010) dan Eremis, Cetin, Tamar, Bukusoglu, Akdeniz, Gokses (2004) mendapati remaja obesiti yang mengalami kemurungan mempunyai gangguan emosi, tahap aktiviti fizikal dan penghargaan kendiri yang rendah serta tingkah laku delikuensi. Sementara Palmeira, Branco Martins, Minderico, Silva, Vieira, Barata, Serpa, Sardinha,Teixeira (2010) mencadangkan pengurangan berat badan boleh membantu untuk mengurangkan kemurungan disamping melibatkan diri dengan aktiviti fizikal secara rutin. Walaupun beberapa kajian mendapati obesiti mempunyai hubungan dengan kemurungan, Daniels (2005) menyangkal dakwaan tersebut dan berpendapat bahawa obesiti bukan faktor penyebab kepada masalah kemurungan sebaliknya kemurungan mempunyai hubungan dengan perasaan bimbang mengenai berat badan dan tingkah laku diet berdasarkan kajian dalam kalangan remaja berusia 16 hingga 18 tahun. Pendapat beliau turut disokong oleh Kim dan Kim (2001) yang mendapati kemurungan berlaku disebabkan oleh faktor persepsi mengenai masalah berat badan manakala faktor BMI tidak mempengaruhi keadaan ini berdasarkan kajian yang dijalankan ke atas 303 remaja perempuan di Korea.

Penghargaan Kendiri Penghargaan kendiri yang negatif merupakan salah satu aspek kesihatan psikologi yang didapati mempunyai hubungan dengan obesiti dan pelbagai asepek lain dalam kehidupan remaja. Kajian oleh McClure, Tanskiand, Sargent (2010) melalui temu bual telefon mendapati remaja obes adalah dua kali ganda lebih cenderung mempunyai penghargaan kendiri yang rendah berbanding remaja yang tidak obes. Tambahan lagi, status Indeks Jisim Tubuh (IJT) juga didapati boleh mempengaruhi penghargaan kendiri berdasarkan hasil kajian Wang dan Veugelers (2008) yang mendedahkan remaja obes mempunyai 1.44 kali tahap penghargaan kendiri © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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yang lebih rendah berbanding remaja yang mempunyai status berat badan yang lebih rendah atau normal. Selain itu, kajian turut melaporkan bahawa tahap pendidikan ibu bapa, ekonomi keluarga dan penglibatan fizikal yang positif merupakan faktor pelindung kepada masalah penghargaan kendiri yang rendah. Sekiranya masalah penghargaan kendiri yang rendah tidak dicegah, remaja yang mengalaminya akan mengalami kemurungan (Steigerm, Allemand, Robins & Fend, 2014; Orth, Robins, Widaman & Conge, 2013), kesihatan mental, fizikal dan ekonomi yang tidak memuaskan serta peningkatan penglibatan remaja dalam kes juvana (Trzesniewski, Donnellan, Moffitt, Robins, Poulton & Caspi, 2006). Berbeza dengan remaja yang mempunyai penghargaan kendiri yang rendah, penghargaan kendiri yang positif dalam kalangan remaja mempunyai hubungan dengan penglibatan aktiviti fizikal dan kehadiran sekolah yang baik (Gitau Micklesfield, Pettifor, Norris, 2014; Kristjansson, Sigfusdottir, Allegrante, 2010) sekaligus menunjukkan penghargaan kendiri yang positif merupakan petunjuk kepada kesejahteraan psikososial yang baik dalam kalangan remaja. Berdasarkan jantina, didapati remaja perempuan obes lebih berisiko mengalami masalah penghargaan kendiri yang rendah berbanding remaja lelaki obes (Gitau et al., 2014). Ini menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan signifikan berdasarkan jantina antara obesiti dan penghargaan kendiri. Namun begitu, Israel dan Ivanova (2002) berpendapat sebaliknya dan menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan antara obesiti dan penghargaan kendiri sebaliknya faktor umur lebih bertanggungjawab menjelaskan tahap penghargaan kendiri seseorang. Hal ini berikutan dapatan kajian yang melaporkan bahawa remaja yang lebih berusia mempunyai penghargaan yang lebih rendah berbanding remaja yang mempunyai berat badan berlebihan.

Imej Tubuh Badan Imej tubuh badan yang negatif atau rasa tidak puas hati dengan tubuh badan didapati mempunyai hubungan dengan remaja yang mengalami obesiti. Imej tubuh badan merupakan persepsi atau sikap seseorang kepada penampilan diri sendiri (Weinshenker, 2002). Imej tubuh badan yang ideal ditentukan berdasarkan budaya masyarakat setempat yang akan memberi kesan kepada keinginan seseorang memiliki bentuk badan yang bersesuaian (Martin, 2010). Fasa perkembangan yang dilalui oleh remaja menyebabkan mereka lebih prihatin mengenai penampilan fizikal dan penerimaan diri mereka oleh rakan sebaya (American Pyschology Association, 2002). Kajian keratan rentas menyokong dapatan kajian bahawa kanak-kanak obesiti lebih cenderung dengan signifikan untuk menunjukkan imej tubuh badan yang negatif berbanding rakan sebaya yang memiliki berat badan yang normal. Bergh et al., (2005) telah menjalankan kajian bagi mengenalpasti imej tubuh badan remaja lelaki dan mendapati 44 peratus remaja lelaki obesiti tidak berpuas hati dengan berat badan mereka dan 21 peratus tidak berpuas hati dengan penampilan wajah berbanding 13 peratus dan 9 peratus remaja lelaki yang memiliki berat badan yang normal. Remaja yang tidak berpuas hati dengan badan mereka berisiko tinggi mengalami perkembangan gangguan pemakanan dan pengurangan berat badan yang tidak sihat, kemurungan dan penghargaan kendiri yang rendah (Martin, 2010; Presnell, Bearman, Mandeley, 2007). Neumark-Sztainer, Wall, Story, Perry, (2003) telah mengakses tingkah laku dan perhatian mengenai berat badan dalam populasi sampel Project EAT sejumlah 4, 756 orang remaja. Hasil dapatan kajian mendapati 66 peratus remaja prempuan obesiti dan 47.8 peratus remaja lelaki obesiti mempunyai imej tubuh badan yang rendah dan 82.6 peratus remaja perempuan obesiti dan 76.5 peratus remaja lelaki obesiti mengawal berat badan secara serius. Tambahan lagi, kajian longitunidal menunjukkan obesiti merupakan petunjuk kepada imej tubuh badan yang negatif dan perhatian mengenai berat secara berlebihan terutamanya dalam kalangan remaja perempuan (Sweeting, Wright, Minnis, 2005; Presnell, Bearman, Stice, 2004; Stice & Whitenton, 2002).

Diet dan Gangguan Pemakanan Beberapa kajian telah mendapati remaja obesiti lebih cenderung untuk terlibat dengan amalan diet dan pelbagai cara mengurangkan berat badan yang tidak sihat berbanding remaja yang tidak mengalami masalah berat badan berlebihan (Goldfield, Moore, Henderson, Bucholz, Obeid & Falment, 2010; Crow, Eisenbergh, Story, Neumark-Sztainer, 2006). Dalam kajian yang melibatkan 4,746 remaja dari Project EAT, remaja yang berlebihan berat badan dilaporkan 1.5 hingga 3 kali lebih cenderung mengamalkan diet (Crow et al., 2006), manakala dapatan kajian longitunidal dari Project EAT yang dijalankan selama 5 tahun ke atas 2, 526 remaja menunjukkan remaja yang berlebihan berat badan mengalami gangguan pemakanan pada kadar yang tinggi (Neumark-Sztainer, Wall, Haines, Story, Sherwood, van der Berg, 2007). Tambahan lagi, remaja obesiti terlibat dengan tingkah laku mengawal berat badan secara ekstrim bagi mengurangkan berat badan seperti merokok, berpuasa, mengelakkan diri untuk makan, memuntahkan makanan dan menggunakan laksatif atau pil diet dalam kalangan kedua-kedua jantina. Lebih membimbangkan, remaja yang cuba mengurangkan berat badan secara bahaya dan tidak sihat didapati tiga kali lebih berisiko untuk mengalami berat badan berlebihan selepas lima tahun kemudian (Neumark-Sztainer, Wall, Guo, Story, Haines, Eisenbergh,2006). Britz, Seigfried, Ziegler, Lamertz, Herpertz-Dahlmann, Remschmidt, Wittchen, Hebebrand (2000) mendapati remaja obesiti yang © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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menjalani rawatan klinikal enam kali lebih tinggi dilaporkan mengalami gangguan pemakanan. Sebanyak 60 peratus remaja perempuan dan 35 peratus remaja lelaki yang mengalami obesiti mempunyai tingkah laku makan secara berlebihan (binge eating) yang merupakan salah satu jenis gangguan pemakanan. Kajian prospektif lain turut mendapati amalan diet boleh meramalkan perkembangan obesiti dan peningkatan berat badan (Stice, Presnell, Shaw & Rohde, 2005; Field, Austin, Taylor, Malpseis, Rosner, Rockett, 2003). Beberapa kajian menunjukkan remaja obesiti yang mengalami binge eating turut berhadapan dengan masalah imej tubuh badan yang negatif, penghargaan kendiri yang rendah, peningkatan kemurungan, kebimbangan dan percubaan membunuh diri (Ackard, Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Perry, 2003;Tanfosky-Kraftt, Faden, Yanovski, Wilfley, Yanovski, 2005).

Kualiti Kehidupan Obesiti juga sering dikaitkan dengan kualiti kehidupan yang berkaitan dengan kesihatan (HRQOL) yang rendah. Beberapa kajian telah mendedahkan remaja obesiti berisiko tinggi mempunyai HRQOL yang kurang memuaskan (Griffiths, Parsons, Andrew, 2010; Keating, Moodies & Swinburn, 2011; Pinhas-Hamiel, Singer, Pilpel, Fradkin, Modan, Reichman, 2006). Kajian oleh Griffiths et al., (2010) menunjukkan berlaku penurunan kualiti kehidupan dari sudut keupayaan fizikal, penampilan dan fungsi sosial dalam kalangan remaja obes. Dapatan hasil kajian yang sama turut diperoleh berdasarkan kajian keratan rentas 2,890 pelajar yang menyertai Pacific Obesity Prevention in Communities Project di Australia. Remaja obesiti dilaporkan mempunyai skor yang rendah berdasarkan fungsi fizikal, sosial dan emosi (Keating et al., 2011). Pinhas-Hamiel et al., (2006) mengkaji HRQOL berdasarkan sampel klinikal 182 kanak-kanak dan remaja obesiti di klinik pediatrik obesiti dan klinik obesiti di sebuah hospital mendapati kanak-kanak dan remaja yang obes mepunyai skor HRQOL yang rendah terutamanya dari sudut fizikal, sosial dan akademik. Malahan, kecenderungan kanak-kanak obes mengalami HRQOL yang teruk adalah 5.5 kali lebih tinggi berbanding kanak-kanak yang sihat dan keadaan ini hampir menyerupai HRQOL seperti kanak-kanak yang didiagnosis dengan penyakit kanser (Schwimmer, Burkwinkle & Varni, 2003). Walau bagaimanapun, kajian oleh Boodai & Reilly (2013) tidak menemui sebarang hubungan signifikan antara obesiti dan HRQOL dalam kalangan 500 orang remaja Kuwait yang mungkin disebabkan oleh kesan perbezaan budaya terhadap obesiti di negara berkenaan.

KESIMPULAN Selain daripada impak obesiti kepada aspek kesihatan fizikal, aspek psikososial yang terjejas akibat masalah ini juga memberi gambaran yang jelas kepada kita mengenai kepentingan isu ini untuk diketengahkan terutamanya dalam dalam bidang kerja sosial. Asas amalan kerja sosial adalah untuk mempromosikan perubahan sosial, penyelesaian masalah dalam hubungan manusia, dan pemerkasaan dan pembebasan bagi meningkatkan kesejahteraan hidup. Justeru itu, pendekatan kerja sosial melalui pelaksanaan intervensi yang lebih komprehensif boleh dilakukan bagi membantu remaja obes lebih bijak menghadapi dan mengatasi masalah psikososial yang membelenggu dan menjejaskan segenap aspek kehidupan manusia. Malahan, intervensi yang sesuai dan efektif mampu meningkatkan fungsi sosial dalam masyarakat dan memberi peluang kepada golongan ini untuk menikmati kehidupan yang baik.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

THE QUALITY OF OUTREACH WORKERS AND THE SERVICES THEY PROVIDE FOR THE NSEP PROGRAM IN MALAYSIA Ismail Baba* *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia Azlinda Azman Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract The outreach workers have been the focal point for the success and failure of the NSP in Malaysia. They are the back bone and the front line workers of the program. The program that was introduced in 2006 and has succeeded in reducing the number of HIV infections among people who inject drugs (PWID). In a recent study by the Centre of Excellence for Research in AIDS (CERiA) at the University of Malaya and the Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales on harm reduction programs that the Malaysian government has saved RM47.1 million in direct health care costs that include treatment and monitoring. This is to demonstrate that harm reduction programs in Malaysia are highly cost-effective. The outreach workers faced many challenges while providing services to PWID. They often have to face with stakeholders who are completely rejected or give very little support to the NSP. Additionally, they also have to face with stigma and discrimination due to the work they do. For the outreach workers who are ex-PWID this is an occupationally hazard job for them. If they are not strong emotionally, psychologically and socially they can easily revert back to their old habit of injecting drugs. For the outreach workers who are new to the job, naïve and inexperienced they often being manipulated by PWID. All these could lead to burnout. So far very little studies have been done to examine the role of the outreach workers in providing NSP in Malaysia or anywhere else in the world. If the outreach workers remain to be the backbone of the NSP we need to know how well they cope with the work and what are the challenges they have faced in delivering NSP. A qualitative study that involved 16 outreach workers and three focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted in the northern part of Malaysia. The findings suggested that we need to redefine the role the outreach workers in NSP. If Malaysia were to expand its NSP nationwide, she has to take the outreach workers seriously. A proper standard and training must be set up in order to improve quality of the NSP. Their social well of the outreach workers being must be properly addressed. Furthermore their role can be expended to the Methadone Maintenance Therapy (MMT) program in order provide better service to PWID. Keywords: outreach workers, NSP, MMT, PWID, HIV/AIDS, burnout, training, quality, and standard

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

INTRODUCTION Outreach workers have been the focal point for the success and failure of the Needle Syringe Exchange Program (NSEP program) in Malaysia. They are the back bone and considered the front line workers for the NSEP program in Malaysia. They are instrumental in providing all of the services that have been stipulated under the NSEP program and the rightly so individuals to deal with people who inject drugs (PWID) in the community. Outreach workers often face many daily challenges when they work with PWID. Additionally, they also have to face stakeholders who completely reject or give very little support to the NSEP in Malaysia. Outreach workers are often stigmatized and discriminated against because of the work they do. They have to struggle with their inner strength and feelings that we often take for granted. For outreach workers who are ex-drug users, this can be an occupationally hazard for them. Every time they distribute needles and syringes to the PWID they are being reminded that they were once injecting drugs themselves. Lacking in emotional strength as well as psychologically and socially, they can easily revert back to their old habit. For the outreach workers who are new, naïve and inexperienced they are often being manipulated by the PWID. Having to deal with stakeholders who have very little understanding of the program can be tiresome and can lead to burnout. Thus far, very few studies have been done to examine the role of the outreach workers providing services to the PWID in Malaysia or anywhere else in the world. If the outreach workers remain to be the backbone of the NSEP program, it is necessary to know how well they can cope with the work and what are some of the challenges they have faced in delivering services to the PWID. We also need to assure the quality of services that the outreach workers have provided to their clients. Once the study is completed we would be able to identify how we can improve the quality of services that are needed for the NSEP in Malaysia. Outreach workers involved with the NSEP in Malaysia consist of former PWID and some even on a methadone program. However, there are a large number of them who have never used or have never been involved with drugs before. In some sites, many of them are graduates of social work programs and other related fields in the social sciences. The rational of having two cohorts of outreach workers is mainly to give the opportunity to the former PWID to be re-employed as well as help them fit back into society. This is so that they can be accepted and lead a normal life. By hiring graduates from social work backgrounds, the NSEP in Malaysia hopes to enhance the quality of services since we know that these graduates already possess the skills, knowledge, and positive values to work with various areas of the population. By having the two cohorts, both groups can complement each other in providing the best social services to the NSEP clients. Although NSEP in Malaysia has been introduced since 2006, there is no specific study that looks into the quality of services that these outreach workers provide for the drug users in the community. It is assumed that outreach workers are able to provide good services as they have undergone a series of training organized by relevant agencies with regards to drug rehabilitation. However, there are no concrete findings that show whether outreach workers are able to offer the best quality services to this specific target group, being drug users.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS The primary research question for this study therefore would be: “What are the factors influencing the quality of services provided to PWID by the outreach workers through NSEP”? Exploring the factors will then help to contribute to the improvement of the NSEP outreach workers in providing the best services to the drug users (clients).

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The general aim of this study is to examine factors that can influence the quality of services provided by the outreach workers to the PWID through the NSEP programme. Specifically, the study aims to explore the following: a. To identify what services are involved in providing for the NSEP to the PWID. b. To examine what factors influence the quality of services provided by the outreach workers through the NSEP. c. To explore what kinds of training outreach workers have received in the NSEP. d. To analyse how the outreach workers define quality when working with the NSEP program. e. To explore what challenges are faced when providing services to PWID. f. To analyse in what ways they are motivated to provide better services to PWID through the NSEP.

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LITERATURE REVIEW Harm Reduction in the context of HIV and AIDS epidemics are primarily aimed to reduce the rates of HIV infections among drug users [IDUs] (Hughes, 2008; Denning, 2000). The central focus of harm reduction is to alleviate the negative consequences associated with drug use to individuals, groups and communities (McVinney & Hamid, 2008; Hughes, 2008). Roe (2006) has emphasized that harm reduction as a "technology of agency", through which at risk populations becomes the target of programmes to transform their status, to make them active citizens capable, as individual and communities, of managing their own risk (p. 246)". He regarded harm reduction programmes as a bottom-up approach that empowers individuals and communities to address their addiction problems by gaining the necessary knowledge and ways to overcome. One of the prevention efforts towards reducing the transmission of HIV among IDUs and their partners include the Needle Syringe and Exchange Programme which, in fact, is a programme created that was regarded as an effective approach for the prevention of HIV and AIDS (Denning, 2000). The success of Harm Reduction, particularly within the NSEP, however, primarily depends on the systematic and effective efforts by many other parties. The implementation of NSEP heavily relies on the continuous efforts or intervention provided by the relevant stakeholders. The operation of NSEP for example will depend on the commitment of the staff working to provide direct services to the drug users. This is inclusive of the time involved, the passion shown as well as the interest and quality of the services provided. In the context of NSEP, reaching out to the substance abuser is one of the main modus operandi in its operation. The services of the outreach workers become the primary focus in ensuring the distribution of clean needles and syringes to the at-risk IDUs. The employment of outreach workers must be those who have some knowledge of drug addictions and also the necessary skills in dealing or providing direct services or intervention to the IDUs. The outreach workers have important responsibilities in the implementation of the NSEP and outreaching for the IDUs. The dependency on outreach workers can, at times, contribute to various issues and challenges. Outreach workers, for example, will experience issues of burnout due to stress when dealing directly with IDUs. At the same time, being given a heavy workload and the need to fulfill role expectations in meeting the objectives of the NSEP, outreach workers are also prone to experience possible burnout periods. Other factors that have also been found associated with possible burnout are frustration of the available resources, work demands, enumeration or wages, inadequate social support, personal issues. Educational status and some related to the recovery status for ex-drug users in addition to working as an outreach worker are also contributing factors (Broome et. al, 2009; Ducharme, Knudsen & Roman, 2008; McNulty et. al, 2007). Social stigma and discrimination associated with drug abuse will influence both the clients who experience substance abuse disorders and service providers who provide treatment. Society may view related drug as immoral behaviour rather than a medical problem. As substance abuse, particularly drug use remains socially stigmatized, often times, providing treatment and services to individuals with a substance abuse is both considered as a low prestige and low paying occupation for some communities (Oser, Biebel, Pullen & Harp, 2013). Such findings may also be found among the outreach workers, being on the front line providing services to the IDUs. There is also some probability that outreach workers may be exposed as social stigmas including receiving low enumerations or wages. Burnout issues can lead to other consequences within the operation of the NSEP organization as well as the client. Operation for the NSEP, for example, will face some difficulties if there is a high turnover rate due to burnout that contributes to a high rate of absenteeism, a lack of continuity, and a decreased quality of services. All of these factors will further contribute to clients prematurely withdrawing from existing treatment (McKay, 2009; Schaefer et. al., 2005). This is supported by McKay (2009) who states that clients receiving positive therapeutic relationships from their counsellor will engage in lower drug use and are abstinent for longer periods of time. Although burnout may occur in all types of occupations, it is most commonly observed among those working in the human services industry. This is because those working in human services have to deal with emotional aspects of the relationships between the caregiver and client (Ducharme, Knudsen & Roman, 2008). This is also supported by Maslach, Jackson & Leiter (1997) who supports that the occurrence of burnout is associated to work that is demanding and involves significant emotional investment. These research findings are greatly connected to the possibility of outreach workers to experience all kinds of challenges which can lead to burnout when providing needles and syringes to the IDUs. Based on the various research findings, it is the aim of the study to examine the factors that can or may influence the quality of services of the outreach workers. It is also aimed to explore and analyse the different challenges faced by the outreach workers when giving their services. In addition, the study hopes to understand, in greater depth, the different motivational factors and training needed for outreach workers in order for them © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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to provide the best services to the IDUs.

METHODOLOGY This study focuses on factors influencing the quality of services provided to the PWID by the outreach workers through the NSEP. Qualitative research was employed in order to explore a very wide expression of information that can be obtained from the stakeholders or informants, particularly from outreach workers, PWID and organizations that are providing NSEP.

Sampling and Data Collection Stakeholders or informants for this study consist of outreach workers who were currently involved in the three sites of NSEP in the northern region of Peninsular Malaysia, particularly in Penang, Perak, and Kedah. These three states provided an acceptable basis for data collection as the NSEP program was first introduced in the State of Penang. This is in light of the sites in Perak and Kedah being the newest / current sites that run the NSEP program. Selection of these three states was able to provide a thorough picture on the implementation of the NSEP program when it first started in 2006 until today. The outreach workers consisted of two cohorts, those who were injecting ex-drug users and university graduates with a background in social work and sociology. Outreach workers can be defined by those who work directly with the PWID who are not living in the institution and delivering services that are stipulated under the NSEP. Other stakeholders or informants include the police, families of the PWID, health workers, social workers who were working at the drug rehabilitation centers, and other relevant individuals. In-depth fact to face interviews with the stakeholders or informants were used to allow probing, clarifying, summarizing, and confronting any information given that may have appeared unclear. In-depth interviews were done several times until the researchers were satisfied with the information or at least up until there was no more new information (data saturation) which could be gained from the stakeholders/informants. In this qualitative research, a total of 16 respondents (outreach workers) were selected for the study. Purposive sampling was used to select the informants as researchers were only interested in people who were genuinely concerned and directly involved with the issue under study. Focus group discussions (FGDs) were also conducted to several groups of stakeholders, mainly with the police, health workers, social workers and family members of the PWID. A total of three (3) FGDs were carried out, one in each state, in Penang, Perak and Kedah to allow researchers to identify, explore and analyse the feedback of the stakeholders on the quality of the outreach workers and the services they provided in the NSEP program. All interviews were recorded using tape recordings. The researchers managed to secure the necessary permission from the informants/respondents before any taping was carried out. Informants and stakeholders were given full written and oral information about this study and were given the choice to sign the consent forms if it was agreed to participate the study. The informants and stakeholders of this study were able to represent the relevance of the phenomenon that the researchers wanted to study based upon their experiences and concern. The study used enumerators for the data gathering process. The selected enumerators were given a sensitization training to allow them to engage and gain accurate information from the informants and stakeholders. The training was specifically focused on the purpose / objective of the research and the overall structure on the running of the NSEP program. Interpersonal skills in dealing with the NSEP workers and stakeholders and the steps needed to be taken upon rejection of the informants or stakeholders was analyzed. The importance of getting consent from the informants and stakeholders as well as other necessary areas which needed to be addressed was to preserve the confidentiality and accuracy of the research. A series of sensitization training was conducted for the study. The sensitization training was conducted in stages prior and during the study and when handling any issues that may have emerged from the data collection process. The researchers themselves conducted the sensitization training for the enumerators. The study did not employ or use any structured questionnaire. Rather, the study was guided by relevant topic areas that addressed the research questions and objectives. The guided topic areas included the following: 5.2.1

What kind of training have you received? • What did you learn there? • Who provided the training?

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5.2.2

What kind of services did you provide? • NSEP • Referral to MMT, Legal & ART • VCT • IEC • Counselling

5.2.3

Do you think you have given a level of good quality services to your clients? (Define good quality?) • How often do you see your clients (week, month)? • How frequently do you follow up with your clients? • Can you describe them as examples: Do you know their faces/homes, etc.? • Describe your usual interaction with your clients. • Do you ask them about their health/family & etc.? • How often do you refer people to MMT/ART/Legal Services? • Do you get enough support from your supervisors/MAC/MOH?

5.2.4

What are the challenges you face when providing services to your clients? • Have you experienced stigma and discrimination? • What happens when you relapse and feel burnout? • What happened the last time you were arrested? • Who were you with?

5.2.5

What motivates you when delivering services to your clients? • How do you feel when your client disappear or get arrested? • How do you feel when clients don’t return their needles? • How did the MMT Clinic respond when you were referred? • How did that make you feel? • How do you feel when your clients comply with the services rendered?

5.2.6

What about job satisfaction as an outreach worker? • Remuneration • Salary • Job-security • Career progression.

DATA ANALYSIS Research data was transcribed and eventually content analysis was employed according to appropriate themes and sub-themes. These themes were able to determine the research questions and objectives of the study. Data was analyzed based upon individual interviews. An interview is often seen as a construct of knowledge. Through a symbolic interaction, the informants / stakeholders are able to reflect their experiences in the form of meaning-making which can then be used as a way of understanding issues for this research. In data analysis the researchers have compared interviewees with each other. A typology was developed to view similarities and dissimilarities of the interviewees. For example, how did each interviewee define the factors influencing the quality of services provided to PWID by the outreach workers through NSEP? From the interview, the researchers also expected several forms of internal generalization. From this point, researchers would be able to conclude what the interviewees thought and said. Data from focus group discussions were used to compare how groups of people thought and what was said. Information from the FGDs served as data triangulation for the information that was been captured from the face-to-face interviews.

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FINDINGS Introduction Outreach workers play a major role in the success and failure of the NSEP program in Malaysia. They serve as the front line workers for the NSEP program. There have been very few studies done in Malaysia in examining what factors influence the quality of services to the PWID by outreach work. Since the introduction of the NSEP in 2006 very little knowledge exists in terms of what challenges are faced by outreach workers when dealing with the PWID and other stakeholders. Findings from this study, hopefully, would be useful to the people concerned, particularly. If we want to sustain the NSEP program as well as reduce the number of HIV infections, hepatitis, STIs via the PWID in Malaysia.

Sampling and Data Collection Informants or respondents from this study consisted of stakeholders of the NSEP. They were mainly outreach workers from three sites of the NSEP in the northern region of Peninsular Malaysia mainly in the states of Penang, Kedah and Perak. These three (3) states provided good baseline information for data collection on the NSEP program. The NSEP was first introduced in the State of Penang in 2006 followed by the State of Kedah in 2008. Perak’s NSEP is the newest site and was established in 2010. Selection of these three sites helped the researchers to provide a thorough picture of the NSEP program from the time when it was first introduced until the present day. Sixteen (16) outreach workers from the three sites were involved in the in-depth interviews. They were selected based upon their experiences and duration of involvement with the NSEP program. For the purpose of data analysis, each outreach worker was given a code so that specific references and citations could be drawn from their in-depth interviews. There were eight (8) outreach workers from Perak (PK) and they were coded from PK1 to PK8. Another four (4) outreach workers were from Penang (PG) and were coded from PG9 to PG12 as well as four (4) outreach workers from Kedah (KD) coded from KD13 to KD16. Purposive sampling was used in the selection of the informants. Purposive sampling was employed simply because the researchers were only interested in informants who were genuinely concerned and directly involved with the related issues under the study. The outreach workers who participated as informants in the study consisted of two cohorts. The first cohort was ex-injecting drug users and the second cohort consisted of graduates of a social work program with an exception of a few from the field of sociology. The outreach workers could be defined by those delivering services that are stipulated under the NSEP and worked directly with the PWID not living in institutions. Other informants were individuals from the stakeholders involved in the focus group discussions (FGDs) which included the police, family members of the PWID, medical doctors, nurses, health workers, social workers, officers from the Islamic religious department as well as others representing government and non-government organizations. In addition, the PWID was also invited to participate in the FGD. Three FGDs were conducted to mainly identify, explore and analyse feedback on the quality of the outreach workers and the services that the outreach workers provided in the NSEP program. Two FGDs were from the stakeholders and another one was among the PWID. All interviews were recorded through tape recorders after having received written consent from the informants. Prior to the study, all informants received written and oral information about the study and were asked to sign consent forms. The study employed six (6) research assistants or enumerators for the data gathering process. These research assistants consisted of four PhD candidates, one master’s student, and a graduate in a social work program. All of them were given sensitization training so that they were able to engage and gain accurate information from the informants. The training specifically focused on the purpose and objectives of the research; the overall structure on the running of the NSEP program; interpersonal skills when dealing with the informants; steps to be taken upon rejection of the informants; the importance of getting consent from the informants and other areas that needed to be addressed in order to preserve the confidentiality and accuracy of the research. Six (6) sensitization trainings were conducted for the study. Two training sessions were conducted prior to the data collection stage, another two were given in the midst of data collection for handling any issues that have emerged from the study, and another two were given after all data had been collected in helping to identify themes that emerged from the study. In-depth face-to-face interviews with the informants were conducted. Six trained qualitative research assistants were involved in the data collection and served as the main instrument for this study. Probing, clarifying, summarizing and confronting any information given were used during data collection to ensure the information was properly collected. In-depth interviews were done several times in some cases until the © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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researchers were satisfied with the information or at least until there was no more new information (data saturation) which could be gained from the informants.

Data Analysis Research data was transcribed and content analysis was used accordingly in order to identify appropriate themes. These themes determined the research question and objectives of the study. Data was analyzed based upon individual interviews and through FGDs. Interviews were used as a construct of knowledge. Through symbolic interaction the informants were able to reflect on their own experiences which helped the researchers form the real meaning-making used as a way of understanding issues related to the quality of the NSEP services. In data analysis, researchers compared and analyzed findings from each interviewee. A typology was set up to view similarities and dissimilarities of the interviewees. For example, how did interviewees define the factors influencing the quality of services provided to the PWID through the NSEP? From these interviews, researchers also identified several forms of internal generalizations, thus, enabling the researchers to conclude what the interviewees thought and said. Data from the FGDs was used to compare what groups of people thought and said. Information from the FGDs served as data triangulation for the information that had been captured from the face-to-face interviews. In order to answer the main research question as well as meet the objectives of this research, the researchers have identified seven (7) themes that became the major points of our findings. Through these themes, the researchers were able to look at various issues in which factors influenced the quality of services provided to the PWID. The seven themes were:

Theme 1 How the policies and stakeholders’ environment which covers the broader context in which outreach work occurs.

Theme 2 Focus on the individual outreach worker covering factors that include: a) discrimination, b) stress and burnout, c) lack of motivation, d) lack of confidence, e) lack of skills, f ) qualification, g) personal experience of injecting drugs, h) promotion of approaches not linked to evidence i.e. abstinence, i) sources of support of outreach workers, and j) relationship with partner of an outreach worker.

Theme 3 Addressed related issues of how the PWID helps to shape the quality of outreach work.

Theme 4 The way the relationship between the PWID and outreach workers appears. This theme looked at how their relationship shapes and determined quality of service of NSEP.

Theme 5 Explored factors specific to the services and health system that shape the quality of outreach.

Theme 6 Covered community and delivery of context a) family, b) drug pusher and c) community.

Theme 7 Viewed future challenges of the outreach workers.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATION Introduction HIV and AIDS was first discovered in 1981 in the United States of America (Curran, Jaffe, Hardy, Selik, Dondero, 1988; Rockville, 2000). The first three groups that have been affected by this pandemic were homosexuals, © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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drug users and sex workers (Markowitz, 2007; Barnett, Whiteside, 2002). Historically and socially, these groups have faced difficulties, given that their lifestyles were neither official nor legally sanctioned by society (Stulberg & Buckingham, 1988). Globally, the emergence of HIV and AIDS has created a new stigma for these groups. They not only had to deal with the issues of coming out with their real identity, but also had to face issues; such as fear of rejection, social isolation, guilt feelings, physical and emotional destruction resulting from AIDS. As the epidemic continued the process of stigmatization carried on to reinforce Malaysians’ negative attitudes towards these groups. The need to address HIV and AIDS in Malaysia came only when the epidemic began to affect the general population in this country. Since Malaysia has had many drug users and not to mention those who are injecting drugs, HIV infections became a new social and medical problem that demanded serious attention. From 1998-2006 it was reported that Malaysia had the highest number of HIV infections that came from those who injected drugs. This had triggered the government to take radical steps on how to reduce the number of HIV infections by this group (Bernama, 17 Dec 2008; Huang, Hussein, 2004; Ministry of Health Malaysia [MOH] 2012). In 2006 Malaysia was initially faced with the decision to introduce harm reduction programs in order to reduce the danger related with psychoactive drugs used by drug users who were unable or not quite ready to stop using drugs (Faisal, 2013). In Malaysia, the NSEP is a service model based on the philosophy of harm reduction whereby drug users can obtain hypodermic needles and other equipment free of charge in an effort to reduce the risk factors of HIV and hepatitis. Ideally, these needles and syringes should be returned in exchange for new ones. In providing this service, Malaysia has adopted the approach of a Drop In Center (DIC) and Outreach Work. In the DIC, needle exchange, counseling, light treatment, meals and a rest place are provided to the PWID (Faisal, 2013; Sarnon, Baba & Hatta, 2007).

Quality of Outreach Workers for NSEP Recruiting staff for the NSEP has always been difficult and a good practice does not mean the same in other NSEP programs. Some agencies or POs believe that ex-drug users are the best group to serve as outreach workers in an NSEP. While others prefer to have non drug users in their organizations simply because they believe that they can serve as good role models to those who are trying to reduce the harm in intravenous drug taking. Whatever it is, there is no rule on what is the best way to recruit outreach workers for the NSEP. Some have argued that if we can get the non-judgmental people to work with drug users and deliver the services required by the NSEP we would not have so many obstacles (Stimson, Alldritt, Dolan, & Donoghoe, 1988). At AARG outreach workers are divided by those who were ex-drug users and non-drug users. The non-drug users found that ex-drug users were very helpful and effective in helping AARG dealing with drug related issues. The non-drug users at AARG were those who were trained in social work. By pairing these two cohorts together they felt that they could provide better support and assist each other during delivery of their outreach work in the field. This system of pairing showed that the outreach workers with social work backgrounds have had better empathy towards the ex-drug users. Since the job is very much an occupational hazard for the ex-drug user, the trained social worker often serves as a life saver for their counterparts in case they have the craving to inject drugs. Looking at this system of pairing, the study conceptualized are the quality of outreach workers and services they have provided. In responding to the study, the researchers have come up with a research question mainly to look at what factors have influenced the quality of services provided to the PWID by the outreach workers through the NSEP. Research objectives that were identified include: a. Identify the services involved in providing the NSEP to a PWID. b. Examine what factors influence the quality of services provided by the outreach workers through the NSEP. c. Explore the kinds of training the outreach workers received in the NSEP. d. Analyse how the outreach workers define quality when working with the NSEP program. e. Explore the challenges faced when providing services to a PWID. f. Analyse the ways they are motivated to provide better services to the PWID through the NSEP.

Services of NSEP to PWID At present, there are about 20 NSEP sites throughout Malaysia and so far more than 24,000 PWIDs registered as clients of those NSEPs as well as over 300,000 NSEP kits containing clean needles and syringes that have been distributed (Faisal 2013; New Straits Times, 22 Feb. 2010). The NSEP is a community-based health care service that provides for people who inject drugs in Malaysia. Although the NSEP program has been introduced © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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since the early 1980s its services and activities vary from nation to nation and from site to site (Kumar, 2012). Overall, the NSEP in Malaysia provides a) exchanging used needles and syringes for disinfected ones, b) safe disposal of used injection material, c) outreach to and educating PWIDs on issues related to HIV and AIDS, d) information and referral, and f ) condom use and safer sex information (Sarnon, Baba & Hatta, 2007). All NSEP sites in Malaysia are managed by partner organizations (POs) under the supervision of MAC. For the purpose of this study, three sites were identified: AARG Penang (PG), AARG Perak (PK) and Sungai Petani sites under the Cahaya Harapan, Kedah (KD). All three sites basically have provided the same types of services as stipulated by the NSEP Malaysia. However, the AARG Penang used to have a DIC when it first started but it was closed down after a few reported incidences. At first, the program was not well received by the community when first introduced in Penang in 2006. Although the DIC Penang has proven itself and provided highly acclaimed services to the PWIDs it was unfortunately closed down (Mohamed, 2006). Other issues that DICs require are extra budgets from the MOHs to operate, and given the circumstances were not feasible at the time. AARG lost many of its clients when their DIC closed down causing them to disappear throughout the community. The other two sites (Ipoh and Kedah) do not have a DIC. They both rely on the outreach work as discussed above. Based on initial findings these NSEPs were first introduced they had no problems in providing the complete services that the MOH had identified. Unfortunately, when there was a salary budget cut of the outreach workers and other services, the quality of the NSEP went down. Almost all of outreach workers identified with this problem. Many were told that the budget cut was due to the decreasing numbers of the PWIDs in these sites and, therefore, they also had to cut down the number of outreach workers. Budget cuts had affected the number of outreach workers hired in these sites. In one particular site almost 70% of outreach workers were retrenched and a strong impact on the quality of services to the NSEPs. With very few outreach workers they were no longer able to provide frequent visits to the ports. This had also affected the number of returned used needles from the sites. All sites used to provide precision needles that were requested by their clients and with the budget cuts some had to grind or modify their own needles for their injecting needs. Another issue raised was condoms would only be given on request and not spontaneously as in the past. The NSEP used to receive a free supply of condoms, however, with the current practice the outreach workers are no longer able to provide this service. Although they can still provide information on safer sex but clients have to request or purchase condoms if they wanted to actually practice safer sex.

Factors Influencing Quality of Services The NSEP will have a strong impact for its quality of services if all stakeholders continue to provide support for the program. As it has been voiced out by some of the outreach workers, factors influencing the quality of services include: a) Supervision and management of the OW, b) a lack of commodities, c) a lack of OW training, d) policy limiting or allowing the OW involvement in the services, e) referrals, procedures and, f ) location of services. Supervison and management play an important role in managing the NSEP (UNODC, 2012). All three sites each have their own managers to provide supervison and organize day-to-day events for the NSEP. However, some outreach workers have experienced to little supervision due to their supervisors having to many other things to tend to. For sites with less outreach workers available they were deemed quite established so this was not a big problem. In these sites many workers do not require close supervison simply because many were already quite familiar with their tasks and duties. Nonetheless, briefing and debriefing still remained important tasks for all sites done twice daily. Once before the outreach workers leave and once when they return from their sites visits. Many sensed this as an important process not only to share some of the problems faces by others also used to build a rapport and a relationship among the outreach workers (UNODC, 2012; NASCOP, 2013; Ibrahim, 2007). A lack of commodities have certainly influenced the quality of services. Some outreach workers have argued that they used to be able to conduct a VCT and even trained by health officers from the MOH. They felt this type of service appeared to be very popular and was perceived as a very user friendly service. Many of them knew they could no longer provide this valuable service to clients. It’s been said that their clients prefered to see the outreach workers as opposed to health officers in government hospitals or clinics (Sarnon, Baba & Hatta, 2007). With a lack of outreach work training then allowing outreach workers to venture out into new services only improved the quality of the NSEP as mentioned earlier. At the beginning there seemed to be plenty of training for outreach workers but since the cut backs in the budget there seemed to be less and less training by the respective organizations such as MAC, MOH and even the police. Some sites have on-going training and © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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workshops, therefore, it would not be a problem to invite the outreach workers to join in. However, others have to rely very much on the MAC or MOH to provide such training. Training is important especially for the new outreach workers (MAC & MAF, 2011). Service on information and referrals (I&R) may also influence the quality of service. Outreach workers have engaged in referring clients to the MOH for MMT or to other governement agencies for related services. However, clients are turned off when they had to wait, especially, for entry into the MMT program. Some MMTs, hospitals and clinics are not user friendly because many potential clients for MMTs live far away from these hospitals and clinics that offer MMTs. MMTs have often lost their clients because they are unable to comply to certain social and personal circumstances (Mattick, Breen, Kimber & Davoli, 2009; Jones, Kaltenbach, Heil, Stine, Coyle, Arria & Fischer, 2010). An important issue often raised is that the police continue to interfere with the work of outreach workers. Clients of the NSEP have often complained that they sometimes are arrested by the police for carrying needles, condoms or for being at their ports. Often, the outreach workers are accused of being spies for the police. Whenever this incident takes place it is often difficult to build a relationship that they had built with the PWID. The job of outreach became slower-moving and was very time consuming to find a new port. In the meantime, they lost clients due to arrests, mistrust and moving away from the NSEP coverage area (Singh, 2012). Finally, other stakehloders, communities, and families of the PWIDs have influenced the quality of services of the NSEP by demostrating concern over the work of the outreach workers. Many are still ignorant and not very supportive of the NSEP. Outreach workers are often looked down upon and still perceived as people who promote drug use for their family members and the community (Bluthenthal, Anderson, Flynn, & Kral, 2007)

Training Received by Outreach Workers Outreach workers who were hired when the program was first introduced have received much training in the past. The first batch of outreach workers were trained on HIV, AIDS, NSEP, treatment and care, harm reduction, the SOP, NSEP, MMT, monitoring and evaluation of the NSEP, VCT, vein management, narcotics and counseling. Some have attended international workshops on NSEPs in Nepal, Poland, Bangkok, and Bali. However, due to budget constraints many were not able to receive these types of training.

Definition of Quality Overall, outreach workers are a very dedicated group of people serving the NSEPs. They are genuinely concerned, caring, empathetic, non-judgmental and hardworking individuals. Based on the interviews of many outreach workers their quality was defined differently. They were able to express the definition of quality in different terms but all towards improving the quality of the outreach work. Many felt that continuous support from the stakeholders played an important role towards the quality of outreach work. They believed that their work would be meaningless without the support of the MOH, MAC, police, AADK, community and all relevant government and non-government organizations. They were frustrated when their jobs were not appreciated by people who should be supporting the program (Downing, Riess, Vernon, Mulia, Hollinquest, McKnight & Edlin, 2005). Other outreach workers understood that the quality of service should be improved by having easy access to the services and the services need to be more user-friendly. Many thought that everyone must listen to the PWID if we are serious about reducing the HIV infections in the country. Perhaps the NSEP and MMT should be more mobile rather than having the service stationed in one particular area with no public transportation and far from their own community (Zamani, Kihara, Gouya, Vazirian, Ono-Kihara, Razzaghi, & Ichikawa, 2005). Furthermore, they felt that we should try to minimize the long waiting list. Daily visits to the hospitals and clinics for the MMT can create problems of compliance since many of them are financially dependent and had to rely on others for transportation. For those working this is also an issue for compliance. In terms of the NSEP, many believed that the quality of services could be improved if there is less interference from the police on sites mainly in regards to providing clean needles and collecting used needles (Singh, 2012) Stigma and discrimination remains a major obstacle in preventing HIV and AIDS work in Malaysia. Stigma and discrimination is largely due to ignorance from all segments of society. Many think that the Malaysian government should be more proactive in providing more accurate information on the NSEP to the public especially when the program has proven to reduce the number of HIV infections among PWIDs in Malaysia and elsewhere (Salina, Hoesni, Subhi, Mohamad, Fauziah, Lukman & Alavi, 2011; Narayanan, Vicknasingam, & Robson, 2011). Stigma and discrimination should be tackled at the individual, family, group and at the community levels so that no one can escape from the process (Salina, et., 2011; Hamid, Hui, Omar, Sulaiman, Mohd, & Zan, 2012). © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Competency in providing the NSEP is also one area that outreach workers have defined the quality of service. They agreed that they should have sufficient knowledge on the NSEP and all related information connecting HIV and AIDS. Knowledge is a tool used for trying to persuade the PWID to change their life style. The outreach workers must be persuasive enough so that the PWID can use and share the right information with the rest of their friends. Having the knowledge alone is not good enough if the outreach workers lack the communication skills needed when dealing with PWID. They should know when and how to use their communication skills when dealing with resistance and the mistrust of clients. As mentioned earlier, building a good rapport at the beginning of the process of intervention is very significant. Along with having specific skills the outreach workers also felt that they must have the right values so that they do not appear to be judgmental when they have already been stigmatized and discriminated against (Sarnon, Baba, Mohamad, Azreena, Lukman, Subhi & Saadah, 2011; Baba, 1995). In-service training as part of a continuing education program has also been defined as an important element for improving the quality of service (Bennett, 1999). The first batch of outreach workers used to receive training has stopped due to financial constraints. Since the outreach workers frequently come and go there is a need to provide training to the new workers. Some sites used to have one person in-charge of training but with fewer number of outreach workers training seems to be neglected.

Challenges in Providing Services to PWID The biggest challenge for outreach workers is that they don’t know whether the NSEP will be discontinued. Many of them have observed that their colleagues have been retrenched and those still in the program counting the days before they would be asked to leave. The rational of cutting the number of outreach workers seems peculiar when they themselves are seeing more and more young people using drugs (Sarnon, et, 2011). In time, this young generation will start injecting drugs as well if they are left without early intervention. Many outreach workers suspected that it is unwise to think that the number of PWIDs has reached a level of saturation where they will not be going back to drug use. They also felt that it is unwise to retrench these outreach workers just because the number of PWIDs injecting drugs have currently been reduced. Looking at the present structure, the growing number of arrests still exists and perhaps some of these PWIDs are probably serving a sentence or are forced into drug rehabilitation centers (Ismail, 2010; Mohamed, 2006). Some PWIDs have switched to the MMT but their numbers are difficult to predict since there is no direct link between the NSEP and MMT. Developing a good relationship with the police is another challenge faced by the outreach workers. Outreach workers are fully aware that the police department needs to fulfill their KPI by demonstrating how many arrests they can make in a month or a year. This is somewhat entangled with the spirit of reducing the number of HIV infections that has been stipulated in the SOP. The top level police officers seem to know and are well versed with the NSEP and do appreciate the work of the NSEP workers. However, the front line members of the police do not seem to have a good understanding of the program (Sarnon, et., 2011; Singh, 2012). This is where the conflict lies. Perhaps there should be more dialogue with the police and the NSEP. In the past, some sites have tried to conduct workshops with the members of the police but these type of workshops are not part of the MOH budget, therefore, each site would have to finance their own training program or workshop. Stigma and discrimination from some segments of the community has already been discussed and yet remains a challenge for outreach workers. There is a need to develop a close relationship with the community and win their sanction for this type of work (Salina & et. al, 2011; Narayanan & et. al, 2011). Sanction from the community is important in order for the outreach workers to go into the community without looking suspicious or looked down upon. Formal and informal leaders need to play an active role in order to promote the NSEP. The outreach workers can also provide outreach work in the community once they have been given a green light to carry out such activities.

Motivation for Better Services to NSEP Motivation for better services relies very much on job security, commodities and a stable relationship among co-workers and managers at the work place. Many are happy with the work they do but some live in fear not knowing when they will be retrenched. For the ex-PWIDs, the job appears to be the best thing that ever happened to them especially when they had to struggle looking for a job before the establishment of the NSEP. This is the biggest motivation for them to continue on working as outreach workers. Whereas, for the graduates, this is an opportunity for them to exercise their knowledge, skills and values they have learnt in social work. Being appreciated by other stakeholders is also one source of motivation for better services to the NSEP (Sarnon, et., 2011; Salina, et., 2011)

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Implications for NSEP Program, Policy and Future Research Globally, as mentioned earlier the NSEP has been the focal point for the success rate in reducing the number of HIV infections (Stancliff, Agins, Rich & Burris 2003; North American Syringe Exchange Network 2000; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) [15 July 2005]; Tilson, et al. 2007; McDonald, 2009). The notion that the NSEP only encourages PWIDs to further inject drugs has been proven untrue. Much research has demonstrated that the NSEP has heightened the social well-being of the PWID instead. Even in Malaysia the number of HIV infections among PWIDs has shown a consistent drop ever since the NSEP was introduced in 2006. The Health Minister of Malaysia, Datuk Seri Dr S.Subramaniam stated that the new infection among PWIDs has decreased from 53 per cent in 2006 to only 22 percent in 2013. Therefore, he is quite confident that the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of targeting 11 new infections for every 100,000 of the population by 2015 could be achieved (Daily Express [KK], 25 May 2014). Prevention and control of HIV among PWIDs through decreased drug injection use, reduction of sharing injecting equipment, and promoting safer sex has had a proven strategy to minimize the HIV transmission in the general population. This research has some implications to the NSEP program in Malaysia. In order to enhance outreach services to PWIDs and continue to be effective, Malaysia needs to sustain the NSEP. Closing down certain sites and reducing number of outreach workers will only reinforce more social problems among the PWIDs. Even though the number of HIV infections among PWIDs has reduced in this country it does not mean the number of people who use drugs or have had relapses have dropped. The number of new cases of people taking drugs and people going back to drugs remains the same or in some years is even higher. (http://www.statistics.gov. my/portal/download_Labour/files/BPTMS/PST-Siri12.pdf ). It is predicted that these young people will also be involved in injecting drugs or engaging in unsafe sex due to drug taking. Therefore, reducing number of outreach workers will not help the nation to curb the problem of drug taking and the spread of HIV and AIDS. What the nation needs is to provide a capacity building and better knowledge and skills on how to work with a young population with the potential to abuse drugs and engage in unprotected sex. After all, prevention is better than a cure and this would save the nation’s budget for medical treatment in years to come. NSEP can also be further improved by building better cooperation among the stakeholders especially with MOH and AADK. Harm reduction in Malaysia is divided between the NSEP and MMT. Based on the findings, a harm reduction program would be more effective if it can be placed under one program or roof especially judging from the rapport that has been built between outreach workers and PWIDs. At present, the system has no strong link in uniting the two services together. Once NSEP clients are referred to MMT the outreach workers have no more connections with them. The connection will only become visible again when they are back in the ports for drug injecting activity. Better communication between the MOH and police need to be strengthened if we want to see more PWIDs participate in this program. The NSEP program can also be improved if the police and MOH can iron out their differences for the sake of the harm reduction program namely the NSEP. Certain laws with regards to possession of condoms and needles can be compromised. It defeats the purpose if PWIDs would not be allowed to carry these paraphernalia to dispose of used needles. Furthermore, dismantling ports of the PWIDs also does not help the NSEP program. When such things happen it takes time for outreach workers to rebuild their rapport again with the PWIDs. In the meantime, the outreach workers are left without clients. With regards to improving services to PWIDs, the DIC and VCT should be allowed back in part and as partial NSEP services. As mentioned earlier, the DIC encourages more PWIDs to come forward for help. They do not only come for themselves but also bring other family members for VCT, Hepatitis, STIs and other related issues to HIV and AIDS. Therefore, the DIC can also be used as a focal point for information and referral service. With proper set up and supervision, the DIC can also be a place for PWIDs to inject drugs safely. Outreach workers often observe that PWIDs do not know how to manage their veins and this has endangered their lives. They should be helped on how to inject properly and have a clean and conducive environment for such activities. This would also prevent them from harming themselves in other ways. The VCT should be easily available for everyone and should be user friendly. If we are serious about encouraging people to come forward and know their status we must train as many people as possible for HIV-anti body testing. People who are at risk for HIV are more likely to see people that they are familiar with rather than going to a place that they are going to be judged and labeled. The outreach workers who are trained to provide VCT can perform this duty at the DIC or when they visiting their clients on site. In terms of recruitment of staff for the NSEP, the combination of graduates in social work and ex-PWIDs somehow appear to be quite practical. This practice should be continued in order to bring the two diverse © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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cohorts together. This combination seems to complement each other as well. One group that has the knowledge, skills and right values to work for PWIDs can enhance professionalism and work ethics. Whereas, the other group who has had no formal education but has had many experience with drug taking can assist the other on how to better understand the life of PWIDs. This cohort can also teach their counterpart in terms of “do’s” and “don’ts” when work with PWIDs. The graduates, on the other hand, can help and prevent their former PWID colleagues on how to refrain from drug taking through active listening and emotional support. This research used qualitative data and one of its limitations is that the findings cannot be generalized. Findings from this particular data enable us to understand the in depth problems that exist in the three sites of the NSEP mainly in Perak (ARG), Penang (AARG) and Kedah (Cahaya Harapan). These findings are genuine in terms of how the informants felt about the current situations of the NSEP among the three sites. However, internal generalization can be made in order to understand the problems that each site faced in trying to improve quality of the NSEP. What we need to do is to conduct quantitative research that can handle bigger sample areas of study where we are more able to make generalizations. After having discussed with several outreach workers from other sites that are not included in the study, the findings of this research somehow reflect what is happening in other NSEPs in Malaysia as well. Findings of this research have also reflected in other studies (Crofts, Reid & Deany; 1998; Wodak & Cooney, 2006).

CONCLUSION The estimated HIV prevalence in Malaysia is somewhat lower as compared to its neighbors such as Cambodia (2600), Thailand (1500) and Myanmar (1200). It has been estimated that Malaysia has 400 of HIV infections for every 100,000 people. This number of infections needs serious attention from the government if Malaysia really wants to reduce its infection number to 11 per 100,000 people as stated by the Minister of Health (2014). Malaysia is also struggling with substance abuse among its young population. Since the number of people taking drugs is difficult to identify due to many factors, Malaysia still needs to continue on its harm reduction program particularly on the NSEP that was introduced in 2006. By cutting down the NSEP services and number of outreach workers it will only make the problem grow. The PWIDs who have switched to MMT from the NSEP need to have continuous psychosocial support that they have once received. Malaysia needs to sustain its NSEP program so that the outreach workers can continue to provide the quality of work in reducing the number of HIV infections as well as sustain the cost-effectiveness of the program.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

ROLE OF LIFE SKILLS TRAINING IN STUDENT'S MENTAL HEALTH Tahereh Bagherpour* *[email protected] Islamic Azad University, Semnan, Iran

Abstract Human complicates life according to the different aspects needed to achieve growth and development of the necessary skills and sufficient to deal with difficult situations in life, and also provide suitable conditions in order to have the all-round development. Then, the successful, fully fledged, and healthy person has sufficient ability and skill for conflicting with various conditions and tries to change himself \ herself for advance situation. These properties will recognize that they have life skills, while unsuccessful persons, and the person who not reach to stability advancement at various aspects, have less mental health and don’t have any ability to solve their problems and not have any life skills. Therefore, having life skills and apply it for reaching to progress and maturity will solve most of difficulties, fiascos and abnormal and it gives us a life sprightly, full of trying, progressing, useful and formative that it is better start from adolescence age. In attention to confirming above subject by many researches and also reached idea to it, you should have mental health and acknowledge of life correct style and appropriate for aching to prosperity and all – out transmutation in your life, because this, the present research has considered teaching life skills effect on mental health and the source of adolescence control. Keywords: life skills, mental health

INTRODUCTION Scientific and technological advances in recent years drive to mankind have faced a lot of problems growing. Work, education and mental–social pressures are the subjects that have important role in security of mental health, success, and healthy life and effective. All the people have naturally the ability to solve problems, but this ability should be according to person's condition and positions as they understand as efficient skills (1). Psychologist, in recently decade, with considering behavioral difficulties and social detours have decided that the most of difficulties and inabilities are coming from correct and suitable analyze of self position, inexistence of control fill, personal adequacy to conflict with have situation and inexistence of preparation for solving the problems and life problem as well. Then, as far many alterations and complexities in society and advance of social the persons, especially young age, psychologist have started training of life skill to pretention of mental socks and social enormous, with supporting of national and international organizations over the world and in schools levels." Maurice E.Elias " from American Rajerz university that has written " social decision and growth of life skills ", presents popular concept of life skills are effective and suitable communications with others, doing social responsibilities, make true decision, elimination of conflicts without any doing that undamaged oneself or others. The training program of life skills have extended by Gilbert in 1987. Gilbert has done a lot of studies about prevention programs in schools, among more than 300 and 400 students (3). The programs provided for Prevention of drug abuse, smoking and drinking alcohol.The educational programs related to drugs, attitudes and norms related to the materials and skills to resist social influences to promote Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

self-management and interpersonal skills development (15). According to Botvin and kantor, (2000) the component of life skills are self manage and social skills. Individual self manage and life skills are the abilities of decision making and resolving, know about social effects, and build up resistance to it, contrast to anxiety, anger and frustration, determining an object, self lead and self strengthen (5).

THE TYPE OF LIFE SKILLS Researchers using of scientific source available, WHO’s documentation and available program in world, that have determined 54 skills to leaving healthy as primary school 'curriculum. Life skills are different and clear sighted persons have expressed different divided parts but similar for life skills (11). a. Baldo and freence introduce life skills as development of critical ideas about possibilities, behavioral control, education, more skills, bilateral communication and modification of physical and social setting, the skills should lie in training program including: Republican and participatory work, discussion and communication, decision making, solve the problems without any conflict, job and management skills, critical independence, creative thought, put in heart and mental pressure, self – confidence, cognition danger, self awareness and condolence, indiscrimination, respect to diversity, equality, sociability, supporting of environment and national identity and internationalizing. b. Researchers expressed life skills such as resolving skills, decision making skills, human communication skills, rational designed skills and creative – critical thought skills. c. Skills are different and each one was confirmed according to the requirements in especial position:. There are most skills in our country including: • Social skills such as: communication with others skills, self analysis and others, making friends skills, adaptation skills, confliction with disquiets skills. • Confliction skills like problematic confliction skills, string confliction skills. • Resolving skills including: general orienting to problem, different solution, evaluation of solutions, implantation of solutions, verification. d. There are different percepts about life skills that all of them confirm these : resolving skills professional knowledge’s, life time, learning, complicated thought, interactional – cooperate on relationships, responsible citizen, health, using ways, self regard, decision making skills, pressure control. Life skills are an individual centralized process that follows the goal of helping others to improve self skills. This collection assumes all the people have abilities and weeks in life skills. Feelings, thoughts and actions are ineffective, the inability of the life skills. Life skills collection is help others for self help. It means that the persons who option some new skills for life should have been committed to his / her life. Set of life skills not only think about making abilities the persons in present, but it confirms to making abilities them in future. Also it focuses on inference of individual potential abilities. Generally, the object of life skills collection is, help to persons for moving from inabilities to strong and capable skills. These skills include individual obligated decisions. Responsibility or commitment is positive concept that according to this, the persons commit against their health and making decisions on life problems. The final goal of life skills can be that people need to accept responsibility for his personal fitness advantage. These included feelings of competency level of personal fitness, mental health, self-actualization and personal responsibility. Then, life skills have precautionary objects and also control and problem management, it is a training process, for republican and individual interference (9). Life Skills program is based on the principle that children have a right to be empowered and need to be able to defend themselves and their interests in the face of difficult life situations. Life skills are skills that have teaches for increasing mental – social abilities and the person can face on conflict. The object of life skills training is to increase mental – social abilities, prevention of injurious behaviors to health, health and development of mental health level. Two major assumptions is accepted that Life Skills Training Program is the first there is a positive relationship between performance and life of emotional adjustment, and secondly, that life skills can be learned and acquired (11). According to Schinke & Gilechrist (1984) that have been quoted by kadish et at. (2001) consultative programs of life skills are more suitable process that is based on theoretic that were supported by experimental studies. This program is for helping adolescents to obtain social – individual abilities. They believed consultative program of life skills ready adolescents for life crisis control and prevention of life problems, and then it is cause to improve mental – physical health. According to klingman (1198), the programs of life skills is result of prevention processes and this is based on social prevention psychology that have an object, training and adequacy development. Role of life skills in mental health life skills training prepare the persons for healthy © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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social behavior by programs of life skills.

THE ROLE OF LIFE SKILLS ON MENTAL HEALTH The promotion of mental health and behavioral readiness, life skills training, individual and social wellequipped to conduct the: a. Mental – social abilities that create by learning and practice of life skills. b. Feeling of adequacy and individual abilities in life skills areas. c. Individual purpose and tendency for performing the abilities. We assume that we must effect on mental health and preparation for obtaining to health behavioral and presentation. For this purpose, the program of life skills should interfere along time. Short – term interference, like interference for weak, have short term effect on mental health, less long – term interference like interference for months, effect on mental health, proficiencies. Behavioral trends and feeling of adequacy only with long – term interference like interference for years can improve mental health and effect on mental health; finally, it will change healthy behaviors and social behaviors (2). According to white (2001), mental health person have several properties such as: a. Self acceptation and self love: this property covering two concepts (self concentration) and self regard (self acceptation). If these two concepts be together, they will be processor of the first part of mental health (self acceptation and love). b. Communication with others: When the person have positive self regard and accept him self / her self and be love, then he / she will communicate well with others . c. Conflict whit life needs: it is a part of mental health, conflict whit life needs and life challenge and commitment control. These commitments as by family, friends, school, activates, jobs and etc…. . d. In this case, the basic point is stress management. When stress effect on persons, they should have confliction skills to decrease affects of stress on body and mind. If the persons manage (decrease or control) stress and have effective confliction skills, they will conflict better to needs and challenges of life. e. Suitable excitement: the persons should recognize self excitement and display. Otherwise, individual mental health will damaged. As has been discussed, a variety of life skills such as problem solving, decision making, stress management, anger management effected in reducing drug abuse, delinquency, violence, anxiety, depression, suicide and even chronic diseases such as schizophrenia and physical illnesses. Also it has a positive effect on increasing of self regard, social adaptation and education al operation . Some observations also confine affect of training on perception of control resource.

THEORIES Psychiatry Theory Psychiatry theory have biotic – communication theory. According to this theory, the person who has mental health, have a balanced system and do well. If the balance eliminate, mental illness will present.

Behaviorism Theory Behaviorism sight believes that mental health deepens on stimulus and environment. Then, according to behaviorist theory what other communicator know as mental illness, it is behavior that have been learned like other behavior. Generally, according, to behaviorism theory, the person who has mental health, then, his / her behavior is adaptable with a kind of behavioral normality.

Humanism Theory This theory holds that the mental health needs satisfaction levels and to achieve self-actualization level, each operating at a level that satisfies the needs of individuals with low levels of self-actualization and hold him to prevent disorder will bring.

Cognitive Theory According to this theory, mental health is a good adaptation or a good feeling, especially when this adaptation or feel should be according with habitude standards (3).

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CONCLUSION OF STUDIES Several studies have been conducted and indicated a dramatic effect of life skills training in preventing behavioral abnormalities. In thrza study (1995), life skills increasing are effective on prevention of suicide. Also Kim (1994) realizes that life skills training are effective on learning of inability children. Hallin (1994) also evaluated affection of life skills on social life. The results have shown affection of life skills training on prevention of suicide. In program of life skills training for prevention of suicide, have been teaches communication skills, control of stress, and goal determination. The result showed the affection of this program on decreasing suicide value (13). In studies of life skills program, results showed the students using of narcotic drug and contributed in training program were minimized using the narcotic drug compare with students didn’t contribute in this program (14). The studies shown that the adolescents who have high refuse abilities they are less vulnerable against same pressure (8).

RESULTS The main objective of the World Health Organization of creating life skills in mental health is that different societies worldwide toward the development, implementation and evaluation of educational programs that focus on life skills, mental growth and ability to solve the problem, deal with the emotions, self-awareness, social adjustment, stress management among children and young people to action. The studies show that life skills training help to improve children and adolescent’s life skills training and this is one of the most basilar precautionary programs. Health has the first part of happy life and schools play important role in briefing to students about health subjects and life science training. Life skills training case to the person can change her / his activations to potential abilities. teaching life skills enable a person to knowledge, values and attitudes of their actual ability to convert. That person should know what to do and how to do it. Life skills that lead to healthy behavior incentives, also the person's perception of others is effective (4). In addition, confidence is increased. So in general we can say that life skills can lead to increased mental health. Therefore, students are responsible for their health by these programs, deciding better about health, and generally start health life style for adolescent. It causes to operate students according to their potential talents and they become ready to conflict with variations and life needs in future.

REFERENCES Espitora, H . B. (1991). Spin or stress. Translated by: Attoney general Prikh ( 2005) . Tehran third edition. Roshd publishing . Gasemi, T. (2004). Recognizing of relationship between the source of control and the ways of confliction and boys mental side view in new education organization in Tehran. Master thesis psychology, Alzahra university. Gangi, H. (2004). Mental health. Fifth edition, Tehran. Arasbaran publishing. Albertyn, R. M., kapp. C.A ., & Enewald, C. J. (2001). Patterns of empowerment in inviduals through the course of a life skills program. Journal of in the Education of Adults, 33(2), 21–180. Bernard, B., & Fafoglia, B. (1991). Effective substance abuse prevention school social workers as catalysts for change. Journal of Social Work in Education, 13(2), 15–20. Botvin, G. J., with Mihalic, S., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1998). Blueprints for Violence Prevention: Life Skills Training, D. S. Elliott (Series Ed). Boulder, CO: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. Botvin, G. J., & Kantor, L. W. (2000). Prevention Alcohol and tobacco use through life skills training. Journal of Alcohol Research & Health, 24(40), 8-250. Breton, J. J. (1999). Complement development of presentation and mental health promotion programs for Canadian children based on contemporary scientific paradigms. Canadian Journal of psychiatry, 44(3), 7-227. Cassiady, T. (2000). Stress, Healthiness and health behaviors: an exploration of the role of life events, daily hassles, cognitive appraisal and coping process. Journal of Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 13(3), 19-293. Collins, M. E., & Mowbray, C. T. (1999). Measuring coping strategies in an educational intervation for individuals with psychiatric. Journal Health & Social Work, 24(4) 12-279. Darden, C. A., & Ginter, E. J. (1996). Life skills development scale adolescence. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 18(20), 22-142. Ginter, E . J . (1999). Contribution to the developmentally based life skills approach. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 21(3), 12-191. Heaven, P . C . L. (1996). Adolescent health. Routledge, International Thomason publishing. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Highland, P. (1998). How does AIDS affect you? Journal of Current Health, 25(4), 11. Benard, B., & Fafoglia, B. (1991). Effective substance abuse prevention school social workers as catalysts for change. Journal of Social Work in Education, 13(2), 15-20.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

KNOWLEDGE AND TREATMENT SEEKING BEHAVIOUR OF UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN STUDENTS IN KWARA STATE, NIGERIA Kehinde Kadijat Kadiri* *[email protected] University of Ilorin, Nigeria Mohd Khairie Ahmad & Che Su Mustaffa Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract The growing rate of risky sexual behaviour among young adults contributes significantly to the spread of Sexually Transmitted Infections epidemic in Nigeria. As a result of which this study explores STIs knowledge and treatment seeking behaviour among University of Ilorin students aged between 18-25 years. An in-depth interview was conducted among forty students. The study reveals that young adults have a good knowledge of HIV/AIDS but few of them have little knowledge of only gonorrhoea. It was noted that the informants still have a lot of ambiguous information that relates to STIs. They also perceived risky sexual behaviour is common among their peers. When they had STIs, most of them prefer to get self-medications from traditional healers or patronize road side pharmacy. Also, they do not like to go to medical practitioners because of stigmatization by medical practitioners, lack of confidentiality, slow service and low cost. It is recommended that a multi-sectoral effort of young peoples’ families, Non-Governmental Organisations, traditional medical practitioners, media practitioners and health professionals towards improving STIs knowledge as well as promoting and encouraging preventive as well as effective treatment practices must be made available for this population. The study concludes that there is a need for the implementation of an all-encompassing integrated multi-sectoral approach which will utilise all the various stakeholders in providing a comprehensive abstinence sexuality education for young adults. Keywords: knowledge, treatment, STIs, campaign, young adults

INTRODUCTION Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are presently the most common infectious diseases which are responsible for several reproductive health problems affecting young people around the world (Aliyu et al., 2013; Anwar, Sulaiman, Ahmadi, & Khan, 2010; Dehne & Riedner, 2001; Lewis, Latif, &Ndowa, 2007; WHO, 2001). Accordingly, this infection resulted into an important public and social health issue. Consequently, there is now overwhelming evidence that the provision of relevant information about STIs and the concomitant improved treatment of symptomatic STIs is highly desirable for an effective intervention in the prevention and control of STIs (Cohen, 1998; Eaton, 2010; Grosskurth et al., 1995; Lillie, Pulerwitz, & Curbow, 2009). However, the sexual and reproductive health needs of young people are often unmet in developing countries (Erulkar, Onoka, & Phiri, 2005; Lewis, Latif, & Ndowa, 2007) which results in the prevalence of STIs infections. Young people below the ages of 25 are disproportionately affected by STIs because of their engagement in unsafe sexual practices such as multiple sexual partnerships, casual sex and inconsistent condom use Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

(Kiapi‑Iwa & Hart, 2004). Correspondingly, WHO (2001) stated that young people in this age category have experienced over 100 million new cases of STIs annually. This shows that the age between 15–24 years is a very sensitive and important aspect of young people’s life. Audinarayana (2010) explained that this period remains an evolutionary period to early adulthood, a critical period in a man’s life in terms of physical growth and development, social and emotional maturity, sexual maturity and the onset of sexual activity experimentation. Nigeria, the most populous country in Sub-Saharan Africa, has a high prevalence of STIs among young people (Adedimeji, Omololu, & Odutolu, 2007; Oladepo & Fayemi, 2011) and currently the second most populated country infected with HIV/AIDS in the world (USAID, 2008). Also, statistics from the Nigerian National AIDS/STD Control Program reveals that one-third of young people between the ages of 15 and 25 years are infected with new cases of HIV/AIDS infections (FMH, 1996). The high prevalence of the infections resulted in making STIs to be ranked among the top five diseases which young people in Nigeria seek medical attention for and the major sexually transmitted infections such as gonorrhoea and syphilis are ranked among the ten most reported noticeable diseases in Nigeria (FMOH, 2002). A survey of female adolescents in a rural Nigerian population revealed that 80% had vaginal discharge, 19.8% had candidiasis, 11% had trichomoniasis, and 10.5% had chlamydia infection (Brabin et al., 1995). Another study among patients in a hospital in Nigeria indicated that there is high prevalence of STIs in the community as well as prevailing high sexual risk behaviours (Olakolu, Abioye-Kuteyi & Oyegbade, 2011). Prior studies about the knowledge of HIV/AIDS among young people in Nigeria revealed that the awareness level on the disease are high, however, specific knowledge of the disease still remain very scanty (Oyo-Ita et al., 2005; Wodi, 2005). Similarly, the Nigerian National HIV/AIDS and Reproductive Health Survey of 2007 revealed that most Nigerians are aware of STIs, but women possessed lower level of knowledge than men. In another development, Temin et al.,(1999) revealed that young people in Nigeria had little knowledge of other STIs apart from HIV/AIDS. The study shows that young people did not mention a link between AIDS and other STIs which shows that there is scanty knowledge on STIs. Olaitan (2007) found that tertiary institution students in Nigeria had a high knowledge of HIV/AIDS and there was no significant difference in knowledge of HIV/ AIDS between male and female students. Similarly, Ebeniro (2010) reported that knowledge of HIV/AIDS was significantly higher among female students compared with their male counterparts in Nigerian universities. Invariably, adequate knowledge of the symptoms of STIs is one of the most important rudiments for seeking treatment timely. Furthermore, assessing factors that hinders adolescents from seeking treatment for STIs is essential in deciding the practice, policy and design appropriate interventions. As an illustration, a study on the treatment seeking behaviour of young people in Nigeria revealed that young people prefer STIs treatments from traditional healers compared with orthodox medical practitioners because such providers offer confidential treatment, low cost and fast service (Temin et al., 1999). In essence, young people are exposed to knowledge and treatment of STIs from different sources which might be full of misconceptions. This ambiguity of information can result in negative financial, social, deteriorating health or personal consequences that can result in termination of life. Therefore, having accurate knowledge about STIs and how to access appropriate treatment is important to counter myths, reduce associated fear and anxiety, change risky sexual behaviour, and create a supplementary humane and sympathetic response to individuals with the disease (Shrum, Turner & Bruce, 1989). Therefore, it is desirable that STIs preventive communication campaign be informed by the knowledge of STIs and treatment seeking behaviour of young people which will be suitable for the diverse needs and local context of young people lives (Oladepo & Fayemi, 2011; Temin et al., 1999). Campaign that is informed by the diverse needs of young people are most effective when appropriately targeted and tailored to the contexts in which young people live and to their life circumstances. Therefore, it is important that STIs communication be appropriately designed to inculcate the realities of life of these young people. It is noteworthy to mention at this juncture that information on young people’s knowledge and their treatment seeking behaviour among students in Ilorin, Kwara State is meagre. In view of this, the current study is designed to explore the knowledge of STIs and the treatment seeking behaviour of young people between the ages of 18 and 25 in University of Ilorin, Ilorin.

METHODOLOGY Our research was carried out among young adults between the ages of 18 and 25 years attending University of Ilorin, Ilorin. An unstructured personal interview was conducted for forty students in the tertiary institution after ethical approval was given by the Health Review Board of the University. Sampling of the students was based on a convenience sample. The academic advisers informed the students about the study and they

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were asked to report to the research assistant if they are willing to participate. In total, 19 females and 21 males participated in the interview session. Before each interview was conducted, the researcher explained in details to each respondent the purpose of the interview and the students were given the opportunity to turn down the offer of being interviewed if they so wish. Those interviewed gave verbal consent before the commencement of the interview. The students were assured that in the final report, all comments would remain anonymous and that their participation would not be divulged to others outside the discussion room. The interview sessions were conducted in English language which is the language used for instruction in the university since all students speak English fluently. Each interview lasted for forty-five minutes which was audio-taped and then transcribed. The interview sessions centred on the STIs knowledge and treatment seeking behaviour of young people. The knowledge of the informants on STIs was assessed based on the types of STIs and the symptoms of the infections that young people know. Those who admitted that they had been STIs positive in the last 12 months were further asked how they got to know that they were infected and if they sought treatment for the infection. Those who sought treatment were asked when and where they sought the treatment. Finally, those who delayed treatment were also asked to offer reason(s) for doing so. Upon completion of data collection, all data were compiled from audio tapes, recording notes, and the primary researcher’s observation note book. In transcribing the data, an attempt was made to transcribe the discussions verbatim, outlining emphasized words, pauses, and other such vocal activities as recommended by Creswell (2012). After the completion of the transcription, the data were then organised by question and response set. The content analysis was further used to uncover the themes and trends. The study categorized responses based on similar ideas and concepts which formed the main themes for the study. In all, seven themes were extracted which represent an average of 88% agreement in coding by a second assessor.

RESULTS STIs Knowledge Overall, the result of the in-depth interview showed that all the informants have a good knowledge of HIV/AIDS which was referred to as the big daddy of STIs; some of them have little knowledge of gonorrhoea while majority have little or no knowledge of other types of STIs. The students mentioned that STIs are contracted through unprotected sexual intercourse while HIV/AIDS apart from being transmitted through sexual intercourse can also be contracted through the sharing of sharp objects. One of the female informants explained that: ‘‘I have heard about HIV before…it was caused by sharing sharp objects and having unprotected sex with people…..it can be prevented by avoiding the sharing of sharp objects and through the usage of condom’’ Another female student explained: ‘‘I think I know of herpes but the most common is HIV, those are the two I remember right now. HIV is common due to huge awareness and its becoming rampant as it took us unawares.’’ One of the informants expressed that: “What I understand is that it is a disease that can be transferred through sexual act. STIs can only be contracted through sexual intercourse while HIV/AIDS can be contracted through other means like sharing of sharp objects”. Many of the informants are aware of gonorrhoea but they do not have in-depth knowledge about it as a form of STIs while syphilis was mentioned by few respondents. A few of the students mentioned that they have heard about other forms of STIs such as staphylococcus, hepatitis B and candidiasis but they do not have any information about it. For example, one said: “I know of gonorrhoea and HIV/AIDS. I can only recall only these two forms of STIs.’’ Another of the informant mentioned that “STIs are diseases that are transmitted sexually which are gonorrhoea, staphylococcus and HIV/AIDS. I don’t know anything about staphylococcus but I know a little about gonorrhoea.” The above statements show that the respondents have adequate knowledge of HIV/ AIDS, while they have little or no knowledge of other forms of STIs. This perspective is particularly insightful with respect to the fact these young people despite being sexually active and educated do not have in-depth knowledge about other forms of STIs apart from HIV/AIDS.

Low Knowledge on STIs When students were asked the reason for the little or no knowledge of other forms of STIs, one of the male students expressed that: “I only hear about gonorrhoea and staphylococcus when the traditional herb advertisers are promoting their products like Ajasepokipoki, Yemkem etc. I have never seen the advertisement like the way we see advertisements of HIV/AIDS neither have i attended any public lecture or forum in which they talk about other STIs like they do talk about HIV”. Another informant explained that: ‘‘…the other forms of STIs are not as ubiquitous like HIV/AIDS. We do not always hear about it like we do hear about HIV/AIDS. I heard about gonorrhoea through my friends and also through the traditional herbal medicine manufacturers who make advertisements on the television, radio and newspapers ’’ One of the male students further expressed © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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that he had never attended any public lecture or forum where they discuss about STIs like they do talk about HIV. This shows that information on STIs from the mass media focus mainly on HIV/AIDS at the detriment of other forms of STIs like gonorrhoea, syphilis, herpes and staphylococcus.

Symptoms of STIs Majority of the informants mentioned that pain in the genital area and painful urination was the most frequently mentioned symptoms of gonorrhoea. For example, one of the male informants said: “The symptoms that I know of are painful urination, incessant urination and discomfort during sexual intercourse.” Another echoed: “Gonorrhoea is like an unusual discharge in the penis or the vagina… unusual discharge like blood, water or anything that is strange”. One of the female informants explained that a sore in the tongue, throat or private parts are some of the symptoms of STIs. Yet another female informant explained that gonorrhoea is an infection that cause itching in the vagina area of women and it can cured easily when it is detected on time. Majority of the informants understand that STIs manifest in different ways among the female and male. They explained that the symptoms of STIs especially gonorrhoea manifest quickly in the male than the females because of the complicated and sensitive nature of the female reproductive system. One of female informants explained: “I know it is hidden in a woman because our body is complex. A lady may not know she has the disease but men know easily because they usually feel a hot sensation whenever they are urinating.” Most of the informants know the symptoms of HIV/AIDS. The most common symptoms mentioned by the young people were the deteriorating physical outlook of an individual which are breakout of rashes on the body and loss of weight. Other informants explained that one of the symptoms of HIV/AIDS is that it can lead to loss of appetite, incessant tiredness and stooling.

Forms of Contraception Majority of the participants agreed that condoms were the best form of protection from STIs. Abstinence was mentioned as the most ideal form of protection against STIs but majority of the young people confessed that it is not an easy task to achieve for individual who is already sexually active because risky sexual behaviour is common among their peers. Another form of prevention mentioned by the young people is faithfulness between STIs negative individuals. One of the informants stressed the importance of being faithful: “if one partner is faithful and another is not faithful, there is no guarantee they wouldn’t contract STIs except they use condoms regularly. However, if both are faithful to one another, it becomes impossible for them to contract STIs.” Another informant expressed that some young people make use of charms to detect if the other party is infected with STIs. Although the young people expressed that it is not a popular method never the less it is used by people that belief so much in it. They explained that the charm which is a leather rope is tied on the waist of the user and it quickly gives indication that the other party is infected which prompts the user to stop the initiation of the sexual intercourse.

Misconceptions of STIs The in-depth interview revealed that young people have a lot of misconceptions about STIs; this makes many of the students to have erroneous understanding of what STIs means. Some of the informants have the perception that lice on the head can later transform into STIs while a significant others explained that gonorrhoea occur when the pubic hair of one of the sexual partners penetrates into the private part of the other partners. Yet, another informant explained that one of the symptoms of syphilis is an ulcer of the mouth. The vast majority of the female informants explained that toilet infection is a type of STIs. They argued that once a lady uses a dirty public toilet and got infected then she can pass the infection to her boyfriend if they have unprotected sex. One of the female informants explained: ‘‘…If the lady does not use a condom, she can pass the gonorrhoea to the boyfriend. Even if she does not have sex with the man she has already gotten the infection and she must look for a means to get a cure’’ Another female informant argued that HIV/AIDS does not exist. She based her arguments on the information that she got from her father who according to her is a pharmacist.“…My daddy does not even believe that there is HIV because my dad has always told me that people come to him to buy drugs for gonorrhoea but nobody has come for HIV.” Another interesting discovery of this research was the expression by few students that it was gonorrhoea that metamorphosed into HIV/AIDS. The reason for this assertion was that they have never seen any campaign on the infection in the recent past. One of the male informants explained that ‘‘I personally feel that the HIV/AIDS that people are now making so much noise about metamorphosed from gonorrhoea. The last time I heard of gonorrhoea was when I was still a kid but recently I don’t hear anything about it again. This means that gonorrhoea metamorphosed to HIV/ AIDS’’. The perception of this informant shows that there are still so many misconceptions about HIV.

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Treatment-Seeking Behaviour One of the main questions that were explored in the study was whether the respondents have been infected with STIs before. One of the challenges of the study is that only few of the students admitted that they had contracted STIs at a particular point in their lives. Few of the respondents expressed that they had some friends who had been infected with STIs. For those who chose to talk about their STI experience, they mentioned that they prefer traditional medications as compared to orthodox medications. The respondents that had treated STIs generally agreed that most young adults with STIs symptoms sought care from traditional healers, followed by patent medicine dealers, private doctors, medical laboratory practitioners or self-medications. No one mentioned the use of doctors in state hospitals which is another source of treatment available in the study area. There were few differences in the treatment preferences between the male and female informants. While the male informants prefer the use of herbal drugs, the female informants prefer orthodox self-medication. According to a male informant “my uncle told me that the best prescription for me is the traditional medicine because the doctors will only give me medicine that will reduce it and later on, it will come back in a harsher way, I decide to give the traditional medicine a try and it worked very well.” Another reason for using the traditional medications is because orthodox medical prescriptions are considered to be very slow in the treatment of STIs and mostly unaffordable by young people. According to one of the male respondents, “…when it comes to curing STIs I will recommend the traditional medicine to anyone experiencing what I experienced because it worked perfectly for me without delay.’’ Another informant mentioned that the treatment for STIs is quite expensive and young people find it so difficult to afford which is one of the reasons why they usually visit the road side pharmacy, apply self-medications or make use of herbs. However, a male informant explained the reason why he used the herbal treatment: “I did not use the traditional herbs because it is cheaper but because my mother believed that it is the best remedy for the situation.’’ Another informant revealed that the reason why young people prefer the traditional medications is because it is faster and less expensive compared to the orthodox medication. One of the informant also mentioned that stigmatisation by the medical personnel is another reason for using the traditional medications. One explained: “I wanted to go to the hospital but I was wondering what I will tell the doctor was wrong with me… when I went to the traditional herbal lady I didn’t feel that way. She didn’t understand me so I went with someone who could speak her language and when I got there she said I should explain exactly what is wrong with me so she will mix the right medicine for me to avoid troubles.” Two other informants explained: “…the reason people do not go to hospital is mostly because of shame.” Another described the probability of meeting someone you know “…when you get to the laboratory you might feel you will meet someone you know there…and they might ask you the reason for your presence in the hospital or diagnostic centre’’. A female student noted that self-medication has an economic advantage but she was quick to recall how the act backfired on her. She explained: ‘‘The infection lasted for two months and it was because I didn’t go for proper medication and diagnosis test in the first instance. As students we would say we don’t have money but at a point I was blaming myself because the money I spent on self-medications and other medications was more than what I would have spent if I had gone to hospital for real medication when I first noticed the symptoms. I will advise anyone having such symptoms to go for a laboratory test in order to find out what is wrong instead of involving themselves in self-medications.’’ Another STIs treatment that was mentioned was prayers, which according to another female student was the last option that she opted for when her condition was deteriorating. ‘‘At a time I began to pray, that is why I said it is what you believe in that will work for you. When I started praying I told God to forgive me if I had done anything wrong because I couldn’t understand what was happening to me again.’’

Disclosure of Status The informants revealed that when people are infected with STIs they usually prefer to keep it as secret because of the stigmatisation that is attached to it. More than half of the informants who were infected with STIs in the past stated that they prefer to tell only trusted members of the family. Majority of the female informants stated that they prefer to tell their mothers or sister, none of the female informants mentioned talking to a relative. Only a few of the male informants prefer to mention their condition to their close relative like uncle and aunty. Majority of the boys explained that they prefer to talk to their friends or check the internet for information on STIs. Majority of the respondents who had experienced STIs chose to confide in few trusted family individuals. The reason for this choice was because STIs was regarded as a shameful infection and infected individuals do not always like to divulge their dirty secrets to people they have little or no trust in. According to a female informant, ‘‘I cannot tell just anybody, I spoke to my mum and my sisters; I cannot be dyeing inside and keep it to myself because this thing causes infertility… I wasn’t ready to take the risk of … maybe shame or something, © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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so I spoke to my immediate family about it.’’A male informant said, ‘‘I told my uncle because he is educated, elderly and he is someone that I have so much respect for. He was the one that told me not to use the orthodox medication because it is slow in curing the infection.’’ Still another commented, ‘‘I had gonorrhoea… I told my mum and she asked me what the caused was. I asked her what the causes were and she told me it can be through sex.’’

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTIONS The results of our study provide additional evidence on the urgent need to continue to educate young people on the knowledge of STIs and how and the reason for getting appropriate STIs treatment. The findings show that knowledge of the causes and prevention of HIV/AIDS among the respondents was high and this is in consonance with several studies (Adedimeji, Omololu, & Odutolu, 2007; Oladepo & Fayemi, 2011). However, there is low knowledge of other types of STIs which was also reflected in the studies of other scholars (Frappier, Kauman & Baltzer, 2008; McManus & Dhar, 2008). These studies show that young people had a high knowledge of the symptoms and transmission of HIV/AIDS, they were aware of gonorrhoea and syphilis as a form of STIs but they had little or no knowledge on other forms of STIs. The high knowledge of HIV/AIDS shows that the intervention designed to increase knowledge of HIV/AIDS has had positive impact, whereas the little or no awareness creation on other forms of STIs can be justified for the low information on other STIs. The reality of the discrimination in campaign between HIV/AIDS and other STIs belittle the consequences of these STIs such as gonorrhoea, syphilis, herpes and hepatitis B. Emphasizing that contracting other STIs might likely increase the transmission of HIV/AIDS may increase young people’s concern of other STIs. The media emphasis that the behaviour that places an individual at risk of STIs is also the one that place an individual to be at risk of HIV/AIDS is another way to improve the knowledge level of STIs. The study revealed that none of the young people interviewed have never seen campaigns of STIs like the way HIV/AIDS is being promoted. They have never seen any media advertisements on other STIs like gonorrhoea, syphilis, staphylococcus and herpes. The young people revealed that they heard about STIs through the traditional herb advertisers, internet and friends. The mass media in Nigeria place priority on cajoling young people to always use preventive measure instead of improving their knowledge level of the infections. This may be the reason why young people have basic knowledge on HIV/AIDS but not in-depth information on it. More male informants have more in-depth knowledge on STIs as compared to the females who have little knowledge on it. This finding can be attributed to the fact that males are more exposed to information because of their social network with friends. In view of this finding, STIs preventive communication campaign programmes must target young females and also emphasize that most STIs are asymptomatic in female that in young men. This finding is in line with previous research which shows that the male have more information on STIs than their female counterparts (Temin et al., 1999). The in-depth interviews also showed that young people still have misconceptions about STIs. While few of these young people doubt the existence of HIV/AIDS others have the perception that STIs could be contracted through the use of dirty toilets. This study shows that a significant numbers of young people still do not have in-depth knowledge on STIs. This finding is in line with the studies conducted by Temin et al., (1999) and Oladepo and Fayemi (2011) which showed that young people have various misconceptions about STIs. A key factor of STIs control approach is the improvement of STIs diagnosis and treatment which can be done most appropriately through formal health services. The in-depth interviews revealed that majority of the young people patronise the traditional doctors for the treatment of STIs. The reason for approaching these traditional practitioners were because of stigmatisation that is experienced by the orthodox medical doctors, high cost of treatment and quick service, time, medical provider’s lack of interpersonal skills, and confidentiality. This revelation shows that young people have low tolerance level for stigmatisation from medical doctors thereby compromising their health for unqualified traditional doctors. The reason for the preference for the traditional medication might be because of their exposure to the advertisements by traditional medicine organisation that disseminate information on the cure for STIs which the orthodox medication does not do. This finding tally with the work of Temin et al., (1999) which shows that young people prefer to patronise the traditional doctors compared to the orthodox doctors. Therefore, it is very important that specific program should investigate the medications that the traditional doctors provide and also to design and implement a strategy for integrating such treatments into formal medical care system. Also, it is of upmost importance that medical personnel are trained to target some of the problems that young people revealed in this study which can help in tailoring or improving of the health centres. The young people also prefer to keep their health conditions on STIs as a top secret because of the perceived stigmatisation that is accruable from making people to know about their status. However some of the young people prefer to disclose their status to few trusted friends and family members that they believe could be of help in ameliorating their health problems. This study provides evidence that STIs is cloaked by a lot of © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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secrecy and stigmatisation. However, several researches have shown that stigmatisation does not improve the treatment of STIs but rather it leads to an increase of the infection (Peltzer, Nzewi, & Mohan, 2004; Sayles, Wong, Kinsler, Martins, & Cunningham, 2009). As a result of this, there is a need for STIs campaign to deconstruct the stigmatisation and secrecy that surround STIs. The reduction in the stigmatisation of STIs can lead to remarkable decrease in the prevalence of STIs in Nigeria. The study also shows that some young people prefer to use self-medication for the treatment of STIs. The reason for this choice is because it is convenient, cheaper and fast compared to going to hospitals. This finding is in consonance with finding of Okonofua et al., (2003) whose study indicated that self-treatment was the most common source of treatment for STIs among youths who had experienced symptoms of STIs. This finding further emphasized the need to design intervention programmes that will emphasize the dangers in self-medication of STIs and also the need to improve the accessibility of young people to treatment and medications of STIs.

CONCLUSION In conclusion, this study has showed that the level of knowledge about STIs is significantly low compared to HIV/AIDS and the young people still have a lot of misconceptions about HIV/AIDS and other STIs. It was also discovered in the study that young people prefer to patronize traditional medical practitioners instead of orthodox medical practitioners. The reason for this attitude might be because they were not exposed to advertisements on other STIs on the different mass media. However, they are exposed to advertisements on STIs medications by traditional medical practitioners. Therefore, there should be an improved integrated approach through the involvement of all stakeholders particularly young peoples’ families, Non-Governmental Organisations, traditional medical practitioners, media practitioners and health professionals who have vital role in improving the knowledge and treatment seeking behaviour of STIs.

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on HIV infection in rural Tanzania: randomized controlled trial. Lancet, 346,53&536. Kiapi‑Iwa, L., Hart, G.J. (2004). The sexual and reproductive health of young people in Adjumani district, Uganda: Qualitative study of the role of formal and traditional health providers. AIDS Care 16,339‑47. Lewis, D.A., Latif, A.S., Ndowa, F. (2007). WHO global strategy for the prevention and control of sexually transmitted infections: time for action. Sex Transm Infect, 83, 508-509. Lewis, D.A, Latif, A.S, Ndowa, F. (2007) WHO global strategy for the prevention and control of sexually transmitted infections: time for action. Sex Transm Infect, 83, 508-509. Lillie, T.L., Pulerwitz, J., Curbow, B. (2009) Kenyan in-School Youths’ level of understanding of abstinence, being faithful and consistent condom use terms: implications for HIV-prevention programs. J Health Commun, 14, 276-292. McManus, A., & Dhar, L. (2008). Study of knowledge, perception and attitude of adolescent girls towards STIs/ HIV, safer sex and sex education:(a cross sectional survey of urban adolescent school girls in South Delhi, India). BMC Women's Health, 8(1), 12. Okonofua, F. E., Coplan, P., Collins, S., Oronsaye, F., Ogunsakin, D., Ogonor, J. T., ... & Heggenhougen, K. (2003). Impact of an intervention to improve treatment-seeking behavior and prevent sexually transmitted diseases among Nigerian youths. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 7(1), 61-73. Oladepo, O., & Fayemi, M. M. (2011). Perceptions about sexual abstinence and knowledge of HIV/AIDS prevention among in-school adolescents in a western Nigerian city. BMC public health, 11(1), 304. Olaitan, O. L. (2007) Students’ knowledge about the meaning of HIV/AIDS. Journal of Physical Education and Research XIII(1), 1762–1767. Oyo-Ita A.E., Ikpeme, B.M., Etokidem, A.J., Offor, J.B., Okokon, E.O., Etuk, S.J. (2005). Knowledge of HIV/AIDS among secondary school adolescents in Calabar-Nigeria. Ann Afri Med, 4, 2-6 Olakolu, S. S., Abioye-Kuteyi, E. A., & Oyegbade, O. O. (2011). Sexually transmitted infections among patients attending the General Practice Clinic, Wesley Guild Hospital, Ilesa, Nigeria. South African Family Practice, 53(1). Peltzer, K., Nzewi, E., & Mohan, K. (2004). Attitudes towards HIV-antibody testing and people with AIDS among university students in India, South Africa and United States. Indian Journal of Medical Sciences, 58(3). Sayles, J. N., Wong, M. D., Kinsler, J. J., Martins, D., & Cunningham, W. E. (2009). The association of stigma with self-reported access to medical care and antiretroviral therapy adherence in persons living with HIV/ AIDS. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 24(10), 1101-1108. Shrum JC, Turner NM, Bruce KE. (1989). “Development of an Instrument to Measure Attitudes Toward Acquired Deficiency Syndrome,” AIDS Edu Prev, 1,222-30. Temin, M. J., Okonofua, F. E., Omorodion, F. O., Renne, E. P., Coplan, P., Heggenhougen, H. K., ... & Tavrow, P. (1999). Perceptions of sexual behavior and knowledge about sexually transmitted diseases among adolescents in Benin City Nigeria. International Family Planning Perspectives, 25(4), 186-90. Wodi B. (2005). HIV/AIDS Knowledge, Attitudes, and Opinions Among Adolescents In The River States of Nigeria. IEJHE;8:86-94. Available from: http://www. aahperd.org/iejhe/[Last cited on 2011, Jan 30].. WHO (2001) Global prevalence and Incidence of Selected Curable Sexually Transmitted Infections: Overview and Estimates, Geneva.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

HUBUNGAN SOKONGAN SOSIAL DENGAN KUALITI HIDUP PESAKIT DIABETES Supiah Suli* *[email protected] Universiti Malaya

Abstract Kajian ini bertujuan untuk melihat hubungan yang wujud antara sokongan sosial dengan kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes yang tinggal di sekitar Selangor. Selain itu, kajian ini juga bertujuan untuk melihat perbezaan faktor demografi seperti gender, tempoh menghidap diabetes, status perkahwinan dan umur terhadap kualiti hidup dan sokongan sosial di kalangan pesakit diabetes tersebut. Seramai 63 orang responden berusia 21 tahun ke atas terlibat dalam kajian ini. Penyelidikan ini menggunakan alat ujian Quality of Life Scale (QOLS) yang mengukur kualiti kehidupan dan alat ujian Social Support Questionnaire (Short Form) (SSQSR) yang mengukur sokongan sosial yang diterima. Data dianalisis dengan menggunakan program Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Versi 16.0. Pengujian hipotesis dilakukan dengan menggunakan korelasi ujian t, dan ANOVA Satu Hala. Hasil kajian menunjukkan terdapat hubungan positif yang signifikan antara kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes dan sokongan sosial yang diterima; kualiti hidup adalah berbeza mengikut tempoh menghidap diabetes dan umur pesakit; manakala bagi perbezaan sokongan sosial pula, hanya SSQ-N mengikut tempoh menghidap diabetes dan SSQ-S mengikut status perkahwinan yang berjaya dibuktikan mempunyai perbezaan yang signifikan. Namun begitu tidak wujud perbezaan antara kualiti hidup dengan gender dan status perkahwinan; antara sokongan sosial dengan gender dan umur; antara sokongan sosial dan SSQ-S bagi tempoh menghidap diabetes; dan antara sokongan sosial dan SSQ-N bagi status perkahwinan. Hasil kajian ini dapat membantu para kaunselor mempelajari lebih banyak lagi mengenai pesakit diabetes. Selain itu, program dan intervensi kaunseling yang bersesuaian dapat dilaksanakan bagi meningkatkan lagi kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes. Keywords: diabetes, sokongan sosial, kualiti hidup

PENGENALAN The silent killer, itulah jolokan yang diberi kepada penyakit kencing manis atau diabetes atau nama saintifiknya Diabetes Mellitus sesuai dengan keadaan penyakit kronik ini yang tidak mempunyai cara menyembuhkannya. Hampir 1.2 juta penduduk Malaysia menghidap penyakit ini namun lebih separuh daripadanya tidak menyedari keadaan ini. Seramai 650,000 lagi rakyat di negara ini berkemungkinan didiagnos menghidapnya (Persatuan Diabetes Malaysia, 2007). Pengawalan diabetes dilakukan melalui kombinasi cara-cara berikut iaitu amalan gaya hidup yang sihat, diet pemakanan dan pengambilan ubat-ubatan sama ada secara oral atau suntikan insulin. Pergantungan kepada ubat-ubatan untuk jangka masa yang panjang dan kedah rawatan itu sendiri (menggunakan kaedah suntikan) dilihat memberi tekanan kepada pesakit. Sekiranya tekanan yang dialami tidak ditangani dengan strategi daya tindakan yang berkesan, berkemungkinan besar penyakit diabetes akan berhadapan dengan masalah default treatment. Akibatnya pesakit yang telah default treatment ini berisiko mengalami komplikasi kesihatan yang lebih hebat dan ditambah lagi dengan tekanan psikologi yang lebih dahsyat. Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Sehubungan itu, peranan sokongan sosial dilihat memainkan peranan dalam membantu pesakit diabetes melalui kehidupan yang penuh dengan cabaran. Kehadiran orang lain dalam kehidupan pesakit diabetes merupakan komponen penting dalam mencapai kesejahteraan. Kesan perhubungan sosial antara seorang individu dengan individu lain mampu mengurangkan tekanan yang dialami. Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Rath dan Harter (2010) mencadangkan agar setiap individu dapat meluangkan sekurang-kurangnya enam jam sehari bersosial dengan sahabat handai, ahli keluarga dan rakan sekerja untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan seterusnya memperkuatkan lagi jaringan sosial (dalam Kruger, 2010). Pentingnya memahami kualiti kehidupan pesakit diabetes adalah berikutan meningkatnya jumlah pesakit yang menghidap diabetes yang merupakan salah satu penyakit kronik paling mencabar dan membebankan pada abad ke 21 ini. Keseriusan permasalahan yang dialami ini jelas tergambar melalui kenyataan Pakar Perunding Nefrologi, Dr. William Chau bahawa terdapat 3.2 juta kematian setiap hari disebabkan komplikasi diabetes dengan enam kematian setiap minit. Menurutnya lagi, jumlah individu yang menderita penyakit diabetes seluruh dunia akan meningkat dua kali ganda pada tahun 2030 daripada jumlah semasa sebanyak 171 juta orang (The Star, 19/11/2010). Kedah adalah antara negeri yang mencatat jumlah tertinggi penghidap diabetes di mana 13.6 peratus daripada jumlah populasi penduduk Kedah yang melebihi satu juta orang menghidap penyakit itu. Timbalan Pengarah Kesihatan Negeri (Kesihatan Awam), Dr. Shahidan Hashim berkata, jumlah pesakit diabetes sangat ketara dan membimbangkan (Bernama, 26/12/2010). Memahaminya menurut Berzon, et al., (1995) bukan setakat faktor yang berkait dengan kuantiti tetapi juga kualiti kehidupan dan bagaimana faktor seperti sokongan sosial mempunyai hubungan dengan kualiti hidup menjadi semakin penting. Bagi populasi yang menghidap penyakit kronik, pengukuran kualiti hidup menyediakan cara yang lebih bermakna dalam menentukan kesan penjagaan kesihatan apabila penyembuhan adalah suatu yang mustahil (dalam Burckhardt & Anderson, 2003). Menurut Garratt et al., (2002), penilaian kualiti hidup semakin meningkat keperluanya untuk penilaian hasil di kalangan pesakit dengan keadaan perubatan yang kronik. Diabetes merupakan penyakit kronik yang memberi kekangan serius dalam kehidupan seorang pesakit. Oleh sebab itu, pertimbangan mengenai kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes menjadi semakin penting. Kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes secara umumnya diterima sebagai pembolehubah penting hasil daripada terapi yang dilakukan (dalam Eren, et al., 2008). Menurut Laporan Kualiti Hidup 1999, kualiti hidup di Malaysia dapat dilihat sebagai kemajuan diri, gaya hidup yang sihat, akses dan kebebasan memperoleh pengetahuan serta taraf hidup yang melebihi keperluan asas individu dan memenuhi keperluan psikologi untuk mencapai tahap kesejahteraan sosial yang setanding dengan aspirasi negara (Hafisah, 2008). Lantaran itu, kajian ini dilakukan bagi menjawab persoalan berikut : a. Adakah terdapat hubungan yang positif antara sokongan sosial yang diterima dengan kualiti hidup di kalangan pesakit diabetes. b. Adakah terdapat perbezaan kualiti hidup dan sokongan sosial di kalangan pesakit mengikut faktor demografi (gender, tempoh menghidap diabetes, status perkahwinan dan umur).

METODOLOGI Rekabentuk Kajian Kajian yang dilakukan ini merupakan kajian lapangan yang menggunakan kaedah soal selidik. Kaedah ini difikirkan yang sesuai kerana subjek merupakan pesakit diabetes yang berhadapan dengan batasan tertentu seperti mudah berasa letih, kecacatan fizikal setelah amputasi, dan menghadapi kompilasi lain seperti nephropathy. Ia mengandungi empat bahagian iaitu: • • • •

Bahagian A: Maklumat Diri; Bahagian B: Social Support Questionnaire (Short Form) (SSQSR); Bahagian C: Quality of Life Scale (QOLS); dan Bahagian D: Satu soalan berbentuk kualitatif berkait dengan sokongan sosial yang diterima.

Tempat Kajian Kajian ini melibatkan responden yang tinggal di sekitar negeri Selangor meliputi daerah Kuala Langat, Hulu Langat, Serdang dan Batu Caves.

Sampel Kajian Responden terdiri daripada pesakit diabetes tanpa mengira jenis diabetes, yang mahu terlibat secara sukarela dalam kajian ini. Seramai 63 orang pesakit berusia antara 21 hingga 70 tahun dilibatkan dalam kajian di © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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mana pemilihan subjek kajian adalah dengan cara persampelan convenience. Persampelan jenis ini dipilih memandangkan pengkaji menghadapi kesukaran untuk mendapat subjek dengan kriteria utamanya adalah menghidap penyakit diabetes. Keadaan penyakit dan pesakit itu sendiri turut menjadi kekangan untuk pengkaji menggunakan persampelan jenis yang lain. Di samping itu, bagi mendapat jawapan yang jujur dan terbuka, penglibatan subjek secara sukarela sahaja yang berupaya menjamin ketepatan data.

Alat Kajian Alat kajian yang diguna dalam kajian ini adalah berbentuk soal selidik. Responden perlu mengisi kesemua bahagian dalam borang soal selidik yang diedarkan. Soal selidik terbahagi kepada empat bahagia iaitu:

Bahagian A: Maklumat Diri Bahagian ini mengandunngi butir-butir latar belakang diri responden seperti jantina, umur,bangsa, kelayakan akademik, tempoh menghidap diabetes, status perkahwinan, dan kompilasi yang dialami akibat diabetes. Namun hanya faktor demografi seperti umur, gender, tempoh menghidap diabetes, dan status perkahwinan yang akan diberi perhatian di dalam kajian ini.

Bahagian B: Social Support Questionaire (Short Form) (SSQSR): Bagi mengukur keberadaan dan kepuasan terhadap sokongan sosial, Social Support Questionaire (Short Form) (SSQSR) (Sarason, et al., 1987) digunakan. Setiap item mengandungi dua bahagian yang perlu dijawab di mana responden diminta (a) menyenaraikan individu yang mereka boleh bergantung harap dengan diberi keadaan tertentu yang mana ia merujuk kepada jumlah sokongan sosial yang diterima, Social Support Questionnaire-Number (SSQ-N) dan (b) menunjukkan sejauh mana responden berpuashati dengan sokongan sosial tersebut, Social Support Questionnaire-Satisfaction (SSQ-S). Sebanyak 12 item terkandung dalam SSQSR yang mana angka ganjil mewakili SSQ-N manakala angka mewakili angka genap mewakili SSQ-S. Bagi item ganjil yang mengukur jumlah sokongan sosial (SSQ-N), ianya dikira dengan menjumlahkan bilangan sokongan sosial yang disenaraikan. Setiap item mempunyai markat daripada 0 (tiada siapa) hingga ke 9 (jumlah maksimum sokongan sosial yang diperolehi). Bagi item genap (SSQ-S) yang mengukur tahap kepuasan responden terhadap sokongan sosial, skala Likert 6 markat digunakan. Markat maksimum adalah 6 markat (sangat berpuas hati) dan markat minimumnya adalah 1 markat (sangat tidak puas hati).

Bahagian C: Quality of Life Scale (QOLS) Skala asal QOLS yang dicipta oleh John Flanagan sekitar 1970-an ini mengandungi 15 item yang mengukur lima (5) domain konsep kualiti hidup iaitu domain kesejahteraan material dan fizikal (2 item), hubungan dengan orang lain (4 item), aktiviti sosial, komuniti dan sivik (2 item), perkembangan dan pencapaian peribadi (3 item), dan rekreasi (4 item). Instrumen ini kemudiannya diperluaskan menjadi 16 item oleh Burckhardt dan Anderson pada tahun 2003 dengan menambah item kebebasan, melakukan sesuatu untuk diri sendiri (Burckhardt & Anderson, 2003). Skala ini digunapakai untuk mengukur kualiti hidup pesakit kronik. Pemarkatan bagi item-item QOLS adalah menggunakan skala Likert 7 markat. Markat maksimum adalah 7 (sangat berpuas hati) dan markat minimum adalah 1 (sangat tidak berpuas hati).

Bahagian D: Satu soalan berbentuk kualitatif iaitu "Apa perasaan dan pandangan anda terhadap sokongan yang diterima selama ini?” turut dikemukakan kepada responden. Prosedur kajian Persetujuan daripada responden diperolehi terlebih dahulu sebelum soal selidik diedarkan. Tujuan kajian dijelaskan kepada responden yang turut dimaklumkan tentang hak untuk menolak penglibatan dalam kajian ini dan boleh menarik diri bila-bila masa sahaja. Soal selidik diedar kepada pesakit yang bersetuju terlibat secara sukarela dalam kajian ini. Tempoh masa yang digunakan oleh pengkaji adalah selama empat minggu.

Penganalisisan data Data yang diperolehi dalam kajian ini dianalisa menggunakan program Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Version 16.0 (SPSS V.16). Data-data ini dianalisis menggunakan dua kaedah statistik asas iaitu statistik diskriptif dan stiatistik inferensi.

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KEPUTUSAN Keputusan Deskriptif Berikut adalah Jadual 1 yang menunjukkan ciri sosiodemografi pesakit yang diberi fokus dalam kajian ini . Seramai 33 orang pesakit diabetes lelaki (52.4%) dan 30 orang pesakit diabetes perempuan (47.6%) terlibat dalam penyelidikan yang dijalankan. Mengikut tempoh menghidap diabetes, bagi kategori 1 dan 2, masingmasing melibatkan 15 orang responden (23.8% setiap satu), kategori 3 melibatkan seramai 13 orang (20.6%), 10 orang pesakit diabetes yang terlibat (15.9%) berada dalam kategori 4, enam orang berada dalam kategori 5 manakala bagi kategori 6 dan 7 masing-masing melibatkan dua orang responden (3.2% setiap satu). Seramai sembilan orang masih bujang (14.3%), 49 orang telah berkahwin (77.8%) manakala terdapat lima responden berada dalam lain-lain status perkahwinan (duda atau janda atau balu) (7.9%). Manakala mengikut kategori umur pula, seramai empat orang dalam kategori usia 21 - 30 tahun (6.3 %), lima orang dalam kategori 31 - 40 tahun (7.9 %), 17 orang dalam kategori 41 - 50 tahun (27.0 %), 22 orang dalam kategori 5-60 tahun (34.9%) manakala 15 orang lagi berada dalam kategori 61-70 tahun (23.8%). Jadual 1 - Ciri Sosiodemografi Pesakit

Ciri-ciri Pesakit

N (n=63)

(%)

Lelaki

33

52.4

Perempuan

30

47.6

Kategori 1 (1-5 tahun)

15

23.8

Kategori 2 (6-10 tahun)

15

23.8

Kategori 3 (11-15 tahun)

13

20.6

Kategori 4 (16-20 tahun)

10

15.9

Kategori 5 (21-25 tahun)

6

9.5

Kategori 6 (26-30 tahun)

2

3.2

Kategori 7 (31tahun ke atas)

2

3.2

Bujang

9

14.3

Berkahwin

49

77.8

Lain-lain

5

7.9

21-30 tahun

4

6.3

31-40 tahun

5

7.9

41-50 tahun

17

27.0

51-60 tahun

22

34.9

61-70 tahun

15

23.8

Gender

Tempoh Menghidap Diabetes

Status Perkahwinan

Umur

Min bagi sokongan sosial yang diterima oleh responden. Secara puratanya setiap responden memperolehi jumlah sokongan sosial yang agak rendah iaitu sebanyak 2.67 daripada skor maksimum kajian sebanyak 6.33. Namun, tahap kepuasan responden terhadap sokongan sosial yang diterima secara puratanya adalah sebanyak 4.94 daripada skor maksimum 6.00. Ini menunjukkan tahap kepuasan subjek kajian terhadap sokongan sosial yang diterima adalah sederhana memuaskan. Skor kualiti hidup responden secara puratanya ialah sebanyak 80.46 daripada skor maksimum kajian iaitu 99.0. Ini menunjukkan responden mencapai tahap kualiti hidup yang baik.

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Keputusan Inferensi Jadual 2 - Korelasi Antara Jumlah Sokongan Sosial (SSQ-N) Dan Tahap Kepuasan Sokongan Sosial (SSQ-S) Dengan Kualiti Hidup Pesakit Diabetes (QOLS)

Pembolehubah

QOLS

SSQ-N

.486**

SSQ-S

.491**

**k < .01

Analisis kolerasi menunjukkan nilai Sig (2 tailed) .000 adalah lebih kecil daripada aras signifikan .01. Ini bermakna QOLS mempunyai hubungan positif dan signifikan dengan SSQ-N (r=.486, k>.01) dan SSQ-S (r = .491, k< .01). Pesakit diabetes yang mempunyai QOLS yang tinggi dalam kajian ini memperoleh lebih banyak sokongan dan mencapai tahap kepuasan yang tinggi terhadap sokongan sosial yang diterima. Jadual 3 - Ujian t Bagi Perbezaan Min Kualiti Hidup (QOLS) Di Antara Pesakit Diabetes Lelaki dan Perempuan

Jantina QOLS

N

Min

SP

t -.753

Lelaki

33

79.58

10.55

Perempuan

30

81.43

8.85

dk 61

Jadual 3 menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan min kualiti hidup di antara pesakit diabetes lelaki dan perempuan yang dikaji (t(61) = -.753, k > .05) di mana min kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes perempuan lebih tinggi iaitu 81.43 (SP = 8.85) berbanding dengan pesakit diabetes lelaki iaitu 79.58 (SP = 10.55). Jadual 4 - Ujian ANOVA Satu Hala Bagi Perbezaan Min Kualiti Hidup Mengikut Tempoh Menghidap Diabetes.

Jumlah Kuasa Dua

dk

Min Kuasa Dua

Antara Kumpulan

1389.817

6

231.636

Dalam Kumpulan

4497.833

56

80.318

Jumlah

5887.651

62

F

Sig

2.884

.016

*k<.05

Jadual 4 memaparkan keputusan ujian ANOVA bagi kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes mengikut tempoh mereka menghidap penyakit tersebut. Keputusan ujian menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan di antara tempoh menghidap diabetes dengan kualiti hidup (F(6, 56) = 2.884) dengan nilai statistik F=2.884 dan nilai signifikannya ialah .016 yang mana ia lebih kecil dari .05. Min kualiti hidup yang tertinggi ialah di kalangan pesakit yang menghidap diabetes dalam tempoh 1 – 5 tahun iaitu 88.00, diikuti dengan tempoh 16-20 tahun (80.60), tempoh 11-15 tahun (79.00), tempoh 6-10 tahun (78.60), tempoh 31 tahun ke atas (74.00), tempoh 21-25 tahun (73.67) dan min kualiti hidup yang terendah adalah bagi pesakit yang telah menghidap diabetes dalam tempoh 26-30 tahun (73.50). Jadual 5 - Ujian ANOVA Satu Hala Bagi Perbezaan Min Kualiti Hidup Mengikut Status Perkahwinan

Jumlah Kuasa Dua

dk

Min Kuasa Dua

Antara Kumpulan

295.459

2

147.729

Dalam Kumpulan

5592.192

60

93.203

Jumlah

5887.651

62

F

Sig

1.585

.213

F

Sig

2.635

.043

Jadual 6 - Ujian ANOVA Satu Hala Bagi Perbezaan Min Kualiti Hidup Mengikut Umur

Jumlah Kuasa Dua

dk

Min Kuasa Dua

Antara Kumpulan

905.274

4

226.319

Dalam Kumpulan

4982.376

58

85.903

Jumlah

5887.651

62

*k<.05

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Dalam Jadual 5, statistik F=1.585 dengan nilai signifikannya ialah .213 dan ia lebih besar dari .05. Keputusan ini menunjukkan, tidak terdapat perbezaan min kualiti hidup mengikut status perkahwinan secara signifikan (F(2,60)=1.585, k>.05). Paparan Jdual 6 pula menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan kualiti hidup mengikut umur pesakit diabetes (F(4,58)=2.635, k<.05) dengan nilai statistik F=2.635 dan nilai signifikannya ialah .043 yang mana ia lebih dari .05. Min kualiti hidup yang tertinggi ialah di kalangan pesakit berusia antara 21-30 tahun (87.25), diikuti usia 51-60 tahun (83.7273), 31-40 tahun (83.00), 41-50 tahun (78.2941) dan yang terendah adalah 61-70 tahun (75.4667). Jadual 7 - Ujian t Bagi Perbezaan Min Sokongan Sosial (SSQ-N & SSQ-S) di Antara Pesakit Diabetes Lelaki dan Perempuan.

Jantina SSQ-N SSQ-S

N

Min

SP

t -.199

61

.602

61

Lelaki

33

2.6465

1.31151

Perempuan

30

2.7056

1.00638

Lelaki

33

4.9848

.59710

Perempuan

30

4.8889

.66858

Dk

Jadual 7 pula menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan min SSQ-N (t(61) = -.199, k > .05) dan SSQ-S (t(61) = .602, k > .05 ) di antara pesakit diabetes lelaki dan perempuan yang di kaji. Dapat dilihat min SSQ-N pesakit diabetes perempuan lebih tinggi iaitu 2.7056 (SP=1.00638) berbanding dengan pesakit diabetes lelaki iaitu 2.6465 (SP=1.31151). Bagaimanapun, SSQ-S pesakit diabetes lelaki lebih tinggi sedikit iaitu 4.9848 (SP=.59710) berbanding pesakit diabetes perempuan iaitu 4.889 (.66858). Jadual 8 - Ujian ANOVA Satu Hala Bagi Perbezaan Min Sokongan Sosial (SSQ-N & SSQ-S) Mengikut tempoh Menghidap Diabetes

Jumlah Kuasa Dua SSQ-N

SSQ-S

dk

Min Kuasa Dua

Antara Kumpulan

28.514

6

4.752

Dalam Kumpulan

55.954

56

.999

Jumlah

84.468

62

Antara Kumpulan

3.468

6

.578

Dalam Kumpulan

21.049

56

.376

Jumlah

24.517

62

F

Sig

4.752

.001*

1.538

.183

*k<.05

Jadual 8 menunjukkan perbezaan min SSQ-N dan SSQ-S mengikut tempoh pesakit menghidap diabetes. Bagi SSQ-N, statistik F=4.756 dengan nilai signifikan .001 dan ia lebih kecil dari .05. Keputusan ini membuktikan bahawa terdapat perbezaan jumlah sokongan sosial mengikut tempoh menghidap diabetes secara signifikan (F(6,56)=4.756, k<.05). Manakala bagi SSQ-S pula, F=1.538 dengan nilai signifikan .183 dan ia lebih besar dari .05. Berdasarkan dapatan tersebut menunjukkan bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan tahap kepuasan sokongan sosial mengikut tempoh menghidap diabetes secara signifikan (F(6,56)=1.538, k>.05). Jadual 9 - Ujian ANOVA Satu Hala Bagi Perbezaan Min Sokongan Sosial (SSQ-N & SSQ-S) Mengikut Status Perkahwinan

Jumlah Kuasa Dua SSQ-N

SSQ-S

dk

Min Kuasa Dua

Antara Kumpulan

2.429

2

1.214

Dalam Kumpulan

82.040

60

1.367

Jumlah

84.468

62

Antara Kumpulan

4.446

2

2.223

Dalam Kumpulan

20.071

60

.335

Jumlah

24.517

62

F

Sig

.888

.417

6.645

.002*

*k<.05

Perbezaan min SSQ-N dan SSQ-S mengikut status perkahwinan dapat dilihat dalam jadual di atas. Bagi SSQ-N, statistik F=.888 dengan nilai signifikan .417 dan ia lebih besar dari .05. Keputusan ini membuktikan bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan jumlah sokongan sosial mengikut status perkahwinan secara signifikan (F(2,60) = .888,k> .05). Bagi SSQ-S pula, F=6.645 dengan nilai signifikan .002 dan ia lebih kecil dari .05. Dapatan ini © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perbezaan tahap kepuasa sokongan sosial mengikut status perkahwinan secara signifikan (F(2,60)=6.645,k<.05). Jadual 10 - Ujian ANOVA Satu Hala Bagi Perbezaan Min Sokongan Sosial (SSQ-N & SSQ-S) Mengikut Umur

Jumlah Kuasa Dua SSQ-N

SSQ-S

dk

Min Kuasa Dua

Antara Kumpulan

2.816

2

.704

Dalam Kumpulan

61.652

58

1.408

Jumlah

84.468

62

Antara Kumpulan

1.253

4

.313

Dalam Kumpulan

23.264

58

.401

Jumlah

24.517

62

F

Sig

.500

.736

.781

.542

Jadual di atas menunjukkan keputusan bagi perbezaan min SSQ-N dan SSQ-S mengikut kategori umur iaitu 21-30 tahun, 31-40 tahun, 41-50 tahun, 51-60 tahun dan 61-70 tahun menggunakan ujian ANOVA. Paparan tersebut membuktikan bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan sokongan sosial mengikut umur secara signifikan. SSQ-N mencatat nilai statistik F=.500 dengan nilai signifikan .736 yang mana ia lebih besar dari .05 (F(4,58) = .500, k>.05). SSQ-S pula mencatat nilai statistik F=.781 dengan nilai signifikan .542 yang mana ia lebih besar dari .05 (F(4,58)= .781, k>.05)

PERBINCANGAN, IMPLIKASI DAN CADANGAN Analisis Diskriptif Kajian yang telah dilakukan ini melibatkan seramai 63 responden di mana 52.4% adalah lelaki dan 47.6% pula adalah perempuan. Responden terdiri daripada mereka yang menghidap diabetes. Berdasarkan tujuh kategori tempoh menghidap diabetes sebanyak 23.8% responden masing-masing berada dalam kategori 1 (1-5 tahun) dan kategori 2 (6-10 tahun), 20.6% berada dalam kategori 3 (11-15 tahun). Tiga kategori ini mewakili dua per tiga responden manakala satu per tiga lagi berada dalam empat kategori yang lain. Taburan ini menunjukkan bahawa majoriti responden telah menghidap diabetes kurang dari 15 tahun. Data yang diperolehi turut menunjukkan majoriti responden berstatus telah berkahwin (77.8%), 14.3% masih bujang manakala 7.9% adalah duda/janda/balu. Sungguhpun ramai yang berkahwin namun perkahwinan tidak menjamin kualiti hidup yang baik kepada responden. Kajian yang dilakukan menunjukkan institusi kekeluargaan tidak dapat menyumbang kepada kualiti hidup yang lebih baik namun ikatan perkahwinan memberi kepuasan terhadap sokongan sosial yang diterima oleh responden. Dalam aspek umur, sebahagian besar (58.7%) responden berusia antara 51 hingga 70 tahun dan selebihnya berusia antara 21 hingga 50 tahun. Walaupun kebanyakan responden tergolong dalam golongan dewasa akhir dan warga emas, namun tahap kefahaman mereka terhadap soalan yang dikemukakan adalah memuaskan. Berdasarkan maklumat diri, sebanyak 71.5% memiliki pendidikan di bawah Tingkatan 5 (30.2% memiliki Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia, 23.8% memiliki Sijil rendah Pelajaran dan 17.5% memiliki pendidikan di bawah Sijil Rendah Pelajaran. Selain itu, melalui maklumat diri menunjukkan sebanyak 47.6% responden mengalami komplikasi nephropathy.

Analisis Inferensi a. Hubungan Sokongan Sosial Dengan Kualiti Hidup Dapatan kajian yang dianalisa menggunakan perisian SPSS V.16 melalui analisis korelasi mendapati, kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes sememangnya mempunyai hubungan positif dan signifikan dengan sokongan sosial ((SSQ-N (r = .486, k < . 05 ) dan (SSQ-S) (r = .491, k < .05)). Ini bermaksud, kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes adalah tinggi apabila memperoleh lebih banyak sokongan sosial dan juga apabila mencapai tahap kepuasan terhadap sokongan sosial yang tinggi. Hasil dapatan ini adalah selaras dengan dapatan kajian oleh Pereira (2008) yang menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan antara sokongan sosial keluarga dan kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes. Dapatan kajian oleh pengkaji turut disokong oleh hasil kajian Bosworth, et al., (2000) yang membuat kajian ke atas pesakit jantung dan mendapati bahawa kurangnya sokongan sosial mempunyai hubungan signifikan dengan rendahnya tahap kualiti hidup pesakit. Kajian beliau membuktikan bahawa kurangnya sokongan sosial turut membawa kepada tahap kesihatan mental yang rendah.

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b. Perbezaan Faktor Demografi (Gender, Tempoh Menghidap Diabetes, Status Perkahwinan Dan Umur) Terhadap Kualiti Hidp Dan Sokongan Sosial Di Kalangan Pesakit Diabetes. Persoalan kedua yang ingin dihurai oleh pengkaji adalah, adalah terdapat perbezaan kualiti hidup dan sokongan sosial di kalangan pesakit mengikut faktor demografi seperti gender, tempoh menghidap diabetes, status perkahwinan dan umur. Dalam merungkai persoalan kedua ini, pengkaji menggunakan ujian t dan ANOVA mengikut kesesuaian data yang dimiliki. Kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes yang dikaji pada keseluruhannya mencapai skor min 80.46 (SP=9.74) daripada skor maksimum kajian iaitu 99.00 dan ini menunjukkan bahawa kualiti hidup mereka adalah baik. Menurut Burckhardt dan Anderson (2003), skor min bagi individu yang sihat adalah 90. Bagi kumpulan penyakit rheumatic, skor min adalah 83 bagi rheumatoid arthritis, 84 bagi systemic lupus arithematosus, dan 87 bagi osteoarthritis. Jika merujuk kepada situasi di Israel, skor min bagi pesakit Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) adalah 61, 70 bagi pesakit fibromyalgia, 82 bagi psoriasis, urinary incontinence dan penyakit chronic obstructive pulmonary. Sehubungan itu, dapat dirumuskan bahawa pesakit diabetes dalam kajian ini mencapai tahap kualiti hidup yang baik jika dibandingkan dengan pesakit PTSD dan fibromyalgia di Israel. Di dalam kajian ini, sokongan sosial dilihat sebagai pembolehubah bebas yang mempengaruhi kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes yang dikaji. Berdasarkan data yang diperolehi, min bagi SSQ-N adalah 2.67 daripada skor maksimum kajian sebanyak 6.33 manakala min bagi SSQ-S adalah 4.94 daripada skor maksimum kajian sebanyak 6.00. Dengan kata lain, jumlah sokongan sosial dapat diperolehi oleh pesakit diabetes dalam kajian ini adalah sedikit bilangannya (kurang daripada tiga orang) dalam satusatu keadaan. Namun, tahap kepuasan yang diperolehi boleh dikatakan sederhana memuaskan hati di kalangan pesakit yang terlibat. Secara purata, pesakit diabetes sekurang-kurangnya mendapat sokongan daripada dua ahli keluarga (min=2.1746, SP=1.20759) dan mendapat sokongan daripada seorang bukan ahli keluarga (min=.5185, SP=.88451). Dapatan ini selari dengan pemerhatian pengkaji terhadap jawapan responden dalam Bahagian 4 yang menunjukkan, rata-rata responden berpuashati dengan sokongan sosial yang diterima biarpun dari segi bilangan, jumlah sokongan sosial adalah sedikit. •

Perbezaan kualiti hidup dan sokongan sosial mengikut gender. Meneliti perbezaan kualiti hidup yang wujud mengikut faktor demografi seperti gender, turut menjadi minat pengkaji. Bagaimanapun, hasil analisa yang dibuat dalam melihat perbezaan kualiti hidup mengikut gender mendapati tidak terdapat perbezaan min kualiti hidup di antara pesakit diabetes lelaki dan perempuan yang dikaji (t(61)=-.753,k>.05). Tahap kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes perempuan adalah baik berbanding lelaki dengan min 81.43 manakala min kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes lelaki adalah 79.58. Bagaimanapun hasil dapatan ini tidak selaras dengan dapatan kajian oleh Bosworth,et al. (2000) yang mendapati bahawa pesakit wanita dilaporkan memiliki tahap kualiti hidup yang lebih rendah berbanding lelaki. Begitu juga kajian yang dilakukan oleh Wiczinski, et al., (2009) turut tidak menyokong dapatan kajian pengkaji kerana dapatan beliau menunjukkan bahawa sokongan sosial ke atas gender yang berlainan memberi kesan berbeza terhadap kualiti hidup individu yang obes. Hasil kajian pengkaji dalam melihat perbezaan sokonagn sosial di kalangan pesakit diabetes mengikut gender juga menolak hipotesis yang dibuat. Dapatan membuktikan bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan min soskongan social ((SSQ-N) (t(61)=-.199,k>.05) dan (SSQ-S) (t(61)=.602,k>.05)) di antara pesakit diabetes lelaki dan perempuan yang dikaji. Oleh itu, dapat dirumuskan bahawa factor gender tidak memberi kesan berbeza terhadap sokongan sosial yang diterima oleh pesakit diabetes.

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Perbezaan kualiti hidup dan sokongan sosial mengikut tempoh menghidap diabetes. Dalam melihat perbezaan kualiti hidup mengikut tempoh menghidap diabetes, pengkaji menggunakan ANOVA Satu Hala dan hasilnya menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan di antara tempoh menghidap diabetes dengan kualiti hidup (F(6,56)=2.884) dengan nilai statistikF=2.884 dan nilai signifikannya ialah .016 yang mana ia lebih kecil dari .05. Oleh yang demikian, dapat dirumuskan bahawa tempoh seseorang pesakit menghidap diabetes akan memberi kesan berbeza terhadap kualiti hidupnya. Keadaan ini membayangkan bahawa semakin lama pesakit diabetes hidup bersama penyakit tersebut maka secara langsung ia mempengaruhi kualiti hidup yang semakin menurun. Umum pastinya mengetahui bahawa penyakit diabetes adalah penyakit sepanjang hayat dan tidak mempunyai cara penyembuhan, lantaran itu pelbagai isu boleh dikaitkan sebagai faktor yang

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mempengaruhi kualiti hidup pesakit. Pesakit yang hidup bersama diabetes memerlukan rawatan jangka panjang yang sudah pasti melibatkan kos yang tinggi selain kaedah rawatan yang memberi impak psikologi sekiranya pesakit masih belum dapat menerima hakikat penyakit yang dihidapinya. Komplikasi lain seperti neuropthy, retinopathy, nephropathy selain foot diabetic ulcer dan amputasi dilihat turut mempengaruhi penurunan tahap kualiti hidup pesakit. Kajian oleh Eren, et al., (2008) menunjukkan bahawa wujudnya depresi yang menurunkan lagi kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes jenis 2. Oleh yang demikian, kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes amat berkait rapat dengan disiplin diri dan kepatuhan dalam mengikuti kaedah rawatan yang disarankan. Motivasi diri untuk hidup bersamasama penyakit ini dan persepsi yang positif akan dapat membantu pesakit hidup bersama diabetes dengan lebih harmoni. Jika dilihat dalam aspek sokongan sosial pula didapati, min sokongan sosial (SSQ-N & SSQ-S) mengikut tempoh menghidap diabetes adalah tidak selari. SSQ-N menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan jumlah sokongan sosial mengikut tempoh menghidap diabetes turut memberi kesan kepada jumlah sokongan sosial yang diterima oleh seseorang pesakit, semakin lama menghidapinya semakin banyak jumlah sokongan diperolehi. Namun begitu keadaan ini tidak menjamin kepada tahap kepuasan yang baik di kalangan pesakit diabetes. SSQ-S yang melihat tahap kepuasan pesakit diabetes menunjukkan bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara tahap kepuasan terhadap sokongan sosial yang diterima mengikut tempoh menghidap diabetes (F(6,56)=1.538, k>.05). Ini bermaksud, tempoh menghidap diabetes tidak mempengaruhi tahap kepuasan pesakit terhadap sokongan sosial yang diterima. Hasil kajian ini bagaimanapun tidak selaras dengan dapatan kajian oleh Eren, et al., (2008) yang menunjukkan bahawa terdapat hubungan negatif yang signifikan antara skor hubungan sosial dengan tempoh penyakit. •

Perbezaan kualiti hidup dan sokongan sosial mengikut status perkahwinan. Faktor demografi seterusnya yang ingin dikaji adalah status perkahwinan. Hasil kajian mendapati tidak terdapat perbezaan min kualiti hidup mengikut status perkahwinan secara signifikan (F(2,60)=1.585, k> .05). Sama ada seseorang pesakit itu berkahwin, bujang atau lain-lain (duda/janda/balu) tidak memberi sebarang perbezaan kepada kualiti hidup mereka. Ini mungkin kerana kualiti hidup banyak dipengaruhi oleh gabungan faktor-faktor lain selain daripada status perkahwinan. Status perkahwinan dalam kajian ini juga tidak menunjukkan sebarang perbezaan SSQ-N. keputusan kajian membuktikan bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan jumlah sokongan sosial mengikut status perkahwinan secara signifikan (F(2,60)=.888, k> .05). Namun, SSQ-S menunjukkan keadaan yang sebaliknya iaitu terdapat perbezaan tahap kepuasan sokongan sosial mengikut status perkahwinan secara signifikan (F(2,60)=6.645, k<.05). Ini menunjukkan bahawa status perkahwinan memberi kesan yang berbeza ke atas tahap kepuasan terhadap sokongan sosial yang diterima oleh pesakit diabetes. Kajian yang dijalankan oleh Bosworth, et al., (2000) juga mendapati bahawa terdapat hubungan sokongan sosial yang berbeza terhadap mereka yang telah berkahwin dan mereka yang masih bujang.

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Perbezaan kualiti hidup dan sokongan sosial mengikut umur Adakah terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam kualiti hidup dan sokongan sosial pesakit diabetes mengikut umur? Itulah persoalan terakhir yang ingin cuba dikupas oleh pengkaji. Jawapan yang diperolehi pengkaji adalah terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam kualiti hidup mengikut umur pesakit diabetes (F(4,58)=2.635,k<.05). Min kualiti hidup yang tertinggi ialah di kalangan pesakit berusia antara 21-30 tahun (87.25), dan yang terendah adalah 61-70 tahun (75.4667). Berdasarkan min yang diperolehi dapat disimpulkan bahawa semakin meningkat usia seseorang pesakit diabetes maka akan memberi perbezaan ke atas kualiti hidupnya yang dilihat semakin merosot. Secara logiknya, pesakit diabetes yang masih muda kurang mengalami komplikasi akibat diabetes dan belum lagi berhadapan dengan pelbagai kesan psikologi jangka panjang akibat penyakit tersebut. Bebanan kewangan juga mungkin belum dirasai oleh golongan muda ini dan secara langsung kualiti hidup mereka berada pada tahap yang tinggi. Bagaimanapun, setelah analisa dijalankan bagi melihat perbezaan min sokongan sosial (SSQ-N & SSQ-S) mengikut umur didapati, tidak terdapat perbezaan sokongan sosial mengikut umur secara signifikan dengan SSQ-N (F(4,58)=.500,k>.05) dan SSQ-S (F(4,58)=.781,k>.05). Peningkatan usia tidak memberi sebarang kesan yang berbeza terhadap sokongan sosial yang diterima. Dapatan kajian ini dilihat tidak selaras dengan hasil kajian yang diperolehi oleh Eren, et al., (2008) yang mana hasilnya

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menunjukkan terdapat hubungan negatif yang signifikan antara hubungan sosial dengan umur pesakit diabetes yang dikajinya. Secara keseluruhannya, hubungan positif dan signifikan yang berlaku antara sokongan sosial dengan kualiti hidup hanya berkolerasi pada tahap yang agak rendah. Dalam melihat perbezaan pula, hanya perbezaan kualiti hidup mengikut tempoh menghidap diabetes dan umur pesakit sahaja yang dapat dibuktikan. Bagi perbezaan sokongan sosial pula, hanya SSQ-N mengikut tempoh menghidap diabetes dan SSQ-S mengikut status perkahwinan yang berjaya dibuktikan mempunyai perbezaan yang signifikan.

IMPLIKASI Kajian seumpama ini adalah amat perlu diketengahkan dalam memberi kesedaran kepada para pengkaji lain untuk sama-sama melihat bagaimana situasi individu yang telah mengalami kemerosotan dalam aspek kesihatan. Golongan pesakit yang dahulunya hidup normal dan sihat perlu membuat pengubahsuaian besar dalam hidup setelah didiagnos dengan penyakit tertentu dan pastinya tekanan psikologikal amat hebat dirasai. Melalui hasil kajian yang diperolehi, penyelidik akan dapat lebih memahami bebanan dari aspek fizikal dan psikologikal golongan pesakit ini. Bagi para kaunselor yang akan berhadapan dengan pelbagai jenis permasalahan klien, pastinya juga berhadapan dengan klien yang mempunyai masalah kesihatan seperti pesakit diabetes ini. Oleh itu, hasil kajian ini sedikit sebanyak memberi maklumat berguna kepada para kaunselor di dalam usaha untuk menerima klien seadanya, dan memahami dunia klien yang tersendiri. Implikasinya, kaunselor akan dapat membuat intervensi psikologi dan kaunseling yang bersesuaian dengan keadaan klien dan menjadikan sesi kaunseling sebagai suatu cara yang efektif dalam meningkatkan kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes. Secara tidak langsung, kaunselor turut berperanan sebagai sumber sokongan sosial yang mampu memperbaiki tahap kualiti hidup klien yang akan terus hidup bersama diabetes.

CADANGAN Pengkaji menyarankan agar kajian melibatkan pesakit sebagai subjek kajian dapat dipertingkatkan agar hasil dapatan nanti boleh dijadikan bahan rujukan kepada para kaunselor dalam membantu klien yang menghadapi kekangan kesihatan agar pengkaji lain dapat menggunakan alat ujian yang dapat mengukur domain-domain khusus dalam kualiti hidup pesakit. Dengan cara ini diharapkan domain tertentu dapat dikenalpasti dalam usaha membantu pesakit meningkatkan kualiti hidup mereka. Berdasarkan dapatan kajian yang diperolehi, pengkaji amat berharap adanya organisasi tertentu yang tampil dan mengambil tindakan bagi meningkatkan jaringan sokongan sosial di kalangan pesakit diabetes. Penganjuran program-program bersesuaian secara berterusan akan menjadi wadah untuk pesakit meminimakan beban psikologi yang ditanggung. Persepsi pesakit diabetes terhadap penyakit tersebut dengan sendirinya mampu mempengaruhi kualiti hidup mereka. Oleh itu, maklumat yang betul mengenai penyakit ini mesti dimiliki oleh setiap pesakit diabetes.

RUMUSAN Kajian yang melibatkan seramai 63 subjek (33 lelaki dan 30 perempuan) terdiri daripada pesakit diabetes ini bertujuan untuk melihat hubungan yang wujud antara sokongan sosial dengan kualiti hidup golongan tersebut selain meninjau tahap kualiti hidup dan mengenalpasti sumber sokongan yang diterima. Kajian ini dilihat mampu menjadi sumber rujukan untuk penilaian dan penambahbaikan ke arah menyediakan jaringan sokongan sosial yang lebih efektif. Kualiti hidup merupakan suatu yang amat sukar untuk diukur. Ahli agama dan falsafah mempunyai pandangan bahwa kehidupan yang baik adalah berlandaskan kod peraturan yang telah digariskan untuk dipatuhi. Pandangan tentang kehidupan yang baik juga berkait rapat dengan budaya di mana seseorang itu menjadi ahli (Ventegodt, et al., 2003). Apabila budaya masyarakat dikaitkan sebagai faktor yang mempengaruhi kualiti hidup, bererti pengaruh sokongan sosial daripada ahli dalam masyarakat memberi kesan secara langsung. Ianya terbukti melalui hasil kajian penyelidik yang mendapati terdapat hubungan positif dan signifikan yang berlaku antara sokongan sosial dengan kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes yang dikaji. Bagi responden yang mengalami keadaan di mana tahap kesihatan boleh mencetuskan gangguan psikologi, maka kehadiran individu lain sebagai sumber sokongan untuknya bergantung harap adalah amat penting dalam mencapai © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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hidup yang berkualiti. Kehadiran individu lain dalam hidup pesakit diabetes yang dikaji membantu responden memenuhi keperluan psikologikal seterusnya meneruskan kelangsungan hidup bersama penyakit yang dihidapi untuk sepanjang hayat. Tidak dapat dinafikan tempoh menghidap diabetes dan umur memberi kesan terhadap kualiti hidup responden. Sehubungan itu, adalah penting agar langkah awal diambil bagi menyediakan diri pesakit diabetes menempuh kehidupan bersama-sama penyakit tersebut. Persediaan awal boleh dilakukan dengan bantuan individu yang ada dalam persekitaran hidup pesakit itu sendiri terutamanya dalam perkongsian maklumat yang tepat. Secara umumnya, kajian mendapati kualiti hidup pesakit diabetes yang dikaji adalah pada tahap yang baik. Biarpun jumlah sokongan sosial yang diterima adalah sedikit namun hasil kajian mendapati responden berpuashati dengan sokongan yang diberi oleh individu yang berada dalam persekitarannya.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

KUALITI HIDUP PENJAGA KELUARGA YANG MENJAGA PESAKIT PARAPLEGIA DI RUMAH Nor Anida Nawawi* * [email protected] Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Abstract Isu penjagaan pesakit Paraplegia adalah komplek dan memberi kesan kepada kualiti hidup penjaga keluarga yang terlibat. Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk mengkaji tahap kualiti hidup penjaga keluarga yang menjaga pesakit Paraplegia di rumah serta mengkaji faktor beban jagaan dan tahap penerimaan sokongan sosial dalam kalangan penjaga keluarga tersebut. Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah gabungan iaitu menggabungkan data kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Data telah dikumpulkan dengan menggunakan borang soal selidik kepada 81 orang penjaga keluarga dan temubual secara mendalam turut dijalankan kepada 8 orang penjaga keluarga pesakit Paraplegia yang menjalankan rawatan di PPUM. Kajian ini menggunakan instrumen World Health Organization Quality Of Life (WHOQOL)-Brief, Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) dan Modified Social Support Scale (MSSS). Hasil kajian mendapati terdapat hubungan yang signifikan di antara kualiti hidup penjaga dengan beban jagaan dan tahap penerimaan sokongan sosial. Secara keseluruhan hasil kajian, WHOQOL-Brief mendapati penjaga pesakit Paraplegia mempunyai tahap kualiti hidup dari aspek hubungan sosial yang baik berbanding dengan kualiti hidup kesihatan fizikal, kesihatan psikologi dan persekitaran. Ianya selari dengan hasil kajian kualitatif yang melaporkan penjaga lebih terjejas dari segi emosi dan fizikal berbanding dengan hubungan sosial. Kajian ini mendapati beban jagaan, sokongan emosi dan tempoh penjagaan pesakit menjadi faktor peramal utama kepada perubahan kualiti hidup penjaga pesakit Paraplegia yang menjalankan penjagaan di rumah. Kesimpulannya, kualiti hidup penjaga yang baik turut menjamin kualiti hidup pesakit Paraplegia, oleh yang demikian intervensi dan keperihatinan daripada semua pihak dapat membantu mengurangkan beban jagaan serta bertindak sebagai sumber sokongan sosial, ini akan membantu kualiti hidup penjaga pesakit Paraplegia akan lebih terjamin. Keywords: ualiti hidup, beban, sokongan sosial, penjaga pesakit, Paraplegia

PENGENALAN Kajian ini memberi fokus kepada kualiti hidup penjaga bagi pesakit Paraplegia memandangkan ianya adalah tahap kelumpuhan yang dilaporkan sering terjadi serta mengalami kesan yang kompleks seperti hilang deria sentuh, tidak boleh mengawal sistem pundi kencing & usus, kegagalan fungsi seksual dan menyebabkan otot-otot tidak boleh bergerak serta merosakkan lain-lain fungsi utama tubuh (Evans et al., 2007). Selain daripada itu, terdapat juga kesan dari aspek psikologi, di mana pesakit yang terlibat akan mengalami tekanan, kecelaruan, ketidakpuasan dalam hidup (Somers, 2010) serta wujudnya fikiran yang tidak rasional, mudah marah serta takut berhadapan dengan masa hadapan (Phil Klebine, 2001). Oleh itu, pesakit memerlukan keprihatinan dari semua terutamanya penjaga keluarga yang mempunyai hubungan paling hampir dengan pesakit dalam memberi semangat dan kepercayaan untuk meneruskan kehidupan dengan aura yang positif dan rasional.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

SENARIO PENJAGAAN PESAKIT PARAPLEGIA Kesejahteraan hidup penjaga pesakit sering dipandang ringan dan biarpun secara hakikinya golongan penjaga berhadapan dengan pelbagai masalah terutamanya tekanan, masalah keluarga dan isolasi sosial (Vargo et al., 1987) seperti masalah kewangan, perubahan tahap kesihatan dan tekanan emosi (Donelan et al., 2002). Penjaga utama bagi pesakit yang mengalami kecederaan saraf tunjang mempunyai tahap tekanan yang tinggi dan akan menjejaskan kualiti hidup mereka ini bergantung kepada tahap kecederaan yang dialami oleh pesakit (Unalan et al., 2001). Beban penjagaan akan menyumbang pelbagai aspek negatif serta termasuk penurunan kualiti hidup golongan ini. Kualiti hidup adalah satu konsep yang luas dan mempengaruhi kesihatan fizikal, psikologi, tahap kebebasan, hubungan sosial, kepercayaan peribadi dan persekitaran. Penjaga keluarga memerlukan kualiti hidup yang baik bagi memberi perkhidmatan yang sempurna dalam mengendalikan pesakit Paraplegia. Sekiranya penjaga tidak mendapat sokongan sosial dan adaptasi yang baik akan mengundang masalah tekanan, rasa bersalah dalam diri, takut, murung, kelesuan dan sebagainya. Memandangkan pengalaman penjagaan memberi banyak perubahan hidup kepada penjaga, golongan ini memerlukan struktur sokongan sosial yang baik bagi bagi menyokong proses penjagaan yang akan diberikan. Sokongan sosial adalah penting sebagai pelindung daripada ancaman tekanan hidup yang mempengaruhi tingkah laku manusia dalam menjalankan peranan sosialnya dan sokongan sosial adalah bergantung kepada interaksi di antara penjaga pesakit dan rangkaian sosial yang ada di sekelilingnya (Kaufman et al., 2010).

PENYATAAN MASALAH Penjaga yang menjaga pesakit Paraplegia mempunyai pelbagai pengalaman hidup yang unik. Kajian-kajian lepas tidak banyak mengkaji bagaimana sokongan sosial mempengaruhi kualiti hidup penjaga keluarga, ini adalah penting memandangkan setiap keluarga mempunyai rangkaian sosial yang berbeza dan kesan terhadap sokongan sosial juga mempengaruhi pelbagai aspek kehidupan. Selain daripada itu, pesakit Paraplegia terdedah dengan komplikasi sekunder sekiranya tidak diberi perhatian yang khusus dalam penjagaannya. Tanpa kemahiran dan tumpuan dalam penjagaan pesakit, mereka berisiko mendapat kualiti hidup yang rendah. Persoalan yang timbul adalah mengapa penjaga tidak mempunyai kualiti hidup yang baik? Adakah ianya dipengaruhi oleh beban atau kurangnya sokongan sosial? Oleh itu, kajian ini adalah meneroka pengalaman penjagaan pesakit Paraplegia di rumah dan ianya adalah penting untuk mengetahui peranan penjaga keluarga serta kesan psikologikal kepada penjaga tersebut sekaligus mengenal pasti tahap kualiti hidup mereka.

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN Secara umumnya kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi kualiti hidup penjaga keluarga yang menjaga pesakit Paraplegia di rumah selepas dibenarkan keluar dari hospital. Selain daripada itu terdapat beberapa objektif khusus iaitu: a. Membina profil penjaga keluarga pesakit Paraplegia b. Mengenalpasti tahap beban penjagaan, penerimaan sokongan sosial dan kualiti hidup penjaga keluarga yang menyediakan penjagaan informal kepada pesakit Paraplegia di rumah. c. Mengenalpasti faktor-faktor peramal yang mempengaruhi tahap kualiti hidup penjaga keluarga dalam penjagaan pesakit Paraplegia di rumah.

KEPENTINGAN KAJIAN Kajian ini diharap dapat memberi manfaat kepada kumpulan perubatan yang mengendalikan pesakit Paraplegia seperti pegawai perubatan pemulihan, jururawat, jurupulih carakerja, fisioterapi, pakar pemakanan, pekerja sosial perubatan, pengurus wad dan banyak lagi khususnya untuk memastikan setiap penjaga pesakit mempunyai pemahaman serta kemahiran yang baik untuk mengendalikan pesakit di rumah. Kajian dapat membantu Jabatan Kerja Sosial Perubatan untuk memperbaiki mutu perkhidmatan yang ditawarkan. Ini adalah dengan mengenalpasti beban penjagaan dan sumber sokongan sosial yang diperlukan oleh penjaga dan membantu pengurusan kes untuk lebih efisien. Selain daripada itu, di samping dapat mengenalpasti tahap kualiti hidup penjaga keluarga yang menjaga pesakit Paraplegia di PPUM, kajian ini akan membantu pengkaji-pengkaji yang lain untuk mendapatkan sumber-sumber rujukan mengenai kualiti hidup penjaga keluarga yang menjaga pesakit Paraplegia di rumah. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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METODOLOGI Reka Bentuk Kajian Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah gabungan (Mixed Method), di mana kaedah ini adalah penting untuk menampung limitasi yang terdapat dalam kaedah kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Ini adalah kerana, kaedah gabungan ini membantu memberi kekuatan dalam meneroka kualiti hidup penjaga pesakit Paraplegia yang mana agak sukar untuk dikaji melalui kaedah kuantitatif atau kualitatif sahaja. Kaedah ini akan memberi peluang untuk mengumpul data dengan lebih komprehensif dan menjawab persoalan kajian dengan lengkap berbanding dengan hanya mengkaji melalui kaedah kuantitatif sahaja (Creswell dan Clark, 2007).

Tempat Kajian Kajian ini dijalankan di Pusat Perubatan Universiti Malaya (PPUM) dan tumpuan kajian adalah di Jabatan Perubatan Pemulihan, ini adalah memandangkan responden terdiri daripada penjaga keluarga pesakit Paraplegia. Secara khususnya data telah dikumpulkan di klinik pemulihan spinal di mana pesakit akan membuat rawatan susulan dan pemulihan.

Sampel Kajian Kajian ini melibatkan 81 orang responden yang terdiri daripada penjaga pesakit Paraplegia, daripada responden yang ditemui melalui ujian kuantitatif, seramai 8 orang responden dipilih untuk ditemubual secara mendalam.

Instrumen Kajian Kaedah Kuantitatif Kajian ini menggunakan satu set soalan yang mempunyai 3 bahagian utama. Bahagian A merangkumi maklumat responden yang terdiri daripada maklumat sosiodemografi responden iaitu penjaga keluarga pesakit. Bahagian B adalah maklumat pesakit yang berada di bawah jagaan responden, antaranya adalah merujuk kepada maklumat klinikal, tempoh penjagaan, tahap kecederaan, tempoh disahkan penyakit dan keadaan pesakit tersebut dalam menjalankan aktiviti harian. Bahagian seterusnya adalah tertumpu kepada penilaian terhadap beban jagaan, sokongan sosial serta kualiti hidup penjaga. Berikut adalah senarai soal selidik yang digunakan dalam bahagian C tersebut: a. Pengukuran beban jagaan : Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) Kajian ini menggunakan Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) (1980) bagi mengetahui tahap bebanan yang dialami oleh penjaga pesakit. Dari 29 item, instrumen ini telah disemak dan versi pendek dengan 12 item telah diperkenalkan (Zainuddin et al. 2003) serta telah diterjemahkan kepada Bahasa Melayu dan digunakan oleh beberapa pengkaji (Fatimang & Rahmah 2011; Zainuddin et al. 2003). b. Pengukuran sokongan sosial : Modified Social Support Scale (MSSS) Bagi mengukur tahap sokongan sosial yang di terima oleh penjaga pesakit, Medical Outcomes Study Modified Social Support Survey (MSSS) (Ritvo et al. 1997) telah digunakan. Instrumen ini mempunyai 18 item yang menilai kadar penerimaan sokongan sosial responden. Terdapat 4 domain utama di dalam instrumen yang menilai sokongan yang diperolehi ini iaitu domain sokongan ketara, sokongan emosi, sokongan afeksi dan sokongan interaksi positif. c. Pengukuran kualiti hidup : WHO Quality of Life-Brief Kualiti hidup penjaga pesakit Paraplegia dinilai berpandukan WHOQOL Brief di mana ianya dibina oleh Pertubuhan Kesihatan Sedunia (WHO). WHOQOL-Brief mempunyai 26 item, 2 soalan pertama adalah soalan umum berkaitan kualiti hidup dan kesihatan responden, manakala 24 soalan seterusnya dibahagikan mengikut 4 domain utama iaitu kesihatan fizikal (7 item), psikologi (6 item), sosial (3 item) dan persekitaran (8 item).

Kaedah Kualitatif Bagi data secara kualitatif, soalan yang diajukan adalah berpandukan kepada Adaptation to Spinal Cord Injury © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Interview (ASCII) oleh DeSanto Madeya (2006). Penerokaan tertumpu kepada pengalaman penjagaan dan kesan yang dialami oleh penjaga keluarga pesakit Paraplegia. Temubual dijalankan dan diulangi sehingga mencapai tahap ketepuan dan terdapat pengulangan maklumat yang ditemui.

Kajian Rintis Bagi menguji tahap kebolehpercayaan instrumen yang akan digunakan dalam kajian sebenar, satu kajian rintis telah dijalankan ke atas 20 orang penjaga keluarga pesakit di PPUM tanpa mengira umur dan jenis penyakit yang dialami. Berdasarkan kajian rintis yang dijalankan, jelas bahawa instrumen yang digunakan boleh dipercayai dan sesuai digunakan dalam konteks kajian tempatan.

Penganalisaan Data Kajian ini adalah berbentuk mixed method, oleh yang demikian pengkaji menggunakan tiga peringkat dalam membuat penganalisaan data. Pada peringkat pertama, pengkaji akan menghuraikan hasil kajian dalam bentuk deskriptif dan statististik. Penganalisisan data dibuat dengan menggunakan pengatucaraan Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) versi 20.0. Dalam analisis ini, ujian yang digunakan adalah seperti ujian-t, korelasi dan regresi pelbagai. Tahap signifikan yang ditetapkan adalah p<0.05. Seterusnya, peringkat kedua melibatkan penganalisaan data kualitatif dengan menggunakan kaedah kerangka analisis, di mana kaedah ini membantu untuk membentuk tema-tema daripada soalan yang dibina (Ritchie & Lewis,2003). Temubual yang dijalankan direkod secara bertulis dan rakaman menggunakan perakam audio. Rakaman ini kemudiannya ditranskrip secara verbatim. Analisis manual digunakan bagi meletakkan kategori tertentu. Seterusnya kategori ini ditentukan mengikut tema yang telah terbentuk dalan temubual mendalam tersebut. Akhir sekali, pada peringkat ketiga, hasil kajian kuantitatif dan kualitatif akan digabungkan untuk mendapatkan gambaran lengkap berkaitan pengalaman penjagaan pesakit Paraplegia di rumah dan kualiti hidup penjaga yang terlibat.

Etika Kajian Kebenaran untuk menjalankan kajian telah diperolehi daripada Jawatankuasa Penyelidikan Pusat Perubatan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (PPUKM) dan Jawatankuasa Etika Perubatan PPUM Pusat Perubatan Universiti Malaya (PPUM) . Selain daripada itu, responden yang terlibat telah diberi penerangan dan makluman berkaitan tujuan kajian, risiko dan juga faedah yang diterima daripada kajian tersebut.

HASIL KAJIAN KUANTITATIF Analisa Deskriptif Analisis Sosiodemografi Responden Ciri-ciri sosiodemografi responden ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 1.1. Umur responden yang terlibat adalah di antara 22 sehingga 70 tahun, nilai min umur bagi responden adalah 45 tahun. Kajian mendapati sebanyak 79% daripada mereka adalah wanita manakala responden lelaki adalah 21.1%. Dari segi pembahagian bangsa, ianya didominasi oleh bangsa bukan melayu iaitu sebanyak 60.5% berbanding dengan bangsa melayu iaitu 39.5%. Kebanyakan daripada responden 76.5% daripadanya telah berkahwin, manakala selebihnya adalah bujang atau telah bercerai. Dari segi tahap pendidikan, 86.4% responden dilaporkan mempunyai tahap pendidikan yang tinggi dan didapati lebih ramai yang bekerja. Walaupun lebih ramai penjaga pesakit yang bekerja, sebanyak 71.6% melaporkan pendapatan yang rendah. Ini menunjukkan lebih ramai penjaga yang terlibat mempunyai pendapatan isi rumah di bawah RM3000 sebulan. Kajian ini mendapati, 61.7% responden telah menjaga pesakit lebih daripada 2 tahun, hanya 38.3% responden yang menjaga pesakit kurang daripada 2 tahun. Jadual 1.1 Taburan Ciri-Ciri Sosiodemografi Penjaga Pesakit

Ciri-ciri Penjaga

N (n=81)

(%)

Lelaki

17

21.0

Perempuan

64

79.0

Jantina

Bangsa

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Ciri-ciri Penjaga

N (n=81)

(%)

Melayu

32

39.5

Bukan Melayu

49

60.5

Bujang

19

23.5

Berkahwin

62

76.5

Pendidikan Rendah

11

13.6

Pendidikan Tinggi

70

86.4

Tidak Bekerja

39

48.1

Bekerja

42

51.9

< RM 3000

58

71.6

> RM 3000

23

28.4

2 tahun ke bawah

31

38.3

2 tahun dan ke atas

50

61.7

Status Perkahwinan

Tahap Pendidikan

Pekerjaan

Pendapatan

Tempoh Penjagaan Pesakit

Ciri-ciri Penjaga Umur (tahun)

Min

Sisihan Piawai

44.45

11.86

Analisis Sosiodemografi Pesakit Maklumat berkaitan pesakit ini diperolehi dengan pelbagai cara iaitu daripada penjaga, pesakit sendiri, perbincangan bersama kumpulan perubatan atau maklumat klinikal dalam rekod pesakit tersebut. Jadual 2.2 menerangkan umur pesakit yang terlibat adalah di antara 15 sehingga 76 tahun, nilai min umur adalah 44 tahun. Dari segi jantina, ianya didominasi oleh pesakit lelaki di mana 69.1% daripadanya adalah lelaki, selebihnya adalah pesakit wanita. Majoriti daripada pesakit adalah mengalami kecederaan saraf yang teruk di mana ianya melibatkan saraf Thoracics,iatu 93.8% daripada pesakit berbanding dengan hanya 6.2% sahaja yang menalami tahap kecederaan yang tidak teruk. Kebanyakan pesakit iaitu 67.5% daripadanya telah disahkan menghidap penyakit ini untuk tempoh yang lama, iaitu lebih dari tempoh setahun. Hasil kajian mendapati hubungan penjaga dengan pesakit, melibatkan penjaga yang mempunyai hubungan sebagai pasangan iaitu suami atau isteri di mana kumpulan ini mewakili peratus yang paling besar iaitu 43%, diikuti dengan ibubapa dan lain-lain di mana peratus masing-masing adalah 28.4%. Daripada data yang diterima, lebih ramai pesakit Paraplegia yang memerlukan bantuan yang minima dalam menjalankan aktiviti harian mereka. Hanya 11% sahaja pesakit yang bergantung sepenuhnya kepada penjaga dan 7.4% sahaja dilaporkan telah mampu berdikari. Selain daripada itu, 45.7% daripada mereka 61.7% pesakit dilaporkan memerlukan rawatan susulan yang jarang di hospital. Jadual 1.2 Taburan Pesakit Yang Di Bawah Penjagaan Penjaga Keluarga

Ciri-ciri Pesakit

N (n=81)

(%)

Lelaki

56

69.1

Perempuan

25

30.9

76

93.8

5

6.20

Jantina

Tahap Kecederaan Saraf Tunjang Teruk Tidak Teruk

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Ciri-ciri Pesakit

N (n=81)

(%)

Baru

19

23.5

Lama

62

76.5

Pasangan

35

43.2

Ibubapa

23

28.4

Lain-lain

23

28.4

64

79.0

6

7.4

Ya

37

45.7

Tidak

44

54.3

Kerap

31

38.3

Jarang

50

61.7

Tempoh Mendapat Kecederaan

Hubungan Dengan Pesakit

Keadaan Pesakit Bergantung sepenuhnya kepada penjaga Perlu bantuan minima Boleh berdikari Mempunyai Komplikasi Sekunder

Kekerapan Rawatan Susulan

Ciri-ciri Pesakit Umur (tahun)

Min

Sisihan Piawai

44.02

15.92

Pengukuran Beban Jagaan, Penerimaan Sokongan Sosial dan Kualiti Hidup Penajaga Pesakit Paraplegia Pengukuran beban jagaan berdasarkan Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) mendapati kebanyakan penjaga pesakit yang terlibat mempunyai tahap beban penjagaan yang tinggi di mana 65.4% daripadanya melaporkan demikian berbanding dengan 34.6% sahaja yang melaporkan mengalami beban penjagaan yang rendah. Manakala dari segi penerimaan sokongan sosial, domain sokongan afeksi menunjukkan kadar min yang tertinggi iaitu 48.97 dengan sisihan piawai 13.13, diikuti dengan sokongan emosi atau informasi, sokongan ketara dan akhir sekali sokongan interaksi positif . Bagi mengenalpasti tahap penerimaan sokongan sosial yang diterima oleh penjaga pesakit Paraplegia, jumlah skor sokongan sosial secara keseluruhan dibahagikan kepada 2 mengikut min skor hasil kajian. Hasil mendapati, lebih dari setengah responden iaitu 55.5% melaporkan mempunyai penerimaan sokongan yang tinggi dan 44.4% melaporkan penerimaan sokongan sosial yang rendah. Ini menunjukkan lebih ramai penjaga pesakit Paraplegia menerima sokongan sosial yang baik walaupun nilai skor yang diterima adalah sederhana. Seterusnya, jadual 1.3 menerangkan hasil daripada WHOQOL- Brief, ianya mendapati domain yang mempunyai skor yang tinggi adalah domain hubungan sosial di mana min skor bagi domain tersebut adalah 62.75 dengan sisihan piawai 11.85, ianya diikuti dengan kualiti hidup dari segi persekitaran, kesihatan psikologi dan akhir sekali kesihatan fizikal. Bagi 2 soalan utama berkaitan kualiti hidup secara umum dan kesihatan penjaga, ianya digabungkan sebagai menilai keseluruhan kualiti hidup penjaga pesakit tersebut. Hasil yang diperolehi mendapati min skor bagi keseluruhan kualiti hidup penjaga adalah 7.19 dengan sisihan piawai 1.02. Ini menunjukkan responden yang terlibat melaporkan mempunyai skor kualiti hidup yang baik. Jadual 1.3 Kualiti Hidup Menurut WHOQOL-Brief

Domain

Julat Skor

Kualiti Hidup (Umum & Kesihatan) Hubungan Sosial

Kualiti Hidup WHOQOL-Brief Min

Sisihan Piawai

1-10

7.19

1.02

0-75

62.75

11.49

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Domain

Julat Skor

Kualiti Hidup WHOQOL-Brief Min

Sisihan Piawai

Persekitaran

0-66

59.76

8.49

Kesihatan Psikologi

0-67

59.58

7.66

Kesihatan Fizikal

0-64

59.70

8.60

N=81

Analisis Inferensi Hubungan Beban Jagaan Dengan Penerimaan Sokongan Sosial Hasil kajian mendapati, secara keseluruhannya responden yang mengalami beban jagaan yang rendah, mempunyai nilai min penerimaan sokongan sosial yang tinggi dan responden yang mengalami beban jagaan yang tinggi mempunyai nilai min penerimaan sokongan sosial yang rendah. Ujian statistik yang dijalankan mendapati terdapat perbezaan nilai min yang signifikan di antara beban jagaan dan penerimaan sokongan sosial responden, ianya meliputi setiap domain sokongan sosial tersebut iaitu skor sokongan sosial keseluruhan t=3.720, p 0.001(p<0.05), sokongan ketara t=3.531, p 0.004 (p<0.05), sokongan emosi t=3.008, p 0.002(p<0.05), sokongan afeksi t=3.203, p 0.000 (p<0.05) dan sokongan interaksi positif t=4.341, p 0.000(p<0.05).

Hubungan Kualiti Hidup Penjaga Dengan Beban Jagaan Domain kualiti hidup penjaga pesakit dan hubungannya dengan beban jagaan diuji menggunakan ujian-t. Hasil mendapati terdapat hubungan yang signifikan diperolehi di antara kualiti hidup penjaga pesakit dengan beban jagaan yang dialami oleh penjaga. Melalui nilai min yang diperolehi, penjaga yang mempunyai beban jagaan yang rendah mempunyai nilai min kualiti hidup yang baik meliputi setiap domain WHOQOL-Brief tersebut.Ujian statistik yang dijalankan mendapati terdapat perbezaan nilai min yang signifikan di antara kualiti hidup dan beban jagaan, iaitu kualiti hidup kesihatan fizikal t=2.497, p=0.015(p<0.05), kualiti hidup kesihatan psikologi t=5.844,p=0.000 (p<0.05), kualiti hidup hubungan sosial t=2.099,p=0.039 (p<0.05) dan kualiti hidup persekitaran t=3.049, p=0.003.

Hubungan Kualiti Hidup Penjaga dengan Penerimaan Sokongan Sosial Hasil kajian mendapati, nilai min yang tinggi bagi sokongan sosial melaporkan mempunyai tahap kualiti yang baik merangkumi kesemua domain WHOQOL- Brief tersebut berbanding dengan responden yang mempunyai tahap sokongan sosial yang rendah. Ujian statistik yang dijalankan mendapati terdapat perbezaan nilai min yang signifikan di antara kualiti hidup dan penerimaan sokongan sosial, ianya meliputi setiap domain kualiti hidup iaitu kualiti hidup kesihatan fizikal t=-2.162, p 0.034(p<0.05), kualiti hidup kesihatan psikologi t=-5.294, p 0.000(p<0.05), kualiti hidup hubungan sosial t=-4.776, p 0.000(p<0.05) dan kualiti hidup persekitaran t=4.694, p 0.000(p<0.05).

Faktor Peramal Yang Menyumbang Kepada Kualiti Hidup Penjaga Pesakit Paraplegia Berdasarkan Domain WHOQOL-Brief Bagi mengetahui faktor peramal bagi kualiti hidup penjaga yang terlibat, ujian regresi pelbagai telah dijalankan berasarkan domain kualiti hidup WHOQOL-Brief yang telah diberikan iaitu kualiti hidup kesihatan fizikal, kesihatan psikologi, hubungan sosial dan persekitaran. Dari segi domain kualiti hidup kesihatan fizikal, ujian regressi secara stepwise telah dijalankan dan mendapati beban jagaan adalah faktor peramal utama dengan memberi peratus tertinggi iaitu 18.5% diikuti dengan umur pesakit dan sokongan interaksi positif manakala skor keseluruhan sokongan sosial tidak lagi menjadi faktor peramal bagi kualiti hidup kesihatan fizikal tersebut. Ini menunjukkan 27.8% kualiti hidup kesihatan fizikal penjaga pesakit dipengaruhi oleh faktor beban jagaan, umur pesakit dan sokongan interaksi positif. Seterusnya, bagi mengenalpasti faktor peramal untuk kualiti hidup kesihatan psikologi, hasil mendapati faktor sokongan emosi merupakan faktor peramal utama dengan memberi peratus tertinggi iaitu 35.8% diikuti dengan beban jagaan dan sokongan ketara. Keseluruhannya, sebanyak 52.9% perubahan kualiti hidup kesihatan psikologi penjaga pesakit Paraplegia adalah disebabkan oleh sokongan emosi, beban jagaan dan sokongan ketara. Hasil ujian mendapati sekali lagi faktor beban jagaan adalah faktor peramal utama dengan peratus yang tertinggi iaitu 14.1% bagi kualiti hidup hubungan sosial penjaga pesakit. Secara keseluruhan, sebanyak 42.4% perubahan dalam kualiti hidup hubungan sosial penjaga pesakit adalah disebabkan oleh beban jagaan, © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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tempoh penjagaan, umur pesakit, hubungan penjaga dan komplikasi sekunder yang dialami oleh pesakit. Akhir sekali, ujian regressi secara stepwise, mendapati 35.8% perubahan dalam kualiti hidup persekitaran penjaga pesakit Paraplegia adalah disebabkan oleh sokongan emosi dan komplikasi sekunder yang dialami oleh pesakit.

HASIL KAJIAN KUALITATIF Analisis tema dijalankan bagi data kualitatif yang diperolehi bagi menjawab persoalan tentang kualiti hidup penjaga pesakit Paraplegia yang menjalankan proses penjagaan di rumah. Merujuk kepada Rajah 1.1, skop perbincangan tertumpu kepada pengalaman penjagaan bagi menilai tahap kualiti hidup yang diterima, aspek beban jagaan dan strategi daya tindak penjaga diberi penekanan. Rajah 1.1 Pengalaman Penjagaan

Seramai 8 orang responden dipilih bagi menjalani temubual secara mendalam. Umur penjaga yang terlibat adalah di antara 36 hingga 58 tahun, penjaga yang terlibat majoriti adalah perempuan, berbangsa melayu, berkahwin dan mempunyai tahap pendidikan yang tinggi. Pendapatan penjaga yang terlibat juga lebih ramai yang mempunyai pendapatan lebih dari RM3000 sebulan dan menjaga pesakit lebih dari 2 tahun. Ciri-ciri pesakit yang di bawah jagaan penjaga adalah berumur di antara 15 hingga 62 tahun. Seramai 7 orang pesakit terdiri dari lelaki dan hanya seorang pesakit mewakili pesakit perempuan. Kesemua pesakit yang terlibat adalah mengalami kecederaan Paraplegia pada saraf Thoracics. Penjaga yang terlibat adalah terdiri daripada suami, isteri, ibu dan adik-beradik pesakit. Pesakit yang dijaga lebih ramai yang memerlukan bantuan minima daripada yang terlantar dan memerlukan rawatan susulan ke hospital yang jarang.

Beban Penjagaan Hasil kajian mendapati, lebih ramai penjaga pesakit melaporkan mengalami bebanan dari segi emosi dan fizikal berbanding dengan bebanan sosial. Ini menggambarkan penjaga pesakit sering terkesan terhadap emosi dan fizikal yang disebabkan dari pelbagai faktor dalam proses penjagaan. Rajah 2.2 di bawah menerangkan tema yang terbentuk berkaitan beban jagaan yang dialami oleh penjaga pesakit Paraplegia yang menjaga pesakit di rumah. Temubual mendapati penjaga lebih terdedah kepada kepada beban emosi dalam proses penjagaan, antara tema yang terbentuk dari segi emosi adalah kebimbangan, tekanan dan juga marah. Manakala dari segi beban fizikal, tema yang terbentuk adalah bebanan dari segi kewangan, pengurusan tingkah laku pesakit dan juga beban menguruskan rawatan pesakit.

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Rajah 2.2: Beban Penjagaan

Strategi Daya Tindak Penjaga pesakit Paraplegia mempunyai pengalaman yang berbeza-beza dan pelbagai cara dilakukan bagi mengadaptasi tekanan atau beban yang dialami. Oleh itu, kajian ini seterusnya meneroka strategi daya tindak yang digunakan oleh penjaga dalam menangani bebanan tersebut. Jadual 1.4 adalah strategi daya tindak yang dilaporkan oleh penjaga pesakit Paraplegia dalam menangani isu beban penjagaan dan adaptasi dalam proses penjagaan tersebut. Jadual 1.4: Strategi Daya Tindak Penjaga Pesakit

Strategi Daya Tindak

Frekuensi

Pertingkatkan aspek kerohanian

7

Perbincangan dengan pesakit & ahli keluarga

6

Mendapatkan informasi yang berkaitan

4

Membuat sesuatu yang menghiburkan

4

Majoriti daripada penjaga melaporkan ketika mereka mengalami bebanan yang tinggi, mereka lebih suka mendekatkan diri dalam aktiviti keagaamaan, tidak kira jenis agama yang dianuti dan ada juga penjaga yang akan menggunakan kemahiran komunikasi sebagai strategi daya tindak mereka. Di mana penjaga akan berbincang dengan pesakit berkaitan keadaan dan mengekpreskan emosi yang mereka alami. Perkara ini membantu penjaga mendapat kekuatan dalaman dan luaran bagi meneruskan peranan sebagai penjaga tidak formal kepada pesakit Paraplegia. Informasi berkaitan penyakit atau rawatan yang perlu dijalankan banyak membantu penjaga dalam daya tindak mereka. Kebanyakan informasi yang diterima adalah dari kumpulan perubatan, pengalaman keluarga pesakit lain dan juga informasi yang dicari sendiri dari pelbagai media. Informasi yang diterima membantu menambah keyakinan diri penjaga dalam menguruskan pesakit memandangkan penjaga tidak mempunyai pengetahuan yang baik dari segi perubatan. Kesimpulan yang boleh dibuat adalah, penjaga pesakit membina strategi daya tindak mereka mengikut keadaan semasa dan kapasiti bebanan yang dialami. Tempoh penjagaan pesakit yang turut memberi kesan di mana, penjaga yang menjaga pesakit Paraplegia lebih lama mempunyai lebih banyak pengalaman dan pengalaman tersebut akan digunakan dalam membina strategi daya tindak yang bijak dalam proses penjagaan tersebut.

PERBINCANGAN & CADANGAN Secara keseluruhannya, faktor sosiodemografi yang diperolehi dapat membantu pengkaji mengetahui prevalen penjaga keluarga yang terlibat dalam proses penjagaan pesakit Paraplegia di rumah ianya selari dengan hasil kajian terdahulu di mana demografi penjaga pesakit kebanyakannya terdiri daripada wanita dan min umur pesakit yang di bawah jagaan penjaga tersebut adalah di antara 35 sehingga 49 tahun, ini adalah berikutan golongan muda adalah golongan yang sering dilaporkan mengalami kecederaan saraf tunjang akibat daripada kemalangan jalanraya atau jatuh dari tempat yang tinggi (Nogueira et al. 2012; Gajraj-Singh © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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2011; Schulz et al. 2009; Blanes et al. 2007 & Post et al. 2005). Penjaga pesakit yang terlibat dalam kajian ini majoriti adalah berbangsa bukan melayu, mempunyai pendidikan tinggi dan bekerja. Ini adalah sejajar dengan lokasi kajian yang melibatkan kawasan Lembah Klang di mana lebih ramai penghuni di kawasan ini mempunyai pekerjaan dan mempunyai tahap pendidikan tingi sekurang-kurangnya lepasan sijil atau diploma. Walaubagaimanapun, lebih ramai penjaga yang terlibat dilaporkan mempunyai pendapatan isi rumah kurang daripada RM 3000.00 sebulan. Isu pendapatan isi rumah yang rendah ini perlu di ambil berat oleh Pegawai Kerja Sosial Perubatan khususnya bagi memastikan keperluan pesakit dan keluarga adalah mencukupi serta tidak terabai. Dari segi kualiti hidup penjaga, skor tertinggi adalah domain hubungan sosial berbanding domain-domain yang lain. Ini adalah berikutan daripada penjaga pesakit yang terlibat dalam kajian ini adalah terdiri daripada penjaga keluarga dan kebanyakannya mempunyai hubungan yang rapat seperti pasangan suami atau isteri dan ibubapa. Menurut WHO (1998), domain hubungan sosial ini merangkumi isu hubungan personal termasuk kasih sayang dan penghargaan diri yang diterima, aspek sokongan sosial serta hubungan seksual di antara pasangan. Ini menunjukkan penjaga dan pesakit mempunyai hubungan kekeluargaan yang baik walaupun menerima tanggungjawab sebagai penjaga pesakit Paraplegia. Menurut kajian oleh Line & Luc (2009) hubungan pasangan suami isteri dilaporkan menjadi lebih rapat dan ia berhubungkait dengan personaliti penjaga terutamanya dalam memberi motivasi dan sokongan. Penjaga yang menjaga pesakit Paraplegia melebihi daripada 2 tahun melaporkan mempunyai kualiti hidup yang rendah, ini menunjukkan kualiti hidup penjaga pesakit akan mula terjejas setelah menjalankan penjagaan lebih daripada 2 tahun terutamanya dari segi kualiti hidup hubungan sosial dan persekitaran. Domain hubungan sosial dan persekitaran kualiti hidup ini merangkumi isu hubungan personal, sokongan sosial, persekitaran rumah, masalah kewangan, pengangkutan serta peluang untuk penjaga mendapatkan informasi dan kemahiran menjaga pesakit dengan baik. Kajian oleh Morley et al. (2012) menyatakan penjaga pesakit Parkinson mengalami tahap kualiti hidup yang rendah setelah menjaga pesakit tersebut untuk tempoh yang lama, hasil tersebut adalah selari dengan kajian ini. Dari segi ciri-ciri pesakit, hasil mendapati faktor komplikasi sekunder dan keadaan pesakit dilihat memberi keputusan yang signifikan bagi kebanyakan domain WHOQOL-Brief tersebut. Hasil kajian ini disokong oleh kajian oleh Nogueira et al. (2012), Grigg et al. (2010), Martin (2007), Rees et al. (2001) dan Weitzner et al. (1999) di mana penjaga pesakit yang terlibat, mengalami kesan penurunan tahap kualiti hidup akibat daripada keadaan pesakit yang sangat bergantung kepada penjaga dari segi fizikal dan sosial. Keadaan pesakit yang sangat bergantung memberi kekangan terhadap penjaga untuk menjalani aktiviti sosial, beriadah termasuk memberi kesan terhadap pekerjaan sekiranya penjaga tersebut bekerja. Kesan yang dialami oleh penjaga ini akan menyumbang kepada pelbagai lagi isu seperti produktiviti dan mutu kerja yang menurun, hubungan sosial yang renggang dan juga peningkatan masalah mental di kalangan penjaga. Kajian ini telah mendapati terdapat hubungan yang signifikan di antara sokongan sosial dan beban jagaan, di mana penjaga keluarga yang mempunyai sokongan sosial yang tinggi dilaporkan mempunyai tahap beban jagaan yang rendah. Ini jelas membuktikan bantuan yang diperolehi oleh persekitaran penjaga pesakit mampu meringankan beban penjaga tidak kira dari segi material, galakan, empati dan juga informasi. Teori Ekologi Manusia menjelaskan, interaksi yang aktif di kalangan penjaga dan persekitarannya membantu mereka membina rangkaian sosial yang dinamik (Bronfenbrenner 1979) bermula dari peringkat mikro sehingga ke peringkat krono individu tersebut, di mana setiap peringkat sistem ini mempunyai peranan dan peluang tertentu, sekiranya penjaga berhubung dengan secara aktif ianya akan meningkatkan sumber sokongan sosial yang boleh membantu mereka. Hasil kajian lepas oleh Rodakowski et al. (2012) dalam kajian berkaitan peranan sokongan sosial dalam meramal beban penjagaan mendapati hubungan yang signifikan di antara sokongan sosial dan interaksi sosial yang negatif oleh penjaga pesakit kecederaan saraf tunjang. Sokongan sosial dilaporkan adalah faktor utama yang signifikan dengan beban penjagaan pesakit kecederaan tulang belakang. Manakala Arai et al. (2008) menyatakan sokongan sosial adalah peramal utama dalam perubahan komponen kesihatan fizikal dan mental bagi penjaga keluarga pesakit yang mengalami ketidakupayaan di Jepun. Kajian ini telah mendapati keputusan yang signifikan di antara kualiti hidup penjaga dengan beban jagaan dan penerimaan sokongan sosial. Penjaga yang mempunyai beban penjagaan yang rendah adalah hasil daripada penerimaan sokongan sosial sekaligus menyumbang kepada kualiti hidup yang baik. Hasil ini adalah konsisten dengan kajian-kajian lepas berkaitan kualiti hidup penjaga pesakit dengan hubungannya dengan faktor beban dan sokongan sosial (Urizar et al. 2009, Blanes et al. 2007, Post et al. 2005, Unalan et al. 2001 dan Weitzner et al. 1999). Kesimpulannya, beban penjagaan dapat dikurangkan dengan meningkatkan penerimaan sokongan sosial terutamanya sokongan emosi kepada penjaga pesakit Paraplegia. Selain daripada © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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itu dapat dirumuskan di sini, semakin lama pesakit Paraplegia berada di bawah jagaan penjaga keluarga tersebut, semakin merosot kualiti hidup mereka. Oleh itu, penjaga keluarga perlu mempunyai alternatif yang bersesuaian seperti perkongsian peranan tanggungjawab bersama ahli keluarga yang lain atau dibantu oleh pembantu khas bagi memastikan kualiti hidup mereka terjamin. Bagi membantu penjaga keluarga mempunyai persediaan dan berada dalam keadaan selesa untuk menyediakan penjagaan terhadap pesakit Paraplegia sebelum dibenarkan pulang ke rumah terdapat beberapa cadangan yang dapat membantu penjaga mengekalkan kualiti hidup yang baik dalam proses penjagaan tersebut. Antaranya ialah penyediaan maklumat berkaitan penyakit dan rawatan pesakit yang berada di bawah jagaan penjaga dapat mengurangkan masalah kebimbangan penjaga dari segi tahap kesihatan pesakit dan rawatan-rawatan yang diperlukan. Penilaian dari segi emosi dan beban jagaan seseorang penjaga secara berkala dan dipantau dari masa ke semasa, ianya boleh dibantu oleh Pegawai Kerja Sosial Perubatan. Bantuan kaunseling dan advokasi kepada agensi-agensi yang berkaitan juga membantu untuk memastikan kualiti hidup penjaga keluarga terjamin.

RUMUSAN Umumnya penjaga keluarga telah menerima tanggungjawab untuk menjaga pesakit Paraplegia sebagai satu obligasi dan ianya adalah pilihan utama pesakit sebelum penjagaan yang melibatkan pembantu rumah atau menghantar mereka ke rumah-rumah jagaan. Oleh yang demikian, bagi menghargai peranan dan pengorbanan yang telah dipenuhi oleh mereka, penjaga keluarga perlu didedahkan kepada maklumatmaklumat yang berkaitan khususnya dari segi penjagaan pesakit Paraplegia yang baik, pengurusan tekanan emosi dan sumber sokongan sosial yang ada dalam ekologi penjaga keluarga tersebut. Penerimaan tanggunjawab yang ikhlas akan memberikan impak yang positif kepada kehidupan keluarga yang terlibat.

RUJUKAN Arai, H., Nagatsuka, M & Hirai, K. (2008). The relationship between helath related quality of life and social networks among Japanese from caregivers for people with disabilities. Biopsychosocial Medicine, 2(17), 1-4. Blanes, L., Carmagni, M.I.S. & Ferreira, L.M. (2007). Health related quality of life primary caregivers of person with Paraplegia. Spinal Cord, 45, 399-403. Brofenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development. Cambridge. MA: Havard University. Creswell, J.W. & Plano Clark, V.L. (2007). Designing And Conducting Mixed Methods Research. Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage Publication. DeSanto-Madeya, S. (2009). Adaptation to spinal cord injury for families post injury. Nursing Sciences Quarterly, 22(1), 57-66. Donelan, K., Hill, C.A., Hoffman, C. et al. (2002). Challenged to care : Informal caregivers in a changing health system. Health Affairs, 21(4), 222-231. Evans, R.W., Wilberger, J.E., Bhatia, S. (2007). Traumatic disorders. Textbook of Clinical Neurology. Edisi ke-3.51. Philadelphia. Saunders Elsevier. Fatimang, L. & Rahmah, M.A. (2011). Penjagaan pesakit stroke: adakah ia satu bebanan? Apa yang penjaga persepsikan. Journal of Community Health, 17(1), 32-41. Gajraj-Singh, P. (2011). Psychological impact and the burden of caregiving for peson with spinal Cord injuries living in the community in Fiji. Spinal Cord, 49, 928-934. Grigg, M., Freeman, B.J.C.,Denson, L., Shunmugam, M.,Poli, A. & Dorstyn, D. (2010). Long term psychosocial adjustment and quality of life following spinal cord injury. A comparison of injured person and their caregivers. Poster. Journal Lippincot William & Wilkins. Hasanah, C.I., Naivig, L. & Rahman, A.R.A. (2002). World Health Organization Quality of Life Assessment: Brief version in Bahasa Malaysia. Medical Jurnal Malaysia, 58(1), 79-88. Kaufman, A.V., Kosberg, J.I., Leeper, D.L. & Maggie, T. (2010). Social Support, caregiver burden and life satisfaction in a sample of rural African American and White caregivers of older person with dementia. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 53, 251-269. Line, B & Luc, N. (2009). Spouse of persons with spinal cord injury: impact and coping. British Journal of Social Work, 1-15. Morley, D., Dummelt, S., Peters, L., Hewitson, K.P., Dawson, J., Fitzpatrick, R., & Jenkinson, C. (2012). Factor influencing quality of life in caregivers of people with Parkinson’s disease and implications for clinical guidelines. Hindawi Publishing Coorporation Parkinson’s Disease: 1-6. Noguiera, P.S., Rabeh, S.A.N., Caliri, M.H.L.,Dantas, R.A.S & Haas, V.J. (2012). Burden of care and its impacts on health related quality of life of caregivers of individu with spinal cord injuries. Rev.Latino-Americana de Enfarmagem, 20(6). © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Phil Klebine, M.A. (2001). Adjusment to spinal cord injury: It’s all in your head. Pushin’ On, 19(1). The University of Alabama. Birmingham. Post, M.W.M., Bloeman, J. and De Witte, L.P. (2005). Burden of support for the partners of person with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord, 43, 311-319. Rees, J., O’Boyle, C. & MacDonagh, R. (2001). Quality of life: Impact of chronic illness on the partner. Journal of The Royal Society Medicine, 94, 563-566. Ritchie, J. & Lewis, J. (2003). Qualitative Research Practice: A guide For Social Science Students and Researchers. London: SAGE Publications. Ritvo, P.G.,Fischer, J.S.,Miller, D.M, Andrews, H, Paty D.W & LaRocca, N. (1997). MSQLI: Multiple Scelerosis Quality of Life Inventory: A Users Manual. National Multiple Scelorosis Society: New York. Rodakowski, J., Skidmore, E.R., Rogers, J.C. & schulz, R. (2012). Role of social support in predicting caregiver burden. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 93(12), 2229-2236. Schulz, R.C., Tompkins, L.A., Wood, D., Decker, S. (1987). The social psychology of caregiving: Physical & Psychological cost of providing support to disabled. Journal Application Social Psychology, 17, 401428. Somers, M.F. (2010). Spinal Cord Injury: Functional Rehabilitations. Edisi ke-3. New Jersey: Pearson. Unalan, H., Gencosmanoglu, B., Akgun, K., Karomehmetoglu, A., Tuna, H., Ones, K., Rahimpeneh, A., Uzun, U. & Tuzun, F. (2001). Quality of life primary caregivers of spinal cord injury survivors living in the community: controlled study with short form-36 questionnaire. Spinal Cord, 39, 318-322. Vargo, W.J, Karpman, T. & Wolfe, S.(1987). Family adjustment to close head injury: Implications for rehabilitation counseling. Vocational Counseling In Rehabilitation. Ottawa:Employment And Immigration Canada, 137 -147. WHO. (1998). WHOQOL User Manual. Geneva: World Health Organization. Weitzner M.A, McMillan S.C. & Jacobsen P.B. (1999). Family caregiver quality of life: differences between curative and palliative cancer treatment setting. Journal of Pain and Symptoms Management, 17(6). 418-428. Zainuddin, J. Arokiasamy J.T., Pot, P.J. (2003). Caregiving burden is associated with short rather than long duration of care for older person. Asia Pacifics Journal of Public Health, 15(2), 88-93. Zarit, S., Reever, K. & Bach-Peterson, J. (1980). Relatives of the impaired elderly: Correlates of feeling of burden. The Gerontologist, 20, 650-655.

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SECTION IV

CHILD WELFARE AND PROTECTION

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

EARLY INTERVENTION OF CHILD ABUSE: AN INTRA FAMILIAL-APPROACH Mimi Fitriana Zaini* & Zulfan Haidar *[email protected] International Islamic University Malaysia

Abstract The current study investigates the need of intra-familial intervention on children abuse from the parents’ perspective. The current study exposes some scientific evidences while presenting some observable facts of abusive characters among parents towards their children. The fact that family plays big roles in forming children’s characters is also discussed here. The current research particularly presents the phenomenon of child abuse within family setting as the results of lacking intra-familial relations. This technical and qualitative research paper emphasizes on the paramount importance of the need of early intervention of abuse from the family intervention. The consequences of familial abusive can be early identified and intervened with three ways; 1) intra-familial communication, 2) intra-familial interaction, 3) intra-familial attachment. The facts of behavioral consequences of abuse towards children are also included to present the detrimental impacts of lacking intra-familial interventions. The current study also highlights the previous research findings on various issues pertaining to children abuse as reference. A sample of two parents was selected randomly for the purpose of the study. A semi-structured interview was conducted to the parents to gain their insight perception on the importance of intra-familial intervention on children abuse. It was found that; 1) parents perceive intra-familial intervention as crucially important, 2) parents perceive of intra-familial communication and interaction as significant to prevent misunderstanding among family members especially to create a sense of belongingness in each other, 3) parents also perceive intra-familial relation is essentially important to develop children’s attitude and to shape their behavior, 4) parents perceive intra-familial intervention is an important early intervention creating attachment in the family to prevent abusive patterns of behavior from parents as well as among siblings towards young children at home. Keywords: early intervention, children abuse, intra-familial relations, attachment

INTRODUCTION Child abuse is a psychologically complex and a socially disturbing phenomenon. It is deeply rooted in the social system and is consciously or unconsciously being experienced by the whole society. At times, the phenomenon becomes so tragic, that it affects the life of the entire family and even of the community at the same time. Children indeed are vulnerable since birth (Chand, 2002). Because of their vulnerability, they are often subjected to various abuses either from their own family, or their friends, or neighbors or caretakers. Studies indicate that 25 to 50 percent of children around the world suffer from physical abuse, and that around 20 percent of girld and 5 to 10 percent of boys experience sexual abuse. There are substantial consequences not only for the affected persons, but also for the society as a whole and these can no longer be ignored (World Health Organization, 2012). Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Researches in the field of child psychology have earlier shown detrimental results on the increasing violence among children in modern society and unfortunately, such violence comes from within their own family members (Chand, 2002; Duffy & Wong, 1996; Karim, 1993). Mental health and health professionals in their researches have recognized the tragic picture of child abuse and its tremendous impact on the lives of both parents and the children involved. The impact of maltreatment during childhood is damaging the child’s life and the life during adulthood. Childhood maltreatment could lead to post-traumatic stress, cognitive distortion, altered emotion, dissociation, impaired self-reference, disturbed relatedness and avoidance (Briere, 1992). Violence in the family certainly leads to the increased level of various psycho-familial and behavioral problems. Such behaviors as children’s aggressiveness, sibling violence, parental marital conflict and family depression have a negative impact on the development of healthy family life which leads to unhealthy family functioning. Further, the impact of abuse on the children becomes visible in physical, emotional and intellectual impairment in later life (Vetlkamp & Miller, 1994). Islam strongly put the responsibility of parents and family as vital for the children for they are the amanah from Allah. Allah has given parents the trust (amanah) to raise and educate children, to treat them well, as personal and religious imperative. Conversely, treating them badly and abusively is indeed a great sin for it violates the very basic of Islamic fundamental teachings and laws. Parental abusive behaviors may also lead to death in some extreme cases. Further, the family should also permanently stick to Allah’s revealed guidance and ask His mercy through constant prayers that the prophet Muhammad (SAW) used to recite (Surah al-Furqaan 25:74). Allah (SWT) has instilled in all human beings the innate instinct o their offspring and protect them from any treats. Allah warns human beings that their properties and children were trials for them (Surah al-Anfal 8:28, Surah at-Taghabun 64:15). This means that properties and children are trust from Allah by which Allah wants to try the believers to see how they behave and treat His trust (Surah al-Mumtahanah 60:8-9, and12).

CHILD ABUSE: A NUTSHELL The phenomenon of child abuse has been studied as early as 1860’s by a forensic pathologist in France, Dr. Tardieu, who documented thirty-two incidents of children who had died as a result of battering (Wallace, 1999). In 1870’s, many disciplines defined it as a social problem; they discussed the problem and protected the abused children under the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Winton & Mara, 2001). Such a case of Mary Ellen, who was beaten by her foster parents and was only given the protection once the court ruled that she was a member of the animal kingdom, was given protection under the Cruelty to Animals Act in 1874. This led to the emergence of a society for the Protection of Cruelty to Children, which sprung up in the United States (Oates, 1993). However, in 1946, a radiologist, Dr. Caffey, reported a study involving six children who had suffered injuries in the brain due to harsh physical abuse by the parent (Kempe et al., 1962). In the 1960s by the efforts of a physician, Dr. Kempe, the term battered child syndrome was termed to the public in which society began to accept the fact that parents, caretakers and siblings, in fact, were involved in the battering of young children. From the history of battered child syndrome, the definitions of child maltreatment has been variety. Earlier, The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1974 expanded the definition of child abuse to encompass emotional injury, neglect, parental deprivation of medical services, infectors deleterious to children moral development (Ciccheti & Carlson, 1989). This prudent definition of child abuse contributes to the belief that not all abusive parents or child caretakers set out with the intention to destroy helpless children. Increasingly broader social factors such as societal attitude were implicated as playing casual role in child maltreatment (Garbarino & Sherman, 1989). The most professionals of child abuse, however, share a common understanding of what constitutes child abuse. The current definition of child abuse is the mistreatment of a child or a disregard for the developmental needs of a child by guardian, or care giver resulting in injury, emotional, psychological harm or the potential of such harm (Wallace, 1999). In 1999, the WHO Consultation on Child Abuse Prevention drafted the following definition ‘‘Child abuse or maltreatment constitutes all forms of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent treatment or commercial or other exploitations, resulting in actual or potential harms in the child’s health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power (WHO, 1999 pg.9). Shaffer (2002) added that child abuse can be referred to as any extreme maltreatment to children, involving physical battering, sexual molestation, psychological insults such as persistent, ridicule, rejection, and terrorization, and physical or emotional neglect.

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Reports on Child Abuse During 1990s, many works had been done examining actual reports of child abuse and neglect that had implication on those who had described it and labeled it as a social problem. The American Society for Protecting Children (1986) documented about 1,727,000 reports of suspected child abuse in 1984. Forty two percent of these reports were substantiated. A National Survey reported that 10.7 percent of parents admitted to having perpetrated a ‘severe violent act’ against their child in the previous year (Strauss & Gelles, 1986). The Incidents of child maltreatment are increasingly high in its consecutive years up to the present times. In 1997, the National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse (NCPCA) released its annual report of the rate of children abused. The NCPCA released its report on abuse that there were 31,266,00 children reported to Child Protective Service (CPS) agencies as suspected victims of child abuse (Wallace, 1999). The most common form of maltreatment was neglect with 62%, followed by physical abuse 25%, sexual abuse 7%, emotional abuse 3% and other forms of abuse 4% (NCPCA, 1997). In Malaysia, The phenomenon of child abuse in Malaysia has awakened public and professional awareness since the death of physically abused 17-month-old Norshafiqah Maswari in 1989 (Zaleha, 2000). Following that tragedy, researchers began to focus on the issue of child maltreatment and perceived it as a serious social problem. According to Zaleha (2000) In Malaysia, the case of child abuse keeps on increasing from 72 cases in 1985 to 1, 117 cases in 1995. The case became dramatically rising again from 7074 in 1996 to over 9027 in 1997 and reaching to 2, 287 cases in this current time as reported by the Department of Social Welfare in Malaysia in its 2007. Report in different years about cases of child abuse indicate the highly increased numbers of the case every year. Statistical report from the Social Welfare Department (2009) revealed that child abuse cases were reported mostly in Selangor with 2,656 cases followed by Kuala Lumpur with 1,646 cases and Penang with 709 cases in 2006. In 2008 and 2009, the number of child abuse cases increasingly elevated by different types. It was reported by the Social Welfare Department Malaysia (2009) that Neglect and Abandon reached the most occurrences of cases with 1,010 cases in 2008, followed by physical abuse with 863 cases and sexual abuse with 73 cases as well as emotional abuse with 90 cases as the lowest end. However, this breakdown of cases in Malaysia has been successfully decreased following each type of cases. In 2009, the case of Neglect and Abandon decreases to 439 cases, physical abuse to 313 cases, sexual abuse to 356 cases and emotional abuse declines to 30 cases.

Parental Behaviour and Child Abuse Approaches of child maltreatment have well indicated variety of causes that contribute to child abuse. In decades, many researches indicate the important factors contributing to child maltreatment. A teenage parent, for instance, is the highest leading factor to child abuse in America (Duffy & Wong, 1996). In one study, Lee and George (1999) examined poverty and maternal age as strong predictors of all types of maltreatment. They found that economic stress of young mothers has a direct effect to child abuse. Many other studies discuss about the risk factors of child abuse. Wolfe (1999) stated that child maltreatment originated from the defiant parental style of child caretaker, whereby child abuse itself is a deviant act, the perpetrator is more than deviant; a criminal. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN, 2009) also stated on the involvement of the child’s immediate source of survival as the main perpetrator; parents or other relatives. The psychopathological assumption of parental behavior includes the practice of corporal punishment among parents to their children, using more extreme behaviors of harsh or inappropriate parental behaviors identified as abusive and destructive (Brad & Vincent, 1999). Further, abusive parents are assumed to have a set of personality or characteristics distinct from other parents, such as the increase of likelihood of parental aggression, using harsh parenting style (Henderson, 1991). Researches indicated that some parents with mental illness are more often to use abusive behavior as compared to parents without any mental disorders (Kasmini, 1993; Kawalramani, 1992; Winton & Mara, 2001). Many abusers are categorized by higher percentage of neurotic than psychotic disorders which is indicated by 48% parental neurotic behavior and 76 abnormal personality which leads to a high rate of behavioral social deviance (Kasmini, 1993). Other causes of child maltreatment may be the results of severe emotional pressure, psychopathology or family stress, family violence, poverty, unemployment of parents and lack of financial support (Susan, Honore & Dauglas, 2000). When parents experience a crisis of un- met needs, they do not fulfill the dire needs either in their marital relationship or their relationship with children, Therefore, psychological frustration and anger may lead to an emotional crisis and possible abuse of children. Accordingly, the ultimate goal of intervention is to stop child maltreatment before it starts. Thus, early © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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identification of child maltreatment is critical to the well-being of children and their families. The role of family functioning in the assessment and intervention of child maltreatment can serve as a buffer against child abuse within the family context (Ismail & Suffla, 2012). Further, Ismail and Suffla (2012) stated that effective prevention rograms support parents or caretakers and promotr positive parenting skills which include effective communication, frequent interaction, appropriate discipline and responding to te child’s physical and emotional needs. They further argued that ongoing care of children and families can provide the impetus to firstly reduce the risk of maltreatment frpm persisiting and strengthen the protective factors. Secondly. It prevents the occurence of new instances of maltreatment. More importantly, in Islam, as children grow to become matured adults, it is importance for parents to be aware of their surrounding too for it gives such a powerful influence to their development. Therefore, parents must instill the Islamic values from the very beginning of their children’s life then when it becomes strong, any unhealthy and destructive influences could be prevented. A socially and healthy community is another agent to help children strengthening their characters.

Intra-Familial Relations and Child Abuse Meanwhile, Child maltreatment is also a product of family dysfunction and disharmony. The occurrence of child abuse is the results of miscommunication, ineffective functioning, self-insufficiency and lack of empowerment as well as irresponsibility of each family member over the entire family. This appears as the results of parental stress in the family life, while the use of strict disciplinary regulations at home is another contributing variable in the abusive pattern of a family (Wallace, 1999; Berk, 2000). Family contributes to the maintenance of society by serving as agent in which children are loved, protected and encouraged to develop into competent and caring adult. A study done by Garbarino and Kostelny (1992) found that high-risk locations were characterized by a lack of community identity. This indicates that abuse is not necessarily a sign of an individual or family in trouble but rather a sign of trouble in community. Zalba (1967) has long analysed that the abusive phenomenon is due to famuly and family environmental causes. Abusive parents are not only impulsive but also are having identity ot role crisis. This Interactional model has long identified that abuse is the result of dysfunctional family system (Walace, 1999). Difficulties which create dysfunction family system may include parental learning disability, poor mental and physical health, domestic violence, severe alcohol problems, drug abuse, poor housing, long term unemployment, and financial and social incompetence (Clever, Unell, Aldgate, 2011). Garbarino and Sherman (1990) characterized the family as the basic unit of human experineces. Families contribute to the maintainance of society by serving as contexts in which children are loved, protected and encouraged to develop into competent, caring adult (Berk, 2000). Family functioning is one of the roots of children’s development and personality make-up. Family relationship can be the greates source of nurturance ad support, but adversely, it can become a powerful source of anguish that might lead to child abuse. Many researches showed that a healthy and well functioning family life nurtures the development of children (Berk, 2000; Ellason & Ross, 1997; Scerbo & Kolko, 1995). Accordingly, the well functioning family is the backbone of a harmonius family life. Caldwell and Bradley (1984) have also long indentified two important climates of family environment that children need most. First, family environment ensures gratificationof all basic physical needs and careful provisions for health and safety. Second, family setting fosters high frequency of adults context, positive emotional climate and higher physical, verbal and enotional responses to appropriate value behavior of children. However, inefectual family relationship, communication breakdown, ignorance of each other’s role are the signs of chaos and fall of the family. The insidious problems will ultimately lead to victimize the children as the result of stressful family environemnt (Spatz, 2000). Straus, Galles and Steinmetz (1988) has also long identified the role of family in occurence of child abuse. He stated that structure and function of the family are grouped as control and no single factor can explain the absence of abuse except family functioning. Which can be identified in a dyadic relationship where its members are active and interactive with each other. Intra-familial communication is perceived as a strong link between harmonious family and characters development of its members (Reder, Duncan & Gray, 1993). More specifically, Islam identifies family as critically essential unit for children’s upbringing. The Prophet Muhammad (SAW) says: “the best among you is the best to his family and I am the best among you to my family, and the most perfect believers are the best in conducts”. The prophet (SAW) reminds every Muslim family to be kind and loving to their family especially to their children. Such Islamically good attitude is associated with Iman and those who fulfill prophetic invitation are regarded as true believers thus spiritually elevated. The prophet (SAW) has exemplified a spiritually good treatment towards children. In the prophet’s (SAW) Hadith, © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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narrated by Usama ibn Zaid, it is mentioned that the prophet (SAW) used to take up Usama and Hassa in his lap and invokes Allah (SWT); “O Allah! Love them as I love them”. Meanwhile the family in Islam also significantly occupies a special place. It is an essential cell in society where all basic and fundamental knowledge, learning and virtues about life begin and are nurtured. The well-being of the family significantly influences the well-being of its member. Thus Islam gives great importance to the family; from a good nurtured family comes good nurtured children, from a well nurtured family prevails the spirit of love, bliss and harmony (Hammad, 1997). Therefore, the family must consistently works with sincerity to contribute to the well being of happiness of all its members; in this regard, parents are the most influential figures and profiles for the family members (Surah al-Maidah 5:2).

METHODOLOGY Research Method The study was conducted at the researcher’s immediate environment, the neighbourhood. The researcher aimed at finding the explanation and observable facts of the needs to early interventions to help the young children experience no abusive pattern of behaviours within their family setting. . As it was reportedly evidence of the numbers of child abuse cases worldwide, the research was expected to gain its remarkable answers for the problem of early intervention at home of to prevent abuse. The importance of the function within family setting encourages positive atmosphere at home. Abuse migh occur because of lacking comminucation, family interaction and bonding at home. Strategies should be developed as to improve the dyadic function within the family. The current study therefore is a qualitative research in nature to analyse the perception of parents early protective strategies on abusive pattern of behaviour occurred within the family setting by the effective use of intra-familial approaches. This is a case study research design with only two parents involved in the present research.

Research Sample The current research focused on the parents’ perception on the need of early intervention of the intrafamilial approaches on children abuse. Parents could express their ideas on what should be the measure of intervention. There are different types of measures involved to immediate intervention towards the abusive tendency in the family. Parents are the immediate figure in the family environment. Parents are the child immediate needs’ provider at home. Therefore, taking parents as informants for this purpose is significant. The current study selected the sample based on the researcher’s immediate environment and friendship. The informant was a mother with three children whose hectic schedule is observed. The other informant is a father of four children whose appearance at home is hardly detected due to business schedule. Both informants are randomly taken from a selective population within one setting. These sample are among those responsible community members. However, little was known to these parents on what intervention from the perspective of intra-familial relation is about and on what measure they can ensure that abuse does not occur within the family and community. The current study is obviously subjective in its nature whereby the study’s focus is on the perception of parents towards the need of intra-familial approaches on abuse. Perception per se involves degree of selfunderstanding and deep self-evaluation from the genuine informant. Interview is considered as one of the remarkable methods in qualitative research to bring the personal insight into an explainable expression assessed through the flow of conversation between researcher and the informant.

Central Research Question and Research Questions There were three research questions under one central research question which became the focus of concern in the current study. The central research question was the main question to the problem being researched which was “How are early interventions of child abuse important and useful in the context of intra-familial approaches, from the parents’ perceptive?” This addressed the perception of the parents on the need to identify early problems within a family to avoid abuse. The research questions were specifically focused on the importance of intervention as well as the challenges and strategies developed by parents to help intra-familial relation maintained. The research questions for the current study were:

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a. Question One (How do parents perceive of the importance of early intervention of child abuse at home? This addressed some points of elaboration on; • The need of early identification of problems within the family setting is important. This is for the early preparation and developing intra-familial relation among the family members. • How the early intervention is important to support parents develop strategies of communication, interaction and attachment in the family. b. Question Two (How do parents perceive of the usefulness of early intervention of child abuse at home? This question points the following issues: • Intra-familial relations are useful to strenghten communication, interaction and bonding. . • The perception of parents of this early intervention is also useful to help develop the child phychologically, emotionally, socially and spiritually. • This early intervention is useful for parents to develop community awareness of child abuse within the social setting. c. Question Three (What challenges and helping strategies do parents have in order to help intra-familial approaches excecuted among the family members? It examines the following points; • The challenges that parents face from the characters of their children and their own fluctuate emotional expression. • Parents’ feeling of efficacy to help providing supports for family problems arisen. • Other helping strategies that have been implemented by the parents at home. • The outcome of these helping strategies by the parents as successful to overcome family abuse.

Research Procedure Since the current study focused on the parents’ perception of the need of intra-familial approaches on child abuse, it concerned on parents’ own insight and it involved their willingness to be taken as sample for the purpose of study. For its first step, the permission was gained from the parents for the interview session. The selection of sample was done afterward which was based on the rationales stated. The inform consent, briefing informants about the place, the nature of the research, the aim of the current study, the issue of child abuse and the flow of interview session was applied. Informants’ availability for interview was schedule and granted. During the session, permission to use the USB was taken, the confidentiality of information was informed and the usefulness of the research was briefed. Data were gathered through the interview sessions, transcribed and coded to produce the themes from the research questions. Note taking was another salient key to produce observational data during the interview session to help achieve the aims of research.

RESULTS Research Analysis The aim of the current study, findings parents’ perception of the need of early intervention of child abuse, was highlighted. The current study also aimed at looking into parents’ perception of the important intra-familial relation as well as the challenges and strategies produced to help maintain the family relationship. Central research question was set up with careful observation of the problem being focused and studied. The themes generated from the first research questions were gained from its three sub-questions. These themes were gained through the collection of the informant’ information, after being coded by the researcher. The first sub research research questions are: (1) How do you explain intervention of abuse in the family? (2) How is intervention important? (3) In what ways do you identify family problem is abusive? (4) How do you measure intra-familial interventions in the family? There were several themes derived from the first sub research question showed in Table 1. The results of the first research questions interventions are highly important to eliminate the tendency of abuse in the family. Family attachment, Parental behaviour and attitude, Family interaction and Family communication are the identified intra-familial interventions which can be used by parents and other members to overcome abuse. These interventions are the measures of success in the structure and function of the family. There were certain patterns of aggressive behaviour identifed as abusive occured in the family context. However, Family problem awareness and Family behavioural improvement are among the early identification and detection of abuse which can be alleviated in the early stage. The results of the first sub-research questions and the second sub-research questions are illustrated in Table 1 and Table 2.

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Table 1 - Results of the main ideas and themes generated from the first research questions

Research Question Research Question 1

Main ideas generated • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Parents’ continuous encouragement Parents’ personality and characters Family understanding Family bonding Parents’ good attitude Siblings relationship Strengthening family relationships Good communication Sibling mutual understanding Control anger and emotions Detection early family problem Abusive is inhumane Avoiding parental abusive behaviours Declining sibling frequent fight/disagreement Parental conflict Parental corporal punishment lacking communication and interaction Success and failure of the family communication, interaction and bonding

Main themes generated • Family Attachment • Parental behaviour and attitude • Family interaction • Family communication • Family problem awareness • Family behavioural improvement

(Color Coding; main aideas and main themes generated, some might be interpreted inter-relatedly)

Table 2 - Results of the main ideas and themes generated from the second research questions

Research Question Research Question 2

Main ideas generated • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Parents readiness Members assurance on each other Family focus treatment Early communication development Initial attention Community readiness Information to the society Knowledge and experiences Community interaction Showing independency and selfunderstanding Self-confident and motivation Good communication and interaction at home Good social interaction Involvement in social activities Peer relationships Family acceptance and joy Showing optimism and happiness in the family Respect from the community Family belongingness Family ambiance Initiating family interaction Bonding community Showing good manners Respecting cultural norms and traditions Performing good faith

Main themes generated • Family support and maintenance • Family strength and protection • Community awareness • Emotional development • Social development • Psychological development • Spiritual development

(Color Coding; main aideas and main themes generated, some might be interpreted inter-relatedly)

The second sub research questions are (1) How do you explain that intra-familial interventions are useful? (2) How do interventions help reduce abusive pattern in the family? (3) How do interventions help develop the child phychologically, emotionally, socially and spiritually? These questions produce themes which revealed the use of early interventions from parents perspective. The early intervention is very useful not only for the family purposes but also the community at large. The use of early interventions within family setting is to involve parents and other faily members as well as the society to build awareness not only among the © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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members of the family but also the members of the community. Child abuse occurs in its own immediate surrounding and early awareness should be established. Table 2 explains the main ideas and the main themes which are derived from the research questions that the use of interventions is to establish family support and maintenance, to elevate family strength and protection and to increase community awareness in the early stage. These strategies help to reduce the tendency of abusive pattents of behaviour to occur within the child’s immidiate settings. Both family awareness as well as community awareness are the two highly essential elements to elliminate abuse. The importance of understanding the nature of family behaviours, family conflict, parental confilict and family disharmony to decrease family negative emotion and non-normative family climate should significantly collaborate among the members. These system and function of intra-familial relations increases significant contribution to the children’s emotional, social, psychological and spiritual development. Family development such as increased optimism and happiness in the family, good peer relation and community’s pride and rrspect, independency, self-understanding, self-confidence and motivation as well as good manners, performing good faith and respecting norms and culture leads to increased family and community functioning. The entire function and structure of the family is the the sign of a healthy family functioning with interaction, communication and attachment among each member and these intra-familial interventions occur with not only support and commitment but also with continuous implementation. This indicates the family functioning lies among the members. Furthermore, the results from the the third sub research questions presents significants inter-connectedness of the approaches which can be maintained and increased by the family members and community. The questions included here are (1) Do you think intra-familial approaches are inter-connected? (2) What do you think the strategies to maintain intra-familial approaches? (3) Beside the three intra-familial approaches, what else do you think might be the interventions? (4) What do you think the outcomes of these strategies on the family members? These research questions results in main ideas and themes generated as presented in Table 3. Table 3 - Results of the main ideas and themes generated from the third research questions

Research Question Research Question 3

Main ideas generated • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

No communication breakdown Family communication and interaction Family relationship management Attachment and communication prevails good relationship Good relationship among members Gratification of family needs Provision for health and care High contact with parents and other siblings The function of family Function of system in interaction and communication High bonding capacity Frequency of family meeting and discussion Join activities in the community Peers involvement in the society Family control over the negative emotion and non-normative family

Main themes generated • • • • • •

Link of harmonious family Basic requirement Frequency of mutual contact Positive emotional climate Function and System Community support

(Color Coding; main aideas and main themes generated, some might be interpreted inter-relatedly)

Results of the main ideas and main themes for the research question 3 clearly showed that intra-familial intervention are inter-connected. This is shown in its link of harmonious family theme which indicates elements of a so-called harmonious family lie in its family communication, interaction and strong bonding among the members. These inter-linked relations are the basic requirement where parents as the sole and immideate’s child provider gratify the family needs with good intra-familial relations despite of their hectic and determined routines in work and others. They also act as health and care provider within the family as basic needs which require attention, love, care and affection towards their children. Therefore, the strategies to maintain the family interventions could be gained through the frequency of mutual contact, interaction and communication as well as creating a positive emotional climate within the family.

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These strategies are not confined by the limited interventions only, but these are also added to the success of interventions implemented continously by parents and other family members. The function and structure of the family remain as among other significant roles to create a positive emotional climate within a family. Besides family function whose responsibility shared by each members to support and elevate the link of harmonious family system while focusing the family structure itself for the line of respect and family pride. These strategies help increase intra-familial relations and help deacrease family problems. Therefore, abusive patterns of behaviour are not meant to occur in a good and harmonious family.

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION The results of the current study were remarkably produced by the main ideas and themes generated from the three research questions. The themes generated from the first research questions were gained from its three supporting questions. These themes were gained through the collection of two informants’ information after being coded by the researcher. The themes generated from the first sub-questions were Family Attachment, Parental behaviour and attitude, Family interaction, Family communication, Family problem awareness and Family behavioural improvement The first research question resulted in some identification of needs of intervention on abuse. Through the interview session, parents indeed expressed their understanding on the important needs of intra-familial relations. They could identify some interventions based on their knowledge and experience on the intrafamilial approaches towards establishing a harnonious family life. The results show that family functioning occupies the harmonious family life (Berk, 2000). The interventions are somehow show that family needs the immediate support from the first responsible agents; parents. Researches earlier indicated that parental behaviour and attitude highly contribute to the family functioning; system and structure (Kasmini, 1993; Kawalramani, 1992; Winton & Mara, 2001). Accordingly, child maltreatment may be the results of severe emotional pressure, psychopathology or family stress, family violence, poverty, unemployment of parents and lack of financial support (Susan, Honore & Dauglas, 2000). Parents are the immediate source of that disruptive phenomenon in the family; abuse. Furthermore, the results of the second research questions also confirmed the previous researches’ finding in which express the usefulness of intra-familial relations within a family. Family support and maintenance, family strenghts and protection, and other developmental remarks confirmed the early researches on the importance and usefulness of the family interventions on child abuse. Many researches showed that a healthy and well functioning family life nurtures the development of children (Berk, 2000; Ellason & Ross, 1997; Scerbo & Kolko, 1995). Accordingly, the well functioning family is the backbone of a harmonius family life. The use of interventions is to establish family support and maintenance, to elevate family strenght and protection and to increase community awareness in the early stage. These strategies help to reduce the tendency of abusive pattents of behaviour to occur within the child’s immidiate settings. Both family awareness as well as community awareness are the two highly essential elements to elliminate abuse. The importance of understanding the nature of family behaviours, family conflict, parental confilict and family disharmony to decrease family negative emotion and non-normative family climate should significantly collaborate among the members. These system and function of intra-familial relations increases significant contribution to the children’s emotional, social, psychological and spiritual development. Family development such as increased optimism and happiness in the family, good peer relation and community’s pride and respect, independency, self-understanding, self-confidence and motivation as well as good manners, performing good faith and respecting norms and culture leads to increased family and community functioning. The entire function and structure of the family is the the sign of a healthy family functioning with interaction, communication and attachment among each member and these intra-familial interventions occur with not only support and commitment but also with continuous implementation. The results of the present studies imply some remarkable contribution of how family plays a handful of roles in its sustainance and maintenance. Garbarino and Sherman (1990) earlier characterized the family as the basic unit of human experineces. Families contribute to the maintainance of society by serving as contexts in which children are loved, protected and encouraged to develop into competent, caring adult (Berk, 2000). Family functioning is one of the roots of children’s development and personality make-up. Family relationship can be the greates source of nurturance ad support, but adversely, it can become a powerful source of anguish that might lead to child abuse. Many researches showed that a healthy and well functioning family life nurtures the development of children (Berk, 2000; Ellason & Ross, 1997; Scerbo & Kolko, 1995). Accordingly, the well functioning family is the backbone of a harmonius family life. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Moreover, Galles (1987) has also long identified the role of family in occurence of child abuse. He stated that structure and function of the family are grouped as control and no single factor can explain the absence of abuse except family functioning. Which can be identified in a dyadic relationship where its members are active and interactive with each other. Intra-familial communication is perceived as a strong link between harmonious family and characters development of its members (Reder, Duncan & Gray, 1993). The current study presents the important role and responsibility of each member of the familywhich collaborate the family functioning. Intra-familial relations are the mutual interaction, communication and strong bonding in the family which creates sustainant family atmosphere. Abusive patterns in the family will definetely not occur with a srtong establishment of family functioning. Therefore, the current study shows its capacity of determining family functioning as an intervention on children abuse. The present study shows strong evidence of how the results produced by the parents’ perspective, the immediate source of children health, care, love and affection provider at home. However, the study does not perfectly show details of what should be measured from the parents’ perspective. It has few questions which are not perfectly validated. Although its reliability focuses on the inter-rater’s feedback of the respondents’ information by calculating the agreement of the author as well as the raters, the present study is still lacking in its presentation on the quality questions being researched and interviewed. Future researches in the field of child abuse could further elaborate intra-familial relations and child abuse phenomenon in detail manners. Other can demonstrate the parental behaviour and abuse as well as the community services on the abused children. Other studies could also discuss on the importance of culture or differences of race among people of abuse.

CONCLUSION In conclusion, early detection of abuse can be revealed from the family intervention. Abuse can be identified from aggressiveness of behaviour from adult to the young ones. Abuse can also be identified from the harsh words or corporal punishment from parents to the children. Abuse can also be identified from the different family discrepancies occur in the family due to misscommunication, lack of interation as well as no family attachment. Accordingly, the ultimate goal of intervention is to stop child maltreatment before it starts. Thus, early identification of child maltreatment is critical to the well-being of children and their families. The role of family functioning in the assessment and intervention of child maltreatment can serve as a buffer against child abuse within the family context (Ismail & Suffla, 2012). As Ismail and Suffla (2012) elaborated above that effective prevention rograms support parents or caretakers and promotr positive parenting skills which include effective communication, frequent interaction, appropriate discipline and responding to te child’s physical and emotional needs. They further argued that ongoing care of children and families can provide the impetus to firstly reduce the risk of maltreatment frpm persisiting and strengthen the protective factors. Secondly. It prevents the occurence of new instances of maltreatment. Therefore, family interventions are crucially important. The elements of intra-familial aproaches are significantly collaborate to create a positive family atmosphere and a good system of family functioning. The current study significantly explains about the important and the usefulness of family interventions in children development. The current study also demonstrates the effectiveness of intra-familial relations and the strategies to maaintain family functioning. Abusive behavior or abusive acts and words will neve occur within the family settings with a strong intra-familial relation in the family. However, as the child abuse phenomenon is widespread not only within or among the members in the family but also in the community. The penetrators are not only among the family members but also other irresponsible civilians in the community. Threfore, researches on the problem of child abuse and abuse should continue. We hope that the problem of child abuse might decline as the family and social awareness toward the needs and welfare of the children incline.

REFERENCES Berk, L. E. (2000). Child Development. Fifth Edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Brad, D. & Vincent, B. H (1999). Development and Description of an Empirically Based Eco-behavioral Treatment Program for Child Maltreatment. Behavioral Interventions, 14 (2), 55-58. U.S.: John Wiley & Son Inc. Briere, J. N. (1992). Child Abuse Trauma. California: Sage Publication. Bulughul Maraam (2003) Sahih Bukhari (10:118-119) and Muslim (7:25). Chand, M. U. (2002). Child Abuse. Kuala Lumpur: A. S. Nordeen. Cicchetti, D. & Calson, B. (Eds.) (1989). Child Maltreatment: Theory and Reseach. Boston: Cambridge University Press

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Carlwell, B., & Bradley, R. H. (1984). The Family: A Childhood Development Perspective. The Caldwell Home Inventory. Colby, B. (1996). Child Abuse: Toward a Knowledge Base. Buckingham: Open University Press. Duffy, K. G., & Wong, F. Y. (1996). Community Psychology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Garbarino, J., & Kostelny, K. (1992). Child Maltreatment: A Conceptual Model for Research. Journal of Marriage and Family, 39, 721-736. In D. D. Cicchetti, & B. Carlson, (Eds.) (1989). Child Maltreatment: Therory and Research. Boston: Cambridge University. Gilham, B. (1994). Child Physical Abuse. London: Villiers House. Groeneveld, L. G. & Giovannoni, J. M. (1977). Variations in Child Abuse Reporteing: The Influence of State and County Characteristics. Mimeographed. The Disposition of Child Abuse and Neglect cases. Social Work Research and Abstracts, 13, 36-37. In D. D. Cicchetti, & B. Carlson, (Eds.) (1989). Child Maltreatment: Theory and Research. Boston: Cambridge University. Hammad, A. (Trans). (1997). The Family in Islam: The Family of Fatimah. Imprimerie Al-Ma’arif. Cleaver, H., Unell, I., & Aldgate, J. (2011). Children’s Need: Parenting Capacity. Second Edition. London: TSO. Ismail, G., Taliep, N., & Suffla S. (2012). Child Maltreatment Prevention Through Positive Parenting Practices. Johannesburg & Cape Town: MRC-UNISA Safety & Peace Promotion Research Unit. Retrieved from http://www.mrc.ac.za/ on 18 July, 2014. Karim, W. J. (1999). Family Dysfunctional and the Girl Child. In Socio-Economic Trends Affecting the Status of Women in Malaysia, http://www.kanita.org/my Karim, W. J. (1993). Parent-Child Interaction in Child Abuse and Neglect. A Paper Presented in the seminar of Child Abuse and Neglect. Asian Perspectives in Malaysia, January 8-11. Kasmini, K. (1993). Personality profile of Child Abusers. A Paper presented in a seminar of Child Abuse and Neglect at the Hotel Dayang, Petaling jaya, Malaysia, January 11-12. Kazdin, A. E. (Chief Ed.). (2000). Encyclopedia of Psychology. D. D. Cicchetti, & B. Carlson, (Eds.) (1989). Child Maltreatment: Theory and Research. Boston: Cambridge University. Vol. 2. New York: Oxfort University Press. Kempe, C. H., Silverman, F. H., Steele, B. F., Drogemueller, W., Silver, H. K. (1962). The Battered Child Syndrome. Journal of the American Medical Assciation, 182, 17-24. Kewalremani, G. S. (1992). Child Abuse: A sociological study of Working and non-working children. Jaipur: Rawat Publication. Lee, B. J., & George R. M. (1999). Poverty, Early Child-bearing and Child Maltreatment. Children and Youth Services Review, 21(9-10), 755-780. Oates, K. (1993). Global Overview of Child Abuse. A Paper presented in a seminar of Child Abuse and Neglect: Asian Perspective. Malaysia, January 8-11. Reder, P., Duncan, S., & Gray, M. (1993). Beyond Blame: Child Abuse Tragedies and Revesited. London: Routledge. Shaffer, D. R. (2002). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence. Fifth Edition. Pasific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Sham, M. K., Irene, C. & Haliza, M. S. (1995). Childhood Death from Physical Abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 19 (7), 847-854. Spatz, W. C. (2000). Understanding the Consequences of Childhood Victimization. In Robert, M. R. (Ed) Treatment in Child Abuse: Common Ground for Mental Health, Medical and Legal Practitioners. New York: John Hopkins University Press. Susan, A. D., Honore, M. H., & Dauglas, A. L. (2000). Heterogeneity in Patterns of Child Sexual Abuse, Family Functioning and Long term Adjustment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15 (2), 134-157. Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. J., & Steinmetz, S. K. (1988). Behind Closed Doors: Violence in the American Family. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Terry, C., & Roger, C. (1995). Family Climate, Family Culture and Self Esteem in Collage Female: The Physical Versus Psychological Wholeness Divorce Debated Revisited. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 25 (3-4), 97-112. The Suspected Child Abuse and Neglect (SCAN). Qouted by Zaleha, K. (2000). Child Abuse and Neglect: A Malaysian perspective. In M., Freeman, (Ed.) Overcoming Child Abuse: A Window on a World Problem. Aldershot: Dartmount Publishing Company. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network. (2009). Coping with the Shock of Intra-Familial Abuse. Retrieved from www.NCTSN.org on July, 18, 2014. The National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse (NCPCA). (1997). In M., Freeman, (Ed.) Overcoming Child Abuse: A Window on a World Problem. Aldershot: Dartmount Publishing Company. The Social Welfare Department Malaysia. (2009). Malay Mail, Monday, November 16th, 2009. Vetlkamp, L. J. & Miller, T. W. (1994). Clinical Handbook of Child Abuse and Neglect. Medison, Conn.: International University Press. Wallace, H. (1999). Family Violence. Legal, medical and Social perspectives. Second Edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

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Winton, M. A., & Mara, B. A. (2001). Child Abuse and Neglec: Multidiciplinary Approaches. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Wolfe, D. A. (1991). Preventing Physical and Emotional Abuse of Children. New York: Guilford World Health Organization (WHO). (1999). Preventing Child Maltreatment: A guide to taking Action and Generating Evidence. France: WHO World Health Organization (WHO). (2012). Romying Research to Prevent Child abuse. Summary report. Workshop on international epidemiological studies. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/violence_ injury_prevention/violence/child/ on July 19, 2014. Zaleha, K. (2000). Child Abuse and Neglect: A Malaysian perspective. In M., Freeman, (Ed.) Overcoming Child Abuse: A Window on a World Problem. Aldershot: Dartmount Publishing Company.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PROTECTION OF CHILDREN : HOW SUCCESSFUL ? Arfan Sulaiman Department of Social Welfare, Malaysia

Abstract Malaysia has a population of 28 millions and 9.8 millions or 30% of the total populations consist of children. This figures show a large proportion of children who play an important role in future development of the country. Since children are important towards human capital development efforts has to be taken to ensure the protection of the children especially child in needs of care and protection. Working towards this endeavour the government has taken steps to these vulnerable children are protected. In 1995 the government has acceded to the Convention On The Rights of Child (CRC) based on 4 main thrust which are survival, protection, development and participation. Over recent years the government has taken necessary step in removing certain reservations made earlier and as thus far has reservation only on articles 2,7, 14, 28(1) (a) and Article 37 of the convention.In addition to the progress made in removing reservations on few articles, the government has also signed two optional Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography which is seen as wayforward of the country in protecting the rights of children and overall well being of vulnerable children. Since Malaysia has acceded to CRC, Malaysia has enacted Child Act 2001 which incorporated Juvenile Courts Act 1947 [Act 90], the Women and Girls Protection Act 1973 [Act 106] and the Child Protection Act 1991 [Act 468]. With the introduction of Child Act 2001 has lead to drafting of two (2) new policies which are the National Child Policy and The National Child Protection Policy in year 2009. In ensuring the implementation of these policies, the government has drafted National Plan of Action For Children and National Plan of Action For Protection of Children which consists of objectives, strategies and programmes planned forprotecton of children. Nevertheless the core policy for protection of children is Child Protection Policy (CPP) which has outline seven mainobjectives which will be explained in discussion of the effectiveness of the child protection system in the country.

BACKGROUND Malaysia has a population of 28 millions and 9.8millions or 30% of the total populations consists of children. This figures show a large proportion of childrenwho play an important role in future development of the country. Since children are important towards human capital development efforts has to be taken to ensure the protection of the children especially child in needs of care and protection.Working towards this endeavour the government has taken steps to these vulnerable children are protected. In 1995 the government has acceded to the Convention On The Rights of Child (CRC) based on 4 main thrust which are survival, protection, development and participation. Over recent years the government has taken necessary step in removing certain reservations made earlier and as thus far has reservation only on articles 2,7, 14, 28(1) (a) and Article 37 of the convention.In addition to the progress made in removing reservations on few articles, the government has also signedtwo optionalRights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography which is seen as wayforward of the country in protecting the rights of children and overall well being of vulnerable children.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Since Malaysia has acceded to CRC, Malaysia has enacted Child Act 2001 which incorporatedJuvenile Courts Act 1947 [Act 90], the Women and Girls Protection Act 1973 [Act 106] and the Child Protection Act 1991 [Act 468]. With the introduction of Child Act 2001 has leads to drafting of two (2) new policies which are the National Child Policy and The National Child Protection Policy in year 2009. In ensuring the implementation of these policies, the government has drafted National Plan of Action For Children and National Plan of Action For Protection of Children which consists of objectives, strategies and programmes planned forprotecton of children. Nevertheless the core policy for protection of children is Child Protection Policy(CPP) which has outline seven mainobjectives which will be explained in discussion of the effectiveness of the child protection system in the country. In achieving these objectives, the CPP has outline four(4) core strategies which are advocacy, intervention, support services and research and development. In achieving these objective DSW as lead agency together with the Royal Malaysia Police, The Judiciary, Health Department, NGOs and others related agencies related to child protection has incorporate the CPP as guidance in managing children protection practice in the country. Besides the core policy and Child Act 2001 that are place for child protection , there also other related legislation and laws related to child protection. These legislation are Domestic Violence Act 1994; Penal Code; Education Act 1966; Guardianship of Infants Act 1961; Adoption Act 1952 ; Childcare Centers Act 1984; Care Centers Act 1993; Children and Young Persons (Employment) Act 1966 (Revised 1988) and The Anti-Trafficking In Persons and Anti-Smuggling of Migrants Act 2007 (Amendment 2010) [Act 670].

SCENARIO AND STATISCS OF CHILD ABUSE, NEGLECT AND ABANDONMENT OF CHILDREN The scenario of child abuse and neglect cases reported in the last four (4) years from year 2010 till 2013 shows an increase child abuse and neglect . This increase of cases of reported child abuse and neglect could be attributed to increase awareness among the community. The advocacy and prevention programmes are conducted by DSW, The Police and Health Ministry at strategic areas to promote awareness to public on reporting child abuse cases. The statistics of the child abuse, neglect and abandonment from the year 2010 till 2013 are 3,257 cases; 3,428 cases; 3,831 cases and 3,147 (as at October 2013) respectively. As for the statistics of categories child abuser or perpetrator for the 2011 showed out of 3,428 cases mother is leads among the list of abusers with 872 cases followed by father with 648 cases ; children’s lover 394 cases and child minders 211 cases. In the year 2012 showed that out of 3,831 cases, mother leads among the list of abuser with 942 cases; followed by father with 723 cases; child minders with 248 cases and relatives with 210 cases. This show the top abuser is mainly from the parents, relatives and child minders.

MECHANISMS OF CHILD PROTECTION IN MALAYSIA Under Child Act 2001 the definition of children is a person under the age of 18 years old. The Act also stipulated under section 17 on categories of childrenwho need care and protection comprised mainly on abuse, neglect and abandon children. Therefore the mechanism of handling child abused, neglected and abandoned are done through Court For Children with the majistrate exercising the order based section 30 of the Act while considering the best interest of the child, assessing the social report and views of Court Advisors. The Act also has the provision under section 31 to act and punish the perpetrator for offences in relation to the health and welfare of children. In addition the other mechanism used in protecting children under this Act is formation of Coordinating Council For Protection of Children. The function of the Council is mainly in developing a efficient information system in reporting children who needs protection, provides services for children and families who need protection coordinated various resources among agencies in child protection as well as development of programmes to educate the public on the prevention of abuse and neglect children. To assist in implementation of the programmes the Council has established 133 Child Protection Team throughout the country through 149 Child Activity Centres under its umbrella in organising these activities mainly for advocacy and prevention purpose for protection of high risk children and their families. To supplement of the enforcement of law on child protection especially towards the perpetrator in the court proceedings , the practiced of Penal Code and Child Act 2001 are applied to the perpetrator in sentencing of criminal case involving physical abuse, emotional, trafficking, prostitution or sexual abuse. The application either of Penal Code and Child Act 2001 are seem as deterrent for any would be abuser of children whether by adults or children itself because the sentence will be either imprisonment or stiff penalties. This penal code © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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and Child Act 2001 are used by the police in pressing criminal charges against offender/perpetrator as well as punishment for the offence committed by the perpetrator. Since the mechanism in handling child protection is actually collaborated effort with the participation of Department Of Social Welfare, The Royal Malaysian Police and Health Department which play major and crucial role in child protection in Malaysia. These three(3) agencies are inter related with one and another in discharging duties in child protection. Acknowledging the important of these agencies, an understanding inter agencies protocols and procedures were outlined the flow of responsibility and actions of each mandated agency. The responsibilities of the main actors in child protection is seen in terms of Standard Operation Procedures (SOP) in handling cases of child abuse which the DSW has its own certified MS ISO 9001-2008 in procedures and flow responsibilities in handling abused child and neglect. The Royal Malaysia Police also have its own Standard Operating Procedures in investigation into child abuse cases. As for providing medical check up and treatment of child abuse the Health Department has Standard Operating Procedures in place in the emergency ward which incorporate the establishment One Stop Crisis Centre (OSCC) and Suspected Child Abuse and Neglect(SCAN) team. The role and procedures in handling cases of suspected or abused child by each agency can illustrated below:-

Role of Department of Social Welfare The role DSW is stipulated in Child Act 2001,where the welfare officers are gazetted under section 8 of the Act as Protector task is to save children from being abused, neglect or abandon. This is clearly spelt out in section 17(1)(a) to (k) for children who need care and protection. The task of the protector is very wide beginning in getting temporary order and preparing of social report and tendering it to the Court of Children for permanent order for children. Subsequently the protector has to monitor and supervise the child irregardless whatever decision made by Court of Children on the custody of the children. The follow up monitoring and supervision areessential toensure achieving the outcome which is the child wellbeing. In short the case management is an on going process of monitoring and planning programmes to cater the need of the abused children whether in children homes, under care of fit and proper person or under the care of their own parents. These responsibilities of protector in case management as to help the children reintegrate back in the community. The role of DSW does not confined to protection children who has been abused but also has extensive services in advocacy, prevention, intervention, rehabilitation as well as reintegration the child back to the community. These task has implemented in many platform of child protection system in the DSW itself especially in term of effectiveness or success of these programmes in the child protection system.

Role of Royal Malaysian Police Royal Malaysian Police(RMP) play a significant role for child protection as stipulated in Child Act 2001. The role of Police is to investigate child abuse case once it has been reported. If necessary the police is duty bound to safe the abused from the perpetrator if the abuse is serious and has the authority to take these children to have medical check up or treatment in government hospitals or clinics. An investigation paper will prepared if there is abused case. The section that handle child abuse is D11 and the trained police officers will conduct investigation on the perpetrator with Penal Code or Child Act 2001 depending on severity, types or condition of the case involving adults or child offender. While the procedures of handling criminal offender is based on the Criminal Procedure Code (CPC). Thus the core duties of the RMP in handling child protection includes criminal investigation and providing evidence during court proceedings on the alleged abuse for the court to decide the sentencing of imprisonment, fines or both to the perpetrator. Besides the police through Child Protection Unit (CPU) conducted interview with child witness through trained police counsellors in a child friendly environment. In addition DSW liaise with the Police in providing Witness Support Services to child witness who need to give testimony in criminal proceeding in courts.

Role of the Health Department The role of health department is to report any cases found in the ward or emergency room of suspected child abuse to the police or protector. In section 27 of the Child Act requires medical officer to report any abuse cases to DSW. As to facilitate the process of handling child abuse refered by the public, police, the health department has established One Stop Crisis Centre (OSCC) to manage cases refered to them. Immediate action and attention are given to suspected child abuse to accertain with the validity of abused cases before police report been made either by parent, guardian, protector, or doctors. Where else in case management, the health department has established a Suspected Child Abuse and Neglect(SCAN) Team in the hospital which comprises or medical social worker, child psychiatrist, obstetrics and gynaecology, paediatrician, in providing the neccessary services and treatment to the abused children. The SCAN team will convene case conference for referred child abused as well as working closely with DSW in determining the best interest of child if the child is discharged from hospital. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Role of Majistrate in Court for Children The role of the majistrate is to determine whether the child is indeed need care and protection before issuing temporary order to fit and proper person, or placement children’s homes when the child is brought to Court of Children at the beginning stage. Once the interim protection is granted to the children, the protector within a month has to prepare protection report for majistrate to decide on the order for the child abused case either to fit and proper person, back to parents with additional requirement attached or placement to children home as the last resort.The court order made by the majistrete has to take intoaccount of social report tendered as well as the views of two (2)court advisors.

THE SUCCESS OF CHILD PROTECTION – DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE The overall the success of the programmes under DSW is divided to advocacy, prevention,protection and reintegrationinitiative taken to address the issue child protection in Malaysia.Services rendered by DSW are as follows:-

Protection Services Children Homes DSW has 12 gazeted home to provide alternative care and protection to the abuse, neglect and abandoned children. These homes accommodate 1265 children with services of proper security, shelter, food, education, health care, life skills, sports, recreation, self esteem and character building through various activities and programmes organised. Evidence of success the homesproduced academic excellence among the children with the cooperation from board of visitors, corporate sector in providing tuition class to these children. Statistics shows that 450 children who sat 2013 public examination, 108 children has managed to get 1As in UPSR, PMR and SPM 2013 examination. There are also students who scored 10 As, 7As and 5As among these children. As for reintegration back to the families, The homes constantly review the progress of the children and willingness of these parents/guardians to reunite back to their families by revoking the court order. Besides children are allowed to go back to their foster parents during school holidays. This has produced conducive family environment for children to live in.

Child Trafficking/Prostitution As Malaysia has ratified the Optional Protocol to the CRC on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography which demonstrating Malaysia’s commitment towards protecting children from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse, the abduction of, the sale of or traffic in children, Malaysia has enacted the The Anti-Trafficking In Persons and Anti-Smuggling of Migrants Act 2007 (Amendment 2010)[Act 670]. Under this Act, the DSW is responsible to provide place of refuge for trafficked victims, particularly women and children as mentioned in Section 42 of the said Act.At the moment there two (2) place of refuge for children which are Rumah Pelindungan Rembau and Rumah Pelindungan Bukit Senyum. Various programmes are planned which includes counselling and guidance and recreational activities. Statistics show from 2008 till May 2014 there are 148 of children have been given Interim Protection Order (IPO) and Protection Order (PO) for these children.

Street Children DSW has made some efforts to assist the children without proper document including street children by assisting them to get the proper documentation from National Registration Department. This will enable them to enter school and vocational training institutions, getting access to health services, financial assistance, dealing with court and other services and support systems. Some of street children have been placed in Children Homes. Within the year of 2011 until 2013, 132 children have been assisted by the Department to acquire proper birth registration and certificate in order for these children to get proper health, educational or other support services including those that had been placed in Children Homes. The Ministry of Education has establish SekolahJalinanKasih (SJK) to the address the problem education of street children in Chow Kit area in Kuala Lumpur.

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problem. This to prevent the families from breaking down due to financial problems which cause many adverse effect to family and well being of children. The social protection will strengthen the family institution and enable the parents care and protect their children. In year 2011 the total number financial aid receipient are 98,848 with an allocation of RM315,752 and year 2012 the total number of receipients are 107,166 with total allocation of RM326,962,202.

Prevention Services Early Childhood Care and Education Since 2010 the government has given grant amount of RM55, 000 for setting up of a community based child care centre or TASKA1M. The government is giving a subsidy of RM180 to parents with household income of RM2,000 (urban area) and RM1,200 (rural area) for each child sent to TASKA1M. As for public servants whose household is RM5,000 and below will receive the subsidy of RM180 for each child sent to the public sector work based child care centre.To date, DSW has set up 44 Community Base Child Care Centersthat provides child care for 1,174 children As to encourage more parents to send children to private registered childcare centre an incentive of RM250 is given to parents who household income of RM900 and below. DSW has registered 773 Institutions based Child Care Centre that provides care to 53,804 children, 274 Home Based Child Care Centers and 22 Work Place Based Child Care Centre that provides care to 3,169 children. Besides DSW also registered 515 children day care centers and 219 children residential care centers.

Child Protection Team (CPT) CPT has organise awareness such as raising campaigns and monitor child protection activities in the particular district. The services provided are custody arrangement, issue of undocumented children as well as cases of abuse and neglect. A major proactive programme undertaken by the CPT is the establishment of the Child Activity Centre as defined in Child Act 2001.

Child Activity Centre PAKK was first established in 1991 and since then till 2013, there are 149 centers established throughout Malaysia and benefited 18,843 children. The purpose of Child Activity Centre is to provide advocacy programme, tuition classes, and functioned as Crisis Intervention Centre and others. This place is beneficial to the vulnerable group because it provides conducive place for their children development and security. The impact of the programmes would reduce social problem in the high risk areas.A study has been conducted for Child Activity Centre by the researcher from University of Malaya near selected Gombak Setia CAC, findings showed the attendance children is about 78.5 % and 76.5% parents think that CAC is good place for children to spend spare time.

Talian Nur/Child Line/Nur Alert Talian Nur was introduced in 2007 for the public to report of cases of suspected abuse or neglect. From 2010 till 2013 the Talian Nur had received 10,378, with 6,871 was related to child abuse. As for information total reported cases from various referrel in year 2012 out of 3,831 cases,hospital hold the highest abuse reports with 2,138 cases; followed by Public with 399 cases; Talian Nur with 362 and PKMD with 166 cases. Where else in year 2011 out of 3,428 cases, hospital hold the highest abuse report with 1,811 cases; followed by Talian Nur with 451 cases; public with 412 cases and members of family with 249 cases. The success of this hotline is DSW has been able to respond immediately to investigate and to submit report the report to call centre on this course of action on the reports made by public. In addition meeting are held weekly in DSW headquarter to follow up the cases that escalated to the district until the cases ore properly closed. As for the expansion of the project, DSW has introduced Childline which uses the same hotline number for the public the report abuse cases. The Police Department also launched the Nur Alert in 2010 and as todate has received 11 cases were triggered through it with the success of 9 children been found ( 7 alive and 2 dead) and 2 still missing.This system is for the public to report missing children and the Nur Alert which handled by the Police Department to assess the report within 24 hours to determine hether missing children or abduction before it is blast to the public on the missing children. The system only managed missing children below of the age 12 years old. The success of this system is though the reporting is low nevertheless the DSW and Police readily available system, with Standard Operating Procedure and guidelines to manage missing children. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Reintegration/Community Based Services Cottage System The cootage sytem is a success due to the approach in giving care and protection to children in community based enviroment. Children living under the foster parent care and family enviroment will have positive child development in terms of emotional, psychology, cognitive support because they will given full attention of care and love need by their foster parents. To date there are 9 Cottage homes and accomodate 168 children. The success is that most of the children has done well in their public examination due to the conducive enviroment provided by the cottage homes where these children can concentrate on their studies under the care of their foster parents.

Mini Children Homes DSW has establish Mini Children Home in Kelantan which accommodate 20 to 30 children provides more condusive family enviroment rather then the large institution.Living in smaller homes with proper care, protection and family setting enviroment which are very important in child development in terms of emotional, psychological, self esteem, integrity and self development. There is planning to set up another Mini Children Homes in Johor.

Fostering DSW has also made arrangement of fostering children in children homes specifically abandoned children or baby. DSW has made the neccesary matching of prospective foster parents to foster these children through Fostering Panel Meeting which is held regularly. The prospective foster parents made the application the District office and their application are processed through and match with suitable children. This arrangment will provide these children to live in family setting. Foster parents also eligible for financial assistance of RM250 permonth for a child or maksimum RM500 for two foster children.Total number of application for fostering of children are as follow. In year 2010 ( 209 applications); 2011 (266 applications); 2012 (287 applications); 2013(291 applications) and till May 2014 (113 applications). As for statistics of children in homes being successfully placed under foster care is 67 children (2010); 95 chiildren (2011); 61 children (2012); 47 children(2013) and 15 children (May 2014). The impact this program has managed to give these children a care and protection in a much needed family environment or to promote family reunification. Besides that DSW also collaborate which an NGO called OrphanCare Foundation in facilitating the abandon babies by creating a baby hatch for mothers or unwanted pregnancies to place their offspring at safe environment rather abandon or dumping at unwanted areas which can endangered newborn baby life.

ADVOCACY OF CHILD PROTECTION POLICY DSW has advocate to all organisation dealing with children to formulate their own child protection policy in effort to protect children from any form of neglect, violence, abuse or exploitation.In the year 2011, the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development had conducted briefing and training sessions on CPP to 77 children from NGOs, 55 corporate organization and 12 media organizations. As for the police department, they have carried out total of 25 training sessions on how to identify abuse, neglect, violence and exploitation to the public especially in high-risk areas.

The Success of Child Protection – Royal Malaysian Police Child Protection Unit (CPU) THE CPU is established in 2001 and operational in 2003. The CPU is designed to provide safe and child friendly environment for children to provide testimony of alleged crime against them. The introduction of Child Witness Evidence Act 2007 allows child testimony to become admissible. Currently CPUs has been established in Kuala Lumpur, Penang and Johor Bahrumainly focus on recording the testimony of abused children in camera and it works with a counsellors. In fact the D11, 126 officers have been trained to conduct specialised interview and assessment. The whole process is done in informal and within a child friendly environment. In line with the CPU , DSW also collaborate with RMP in providing Witness Support Services.This service offer to children who need support when giving testimony in court proceedings.

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The Success of Child Protection – Health Department The success of health department in child protection is the establishment of SCAN Team and OSCC. Currently, there are 102 OSCC under the Ministry of Health who provides multi-disciplinary medical services and interagency network with the police, social welfare and legal aid bureau. All suspected cases will be immediately attend and case conference are held to determine the needs of medical treatment and discussion are also held with DSW when the children is discharged from the hospital. Todate SCAN Team and OSCC have received 1811 case (2011) and 2,138 cases (2012).

STRENGTHENING THE EFECTIVENESS OF THE CHILD PROTECTION SYSTEM Human Resource And Training Training of child minders and carers is very important aspect in child care centre. DSW in ensuring all child care centre providing quality care and protection to children has introduced basic child care (KAAK) course to all the child minders and operator of child care centres. To date 12,565 child minders had been trained with KAAK or PERMATA course. DSW also make it compulsory of KAAK Training for child minders for purpose of registration of centre in the accordance Child Care Centre Act 1984( Amendment 2007) In handling case management of child abuse case, protector need proper training it order to deliver quality services them. DSW has required all new welfare officers to undergo 3 months of intensive training of Social Work held in Institute Social Malaysia. In year 2012 till May 2014 Institute Social Malaysia (ISM) has given child proection training to 408 proctectors. Besides DSW also conducting its own training programmes with130 courses per year including child protection courseunder its training unit. To further enhance the competency level DSW has initiated a Certificate in Social Work with collaboration with UUM. The pioneer batch of staff with 30 has been successfully completed the Certificate Social Work. This is the initial steps taken to fulfilled the requirement of equipped all staff with necessary skills in line with drafting of the Social Worker Bill to be tabled in the Parliament. In addition, a pilot project of Child Care and Child Protection Unit (CCNCPU) collaborationbetween DSW and UNICEF was implemented in PKMD Kuala Langat and PKMD Petaling in the year of 2012. The project is conducted by the consultant engaged by UNICEF and assisted by Project Coordinators, Mentors, Case Managers and 4 Child Protectors.Under the pilot, from June 2013 till December 2013, 16 cases were picked up training purpose in Petaling District and 13 cases for Kuala Langat District. Between January 2014 till Februari 2014 7 cases were pick for training in Petaling and 2 cases were picked in Kuala Langat. The achievement from the pilot project is the protectors have been able to practised professionally in child protection practice in accordance with the child care need protection model. In providing better child protection in court proceedings, majistrate and court advisors need more training for determination of court order in the best interest of the child and familiarization of the Child Act 2001. These intensive training is conducted inILKAP to further enhance the majistratesknowledge.

Mainstreaming the element of advocacy in child protection More prevention approach needed in term of advocacy childabuse, neglect, violence and exploitation of children. With more emphasis on advocacy the degree of awareness among the public will increase and eventually assist in reporting suspected abuse cases and helps reduce cases of abuse and neglect . There also need for advocacy for best practises on fostering as to encourage the public to foster children especially abandon child or neglected children. With dessimination of information on guidelines and procedures of fostering will encourage more people to participate the fostering of children.

Strengthening Inter Agency Coorperation There are need to strengthening existing resources like Child Activity Centre with participation of LPPKN which could offertalks, family development course, parenting course as well as on sexual and reproductive health education for high risk children and families. Besides other arrangement could be made withrelevant agencies, universities or any corporate bodies to organise programmesin the child activity centre in order more children in high risk group will benefits from it. As for cooperation between three core agencies in protection of children, there are need to share common purpose in coordinating case management, care planning based on agreed responses to give children better protection services. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Amendment of Child Act 2001 Amendment of Child Act 2001 to introduce more stiffer penalties and sentences for the perpetrator who are found guilty for child. With stiffer sentencing and penalties will deter would be abuser on the consequences if the crime is committed on children irregardless they are parents, child minders or relatives or any person that are in contact with children

MOVING FORWARD As the country progress towards vision 2020 and development of a resilience family There are certain aspect of child protection that need to look into especially child online protection. There is need a framework on child online protection to address the issues of cyber bullying, sexting, cyber grooming which exposed and exploited the emotional,psychological of children.At the moment the government has formed a Task Force and drafted a Plan Of Action on Child Online Protection. As part of prevention measures there also need to strengthen the family unit as basis to address issues of child abuse and neglect. Since the family is the grassroots to solution all the social problems, the collaboration with LPPKN or others agencies and NGOs in organising parenting course, family development course, counselling services will help minimise the incidence of abuse in the family. In line with this initiative, the counsellors have to be givenmore active role by providing guidance and counselling to problem familiies. The emotional and psychological support provides by the counsellors are important to deter any potential conflict in family such domestic violence happens to children. The counselling services can be further enhanced through the recruitment 189 counsellors in DSW to attend the need of primary and secondary prevention in child protection. In ensuring the people working directly with children are free from criminal records, the need of screening to be done. The establishment of database for screening system will help to screen all potential worker dealing with children as to avoid incidence of abuse in child care centre, institution run by private operators, NGOs or government. Besides there are also a need for agencies, communities, parents, children and organisation working with and for children to understand more about violence and what can be done. Therefore the Study or Research On Violence Against Children has to carried out. The Research and Development is one of core objective which is need to be fulfilled under the objective of Child Protection Policy.

CONCLUSION DSW as the lead agency in providing protection to vulnerable, it has taken the necessary measure to address the issue of child abuse, neglect and abandonment of children. These steps were taken in context of the existing policy and legislation which being laid by the state as well as adherence to the CRC guidelines. This steps taken are in form programmes and activities under the overall child protection system which was devised based on the policies, Child Act 2001 and itsregulations. It has to be stressed that the coorperation between DSW, RMP and Health Department are paramount in order to address the issues of child protection effectively. It is acknowledge that DSW has some limitation carrying the task in child proctection especially in aspect of training staff, advocacy and prevention rather reactive solution to address the prevelanceof child abuse , neglect, and abandonment that has been happening in the society. It noted the more enforcement of law and stiffer punishment as deterrence to the perpetrator of abuse cases. As the society progress to the future and modernization in terms communication technology there is urgent need to protect children from a cyber security threats where children may be exposed to cyber bullying, sexting, cyber grooming, child pornography which detrimental to the safety and well being of the children.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

MENEROKA PRAKTIS KERJA SOSIAL DALAM PENGURUSAN KES KANAK-KANAK Sopian Brahim*, Mohd Suhaimi Mohamad, Ezarina Zakaria & Norul Huda Sarnon *[email protected] Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Abstract Pekerja sosial di Malaysia memainkan peranan yang amat penting dalam pengurusan kes kanak-kanak. Kajian ini bertujuan meneroka pengalaman praktis pekerja kes kebajikan kanak-kanak dan sikap profesionalisme mereka dalam pengurusan kes kanak-kanak di Malaysia. Kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan dapatan tentang pengetahuan pengurusan kes dan cabaran yang dihadapi oleh pekerja kes kanak-kanak dalam pengurusan kes. Kajian ini berbentuk kualitatif. Dua sesi Kumpulan Perbincangan Berfokus (Focus Group DiscussionFGD) dijalankan melibatkan seramai 14 orang responden (pegawai pelindung, pegawai akhlak) di sekitar Lembah Klang. Kajian mendapati pengetahuan tentang pengurusan kes kanak-kanak terbahagi lapan (8) domain iaitu falsafah pengurusan kes, pengetahuan dalam pengurusan kes, praktis kerja sosial, peraturan prosedur dan piawaian praktis kebangsaan, kod etika pekerja sosial, model pengurusan kes, kompetens budaya serta kerangka perundangan dan dasar. Profesionalisme responden juga dipersoalkan oleh keluarga, ibu bapa dan penjaga kanak-kanak. Responden tidak mempunyai sebarang bentuk garis panduan pengurusan kes kanak-kanak yang piawai mengikut kerangka kompetensi kerja sosial kebangsaan, melainkan manual kualiti agensi. Tekanan akibat pertambahan kes kanak-kanak juga dihadapi pekerja kes kanak-kanak dan ini selari dengan hasil kajian penyelidik terdahulu. Kajian ini penting untuk penggubal polisi mengambil kira kapasiti dan keperluan responden mengikut kerangka kompetensi kerja sosial kebangsaan seterusnya meningkatkan perkhidmatan pengurusan kes kanak-kanak dengan lebih sistematik selaras piawaian kebangsaan. Keywords: praktis kerja sosial, pengurusan kes, pekerja kes kebajikan kanak-kanak, kompetensi kerja sosial, profesionalisme

PENGENALAN Pengurusan kes kanak-kanak menggabungkan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai praktis kerja sosial profesional dalam menguruskan hal ehwal kanak-kanak. Isu yang sering diperdebatkan dan menjadi cabaran kepada institusi perkhidmatan kanak-kanak adalah tentang penganiayaan dan penderaan kanak-kanak sehingga dibuktikan dalam Akta Kanak-Kanak 2001, malah isu ini telah diperdebatkan di peringkat antarabangsa dalam Konvensyen Mengenai Hak Kanak-Kanak. Hak kanak-kanak perlu dibela agar keselamatan dan kesejahteraan mereka sentiasa terjamin. Sehubungan dengan itu, Malaysia telah mewujudkan Akta Kanak-Kanak 2001 untuk mempertahankan hak kanak-kanak dan memastikan isu penderaan dan penganiayaan kanak-kanak itu dapat dicegah dan dikawal. Laporan media mengenai isu kanak-kanak seperti penderaan kanak-kanak, pembuangan bayi, eksploitasi buruh, penyeludupan dan penjualan beli menjadi semakin kritikal dalam masyarakat di Malaysia.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Statistik United Nations Children’s Fund atau UNICEF (2013) melaporkan di antara 500 juta sehingga 1.5 bilion kanak-kanak mengalami keganasan, eksploitasi dan penderaan di seluruh dunia. Selain itu, sebahagian kanakkanak turut terdedah kepada insiden keganasan rumah tangga yang mengakibatkan kesan inter-generasi terhadap emosi kanak-kanak. Hal ini dibuktikan oleh UNICEF (2013) yang melaporkan sebanyak 275 juta orang kanak-kanak di seluruh dunia telah menjadi saksi kepada keganasan rumah tangga. Berdasarkan data dari 37 negara seperti (Algeria, Central African Republic, Ghana, Iraq dan Macedonia) menunjukkan bahawa 86 peratus daripada kanak-kanak berumur di antara 2 hingga 14 tahun, mengalami penderaan di mana dua pertiga kanak-kanak didera secara fizikal dan selebihnya secara psikologikal (UNICEF 2013). Sehubungan itu, UNICEF mengesyorkan supaya setiap keluarga dapat menyediakan persekitaran yang selamat daripada penganiayaan dan keganasan rumah tangga. Senario secara umum masalah penganiayaan dan keganasan terhadap kanak-kanak telah ditunjukkan dalam laporan UNICEF(2013). Secara lebih terperinci, antara negara yang berhadapan dengan masalah penganiayaan dan penderaan kanak-kanak sejak berdekad ialah United Kingdom (Munro 1999), Amerika Syarikat, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia dan Singapura (Diane & Marsha 2003). Ini merangkumi pelbagai bentuk penganiayaan terhadap kanak-kanak berhubung kait psikologi dan tingkah laku (Dunne et al. 2008). Dunne et al. (2008) juga berpendapat bahawa keganasan terhadap kanak-kanak adalah masalah kesihatan awam yang penting dalam semua masyarakat. Malah, Maguire (2008) menyatakan meskipun kempen-kempen kesedaran bagi menangani masalah keganasan dan penganiayaan terhadap kanak-kanak telah dipertingkatkan di United Kingdom, namun direkodkan 79 orang kanak-kanak dibunuh setahun dan angka ini masih kekal semenjak 28 tahun yang lalu. Permasalahan kanak-kanak yang menjadi mangsa penganiayaan dan penderaan adalah penting untuk diberikan perhatian terutamanya dalam dasar sesebuah negara. Ini disokong oleh Munro (2010) yang mendakwa usaha mengurangkan insiden penganiayaan kanak-kanak adalah satu matlamat dasar utama dalam kebanyakan negara. Kematian kanak-kanak disebabkan oleh penganiayaan adalah bukti besar kegagalan dasar kerajaan dan menimbulkan reaksi keras daripada orang ramai. Persepsi mereka terhadap kegagalan ini memberi reaksi negatif kepada profesion kerja sosial di mana sepatutnya boleh dicegah oleh golongan profesional. Pekerja sosial sering dipersalahkan sekiranya berlaku kes-kes kematian akibat penderaan. Dakwaan ini disokong sendiri oleh Munro (2010) yang menyatakan bahawa isu menyalahkan amat ketara di negara-negara seperti United Kingdom, Amerika Syarikat, Kanada, Australia dan New Zealand. Kegagalan profesional ini juga sering dikaitkan dan berkisar kepada kompetensi pekerja sosial terutamanya responden. Sebagaimana Fook (2011) menyatakan kompetensi praktis kerja sosial secara generik secara tidak langsung menjurus kepada kumpulan sasar kanak-kanak, warga emas dan orang kurang upaya menjadi perdebatan sejak 20 tahun yang lalu terutamanya di United Kingdom, Australia dan Kanada. Justeru itu, pekerja sosial memainkan peranan dan tanggungjawab yang amat penting dalam mengendalikan dan menguruskan kes-kes kanak-kanak yang dianiaya dan didera, kes-kes juvana, delinkuen sama ada untuk diberikan khidmat perlindungan atau pemulihan. Mereka akan menganalisis dan mengumpulkan maklumat di semua peringkat proses kerja kes, menyelaraskan perkhidmatan lain yang disediakan, dan memberikan khidmat sokongan secara langsung kepada kanak-kanak dan keluarga yang terlibat. Ramai penyelidik memperakui bahawa pengurusan kes kanak-kanak adalah kompleks (Lindsey 2011; Munro & Hubbard 2011; O'connor & Leonard 2013; Topuzova 2009). Pengurusan Kes: Pengurusan kes berdasarkan Model Intervensi Pengurusan Kes (Rothman 1991) melibatkan proses rujukan ke agensi, penerimaan kes, penilaian (psikologi, sosial dan perubatan), penentuan matlamat, intervensi dan pengenalpastian sumber, menghubungkan klien, pemantauan, penilaian semula dan penilaian hasil. Pada masa yang sama pekerja sosial berperanan untuk bekerjasama dengan penyedia khidmat kaunseling, terapi dan advokasi untuk diberikan kepada klien. Summers (2012) mendefinisikan pengurusan kes sebagai satu proses penilaian terhadap keseluruhan situasi klien dan menyelesaikan masalah dan keperluan berdasarkan penilaian. Manakala Woodside dan Mcclam (2006) menggariskan proses pengurusan kes kepada tiga elemen penting iaitu proses pengurusan kes (peringkat pentaksiran, perancangan dan pelaksanaan), rol dan model. Responden memainkan rol sebagai perunding, perancang, penyimpan rekod, penyelesai masalah, penyelaras, pembela, kaunselor dan broker. Model pengurusan kes pula dibahagikan mengikut model berasaskan tanggungjawab, rol atau peranan dan organisasi. Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat (JKM) merupakan agensi utama penempatan profesion pekerja sosial serta menyediakan perkhidmatan perlindungan dan pemulihan kanak-kanak. JKM bertanggungjawab dalam pengurusan kes kanak-kanak melalui peranan pelindung dan pegawai akhlak yang telah diwartakan di bawah Akta Kanak-Kanak 2001. Artikel ini akan membincangkan tentang pengetahuan dalam pengurusan kes dan cabaran yang dihadapi oleh responden di lapangan.

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OBJEKTIF KAJIAN a. Mengkaji tentang pengetahuan pekerja kes dalam pengurusan kes kanak-kanak di Malaysia. b. Mengenal pasti cabaran yang dihadapi oleh pekerja kes kanak-kanak dalam pengurusan kes

METODOLOGI Kajian ini direkabentuk menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif. Kajian melibatkan pekerja kes kanak-kanak di JKM sekitar Lembah Klang sebagai responden. Teknik persampelan bertujuan digunakan dalam memilih responden. Pengumpulan data kajian dibuat dengan menggunakan kaedah Kumpulan Perbincangan Berfokus (Focus Group Discussion-FGD). Responden ditemu bual secara berkumpulan. Temu bual FGD yang pertama melibatkan seramai lapan (8) orang responden daripada Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat (JKM) Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur dan enam (6) orang responden daripada Pejabat Kebajikan Masyarakat Daerah Petaling dan Subang Jaya terlibat dalam FGD kedua. Jumlah keseluruhan responden adalah 14 orang dengan komposisi empat(4) orang lelaki dan sepuluh (10) responden perempuan. Keizinan dan persetujuan bermaklum juga diperolehi daripada semua responden. Semasa menjalankan FGD, seorang pembantu moderator dilantik untuk setiap sesi FGD bagi membantu penyelidik mencatat nota bertulis dan pemerhatian sepanjang FGD. Bagi tujuan kajian ini juga, pengkaji hanya memilih 6 hingga 8 orang responden seperti saranan Kitzinger (1995). Responden dipilih berdasarkan pengalaman praktis sekurang-kurangnya dua tahun sama ada berkhidmat di lapangan atau institusi kanak-kanak, penolong pegawai dan pegawai pembangunan masyarakat dari gred jawatan S27 hingga S44, pernah menghadiri Kursus Asas Kerja Sosial dan telah diwartakan sebagai pelindung atau pegawai akhlak di bawah Akta Kanak-Kanak 2001. Rakaman data temu bual FGD di transkrip. Data transkrip disemak semula dengan mendengar rakaman temu bual sehingga lengkap. Data dianalisis menggunakan perisian NVivo 10 bagi melihat tema-tema yang muncul.

PENEMUAN KAJIAN Pengetahuan tentang pengurusan kes di kalangan responden terbahagi kepada lapan (8) domain penting iaitu falsafah pengurusan kes, pengetahuan dalam menguruskan kes, praktis kerja sosial, peraturan prosedur dan piawaian kebangsaan, kod etika pekerja sosial, model pengurusan kes, kompetens budaya dan kerangka perundangan serta dasar.

a) Falsafah pengurusan kes Falsafah pengurusan kes dijelaskan oleh responden berdasarkan tujuan kemasukan kanak-kanak ke institusi. a. Proses kemasukan kanak-kanak ke dalam institusi adalah langkah terakhir. Kemasukan kanak-kanak ke institusi pemulihan atau perlindungan sebagai langkah terakhir adalah falsafah dan semangat yang dipegang oleh responden. Ini dinyatakan oleh responden: langkah terakhir memang letakkan ke institusi ke atau pun paling teruk ke Sekolah Henry Gurney tapi, tapi kalau itu adalah yang terbaik untuk kanak-kanak memandangkan selepas penilaian kita buat kanak-kanak itu adalah berisiko tinggi kita letakkan dia balik pulang kepada keluarga is better kanak-kanak itu teruskan kat(di) tempat yang lebih baik daripada dipulangkan kepada keluarga. (Encik S, 20 tahun, JKM WPKL)

b. Masa hadapan, kepentingan dan kebajikan kanak-kanak Di samping itu, majoriti responden berpendapat bahawa falsafah masa depan serta kepentingan dan kebajikan kanak-kanak yang diamalkan oleh responden menjadi pegangan dalam mengendalikan kes kanak-kanak. Responden sangat menitikberatkan kebajikan kanak-kanak dan penerimaan masyarakat. Ini adalah perkara penting yang diamalkan dan diketahui oleh setiap responden dalam membuat pertimbangan terhadap seseorang kanak-kanak dan pengurusan kes. Ini dinyatakan oleh responden seperti: apa yang pegawai akhlak tengok adalah apa yang terbaik untuk kanak-kanak pada masa hadapan, supaya bila dia selesai kes atau keluar daripada mana-mana nanti, penerimaan masyarakat terhadap kanak-kanak ni. (Puan RJ, 5 tahun, JKMD Petaling) Selain itu, responden juga memikirkan mengenai penempatan kanak-kanak ke sesebuah institusi itu berbaloi dan memberi manfaat yang besar kepada kanak-kanak. Pertimbangan rasional dibuat meskipun tindakan yang diambil agak keterlaluan bagi masyarakat, tetapi pekerja kes kanak-kanak berpendapat mereka telah membuat penilaian menyeluruh tentang kes dan merasakan mereka tahu apa yang terbaik © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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untuk kanak-kanak. sejauh mana kemahiran kanak-kanak di STB(Sekolah Tunas Bakti) tu diiktiraf seperti di Henry Gurney dan cikgu-cikgu yang dihantar di Henry Gurney semuanya DG44/41 semua, so dari segi pengiktirafan yang tu that’s why kita tengok Henry Gurney lebih memberikan yang masa depan yang terbaik untuk kanak-kanak tu. (Encik S, 20 tahun, JKM WPKL) c. Setiap kes adalah unik. Responden merasakan meskipun Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) sebagai satu kaedah atau cara pengurusan kes, namun kes kanak-kanak dikendalikan mengikut keperluan kes. Responden berpendapat, SOP yang digunakan dan dirujuk adalah sama namun perlu juga melihat kepada keadaan kes tersebut: Cara yang sama tetapi pengurusan kes tu berbeza mengikut keperluan kes. Kalau kes penderaan fizikal macam mana, kes penderaan seksual nya akan dibuat macam mana, masalah pengabaian nya dibuat pengurusan kes nya berbeza, it depends(ia bergantung). (Puan RJ, 5 tahun, JKM Petaling)

b) Pengetahuan dalam pengurusan kes Selain itu, responden juga mempraktikkan pengetahuan penting dalam menguruskan kanak-kanak. Hasil analisa menunjukkan tiga pengetahuan yang dipentingkan oleh responden iaitu terapi bermain, pengetahuan psikologi kanak-kanak dan teori perkembangan manusia. a. Terapi Bermain Terapi bermain bersama kanak-kanak penting dalam mendapatkan maklumat tentang kanak-kanak sama ada bagi proses penyediaan laporan mahupun siasatan. “komunikasi tu pun juga kita boleh buat melalui alat bantuan contoh kita pakai kalau ada rumah dia ada patung ke apa ke kan..kita cuba gunakan benda tu..untuk dapatkan maklumat daripada kanak-kanak tu. Kita tak boleh kata nak dapat maklumat tu on the dot tu memang tak dapat lah..ambil masa sikit lah tengok..depends on case(bergantung pada kes) lah” (Puan NA, 4 tahun, JKM Petaling) b. Psikologi kanak-kanak Kajian mendapati responden merasakan mereka perlu memahami psikologi semasa berkomunikasi dengan kanak-kanak. Ini penting dalam proses perancangan jagaan dan intervensi untuk membantu kanak-kanak.. Kepentingan memahami psikologi dan perkembangan kanak-kanak dinyatakan seperti pernyataan berikut: pelindung(pekerja kes) tu kena melihat keperluan kanak-kanak tu apa…dari sudut psikologi dia, physical needs(keperluan fizikal) dia, emosi dia, dari sudut spiritual dia, dari sudut apa lagi physical needs, whatever semua lah kita kalau katakan mungkin ada dalam lima atau enam keperluan yang pekerja sosial tu melihat, di mana loophole(kekurangan), apa yang dia kanak-kanak tu perlu untuk diperbaiki, untuk diberi kepada kanak-kanak tu (Puan M, 12 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling) c. Teori berkaitan perkembangan manusia Responden juga menjelaskan bahawa pengetahuan tentang perkembangan manusia penting dalam setiap pengurusan kes. Beberapa lagi teori-teori lain yang banyak membantu responden dalam pengurusan kes kanak-kanak contohnya Teori Perkembangan Manusia, Teori Perkembangan KanakKanak, Teori Pembangunan Psikososial- Erik Erikson, Teori Maslow, Teori Perapatan-Bowlby dan Teori Perlakuan Manusia. Pengetahuan berkaitan perkembangan manusia penting kerana setiap peringkat umur melibatkan perkembangan dalam mental dan psikologi manusia. Ini penting untuk difahami dalam mengendalikan kes kanak-kanak. ..saya ingat saya kena tahu pasal perkembangan manusia, stage(tahap) manusia tu, baby(bayi) macam mana keadaan dia kan, keadaan remaja macam mana keadaan dia, kena tahu. Tu knowledge(pengetahuan) tentang perkembangan manusia kena tahu. (Encik DD, 9 tahun, JKM WPKL)

c) Praktis Kerja Sosial Praktis kerja sosial menguruskan kes dengan menggunakan empat pendekatan iaitu tindakan sosial, organisasi komuniti, kerja sosial kumpulan dan kerja kes sosial (Hamilton 1951). Namun begitu, apa yang ketara dalam konteks pengurusan kes kanak-kanak pendekatan praktisnya yang diamalkan lebih menumpu kepada tindakan sosial dan kerja kes sosial.

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a. Tindakan sosial Tindakan sosial merangkumi aspek pengurusan kes akhlak dan kes perlindungan kanak-kanak. Responden berperanan dalam menyelamatkan mangsa dera kanak- kanak yang didera. Apa yang diperkatakan responden ialah mereka: bertindak selaras dengan peruntukan Seksyen 17, Akta Kanak – Kanak 2001 lah, yang (a) hingga (k) tu, masa kita selamat kan kanak-kanak yang berkaitan dengan seksyen tu (Puan N, 3 tahun, JKM WPKL) Responden mempunyai pengetahuan yang mendalam dalam pengurusan kes dan tidak gentar dengan majistret demi memastikan aspek kebajikan dan kepentingan kanak-kanak diberikan keutamaan dalam pengurusan kes. Ini dinyatakan oleh responden JKM WPKL di mana: Walaupun dia dah rosak(sudah ternoda), tetapi dia ada maruah diri tau. Sebab tu apabila saya mencadangkan dihantar ke Henry Gurney Batu Gajah, majistret terkejut. Dia stand down, dia panggil saya masuk dalam, panggil Hamidah dan panggil saya. Saya cakap apa ngan(dengan) dia tau , tuan(majistret) simpati? Saya pun simpati, tetapi simpati kita tak membantu tuan, saya kata Hamidah ni mangsa keadaan tuan, kalau kita kembalikan kepada keluarga, tadi pun tuan tengok bapa dia jerit dalam mahkamah, anak tu degil. Sebenarnya bapa dia dah takut tau, dalam mahkamah, takut cerita sebenar terbongkar. Jadi saya kata, saya cadangkan di hantar ke Henry Gurney Batu Gajah (Sekolah Henry Gurney), dengan harapan 3 tahun di sana, dia mempelajari sesuatu di sana. Saya kata kat Hamidah, kamu bukan musuh saya!, saya nak aniaya kamu tidak. Saya kata besok kamu akan berterima kasih dengan saya. (Encik S, 20 tahun, JKM WPKL) Apa yang dirancangkan dan disyorkan dalam laporan akhlak menjadi kenyataan dan terbukti apabila responden berjumpa kanak-kanak sekali lagi beberapa tahun selepas itu di dalam institusi pemulihan. Berkat keikhlasan responden dengan memikirkan masa depan kanak-kanak, perubahan yang berlaku kepada kanak-kanak memberi impak yang besar dalam hidup seseorang kanak-kanak. Responden menyatakan beliau menempatkan klien di Sekolah Henry Gurney dan mendapati klien mempelajari kemahiran jahitan. Klien juga didapati berterima kasih kepada pekerja kes. banyak benda yang saya belajar kat sini Encik, dan bulan 11 nanti saya keluar, saya dah tau buat kot(baju kot)..buat kot!.(.terkejut) lepas tu dia kata kat saya dia tak akan balik seremban, dia akan tinggal dengan kakak dia di KL ni, dan cari kerja. Dengan pendekatan tadi tu, dia kita hantar dekat sana, dia dah dengan yakin mengatakan, saya dah tau buat kot(baju kot) encik. (Encik S, 20 tahun, JKM WPKL) b. Kerja Kes Sosial Kerja kes sosial mempunyai ciri-ciri penggunaan hubungan, proses temubual, penggunaan sumber sosial dan kehendak praktis agensi(Hamilton 1951). Kerja kes sosial juga merangkumi penaksiran, kajian, intervensi dan penamatan. dalam menguruskan ke. Dalam konteks pekerja kes kanak-kanak didapati keempat-empat peringkat ini jelas digunakan semasa mengendalikan kes kanak-kanak. Melalui temu bual FGD di dapati responden telah mengaplikasikan keempat-empat peringkat dalam praktis kerja sosial ini. Proses pentaksiran, dan kajian dinyatakan oleh responden semasa FGD merangkumi kenyataankenyataan: Kalau katakan parents(ibu bapa) dah balik ke Malaysia, parents(ibu bapa) jugak kena melihat in terms of ibu bapa , ibu dan bapa dan juga bukan saja ibu bapa, tanya keluarga yang lain jugak, semua, support system(sistem sokongan) tu kena ada. Like(macam) ibu ok macam mana penerimaan ibu, ibu pun kena melihat juga lah keperluan ibu, apa masalah ibu, bapa pun kena melihat juga apa masalah bapa sebab antara ibu bapa tu ada saja keperluan yang katakan tidak ad,contoh lah psikologikal dia pun terganggu dia pun tak, memang terdorong untuk nak menjadi murung ke apa ke di sebabkan insiden itu, so pekerja sosial itu perlu melihat semua orang dalam keluarga dan juga support system(sistem sokongan). (Puan M, 12 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling) Bentuk-bentuk intervensi yang dinyatakan dalam FGD merangkumi aspek merujuk kanak-kanak kepada pihak AADK(Agensi Antidadah Kebangsaan), memindahkan kanak-kanak yang berisiko daripada situasi yang memudaratkan itu contohnya mendapatkan rawatan dan sebagainya: Dan pihak – pihak mana yang boleh membantu untuk membantu budak ini pun, contohnya kalau budak ni terlibat dengan dadah kan, selepas itu dia terpaksa diberikan apa ni..lapor diri dekat AADK, jadi pihak AADK ini mungkin boleh membantu budak ini. (Encik I, 5 tahun, JKM WPKL)

Semasa di peringkat penamatan, responden akan menjalankan seliaan kes secara berkala melihat kepada perubahan yang dicapai dari masa ke semasa dalam proses integrasi ke dalam masyarakat. Dalam pengurusan kes, responden juga memikirkan mengenai peluang kedua yang patut diberi kepada kanakkanak: ada kes saya dia sampai ke tahap dia dah sekarang dia masuk di kolej dah..sedangkan pada awal-awal tu dia memang terlibat dengan keskes jenayah, dan bila dia masuk kolej a..so kita akan beri dia support moral lebih lah supaya dia a..merupakan dia tahu benda yang dalam lepas tu semua orang buat salah. (Puan M, 12 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling) © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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d) Peraturan Prosedur dan Piawaian Praktis Kebangsaan Hasil kajian menunjukkan responden turut menjalankan pengurusan kes berpandukan kepada prosedur dan manual kualiti Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. a. Manual Kualiti JKM MS ISO 9001:2008 sebagai SOP dalam pengurusan kes ISO Dokumen ini adalah merupakan Manual Kualiti JKM. Manual Kualiti disediakan untuk memenuhi matlamat dan objektif pewujudan JKM selaras dengan kehendak dan keperluan MS ISO 9001:2008. ISO merupakan dokumen kualiti dan berbeza dengan piawaian kompetensi kerja sosial yang digubal oleh agensi ini. Di dalam ISO tidak disebutkan mengenai piawaian kompetensi kerja sosial sebagai panduan pengurusan kes dan ini membuktikan sedikit kelemahan tatacara atau sistem yang masih boleh diperbaiki dari masa ke semasa. Ini disebabkan agensi masih di peringkat awal pelaksanaan piawaian kompetensi kerja sosial. Namun begitu, dasar kualiti JKM menekankan penyampaian perkhidmatan yang berteraskan nilai kerja sosial untuk memenuhi keperluan dan kepuasan klien dalam mewujudkan masyarakat sejahtera. Responden yang menyatakan proses pengurusan kes adalah berdasarkan apa yang digariskan dalam dokumen ISO: SOP kerja tu dia kena tahu, kan sama ada dari segi perundangan ke kan?, ataupun standard-standard(piawai) yang ditetapkan dia kena tahu. Tu knowledge(pengetahuan) lah. (Encik DD, 9 tahun, JKM WPKL) Kesemua responden bersetuju bahawa pengurusan kes kanak-kanak merujuk kepada manual standard ISO. Cara pengurusan kes bergantung pada langkah-langkah yang diarahkan mengikut prosedur Jabatan: apa yang Puan M cerita standard procedure kerja yang memang standard yang ada dalam pengurusan kes kanak-kanak. Itu yang diamalkan. (Puan RJ, 4 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling)

Responden juga sedar bahawa meskipun ada SOP atau ISO yang dilaksanakan oleh organisasi cara pengurusan kes adalah berbeza mengikut keperluan kes. Cara yang sama tetapi pengurusan kes tu berbeza mengikut keperluan kes. Kalau kes penderaan fizikal macam mana, kes penderaan seksual nya akan dibuat macam mana, masalah pengabaian nya dibuat pengurusan kes nya berbeza, aha it depend(itu bergantung pada). (Puan RJ, 4 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling)

JKM telah membudayakan pengurusan klien melalui ISO dan SOP yang telah ditetapkan awal oleh organisasi itu sendiri. Keunikan sesuatu kes memerlukan seseorang responden yang kompeten iaitu mempunyai pengetahuan yang holistik mengenai klien yang dibantu. Responden menerangkan: prosesnya kita ada SOP tapi kadang-kadang tu , kadang-kadang kita tengok kes la juga atas setiap kes tu kadang dia tak sama, dia lain-lain, walaupun kita kata contoh P&P (pemeliharaan dan perlindungan), tapi setiap satu kes tu lain la, ada yang mula dari, permulaan dia pun sama, maksudnya rujukan ada yang dari hospital, ada dari polis, ada, kat(di) situ kita dah nampak dah sebenarnya ia berbeza jadi em macam mana nak cakap, dia based on(berdasarkan kepada) kes tu sendirilah kita tengok (Puan R, 9 tahun, JKM WPKL)

e) Kod Etika Kerja Sosial Responden dapat mengaitkan etika-etika dalam pengurusan kes contohnya empati, individualisasi, kerahsiaan, penentuan kendiri, penerimaan tanpa syarat, penglibatan emosi terkawal dan tidak menghukum. Responden berpendapat, kod etika adalah sesuatu panduan, asas dan kitab yang perlu dihayati oleh setiap responden bukan setakat memahaminya. Ianya memberi keyakinan dalam berurusan dengan kanak-kanak dan keluarga mereka. kod etika tadi dia membantu agar kita sentiasa berada di landasan yang betul dan tak terpesong ke landasan yang lain. (Encik I, 5 tahun, JKM WPKL)

Responden juga percaya dengan wujudnya kod etika pekerja sosial ini akan dapat menjadi panduan kepada setiap pekerja tidak kira baru atau lama. Mereka percaya tidak semua boleh menjadi seorang pekerja sosial dengan cabaran serta dugaan sepanjang menjawat jawatan sekarang. saya percaya yang pasal kod etika tu apa, saya percaya bukan semua orang boleh jadi pekerja sosial. Ok, that’s why saya rasa apa, kod etika tu diadakan sebab mungkin orang yang baru nak terjun jadi pekerja sosial, dia boleh, ni cara adab-adab dia untuk jadi pekerja sosial. Ok, maknanya saya percaya hanya orang-orang terpilih sahaja yang boleh jadi pekerja sosial. (Encik DD, 9 tahun, JKM WPKL) a. Kod Etika berasaskan ‘ICEJADE’ Melalui sesi FGD responden dilihat mengamalkan kod etika yang telah digariskan oleh organisasi. Keseluruhan elemen penting amalan etika ini dipraktikkan dalam pengurusan kes kanak-kanak dan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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dijelaskan melalui pengalaman mengendalikan kes. Singkatan “ICEJADE” yang menekankan konsep setiap individu adalah unik(Individualization), menyimpan rahsia klien(Confidentiality), penglibatan emosi yang terkawal (Non-Emotional involvement), mendokong falsafah tidak menghukum (Non-Judgemental), (Acceptance) menerima klien seadanya, (Self-Determination) penentuan kendiri, (Empathy) berempati terhadap klien serta tidak meletakkan nilai diri responden ke dalam diri klien telah menjadi rutin harian dalam setiap hubungan dengan klien. Responden juga dapat mengawal emosi dan rasional dalam membuat setiap keputusan berlandaskan moral dan etika amalan praktis pekerja sosial. prinsip pekerja sosial tu kena tahu lah maksudnya apabila kita terima klien tu dia ada hak dia untuk dirahsiakan, kita kena pastikan bendabenda tu dirahsiakan, apa yang di cerita yang tak boleh keluar pada lingkungan pejabat kita…dan kita terima dia seadanya.. (Encik S, 20 tahun, JKM WPKL)

f) Model Pengurusan Kes Kajian mendapati tiada model pengurusan kes yang khusus dikemukakan oleh responden. Secara umum, responden lebih merujuk kepada dokumen dan manual kualiti agensi dalam mengendalikan kes. Namun begitu, melalui FGD responden secara tidak langsung telah mengaplikasikan peringkat pengurusan kes yang menepati ciri-ciri Model Intervensi Pengurusan Kes Rothman(1960) dan proses pengurusan kes digunakan Woodside dan Mcclam(2006). a. Model Intervensi Pengurusan Kes Model Intervensi Pengurusan Kes diperkenalkan oleh Rothman (1960), merangkumi 13 peringkat iaitu pengambilan, pentaksiran, penentuan matlamat, perancangan intervensi, mengindeks dan pengenalpastian sumber, menghubungkan klien, memantau, mentaksir semula, penilaian outcome, penyelarasan antara agensi, kaunseling, terapi dan advokasi. Dalam menguraikan hasil kajian ini pengkaji menggunakan tiga proses pengurusan kes yang merangkumi pentaksiran, perancangan dan pelaksanaan (Woodside & Mcclam 2006). •

Pentaksiran (pengambilan, pentaksiran, pengumpulan maklumat) Cara pengurusan kes yang dilaksanakan oleh responden sememangnya merangkumi aspek-aspek yang diterangkan dalam Model Intervensi Pengurusan Kes Rothman. Proses-proses pengambilan, pentaksiran dan penentuan matlamat tersebut dinyatakan dengan jelas oleh responden. Prosesproses ini memerlukan kebijaksanaan responden dalam menentukan syor yang hendak dibuat apabila menerima kes: Saya nampak sebenarnya laporan akhlak tu sebenarnya pihak mahkamah pun nak melihat pandangan kita selepas kita pergi buat siasatan, kita buat temu bual dengan ibu bapa, kepada budak, dan kita dapat laporan persekolahan dia, jadi sebenarnya roh dia kat situ. Kan kita ada diberi syor dekat situ kan.. apa pandangan kita untuk membantu budak ni sebenarnya, lebih senang kita katakan laporan akhlak ni sebenarnya kalau disediakan oleh pegawai akhlak ni bukan bertujuan menghukum. (Encik I, 5 tahun, JKM WPKL)

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Perancangan (Perancangan intervensi, pembangunan pelan, mengaturkan perkhidmatan) Proses mengindeks dan pengenalpastian sumber agar seseorang kanak-kanak dapat dirujuk kepada agensi berkaitan dengan menghubungkan dan menyelaraskan bantuan kepada kanak-kanak dengan agensi berkenaan contohnya khidmat kaunseling. Pemantauan akan dibuat oleh responden melalui proses kaji semula secara bersama dengan institusi pemulihan atau perlindungan sekiranya kanakkanak telah bersedia untuk dibebaskan. Proses terapi dan advokasi atau sokongan juga dilakukan oleh responden berdasarkan naratif yang dikongsikan oleh mereka semasa mengendalikan kes: visit(lawatan), kena ada schedule(jadual), pendekatan dia tu lah kena plan apa first sekali nak buat tackle(atasi masalah) emosi dia dulu ke, ataupun selepas tu, buat apa-apa program, rujuk dengan kaunselor, mesti ada dalam pelan plan dia punya untuk membantu tu lah, tak boleh satu je visit, tengok balik kita tengok dia ok, tak de apa-apa balik tu je, dia mesti ada..apa nama, cara untuk menangani psikologi sama ada bawak dia, rujuk dengan psikiatris, pegi(pergi) ke sekolah dia bincang dengan sekolah, apa..macam mana keadaan dia di sekolah, macam mana dia di rumah, jumpa dengan penjaga dia, so bila tahu apa masalah dia apa yang negatif impak yang dah jadi pada a..sebab ada empat orang, so empat-empat itu akan alami situasi, maksudnya kesan yang berbeza tak kan sama dia mesti setiap individu berbeza dia ada lain-lain mungkin seorang tu jenis murung, seorang tu jenis tak kisah ada yang terjejas ada yang tak berapa terjejas so, persekitaran dia tu kena peka lah. (Puan S, 12 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling)

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Pelaksanaan (penyediaan perkhidmatan, penyelesaian masalah dam pemantauan perkhidmatan yang disampaikan) Peringkat terakhir proses pengurusan kes ialah pelaksanaan di mana sesuatu perkhidmatan

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disampaikan kepada kanak-kanak dan dirujuk kepada pakar berkaitan yang boleh membantu klien. Ini jelas difahami dan dinyatakan oleh responden: kita kena libatkan jugak pegawai psikologi lah jugak semasa kita buat intervention (intervensi) kepada ibu bapa yang baru tu sebab dia pun mungkin ada negatif thinking jugak terhadap anak dia kan so, kita perlukan bantuan psikologi jugak untuk bagi diabermotivasi balik untuk come back kepada famili untuk jaga anak. So, kita tak nak nanti hubungan ibu bapa dan anak itu akan jadi renggang dan mungkin insiden tu akan membuat acuh tak dengan anak dia lepas ni. So, itu kita tak nak, so yang itu kita perlukan pendekatan yang lebih lah. (Puan NA, 4 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling) Model Intervensi Pengurusan Kes ini amat penting untuk difahami oleh pekerja kes kanak-kanak dalam membantu klien mendapatkan perkhidmatan yang sewajarnya secara sistematik dan efisien.

g) Kompetens Budaya Responden perlu kompeten dan mempunyai pengetahuan tentang budaya sesebuah keluarga yang dibantu. Perbincangan FGD mengambil kajian kes pasangan Malaysia yang dipenjarakan di Sweden kerana didakwa memukul dan menghukum anak-anak yang dikatakan tidak solat. Pertembungan konflik budaya, nilai dan agama ini nyata dibincangkan dengan berhemah berdasarkan amalan di sesebuah Negara tanpa membelakangkan kedaulatan negara yang menguatkuasakan undang-undang berkaitan. Ini dinyatakan oleh responden seperti berikut: di sana mereka anggap pasangan ini sebagai penjenayah. Tapi di Malaysia, kita mungkin menganggap dia sebagai satu orang yang berani menegakkan sebab dia pukul sebab tak sembahyang, jadi kita kena terima apa yang dia buat tak salah pada kita sebab bergantung pada cara hidup kita, agama kita tapi kita.. (Puan M, 12 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling) a. Perlu matang dan rasional dalam menilai sesuatu kes Responden memperlihatkan kematangan menilai sesuatu kes berlandaskan pegangan dan nilai ketimuran dengan berpegang kepada pengajaran yang boleh diambil daripada sesuatu kejadian. Ini dinyatakan oleh responden dalam FGD: mungkin ada hikmah sebenarnya daripada apa yang berlaku, mungkin dia dapat pengajaran lah kita pandang pada positif ni kan dari sudut responden dia belajar sesuatu lah, walaupun negatif bende(benda) tu dia belajar yang apa yang dia telah buat tu menyebabkan dia terpaksa berpisah mak bapak dia terpaksa menjalani hukuman cam(macam) tu. (Puan S, 12 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling) b. Berpegang kepada nilai agama dengan bermuhasabah diri Harapan responden agar ibu bapa kanak-kanak berserah kepada Allah s.w.t untuk memperbaiki diri dan bermuhasabah merenung kembali apa yang telah dilakukan kepada anak-anak mereka. Malah, responden lebih mementingkan pegangan agama dalam membuat pertimbangan tindakan-tindakan yang perlu diambil kepada keluarga terbabit. so,mungkin dengan cara macam ni mungkin Allah tunjuk yang dia(ibu bapa pasangan Sweden) boleh berubah ke arah yang lebih elok lagi, lebih baik untuk masa depan dia. (Puan S, 12 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling) c. Menghormati nilai, budaya dan agama dianuti klien dalam pengurusan kes Konflik nilai berlaku apabila berlaku masalah di mana perkiraan tentang agama seseorang kanak-kanak tidak diberikan perhatian semasa penempatan kanak-kanak bersama keluarga pelihara. Ini dinyatakan oleh responden tentang kelemahan dalam penempatan pengurusan kes pasangan Malaysia di Sweden yang diletakkan bersama pasangan bukan Islam. Responden beranggapan bahawa budaya barat tidak menitik beratkan mengenai amalan budaya sesebuah masyarakat dalam pengurusan kes. Responden juga sedar akan hakikat bahawa klien yang diuruskan layak untuk mendapat penghormatan dalam aspek berkaitan keagamaan dan budaya yang dianuti. Responden menyatakan: Dia share(berkongsi) pada awalnya rasa sebab yang dia tinggal bersama yang non-muslim, pasal makan dan dia tidak dibenarkan solat. (Puan NA, 4 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling)

d. Terdapat perbezaan cara pengurusan kes kanak-kanak di Negara lain Responden berpendapat, cara dan pendekatan pengurusan kes di Sweden adalah berbeza dengan amalan di Malaysia. Seterusnya responden menyatakan bahawa tumpuan diberikan kerana perbezaan amalan yang dilaksanakan di kedua-dua negara terbabit. dia punya cara tu berbeza dengan cara pendekatan kita buat di Malaysia (Pn NA, 4 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling)

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Jadi bila benda ni berlaku dekat luar negara, so benda ni adalah sesuatu yang tidak boleh diterima dekat negara tersebut lah, jadi sebab tulah mungkin ada pihak yang nak highlight kan(tonjolkan) dan dia juga melibatkan dua negara yang berbeza. (Puan Nor, 6 tahun, JKM Daerah Petaling)

h) Kerangka Perundangan dan Dasar a. Akta Kanak-Kanak 2001(AKK 2001) Pengetahuan dalam perundangan terutamanya Akta Kanak-Kanak 2001 adalah tulang belakang dalam pengurusan kes kanak-kanak. Lebih daripada itu, peranan dan tanggungjawab sebagai responden adalah tertakluk kepada pewartaan responden sebagai pelindung di bawah Seksyen 8 AKK 2001. knowledge(pengetahuan) pasal undang-undang, SOP, kita sebenarnya membantu untuk memantapkan kerja ikut saluran yang betul dan kita tau kapasiti dekat mana kita perlu stop, tu sebenarnya yang menentukan kompetensi kita (Encik DD, 9 tahun, JKM WPKL)

Cabaran dalam pengurusan kes kanak-kanak Daripada keseluruhan hasil kajian mengenai pengurusan kes kanak-kanak, terdapat cabaran yang dihadapi oleh responden di lapangan. Responden menyatakan bahawa ibu bapa kanak-kanak telah mula mempertikaikan kredibiliti mereka sebagai pegawai pelindung dan pegawai akhlak. Ini mencabar kewibawaan dan pengetahuan mereka dengan tahap pengetahuan ibu bapa kanak-kanak yang berani melawan keputusan yang telah dibuat oleh responden.

a) Keluarga mengambil tindakan undang-undang Responden juga menyatakan mereka telah biasa diugut oleh klien mereka semasa mengendalikan kes kanak-kanak. Responden juga sering dicabar apabila ada dari kalangan keluarga kanak-kanak yang berani mengambil tindakan undang-undang. ..di KL saya ingat, cabaran nya juga ibu bapa nya mula berani mempertikai kan, tindakan- tindakan pelindung ke pegawai akhlak (Encik

DD, 9 tahun, JKM WPKL)

b) Responden bekerja dalam keadaan tertekan dan stress Responden menyatakan mereka yang terlalu stress apabila bekerja di unit kanak-kanak sehingga ada yang terpaksa dimasukkan ke hospital dan perasaan itu terbawa-bawa hingga ke rumah. ..sebenarnya kita memang agak orang kata tekanan lah..bila kita buat bahagian perlindungan kanak-kanak, kita bukan setakat di tempat kerja, tapi kadang terbawa-bawa sampai ke rumah dan dia memperuntukkan kita untuk kata full focus(tumpuan penuh) pada kes ni betulbetul itu baru satu kes, belum lagi kes lain-lain, belum lagi kes anak angkat JPN. (Puan Nor, 6 tahun, JKM WPKL) Ada juga responden yang mengalami keguguran akibat terlalu stress semasa mengendalikan kes kanakkanak. ..saya apa ni nak, nak share dengan Encik Pian la sebab bahagian kanak-kanak kami pun daripada siapa..ramai yang keguguran, saya percaya stres tu lah (Encik I, 5 tahun, JKM WPKL)

c) Bebanan kes dan rujukan kes yang banyak Responden menyatakan bahawa mereka menerima kes yang bertali arus dan bertalu-talu. cabaran utama, yang ni tak selesai, yang ni nak buat. Itu belum selesai, itu dah ada, semua tak cukup tangan kaki, itu adalah cabaran (Encik O, 15 tahun, JKM WPKL)

d) Responden kurang faham mengenai kompetensi Berdasarkan respons yang diterima daripada responden semasa FGD, mereka sukar untuk memberikan maklum balas apabila ditanyakan apakah ciri-ciri seorang pekerja kes kanak-kanak yang kompeten. Ini barangkali disebabkan mereka belum didedahkan secara formal tentang piawaian kompetensi melainkan dokumen mengenainya dimuat naik dalam laman web agensi. Implikasi kepada permasalahan yang dihadapi oleh responden ini secara tidak langsung menjejaskan kualiti pengurusan kes.

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PERBINCANGAN, IMPLIKASI DAN CADANGAN Perbincangan kajian ini meliputi lapan(8) domain pengurusan kes iaitu falsafah pengurusan kes, pengetahuan dalam pengurusan kes, praktis kerja sosial, peraturan prosedur dan piawaian kebangsaan, kod etika pekerja sosial, model pengurusan kes, kompetens budaya dan kerangka perundangan serta dasar. Domain yang digariskan ini selaras dengan prinsip dan matlamat pengurusan kes iaitu integrasi perkhidmatan, kesinambungan jagaan, akses yang adil kepada perkhidmatan, kualiti jagaan, pemberdayaan klien dan penilaian (Woodside & Mcclam 2006). Vass (2004) berpendapat pengetahuan adalah sesuatu yang konstant dan sentiasa melalui proses dinamik yang berterusan. Pengetahuan pengurusan kes juga adalah salah satu aspek kompeten dalam praktis kerja sosial. Oleh yang demikian, Vass (2004) menyarankan tiga komponen penting pengetahuan yang perlu ada pada seseorang responden untuk memastikan keberkesanan sesuatu praktis iaitu: pengetahuan yang boleh menjelaskan tentang pengalaman klien dan konteks; pengetahuan yang boleh membantu dalam merancang intervensi klien; dan pengetahuan mengenai kefahaman responden dalam undang-undang, polisi, prosedur dan konteks organisasi praktis. Pertama, pengetahuan yang boleh menjelaskan tentang pengalaman yang dialami oleh klien dan konteks boleh dilihat dalam aspek bagaimana seseorang responden ‘engage’ dan membina hubungan profesional sebagai responden dan klien. Dalam pengurusan kes kanak-kanak proses memahami situasi berisiko yang dihadapi oleh kanak-kanak sama ada mangsa penderaan atau pesalah juvana adalah amat kritikal. Domain pengetahuan yang boleh diaplikasikan untuk ‘engage’ dan menjalin hubungan profesional dengan klien ialah praktis kerja sosial, pengetahuan pengurusan kes, kompetens budaya dan kod etika kerja sosial. Pendekatan yang digunakan oleh responden dalam memahami klien ialah melalui proses pentaksiran bagi mendapatkan maklumat apa yang sedang dialami oleh seseorang kanak-kanak. Responden akan mengaitkan dengan teoriteori berkaitan untuk lebih memahami apa yang sedang berlaku dan kenapa sesuatu perkara itu berlaku. Kod etika pekerja sosial yang diamalkan oleh responden yang menganggap seseorang klien itu unik, tidak menjatuhkan hukuman, menjaga kerahsiaan dan empati amat membantu memahami klien dalam apa konteks jua contohnya budaya yang diamalkan oleh klien. Kedua ialah berkenaan pengetahuan yang boleh membantu responden dalam perancangan intervensi. Secara khusus, domain pengetahuan mengenai falsafah pengurusan kes, praktis kerja sosial, model pengurusan kes dan kompetens budaya adalah berkaitan dalam membantu pekerja kes kanak-kanak membuat perancangan dan intervensi kes. Rata-rata responden meletakkan falsafah pengurusan kes yang mementingkan masa hadapan, kebajikan dan kesejahteraan kanak-kanak dalam praktis. Ini dianggap sebagai asas dalam perancangan intervensi dengan memberi keutamaan kepada kanak-kanak. Pertimbangan membuat keputusan di kalangan responden didasari oleh falsafah demi kepentingan dan kebajikan kanak-kanak. Kajian ini membuktikan apa sahaja keputusan yang dibuat oleh responden adalah berasaskan kepada kepentingan dan masa depan kanak-kanak. Penekanan ini diberikan oleh agensi di peringkat awal memasuki organisasi ini.Responden juga menggunakan maklumat-maklumat yang diperolehi daripada siasatan untuk menilai kesesuaian intervensi berdasarkan sumber yang ada dalam persekitaran kanak-kanak. Peranan responden di sesuaikan dengan tindakan sosial menghubungkan kanak-kanak dengan agensi-agensi berkaitan bagi membantu memulihkan atau melindungi seseorang kanak-kanak. Perancangan intervensi memerlukan satu pendekatan multisektoral, eklektif melibatkan pelbagai agensi dan pihak berkepentingan seperti Polis Di Raja Malaysia (PRDM), Jabatan Kesihatan, Mahkamah dan badan bukan kerajaan berkaitan . Kajian ini mendapati praktis kerja sosial di kalangan responden kurang menyentuh tentang kepentingan organisasi komuniti dan kerja sosial kumpulan. Namun begitu, responden ada menyatakan untuk mendapatkan kepakaran dan khidmat daripada AADK. Kepentingan mekanisme seperti Pasukan Perlindungan Kanak-Kanak (PPKK), Jawatankuasa Kebajikan Kanak-Kanak Daerah(JKKD) mahupun badan-badan bukan kerajaan (NGO) dalam konteks organisasi komuniti kurang diberikan tumpuan dalam pengurusan kes. Tumpuan pengurusan kes di Lembah Klang lebih menjurus kepada individu kanak-kanak yang menjadi mangsa untuk diselamatkan pada permulaan proses pengendalian kes. Namun, peringkat yang tidak kurang penting adalah proses pengintegrasian semula kanak-kanak dengan komuniti di mana responden di lapangan perlu bekerjasama dengan pengurusan institusi serta komuniti yang diwakili oleh PPKK dan JKKD atau NGO tadi. Ketiga ialah pengetahuan responden memahami undang-undang, polisi, prosedur dan konteks organisasi praktis. Ini selaras dengan domain yang dibincangkan iaitu peraturan prosedur piawaian kebangsaan, kod etika pekerja sosial serta perundangan dan dasar. Majoriti responden berpendapat adanya Manual Kualiti ISO dan SOP membantu dalam pengurusan kes. Meskipun begitu, sikap profesional dan rasional dalam membuat keputusan berdasarkan keunikan kes masih menjadi pegangan pekerja kes kanak-kanak. Peringkat-peringkat dalam pengurusan kes berdasarkan praktis kerja sosial adalah penting dan signifikan kepada kanak-kanak. Ketelitian seseorang responden dalam tugas yang dipertanggungjawabkan untuk memastikan kanak-kanak diberikan pembelaan sewajarnya adalah sangat mencabar. Kepentingan pengetahuan dalam pengurusan kes © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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kanak-kanak memastikan proses pengurusan kes dilaksanakan dengan efektif. Domain-domain pengetahuan yang digariskan merupakan tonggak kepada bagaimana responden berhadapan dengan klien terutamanya kanak-kanak dan keluarga. Penilaian terhadap kompetensi seseorang responden juga boleh dilihat dalam lapan domain yang muncul dalam FGD. Selain itu, matlamat bagi memastikan prestasi pengurusan kes dilaksanakan dengan berkesan amat penting dalam sesebuah organisasi dengan melihat kepada keupayaan dan kebolehan pekerja kes. Kajian mendapati melalui FGD yang dijalankan tiada model yang khusus digunakan mengukur dan menilai keberkesanan pengurusan kes untuk memastikan keberkesanan pengendalian dan pengurusan kes kanak-kanak. Oleh yang demikian, pengkaji menganalisis berdasarkan perspektif yang dikemukakan dalam Model Prestasi Kerja Efektif Boyatzis (2008) kerana ianya dilihat memenuhi keperluan proses yang dilaksanakan oleh responden. Persekitaran organisasi, tuntutan kerja dan individu menjadi faktor penting kejayaan dan keberkesanan perkhidmatan. JKM telah memperkenalkan pengurusan kualiti berdasarkan ISO 9000 dan sebagai pelengkap akan mempunyai piawaian kompetensi praktis kerja sosial kebangsaan. Perkembangan ini dilihat amat positif dalam konteks persekitaran organisasi. Namun begitu, faktor kebolehan dan keupayaan pekerja kes sebagai individu penting dalam organisasi JKM perlu dipertingkatkan pengetahuan dan kemahiran dalam pengurusan kes. Pada masa yang sama, aspek tuntutan kerja yang kritikal melibatkan tugasan, fungsi dan peranan sebagai pelindung atau pegawai akhlak yang memerlukan komitmen tinggi dalam mengendalikan kes kanak-kanak yang amat kompleks, bebanan kes tinggi dan kritikal. Tuntutan kerja yang besar ini memerlukan kerjasama kolaboratif dan pengembelingan sumber secara optima oleh semua pihak dalam dan antara agensi terlibat dengan kanak-kanak. Responden menghadapi pelbagai cabaran dalam mengendalikan kes kanak-kanak. Oleh yang demikian, cadangan yang boleh dipertimbangkan dalam menangani cabaran dan isu dalam pengurusan kes merangkumi aspek-aspek seperti pengkhususan kerja, meningkatkan kursus dan latihan kepada pekerja kes kanak-kanak. Responden mengharapkan supaya ada pengkhususan dalam kerja bagi memastikan responden benarbenar pakar dalam sesuatu kerja. Latihan dalaman secara in situ juga dicadangkan supaya responden yang berpengalaman membimbing secara komprehensif bagaimana melakukan kerja kes di lapangan. Responden yang lebih kanan perlu memberi tunjuk ajar kepada pegawai baru sebelum mereka benar-benar boleh mengendalikan kes itu sendiri. Pegawai lama akan bawa pegawai baru untuk bersama-sama dalam menyiasat kes ke dan sebarang aduan, sehinggalah pihak pegawai lama yakin yang pegawai baru boleh uruskan sendiri. Komitmen dan tanggungjawab sebagai responden yang sukar dan mencabar ini memerlukan seseorang responden kepada sokongan rakan sekerja dan keluarga. Tanpa sokongan rakan dan keluarga responden menjadi tertekan dan sukar membuat keputusan dalam kerja yang dilakukan. Responden akan bertambah stress sebab bila bebanan tugas datang, sukar untuk dikendalikan berseorangan dan mereka memerlukan sokongan organisasi dan rakan sepasukan.

KESIMPULAN Dapatan kajian ini mencadangkan supaya pengurusan kes kanak-kanak dilaksanakan mengikut pengkhususan kerja dan latihan dalaman kepada pekerja-responden secara in situ(di tempat kerja). Secara amnya, kekuatan responden dalam memahami falsafah pengurusan kes, pengetahuan pengurusan kes, peraturan prosedur sepertimana SOP, amalan kod etika yang, mengambilkira aspek budaya dalam praktis serta mempraktikkan pengurusan kes berdasarkan kerangka dan dasar sedia ada akan dapat meningkatkan keberkesanan pengurusan kes kanak-kanak di Negara ini. Kajian ini juga menunjukkan meskipun pelbagai rintangan yang dihadapi oleh pekerja kes diantaranya tiada pengkhususan kerja, tiada modul pemulihan di institusi, bebanan tugas dan tekanan dengan tuntutan pelanggan yang semakin celik undang-undang, namun begitu dengan sokongan rakan dan organisasi dipercayai dapat mengurangkan sedikit bebanan dan tekanan yang ditanggung oleh responden. Yang menarik, aspek pegangan keagaman dan konteks kompetens budaya di kalangan responden ini merupakan satu kekuatan yang perlu diteroka dengan lebih mendalam dan menjadikannya sumbangan penting praktis kerja sosial dan pengurusan kes kepada pengetahuan ilmu.

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299. Lindsey, V. W. (2011). Child Abuse Investigations: How Cps and Law Enforcement Engage in Collaboration. Tesis 3465672, Loma Linda University. Maguire, S. (2008). Bruising as an Indicator of Child Abuse: When Should I Be Concerned? Paediatrics and Child Health, 18(12), 545-549. Munro, E. (1999). Common Errors of Reasoning in Child Protection Work. Child abuse & neglect, 23(8), 745-758. Munro, E. (2010). Learning to Reduce Risk in Child Protection. British Journal of Social Work, 40(4), 1135-1151. Munro, E. & Hubbard, A. (2011). A Systems Approach to Evaluating Organisational Change in Children's Social Care. British Journal of Social Work, 41(4), 726-743. O'connor, L. & Leonard, K. (2013). Decision Making in Children and Families Social Work: The Practitioner's Voice. British Journal of Social Work Rothman, J. (1991). A Model of Case Management: Toward Empirically Based Practice. Social Work, 36(6): 520528. Summers, N. (2012). Fundamentals of Case Management Practice: Skills for the Human Services. Fourth Edition. Cengage Learning. Topuzova, L. N. (2009). Identifying the Knowledge, Skills, and Values Needed to Perform Entry-Level Child Welfare Work in Utah. Tesis 3367843, The University of Utah. UNICEF. (2013). Child Protection from Violence, Exploitation and Abuse http://www.unicef.org/media/ media_45451.html. Vass, A. A. (2004). Social Work Competences Core Knowledge, Values and Skills. SAGE Publications Woodside, M. & Mcclam, T. (2006). Generalist Case Management a Method of Human Service Delivery. Third Edition. Thomson Brooks.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

KECERDASAN SPIRITUAL DALAM KALANGAN REMAJA HAMIL LUAR NIKAH Zarina Mat Saad* & Azlin Hilma Hillaluddin *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Kebanyakan penduduk di Malaysia berpegang kepada sesuatu agama dan mengamalkannya dalam kehidupan seharian. Agama dan spiritual memainkan peranan utama dalam kehidupan dan memandu tingkahlaku mereka agar mencapai kehidupan yang lebih bermakna. Justeru, perhubungan seks luar nikah dilihat sebagai suatu perbuatan yang melanggar ajaran agama dan dipandang negatif. Walau bagaimanapun, pegangan tersebut tidak berjaya menghindarkan remaja daripada terlibat dalam gejala ini. Oleh itu, kajian ini dilakukan bagi mengkaji tahap kecerdasan spiritual dalam kalangan remaja hamil tanpa nikah dan perkaitannya dengan faktor-faktor demografi. Kajian bersifat kuantitatif ini telah menggunakan kaedah tinjauan (survey) melibatkan 101 responden yang ditempatkan di lima buah rumah perlindungan di Malaysia. Hasil kajian dapatan kajian dan implikasi terhadap profesion perbantuan akan dibincangkan dengan terperinci. Keywords: kecerdasan spiritual, remaja hamil tanpa nikah, agama, spiritual

PENGENALAN Masyarakat di Malaysia kebanyakannya berpegang kepada sesuatu agama dan mengamalkannya dalam kehidupan seharian (Haque & Masuan, 2002). Ia memainkan peranan penting di semua peringkat umur (tidak hanya di kalangan warga emas) dalam menangani perubahan dalam hidup dan membantu individu menghadapi kesakitan, kerisauan, dan ketidakupayaan diri (Zarina, Zulkarnain, & Noriah, 2010). Faktor-faktor budaya turut mempengaruhi cara spiritualiti digunakan. Dan kebanyakan bumiputra terutamanya kaum Melayu adalah beragama Islam, manakala, kaum Cina beragama Buddha dan India beragama Hindu. Masyarakat negara ini majoritinya Muslim berpegang kepada ajaran Al-Quran dan mengekspresikan kepercayaan mereka ke dalam kehidupan seharian. Oleh itu, sensitiviti terhadap pengaruh spiritual dan keagamaan tidak boleh dikesampingkan dalam menjalankan penyelidikan khususnya berkaitan tingkahlaku manusia. Hasil kajian-kajian di luar negara juga menunjukkan agama dan spiritual memainkan peranan utama dalam kehidupan manusia (Newport, 2004; ; Stefanek, McDonald, & Hess, 2005; ; Zohar & Marshall, 2005). Misalnya, satu tinjauan telah dilakukan pada 2003 di kalangan rakyat Amerika (iaitu mereka yang berumur 18 tahun ke atas) bagi mendapatkan pandangan mengenai kepentingan agama dalam kehidupan mereka. Majoriti responden mengatakan bahawa agama/spiritual adalah sangat penting dan hampir dua pertiga melaporkan menjadi ahli kepada sesebuah gereja atau tempat ibadat yang lain. Laporan turut menunjukkan bahawa agama dan spiritual menjadi semakin penting terutamanya kepada mereka yang berkulit hitam, berumur lebih tua, tinggal di Selatan Amerika, berpendidikan rendah dan wanita (Newport, 2004). Sungguhpun agama dan spiritual memainkan peranan utama dalam kehidupan kebanyakan masyarakat di Malaysia ( iaitu majoritinya berbangsa Melayu dan beragama Islam), namun masih wujud gejala perlakuan yang melanggar hukum atau peraturan agama seperti melakukan perhubungan seks. Menurut laporan Jabatan Pendaftaran Negara, lebih daripada 214,000 bayi baru lahir di seluruh Malaysia didaftarkan tanpa nama bapa. Dan 17,303 daripadanya adalah bayi yang dilahirkan oleh wanita Melayu (Mohd Azis Ngah, 2010). Menurut Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

undang-undang jenayah di Malaysia (Malaysian Penal Code), melakukan hubungan seksual dengan remaja bawah umur (iaitu mereka yang berumur 16 tahun dan ke bawah) sama ada suka sama suka atau sebaliknya adalah suatu jenayah rogol. Berdasarkan kepada statistik yang dikeluarkan oleh Polis Diraja Malaysia, terdapat 2,419 jenayah seksual atau rogol dilaporkan melibatkan remaja bawah umur pada tahun 2010 (Raja Syahrir Abu Bakar, Marzita Abdullah & Kamil Maslih, 2012). Perlakuan ini bukan sahaja merupakan jenayah, malah, ia dianggap sebagai suatu kesalahan atau dosa besar berdasarkan perspektif agama dan dipandang negatif. Walau bagaimanapun, pegangan tersebut tidak berjaya menghindarkan terutamanya remaja daripada terlibat dalam gejala ini. Kesan daripada tingkah laku terlarang ini, terjadilah gejala-gejala negatif yang lain seperti pembuangan bayi, atau masalah kesihatan dan kesihatan mental seperti kemurungan dan trauma. Kajian-kajian lepas juga telah mendapati kehamilan remaja mempunyai kaitan dengan kemudaratan kesihatan, penyalahgunaan bahan, gangguan kepada pendidikan dan membebankan kewangan kerajaan (Kohn, 2013; Leve, Kerr, & Harold, 2013; Pazol, Warner, Gavin, Callaghan, Spitz, Anderson, Barfield, & Kann, 2011, Khairani Omar, Suriati Hasim, Noor Azimah Muhammad, Aida Jaafar, Syahnaz Mohd Hashim & Harlina Halizah Siraj, 2010). Antara faktor yang menyumbang kepada gejala sosial ini adalah pengaruh rakan sebaya, kurangnya pengetahuan tentang seksualiti, dan kurangnya perhatian daripada ibubapa (Alegre & Benson, 2010; Whitehead, 2009; Zwani & Mngadi, 2004; Maxwell & Chase, 2008). Manakala, faktor yang mampu menghalang remaja daripada membuat keputusan yang kurang tepat dan tingkahlaku negatif adalah mempunyai tahap kecerdasan (iaitu kecerdasan intelektual [IQ], kecerdasan emosi [EQ] dan kecerdasan spiritual [SQ]) yang sewajarnya. Ada sesetengah ahli psikologi berpendapat kecerdasan spiritual adalah kecerdasan yang paling asas dan dipercayai lebih penting daripada semua jenis kecerdasan. Ia memberi makna dan nilai kepada kehidupan manusia. Ia bukan sahaja membantu membuat keputusan yang terbaik dalam aktiviti seharian tetapi lebih kepada makna kehidupan yang lebih luas kepada manusia. Sekiranya IQ membantu seseorang individu melakukan aktiviti seharian dengan bijak, kecerdasan emosi pula memberi mereka perasaan atau emosi tetapi kecerdasan spiritual akan memberi imbangan kepada apa yang dilakukan. Ia turut mewujudkan perasaan ingin tahu tentang makna atau tujuan kehidupan yang mana akhirnya wujud agama. Tetapi, tidak dinafikan bahawa agama turut menjadi sumber kekuatan spiritual kepada seseorang individu. Menurut Emmons (2000) kecerdasan spiritual adalah penyesuaian menggunakan maklumat spiritual bagi mengatasi masalah harian dan mencapai matlamat hidup. Ia merangkumi empat komponen utama iaitu transcendence, mistikal, kemurnian dan daya tindak. Individu yang mempunyai kecerdasan spiritual adalah mereka yang berupaya melihat sesuatu perkara yang berlaku di luar daripada batasan kebiasaan (dirujuk sebagai transcendence) atau melihat sesuatu yang bukan fizikal atau material. Contohnya, mempercayai tentang kewujudan Tuhan walaupun tidak dapat dilihat dengan mata kasar. Komponen kedua ialah seseorang itu berupaya mengalami pengalaman mistik dan menyelaras kehidupan dengan lebih baik. Misalnya, apabila seseorang individu mengerjakan sembahyang, beliau merasai ketenangan atau mendapat jalan bagaimana menyelesaikan masalah yang dihadapi dalam kehidupan harian. Komponen spiritual yang ketiga ialah kemurnian/kesucian. Seseorang itu melihat tugas atau aktiviti harian sebagai suatu suruhan Tuhan dan memberi makna kepada kehidupan. Misalnya, apabila seseorang itu bersukan, wujud rasa bersyukur kerana diberi keupayaan untuk melakukannya dan menikmati suatu kepuasan di atas kurniaanNya. Kebanyakan agama mempunyai konsep ini. Apabila seseorang itu melakukan sebarang aktiviti yang tidak mendatangkan keburukan kepada sesiapapun kerana Tuhan, maka, aktiviti tersebut boleh dianggap sebagai murni atau suci. Ianya tidak hanya terhad kepada amalan-amalan yang dikehendaki oleh sesuatu agama seperti sembahyang, dan berpuasa sahaja. Komponen keempat ialah keupayaan menghadapi masalah dalam kehidupan seharian dengan menggunakan sumber-sumber spiritual. Dengan kata lain, menggunakan sumber-sumber spiritual sebagai daya tindak. Rata-rata dapatan kajian menunjukkan wujud pengaruh spiritual (sama ada dilahirkan atau diperolehi melalui amalan sesuatu agama, kepercayaan atau budaya) ke atas kesihatan fizikal, mental dan kesejahteraan sosial warga emas. Seseorang individu yang mempunyai tahap spiritual yang tinggi dikatakan lebih mempunyai daya ketahanan yang tinggi terhadap perubahan-perubahan dalam kehidupan seperti menghidapi penyakit, kehilangan orang tersayang, atau mengalami kemalangan (Ramsey & Blieszner, 1999; Pargament, Koenig, Tarakeshwar, & Hahn, 2004). Ada juga kajian melaporkan bahawa kecerdasan yang tinggi mampu menampan penyakit mental seperti kemurungan, tekanan serta mampu meningkatkan kesejahteraan sosial seseorang itu (Frazier, Mintz, & Mobley, 2005). Banyak kajian-kajian terdahulu membuktikan keberkesanannya dalam menjalani kehidupan. Individu yang mempunyai kecerdasan spiritual berupaya mencari maklumat, menganalisis masalah yang berlaku, dan mencari tindakan-tindakan yang berkesan. Tindakan-tindakan yang sesuai dipilih dengan mengambil kira kesan-kesan daripada tindakan-tindakan tersebut. Kecerdasan spiritual juga membantu menilai semula dan menyusun keutamaan dalam pencapaian matlamat. 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individu menggunakan spiritual berdasarkan kepada perspektif kecerdasan terutamanya dalam kalangan remaja dalam negara. Oleh itu, kajian ini dilakukan bagi mengkaji tahap kecerdasan spiritual dalam kalangan remaja hamil tanpa nikah dan perkaitannya dengan faktor-faktor demografi.

METOD KAJIAN Kajian ini merupakan sebuah kajian kuantitatif yang menggunakan kaedah tinjauan (survey) sebagai salah satu kaedah untuk mengumpul data. Sejumlah 101 responden dari lima buah rumah perlindungan (iaitu mewakili rumah perlindungan kerajaan dan swasta) seluruh Malaysia telah dipilih untuk menjawab soal selidik di dalam kajian ini. Sembilan buah rumah perlindungan telah dihubungi, hanya lima sahaja yang bersetuju (iaitu 3 kerajaan dan 6 swasta). Kelulusan awal telah diperolehi daripada Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat Malaysia (JKMM) dan rumah perlindungan swasta yang terbabit. Soal selidik kajian adalah terdiri daripada soal selidik piawai dan berbentuk laporan kendiri. Ia merangkumi dua bahagian iaitu Bahagian A berkaitan data demografi dan B berkaitan dengan kecerdasan spiritual (SQ) (Bar-On, 2000; Zarina Mat Saad, 2010). Item-item bagi instrumen ini menggunakan skala likert 5 poin dari 1=sangat tidak setuju hingga 5=sangat setuju. Skor-skor kecerdasan spiritual dibahagikan kepada tiga tahap iaitu tahap rendah, sederhana dan tinggi. Nilai Cronbach alpha adalah .85.

DAPATAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Profil Sosio-Demografi Seramai 101 orang responden terlibat dalam kajian ini yang berumur di antara 14 hingga 25 tahun (min = 18.67) (Rujuk Rajah 1). Sebanyak 36 responden (35.6 %) berumur bawah 18 tahun yang kebanyakannya berumur 16 tahun (n=19). Majoriti daripada mereka adalah beragama Islam (n = 97). Kebanyakan responden merupakan anak pertama (n = 36, 35.6 %). Lima puluh Sembilan responden (58.4 %) adalah pelajar semasa mereka ditempatkan di rumah perlindungan. Kebanyakn ibu bapa mereka (n = 69, 68.3 %) berkahwin, 14 responden mempunyai ibu bapa yang bercerai (13.8 %), manakala 11 responden merupakan anak yatim (10.9 %). Sebelum dimasukkan ke rumah perlindungan, responden melaporkan mereka tinggal bersama ibubapa atau ahli keluarga terdekat (n = 84, 83.2 %). Walau bagaimanapun, seramai tujuh orang responden bahawa mereka tinggal bersama bukan ahli keluarga seperti teman lelaki, kawan, majikan atau tinggal sendiri (Rujuk Jadual 1). Rajah 1 Taburan Responden mengikut Umur

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Jadual 1 - Profil Sosio-Demografi

Maklumat Responden Kedudukan adik-beradik 1 = 36 2 = 17 3 = 23 4 = 10 5=6 6 dan ke atas = 9 Status Pelajar = 59 Bukan pelajar = 42 Agama Islam = 97 Bukan Islam= 4

Maklumat Ibubapa/ Penjaga Status perkahwinan ibubapa Berkahwin = 69 Cerai = 14 Kematian bapa = 9 Kematian ibu = 2 Bapa berkahwin semula = 2 Ibu berkahwin semula = 1 Ibubapa angkat = 3 Tempat tinggal sebelum kemasukan Keluarga = 84 Datuk/ nenek = 5 Keluarga angkat = 4 Tinggal sendiri = 3 Teman lelaki = 2 Kawan = 1 Majikan = 1 Tidak dilaporkan = 1

Pengalaman Seksual dan Kehamilan Data menunjukkan bahawa purata umur ketika kali pertama melakukan hubungan seksual adalah 17.15 tahun (11 – 24 tahun) (Rujuk Rajah 2). Kebanyakan responden melakukannya dengan teman lelaki (n = 77, 76.2 %) berbanding ahli keluarga, kawan, orang yang tidak dikenali, jiran dan tunang. Manakala dari segi kekerapan melakukan seks sebelum disahkan hamil kali pertama, 16 responden (15.8 %) melaporkan bahawa mereka pernah melakukannya sekali; 10 (9.9 %) responden melakukannya dua kali, lapan (17.8 %) responden lebih daripada lima kali dan terdapat responden yang melaporkan lebih daripada 20 kali. Majoriti responden (n =57, 56.4 %) mengatakan bahawa kehamilan mereka adalah disebabkan hubungan seksual yang dipersetujui dan selebihnya (n = 26, 25.7%) adalah secara paksaan atau rogol (Jadual 2). Sebahagian responden pernah mencuba untuk menggurukan kandungan. Maklumat selanjutnya boleh dirujuk di Jadual 2. Rajah 2 Umur Ketika Kali Pertama Melakukan Seks

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Jadual 2 - Pengalaman Seksual dan Kehamilan

Pengalaman Seksual Dengan siapa? Teman lelaki = 77 Ahli keluarga = 4 Kawan = 12 Orang yang tidak dikenali = 6 Jiran = 1 Tunang = 1 Berapa kali anda melakukan seks sebelum hamil kali pertama? Sekali = 16 Dua = 10 Tiga = 7 Empat = 6 Lima = 8 Enam = 1 Lapan = 1 Sepuluh = 8 20 dan lebih = 6 Tidak terkira = 8 Tidak pasti = 30

Pengalaman Kehamilan Kehamilan pertama Ya = 96 Tidak = 5 Sebab kehamilan Persetujuan bersama = 57 Dipaksa = 18 Rogol = 26 Penggunaan kontraseptiks/ pencegahan kehamilan Ya = 22 Tidak = 78 Tidak dilaporkan = 1 Percubaan menggugurkan kandungan Ya = 50 Tidak = 50 Tidak dilaporkan = 1

Jika dilihat kepada profil sosio-demografi responden, ia dapat dirumuskan bahawa majoriti responden terlibat dengan hubungan seksual ketika berada di sekolah menengah dan dua dilaporkan ketika berumur kurang daripada 13 tahun. Ini menunjukkan mereka telah terjebak dengan gejala negatif ini di awal usia. Jika dirujuk kepada kajian-kajian terdahulu, remaja yang berusia muda lebih terdedah kepada risiko keciciran sekolah atau masalah kesihatan kerana tidak mampu berfikir secara matang (Goleman, 1995; National Center for Health Statistics, 2009; Rocca, Doherty, Padian, Hubbard, & Minnis, 2011). Kehamilan yang tidak dirancang selalunya akan membuatkan pelaku cuba menggugurkan kandungan kerana tidak bersedia dari segi mental dan fizikal. Natijahnya mereka berkecenderungan untuk melakukan tingkahlaku yang merosakkan diri sendiri, kurang penjagaan sebelum atau selepas kehamilan dan kemurungan (Phipps & Nunes, 2012).

Tahap Kecerdasan Spiritual Rajah 3 Tahap Kecerdasan Spiritual Responden

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Bagi tahap kecerdasan spiritual pula, secara keseluruhan skor adalah di antara 72 hingga 360 poin. Skor dibahagikan kepada tiga tahap iaitu rendah(72-168 poin), sederhana (169-264) dan tinggi (265-360). Data menunjukkan majoriti responden menyatakan tahap kecerdasan spiritual mereka adalah sederhana (M = 260.59, SD = 27.88). Lebih daripada 85% melaporkan mempunyai tahap kecerdasan sederhana, 7.5 % pada tahap tinggi dan 1.9% pada tahap rendah (Rajah 3).

Perkaitan Antara faktor Demografi dan Kecerdasan Spiritual Perbincangan seterusnya adalah bertujuan untuk menjelaskan hubungan antara kecerdasan spiritual dan faktor-faktor demografi. Hasil daripada analisis secara keseluruhannya mendapati bahawa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan di antara kecerdasan spiritual dan umur, serta umur ketika kali pertama melakukan seks. Terdapat hubungan negatif antara umur dan SQ (r = -.20, p <.01) dan umur ketika kali pertama melakukan seks dan SQ (r = -.23, p < .01). Analisis korelasi ini menunjukkan bahawa disebabkan umur responden yang masih muda, mereka masih perlu mencapai keupayaan untuk berfikir sesuatu yang melampaui batasan fizikal atau kebendaan (transendens); melalui pengalaman mistik dalam keadaan sedar; melakukan aktiviti harian, atau melalui pengalaman-pengalaman dengan penuh kemurnian; serta menggunakan sumber-sumber spiritual sebagai cara menyelesaikan masalah dalam kehidupan seharian. Dapatan kajian yang diperolehi menyokong andaian Teori Kecerdasan Spiritual dan pandangan pakar bidang berkaitan. Kecerdasan Spiritual merupakan suatu lagi jenis kecerdasan yang boleh dipelajari dan dikembangkan apabila meningkat usia (Emmons, 2000; Zohar & Marshall, 2005; Wink & Dillon, 2001). Teori ini mengandaikan bahawa apabila semakin berumur seseorang itu, maka, semakin tinggi kecerdasan yang dipunyai oleh beliau. Laporan kajian Newport (2004) turut membuktikan dapatan yang sama di mana spiritualiti dilihat semakin penting apabila umur semakin meningkat tua. (Emmons, 2000; Zohar & Marshall, 2005;). Jadual 3 - Korelasi Antara SQ, Umur, dan Umur Ketika kali Pertama Melakukan Seks

Variabel SQ

SQ

Umur

Umur Kali Pertama Melakukan Seks

-.200*

Umur

-.233* .800**

Umur Ketika Kali Pertama Melakukan Seks *p <.05; **p < .01

KESIMPULAN Secara kesimpulannya, dapatan kajian mendapati majoriti responden adalah beragama Islam namun mula melakukan hubungan seks semasa peringkat usia sekolah menengah lagi. Sebahagian daripada mereka melaporkan pernah cuba menggugurkan kandungan dan melakukannya dengan persetujuan. Walau bagaimanapun jika dilihat kepada tahap kecerdasan spiritual responden, kebanyakkan didapati berada pada tahap sederhana. Umur (ketika kajian dilakukan) dan umur sewaktu melakukan seks kali pertama mempunyai hubungan negatif dengan SQ. Cadangan intervensi untuk isu kehamilan luar nikah melibatkan enam aspek iaitu sokongan keluarga, keperluan spiritual, keperluan psikososial, keperluan penjagaan kesihatan, pelan untuk diri dan pelan untuk bayi. Pemantapan dari segi kecerdasan spiritual perlu diberi perhatian yang tidak kurang pentingnya kerana ia melibatkan hukum dan peraturan agama yang tidak boleh dianggap awal kepada remaja dan perkara kecil.

RUJUKAN Emmons, R. A. (2000). Spirituality and intelligence: Problems and prospects. The InternationalJo urnal for the Psychology of Religion, 10(1), 57-64. Frazier, C., Mintz, L. B., & Mobley, M. (2005). A multidimensional look at religious involvelement and psychological well-being among urban elderly African American. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(4), 583-590. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books. Haque, A., & Masuan, K. A. (2002). Religious psychology in Malaysia. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 12(4), 277-289. Mohd Azis Ngah. (2010, March 21, 2010). 17,303 anak luar nikah didaftar 2009 [17,303 illegitimate children registered in 2009]. Berita Harian. National Center for Health Statistics. (2009). Births: Preliminary data for 2007. National Vital Statistics Reports, 57(12), 1-23. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Newport, F. (2004). A Look at Americans and religion today. Retrieved December 6, 2006, from http:// speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/godsofbusiness/galluppoll.shtml Raja Syahrir Abu Bakar, Marzita Abdullah & Kamil Maslih, (April 19, 2012). 2,419 kes seksual, rogol, Utusan Malaysia. Retrieved August 20, 2012 from http://www.utusan.com.my/utusan/info. asp?y=2012&dt=0419&pub=Utusan_Malaysia&sec=Dalam_Negeri&pg=dn_04.htm. Ramsey, J. L., & Blieszner, R. (1999). Spiritual resiliency in older women: Model of strenght for challenges through the life span. United States of America: Sage Publications, Inc. Rocca, C. H., Padian, N. S., Hubbard, A. E. & Minnis, A. M. (2010). Pregnancy intentions and teenage pregnancy among Latinas: A mediation analysis. Perspective on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 42(3), 186-196. Stefanek, M., McDonald, P. G., & Hess, S. A. (2005). Religion, spirituality and cancer: Current status and methodological challenges. Psycho-Oncology, 14, 450-463. Wink, P., & Dillon, M. (2001). Religious involvement and health outcomes in late adulthood: Findings from a longitudinal study of women and men. In T. G.Plante & A. C. Sherman (Eds.), Faith and health: Psychological perspectives. New York: The Guilford Press. Zarina, M. S., Zulkarnain, A. H., & Noriah, M. (2010). The impact of spiritual intelligence on the health of the elderly in Malaysia. Asian Social Work and Policy Review, 4, 84-97. Zohar, D., & Marshall, I. (2005). Spiritual capital: Wealth we can live by. London: Bloombury Publishing Plc. Zwane, I.T. & Mngadi, P.T.(2004). Adolescents’ views on decision-making regarding risky sexual behavior. International Nursing Review, 51, 15-22.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

WORKING WITH UNMARRIED PREGNANT YOUNG WOMEN AND TEENAGERS IN MALAYSIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCHERS Azlin Hilma Hillaluddin* & Zarina Mat Saad *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Premarital pregnancy continues to be a social dilemma within the Malaysian society. The increasing statistics of babies being born without a legally registered father’s name presents the legal, health and welfare problems associated with the effects of premarital pregnancy. The need to study this social problem requires not only a receptive understanding of the problem, but also the researcher’s preparation in terms of skills and mental preparedness. The authors conducted a research aimed at understanding premarital pregnancy experiences of those who decided to seek protection in women shelters. A total of 101 young women and teenagers from five women shelters in Malaysia participated in the research. Ethical consideration is highly essential when conducting research with this group of individuals since the focus of such research may at times touch upon sensitive issues or potentially brings up traumatic experience. The focus of this paper is a discussion of the authors’ experience regarding the ethical dilemma and preparation when conducting the research. This paper intends to highlight important issues that may be of guideline to other researchers who wish to conduct similar research with this group of participants. Keywords: premarital pregnancy, teenage pregnancy, social work intervention

INTRODUCTION Teenage pregnancy is a societal concern in many parts of the world. In the United States (US) for example, where pregnancy rates are among the highest when compared with other developed countries, it is estimated that 39.1 babies were born per 1,000 teenage mothers in the year 2009 (Pazol, Warner, Gavin, Callaghan, Spitz, Anderson, Barfield, & Kann, 2011). There were 410,000 girls aged 15–19 years who gave birth in the US that year alone. The rates were higher among minority teenage girls when analysis was done based on ethnicity. The rates for babies born to teen mothers were 59.0 per 1000 births among African American mothers and 70.1 per 1000 births among Hispanic mothers. Pazol and her colleagues (2011) found that among the surveyed teenagers who confessed of having sexual intercourse, almost a third of them reported never having any discussion with their parents regarding sex or contraceptive methods. In Malaysia, the statistics produced by the National Registration Department show that more than 214,000 newborn babies were registered without their father’s name documented between the year 2005 to 2009, which amounted to 83.3 babies being born out of wedlock daily. Of these figures, 17,303 illegitimate babies were born to Malay mothers in the year 2009 itself (Mohd Azis Ngah, 2010). The issue of premarital pregnancy among young people in Malaysia is a distressing moral concern and it demonstrates the legal, health and welfare problems that are associated with this issue. Teenage pregnancy, for example, has been known to be linked to health hazards, substance abuse, missing school, and costs to public money (Kohn, 2013; Leve, Kerr,

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

& Harold, 2013; Pazol, et. al, 2011, Khairani Omar, Suriati Hasim, Noor Azimah Muhammad, Aida Jaafar, Syahnaz Mohd Hashim & Harlina Halizah Siraj, 2010; Kurup, Viegas, Singh, & Ratnam, 1989). Consensual sex may be the common contributing factor but it is also is important to note that sex with a minor (i.e. those aged 16 and below) with or without consent is considered statutory rape under the Malaysian Penal Code. The statistics released by the Royal Malaysia Police show that there were 2,419 sexual crimes or rape cases involving girls aged 16 and below in the year 2011, which showed an increment as compared to 1,777 similar cases reported in the year 2010 (Raja Syahrir Abu Bakar, Marzita Abdullah & Kamil Maslih, 2012). Immaturity of young girls has been associated with the risk of teenage pregnancy, making them a vulnerable population (Beauchamp and Childress, 2009). It is common in Malaysia that women shelters which accommodate pregnant unmarried young mothers are seen as places to rehabilitate those who have “committed sins”, including the (mis)perception that these places are punishment or correctional facilities. While private shelters are typically run by private or nongovernment organizations, there are also residential care facilities for pregnant youth run by the government. The Taman Seri Puteri (TSP) is such facility with a mission ‘To rehabilitate women and girls who are exposed to moral danger or facing moral decay’ (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, 2013). The TSP offers vocational classes (e.g sewing, gardening, handicraft), religious classes, recreation activities, job placement, counselling, and voluntary work (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, 2013; Saim, Dufaker, Eriksson, & Ghazinour, 2013). The rules and regulations may vary from one shelter to another, including the types of activities and services provided. While the government run shelters may have a more prescribed administrative structure that includes social workers and counselors, private shelters may be administered by the owner, administrative staff and / or volunteers. These shelters are usually funded by monthly fees paid by the residents (or their families) or by donations received from the public. Although a few published research has been conducted with pregnant teens in Malaysia (for examples, see Saim, Dufaker, Eriksson, & Ghazinour, 2013; Khairani Omar, Suriati Hasim, Noor Azimah Muhammad, Aida Jaafar, Syahnaz Mohd Hashim & Harlina Halizah Siraj. 2010; Salamatussaadah Abd. Ghadur, & Nor Ba’yah Abdul Kadir, 2009), there was a need to explore this issue further by exploring the young mothers’ knowledge of sexuality and birth control, exploring their plans after leaving the shelter, and comparing the experience of those who became pregnant by force (i.e. rape) or by consensual sex. More research is needed in this area which could potentially influence intervention strategies and evident-based policies that are aimed at preventing adolescent pregnancy. Therefore, we conducted a research that employed a mixed methods approach utilizing quantitative and qualitative data collection methods to understand the experience of pregnant young mothers who are seeking protection in women shelters across the country. While the findings of the research suggest the effects of peer influence, knowledge of sexuality and pregnancy prevention efforts, emotional intelligence and spiritual intelligence on pregnancy experience, the focus of this paper is on the researchers’ experience of conducting research and working with these young people, and the issues that need to be taken into consideration

METHODS This research project was funded by the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) from the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia. One hundred and one participants were recruited from five shelters across Malaysia, who were unmarried pregnant teenagers or young women in two types of settings (i.e., government and private shelters respectively). Three government funded shelters and six private shelters were initially contacted. While approval was received for all the government shelters, only two private shelters agreed to participate in the study. Three of these shelters reported that at the time they were contacted, they did not have any admission of pregnant young mothers due to maintenance services of their building, relocation or coincidently no current admission at the time. Another private shelter initially agreed to participate but later withdrew their approval through email without giving any reasons. The approval to conduct research was sought from the private shelters and Department of Social Welfare Malaysia (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat Malaysia or JKMM) headquarters in Putrajaya. Prospective participants were approached for their consent to be included in the research. The research only commenced once approval and consents were obtained from all parties involved. Although some shelters also provide services to teenagers and young women who are not pregnant but seeking protection due to various reasons, only those who were pregnant and unmarried were selected and completed the questionnaire. The age range of the participants involved in the research was 14 to 25 years (see Figure 1). There were also older pregnant women who sought shelter, with the oldest being 37 years old. However, we decided that 25 is the appropriate cut-off point for age selection as this age range is the commonly accepted age for being categorized as © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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young mothers (Friel, Brereton, & O’Carolan, 2012; Gruber, 2012; Keys, 2008). All 101 participants completed self-administered sets of questionnaires which included the constructs of peer pressure, parenting styles, emotional intelligence and spiritual intelligence. Eighteen participants were then selected to participate in the semi-structured interviews. The selection of interviewees was done until saturation was reached. A semistructured interview schedule was used to explore their perception and knowledge of sexuality, pregnancy prevention, and, their plans and arrangement after leaving the shelters, including the care of their soon-to-beborn babies. The demographic profiles of the participants are presented in Table 1. Figure 1 - Age of Participants

Table 1 - Demographic profiles of participants

Participants’ Information Birth position in family 1 = 36 2 = 17 3 = 23 4 = 10 5=6 6 and above = 9 Status Students = 59 Non-students = 42 Religion Muslims = 97 Non Muslims = 4

Pregnancy Information First pregnancy Yes = 96 No = 5 Cause of pregnancy Consensual = 57 Forced sexual initiation = 18 Rape = 26 Who did you have sex with? Boyfriend = 77 Family member = 4 Friend = 12 Stranger = 6 Neighbour = 1 Fiancée = 1

CONSIDERATIONS WHEN WORKING WITH PREGNANT YOUNG PEOPLE Ethical considerations such as managing the issue of potential vulnerability are relevant when working with pregnant young people. Vulnerable participants indicate the likelihood that they be exposed to coercion or unwarranted influence when seeking consent to participate in a research (Reel, 2011). Being unmarried and pregnant mothers-to-be may subject these young people to feeling confused and easily manipulated by researchers. In our research, for instance, we found that many participants reported feeling shocked and disbelief when they first found out about their pregnancy. Many were still trying to adjust to their new condition and accept what had happened to them. Therefore, it is important that researchers put respect © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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and the best interest of potential participants first before thinking about the need for data collection. As researchers, we paid particular attention to avoid unnecessary exposing our participants to risk or distress and no deception was used in our research. All participation in the research was voluntary. We respect that the participants had the right to privacy and confidentiality (Monette, Sullivan, & DeJong, 2011).

Rapport Building Necessities Since the issue being addressed by the research involved potentially sensitive and/or traumatic experience, special care was taken into consideration by the researchers before embarking on and during data collection. Rapport building was crucial before we began with data collection. We introduced ourselves as researchers and lecturers from Universiti Utara Malaysia and explained the purpose of our research. We clarified that confidentiality was extremely important in the research. Therefore, no identifying information of the participants would be revealed and we explained that the participants may opt to withdraw at any time during data collection without any penalty (Monette, Sullivan, & DeJong, 2011). Although we introduced ourselves as lecturers, addressing ourselves as “Kak” (literally meaning older sister) helped in engaging with the participants as it broke the formality barrier. Asking non-threatening rapport questions such as asking for participants’ names, family background and interests was useful to engage them in the study. Initial engagement though group work was found useful as a rapport building approach, whereby the participants were gathered in a group and the researchers acted as moderators. During group work, ice-breaking activities through games, written exercises and drawings were utilized. This method appeared to be less intimidating than direct one-to-one approach during first encounter and helped to encourage the participants to open up later on. Group work was utilized before and after data collection.

Informed Consent Royse (1999) outlined four general guidelines when working with human participants. These include ensuring participants voluntarily agree to participate, explaining to participants information about the research including potential risks or discomfort, ensuring no harm as a consequence of participation, and finally protecting sensitive information. As explained earlier, our participants were briefed of the purpose of the research and our assurance of maintaining the confidentiality of their identity. Each participant was given a research information sheet which also contained our contact information. They were then asked to sign an informed consent sheet should they agree to participate in the research. It is important to note that no forms of coercion were inflicted upon the teenagers and young women to become our participants. Those who opted not to participate may join the ice breaking activities but were not given the questionnaires or selected as interviewee. Those who were selected for the qualitative interview session were personally asked for their consent and explained that the interview would be voice recorded. They were shown the questions in the interview schedule to help them decide if they would agree to be interviewed. Most of the participants approached did not present with reluctance to participate. Nevertheless, during one of the interview sessions with the participants for the qualitative study, a 16-year-old girl initially agreed to participate. However, she then requested that the interview not be recorded and withdrew her approval. Nonetheless, she later decided to disclose her story to the researcher and became very emotional during her disclosure. The researcher presented with empathy while listening to her story and had to conduct a mini counselling session with her to calm her down and ensured that she left the room without distress (or with minimal distress). Although her story was of worthy of assessment for the research, it was decided that this case would not be included in the study following her request.

Debriefing Sessions As part of ethical considerations too, we also conducted debriefing sessions and mini-counselling with the participants after data collection was completed, particularly to increase their hopes and motivation, and to check for any possible distress following data collection procedure. The debriefing sessions were particularly performed following the qualitative interview since very personal and confidential information were obtained during disclosure. The sessions were typically done off-record (i.e., after the voice recorder was shut off ) so that the participants could feel relaxed and become more calm. The focus of the debriefing sessions was upon checking on the participants’ psychological and emotional states following the interview. We would also like to highlight that as part of the ethics of being Muslims when dealing with social problem, the researchers faced the dilemma of checking whether the young mothers (i.e. only those who were Muslims) understand what is considered acceptable behaviour within the religion, the issue of repentance, and God’s forgiveness and mercifulness. The participants were merely given the opportunity to reflect on themselves and their experience, and were not in any way judged for their behaviour or forced to follow the researchers’ recommendations. Deliberations were done on this issue before we began with data collection. Furthermore, © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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during data collection, many participants highlighted the issue of not committing more sins when disclosing why they decided to keep the baby. As premarital sex is a frown upon behaviour and being in a highly spiritual society, it was decided that spiritual issue is a matter that could help the participants deal with problems and ensure their survival. Thus, this act was considered culturally expected in a collective Muslim society like Malaysia and not done to impose the researchers’ personal values upon the participants. In addition, debriefing sessions were slightly different and more important for participants who became pregnant due to rape rather than consensual sex. These participants were typically victims of unwanted sexual intercourse and may experience a greater level of trauma. Hence, the focus of our debriefing sessions with them was more towards processing their feelings about the incident and exploring healthy coping style. Any participants who were potentially distressed were also told to regularly contact the shelters’ counsellors or staff for support.

Working in a Team Another important matter that the researchers discovered in the course of conducting this research was working in a supportive and competent team. Working in controversial issues in society like being pregnant, young and unmarried, the participants may not be the only ones who could potentially be exposed to distress during the research. Researchers who do not receive support from a team could also experience psychological and physiological distress during data collection and analyses. Detailed and rich information from the research such as participants’ emotional reactions, details of unpleasant experience such as rape or incest, and conflicting personal values between a participant and the researcher could potentially affect the researcher psychologically and emotionally. In addition, the researcher must also always be aware of transference or counter-transference issues when working with the participants. Transference refers to the unrealistic perceptions of and reactions to someone that are rooted in similar past experiences with others, while counter-transference refers to the unconscious defensive patterns as a response to transference (Hepworth, Rooney, & Larsen, 1997). Therefore, processing information with a competent research partner or team before and after data collection is essential to obtain support, reflection and feedback.

CONCLUSION Since this research relied heavily on self disclosure of the participants, presenting ourselves as non-threatening and non-judgemental to the participants was required to ensure that the participants felt at ease and willing to cooperate further. We found that having an understanding of premarital pregnancy issues (such as participants’ biopsychosocial development, feelings, and causes of pregnancy) and preparing ourselves mentally before meeting the participants help to better engage with the young people during data collection. We suggest that future research with similar participants or other vulnerable populations take into great consideration the approach to be taken and the ethical issues involved. Although the main focus of a research is mainly to obtain sound data, researchers must also take into account the welfare of the participants-to-be by ensuring that no harm or distress will be imposed upon the participants as a result of participating in the research.

REFERENCES Beauchamp, T.L. & Childress, J.F. (2009). Principles of biomedical ethics. 6th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Friel, T., Brereton, G., & O’Carolan, N. O. (2012). Working with young parents. Retrieved December 20, 2012 from http://www.youth.ie/sites/youth.ie/files/Chapter%209%20-%20working%20with%20young%20 parents%20-%20all%20Ireland_1.pd Gruber, K. J. (2012). A comparative assessment of early adult life status of graduates of the North Carolina adolescent parenting program. Journal of Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 25(2), 75-83. Hepworth, D. H., Rooney, R. H., & Larsen, J. A. (1997). Direct social work practice: Theory and skills, 5th ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, (2013). Welfare institution. Retrieved August 20, 2013 from http://www.jkm. gov.my/. Keys, D. (2008) Optimizing wellbeing: Young mothers’ participation in parents’ groups, Key Centre for Women’s Health in Society, School of Population Health, University of Melbourne: Melbourne, Victoria. Khairani Omar, Suriati Hasim, Noor Azimah Muhammad, Aida Jaafar, Syahnaz Mohd Hashim & Harlina Halizah Siraj. (2010). Adolescent pregnancy outcomes and risk factors in Malaysia. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 111(3), 220-223. Kohn, J. E. (2013). Loosely evidence-based: The role of research in U.S. teen pregnancy policy. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 73(10-A)(E). © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Kurup, A., Viegas, O., Singh, K., & Ratnam, S. S. (1989). Pregnancy outcome in unmarried teenage nulligravidae in Singapore. International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 30, 301-311. Leve, L. D. Kerr, D. C., & Harold, G.T. Young adult outcomes associated with teen pregnancy among high-risk girls in a randomized controlled trial of multidimensional treatment foster care. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse. 22(5), 421-434. Mohd Azis Ngah. (2010, March 21, 2010). 17,303 anak luar nikah didaftar 2009 [17,303 illegitimate children registered in 2009]. Berita Harian. Monette, D. R., Sullivan, T. J., & DeJong, C. R. (2011). Applied social research: A tool for the human services, International Edition, 8th ed. USA: Brooks/Cole. Pazol, K., Warner, L., Gavin, L., Callaghan, W. M., Spitz, A. M., Anderson, J. E., Barfield, W. D., & Kann, L. (2011). Vital Signs: Teen Pregnancy — United States, 1991–2009. MMWR: Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Report, 60 (13), p414-420. Raja Syahrir Abu Bakar, Marzita Abdullah & Kamil Maslih, (April 19, 2012). 2,419 kes seksual, rogol, Utusan Malaysia. Retrieved August 20, 2012 from http://www.utusan.com.my/utusan/info. asp?y=2012&dt=0419&pub=Utusan_Malaysia&sec=Dalam_Negeri&pg=dn_04.htm. Reel, K. (2011). Clinical considerations for allied professionals on research ethics - Vulnerable research participant populations: Ensuring ethical recruitment and enrolment, Heart Rhythm, 8 (6), 947 – 950. Royse, D. (1999). Research methods in social work. 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Saim, N., Dufåker, M., Eriksson, M., & Ghazinour, M. (2013). Listen to the voices of unwed teenage mothers in Malaysian shelter homes: An explorative study. Global Journal of Health Science, 5(5), 20-30 Salamatussaadah Abd. Ghadur, & Nor Ba’yah Abdul Kadir. (2009). Hubungan romantik dan remaja hamil luar nikah di pusat pemulihan [Romantic relationships and unwed pregnant adolescents residing at rehabilitation centre]. e-BANGI Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 4(1): 106-113.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PERSEPSI REMAJA PEREMPUAN TERHADAP PROGRAM KAUNSELING: SATU KAJIAN DI PUSAT PERLINDUNGAN DAN PEMULIHAN Abdul Razak Abd Manaf*, Rusimah Sayuti, Zakiyah Jamaluddin & Noor Azizah Ahmad *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstrak Kertas kerja ini memberi tumpuan kepada penelitian terhadap program kaunseling yang disediakan di salah sebuah pusat perlindungan di Malaysia. Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk meneliti persepsi responden terhadap program dan aktiviti kaunseling yang dilaksanakan oleh institusi berkenaan. Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah tinjauan dan temubual yang melibatkan 99 orang penghuni perempuan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa lebih separuh daripada responden penghuni mempunyai persepsi yang sederhana terhadap khidmat kaunseling. Kajian ini juga mencadangkan beberapa penambahbaikan dan pemerkasaan dalam program dan aktiviti kaunseling yang dilaksanakan bagi memenuhi keperluan serta kebaikan kepada para penghuni. Kata Kunci: remaja, perlindungan, pemulihan, institusi, Malaysia

PENGENALAN Banyak kajian luar negara berkaitan pusat penjagaan, perlindungan dan pemulihan kanak-kanak dan remaja (McBeath, B., Collins-Camargo, C., Chuang, E., Wells, R., Bunger, A.C., Jolles, M. P. (2014); De Swart, J.J.W., Van den Broek, H., Stams, G.J.J.M., Asscher, J.J., Van der Laan, P.H., Holsbrink-Engels, G.A., G.H.P. Van der Helm, G.H.P. (2012); Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. & Browne, K. (2012). Sebagai contohnya, kajian Buys, Tilbury, Creed & Crawford, (2011) mengupas beberapa isu psikososial, vokasional dan ekonomi yang mempunyai impak besar kepada remaja yang berada di bawah penjagaan institusi. Antara isu yang unik termasuklah ketidakstabilan penempatan, pengalaman di bawah penjagaan yang negatif, perancangan pendidikan yang rendah, persepsi dan stigma yang negatif terhadap mereka, kurang bantuan daripada pekerja kes, dan pelaksanaan perancangan sokongan pendidikan yang lemah. Lewis (2011) merumuskan bahawa terdapat ramai kanak-kanak menjalani kaunseling atau terapi semasa berada di pusat penjagaan yang dikendalikan oleh kakitangan di mana mereka berharap agar usaha tersebut dapat meminimumkan masalah tingkah laku kanak-kanak. Ia juga bertujuan untuk memperbaiki masalah, membantu mereka yang mempunyai maklumat yang sedikit tentang emosi dan juga meminimumkan percanggahan maklumat mengenai pusat penjagaan. Tanpa adanya panduan yang mencukupi, remaja mungkin merasa kecewa dan putus asa semasa proses terapi dijalankan. Ini akan menyukarkan proses transformasi kerana mungkin kanak-kanak akan menjadi semakin pasif. Jaffee, Wolfe dan Wilson (1990) pula menyatakan bahawa kaunseling adalah program yang paling disyorkan untuk kanak-kanak di mana ia dapat mengajar dan memperkukuhkan tingkah laku serta membentuk kemahiran baru. Dalam hal ini, aktiviti-aktiviti yang dijalankan di institusi perlindungan memberi peluang untuk mendapat bimbingan tidak rasmi dan pembentukan role model semasa interaksi di antara kakitangan atau orang dewasa dengan kanak-kanak.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Secara tidak langsung kanak-kanak ini akan mendapat perhatian yang positif daripada golongan dewasa dan berpeluang berinteraksi secara positif dengan golongan dewasa (Stephens, McDonald dan Jouriles, 2000). Ringkasnya, banyak kajian berkaitan keperluan perkhidmatan bimbingan dan kaunseling terhadap pelajar di Malaysia telah dilakukan (Sapora Sipon, 2002). Namun demikian, kajian perkhidmatan kaunseling di pusatpusat perlindungan dan pemulihan di negara ini yang diterbitkan adalah terbatas berbanding dengan kajian yang dilaksanakan di luar negara.

KAUNSELING DAN REMAJA BERMASALAH Kanak-kanak dan remaja yang berada di institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan lazimnya mempunyai pelbagai masalah seperti tingkahlaku tidak terkawal, mangsa penderaan dan kehamilan luar nikah. Sehubungan dengan ini, pelbagai usaha, pendekatan dan strategi digunakan bagi menangani permasalahan mereka. Menurut Admire dan Byers (1981) kaunseling adalah salah satu aktiviti yang penting dalam menghadapi masalah kehamilan remaja. Menurut mereka, tanpa kaunseling banyak sumber penting yang lain tidak dapat diterokai. Biasanya, proses kaunseling merangkumi empat fasa reaksi remaja ketika hamil iaitu shock, exploration, working through dan resolution. Reaksi ini adalah penting kerana dapat menentukan proses kaunseling yang berkesan. Selain itu, layanan yang baik oleh staf juga boleh menyumbang kepada proses kaunseling yang berkesan. Remaja akan merasa mereka tidak diperlukan oleh keluarga sedangkan mereka sebenarnya memerlukan sokongan keluarga. Staf di institusi boleh memainkan peranan sebagai ibu dalam membantu remaja hamil, mereka boleh mendengar masalah dan luahan perasaan remaja hamil yang bimbang ibu mereka akan meminggirkan mereka disebabkan oleh kekecewaan dan kemarahan. Remaja hamil yang sentiasa berjumpa staf atau kakitangan di institusi yang juga bertindak sebagai kaunselor semasa proses rawatan akan membina proses kepercayaan dan hubungan yang produktif. Kaunselor pula pada mas ayang sama akan memberi maklumat dan sumber-sumber yang berkaitan kepada remaja hamil tentang keperluan pendidikan keibubapaan. Hubungan yang baik dan berpanjangan dengan kaunselor dapat membantu menyelesaikan masalah dengan mudah. Contohnya, apabila remaja menghadapi konflik dengan ibunya berhubung dengan penjagaan bayi yang betul, remaja akan merujuk kepada kaunselor untuk bantuan. Kaunseling komprehensif, sistem pendidikan yang fleksibel, dan sokongan keluarga membantu remaja hamil bersikap positif pada awal kehamilan. Dalam kes ini, risiko sosial “kanak-kanak mempunyai anak” dan kecenderungan untuk menggugurkan kandungan telah dapat dielakkan. Bayi yang sihat dan selamat juga dilahirkan dalam persekitaran yang stabil. Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Foster dan Miller (1980) mendedahkan bahawa kaunselor adalah diperlukan untuk membantu remaja perempuan bermula daripada mereka hamil dan selepas melahirkan bayi. Kaunselor memainkan peranan penting sebagai pemberi sokongan, idola yang dapat memudahcara dan meningkatkan kepercayaan remaja. Oleh itu, kaunselor perlu bersikap adil dan peka terhadap semua alternatif dan sumber bagi membantu remaja berhadapan dengan masalah kehamilan. Committee on Adolescence (1989) pula menjelaskan remaja yang hamil harus dirujuk kepada pakar perubatan atau kaunselor yang berpengetahuan dan berpengalaman untuk menguruskan masalah dan mengenal pasti pilihan yang akan diambil oleh mereka. Burnett (2002) membincangkan tentang masalah remaja hamil dan berpandangan perhatian lebih perlu diberikan kepada aspek program-program pencegahan remaja hamil. Ini kerana situasi ini boleh membawa kepada berlakunya masalah-masalah sosial lain, masalah pengangguran, masalah-masalah bayi yang lain seperti kekurangan zat makanan dan masalah kecacatan bayi, dan juga masalah kemiskinan dalam kalangan ibu muda. Beliau juga merujuk kepada kesimpulan kajian yang dibuat oleh Robin Hood Foundation yang mendapati punca utama masalah-masalah sosial seperti kebajikan, pengangguran, keciciran sekolah dan jenayah adalah kerana faktor hamil pada usia muda. Azizi dan Jesmin (2008) menyatakan bahawa kaunselor seharusnya memiliki ilmu pengetahuan bagi memastikan mereka sentiasa berjaya dan maju ke hadapan terutama dalam tanggungjawab mereka mendidik anak buah di bawah jagaan mereka. Kaunselor perlu membina hubungan yang mesra dengan penghuni agar dapat menangani masalah penghuni yang pelbagai. Kaunselor yang ditugaskan perlulah berpotensi dan berupaya untuk menangani profil penghuni yang berbeza. Dalam hal ini, jiwa yang kosong menggambarkan penghuni tidak mempunyai matlamat hidup yang jelas. Untuk tujuan ini, setiap kaunselor perlu mempunyai pengetahuan asas berkaitan kaunseling dan dapat mengubah suai ilmu yang didapati dengan keadaan tempat yang ditugaskan. Pihak yang bertanggungjawab merancang program tersebut perlu mengenal pasti dan memperbaiki serta meningkatkan kaedah dan pelaksanaan oleh kaunselor dalam sesi kaunseling.

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METOD Seramai 99 orang responden penghuni dipilih menjadi sampel kajian, berdasarkan kaedah purposif. Kesemua mereka diberikan borang soal selidik untuk pengumpulan data. Data dianalisis menggunakan kaedah SPSSPC (Statistical Package for Social Science) versi 17. Maklumat dan data yang diperolehi dianalisis dengan menggunakan kaedah analisis statistik deskriptif yang melibatkan penganalisisan menggunakan frekuensi dan peratusan, jadual silang (cross tab) dan min, serta korelasi Pearson.

HASIL KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Profil Responden Kajian ini mendapati majoriti responden penghuni iaitu 97 orang masih bujang, majoriti beragama Islam iaitu 94 orang. Secara purata berumur 16 tahun, 55 orang sudah tidak bersekolah, dan 48 orang responden penghuni pernah bekerja sebelum memasuki ke institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan. Manakala dari segi faktor kemasukan responden penghuni ke institusi berkenaan, 54 orang adalah disebabkan tingkah laku tidak terkawal, 18 orang mengandung, 15 orang responden penghuni lari dari rumah dan empat orang lagi disebabkan kes rogol. Didapati juga majoriti responden penghuni iaitu 74 orang tinggal bersama ibu bapa kandung sebelum dimasukkan ke institusi ini. Dapatan kajian yang sama ditunjukkan oleh kajian Tan Pei Sun, Su Xu Vin, Kevin Tan Teck Meng, Hizlinda Tohid, Noor Azimah Muhammad & Khairani Omar. (2012) yang mendapati bahawa 92% penghuni remaja yang tinggal di salah sebuah institusi perlindungan kanak-kanak oleh agensi kerajaan adalah bujang, berumur di antara 16-19 tahun (73%), dan 69.3% sudah tidak bersekolah. Faktor kemasukan ke institusi pula adalah disebabkan terlibat dalam hubungan seksual secara sukarela (63%), dipaksa oleh teman lelaki (18.5%) dan dirogol (11.5%). Sementara itu, dapatan kajian Salma Ishak, Fuziah Shafiee, Noor Azizah Ahmad & Jusmawati Fauzaman. (2005) tentang institusi perlindungan kanak-kanak yang menemubual 513 orang kanak-kanak juga menunjukkan majoriti penghuni (70.0%) adalah berbangsa Melayu, 23.4% berbangsa India dan 5.8% berbangsa Cina. Dapatan kajian ini juga adalah selari dengan kajian Kurtz, Javis dan Kutrz (1991) yang mendapati bahawa purata umur mereka yang lari dari rumah dan bergelandangan (homeless) adalah dalam lingkungan 15.8 tahun. Selain itu, didapati juga mereka kerap ponteng sekolah dan mempunyai prestasi akademik yang rendah. Kajian oleh Manlove, J., & Terry-Human, E., Mincieli, L., & Moore, K. (2008) serta Perper, Peterson dan Manlove (2011) juga mendapati bahawa remaja yang hamil luar nikah kurang menamatkan pelajaran di peringkat yang tinggi, mempunyai pencapaian akademik yang rendah, keciciran dalam pelajaran dan cenderung melahirkan anak di usia remaja. Berdasarkan peraturan yang telah ditetapkan di Malaysia, kanak-kanak atau remaja yang hamil tidak dibenarkan untuk meneruskan persekolahan mereka di sekolah kerajaan. Ini adalah berlainan dengan kajian Bhana, D., Morrell, R., Shefer, T., & Ngabaza, S. (2010) yang mendapati bahawa remaja hamil di Afrika Selatan dibenarkan bersekolah berasaskan peraturan yang dibenarkan di dalam Akta Sekolah. Polisi ini membenarkan remaja hamil terus bersekolah, dan membenarkan mereka masuk semula ke sekolah selepas melahirkan anak. Kajian Grant dan Hallman (2006) menunjukkan bahawa dengan membenarkan golongan remaja ini terus bersekolah dan bersekolah semula selepas melahirkan anak, ia bukan sahaja dapat melambatkan kehamilan seterusnya, bahkan juga dapat meningkatkan peluang untuk meningkatkan taraf ekonomi. Manakala kajian Kaufman, de Wet dan Stadler (2001) dan McLeod (2001) mendapati bahawa remaja yang terus bersekolah mempunyai hubungan positif dengan produktiviti ekonomi, peningkatan pendapatan dan peningkatan status sosial serta kesihatan. Sementara itu, kajian Jewkes, Morrell dan Christofides (2009) mendapati bahawa antara tahun 2002 dan 2006, dianggarkan di antara 66,000 hingga 86,000 remaja perempuan melaporkan bahawa kehamilan adalah alasan utama yang mengganggu persekolahan mereka. Kajian Grant dan Hallman (2006) menunjukkan bahawa 29% remaja yang berumur di antara 14-19 tahun yang tercicir dalam persekolahan akibat kehamilan, akan masuk semula ke sekolah pada usia 20 tahun dan dari jumlah tersebut 34 peratus berjaya menghabiskan persekolahan mereka.

Khidmat Kaunseling Jadual 1 menerangkan tahap persetujuan responden penghuni terhadap khidmat kaunseling berdasarkan nilai min dan sisihan piawai. Nilai minimum iaitu 1 menggambarkan ketidaksetujuan responden penghuni terhadap khidmat kaunseling. Nilai maksimum iaitu 5 menggambarkan persetujuan responden penghuni terhadap khidmat kaunseling. Berdasarkan nilai min, item pegawai psikologi membantu menyelesaikan masalah merupakan item yang paling tinggi menyumbang kepada tahap persetujuan responden penghuni

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dengan nilai min 3.6263. Tiada item dengan nilai min di bawah 3.00 yang menggambarkan ketidaksetujuan responden penghuni terhadap khidmat kaunseling. Manakala nilai min item-item lain menggambarkan ratarata responden penghuni bersetuju terhadap khidmat kaunseling. Jadual 1 - Nilai Min dan Sisihan Piawai Item Persepsi Responden Penghuni Terhadap Khidmat Kaunseling

Item Khidmat Kaunseling

Min

Median

Sisihan Piawai

Minimum

Maksimum

Berjumpa pegawai psikologi sesuatu yang menyenangkan

3.4242

3.0000

0.96986

1.00

5.00

Lebih suka berjumpa pegawai psikologi secara bersendirian

3.5960

4.0000

1.15103

1.00

5.00

Pegawai psikologi menggalakkan mengikuti sesi rawatan bersama keluarga

3.3131

3.0000

1.01666

1.00

5.00

Pegawai psikologi memberi bimbingan sebagai persediaan untuk keluar TSP

3.5354

4.0000

1.01331

1.00

5.00

Pegawai psikologi membantu menyelesaikan masalah

3.6263

4.0000

1.02605

1.00

5.00

Berdasarkan Rajah 1 pula, seramai 35 orang responden penghuni mempunyai tahap persetujuan tinggi terhadap khidmat kaunseling. Manakala 58 orang responden penghuni menunjukkan tahap persetujuan yang sederhana. Hanya enam orang responden penghuni mempunyai persetujuan yang rendah terhadap khidmat kaunseling di institusi ini. Ini berbeza dengan kajian-kajian lepas yang menunjukkan tahap persetujuan yang rendah terhadap perkhidmatan kaunseling di Taman Seri Puteri (Azizi dan Jesmin, 2008) dan Sekolah Henry Gurney (Azizi, Kiaw Geok dan Amir Hamzah, 2004). Rajah 1 - Tahap Persetujuan Responden Penghuni Terhadap Khidmat Kaunseling di Pusat Perlindungan dan Pemulihan 70

60

58

50

FREKUENSI

40

35

30

20

10

0

6 Rendah

Sederhana

Tinggi

TAHAP PERSETUJUAN Skor Tahap Persetujuan: Rendah (skor ≤ 11); Sederhana (skor 12-18); Tinggi (skor ≥ 19)

Ujian korelasi Pearson digunakan untuk melihat hubungan antara kemudahan fizikal dengan persepsi responden penghuni terhadap program dan aktiviti di pusat perlindungan dan pemulihan ini. Hasil kajian mendapati terdapat hubungan positif yang signifikan di antara kemudahan fizikal dengan khidmat kaunseling (r = 0.288, p < .01). Walaupun hubungan tersebut dianggap lemah, namun ia menunjukkan kemudahan fizikal yang baik memberikan persepsi yang baik terhadap khidmat kaunseling yang dilaksanakan. Dapatan kajian Azizi dan Jesmin (2008) juga mendapati kemudahan dan kelengkapan yang sedia ada serta perkhidmatan kaunseling berada di tahap yang sederhana. Selain itu, ujian korelasi Pearson juga digunakan untuk melihat hubungan di antara persepsi responden penghuni terhadap kakitangan dengan persepsi responden penghuni terhadap program dan aktiviti di institusi berkenaan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan terdapat hubungan positif yang signifikan di antara persepsi responden penghuni terhadap kakitangan dengan khidmat kaunseling (r = 0.318, p < .01). Ini menggambarkan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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bahawa persepsi penghuni yang baik terhadap kakitangan akan memberikan persepsi yang positif terhadap perkhidmatan kaunseling yang disediakan. Sejajar dengan dapatan ini, kajian yang dilakukan oleh Nebbit, V. E., House, L. E., Thomson, S. J., & Pollio, E. D. (2006) menyatakan bahawa rawatan yang diterima oleh responden adalah berkesan dan berkualiti semasa mereka berada di institusi perlindungan. Kakitangan yang profesional dan berkelayakan sentiasa menyediakan rawatan dan membantu mereka apabila berhadapan dengan pelbagai masalah. Remaja menyatakan bahawa kakitangan sentiasa ada semasa remaja memerlukan mereka walaupun di luar waktu bertugas kakitangan. Kajian tersebut juga menunjukkan bahawa kakitangan berkualiti memberi kesan terhadap mereka. Antara kualiti yang dibincangkan adalah seperti sikap penyayang, kemahiran yang baik dan senang untuk berhubung. Remaja sangat menghargai maklum balas yang positif, pujian dan galakan yang diterima daripada kakitangan kerana ini membuatkan mereka berasa dihargai dan merasa sangat bangga serta teruja apabila telah mencapai sesuatu perkara yang dilaksanakan.. Sementara itu, kajian yang dijalankan oleh Zulkhairi dan Mahmood (2007) mendapati tiada hubungan signifikan di antara umur dengan persepsi terhadap program kaunseling (r = 0.04, p > 0.05), tetapi terdapat hubungan positif yang signifikan di antara jumlah jam kaunseling individu dengan keberkesanan program kaunseling (r = 0.178, p < 0.05). Begitu juga terdapat hubungan positif yang signifikan di antara jumlah jam kaunseling kelompok dengan program kaunseling (r = 0.161, p < 0.05). Kajian turut mendapati mereka yang mempunyai harga diri tinggi juga mempunyai persepsi kaunseling yang lebih berkesan. Boleh dikatakan bahawa penghuni telah menampakkan perubahan yang positif selepas menjalani program pemulihan yang membabitkan program kaunseling. Ini menunjukkan bahawa program kaunseling yang diterima oleh penghuni dianggap berkesan. Walau bagaimanapun, dapatan kajian daripada Azizi, Kiaw Geok dan Amir Hamzah (2004) menunjukkan penghuni di Sekolah Henry Gurney Teluk Mas, Sekolah Henry Gurney Batu Gajah dan Sekolah Tunas Bakti berpendapat bahawa program bimbingan dan kaunseling yang telah diikuti adalah kurang berkesan. Dapatan kajian Abdul Razak Abd Manaf, Zakiyah Jamaluddin, Noor Azizah Ahmad, Rusimah Sayuti & Ahmad Shukri Abdul Hamid. (2010) turut mendapati bahawa perkhidmatan kaunseling kurang berkesan dan hanya memberi kesan jangka pendek kepada kanak-kanak dari segi perubahan tingkah laku. Di samping itu, aktiviti yang dilakukan lebih banyak berbentuk memberi bimbingan berbanding memberi khidmat kaunseling kepada penghuni. Sejajar dengan ini juga, menurut Foster dan Miller (1980), bagi remaja yang hamil, kaunselor sangat diperlukan untuk membantu remaja perempuan bermula saat kehamilan sehinggalah selepas melahirkan bayi mereka. Admire dan Byers (1981) juga bersetuju bahawa kaunseling amat diperlukan bagi meneroka sumber-sumber maklumat yang lain bagi remaja hamil. Sementara itu, program kaunseling juga turut tidak terhad kepada remaja hamil sahaja. Kajian MacGregor dan Newlon (1987) mendapati kaunseling juga diadakan bersama ibu bapa remaja hamil tersebut sedangkan dalam kajian ini, kaunseling hanya dilakukan terhadap remaja yang berada di institusi sahaja. Manakala kajian Minter (1990) pula mendapati bahawa kaunseling rakan sebaya turut diadakan sedangkan ia tidak dilaksanakan di pusat perlindungan dan pemulihan ini. Kajian Minter (1990) ini menunjukkan bahawa program kaunseling telah didapati memberi kesan jangka masa panjang kepada peserta dari segi meningkatkan kesihatan, keyakinan dan keupayaan remaja untuk menghadapi dunia pada hari ini. Bagi remaja yang tidak hamil yang dimasukkan ke pusat perlindungan dan pemulihan ini, atas sebabsebab lain, juga amat memerlukan kaunseling bagi meningkatkan harga diri dan keyakinan mereka. Dalam konteks program kaunseling ini, Hughes, 1981 (dalam Poole, A., Beran. T., & Thurston, W. E., 2008) menyatakan bahawa sokongan individu adalah sangat penting untuk kanak-kanak kerana mereka amat memerlukan perhatian dan sokongan, merasa bersalah atas tingkah laku mereka dan mempunyai keinginan untuk menyatakan perasaan mereka. Walau bagaimanapun, kanak-kanak haruslah diberi ruang ketika berinteraksi agar mereka dapat menceritakan pengalaman dan juga menyatakan perasaan mereka (Hester et al., 2000 dalam Poole, A., Beran. T., & Thurston, W. E., 2008).

IMPLIKASI KAJIAN DAN CADANGAN Perbincangan tentang dapatan hasil kajian menghasilkan beberapa implikasi. Walaupun program dan aktiviti kaunseling diperakui mendapat persetujuan positif daripada para penghuni di pusat erlindungan dan pemulihan, namun kadar persetujuan yang tinggi daripada penghuni terhadap aspek-aspek yang dibincangkan berada di tahap sederhana sahaja. Rentetan daripada ini, beberapa aspek penambahbaikan boleh dilaksanakan bagi memperkasa perkhidmatan kaunseling dan bimbingan yang disediakan. Sepertimana yang dibincangkan oleh Pierre-Morgan (2012) dan Buys et al., (2011), penghuni di institusi mengalami sejarah trauma yang signifikan, pencapaian akademik yang lemah dan rendah, jangkaan yang rendah dari guru-guru, pekerja kes dan penjaga mereka, penderaan, sering berpindah randah, kekurangan kemahiran hidup dan pengetahuan dalam melayari kehidupan secara berdikari. Kebanyakan kanak-kanak dan remaja yang berada dalam penjagaan institusi dianggarkan mempunyai isu-isu kesihatan mental yang © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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signifikan dan mereka ini tidak didiagnosa (Buys et al., 2011) yang mana sebahagian besar daripada mereka mengalami masalah-masalah emosi dan tingkahlaku berbanding dengan kanak-kanak dan remaja yang tinggal bersama keluarga mereka (Hansen, RL, Mawjee, FL, Barton, K, Metcalf, MB, & Joye, NR, 2004; Dworksy & Courtney, 2009; Lenz-Rashid, 2006). Seiringan dengan hal ini, ia memberi kesan kepada mereka yang berada dalam institusi dalam menangani isu-isu lain, menjejaskan perkhidmatan lain yang dilaksanakan oleh pihak pentadbiran serta menghasilkan impak negatif kepada kesejahteraan diri penghuni itu sendiri. Remaja yang berada dalam penjagaan institusi dengan masalah mental, emosi dan tingkahlaku adalah lebih cenderung atau lebih terdedah kepada kitaran kemurungan dan tidak mempunyai pekerjaan (Buys et al., 2011). Adalah amat penting pekerja sosial, kaunselor dan kakitangan institusi memahami dan menangani pelbagai halangan yang dihadapi oleh kanak-kanak dan remaja yang berada dalam penjagaan mereka (Buys et al., 2011). Sehubungan dengan ini, beberapa intervensi boleh digerakkan dan ini termasuklah melalui advokasi, menghapuskan halangan, membina jati diri dan menyediakan perkhidmatan kesihatan mental. Pendekata, remaja yang berada dalam penjagaan memerlukan bantuan yang intensif daripada pekerja sosial, kaunselor dan juga kakitangan institusi bagi meningkatkan diri dalam pelbagai domain demi masa depan mereka. Ini termasuklah dari aspek kesihatan fizikal, keluarga, resiliensi, perumahan, efikasi-kendiri, menghormati undang-undang, pendapatan dan tidak terlibat dalam gejala tidak sihat. Mengambil kira kadar masalah kesihatan mental yang tinggi dalam kalangan golongan ini (Hansen et al., 2004; Rosenberg, 2008; Levitt, J. 2009), adalah kritikal perkhidmatan pemulihan yang diberikan memberi respon kepada keperluan mereka dan ini termasuklah peranan kaunselor atau pegawai psikologi dan pekerja sosial yang lain yang ditempatkan di institusi. Peranan kaunselor atau pegawai psikologi ini dianggap amat penting memandangkan kanak-kanak atau remaja ini dilaporkan mempunyai aspirasi pendidikan yang rendah, mempunyai halangan dalaman yang tinggi, mengalami ketidakstabilan di sekolah dan kurang melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti sekolah dan kurang perancangan karier berbanding dengan rakan sebaya mereka yang tidak berada di bawah penjagaan institusi. Sehubungan dengan ini juga, Rosenberg (2008) menjelaskan bahawa menelusuri kehidupan dewasa merupakan satu tugas yang menakutkan bagi kebanyakan anak remaja; mencari pekerjaan atau memasuki kolej; hidup berdikari; membentuk perhubungan jangka panjang dan juga menjadi ibu bapa. Ia menjadi lebih mencabar kepada anak muda yang melalui proses transisi dari institusi penjagaan. Tambah Rosenberg (2008) lagi, mereka ini memerlukan lebih daripada rawatan. Mereka perlu diintegrasikan dalam komuniti. Mereka ini memerlukan orang dewasa yang prihatin dan bertanggungjawab yang boleh membantu mereka untuk membuat keputusan yang lebih baik, belajar dari kesilapan mereka dan menyokong kejayaan mereka sama ada kecil atau besar kejayaan tersebut. Sepertimana klien-klien lain yang dalam kesukaran, kanak-kanak dan remaja yang bermasalah bergantung kepada kompetensi pekerja sosial dan juga kepakaran kaunselor (Vossler, 2004). Berbanding dengan orang dewasa, kanak-kanak dan remaja ini seringkali dan kebarangkaliannya kurang menzahirkan ketidakselesaan atau mencari bantuan profesional di persekitaran mereka. Mereka terpaksa bergantung kepada pekerja sosial, kaunselor dan ibubapa bagi melihat keperluan mereka dan cuba mempertimbangkannya. Pendekata, pengetahuan, kemahiran dan keupayaan kakitangan dalam mendidik jiwa dan emosi kanakkanak di institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan perlu diambil kira secara serius bagi memastikan kebajikan dan kesejahteraan kanak-kanak terjamin. Hubungan terapeutik diperakui amat penting dalam memastikan hasil rawatan dan pemulihan yang positif terhadap kanak-kanak yang menghadapi masalah tingkahlaku dan emosi (Southerland, D., Casanueva, C. E. & Ringeisen, H., 2009). Majoriti kanak-kanak yang menetap di institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan memerlukan penjagaan kesihatan mental dan juga perkhidmatan yang berkaitan (Landsverk, J. A., Burns, B., Stambaugh, L. F., & Rolls Reutz, J. A., 2009) dan wajar ditangani secara profesional dan kos-efektif. Program-program dan aktiviti-aktiviti yang dilaksanakan terutamanya yang melibatkan aspek rawatan dan pemulihan kepada penghuni institusi memerlukan perkhidmatan yang berkualiti dan kepakaran pekerja sosial dan juga kakitangan institusi. Ia sebagai salah satu usaha menangani segala permasalahan kompleks yang dihadapi oleh penghuni termasuklah hal-hal berkaitan tingkah laku berisiko, hamil luar nikah dan mangsa penderaan. Dalam konteks ini, cabaran kepada praktis kerja sosial di institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan adalah dari aspek kompetensi kakitangan memandangkan penghuni di institusi merupakan golongan remaja yang mempunyai latar belakang kes yang berbeza dan komplikated. Sehubungan dengan ini, kompetensi pekerja sosial dan kakitangan institusi wajar sentiasa dipertingkatkan selaras dengan aspirasi institusi untuk memberikan perkhidmatan yang terbaik demi kepentingan dan kebajikan penghuni di situ. Dalam hal ini, pegawai atau staf yang kompeten dalam menyediakan sokongan peribadi dan emosi secara intensif serta menyediakan bimbingan praktikal adalah amat penting. Bagi kaunselor atau pegawai psikologi serta pekerja sosial, mereka juga bertindak sebagai jurulatih, fasilitator, ibu bapa angkat, advokat, guru dan rakan kepada para pelatih ini. Bagi institusi, adalah amat penting untuk menyediakan orang dewasa yang terlatih, dilengkapi dengan pengetahuan dan kemahiran untuk membantu anak remaja dan muda ini memperolehi matlamat yang kita semua inginkan bagi semua kanak-kanak iaitu mereka hidup dengan gembira dan mempunyai © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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kehidupan yang produktif, berdikari dan dikelilingi oleh insan-insan yang menyokong dan menyayangi mereka. Mengambil kira kedudukan penghuni di institusi yang banyak bergaul dan tinggal bersama rakan sebaya, maka pendekatan dan strategi rawatan serta pemulihan terhadap mereka juga wajar dipelbagaikan bagi memperolehi impak yang positif. Sehubungan dengan ini juga, aktiviti kerja kelompok dan bengkel kaunseling kelompok selain kaunseling individu wajar diadakan selalu bagi mempromosi budaya rakan sebaya yang positif dan membantu pelatih membina kemahiran hidup; membantu remaja merancang, menyimpan dan mempercayai masa depan mereka serta program bimbingan untuk membantu mereka menangani cabaran dan menyelesaikan permasalahan. Melalui kerja kelompok sebegini, sokongan emosi dan spiritual dapat diperolehi dan dizahirkan selain daripada kesan positif lain. Bahkan berdasarkan kajian-kajian terdahulu dan kontemporari, kelompok sokongan (support group) adalah yang paling terbaik dalam memberi sokongan emosi bagi membantu menyelesaikan masalah (Groves dan Gewirtz 2006; Hester, Pearson dan Harwin 2000; YM–YWCA of Winnipeg [YM–YWCA] 1990 dalam Poole, Beran dan Thurston, 2008). Selain itu, kaunseling bersama keluarga juga perlu dititikberatkan dan diberikan penekanan khusus selaras dengan usaha menggalakkan penglibatan aktif keluarga dan waris dalam program yang dilaksanakan. Ini secara langsung akan memastikan penglibatan keluarga dalam aktiviti pemulihan anak-anak mereka dan tidak semata-mata bergantung pada pihak institusi dalam menangani permasalahan anak mereka. Adalah penting untuk memahami motivasi keluarga atau waris dalam usaha mereka mendapatkan rawatan atau pemulihan untuk anak mereka. Dalam konteks ini, adalah lebih baik persekitaran institusi yang lebih kondusif kepada penglibatan keluarga dan keterbukaan keluarga melibatkan diri dalam proses rawatan dan pemulihan dimantapkan demi menghasilkan kesan positif bukan sahaja kepada anak mereka tetapi keseluruhan sistem perkhidmatan. Ini juga sejajar dengan kajian klasik yang telah dijalankan yang merumuskan bahawa rawatan dan pemulihan lebih mendatangkan manfaat apabila menjadikan keluarga dan proses terapi keluarga sebagai sebahagian komponen utama dalam program-program di institusi (Letulle, 1979).

KESIMPULAN Program dan aktiviti kaunseling di pusat perlindungan dan pemulihan yang dikaji secara umumnya boleh diperkasa dan dipertingkatkan lagi. Kaunselor, pekerja sosial dan juga kakitangan institusi boleh menyediakan perkhidmatan secara lebih berkesan dan memantapkan kompetensi mereka dalam menangani pelbagai permasalahan penghuni yang kompleks. Memandangkan kajian rentas ini hanya tertumpu kepada satu sahaja pusat perlindungan dan pemulihan, maka hasil dapatan tidak boleh digeneralisasikan kepada lain-lain institusi perlindungan dan pemulihan yang sedia ada. Adalah dicadangkan kajian longitudinal dijadikan sandaran bagi pengumpulan data pada masa hadapan bagi melihat perubahan penghuni sebelum dan selepas proses pemulihan dan rawatan dilakukan di institusi. Ia akan membantu penyelidik untuk memperolehi data yang lebih terperinci dan mendalam serta boleh mengikuti perkembangan penghuni secara lebih tersusun dan sistematik.

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Rosenberg, Linda (2008). Building a meaningful future for young people with mental illness. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 35:4, 362-364. Salma Ishak, Fuziah Shafiee, Noor Azizah Ahmad & Jusmawati Fauzaman. (2005). Growing up in Residential Care: A study of children’s home in Malaysia. UUM: IRPA Report. Sapora Sipon (2002). Gejala sosial di kalangan pelajar dan keperluan perkhidmatan bimbingan dan kaunseling. Seminar Halatuju Kaunseling di Malaysia. 17-18 Jun 2002, The Legend Hoel, Kuala Lumpur. Anjuran Jabatan Pendidikan Tinggi Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia dan Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris dengan kerjasama Institusi Pendidikan Tinggi. Southerland, D., Casanueva, C. E. & Ringeisen, H. (2009). Young adult outcomes and mental health problems among transition age youth investigated for maltreatment during adolescence. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(9), 947-956. Stephens, N., McDonald, R., & Jouriles, E. N. (2000). Helping children who reside at shelters for battered women: Lessons learned. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 3, 147–160. Tan Pei Sun, Su Xu Vin, Kevin Tan Teck Meng, Hizlinda Tohid, Noor Azimah Muhammad & Khairani Omar. (2012). A study on pregnant adolescents residing in a government home: Common characteristics and their views on the pregnancy. Malaysian Family Physician, 7(1), 11-15. Vossler, Andreas (2004). The participation of children and adolecnets in family counselling: the German experience. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 4(1), 54-61. YM–YWCA of Winnipeg. (1990). How to develop a group activity program for children in transition homes and shelters: A self study manual. Winnipeg: YM–YWCA. Zulkhairi Ahmad dan Mahmood Nazar Mohamed. (2007). Keberkesanan program kaunseling rawatan dan pemulihan dadah dari perspektif penghuni Pusat Serenti. Jurnal Antidadah Malaysia, 13-28.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PENGGUNAAN PANDANGAN HIDUP ISLAM DALAM INTERVENSI KRISIS UNTUK KANAK-KANAK SEKOLAH YANG TERLIBAT DALAM KEMALANGAN BAS SEKOLAH Nadiyah Elias* & Mariny Abdul Ghani *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstrak Intervensi krisis adalah rawatan jangka pendek yang memberi fokus kepada reaksi terhadap satu peristiwa kritikal, bertujuan memulihkan kefungsian sosial dan psikologikal individu, sekurang-kurangnya ke tahap sebelum krisis berlaku. Intervensi krisis juga bertujuan untuk mencegah krisis peribadi pada masa hadapan. Kertas kerja ini mendokumentasikan satu program Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) ke atas sekumpulan kanak-kanak sekolah rendah yang terlibat dengan kemalangan bas sekolah secara kelompok. Program intervensi krisis ini menggunakan pandangan hidup Islam sebagai kerangka pandangan hidup atau konteks untuk memahami kenapa peristiwa kritikal berlaku dan menggunakan pendekatan terapi seni yang difikirkan sesuai untuk kanak-kanak tersebut.

PENGENALAN Krisis adalah persepsi terhadap kejadian atau pengalaman yang tidak mampu diatasi seseorang dengan cara biasa yang mengganggu personaliti dan mengancam diri. Krisis menyebabkan individu tidak dapat mengawal reaksi seperti takut, terkejut, bercelaru, hilang kawalan dan pertimbangan diri. Individu yang terlibat dengan krisis akan menunjukkan simptom seperti gangguan tidur, gangguan makan dan menarik diri daripada aktiviti seharian (James & Gilliland, 2001). Intervensi krisis pula bertujuan untuk mencegah krisis peribadi pada masa hadapan dengan memberi perhatian serta merta kepada peristiwa seperti keganasan rumahtangga, perceraian, pergaduhan, kemalangan, konflik, bencana alam dan sebagainya.

INTERVENSI KRISIS VS. SESI KAUNSELING Sesi kaunseling pula merupakan satu pendekatan yang memfokus secara keseluruhan aspek untuk membantu klien. Kaunseling merupakan suatu proses menolong yang melibatkan interaksi dua hala antara orang yang memberi pertolongan dengan orang yang menerima pertolongan dalam suasana yang penuh muhibbah, kesedaran dan saling memahami. Manakala langkah asas pula ialah mendengar masalah klien tanpa menghakimi, membimbing klien memahami punca masalahnya, mengajak klien Mencari penyelesaian, dan menyokong klien dalam mencuba tindakan baru. (Ivey & Lucy, 2003). Sesi kaunseling juga merupakan proses membantu individu melalui perhubungan menolong untuk mencapai tahap kesihatan mental yang optima melalui perkembangan dan penyesuaian peribadi serta sosial untuk mencegah dari sebarang kesan penyakit somatik, emosi dan kecelaruan intra mahupun interpersonal (Weikel, 1978).

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Intervensi berbeza dengan sesi kaunseling di mana intervensi krisis merupakan pendekatan yang memberi fokus kepada situasi kritikal. Intervensi krisis adalah rawatan jangka pendek yang memberi fokus kepada reaksi terhadap satu peristiwa kritikal, bertujuan memulihkan kefungsian sosial dan psikologikal individu, sekurang-kurangnya ke tahap sebelum krisis berlaku. Menurut Lisa & Bradley (2010), krisis intervensi mempunyai perbezaan dengan kaunseling dimana krisis intervensi merupakan satu pendekatan yang sama dengan kaunseling namun memerlukan kemahiran menilai krisis, isu keselamatan, dan keperluan penjagaan, dan penilaian sama ada klien sudah bersedia untuk menangani krisis. Menurut Everly & Mitchell (1999) pula, intervensi krisis merupakan usaha membantu untuk mangsa yang mengalami kecemasan psikologi untuk mengembalikan klien ke tahap fasal fungsi hidup dan penyesuaian diri, serta mencegah atau mengurangkan kesan negatif trauma psikologi.

KONSEP CRITICAL INCIDENT STRESS DEBRIEFING (CISD) Sesi kaunseling pula merupakan satu pendekatan yang memfokus secara keseluruhan aspek untuk membantu klien. Kaunseling merupakan suatu proses menolong yang melibatkan interkasi dua hala antara orang yang memberi pertolongan dengan orang yang menerima Pertolongan dalam suasana yang penuh muhibbah, kesedaran dan saling memahami. Malah pendekatan kaunseling menggunakan tiga elemen asas iaitu komunikasi berkesan, pengetahuan psikologi remaja, dan pelbagai strategi penyelesaian masalah bergantung kepada teori yang dipilih. Manakala langkah asas pula ialah mendengar masalah klien tanpa menghakimi, membimbing klien memahami punca masalahnya, mengajak klien Mencari penyelesaian, dan menyokong klien dalam mencuba tindakan baru. (Ivey & Lucy, 2003). Sesi kaunseling juga merupakan proses membantu individu melalui perhubungan menolong untuk mencapai tahap kesihatan mental yang optima melalui perkembangan dan penyesuaian peribadi serta social untuk mencegah dari sebarang kesan penyakit somatik, emosi dan kecelaruan intra mahupun interpersonal. (Weikel, 1978). Oleh itu, sesi kaunseling merupakan sautu proses membantu daripada seorang kaunselor professional kepada kliennya, bagi menyesuaikan diri klien untuk menghadapi permasalahan yang dihadapi sama ada dari dalam diri klien itu sendiri mahupun dengan persekitarannya. CISD dibentuk oleh Jeffrey T. Mitchell (1974), sebagai langkah intervensi untuk menghadapi krisis. Prosedur ini menggunakan kumpulan kecil yang homogeonous. CISD adalah bersifat spesifik, mempunyai tujuh fasa, dalam kumpulan kecil, proses sokongan intervensi krisis. Proses CISD tidak sama dengan proses yang dilakukan dalam psikoterapi. Ia lebih bersifat mudah dengan hanya memberi fokus pada perbincangan krisis dan kejadian trauma. CISD diketuai oleh dua hingga empat orang fasilitator bergantung juga pada jumlah ahli yang ada dalam kumpulan besar. Bagi satu-satu sesi CISD, ia selalu dijalankan oleh seorang fasilitator professional dibantu oleh dalam lima hingga tujuh orang pembantu terlatih yang terdiri dari profesyen yang sama dengan ahli yang menjalani sesi CISD tersebut. Contohnya, pembantu fasilitator terdiri dari paramedic, pegawai polis atau profesion yang terlibat. Terdapat tiga objektif CISD iaitu: 1) mengurangkan impak atau kesan negatif kepada situasi trauma, 2) mempercepatkan proses pemulihan serta mengembalikan fungsi-fungsi penyesuaian diri, dan 3) mengenalpasti individu dari kelompok sesi CISD tersebut, yang memerlukan perkhidmatan sokonagn tambahan atau rujukan kepada pakar pemulihan. Masa yang diperuntukkan bagi sesi CISD dilakukan adalah selama satu hingga tiga jam. Namun. begitu, masa proses CISD ini boleh berubah bergantung pada jumlah ahli dalam kelompok tersebut. Merujuk kepada Mitchell., J. (2001), terdapat tujuh fasa yang digunakan dalam CISD: a. Fasa 1 – Pengenalan Pada fasa ini ahli kelompok memperkenalkan diri mereka secara ringkas satu persatu untuk memulakan proses ini. Proses ini menggalakkan ahli kelompok mendapat motivasi untuk bergerak secara lebih aktif. Penglibatan dalam kelompok ini adalah secara sukarela dan semua maklumat yang dibincangkan adalah menjadi kerahsiaan bersama. b. Fasa 2 – Fakta Pada fasa ini ahli kelompok menerangkan mengenai kejadian yang berlaku pada diri mereka secara terperinci. Tujuannya adalah untuk mengurangkan tahap kerisauan dalam diri ahli kelompok tersebut. Apabila mereka menceritakan fakta kejadian sebenar yang berlaku, maka mereka akan berasa lebih tenang. Dalam kelompok tersebut fasilitator akan memberi peluang kepada ahli yang ingin bercakap. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Jika ada ahli yang tidak mahu bercakap mereka digalakkan untuk mendiamkan diri dan teruskan dengan ahli yang seterusnya. c. Fasa 3 – Pemikiran Fasa pemikiran ini merupakan satu pemikiran yang lebih memfokus dengan segera untuk masalah aspek yang lebih banyak derita. Soalan yang tipikal adalah soalan mengenai “apakah pemikiran klien yang pertama dalam kejadian tersebut”. Soalan ini akan ditanya pada semua klien dalam kelompok tersebut bertujuan memberi peluang pada semua untuk menyuarakan pemikiran masing-masing mengenai kejadian yang berlaku. Jika terdapat klien yang tidak mahu bercakap boleh diabaikan dan ini merupakan proses terakhir untuk memberi peluang pada semua untuk terlibat dalam kumpulan. d. Fasa 4 – Reaksi Fasa reaksi ini merupakan jantung kepada proses CISD. Fasa ini memfokus pada kesan kepada ahli dalam kumpulan tersebut. Perasaan-perasaan seperti marah, sedih, kecewa, kehilangan, keliru akan kelihatan di wajah ahli kelompok. Persoalannya pada fasa ini adalah “ Apakah yang paling menyebabkan kamu sedih dengan kejadian ini?” Ahli akan mula mendengar dan memberi perhatian sepenuhnya untuk menambah jika mereka ada sesuatu yang ingin ditambah. Apabila ahli kumpulan dalam proses memberi focus maka mereka akan mengekspresikan apa yang mereka bincang. e. Fasa 5 – Simptom Fasa ini melihat symptom yang kelihatan pada ahli dalam kumpulan tersebut. Ahli mungkin ada yang bertanya “Bagaimana pengalaman tragis ini memberi kesan pada hidupnya”? atau “Apakah pemikiran, emosi dan symptom tingkah laku yang dihadapi oleh klien pada ketika itu?”. Ahli akan mendengar dengan sepenuh perhatian mengenai symptom yang pada kebiasaanya dihadapi oleh mereka yang terlibat dengan kejadian trauma. f.

Fasa 6 – Mengajar Pada ketika ini ahli sangat memerlukan penjelasan yang lebih terperinci mengenai maklumat mengenai tekanan. Malah, ahli boleh juga mendapatkan nasihat-nasihat lain atau penjelasan yang ingin diketahui.

g. Fasa 7 – Rumusan Pada fasa Terakhir ini, ahli boleh bertanyakan soalan mengenai kes ini dan penyelesaianya. Proses ini merumuskan apa yang sudah dibincangkan dalam proses CISD ini. Penjelasan terakhir, pengetahuan, tindakan secara langsung, bimbingan dan pemikiran juga diterangkan secara sepintas lalu pada fasa ini.

PENGGUNAAN PANDANGAN HIDUP ISLAM DALAM SESI INTERVENSI CISD Antara yang selalu dibincangkan dalam sesi intervensi krisis adalah pemahaman klien mengenai apa yang berlaku dan kenapa perkara tersebut berlaku. Pemprosesan kepada peristiwa kritikal sangat penting kerana atribusi kepada kejadian yang tidak sihat atau sesuai berkemungkinan membawa kepada krisis peribadi (James & Gilliland, 2001). Pandangan hidup Islam memberikan jawapan yang mudah kepada kenapa perkara berlaku. Menurut perspektif Islam, segala yang berlaku adalah ketentuan Allah. Ini termasuk dalam rukun keenam dari rukun kepercayaan Islam. Antara faktor kepada resilisiensi individu adalah kepercayaan mengenai takdir dan penerimaan terhadap peristiwa peristiwa kritikal yang negatif. Menurut perspektif islam, kefahaman dan penerimaan ini membawa kepada sikap redha. Maka dalam mengaplisaksikan kaunseling Islam, intervensi CISD mestilah berteraskan kepada penerangan menangani peristiwa menurut pandanan hidup Islam, iaitu: 1) sama ada sesiapa bertanggungjawab secara teknikal atau tidak – secara signifikan, peristiwa kritikal berlaku kerana telah ditentukan oleh Allah dan tidak

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perlu dikesali;1 2) apa-apa kerugian atau kesakitan yang ditanggung oleh individu akan diberi kompensasi oleh Allah dalam bentuk pengampunan (kaffarah) atau pahala;2 dan 3) corak reaksi pertama dan reaksi berterusan kepada peristiwa kritikal merupakan ujian dari Allah, dan individu akan dinilai oleh Allah ke atas tahap keredhaan dan kesabaran menghadapi peristiwa kritikal tersebut.3

APLIKASI KES: PROGRAM INTERVENSI CISD KE ATAS KANAK-KANAK KEMALANGAN BAS SEKOLAH Sesi intervensi krisis yang dibincangkan berlaku kepada lebih kurang 45 orang pelajar sekolah rendah Islam yang terlibat dengan satu kemalangan bas sekolah. Tiada kematian berlaku dalam peristiwa tersebut, namun beberapa orang pelajar cedera parah sehingga belum pulih untuk kesekolah, dan yang mengalami kecederaan yang parah adalah pemandu bas tersebut iaitu juga guru sekolah tersebut. Pada masa sesi dijalankan, kumpulan pelajar tersebut berulang dengan ‘car pool’ yang diuruskan bergilir oleh kumpulan ibubapa. Antara masalah yang ketara dilaporkan oleh pihak sekolah adalahh ramai dari pelajar merasa takut atau ‘malas’ untuk ke sekolah dan ramai melaporkan kepada ibu bapa mereka merasa tidak berani untuk menaiki bas sekolah kelak. Tugas yang diberikan oleh pihak sekolah kepada kaunselor jemputan adalah supaya memulihkan kegembiraan dan semangat pelajar untuk kembali hadir ke sekolah seperti biasa. Pihak sekolah telah memaklumkan kepada ibubapa menegenai program tersebut melalui mesyuarat ad hoc ibubapa terlibat. Kerjasama yang baik telah menyebakan hamper semua dari pelajar hadir ke sesi tersebut kecuali yang cedera. (juga janji sekolah untuk menyampaikan hadiah cenderahati kepada peserta) Sesi tersebut dijadualkan selama empat jam di dalam dewan tertutup, iaitu dua kelas yang dibuka dindingnya, dan dikosongkan dari kerusi dan meja. Pelajar duduk di atas lantai bertikar getah menghadap fasilitator dan guru. Setelah guru memperkenalkan ketua fasilitator, mereka meninggalkan pelajar kepada fasilitator yang terdiri dari penulis berdua dan seorang lagi pensyarah pekerja sosial. Sesi dijalankan dengan struktur perbincangan kumpulan selama 45 minit, rehat dan makan di tempat yang sama setengah jam, sesi melukis dan berkongsi selama 45 minit, serta rumusan selam 45 minit. Waktu selebihnya digunakan oleh guru untuk memperkenalkan fasilitator, membetulkan disiplin dan kekemasan diri pelajr, juga sesi lpenyampaian hadiah cenderahati hamper makanan. Kaunselor memulakan sesi dengan aktiviti membina hubungan dengan kanak-kanak tersebut. Kanak-kanak diajukan soalan-soalan yang membuatkan mereka lebih mesra dan yakin dengan kaunselor. Kanak-kanak dalam kumpulan tersebut mudah bercerita pada kaunselor mengenai pengalaman masing-masing pada saat kejadian berlaku. Dari perbincangan, didapati kanak-kanak masih mempunyai saki baki perasaan ketak pada dimana mereka menceritakan pengalaman tersebut terasa seperti mimpi ngeri. Segelintir daripada mengesahkan masih tidak berani untuk cuba menaiki bas sekolah, dan hanya sangup dating ke sekolah jika dihantar oleh ibubapa sendiri dengan kereta. Didapati intervensi krisis yang dilakukan secara kelompok lebih bersifat semulajadi dan mesra berbanding individu. Hal ini adalah kerana apabila kanak-kanak tersebut secara beramai-ramai berada dalam penceritaan mereka seolah-olah menganggap diri mereka pulih sedikit demi sedikit. Mereka kelihatan lebih seronok dengan kelompok yang dijalankan oleh kaunselor tersebut. Terdapat pelbagai perasaan yang bercampur baur dalam kelompok tersebut seperti seronok atau teruja, takut dan sedih. Masing-masing meluahkan kisah mereka pada hari kejadian kemalangan berlaku. Dalam bimbingan untuk menginterpretasikan peristiwa dari pandangn Islam, kaunselor mendapati bahawa kanak-kanak tersebut sememangnya sudah memahami peristiwa menurut perspektif Islam. Kemungkinan besar ini kerana kumpulan tersebut terdiri dari sekolah berpendidikan agama, dan dari golongan ibu bapa penpendidikan tinggi, maka muengkin juga ibubap mereka sendiri dan guru-guru telah sedia mengajar mereka memproses peristiwa tersebut secara pandangan islam. 1)  Diriwayatkan dari Ibnu Abbas r.a ia berkata, “Aku pernah naik unta di belakang Nabi saw maka beliau bersabda: “Wahai anakku, sesungguhnya aku akan mengajarimu beberapa hal, yaitu; jagalah (hukum-hukum) Allah swt, niscaya Dia akan menjagamu. Jagalah (hukum-hukum) Allah swt, niscaya Dia akan selalu bersamamu. Jika kamu meminta sesuatu, maka mintalah hanya kepada Allah swt. Jika kamu meminta pertolongan, maka mintalah pertolongan hanya kepada Allah swt. Ketahuilah sekiranya umat manusia berkumpul dan sepakat untuk memberikan manfaat untukmu, maka mereka tidak akan dapat memberikan manfaat kepadamu, kecuali sesuatu yang telah ditetapkan Allah swt untukmu. Dan sekiranya mereka berkumpul dan sepakat untuk memberikan mudharat kepadamu, niscaya mereka tidak dapat memberikan mudharat kepadamu, melainkan sesuatu yang telah Allah swt tetapkan untukmu. Pena telah diangkat, dan tulisan-tulisan pada buku catatan telah kering.” - HR Tirmidzi. Ia berkata, “Hadith ini hasan shahih.” 2)  Rasulullah SAW bersabda: Tidak ada seorang muslim pun yang tertimpa suatu penyakit dan lainnya kecuali Allah akan menghapus dengan penyakit tersebut kesalahan-kesalahannya seperti sebatang pohon yang merontokkan daunnya. (Shahih Muslim No.4663). Rasulullah SAW bersabda: Tidak ada seorang muslim pun yang tertusuk duri atau tertimpa bencana yang lebih besar dari itu kecuali akan tercatat baginya dengan bencana itu satu peningkatan derajat serta akan dihapuskan dari dirinya satu dosa kesalahan. (Shahih Muslim No.4664) 3)  Rasulullah SAW telah bersabda: “Sesungguhnya kesabaran itu ketika pukulan pertama.” (Hadis Sahih Bukhari Jilid 5. Hadis Nombor 1902)

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Perkembangan yang telah terbantu oleh sesi tersebut adalah langkah untuk mebolehkan merka berani untuk mencuba semula menaiki bas setelah perkhidmatan bas dimulakan kelak. Kaunselor menceritakan konsep ‘badi’ iaitu rasa takut apabila menghadapi terkejut yang besar, dan memberikan tis bagiaman untuk mengatasinya; iaitu secara memaksa diri untuk mencuba juga tugasan yang ditakuti walaupun hati takut. Kaunselor mengajarkan beberap doa untuk mendapt kekuatan hati dan diadapti pelajar telah sedia menghafal doa doa tersebut. Maka kaunselor menerangkan juga makna kepada doa-doa tersebut serta bagaimana doa tersebut boleh digunakan untuk mengembalikan kakkuatan mencuba perkara yang ditakuti. Kaunselor kemudiannya mengajak kumpulan mengulangi beberapa doa pilihan beramai-ramai beberapa kali supaya pelajar yang belum mahir doa-doa boleh menghafalnya secara membaca berulan beramai-ramai.

Melukis Selain dari langkah-langkah biasa CISD, sesi tersebut juga menggunakan strategi melukis untuk peserta boleh mengekspresikan diri. Walaupun tidak mengapliksaikan terapi seni sepenuhnya, aktiviti melukis digunakan juga kerana kanak-kanak selalunya sangat responsive kepada aktiviti tersebut. Aktiviti tersebut terbukti mendapt sambutan yang sangat positif. Arahan adalah untuk melukis apa saja yang mereka mahu. Daripada pemerhatian terdapat tiga jenis penggunaa kepada aktiviti tersebut iaitu: 1) melukiskan kad ucapan sayang kepada guru mereka yang cedera, 2) ekspresi yang menggambarkan bas sekolah mereka dan perjalanan ke sekolah; serta 3) lukisan dan kata-kata positif seperti lukisan gembira dan berani. Daripada lukisan bas sekolah, didapati tiada pula lukisan yang menggambarkan bas sekolah yang mengalami kemalangan. Kemungkinan mereka tidak perlu memproses peristiwa kemalangan melalui lukisan kerana telah mampu memproses sendiri atau secara sesi tersebut melaui perbincangan.

HADIAH DARI PIHAK SEKOLAH Pihak sekolah telah memberi hadiah bungkusan hamper yang berupa makanan kepada setiap seorang dari kanak-kanak yang hadir seperti yang dijanjikan. Hadiah tersebut adalah dari tabung sumbangan yang diberikan oleh pelajar-pelajar dan ibubapa lain dari sekolah tersebut anjuran kutipan dari pihak sekolah. Ketika pemberian hadiah tersebut dilakukan kelihatan semua kanak-kanak tersebut tersangat gembira menerima hadiah tersebut. Mereka terasa istimewa apabila mendapat hadiah hamper ini. Dari pemerhatian ini, penulis memikirkan strategi memberi hadiah, terutama kepada kanak-kanak mungkin perlu dikaji keberkesanan dalam proses pemulihan dari peristiwa kritikal. Perkara ini tidak pernah digunakan menurut protocol intervensi krisi sedia ada, namun, ia semulajadi dalam budaya masyarakat Islam dan mempunyai nas hadith dalam membina hubungan dan mengubat hati. Menurut pemerhatian penulis, ia faktor utama kehadiran peserta ke sesi tersebut, dan ia faktor penceria yang paling ketara. Sesi rumusan menunjukkan bahawa kesemua dari kanakkanak tersebut merasa semangat dan berani untuk mencuba menaiki bas apabila perkhidmatan bas kembali kelak, dan tidak lagi memerlukan ibubapa mereka menghantar mereka ke sekolah setiap hari.

KESIMPULAN Pendekatan intervensi krisis didapati praktikal dijalankan bagi kanak-kanak sekolah di Malaysia tanpa banyak penyesuaian dari protokol asal CISD. Integrasi pemahaman peristiwa menurut pandangan Islam juga mudah dilakukan dalam kes ini secara semulajadi memandangkan kumpulan kanak-kanak yang terlibat memanng telah dibiasakan dengan pandangan hidup sebegini. Artikel ini hanya memuatkan dokumntasi ke atas satu sesi CISD sahaja. Aplikasi kesesuaian intervensi krisis di Malaysia, terutama yang menggunakan pandangan hidup islam, perlu didokumentasikan lagi bagi kelompok lain pelbagai untuk tujuan perbandingan.

RUJUKAN Everly., G.S. & Mitchell., J. (1999). Critical Incident Stress Management (2nd ed.). Ellicott City, MD: Chevron. Ivey., A. E. & Ivey., M. B. (2003). International Interviewing And Counseling. Thompson, CA. Jackson., L.R. & Erford., B.T (2010). Crisis Intervention And Prevention. USA: Pearson. James., R.K. & Gilliland., B. E. (2001). Crisis Intervention Strategies. 4th Ed. USA: Thomson Learning. Mitchell., J (2001). Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD). www.info-trauma.org. Weikel., J.K (1978). American Mental Health Counselors Association Committee. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

SOKONGAN SOSIAL KEPADA KANAK-KANAK YANG TELAH DIDERA SECARA SEKSUAL DI INSTITUSI PERLINDUNGAN Abdul Razak Abd Manaf* & Norliza Mokhtar *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mengkaji pengalaman dan tafsiran sokongan yang diterima oleh mangsa penderaan seksual yang tinggal di institusi perlindungan. Untuk tujuan itu, lapan orang kanak-kanak perempuan telah ditemubual. Keputusan kajian secara kualitatif ini mendedahkan beberapa isu kritikal yang perlu dipertimbangkan secara serius oleh pihak yang bertanggungjawab. Salah satu daripada isu yang timbul adalah pengalaman trauma berterusan yang dihadapi oleh mangsa-mangsa. Ini menyebabkan pentingnya sokongan sosial bagi mereka. Hasil kajian juga mendapati para peserta lebih cenderung untuk berkongsi masalah mereka dan mendapatkan sokongan daripada rakan-rakan yang rapat dengan mereka berbanding dengan kakitangan di institusi. Keywords: penderaan seksual , mangsa, kanak-kanak, institusi perlindungan

PENGENALAN Penderaan seksual terhadap kanak-kanak bukanlah suatu isu yang baru tetapi ianya telah wujud sejak sekian lama. Namun disebabkan oleh salah faham terhadap maksud penderaan seksual itu sendiri menyebabkan kebanyakan kes tidak didedahkan. Terdapat juga segelintir kes penderaan seksual yang berlaku dalam kalangan keluarga dan hal ini dianggap sebagai masalah dalaman menyebabkan ia terpendam. Ini menjadikan kes penderaan seksual kanak-kanak terus berlarutan malah kadangkala ia tidak begitu dihiraukan oleh masyarakat. Biasanya tidak ada sesiapapun yang tahu secara terperinci mengenai kes penderaan seksual yang tidak dilaporkan. Ia menjadi sesuatu perkara yang sangat sulit, terancang dan hanya melibatkan mangsa dan pendera tanpa adanya saksi (Pipe, Lamb, Orbach & Cederborg, 2013). Kesan penderaan seksual amat kritikal dan kompleks. Biasanya ia memberi kesan yang buruk terhadap kanakkanak yang terlibat (Steel, Sanna, Hammond, Whipple & Cross, 2004). Dilakukan sama ada oleh individu yang dikenali oleh mangsa atau tidak, ia mampu memberikan kesan trauma yang berpanjangan yang seterusnya memberi impak kepada keseluruhan kehidupannya (Hyman, Gold & Cott, 2003; M. Anwar, 2011; Nor Shafrin, 2012). Biasanya penderaan seksual akan memberi kesan terhadap pemikiran, emosi dan tingkah laku kanakkanak. Gangguan pemikiran dan pembentukan persepsi negatif seperti kritik diri, rasa tidak berdaya, rasa tiada harapan dan menyalahkan diri adalah antara kesan pemikiran yang dialami oleh mangsa. Kesan emosi pula meliputi tekanan, kemurungan dan juga trauma. Manakala dalam aspek tingkah laku pula seperti lari dari rumah, ponteng sekolah dan masalah dadah (Muhammed Sharif & Nur Diyana, 2012). Kanak-kanak juga menunjukkan sindrom suka menyendiri dan berpandangan negatif terhadap diri sendiri (Browne & Finkelhor, 1986). Malah pengalaman terhadap penderaan pada masa kanak-kanak mampu mewujudkan tekanan emosi dan kesukaran mangsa menjalinkan hubungan intim setelah mereka dewasa (Lianny, 2004).

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Dalam konteks ini, pelbagai usaha telah direncana dan sedang diusahakan oleh pelbagai pihak untuk menangani isu ini. Salah satu kaedah untuk menangani isu penderaan adalah dengan memberi perlindungan kepada mangsa penderaan yang pada masa ini berada di bawah bidang kuasa Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat (JKM). JKM memikul tanggungjawab menyediakan perkhidmatan untuk melindungi kanak-kanak sebagaimana yang termaktub di dalam Akta Kanak-Kanak 2001 iaitu memberi perlindungan, pemeliharaan dan pemulihan kepada kanak-kanak di bawah 18 tahun (Laporan Tahunan JKM, 2009). Secara umumnya, kajian ini dilakukan bagi mengetahui bentuk sokongan sosial yang diperlukan oleh kanakkanak dan mengenal pasti sistem sokongan yang disediakan di institusi perlindungan.

PERNYATAAN MASALAH Walaupun pelbagai usaha telah dilakukan, kanak-kanak masih juga terdedah kepada pengabaian dan keganasan termasuk juga penderaan seksual. Lazimnya, penderaan seksual terhadap kanak-kanak akan meninggalkan kesan psikologi yang berpanjangan dengan tahap trauma yang berbeza-beza mengikut reaksi mereka semasa kejadian berlaku. Kanak-kanak biasanya akan menunjukkan perasaan keliru, rasa bersalah, takut, menyalahkan diri sendiri dan rasa terperangkap dengan apa yang dialami (Salina, Fuziah, Suzana & Zaizul, 2012). Ada antara kanak-kanak yang pernah menjadi mangsa yang kemudiannya melakukan kekerasan seksual dan agresif kepada rakan mereka yang lain atau kanak-kanak yang lebih muda (Finkelhor & Browne, 1985). Kewujudan sokongan sosial di dalam kehidupan mangsa penderaan seksual merupakan suatu mekanisme yang banyak mempengaruhi perkembangan mereka. Keadaan psikologi ini boleh mempengaruhi kesihatan fizikal sama ada melalui kesan langsung pada proses fisiologi yang mempengaruhi kecenderungan penyakit atau melalui corak tingkah laku yang meningkatkan risiko penyakit dan kematian (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Sehubungan dengan itu, mangsa penderaan seksual memerlukan suatu kaedah perlindungan dan pemulihan bagi membantu mereka menangani masalah dan trauma yang dihadapi. Dalam hal ini, peranan JKM dan RKK amat penting sebagai medium yang mampu memenuhi segala aspek keperluan perlindungan kanak-kanak yang menjadi mangsa. Sebagai sebuah institusi kanak-kanak yang diwartakan sebagai “tempat selamat”, RKK mempunyai peranan yang besar dan menyeluruh untuk memberi jagaan gantian kepada kanak-kanak yang memerlukan perlindungan dengan memberi fokus kepada pertumbuhan dan perkembangan fizikal, emosi serta mental yang sihat dalam institusi kekeluargaan (dalam http://www.jkm.gov.my). RKK menekankan beberapa aspek penting dalam penyediaan sistem sokongan terhadap mangsa penderaan seksual. Segala keperluan fizikal dan rohani untuk kanak-kanak diberi penekanan seperti pelaksanaan program-program bimbingan dan kaunseling, pendidikan, kerohanian, riadah dan aktviti sukan (Abdul Razak, Zakiyah, Rusimah, Noor Azizah & Ahmad Shukri, 2010). Terdapat peraturan dan garis panduan yang standard dalam memberi perkhidmatan kepada mangsa serta memenuhi keperluan perkhidmatan yang berkualiti mengikut etika professional yang telah ditetapkan (Wagner, 2008). Namun begitu, walaupun program-program telah dirancang dengan teliti mengikut prinsip “yang terbaik untuk kanak-kanak”, seringkali timbul isu apabila kanak-kanak yang ditempatkan di institusi perlindungan tidak berupaya mengikuti program yang dilaksanakan serta menerima layanan dan sokongan yang tidak sempurna daripada pihak yang berkepentingan di RKK (Abdul Razak, Zakiyah, Rusimah, Noor Azizah & Ahmad Shukri, 2010). Menurut Frost, Mills dan Stein (1999), ini adalah hakikat antara teori dan praktis tentang perkhidmatan secara langsung dengan kanak-kanak di institusi jagaan dan perlindungan yang sering menjadi kontroversi untuk dibincangkan. Tambah mereka lagi, kadang-kadang terdapat perbezaan yang jelas antara kedua-duanya apabila segala peraturan dan perancangan tidak dapat dilaksanakan serta tidak mampu memenuhi keperluan kanak-kanak secara keseluruhannya. Pemerhatian penyelidik di RKK mendapati kaedah intervensi yang dijalankan adalah sama bagi semua kanak-kanak tanpa mengambil kira punca kemasukan kanak-kanak dan jenis masalah mereka. Menurut Pathmanathan (2011), daripada 424 orang kanak-kanak, hanya 169 orang (39.9 peratus) sahaja yang berasa gembira berada di RKK. Ramai yang merasa tidak gembira kerana program yang dilaksanakan tidak menepati keperluan mereka. Oleh yang demikian, kanak-kanak sepatutnya diberikan kaedah yang berbeza bagi pemulihan emosi mereka semasa berada dalam institusi perlindungan. Meskipun begitu, pelaksanaan sesuatu program dan sebarang perkhidmatan ke atas kanak-kanak memerlukan suatu perancangan yang rapi yang melibatkan komitmen semua pihak. Sedangkan realitinya menunjukkan bahawa institusi tidak mempunyai golongan profesional yang mencukupi bagi membantu kanak-kanak dan keluarga mereka dalam proses membantu pemulihan mereka (Newman & Dannenfelser, 2005). Di Malaysia misalnya, RKK merupakan institusi yang hanya menumpukan kepada aspek perlindungan semata-mata © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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(Laporan Tahunan JKM, 2009). Berdasarkan faktor-faktor tersebut, pengkaji merasakan adalah perlu untuk melaksanakan kajian ini. Malah kajian yang berkaitan dengan isu ini amat terhad dijalankan di Malaysia. Diharap agar penemuan daripada kajian ini akan dapat digunakan sebagai rujukan oleh pihak-pihak yang berurusan terus dengan kanak-kanak.

PERNYATAAN MASALAH Terdapat beberapa penghuraian daripada penyelidik terdahulu tentang definisi sokongan sosial. Adakalanya berlaku percanggahan memandangkan konsep sokongan sosial itu sendiri yang luas dan sukar untuk diberikan maksud yang tepat (Cohen & McKay, 1984). Namun sebilangan penyelidik bersetuju dengan beberapa definisi yang boleh menggambarkan mengenai sokongan sosial. Secara umumnya, ia merupakan suatu perspektif bersepadu yang menunjukkan satu proses penyampaian yang melibatkan sumber rangkaian, tingkah laku dan penilaian (Vaux, 1988). Ia juga difahami sebagai pertolongan atau bantuan yang merujuk kepada perhubungan di kalangan keluarga, jiran atau kawan (Thoits, 1986). Pada dasarnya terdapat dua jenis sokongan iaitu sokongan formal yang disediakan oleh agensi perkhidmatan sosial dan sokongan tidak formal yang melibatkan ahli keluarga, kawan, jiran dan pembantu (Noriah, 2008). Sokongan sosial lebih baik sekiranya ia diberikan melalui suatu sistem yang tidak formal seperti keluarga, rakan-rakan dan pembantu manakala sesetengah orang lebih memerlukan sistem yang formal seperti pekerja sosial dan doktor (Noriah, 2008). Barrera (1986) berpendapat bahawa sokongan sosial boleh dibahagikan kepada dua kategori iaitu sokongan berunsur fizikal dan material seperti menyediakan keperluan makanan, pakaian dan kediaman ketika seseorang itu berada di dalam keadaan kesusahan. Manakala yang kedua adalah sokongan berbentuk emosi dan bukan material iaitu kebanyakannya berupa kata-kata semangat, dorongan dan nasihat. Beliau percaya bahawa kedua-dua kategori ini merupakan gabungan bentuk pertolongan yang diberikan terhadap mereka yang memerlukan. Kebanyakan kes trauma akibat penderaan seksual adalah berkaitan dengan kegagalan mangsa menyesuaikan diri secara psikologi dengan persekitaran mereka. Keadaan ini mengganggu kehidupan seharian mereka dan kebanyakannya berlarutan sehingga dewasa (Briere & Runtz, 1993). Walau bagaimanapun, terdapat ramai juga mangsa yang berupaya untuk menyesuaikan diri dan berfungsi dengan efektif dalam kehidupan mereka. Salah satu faktor yang menyumbang kepada keadaan ini adalah wujudnya sokongan sosial terhadap mereka (Hyman, Gold & Cott, 2003). Kehadiran sokongan sosial ini bertindak sebagai penampan kepada tahap tekanan, melindungi individu yang menderita daripada membangunkan gejala dan penyesuaian tingkah laku (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Kesejahteraan kanak-kanak biasanya lebih mudah dicapai sekiranya sokongan sosial diberikan secara formal berbanding sokongan sosial berbentuk tidak formal. Siregar (2011) di dalam penelitiannya di institusi perlindungan telah menggambarkan keadaan 11 orang kanak-kanak yang telah didera secara seksual dengan pelbagai masalah seperti kurus dan kesakitan. Manakala mental kanak-kanak memperlihatkan beberapa ciriciri jelas seperti pendiam, kehilangan kepercayaan diri dan ketakutan. Malah kanak-kanak turut berkelakuan membahayakan diri seperti hendak melukai diri sendiri dengan menggunakan senjata tajam. Kajian ini memperlihatkan kanak-kanak lebih banyak bergantung kepada petugas dan pekerja sosial di institusi perlindungan bagi mendapatkan sokongan, semangat dan kekuatan bagi mengatasi trauma berbanding keluarga sendiri dan juga rakan-rakan di institusi. Hubungan yang baik antara mangsa dan pekerja kes adalah amat diperlukan kerana ia akan melahirkan rasa selamat kepada mangsa untuk berkongsi masalah (Nor Shafrin, 2012).

METOD Rekabentuk Kajian Kajian ini menggunakan pendekatan kajian kualitatif. Ia digunakan dengan anggapan bahawa ia merupakan kaedah yang paling sesuai untuk meneroka pemahaman responden dan mendapatkan pandangan mengenai isu yang dikaji. Kajian kualitatif sesuai digunakan bagi memahami sifat seseorang, meneroka pengalaman, mengetahui pandangan seseorang dan memahami sebab bagi sesuatu peristiwa yang dialami (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). Untuk mendapatkan pemahaman yang mendalam, tidak cukup apabila hanya mengetahui tentang “apa” dari suatu fenomena tetapi juga “mengapa” dan “bagaimana” dari suatu fenomena. Penelitian kualitatif dilakukan untuk mengembangkan pemahaman dan menginterpretasi apa yang ada di sebalik sesuatu peristiwa, latar belakang pemikiran manusia yang terlibat di dalamnya, serta bagaimana manusia meletakkan makna pada peristiwa yang terjadi.

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Dalam kajian kualitatif, analisis thematic merupakan kaedah yang paling biasa digunakan. Ia menekankan isi-isi penting, pemeriksaan dan corak rakaman (atau "tema") dalam data. Tema dibentuk dalam seluruh set data dan berkaitan dengan persoalan kajian (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thematic_analysis, diakses pada 12 Mac 2013). Kajian kualitatif adalah suatu bentuk kajian yang kompleks (Holloway & Todres, 2003) dan analisis thematic merupakan kaedah asas yang digunakan untuk mendapatkan data. Atas sebab ini, Boyatzis (1998) menyifatkan ia adalah suatu alat yang digunakan untuk menggunakan kaedah yang berbeza di dalam sesebuah kajian. Ia merupakan tradisi utama yang digunakan seperti yang dilakukan di dalam kajian yang menggunakan pendekatan grounded theory (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Memandangkan kajian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif maka data-data yang diperolehi adalah terhad kepada responden yang ditemubual sahaja dan tidak boleh digeneralisasikan.

Teknik Persampelan Pemilihan responden adalah secara purposive sampling iaitu hanya kanak-kanak yang mempunyai sejarah penderaan seksual sahaja yang akan dipilih. Kaedah ini lebih bertepatan bagi mendapatkan maklumat berbanding pemilihan secara rawak (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Pemilihan kepada satu jantina sahaja adalah kerana jumlah mangsa penderaan seksual kanak-kanak perempuan jauh lebih tinggi berbanding lelaki (Statistik JKM, 2012). Selain itu, trauma lebih memberi kesan yang negatif kepada kanak-kanak perempuan berbanding kanak-kanak lelaki (Gil, 2012). Senarai kemasukan ke RKK yang dikeluarkan oleh JKM sehingga bulan Mac tahun 2012 digunakan sebagai master frame responden kajian ini.

Prosedur Pengumpulan Data Bagi mendapatkan data mengenai sokongan sosial yang disediakan kepada mangsa penderaan seksual, terdapat tiga kaedah yang digunakan iaitu secara pemerhatian, temubual mendalam dan analisis dokumendokumen yang telah digunakan. Penggunaan tiga kaedah adalah selaras dengan prinsip triangulation dalam penyelidikan kualitatif. Data primer diperolehi melalui temubual yang dilakukan secara bersemuka dengan kanak-kanak yang terlibat sebagai responden. Peserta yang terlibat dipilih oleh pihak pengurusan RKK mengikut jenis kemasukan yang dikehendaki iaitu kes penderaan seksual. Teknik secara bersemuka merupakan satu kaedah pengumpulan data, informasi atau pengumpulan pandangan menerusi beberapa siri soalan yang secara tradisinya ditanya secara bersemuka (Jupp, 2006). Temubual semi-structured digunakan sebagai suatu kaedah penting bagi mendapatkan maksud yang lebih mendalam. Ia merupakan satu cara di mana soalan-soalan ditanya bagi meneroka pandangan dan pemahaman responden bagi mendapatkan jawapan yang lebih luas. Ia juga mempunyai kekuatan sebagai metod pengumpulan data yang dapat meliputi pandangan responden kajian dan membantu mereka menjelaskan dengan lebih mendalam mengenai sesuatu interaksi yang komplex (Abdul Razak, 2009). Selain itu, ia dapat memudahkan penghuraian secara verbal mengenai apa yang diperkatakan oleh responden (Patton, 2002). Manakala data sekunder pula akan diperolehi melalui buku, jurnal, majalah, surat khabar, laporan penyelidikan, tesis dan artikel berkaitan dengan penderaan seksual dan perkhidmatan sokongan di institusi.

Teknik Analisis Data Analisis data dalam kajian ini menggunakan teknik analisis data kualitatif di mana aktiviti-aktiviti yang telah dijalankan secara serentak dengan pengumpulan data. Analisis data dilakukan dengan mengumpul data-data yang diperolehi, mengasingkan kepada unit-unit, melakukan sintesis, menyusun ke dalam tema tertentu, memilih apa yang penting dan yang akan dikaji, dan membuat kesimpulan yang boleh dikongsi dengan orang lain. Aktiviti dalam analisis data meliputi pengurangan data, paparan data dan kesimpulan. Pengurangan data bermakna ringkasan yang telah diambil daripada transkripsi yang telah dilakukan; memilih perkara utama dan seterusnya memberi tumpuan kepada perkara-perkara yang penting dengan mencari tema dan corak. Oleh itu, data yang telah dikurangkan akan memberikan gambaran yang lebih jelas dan memudahkan pengkaji untuk melaksanakan analisis seterusnya. Kesimpulan dalam kajian kualitatif adalah dapatan yang baru ditemui. Namun kesimpulan tersebut perlu disokong oleh bukti yang sah dan konsisten, supaya ia boleh dipercayai.

Isu Etika Isu etika akan diberikan keutamaan dalam kajian ini memandangkan ia melibatkan perasaan dan pandangan responden khususnya kanak-kanak yang menjadi mangsa penderaan seksual. Robson (1993) merujuk etika © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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di dalam kajian sebagai garis panduan pelaksanaan, pertimbangan isu teknikal termasuk hal-hal berkaitan pemilihan sampel dan pembinaan soal selidik. Menurut Abdul Razak (2009), penyelidik perlu lebih berhati-hati dan lebih bijaksana dengan kod etika yang digunakan apabila mengkaji tentang sesuatu tajuk yang sensitif. Dalam kajian ini, penyelidik mengambil langkah yang perlu semasa membincangkan isu seksual bersama responden kerana ia mungkin akan menimbulkan rasa ketidakselesaan dalam kalangan responden. Beberapa kod etika telah digunapakai apabila melibatkan maklumat diri, borang kebenaran temubual dan rakaman temubual responden. Selain itu, data yang diperolehi juga dianalisis dengan lebih berhati-hati kerana mungkin ada ungkapan dan ekpresi wajah responden yang sukar untuk diterjemahkan dalam penulisan untuk menyamai maksud yang ingin disampaikan.

Instrumen Kajian Topik yang dikaji dalam kajian ini adalah merupakan suatu isu yang sensitif dan mampu menyebabkan sejarah hitam kanak-kanak diungkit semula. Oleh yang demikian, kaedah terbaik bagi mendapatkan maklumat adalah dengan penyelidik bertanya sendiri kepada responden iaitu melalui temubual secara bersemuka. Kaedah ini adalah significant kerana pengendalian temubual dalam kajian kualitatif bergantung kepada penyelidik sebagai instrumen (Patton, 2002). Temubual bersemuka merupakan salah satu daripada cara pengumpulan data yang dilakukan dengan menemu bual secara langsung responden yang dipilih sebagai responden kajian. Cara temubual ini memberikan lebih banyak peluang untuk pengkaji membentuk hubungan yang baik dengan responden serta dapat mengagak situasi sama ada responden ingin terlibat dalam kajian atau tidak. Ini dapat dipastikan dengan melihat pada emosi yang dizahirkan ketika temubual itu dilakukan serta tahap kefahaman mereka terhadap soalan yang diajukan. Justeru penggunaan protokol temubual amat penting bagi membantu penyelidik menyediakan struktur sesi temubual yang lebih tersusun di samping dapat mengekalkan tahap fleksibiliti temubual tersebut. Sebelum sesuatu temubual dijalankan, protokol temubual telah disediakan terlebih dahulu oleh penyelidik dan disemak oleh mereka yang pakar berkaitan kanak-kanak. Menurut Patton (2002), soalan yang baik adalah ringkas, neutral, satu persatu dan jelas. Justeru, protokol temubual yang telah disediakan terdiri daripada soalan terbuka (open ended question) yang berkaitan persoalan kajian.

DAPATAN KAJIAN Analisis Perhubungan Responden Sejumlah lapan orang kanak-kanak yang berada di RKK telah dipilih sebagai sampel kajian. Tempoh responden berada di RKK adalah antara tiga bulan hingga dua tahun. Tujuh daripada lapan orang responden adalah bersekolah dengan kategori umur adalah antara 12 hingga 17 tahun. Seramai tiga orang responden tinggal bersama ibu dan ayah sebelum ditempatkan di RKK. Dua orang kanak-kanak tinggal dengan ibu, seorang tinggal dengan ayah, seorang tinggal dengan ibu dan ayah tiri dan seorang tinggal dengan ibu dan ayah angkat. Hubungan mangsa dan pendera adalah dalam pelbagai hubungan. Namun semua mangsa dan pendera mempunyai hubungan kekeluargaan. Tiga orang mangsa didera secara seksual oleh ayah kandung, seorang oleh ayah tiri, seorang oleh abang kandung, seorang ayah angkat dan dua orang oleh datuk.

Pengalaman Mangsa Penderaan Terdapat beberapa kesan yang dialami responden meliputi aspek fizikal dan juga secara emosi. Responden turut menyatakan beberapa kesan yang masih dialami walaupun telah berada di institusi perlindungan malah jauh dari pendera. Dua daripada lapan kanak-kanak yang ditemubual menceritakan mengenai kesan fizikal yang dialami iaitu parut di tangan akibat dikelar dengan senjata tajam. Kesan tersebut adalah berpunca daripada perlakuan mereka sendiri akibat tidak mampu menahan emosi tertekan semasa berada di RKK. Manakala kesan emosi yang dialami meliputi beberapa aspek seperti tekanan emosi. Hasil temubual mendapati kesan emosi ini masih dirasai oleh kanak-kanak walaupun mereka telah berada di institusi perlindungan dan tinggal berasingan dengan pendera. Selain itu kanak-kanak mengalami tekanan perasaan dan kesedihan terutamanya bagi kanak-kanak yang baru ditempatkan di RKK dan terpisah daripada keluarga. Kanak-kanak hampir tidak mempunyai interaksi dengan ibu bapa apatah lagi untuk berbual-bual dengan mereka. Keadaan begini menyebabkan anak-anak rasa terpinggir, kecewa dan tidak dipedulikan. Selain itu, perpisahan dengan keluarga telah menimbulkan keresahan kepada responden. Mereka menganggap bahawa bukan mereka yang sepatutnya di asingkan sebaliknya pendera yang wajar menerima hukuman. Ini dianggap sebagai ketidakadilan yang dilakukan terhadap mereka. Tiga orang responden secara jelas menyatakan kesedihan kerana tidak dapat tinggal bersama keluarga mahupun sekadar balik bercuti © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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kerana pendera masih belum menerima hukuman. Rungutan responden dapat dilihat seperti dalam Jadual 1. Jadual 1 - Contoh Penyataan yang menggambarkan rungutan dari responden

Responden

Pernyataan

R1, 17 tahun

Tak tau sebab saya tak naik mahkamah lagi. Lambat. Tangguh-tangguh. Ayah bebas lagi. So tak penah balik cuti. Saya nak balik cuti. Ada sedara. Boleh tak kalau sedara ambik?

R2, 16 tahun

Kes masih belum selesai. Lepas keluar saya tak tau nak pergi mana.

R4, 14 tahun

Memang ada yang nak ambik tapi tak boleh sebab ayah tak kena tangkap lagi. Polis tak dapat siasat dia kat mana. Dia lari.

Responden akhirnya terpaksa menerima keadaan mereka yang perlu berada di RKK untuk suatu tempoh yang mereka sendiri tidak pasti. Mereka memahami bahawa selagi pendera masih belum ditangkap, mereka perlu berada di institusi perlindungan. Kanak-kanak juga didapati masih mengingati dengan baik semua peristiwa penderaan dan masih merasa trauma dengan peristiwa tersebut walaupun ia telah lama berlaku. Ini dilihat melalui penceritaan yang lancar dan berterusan semasa proses temubual walaupun pengkaji tidak bertanya mengenai soalan yang berkaitan. Tiga orang responden menyatakan mereka merasa malu dan rendah diri untuk bergaul dengan orang lain dan ingin mengasingkan terus dirinya daripada masyarakat sekeliling. Dua orang responden kerap mengingati peristiwa itu berulang-ulang kali sehinggakan membawa kepada mimpi dan tiga orang lagi responden yang berasa takut jika berhadapan dengan individu yang berlainan jantina. Antara perkara yang disebut responden juga adalah ingatan yang kuat terhadap peristiwa penderaan, keinginan membunuh diri kerana tertekan, perasaan takut kerana pendera masih bebas kerana masih belum dihukum dan perasaan sakit hati kepada pendera.

Jaringan dan Sumber Sokongan Sokongan sosial bagi kanak-kanak yang telah didera secara seksual tidak hanya dapat difahami melalui sikap menyokong daripada rakan-rakan dan ahli keluarga tetapi juga melalui rangkaian sosial di sekeliling mereka. Rangkaian sosial yang membentuk satu jaringan sokongan sosial ini sebenarnya dibina sepanjang hayat melalui ciri-ciri peribadi dan perhubungan sosial yang mereka lalui setiap hari. Kanak-kanak di RKK bukan sahaja berfungsi sebagai penerima sokongan tetapi juga sebagai pemberi sokongan. Ia merupakan timbal balik kefungsian yang berlaku di sekeliling mereka.

Peranan Keluarga Keluarga merupakan kesatuan yang terkecil di dalam masyarakat tetapi mempunyai kedudukan yang primer dan fundamental, oleh sebab itu keluarga mempunyai peranan yang besar dalam mempengaruhi kehidupan seorang anak, terutama pada tahap awal perkembangannya. Keluarga juga merupakan faktor yang sangat penting untuk membawa kejayaan kepada proses pemulihan kanak-kanak yang memerlukan perlindungan dan pemeliharaan di institusi. Walau bagaimanapun, faktor geografi menyebabkan peranan keluarga yang penting itu hampir terhapus serta memberi kesan negatif kepada jiwa kanak-kanak. Kedudukan RKK Penor terletak jauh dari kebanyakan tempat tinggal responden yang ditemubual dan ia memberi kesukaran interaksi antara kanak-kanak dan keluarga. Hasil temubual mendapati isu berkaitan lawatan keluarga merupakan isu yang telah diperkatakan oleh semua responden. Didapati kekerapan keluarga melawat dan bersama kanak-kanak dalam aktiviti yang dianjurkan oleh RKK akan memberi keyakinan yang tinggi dalam diri kanak-kanak terhadap keluarganya bahawa mereka masih disayangi. Sebaliknya pula, kanak-kanak merasa kecewa dan sedih jika mereka dihalang daripada menghubungi keluarga mereka. Semua responden yang ditemui menyatakan perasaan yang sama apabila ditanya mengenai emosi mereka berkaitan perhubungan bersama keluarga semasa berada di RKK. Responden menyatakan: “Mak melawat ada tapi tak selalu. Sebab mak duk Perak. Jauh. Saya tak suka pindah sini. Jauh”. (R1, 17 tahun) Kanak-kanak turut menyatakan isu perhubungan melalui telefon yang sering menjadi rungutan setiap dari mereka:

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“Kalau nak telefon pun dalam 15 minit je. Pastu ari tu masa jumpa mak, dah la lama tak jumpa, boleh setakat 45 minit je. Tapi masa kat Cheras ari tu boleh jumpa lama. Sampai saya rasa bosan sebab datang lama-lama sangat. Tapi kat sini 45 minit macam tak puas je” . (R2, 16 tahun)

Ia turut diluahkan oleh kanak-kanak lain: “Ada. Sebulan sekali. Tapi gilir dengan melawat la. Kalau sebulan tu call, bulan tu tak boleh melawat. Ada masa mula-mula tu mak datang melawat pastu tak bagi call dah. Dulu tak macam ni. Dulu seminggu sekali bukan sebulan sekali”. (R5, 15 tahun) Responden juga ada menyatakan kesedihan apabila keluarga tidak dapat datang melawat kerana jarak yang jauh serta beberapa halangan lain seperti masalah kewangan dan tiada kenderaan. Sebagaimana diluahkan oleh responden 6 yang hanya mampu menyatakan rasa sedih apabila ditanya tentang perasaannya mengenai lawatan keluarga. Menurut beliau, sepanjang dua tahun berada di RKK, ibunya tidak pernah datang melawat dan hanya menelefon sebanyak dua kali kerana jarak antara rumah dan RKK yang jauh. Semasa temubual juga kanak-kanak kelihatan muram dan tidak banyak bercakap. Isu penggunaan telefon sering digambarkan sebagai tidak adil oleh semua responden. Menurutnya: “Kalau kat sini sabtu dengan ahad je. Kadang-kadang tak boleh telefon. Kalau mintak pun mak PKM kata giliran asrama lain. Bila giliran tu dah habis bila saya mintak pun tak dapat”. (R7, 13 tahun) Mereka merasakan bahawa sistem perhubungan yang dilaksanakan tidak menggembirakan mereka malah memberi tekanan seolah-olah mereka berada di dalam kongkongan dan bukannya institusi perlindungan. Sehingga ada seorang kanak-kanak yang menyatakan: “Duk sini macam duk dalam penjara”. (R1, 17 tahun) Hasil temubual mendapati semua kanak-kanak mahu berada bersama keluarga masing-masing dan pendera yang masih bebas merupakan suatu halangan besar untuk mereka memenuhi keinginan itu. Responden merasakan bahawa mereka sepatutnya tidak dimasukkan ke RKK kerana bukan mereka yang melakukan kesalahan. Sebaliknya pendera yang sepatutnya diberi hukuman.

Peranan Rakan Sokongan daripada rakan diketahui melalui tiga soalan yang diajukan iaitu sama ada responden menceritakan masalah mereka kepada rakan-rakan, adakah rakan-rakan mengambil berat apabila mereka menghadapi masalah dan adakah rakan-rakan membantu mereka menyelesaikan masalah. Kumpulan rakan ini mempunyai peranan tertentu dalam aktiviti seharian responden di RKK. Ia merupakan agensi tidak formal yang memberikan pengalaman yang tidak dapat diperolehi daripada keluarga dan juga di institusi. Bagi responden, rakan adalah tempat mereka mencurahkan masalah dan pengganti ibu bapa, memandangkan kesukaran mereka bertemu dengan keluarga. Semua responden memberi jawapan yang hampir sama iaitu secara umumnya rakan merupakan individu yang paling diharapkan untuk membantu mereka jika menghadapi masalah semasa berada di RKK. “Saya cerita pada kawan-kawan je. Alaina. Kawan satu wing”. (R1, 17 tahun) Secara umumnya, responden memilih rakan yang mempunyai persamaan kes, tingkah laku, sikap dan identiti dengan mereka. “Cerita kat member rapat. Sorang je. Sama kes”. (R3, 16 tahun) Responden dilihat lebih selesa meluahkan masalah mereka mahupun sekadar berkongsi cerita dengan rakanrakan yang terdekat dengan mereka.

Peranan Kaunselor Setiap RKK ditetapkan untuk mempunyai sekurang-kurangnya seorang kaunselor untuk membantu dan membimbing kanak-kanak menangani isu dan permasalahan yang dihadapi sama ada isu akademik mahupun isu yang bersifat peribadi. Bagi RKK Penor, kaunselor yang ditempatkan masih pada peringkat baru iaitu hanya dalam tempoh enam bulan. Sebelum ini kaunselor bertugas secara giliran dengan ibu pejabat JKMN Pahang iaitu hanya sekurang-kurangnya sekali dalam seminggu. Melalui temubual dan pemerhatian didapati peranan kaunselor masih belum begitu berkesan dalam menyediakan keperluan emosi kanak-kanak. Namun kaunselor bersikap positif pada masa akan datang

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supaya dapat melaksanakan semua program yang dirancang untuk sepanjang tahun.

Pelaksanaan Program dan Aktiviti Bagi RKK Penor, pihak pentadbiran turut merancang untuk menyediakan perkhidmatan dan aktiviti kemahiran terutamanya bagi para kanak-kanak yang tidak bersekolah ataupun sebagai aktiviti tambahan pada hujung minggu. Memandangkan kewujudan RKK ini masih baru, aktiviti dan perkhidmatan yang disediakan pada peringkat ini hanya aktiviti jahitan manik dan melibatkan kanak-kanak yang berusia 12 tahun ke atas sahaja. Pemerhatian mendapati kanak-kanak kelihatan gembira dan bersungguh-sungguh ketika menjalani aktiviti menjahit manik. Hasil temubual dengan guru jahitan mendapati kanak-kanak suka berada di kelas tersebut memandangkan tidak banyak program yang dijalankan pada hari cuti sekolah dan hari minggu. Selain itu terdapat juga program dan aktiviti keagamaan yang merupakan aktiviti harian yang dijalankan di RKK. Pada kebiasaannya, aktiviti ini dijalankan oleh pembantu Hal Ehwal Agama pada setiap hari, terutamanya solat. Adakalanya juga terdapat ahli Lembaga Pelawat yang membantu khususnya mengimamkan solat pada waktu ketiadaan pembantu Hal Ehwal Agama. Aktiviti lain yang dijalankan adalah seperti membaca Al-Quran, berpuasa dan kelas fardhu ‘ain. Kebanyakan aktiviti yang dijalankan didapati banyak membantu kanak-kanak melupakan sebentar kerunsingan yang mereka hadapi. Perkhidmatan bimbingan dan kaunseling turut disediakan di setiap RKK sama ada daripada jawatan pegawai psikologi atau pegawai kaunselor. Berdasarkan temubual, hanya terdapat dua orang responden yang mengaku pernah berjumpa dengan kaunselor manakala selebihnya tidak pernah bertemu. Dua orang responden yang pernah bertemu dengan kaunselor menyatakan bahawa mereka berjumpa kaunselor sekiranya menghadapi masalah. Pada kebiasaannya, kaunselor dapat membantu menyelesaikan masalah mereka. Namun pertemuan itu bukanlah pada kadar yang kerap. Terdapat juga program akademik dan persekolahan untuk kanak-kanak. Tujuh daripada lapan responden sedang bersekolah antara tahun enam hingga tingkatan lima. Temubual bersama responden bersekolah mendapati mereka gembira kerana berpeluang bersekolah dan ia juga merupakan tempat bagi “melepaskan” diri daripada rasa terkongkong di dalam RKK. Selain daripada itu, ia menggambarkan mereka sebagai kanakkanak yang sama dengan kanak-kanak lain di luar insitusi dan mendapat peluang yang sama untuk berjaya seperti orang lain. Didapati sekolah merupakan suatu sumber sokongan terhadap responden yang berupaya meningkatkan tahap keyakinan diri kanak-kanak. Mereka boleh bergaul dengan kanak-kanak lain dan mampu melupakan sementara masalah yang dihadapi sebelum ini. Namun demikian, terdapat kanak-kanak yang merungut kerana tidak dibenarkan mengikuti program luar sekolah seperti lawatan, sukan dan permainan. Kanak-kanak hanya dibenarkan mengikuti program secara minimum sahaja. Hal ini berpunca daripada isu tanggungjawab yang harus dipikul oleh pihak pentadbiran RKK sekiranya terdapat hal-hal kecemasan yang berlaku ke atas kanak-kanak.

Kaedah Menangani Masalah Berdasarkan temubual yang telah dijalankan, terdapat beberapa strategi yang telah digunakan oleh responden apabila menghadapi tekanan iaitu strategi berbentuk interpersonal (staf dan rakan sebaya), kerohanian, tingkah laku serta strategi pemikiran. Tujuh orang responden lebih cenderung memilih strategi berbentuk tingkahlaku apabila menghadapi stres. Antara contoh strategi tingkah laku yang digunakan oleh responden ialah tidur, menulis dan menangis apabila merasai tekanan. Responden menganggap bahawa perlakuan tersebut mampu mengurangkan stres dalam jangka masa pendek. Menurut seorang responden: “Kalau ada problem saya diam je lah. Kalau nak nangis, nangis je la sorang-sorang. Dalam cupboard ke.. Kat belakang sliding ke.. Diari ke..”. (R1, 17 tahun)

Selain itu, lima orang responden memilih strategi berbentuk interpersonal bagi menguruskan stres iaitu yang melibatkan interaksi dengan staf dan rakan-rakan. Mereka memilih perkongsian masalah dengan rakan-rakan yang sama kes dan seasrama bagi menguruskan stres. Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa responden lebih mempercayai dan menganggap rakan sebagai sumber sokongan sosial semasa berada di institusi. Jadual 2 memaparkan contoh pernyataan yang diberikan oleh responden. Walaupun rakan bukanlah individu yang memberikan nasihat dan menyelesaikan masalah mereka, tetapi ia banyak membantu ke arah peningkatan perkembangan kendiri melalui perhubungan yang positif. Selain itu responden menganggap mereka tidak mempunyai banyak pilihan untuk sebagai sumber sokongan.

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Jadual 2 - Kenyataan menggambarkan peranan rakan sebagai sumber sokongan sosial

Responden

Pernyataan

R1, 17 tahun

Saya cerita pada kawan-kawan je

R2, 16 tahun

Saya cita kat adik saya je lah Kalau ada problem saya cita kat dia jugak (kawan baik)

R3, 16 tahun

Cerita kat member rapat. Sorang je. Sama kes Dengan kaunselor cita jugak

R5, 15 tahun

Kat kawan. Tapi kawan tu dah bebas la. Ada jugak kawan baik tapi dia tengah cuti sekarang ni

Selain itu, strategi berbentuk pemikiran juga digunakan oleh responden apabila mengalami stres. Individu yang berfikiran positif mampu berfungsi secara normal dalam kehidupan mereka, terutama apabila menghadapi stres. Justeru, seseorang kanak-kanak yang sentiasa berfikiran positif akan berusaha meningkatkan motivasi dan pencapaian diri mereka di sekolah. Kesemua strategi pemikiran yang dinyatakan oleh responden adalah berbentuk positif seperti berusaha mengenalpasti permasalahan yang dihadapi, menyenaraikan permasalahan serta mencari jalan penyelesaiannya. Melafazkan kata-kata positif pada diri dan memberikan tumpuan kepada masalah yang serius turut digunakan apabila responden mengalami stres. Secara kesimpulannya, kebanyakan responden mengamalkan strategi berbentuk tingkah laku apabila mengalami stres, diikuti strategi berbentuk interpersonal dan pemikiran. Kebanyakan responden juga didapati telah menggunakan strategi pengurusan stres yang positif.

PENUTUP Rangkaian sokongan sosial dan perhubungan peribadi yang rapat telah dikaitkan dengan satu penghasilan outcome yang positif (Shonkoff, 1984). Kenyataan ini boleh ditunjukkan dengan jelas dalam perbincangan di atas. Sungguhpun demikian, walaupun kajian sebelumnya mendapati bahawa kesejahteraan kanak-kanak lebih berkaitan dengan sokongan sosial secara rasmi yang diberikan oleh institusi, tetapi ia tidak berlaku kepada kanak-kanak dalam kajian ini. Penemuan kajian menunjukkan responden lebih berminat untuk berkongsi masalah dengan rakan-rakan yang rapat dengan mereka. Hasil kajian ini juga tidak bertepatan dengan kajian oleh Siregar (2011), yang menyatakan bahawa kesejahteraan mangsa penderaan seksual biasanya lebih mudah dicapai jika sokongan sosial yang disediakan adalah dalam bentuk formal berbanding sokongan tidak formal. Kanak-kanak adalah lebih bergantung kepada kakitangan dan pekerja sosial untuk mengatasi trauma di pusat perlindungan. Mereka lebih selesa menyatakan masalah dengan kakitangan atau pekerja sosial terhadap keluarga sendiri dan rakan-rakan mereka.

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Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. London: Sage Publications. Finkelhor, D., & Browne, A. (1985). The traumatic impact of child sexual abuse: A conceptualization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 55(4), 530-541. Frost, N., Mills, S., & Stein, M. (1999). Understanding residential child care. England: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Gil, E. (2012). Healing power of play: Working with abused children. New York: Guilford Press. Holloway, I., & Todres, L. (2003). The status of method: Flexibility, consistency and coherence. Qualitative Research, 3(3), 345-357. Hyman, S. M., Gold, S. N., & Cott, M. A. (2003). Forms of social support that moderate PTSD in childhood sexual abuse survivors. Journal of Family Violence, 18(5), 295-300. Hyman, S. M., Gold, S. N., & Cott, M. A. (2003). Forms of social support that moderate PTSD in childhood sexual abuse survivors. Journal of Family Violence, 18(5), 295-300. Jupp, V. (2006). The Sage dictionary of social research methods. London: Sage Publications. Laporan Tahunan Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. (2009). Kuala Lumpur. Lianny Solihin. (2004). Tindakan kekerasan pada anak dalam keluarga. Jurnal Pendidikan Penabur, 3(3), 129139. M. Anwar Fuadi. (2011). Dinamika psikologis kekerasan seksual: Sebuah studi fenomenologi. Psikoislamika, 8(2), 191-208. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. London: Sage Publications. Muhammed Sharif Mustaffa, & Nur Diyana Abd Rahim. (2012). Kesan psikologi dan bentuk sokongan anak deraan seksual. Journal of Educational Psychology & Counseling, 6(6), 30-49. Newman, B. S., & Dannenfelser, P. L. (2005). Children's protective services and Law enforcement: Fostering partnerships in investigations of child abuse. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 14(2), 97-111. Nor Shafrin Ahmad. (2012). Penderaan seksual: Keperluan kriteria pegawai, punca penderaan, dan kes tidak dilaporkan. Sosiohumanika, 5(1), 81-92. Noriah Mohamed. (2008). Social policy in Malaysia: A study of social support for the elderly in rural area. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Institut Sosial Malaysia. Pathmanathan A/L R. Nalasamy. (2009). Implementasi hak kanak-kanak (CRC) di Rumah Kanak-Kanak. Tesis master tidak diterbitkan, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods. California: Sage Publication. Pipe, M. E., Lamb, M. E., Orbach, Y., & Cederborg, A. C. (Eds.). (2013). Child sexual abuse: Disclosure, delay, and denial. New York: Psychology Press. Robson, C. (1993). Real world research, Oxford: Blackwell. Salina Nen, Fauziah Ibrahim, Suzana Mohd Hoesni, & Zaizul Abdul Rahman. (2012). Kajian kes inses bapa-anak perempuan: Memahami pengalaman dari perspektif mangsa. Jurnal Sains Sosial dan Kemanusiaan, 7(1), 46-58. Shonkoff, J. P. (1984). Social support and the development of vulnerable children. American Journal of Public Health, 74(4), 310-312. Siregar, B. (2011). Program perlindungan anak melalui rumah perlindungan sosial anak (RPSA). Jakarta: P3KS Press. Statistik Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. ( 2008, 2009, 2010 dan 2012). Kuala Lumpur. Steel, J., Sanna, L., Hammond,B., Whipple, J., & Cross, H. (2004). Psychological sequelae of childhood sexual abuse: Abuse related characteristics, coping strategies, and attributional style. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28(7), 785-801. Thoits, P. A. (1986). Social support as coping assistance. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54(4), 416-423. Vaux, A. (1988). Social support: Theory, research, and intervention. New York: Praeger publishers. Wagner, W.G. (2008). Counseling, psychology, and children. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

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SECTION V

SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY WELFARE

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PENDEKATAN PENDAYAUPAYAAN DI DALAM PEMBANGUNAN KOMUNITI: DARI TEORI KEPADA PRAKTIS Fauziah Ani* *[email protected] Universiti Putera Malaysia Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah [email protected] Universiti Putera Malaysia Khairunesa Isa [email protected] Universiti Tun Hussein Onn

Abstrak Kertas ini cuba mengilustrasikan bagaimana teori pendayaupayaan diaplikasikan sebagai satu pendekatan yang kritikal boleh meningkatkan kuasa dan kapasiti dalam pembangunan komuniti. Ini kerana pendayaupayaan tidak hanya dilihat dari teori dan falsafah sahaja, tetapi ia merupakan satu pendekatan yang hidup dan boleh diaplikasikan bagi mempertingkatkan kesejahteraan hidup ke arah yang lebih baik sama ada di peringkat individu, organisasi mahupun komuniti. Banyak isu-isu komuniti yang dibincangkan oleh golongan ilmuan dengan menggunakan pendekatan pendayaupayaan seperti isu kemiskinan, kesihatan, wanita, golongan kurang upaya, ibu tunggal,belia, kepimpinan,organisasi dan sebagainya. Ini kerana pendekatan ini merupakan pendekatan yang efektif dalam menyelesaikan isu dengan cara mendayaupayakan individu ataupun kumpulan sasaran untuk mengambil tindakan-tindakan yang berkesan melalui kemampuan dan potensi yang dibina. Perbincangan akan dimulakan dengan perbincangan mengenai definisi pendayaupayaan yang dikaitkan secara jelas dengan konsep kuasa (power). Dalam kontek pembangunan komuniti, pendayaupayaan merujuk kepada mekanisme yang mana individu, organisasi dan komuniti memperoleh kawalan ke atas kehidupan dan isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan mereka di dalam aspek ekonomi, sosial, psikologi dan politik. Bagi memahami secara jelas konsep ini, perbincangan konsep pendayaupayaan juga akan dikupas secara mendalam dengan melihat definisi ini dari dua dimensi yang berbeza iaitu sama ada pendayaupayaan sebagai satu proses ataupun sebagai hasil atau produk (outcome). Dengan menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif iaitu dengan menganalisa kandungan, buku, jurnal dan sebagainya, beberapa langkah atau proses telah dikemukakan bagi mengaplikasikan pendayaupayaan sebagai satu pendekatan yang boleh dipraktiskan di dalam kontek pembangunan komuniti khususnya di kawasan luar bandar. Keywords: pendayaupayaan, pembangunan komuniti, kuasa, pembangunan kapasiti

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

PENGENALAN Konsep pembangunan komuniti memerlukan kerjasama dan penglibatan daripada semua pihak sama ada daripada kementerian, jabatan, agensi kerajaan, badan bukan kerajaan, pihak swasta tetapi lebih penting adalah datangnya daripada penyertaan aktif ahli komuniti untuk merancang, melaksana, menilai dan meletakkan hala tuju pembangunan mereka sendiri. Ini bermakna asas kepada kejayaan proses pembangunan komuniti adalah berteraskan kepada keupayaan komuniti itu sendiri. Keupayaan sesebuah komuniti itu akan terhasil apabila ahli-ahlinya menyertai secara aktif dalam program pembangunan. Dari situ daya dan potensi yang ada pada mereka dapat dicungkil dan diperkembangkan sehingga mereka mampu untuk merancang, melaksana, membuat keputusan dan seterusnya membina pembangunan mengikut keinginan dan keperluan komuniti mereka sendiri tanpa perlu campur tangan yang maksimum daripada pihak luar (Asnarulkhadi;2011). Atas keperluan dan kepercayaan kepada potensi yang ada pada diri setiap ahli komuniti, maka orentasi pembangunan pada peringkat awal yang menggunakan pendekatan atas bawah telah diminimakan dan sebaliknya memberi perhatian langsung kepada pendekatan bawah atas yang mengetengahkan peranan ahli komuniti sebagai aktor utama dalam proses pembangunan komuniti. Proses mencungkil, meningkat dan mengembangkan daya manusia inilah yang dikenali sebagai pendayaupayaan komuniti. Individu atau ahli komuniti yang berdayaupaya dapat memberi kesan langsung kepada pendayaupayaan sesebuah komuniti. Oleh yang demikian untuk mengkaji pendekatan pendayaupayaan (empowerment) dalam konteks pembangunan komuniti, maka adalah penting untuk memahami konsep kuasa (power) yang menjadi kunci kata kepada pendayaupayaan. Perbincangan seterusnya akan melihat hubung kait peringkat-peringkat pendayaupayaan yang menghasilkan pendayaupayaan komuniti secara keseluruhan. Perbincangan juga akan menyentuh mengenai pendayaupayaan komuniti sebagai proses sosial bagi melihat pendekatan ini secara lebih praktikal.

KONSEP KUASA (POWER) SEBAGAI KEMAMPUAN (DAYA)- SATU ULASAN TEORITIKAL Perkataan pendayaupayaan merupakan satu perkataan yang sering diperdebatkan oleh ramai sarjana. dari pelbagai disiplin ilmu. Walau bagaimanapun konsep ini masih kurang jelas dari pelbagai peringkat dan amalan yang berbeza. Pendayaupayaan boleh difahami dengan mengkaji konsep kuasa dan ketiadaan kuasa. Terdapat dua cara untuk menkonsepsikan kuasa. Pertama, kuasa dirujuk sebagai kemampuan untuk mengambil tindakan. Kedua, sebagai “ benda” atau sesuatu yang dimiliki oleh individu atau kumpulan (Asnarul; 1997). Terdapat beberapa orang sarjana yang memberi tafsiran kuasa sebagai kemampuan untuk mengambil tindakan. Antaranya ialah Arendt(1970), Browne (1995), Gidden (1985) yang dipetik dalam Asnarulkhadi (2009). Arendt mendefinisikan kuasa sebagai kuasa sepadan dengan kemampuan manusia. Browne pula merujuk kuasa sebagai tenaga, daya dan potensi dan Gidden menganggap kuasa sebagai kapasiti transformasi yang dimiliki oleh manusia. Berdasarkan definisi yang diberikan oleh ketiga-tiga sarjana tadi, terdapat beberapa frasa kata yang terhasil daripada perkataan kuasa yang perlu diberi penelitian iaitu “ power to”, “power to do”, “power to act”. Ketigatiga frasa ini merujuk kepada kapasiti, potensi dan kecekapan individu yang boleh dibangun, dikumpul dan diperkukuhkan dalam proses kehidupan melalui pengalaman melakukan sesuatu. Jika satu peringkat individu, organisasi dan komuniti mendapat kuasa, tidak semestinya yang lain akan kehilangan kuasa. Kuasa ini dirujuk kepada power within dan “power with”. Power within merujuk kepada kuasa yang ada pada diri seseorang yang menghasilkan sikap berdikari iaitu sikap tidak bergantung pada pertolongan orang lain dan estem diri. Power with pula menjelaskan bahawa tindakan atau beberapa perkara lebih banyak akan tercapai sekira ianya dilakukan secara kolektif dan bukan secara individu. Penjelasan ini secara tidak langsung menunjukkan bahawa kuasa bukanlah milik hakiki individu atau kumpulan tetapi milik komuniti secara keseluruhan (Asnarul; 2009). Selain itu ia juga mencerminkan bahawa kuasa tidak semestinya memberi impak yang negatif sebaliknya ia menghasilkan momentum yang positif di dalam diri individu lantaran mampu menghasilkan tindakan yang baik dan berguna kepada dirinya dan persekitaran. Di dalam hal ini, kuasa membolehkan seseorang itu mampu menggunakan sumber-sumber yang ada seperti kemahiran, pengetahuan, wang dan bertindak secara kolektif untuk mencapai matlamat tertentu. Kuasa dalam konteks ini sesuai dengan pandangan yang diberikan oleh Mc.Clelland (1984) yang menyatakan bahawa keperluan kuasa adalah sebagai tenaga yang memberi motivasi, keyakinan dan inspirasi, memberi pilihan yang besar untuk mendapatkan sumber atau mencapai kehidupan yang lebih baik. Keiffer yang dipetik daripada Lord &Hutchison (1984) menjelaskan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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ketiadaan kuasa di peringkat individu boleh dilihat apabila seseorang itu gagal bertindak mempengaruhi hasil kehidupannya. Di dalam konteks pembangunan komuniti, melaksanakan kemampuan melalui penyertaan yang aktif oleh ahli-ahli komuniti secara tidak langsung akan meningkat dan menambahkan lagi kuasa dalam komuniti tersebut bagi mencapai kesejahteraan dan kehidupan yang lebih berkualiti. Manakala pendefinisian kuasa sebagai benda atau sesuatu yang dimiliki oleh individu atau kumpulan banyak diperbincangkan oleh sarjana seperti Weber (1978), Tawney (1993), Mac Millan (1978). Weber berpandangan bahawa kuasa adalah merupakan peluang seseorang atau kolektif untuk merealisasikan kehendak mereka walaupun dengan cara menentang orang lain. Bagi Tawney pula keupayaan seseorang individu atau sekumpulan individu untuk mengubah tingkahlaku dan perbuatan individu atau sekumpulan individu yang lain. Manakala Mc. Millan melihat dari sudut perbandingan antara kuasa dan pengaruh. Kuasa bermaksud keupayaan seseorang untuk menyusun semula atau mengubah keadaan atau situasi manakala pengaruh pula merujuk kepada keupayaan seseorang untuk mengubah persepsi orang lain terhadap sesuatu perkara. Berdasarkan perbincangan dalam konteks ini, dapat diperjelaskan bahawa kuasa adalah kuasa yang dikaji dalam bentuk hubungan dua pihak. Ini bermakna kuasa yang dimiliki oleh individu atau sekumpulan individu akan memberi kesan kepada individu atau kumpulan yang lain. Jumlah kuasa yang dimiliki oleh seseorang atau sekumpulan adalah bergantung sejauhmana seseorang itu boleh mengawal tingkah laku orang lain. Dalam hal ini, Zimmerman(1993) dan Rowland (1998) mengkonsepsikan kuasa ini sebagai “power over”. Kuasa diandaikan sebagai komoditi yang mana peningkatan kuasa pada satu peringkat sama ada peringkat individu, organisasi ataupun komuniti akan menyebabkan penurunan kuasa kepada yang lain. Individu atau kumpulan individu akan mendapatkan kuasa dengan apa cara sekalipun. Galbraith (1983), Frence dan Raven (1959) menyatakan terdapat beberapa sumber kuasa iaitu personaliti, harta dan kekayaan, ilmu, kedudukan, populariti serta organisasi yang berpengaruh. Sumber-sumber ini dianggap sebagai sumber kuasa yang kritikal di akhir abad ini. Sebagai contohnya kelas yang mendominasi alat (mean) adalah terdiri daripada golongan minoriti yang memiliki kuasa ekonomi dan politik yang luas berbanding dengan golongan majoriti yang tidak memiliki apa-apa kuasa. Perbandingan kedua-dua cara untuk menkonsepsikan kuasa juga dapat dilihat dari pandangan Lerner (1986) yang dipetik dari Lord dan Hutchison (1993). Lerner membahagikan ketiadaan kuasa kepada dua iaitu ketiadaan kuasa yang sebenar (real powerlessness) dan ketiadaan lebihan kuasa (powerlessness surplus). Ketiadaan kuasa sebenar terhasil daripada ketidakseimbangan ekonomi dan kawalan penindasan yang terdapat dalam sistem ataupun dilakukan oleh orang lain. Ketiadaan lebihan kuasa pula berlaku dalam diri seseorang apabila mereka percaya bahawa perubahan tidak akan berlaku lantaran menyebabkan mereka bersikap apati dan enggan untuk berjuang bagi mendapatkan kawalan dan pengaruh. Ketiadaan kuasa kemudiannya menjadi satu konsep yang dilihat sebagai fenomena objektif yang mana seseorang yang tiada kuasa politik dan ekonomi, kekurangan alat untuk mendapatkan kawalan yang besar ke atas sumber dan kehidupan mereka (Lord & Hutchison,1993). Secara umumnya konsep kuasa ini boleh dilihat dari dua sudut iaitu melihat kuasa yang memberi kemampuan atau tenaga kepada seseorang untuk mengambil insiatif terhadap sesuatu perkara atau tindakan. Kuasa ini terhasil dari dalam diri individu (intra) yang berfikiran positif dan yakin dengan kemampuan diri sendiri dan sikap ketidakbergantungan kepada pertolongan orang lain untuk mengambil tindakan terhadap sesuatu perkara. Dari sudut yang lain, kuasa juga boleh dilihat sebagai benda atau sesuatu yang menjadi hak milik seseorang atau sekumpulan orang. Kuasa yang dimiliki oleh seseorang atau sekumpulan orang akan menyebabkan kekurangan atau kehilangan kuasa pada orang lain (inter).

PENDAYAUPAYAAN (EMPOWERMENT) Konsep kuasa dan hubungannya dengan konsep pendayaupayaan telah banyak dibincangkan dalam wacana. Konsep kuasa sebagai kemampuan dihubung kait atau digunakan secara bersama dengan perkataan individu, organisasi dan komuniti menjadi pendayaupayaan individu, pendayaupayaan organisasi dan pendayaupayaan komuniti. Seterusnya pendekatan pendayaupayaan dibincangkan dan dikaitkan secara langsung dengan penyertaan ahli-ahli komuniti dalam proses pembangunan. Ini kerana penyertaan adalah merupakan sasaran dan intipati utama dalam proses pendayaupayaan sesebuah komuniti (Asnarulkhadi, 2009). Terdapat beberapa definisi yang diberikan oleh beberapa orang sarjana. Cornell Empowerment Group (1989) dan Mc. Clelland (1975) mempunyai pandangan yang selari mengenai konsep pendayaupayaan. Pendayaupayaan seperti yang difahami adalah merupakan satu proses perubahan (Cormell Empowerment Group,1989). Menurut Mc Cllelland (1975) yang dipetik dari Lord dan Hutchison (1993) berpandangan untuk mendapatkan kuasa, mereka perlu mengenal diri mereka sendiri dan juga persekitaran, dan mahu untuk

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mengenalpasti serta bekerjasama dengan yang lain bagi melakukan perubahan. Pendayaupayaan adalah merupakan satu proses mengembangkan keupayaan individu atau kumpulan untuk membuat pilihan dan berubah ke arah matlamat yang dingini. Wallerstein (1992) menterjemahkan pendayaupayaan sebagai satu proses tindakan sosial yang menggalakkan penyertaan rakyat, organisasi dan komuniti ke arah matlamat untuk meningkatkan kawalan individu dan komuniti, kecekapan politik, kualiti kehidupan yang semakin bertambah baik, dan keadilan sosial. Terdapat juga ramai sarjana yang berkongsi pandangan dan mengaitkan pendayaupayaan dengan kawalan personel. Antaranya ialah Rappaport (1987), Cochran (1986) dan Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (1986) dan Isarel (1994) melihat pendayaupayaan dari sisi kemampuan seseorang mengawal personal mereka bagi memperolehi sesuatu perkara yang mereka inginkan. Ini kerana individu itu sendiri dapat memahami kehendak mereka sendiri berbanding orang lain. Misalnya dari aspek kesihatan ,The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion berpendapat rakyat tidak boleh mencapai potensi kesihatan yang baik melainkan mereka sendiri mampu mengawal beberapa perkara yang menentukan faktor kesihatan mereka. Pandangan yang sama juga turut dikemukakan oleh Israel (1994) seseorang individu juga akan dapat mengeluarkan diri mereka dari kemiskinan sekiranya mereka mampu mengawal aspek-aspek yang membolehkan mereka melakukan perubahan hidup dengan mengambil beberapa tindakan yang dapat meningkatkan taraf hidup mereka. Bagi beliau konsep pendayaupayaan dianggap sebagai pendekatan yang positif dan proaktif. Konsep ini boleh dilihat daripada pelbagai peringkat analisa dan amalan iaitu peringkat individu, organisasi dan komuniti. Ringkasnya pendayaupayaan adalah merupakan satu proses yang mana individu dan kumpulan mengaplikasikan kemampuan dan kapasiti mereka bagi memahami dan mentafsir masalah dan kehendak yang diterjemahkan dalam bentuk tindakan melalui penyertaan aktif.

PENDAYAUPAYAAN SEBAGAI SATU PROSES ATAU HASIL ( PRODUK) Persoalan yang sering dibahaskan dalam hasil penulisan sarjana mengenai konsep ini ialah menentukan samada ia sebagai satu proses ataupun hasil (produk). Namun begitu Staples (1990) yang dipetik dalam Asnarulkhadi (2009) melihat pendayaupayaan terdiri dari dua dimensi iaitu sebagai satu proses dan juga hasil (produk) yang mana kedua-duanya mempunyai hubungan yang komplek antara satu sama lain. Sebagai satu proses pendayaupayaan berlaku apabila individu atau kumpulan berdaya berjaya melaksanakan kemampuan dan kapasitinya untuk memahami, menginterpretasi masalah dan kehendak dan kemudiannya diterjemahkan dalam bentuk proses tindakan. Dalam proses ini akan berlakunya interaksi dan hubungan kuasa antara individu dan kumpulan atau komunitinya, antara kumpulan dan struktur di tempat mereka tinggal yang mana keduadua entiti tersebut dapat memberi kesan di antara satu sama lain dan seterusnya menghasilkan perubahan. Perubahan ini pula yang dianggap sebagai satu produk. Sehubungan dengan itu, pendayupayaan dianggap sebagai proses yang dinamik dan berubah. Rappaport’s (1987) yang berpendapat bahawa pendayaupayaan wujud pada tiga peringkat iaitu individu, kumpulan kecil dan komuniti. Di peringkat individu, pendayaupayaan dikatakan sebagai pengalaman memperolehi peningkatan kawalan dan pengaruh ke atas kehidupan harian. Pada peringkat kumpulan kecil pula pendayaupayaan melibatkan pengalaman dan pengaruh kumpulan yang dikongsi di atas usaha mereka sendiri. Pendayaupayaan di peringkat komuniti adalah berkisarkan tentang keupayaan ahli-ahli komuniti menguasai dalam penggunaan sumber-sumber dan strategi bagi memperoleh matlamat mereka. Berbeza dengan pandangan Israel (1994) yang agak berkecuali dalam menentukan samada pendayaupayaan sebagai proses ataupun produk. Menurut beliau samada pendayaupayaan itu proses atau produk dapat ditentukan dengan melihat kata kerja pendayaupayaan. Kata kerja “mendayaupaya” merujuk kepada proses ahli komuniti memperolehi pengaruh dan kawalan ke atas kehidupan mereka. Oleh yang demikian dalam perbincangan ini, sama ada pendayaupayaan tersebut adalah satu proses atau produk ia bergantung kepada persepsi masing-masing dengan memberi penjelasan yang kukuh dan relevan. Namun begitu, apa yang ingin ditekankan di sini ialah pendayaupayaan ini boleh dilihat dari dua dimensi iaitu sebagai proses mahupun hasil atau produk. Sekiranya pendayaupayaan dilihat sebagai hasil, ia mudah dianggap sebagai satu yang “tangible” yang dapat dilihat, disentuh dan dikira. Sebaliknya jika pendayaupayaan didefinisikan sebagai proses, ia sering dianggap sebagai elemen yang bukan “tangible” seperti peningkatan dalam pengalaman, pengetahuan individu sepanjang penglibatan mereka.

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PENDEKATAN PENDAYAUPAYAAN DARI TEORITIKAL KEPADA PRAKTIS DALAM PEMBANGUNAN KOMUNITI Pendayaupayaan tidak hanya dilihat dari kontek teori dan falsafah sahaja, tetapi ia merupakan satu pendekatan yang boleh diaplikasikan dalam kehidupan seharian sama ada di dalam kerja-kerja komuniti, kerja sosial, kerja belia dan pembangunan umumnya. Kepentingan pendayaupayaan dalam komuniti telah pun dibincangkan sebagai tema utama dalam wacana terutamanya mengenai kecekapan komuniti, kapasiti komuniti dan modal sosial. Pendekatan ini semakin diterima sebagai pendekatan yang praktikal yang boleh meningkatkan, daya kapasiti dan keupayaan, dan seterusnya mencapai tahap kehidupan komuniti yang lebih baik. Banyak isuisu komuniti yang dibincangkan oleh golongan ilmuan dengan menggunakan pendekatan pendayaupayaan seperti isu kemiskinan, kesihatan, wanita, golongan kurang upaya, ibu tunggal,belia, kepimpinan,organisasi dan sebagainya. Ini kerana pendekatan ini merupakan pendekatan yang paling efektif dalam menyelesaikan isu-isu tersebut dengan cara mendayaupayakan individu ataupun kumpulan sasaran untuk mengambil tindakan-tindakan yang berkesan melalui kemampuan dan potensi yang dibina. Menurut Reid (2002) menggunakan pendekatan pendayupayaan untuk mengatasi masalah kemiskinan adalah merupakan satu pendekatan yang paling berkesan. Untuk menghapuskan kemiskinan, ia bukan sahaja dengan meningkatkan gaji dan pendapatan rakyat, tetapi juga perlu berusaha untuk menukar paradigma dan kepercayaan tradisi ahli komuniti dan juga institusi lokal. Pendekatan yang paling sesuai digunakan untuk menghapuskan kemiskinan ialah melalui pendekatan pendayaupayaan.

PROSES PENDAYAUPAYAAN DALAM PROGRAM PEMBANGUNAN KOMUNITI Reid (2002) telah mencadangkan beberapa langkah dan proses bagi melaksanakan pendekatan pendayaupayaan dalam pembangunan komuniti yang perlu dilaksana secara berurutan iaitu; a. Membina Harapan Langkah pertama dalam proses pendayaupayaan ialah meningkatkan keyakinan diri dan menghapuskan semangat mudah putus asa dalam kalangan ahli komuniti yang tidak berdayaupaya untuk mempertingkatkan kualiti kehidupan mereka. Sikap mudah putus asa dan tidak yakin kemampuan diri sendiri boleh mengancam dan menghalang impian untuk mendapat kehidupan yang lebih baik dan sempurna. b. Penyertaan yang meluas Proses pendayaupayaan dalam program pembangunan komuniti tidak akan berjaya sekira ia hanya disertai oleh pemimpin atau kumpulan kecil sahaja atau pun dari pihak lain seperti kementerian, jabatan,agensi, badan bukan kerajaan ataupun pihak swasta. Pendayaupayaan memerlukan penyertaan yang luas dari ahli, perkumpulan ataupun komuniti. Pendayaupayaan tidak mungkin berlaku sekiranya hanya golongan elit sahaja yang terlibat dan melaksanakan program komuniti. Sebaliknya idea, tenaga, kemahiran dan semangat mereka adalah merupakan aset atau potensi yang terselindung yang perlu diketengahkan melalui proses pendayaupayaan. Penyertaan yang luas dan aktif dari ahli-ahli komuniti akan menghasilkan satu keputusan yang baik dalam program pembangunan.Isu penyertaan ini telah banyak dibincangkan oleh sarjana dan menganggap ia merupakan medium utama pendekatan pendayaupayaan dan cara yang paling efektif untuk melibatkan rakyat dalam pembangunan komuniti. Semakin ramai ahli komuniti yang terlibat, maka semakin ramailah yang diupayakan. Pendekatan penyertaan ini bermula apabila berlakunya kegagalan pendekatan bawah atas dalam mempertingkatkan kesejahteraan hidup. c. Membina hubungan dengan rakan kongsi Pada peringkat ini dikenali sebagai peringkat kemajuan (advancement) dalam proses pendayaupayaan oleh Keiffer (1984). Pada tahap ini, sesebuah komuniti perlu mempunyai hubungan yang baik dengan organisasi lain dan dijadikan rakan kongsi dalam melaksanakan pembangunan. Rakan kongsi ini perlu bagi membantu mengenal pasti aset atau sumber di dalam komuniti dan juga membina kapasiti institusi untuk bergerak ke hadapan. d. Mencipta wawasan Sebelum melaksanakan proses pembangunan, ahli komuniti mestilah mempunyai wawasan yang jelas bagi melihat arah tuju mereka. Langkah awal untuk mencipta wawasan ialah bermula dengan membuat penilaian kekuatan dan kelemahan kapasiti sesebuah komuniti. Penilaian sumber dilakukan dengan mengenal pastikan aset-aset yang sedia ada dan dari situ penilaian dapat dibuat untuk menilai © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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kemampuan komuniti pada masa akan datang. Berasaskan penilaian ini, komuniti akan membina wawasan yang mempunyai matlamat dan strategi untuk melaksanakan program atau aktiviti pembangunan yang boleh meningkatkan kesejahteraan hidup. Strategi dibina berdasarkan halangan atau masalah yang wujud dalam persekitaran komuniti seperti kadar kemiskinan yang tinggi, kejatuhan prestasi pelajar, peningkatan jenayah, pengangguran dan sebagainya. Dari strategi tersebut, komuniti akan membina pendekatan-pendekatan yang sesuai untuk mengatasi masalah yang menjadi halangan kepada proses perubahan. e. Membina Rancangan Kerja

Langkah seterusnya dalam proses pendayaupayaan ialah dengan membina rancangan kerja. Rancangan kerja adalah merupakan “roadmap” yang menjadi sebahagian syarat asas ke arah mencapai hasil yang disasarkan. Rancangan kerja mengandungi arahan spesifik untuk tindakan komuniti, menyenaraikan jadual kerja, tanggungjawab dan juga bajet bagi program komuniti.. Rancangan kerja terhasil daripada strategi yang diterjemahkan dalam bentuk tindakan atau langkah khusus yang perlu diambil oleh komuniti. Bagi memastikan perlaksanaan berada pada landasan yang betul dan menghasilkan pencapaian yang baik dan bermakna ke arah mencapai matlamat pembangunan komuniti, maka komuniti perlu menyediakan tanda aras untuk mengukur kejayaan dan menilai hasil pencapaian dalam usaha meningkatkan kesejahteraan hidup. Komuniti yang berdayaupaya adalah yang mampu melaksanakan seperti yang dirancang dan juga perancangan yang dibuat sendiri tanpa campur tangan orang lain (Reid; 2002). f.

Mencari Sumber Setelah bajet dibuat, langkah seterusnya ialah mencari sumber untuk menyokong perlaksanaan perancangan. Sumber seperti wang, kemahiran, pengetahuan boleh diperolehi daripada pelbagai sumber sama ada dari pihak kerajaan mahupun swasta. Misalnya wang boleh diperolehi dari pelbagai bentuk seperti gran, pinjaman atau pun yuran keahlian. Namun apa yang penting dan seharusnya diberi perhatian pada tahap ini ialah rancangan yang dibuat mestilah berdasarkan pada sumber yang ada, dan bukannya mengubah perancangan disebabkan oleh faktor kekurangan atau kelebihan sumber.

g. Mencipta Kejayaan Untuk mengekalkan momentum terutama pada fasal awal perlaksanaan adalah sesuatu yang sangat sukar. Kegagalan melakukannya bermakna berakhirnya proses pendayaupayaan sebelum sempat melaksanakan proses-proses yang seterusnya. Justeru itu untuk memastikan pembangunan komuniti terus hidup, adalah perlu untuk mencipta dan mempromosikan kemenangan awal dengan meyakinkan ahli komuniti bahawa tidak mustahil perubahan akan berlaku sekiranya usaha dan semangat yang gigih diteruskan walaupun menempuhi banyak cabaran dan halangan. h. Membangunkan Kapasiti Komuniti Penekanan utama rancangan strategi dan rancangan kerja ialah mesti memberi penekanan ke atas pembangunan kapasiti bagi meningkatkan kemampuan komuniti untuk mencapai matlamat yang telah ditetapkan. Menurut Bartle (2007), terdapat beberapa perkara asas dalam pembangunan kapasiti yang perlu dibangunkan. Antaranya ialah sikap tidak mementingkan diri sendiri, perkongsian nilai, keyakinan diri, kepercayaan, perkhidmatan dan komunikasi, aset, kepimpinan, konteks (hubungan dengan agensi kerajaan, pihak swasta dan badan bukan kerajaan), struktur organisi dan lain-lain.Dalam proses pendayaupayaan pembangunan kapasiti seharusnya diuruskan oleh ahli komuniti itu sendiri dan bukannya organisasi luar yang melakukan sesuatu untuk komuniti. Pembangunan kapasiti yang berterusan dalam sesebuah komuniti adalah perlu bagi memastikan kelangsungan proses pendayaupayaan. i.

Adaptasi Rancangan Strategi Langkah seterusnya dalam proses pendayaupayaan ialah mengadaptasi rancangan strategi. Bagi projek atau program pembangunan yang terkeluar dari landasan sebagaimana yang dirancang, rancangan strategi dianggap tidak sesuai dan tidak menepati objektif dan matlamat program pembangunan. Justeru, adalah penting bagi komuniti menyemak dan mengkaji semula matlamat dan strategi secara berkala, serta membuat pindaan pada peringkat perancangan sekiranya perlu. Proses mengkaji rancangan program termasuklah melihat tahap penyertaan ahli komuniti, menilai pencapaian dan meminda rancangan strategi bagi memastikan pembangunan yang dilakukan mencapai matlamat dan wawasan yang telah ditetapkan di peringkat awal.

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j.

Pembangunan ke arah kelestarian. Bagi memastikan proses pendayaupayaan itu berjaya, pembangunan yang dibina mestilah menuju ke arah kelestarian. Proses pembangunan komuniti tidak berakhir dengan hanya berjaya memenuhi keperluan komuniti bagi meningkatkan taraf hidup mereka sahaja. Kelestarian boleh dibina dengan beberapa cara iaitu meningkatkan kapasiti kepimpinan komuniti, mengaktifkan lagi hubungan rakan kongsi antara organisasi, melantik ahli baru untuk terlibat dalam proses, mencipta program jaya diri, memelihara persekitaran ekologi, ekonomi dan sosial sesebuah komuniti. Proses pendayaupayaan diukur bukan hanya berdasarkan pada hasil atau produk seperti jumlah rumah yang dibina, peluang perkerjaan yang dicipta, kadar jenayah yang dikurangkan, sebaliknya diukur dari kemampuan komuniti untuk meneruskan kelangsungan proses bagi mewujudkan pembangunan komuniti lestari.

KESIMPULAN Di dalam pembangunan, pendayaupayaan komuniti berlaku apabila mereka telah menunjukkan keupayaan mengenal pasti masalah, mendapatkan sumber, meningkatkan kemahiran dan pengalaman, melaksana, memimpin dan menggerakkan semua anggota komuniti yang terlibat secara aktif dalam setiap program yang dilaksanakan untuk manfaat bersama. Seterusnya, lebih ramai ahli komuniti yang terlibat di dalam proses pembangunan komuniti, maka lebih ramailah yang dapat diupayakan. Dengan erti kata lain, pendayaupayaan komuniti akan tercapai apabila ahli komunitinya dapat menguasai dan mengawal persekitaran kehidupan mereka. Keupayaan komuniti dalam melaksanakan aktiviti bagi memenuhi hasrat dan keperluan mereka adalah sifat pembangunan komuniti. Begitu juga komuniti yang mempunyai inisiatif, matlamat yang jelas, berdaya tahan dan bijak mengurus sumber adalah juga merupakan sifat utama komuniti yang berdaya upaya melakukan perubahan dan pembangunan dalam komuniti. Melalui pembangunan komuniti, ahli-ahli komuniti dapat mendepani cabaran dan masalah yang sekali gus menjamin kesejahteraan hidup.

RUJUKAN Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah & Fariborz Aref. (2009). Empowerment as an Approach for Community Development in Malaysia. World Rural Observations,1(2),63-68. Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah & Fariborz Aref. (2011). The Theoritical and Conceptual Framework & Application of Community Empowerment and Participation in Process of Community Development. Journal of American Science, 7(2), 186-195. Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah. (2011). Teori dan Amalan Pembangunan Komuniti dalam Perkhidmatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. Dlm. Khadijah Alawi(pytg). Pembangunan Komuniti: Membina Keupayaan & Potensi Masyarakat. Serdang: UPM. Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah & Bahaman Abu Samah. (2011). Daripada Anggota Masyarakat ke Anggota Masyarakat: Merancang dan Melaksanakan Program Pembangunan Komuniti. Dlm. Khadijah Alawi (pytg.). Pembangunan Komuniti : Membina Keupayaan dan Potensi Masyarakat. Serdang: UPM. Azmi Hamzah. (2011). Penilaian Program Pembangunan Komuniti: Satu strategi untuk pengurusan komuniti berkesan. Dlm. Khadijah Alawi (pytg.). Pembangunan Komuniti : Membina Keupayaan dan Potensi Masyarakat. Serdang: UPM. Barbara A.Israel, Barry Checkway, Amy Schulz & Marc Zimmerman. (1994). Health Education and Community Empowerment Conceptualizing and Measuring Perceptions of Individual, Organizational and Community Control. Health Quarterly, http:///sagepub.com/content/21/2/149. Cornell Empowerment Group. (1989). Empowerment and Family support. Networking Bulletin 1(1)2. French, Jr & Raven. (1959). The base of Social Power. In Cart Wright,D (ed.). Studies in Social Power. Ann Harbor : University Machigan Press. Galbraith, J.K. The Anatomy of Power. Boston: Houghton Miffin. Glenn Laverack. (2006). Using Domains Approach to Build Community Empowerment. Community Development Journal, 41(1): 4-12. John Lord & Peggy Hutchison. (1993). Implication Theory and Practice. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 12(1):5-22. Keiffer, C. (1984). Citizen Empowerment: A Developmental Perspective. Prevention in Human Services, 3(16):935. Lerner, M. (1986). Surplus powerlessness. Oakland CA. Institute Labour &Mental Health. Mc. Clelland, D.C. (1975). Power the inner experience. New York: Irvington Press. Mac Millan, I.C. (1978). Strategy Formulation Political Concept. St.Paul :West Publishing. Mohd Shatar Sabran. (2003). An Introduction to Community Development and Leadership. Serdang: UPM. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Norman. J.R. (2002). Poverty, Race and Community in Rural Places: The Empowerment Approach. International Community Development Society Conference, Cleveland, Missippi. July 23. Phil Bartle. (2007). Community Empowerment: Making Neighbourhood Stronger. http://cec.vcn.bc.ca/cmp/ modules/emp-ce.htm. Ploch, L. 1976. Community Development in Action. Journal of Community Development Society,7(1):5-15. Rappaport,J. (1987). Terms of Empowerment? Exemplars of Prevention: Toward a theory for Community Pscycology. American Journal of Community Pschology, 15(2): 121-148. Sanders, I.T. (1958). Theories of Community Development. Rural Sociology,23(1):1-12. Tawney. R.H. (1931). Equality. New York. Harcourt Brace Jovanvich. Wallerstein, N. (1992). Powerlesness Empowerment and Health: Implications for Health Promotion Programs. American Journal of Health Promotion, 6(13) : 197-203. Warren, R. (1978). The Community in America. Chicago : Rond Mc.Nally. Whitmore, E. (1988). Participation, Empowerment and Welfare. Canadian Review of Social Policy, 22,51-56. World Health Organization, Health & Welfare Canada, Canadian Public Health Organization. (1986). Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion Proceeding from International Conference and Health Promotion. Zimmerman, M.A. Empowerment Theory: Pschological, Organizational & Community Level of Analysis in Rappaport, J. Seidman (ed). Hand Book of Community Pschology. New York: Plenum Press.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PERANAN WANITA DALAM PERNIAGAAN DI PANTAI TIMUR Nor Hanim Awang@Mohd Noor* & Wan Ibrahim Wan Ahmad *[email protected] Universiti Malaysia Terengganu

Abstract Sejak dahulu Pantai Timur terkenal dengan penyertaan wanita dalam keusahawanan. Sehingga sekarangpun wanita di situ bukan sahaja penting dalam konteks domestik, tetapi dianggap sebagai tulang belakang kegiatan ekonomi, khususnya ekonomi tidak formal. Di pasar-pasar, usahawan wanita di Pantai Timur mendominasi usahawan lelaki. Kertas kerja ini bertujuan membincangkan hasil kajian pendahuluan ke atas penyelidikan Ph.D mengenai peranan wanita dalam keusahawanan di dua kawasan, iaitu di Pasar Besar Siti Khadijah, Kota Bahru dan Pasar Besar Kedai Payang, Kuala Terengganu. Sebagai maklumat awal, tulisan ini hanya mempersembahkan hasil tinjauan yang dibuat ke atas peniaga wanita yang terlibat dalam perniagaan di dua buah pasar ini. Hasil kajian ini mendapati dua buah pasar ini mempunyai peniaga seramai 3 076 orang, dan sebahagian besar mereka adalah peniaga wanita. Dari segi jumlahnya, peniaga wanita berjumlah 1 595 orang (51.9%). Di Pasar Payang, yang mempunyai peniaga seramai 789 orang, 352 daripadanya wanita. Keadaan yang sama juga diperhatikan di Pasar Besar Siti Khadijah yang menunjukkan 1 243 orang daripada 2 287 peniaga adalah wanita. Terdapat banyak alasan mengapa ramai wanita terlibat dalam perniagaan di Pantai Timur. Bahagian akhir makalah ini berusaha untuk meneroka secara kualitatif persoalan ini. Kesimpulannya wanita di Pantai Timur bukan hanya penting dalam konteks domestik, tetapi juga dalam perniagaan di pasar-pasar. Keywords: peranan wanita, perniagaan, usahawan wanita, gender, domestik

PENGENALAN Penyertaan wanita terutamanya wanita Melayu, dalam aktiviti ekonomi telah bermula sejak zaman Kesultanan Melayu lagi. Walaupun tidak dapat dinafikan, wanita Melayu masih lagi menjalankan peranan domestik iaitu sebagai pengurus rumah tangga, menjalankan tanggungjawab sebagai isteri dan ibu. Tanggungjawab ini bersama-sama dengan tuntutan adat dan budaya masyarakat ketika itu menyebabkan wanita masih lagi kuat dengan pegangan dan peranan tersebut. Manakala tugas mendidik anak-anak dan urusan domestik masih lagi menjadi tugas utama. Hal ini kerana penyertaan mereka dalam aktiviti ekonomi merupakan sebagai pembantu kepada suami semata-mata (Nordin, Rahilah dan Siti Fathihah, 2012). Namun, peranan wanita semakin berubah seiring dengan peredaran waktu di mana terdapat sebilangan wanita yang turut keluar bekerja bagi mencari pendapatan sampingan ataupun atas alasan untuk berdikari. Namun, wanita pada hari ini memainkan pelbagai peranan dalam masyarakat. Mereka telah membuktikan mereka bukan sahaja memainkan peranan tradisional dalam pengurusan hidup berkeluarga seperti mengurus makanan, pakaian, tempat kediaman dan kesihatan, tetapi juga membantu memperbaiki ekonomi keluarga dengan menceburi dalam pelbagai jenis aktiviti bagi meningkatkan pendapatan, sama ada yang dijalankan di rumah atau di dalam komuniti (Wan Sarah, Abdul Halim dan Hapsah, 1992). Umumnya, wanita yang terlibat dalam perniagaan dikenali sebagai usahawan wanita. Sehingga kini, peningkatan yang agak ketara dilihat Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

dalam penyertaan wanita dalam tenaga buruh apabila 51.1 peratus tenaga kerja mereka terlibat dalam pasaran buruh (Unit Perancang Ekonomi, 2013). Perangkaan ini menunjukkan golongan wanita kini sudah bersedia untuk bersaing dengan lelaki dalam setiap bidang pekerjaan yang pada suatu ketika dahulu adalah sinonim dengan lelaki. Melalui penggubalan Dasar Wanita Negara (DWN), kerajaan berusaha untuk mengoptimumkan potensi wanita dalam pembangunan negara. Dasar ini juga selaras dengan hasrat kerajaan untuk mengintegrasikan wanita ke dalam pelbagai sektor pekerjaan. Integrasi wanita dalam tenaga kerja di Malaysia merupakan satu fenomena baru dalam memenuhi proses pemodenan, kapitalisme dan keperluan tenaga buruh murah. Penyertaan yang amat menggalakkan daripada wanita ini membuktikan bahawa mereka sekarang sudah bersedia untuk memecah monopoli lelaki dalam pekerjaan (Doris Padmini dan Kaw, 2011). Berbeza di Kelantan dan Terengganu, penguasaan wanita di dalam perniagaan pasar bukan merupakan satu perkara baru. Ini kerana, sejarah telah membuktikan fenomena ini telah lama wujud iaitu seawal abad ke 18 dan 19 lagi (Nor Aini, 2010). Situasi ini boleh diperhatikan daripada catatan sejarah daripada Abdullah Munshi yang menyatakan pasar di Kelantan dipenuhi dengan wanita yang datang berjual atau menjaja hasil tanaman dan makanan (Abdullah, 1968). Penelitian yang dilakukan beliau sewaktu pelayaran ke negeri Melayu Pantai Timur seperti Kelantan, Terengganu dan Pahang mendapati penglibatan wanita Melayu yang aktif berjual-beli terutamanya dalam perniagaan menjaja secara kecil-kecilan, kebanyakannya hasil tempatan seperti buahbuahan dan sayur-sayuran (Nordin, Rahilah dan Siti Fathihah, 2012). Secara keseluruhannya, kertas kerja ini cuba mengupas peranan wanita dalam perniagaan dengan penumpuan diberikan kepada (1) peranan wanita secara umum, (2) wanita dan perniagaan dan, (3) cadangan meningkatkan peranan wanita dalam perniagaan pasar di Pantai Timur, iaitu di Kelantan dan Terengganu. Bagi tujuan itu, satu kajian pendahuluan telah dilakukan bagi mengenal pasti jumlah populasi wanita yang berniaga di Pasar Siti Khadijah di Kota Bharu, Kelantan dan Pasar Payang di Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu yang merupakan dua kawasan yang dikenal pasti sebagai kawasan yang mempunyai jumlah wanita yang tinggi terlibat dalam perniagaan khususnya di pasar.

KAEDAH KAJIAN Penyelidikan ini menumpukan kepada metod analisis sekunder sebagai kaedah kajian. Oleh kerana perbincangan dalam makalah ini tertumpu kepada perbincangan hasil analisis kajian lepas mengenai peranan wanita dalam perniagaan di Pantai Timur, maka semua perbincangan dalam makalah ini menggunakan metod analisis sekunder. Analisis sekunder, turut dikenali sebagai tinjauan literatur yang menggunapakai maklumatmaklumat yang telah ada, iaitu dikumpulkan oleh pengkaji sebelumnya bagi memenuhi keperluan dalam kajian mereka. Creswell (2012) menyatakan literature review sebagai pendekatan yang digunakan dengan merujuk kepada ringkasan bertulis artikel jurnal, buku-buku dan dokumen-dokumen lain yang menggambarkan keadaan masa lalu dan terkini maklumat mengenai topik kajian penyelidikan yang akan dilakukan. Keperluan menggunakan tinjauan literatur ini adalah bagi mendokumentasikan kajian dalam makalah ini menambah kepada literatur yang sedia ada. Literatur yang dikenal pasti dan dianalisis atas faktor kesesuaian dengan tema makalah ini, diaplikasikan dan dianalisis semula. Oleh sebab kajian empirikal belum dilakukan, maka tema makalah ini lebih bersifat kepada penemuan awal.

HASIL KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Peranan Wanita Secara Umum Umumnya, apabila membincangkan tentang peranan wanita, terdapat tiga peranan wanita yang utama iaitu; (1) peranan reproduktif, (2) peranan produktif dan, (3) menguruskan komuniti. Peranan reproduktif merupakan tugas menjaga anak dan kerja-kerja menguruskan rumah tangga bagi memenuhi dan menjaga keperluan ahli isi rumah yang membolehkan ahli-ahlinya melakukan kerja berupah tanpa perlu risau akan penjagaan makan dan minum (Rahmah, 1997). Peranan ini terbahagi kepada tiga iaitu reproduktif biologis, reproduktif tenaga kerja dan reproduktif sosial. Tugas reproduktif biologis ialah melahirkan anak, manakala reproduktif tenaga kerja membawa maksud sosialisasi dan pengasuhan anak untuk mempersiapkan mereka menjadi tenaga kerja berikutnya. Seterusnya reproduksi sosial pula merupakan kerja yang meneruskan hubungan produksi dan struktur sosial dalam keluarga. Semua kerja-kerja yang berkaitan dengan penjagaan anak dan kerja domestik lain harus dilakukan oleh wanita untuk kelangsungan hidup masyarakat (Saptari dan Holzner, 1997; Jalihah, 2010).

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Peranan produktif dikenali sebagai aktiviti yang mempunyai nilai pertukaran sama ada secara nyata atau berkeupayaan untuk dimajukan. Antara aktiviti yang melibatkan peranan produktif adalah kerja dalam sektor formal dan tidak formal termasuk perusahaan keluarga (Moser, 1989). Peranan ini hanya berlaku di luar lingkungan domestik kerana wanita yang berada dalam lingkungan rumah tangga turut melakukan peranan produktif dengan menyumbangkan pendapatan kepada keluarga. Pendapatan yang diperolehi adalah melalui kerja yang dilakukan di rumah seperti membuat keropok dan menjahit (Heyzer dan Sen, 1994). Menurut Moser (1993) peranan menguruskan komuniti dilakukan oleh wanita bagi mengembangkan peranan reproduktif untuk menyediakan dan memastikan sumber yang akan digunakan secara kolektif berjalan dengan lancar. Peranan ini merupakan kerja yang dibuat secara sukarela dan dilakukan pada waktu lapang. Walaupun tenaga kerja sukarela mereka digunakan untuk peranan ini, namun kerja yang dilakukan oleh mereka adalah tidak berasaskan upah. Wanita yang terlibat dalam perniagaan membawa bersama mereka pelbagai peranan yang dapat mengkeupayakan mereka bagi mengoptimumkan industri dan pembangunan ekonomi negara. Di antara peranan tersebut ialah (1) sumber wang dan kestabilan punca kewangan, (2) meneruskan budaya nenek moyang dan memelihara maruah keluarga dan, (3) mewujudkan pekerjaan (Wan Sarah, Abdul Halim dan Hapsah, 1992). Apabila wanita terpaksa menjadi ketua isi rumah atas faktor kematian suami, diceraikan oleh suami dan suami tidak berkeupayaan untuk bekerja kerana aspek kesihatan, mereka berusaha untuk mencari sumber pendapatan supaya perbelanjaan kewangan keluarga tidak terputus. Dalam memperkatakan peranan wanita dalam perniagaan ini menunjukkan perniagaan yang dijalankan di pasar-pasar di Pantai Timur didominasi oleh wanita dan kebanyakan daripada mereka telah berusia. Berdasarkan kajian Wan Sarah dan rakan-rakan (1992), wanita yang berniaga ini merasakan bidang perniagaan boleh menjamin kehidupan mereka. Dalam konteks peranan untuk meneruskan budaya nenek moyang pula, wanita yang terlibat dalam perniagaan telah mewarisi perniagaan yang mereka jalankan daripada generasi terdahulu. Ia merupakan satu bentuk perniagaan keluarga yang banyak terdapat di Pantai Timur seperti pembuatan keropok lekor, batik, songket, dodol, serunding dan pemprosesan budu. Jenis-jenis perniagaan seperti ini masih lagi dikekalkan sehingga kini bagi meneruskan legasi perniagaan keluarga supaya dapat terus berkembang maju seterusnya membantu menjana ekonomi keluarga. Kewujudan aktiviti perniagaan dalam kalangan peniaga wanita secara tidak langsung membuka peluang pekerjaan kepada ahli keluarga yang lain dan rakan rapat untuk meningkatkan pembangunan ekonomi tempatan. Usahawan wanita juga lebih cenderung untuk mengambil pekerja yang mempunyai pertalian yang rapat seperti saudara-mara serta rakan-rakan bagi membantu menguruskan perniagaan. Ini kerana rakan-rakan dan saudara-mara lebih dipercayai dan boleh diharap sebagai pekerja dalam perniagaan yang dijalankan.

Wanita dan Perniagaan Wanita yang terlibat dalam perniagaan sering menjadi tumpuan pengkaji sejak akhir-akhir ini. Tokoh-tokoh seperti Lumayag (1996), Abu Bakar, Aini Hayati dan Norsiah (1999), Jalihah (2004), Thuaibah@Suaibah dan rakan-rakan (2005), Ma’rof, Abd. Razak dan Nurfazreen Aina (2012), Sharifah Nazira (2012), Rohayu (2012), Nordin, Rahilah dan Siti Fathihah (2012) dan Kavitha, Anantharaman dan Santhi (2013) telah membahaskan tentang wanita dan perniagaan dalam penulisan mereka. Seperti Lumayag (1996) yang menganalisis peranan wanita dalam perniagaan mengesahkan walaupun wanita dan perniagaan dianggap sinonim kerana meningkatkan kekayaan kepada peniaga wanita di Kelantan, namun masih banyak halangan dihadapi oleh pengeluar makanan, sebagai contoh mereka terpaksa berusaha keras untuk beroperasi secara normal. Di samping itu, akses kepada modal dan pembiayaan masih menjadi isu hangat begitu juga akses kepada kredit formal dan tidak formal. Ia dapat diperhatikan bahawa akses kepada kredit dan modal selalunya dikaitkan dengan keahlian persatuan pertanian, persatuan wanita atau sayap parti politik. Pada kebiasaannya, kebanyakan wanita tidak berapa terurus dan terancang dan halangan ini menjadi pemisah kepada akses modal dan kredit, yang sangat penting dalam pembelian alatan, mesin atau bahan mentah. Wanita menuju era keusahawanan dalam penulisan Abu Bakar, Aini Hayati dan Norsiah (1999) bertujuan untuk memahami gelagat jaringan atau rangkaian bagi usahawan lelaki dan wanita di Utara Semenanjung Malaysia. Secara khususnya, kajian mereka adalah membandingkan jaringan peribadi bagi usahawan lelaki dan wanita di luar bandar dari aspek saiz, intensiti, densiti dan diversiti serta latar belakang usahawan yang terlibat. Berasaskan kepada sampel seramai 363 usahawan (227 lelaki dan 134 wanita), hasil kajian menunjukkan

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perbezaan yang signifikan dari segi saiz, intensiti dan densiti jaringan. Terdapat juga sedikit perbezaan dari aspek latar belakang usahawan lelaki dan wanita kerana usahawan wanita masih baru dalam perniagaan. Selain daripada Lumayag dan Abu Bakar serta rakan-rakan, penelitian Jalihah (2004) yang mengupas peranan wanita dalam komuniti setinggan dengan penumpuan diberikan kepada aktiviti perekonomian yang dijalankan oleh mereka. Terdapat tiga faktor utama yang mendorong wanita dalam kajian beliau terlibat dalam kegiatan ekonomi iaitu membantu suami menambahkan pendapatan isi rumah, mencari pendapatan sendiri dan minat. Namun, faktor keinginan untuk mencari pendapatan sendiri merupakan faktor yang dominan mengapa golongan wanita tersebut terlibat dalam kegiatan ekonomi. Manakala penelitian ke atas peranan wanita dalam kalangan ibu tunggal dikaitkan dengan kajian Thuaibah@ Suaibah et al. (2005) yang berkaitan aktiviti keusahawanan dalam kalangan ibu tunggal di Johor. Hasil kajian tersebut mendapati faktor utama yang mendorong ibu tunggal di Johor terlibat dalam bidang keusahawanan ialah mencari punca pendapatan. Selain itu faktor seperti minat, sebagai kerja sampingan dan disebabkan kurang berpuas hati dengan pekerjaan dahulu juga merupakan faktor yang mendorong ibu tunggal melibatkan diri dalam bidang keusahawanan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan usahawan dalam kalangan ibu tunggal di Johor mempunyai ciri-ciri seperti berumur 41 tahun dan ke atas, mempunyai latar belakang pendidikan hingga sekolah menengah, mempunyai ahli keluarga yang berniaga dan tidak pernah bekerja sebelum menceburi bidang keusahawanan. Perusahaan usahawan ibu tunggal pula merupakan perniagaan yang berstatus perseorangan dalam bidang makanan dan minuman, mempunyai pekerja kurang daripada lima orang dengan modal kurang dari RM1, 000.00 dan menggunakan sumber modal sendiri. Pembentukan keupayaan individu dalam kalangan usahawan wanita industri pula menjadi tumpuan Ma’rof, Abd. Razak dan Nurfazreen Aina (2012). Kajian mereka ini dijalankan bagi mengenal pasti hubungan antara latar belakang pengusaha dengan tahap pembentukan keupayaan individu dalam kalangan usahawan wanita industri kecil di selatan Semenanjung Malaysia dan melibatkan penyertaan 200 orang responden dalam kalangan peniaga wanita di negeri Melaka dan Johor. Selain itu, kajian Sharifah Nazira (2012) turut mengkaji penglibatan wanita dalam bidang keusahawanan. Kajian beliau berusaha untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang menyumbang kepada kejayaan dan penglibatan usahawan wanita. Dapatan kajian yang diperolehi menunjukkan faktor utama yang memotivasikan wanita untuk menjadi usahawan adalah faktor kepuasan kerja di samping faktor ingin berdikari dalam hidup. Isu wanita dan perniagaan menarik perhatian Rohayu (2012) bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti potensi, faktorfaktor dan masalah-masalah ibu tunggal di luar bandar untuk melibatkan diri dalam bidang keusahawanan melibatkan seramai 265 orang ibu tunggal yang berdaftar dengan Kelab Ibu Tunggal Negeri Terengganu. Hasil kajian mendapati, potensi ibu tunggal di luar bandar melibatkan diri dalam keusahawanan adalah tinggi dan masalah-masalah yang menghalang penglibatan mereka ialah berkaitan modal, pinjaman, lokasi perniagaan, khidmat nasihat, pengetahuan dan pengangkutan. Dapatan juga menunjukkan faktor individu dan faktor persekitaran mempengaruhi keinginan ibu tunggal di luar bandar untuk terlibat dalam bidang keusahawanan. Sementara Nordin, Rahilah dan Siti Fathihah (2012) pula menganalisis penglibatan wanita Melayu dalam ekonomi semasa era Kesultanan Melayu, era kolonialisme dan setelah negara mencapai kemerdekaan. Mereka mendapati wanita Melayu sentiasa menghadapi perubahan dan perkembangan terutamanya daripada aspek penglibatan dalam sektor ekonomi. Wanita Melayu pada hari ini semakin menyumbang kepada tenaga buruh aktif dalam pelbagai sektor berbanding hanya sebagai pekerja sampingan tanpa upah tetap atau sebagai pekerja tidak formal. Perbandingan di antara usahawan wanita dan bukan usahawan wanita menjadi fokus utama dalam analisa kajian Kavitha, Anantharaman dan Santhi (2013). Kajian tersebut bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti faktor persekitaran, personaliti dan faktor motivasi berpotensi menjadi faktor pendorong wanita dalam keusahawanan. Tiga faktor tersebut diuji ke atas wanita yang terlibat dalam keusahawanan dan wanita yang tidak terlibat dengan keusahawanan. Analisa kajian mereka mendapati terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan ke atas dua kategori wanita yang dikaji. Ini kerana usahawan wanita mempunyai sokongan psikologikal yang rendah berbanding wanita yang tidak terlibat dengan keusahawanan. Kesemua pengkaji yang dipaparkan dalam perbincangan di atas telah menyentuh mengenai wanita dan perniagaan dalam analisis mereka. Ini bermakna kajian ke atas penglibatan wanita dalam perniagaan semakin mendapat perhatian dalam kalangan ahli akademik di negara ini kerana dapat dilihat semakin ramai pengkaji yang menonjolkan wanita dan perniagaan dalam kajian mereka.

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CADANGAN MENINGKATKAN PERANAN WANITA DALAM PERNIAGAAN Terdapat pelbagai langkah yang boleh dicadangkan bagi menggalakkan wanita menceburi bidang perniagaan dan mengurangkan batasan peranan yang ada bagi membolehkan wanita menyesuaikan peranan dengan lebih berkesan. Sehingga kini, kerajaan telah memperkenalkan pelbagai dasar yang bertujuan untuk menggalakkan wanita ke arah memperluaskan bidang perniagaan yang telah diceburi. Kerajaan juga telah menyediakan inisiatif dalam bentuk bantuan kewangan kepada wanita yang berminat meneroka peluang-peluang perniagaan yang semakin berkembang dengan pesat. Usaha-usaha perlu dilakukan bagi mendayaupayakan peranan wanita dalam perniagaan supaya mereka mempunyai pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang mencukupi dalam perniagaan. Bagi mencapai tujuan tersebut, beberapa cadangan untuk memperkukuh dan mengoptimumkan peranan wanita akan tercapai melalui cadangan-cadangan berikut:

Menyediakan lebih banyak peluang perniagaan kepada wanita Walaupun bidang perniagaan dianggap sebagai pekerjaan yang sesuai dilakukan oleh lelaki namun seiring dengan kepesatan ekonomi negara menyebabkan golongan wanita turut tidak ketinggalan untuk menceburinya. Kini, penglibatan wanita dalam perniagaan semakin meningkat khususnya dalam industri berskala kecil. Keadaan ini memperlihatkan lelaki dan wanita dalam pasaran buruh berada pada tahap yang sama dan mereka mampu bersaing dengan lelaki melalui cabang perniagaan yang dijalankan.

Mewujudkan peluang yang saksama dalam perniagaan kepada wanita Wanita perlu diberi peluang yang saksama seperti lelaki dalam ruang perniagaan dan mempertimbangkan kemampuan dan kebolehan yang ada pada wanita. Oleh itu, peluang-peluang perniagaan perlu terus diberikan kepada wanita supaya mereka mampu mengetuai perniagaan yang dijalankan dengan berkesan dan lebih berdaya saing.

Peluang latihan keusahawanan yang sistematik Program latihan khusus dalam bidang keusahawanan harus dilakukan secara bersistematik sebagai satu persediaan kepada wanita untuk memajukan diri dan merebut peluang yang ada dalam perniagaan. Latihan khusus tersebut perlu diadakan untuk mendedahkan wanita dengan modal permulaan, khidmat nasihat dan latihan seperti pemprosesan produk serta kursus kepimpinan dan motivasi bagi meningkatkan pengetahuan apabila mengendalikan sesebuah perniagaan.

Kemudahan bantuan kewangan Bidang perniagaan memerlukan modal permulaan yang secukupnya untuk memulakannya. Seiring dengan itu, bantuan dari segi modal yang diperlukan oleh wanita bagi melaksanakan perniagaan harus dipermudahkan. Ia selaras dengan hasrat kerajaan untuk memperkasakan wanita yang terlibat dalam perniagaan di samping membantu mereka sebagai sumber ekonomi. Walaupun wanita melibatkan diri dalam bidang yang pada satu masa didominasi lelaki, namun peranan mereka tidak boleh dipandang enteng semata-mata.

KESIMPULAN Kepelbagaian peranan wanita dalam komuniti merupakan nadi penting dalam pembangunan sosio-ekonomi mereka juga negara. Walaupun mereka terikat dengan peranan-peranan tertentu seperti pekerja, isteri dan ibu, namun mereka mampu mengadaptasikan peranan-peranan tersebut dalam persekitaran semasa. Kertas kerja ini telah memdiskusikan tinjauan literatur peranan wanita dalam perniagaan di Pantai Timur, yang melibatkan aspek seperti peranan wanita secara umum, wanita dan perniagaan dan cadangan meningkatkan peranan wanita dalam perniagaan di Pantai Timur. Kaedah yang digunakan dalam kajian ini ialah kaedah analisis sekunder, iaitu tinjauan literatur. Oleh kerana perbincangan dalam konteks makalah ini menunpukan kepada kajian awal mengenai peranan wanita dalam perniagaan, maka keseluruhan perbincangan dalam makalah ini lebih signifikan menggunapakai kaedah analisis sekunder. Peranan wanita dalam perniagaan sudah menjadi sesuatu yang sinonim dan sukar untuk dipisahkan jika melibatkan wanita yang menceburi ke dalam perniagaan khususnya di Pantai Timur Semenanjung Malaysia, iaitu Kelantan dan Terengganu. Kebanyakan wanita yang terlibat dalam perniagaan di negeri-negeri tersebut menjalankan perniagaan yang berasaskan perusahaan kecil dan sederhana (PKS) bagi mengembangkan punca ekonomi keluarga. Oleh itu, peranan wanita dalam perniagaan boleh dikatakan sebagai amat signifikan dengan hasrat kerajaan untuk membudayakan aktiviti keusahawanan dalam kalangan wanita di negara ini.

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RUJUKAN Abdullah Abdul Kadir Munshi. (1968). Kesah pelayaran Abdullah. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar Bakti. Abu Bakar Hamed. (2006). Keusahawanan dan pengurusan perniagaan kecil. Sintok: Penerbit Universiti Utara Malaysia. Abu Bakar Hamed, Aini Hayati Mohamed, dan Norsiah Mat. (1999). Wanita menuju ke era keusahawanan: Memahami aktiviti jaringan usahanita. Jurnal Pengurusan, 18, 109-129. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research. Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. (Fourth Edition). Boston: Pearson. Doris Padmini Selvaratnam, dan Kaw Kit Yeng. (2011). Peranan wanita dalam pasaran kerja fleksibel di Malaysia: Kajian kes di sektor perkhidmatan. Prosiding PERKEM VI, 2, 86-101. Jalihah Md. Shah. (2004). Survival ekonomi wanita dalam komuniti setinggan. Jati, 9, (Disember), 111-123. Jalihah Md. Shah. (2010). Triple role: Suatu penyingkapan peranan dan kerja wanita. Sosiohumanika, 3(1), 6778. Kavitha Raman, Anantharaman, R. N., dan Santhi Ramanathan. (2013). Environmental, Personality and motivational factors: A comparison study between women entrepreneurs and women non entrepreneurs in Malaysia. International Journal of Business and Management, 8(13), 15-23. Kuratko, D. F., dan Hodgetts, R. M. (2007). Entrepreneurship: A contemporary approach. (5th Edition). Ohio: South-Western Publishers. Lumayag, L. A. (1996). Social networks of women microentrepreneurs in rural Kelantan. Unpublished material. Ma’rof Redzuan, Abd. Razak Abd. Rahman, dan Nurfazreen Aina Muhamad Nasharudin. (2012). Pembentukan keupayaan individu dalam kalangan usahawan wanita industri kecil. Akademika, 82(1), 57-64. McKay, R. (2001). Women entrepreneurs: Moving beyond family and flexibility. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 7, 148-165. Mitton, D. G. (1989). The complete entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 13, 9-19. Moser, O. N. C. (1989). Gender planning in third world: Meeting practical and strategic gender needs. World Development, 17(11), 1799-1825. Nor Aini Haji Idris. (2010). Wanita dalam perniagaan pasar: Kajian kes peniaga kecil wanita di Kelantan. Himpunan makalah wanita dan pembangunan di Malaysia- Satu kesinambungan: Menyusuli perubahan selama empat dekad. Suatu projek akademik yang diilhamkan dan diselaraskan oleh Jamilah Ariffin. Petaling Jaya: MPH Group Publishing Sdn Bhd. Nordin Hussin, Rahilah Omar, dan Siti Fathihah Abd Latif. (2012). Penyertaan ekonomi wanita Melayu dalam zaman kesultanan Melayu: Permulaan bagi sebuah perjuangan dalam ekonomi. Akademika, 82(2), 55-68. Rahmah Ismail. (1997). Peranan wanita dalam pembangunan negara. Siri kertas penyelidikan. Bangi: Jabatan Ekonomi Pembangunan dan Perancangan, Fakulti Ekonomi, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Rohayu Roddin. (2012). Pendekatan model baru pembangunan usahawan wanita luar bandar bagi tujuan pembasmian kemiskinan. Projek Penyelidikan. Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. Rosman Mahmood, dan Mohd Rosli Mohamad. (2011). Perusahaan kecil dan dilema usahawan Melayu. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya. Saptari, R., dan Holzner, B. (1997). Perempuan, Kerja dan perubahan sosial. Jakarta: Penerbit PT Pustaka Utama Grafiti. Scarborough, N. M. (2012). Effective small business management: An entrepreneurial approach. (Tenth Edition). Boston: Pearson. Sharifah Nazira Syed Idros. (2012). Kajian terhadap faktor-faktor penyumbang kepada kejayaan dan penglibatan usahawan wanita di kawasan Lembah Klang. Master Thesis. Sintok: Universiti Utara Malaysia. Smith-Hunter, A. E. (2006). Women entrepreneurs across racial lines. United Kingdom: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. Thuaibah@Suaibah Abu Bakar, Azlah Md Ali, Hishamuddin Md Som, Rozeyta Omar, Syaharizatul Noorizwan Muktar, dan Rosilla Mohd Jaffar. (2005). Aktiviti keusahawanan di kalangan ibu tunggal di negeri Johor. Skudai: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Thuaibah@Suaibah Abu Bakar, Azlah Md Ali, Hishamuddin Md Som, dan Syaharizatul Noor Izwan Muktar. (2007). Penglibatan kaum wanita dalam aktiviti keusahawanan di negeri Johor: Kajian terhadap faktor-faktor kritikal kejayaan dan kegagalan pengendalian perniagaan. Jabatan Pembangunan Sumber Manusia, Fakulti Pengurusan dan Pembangunan Sumber Manusia. Skudai: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Unit Perancang Ekonomi. (2013). The Malaysian economy in figures 2013. (Updated Edition). Putrajaya: Jabatan Perdana Menteri. Wan Sarah Abdullah, Abdul Halim Hamid, dan Hapsah Nawawi. (1992). Penglibatan wanita dalam pembangunan luar bandar: Kajian kes industri desa di Kelantan. Dalam Victor T. King dan Nazaruddin Mohd. Jali. Isuisu pembangunan luar bandar di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

KUALITI HIDUP PELADANG Mohd Fitri Abdul Rahman*, Kamaruddin Ngah, Jamaluddin Mustaffa, Kamal Hamid & Mohd Hilmi Hamzah *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Tidak dinafikan setiap manusia di bumi ini menginginkan kualiti hidup yang baik, yang merangkumi pelbagai bidang kehidupan. Walaupun begitu ukuan kualiti hidup ini sebenarnya begitu subjektif, terutama kerana penilaiannya berbeza di antara seseorang dengan seseorang yang lain. Malah kehidupan dan kualiti hidup itu sentiasa berubah dan amat dinamik menurut peredaran masa dan zaman. Begitu juga dengan pihak peladang yang menetap dan bekerja di estet-estet pertanian, memerlukan kualiti hidup yang baik bagi kelangsungan hidup mereka. Dengan responden seramai 106 orang dan melalui analisis kuantitatif, kajian ini cuba menyelami kualiti hidup mereka di ladang. Objektif kajian adalah bagi melihat kadar gaji pekerja di dalam sektor perladangan, kemudahan dan program-program kebajikan yang disediakan oleh majikan serta persepsi peladang terhadap kehidupan mereka di ladang. Penemuan mendapati, gaji diterima peladang di sekitar RM2000-RM3000 sebulan dan jumlah ini bagi peladang adalah tidak mencukupi dan mereka menuntut kenaikan gaji dari majikan. Peladang juga mahukan kualiti kemudahankemudahan asas seperti perumahan dan sekolah dipertingkatkan. Sementara, peladang juga menghendaki majikan memberi mereka ruang dan sokongan pada pelbagai kegiatan sosial. Bagi mereka kehidupan di ladang kurang memuaskan.

PENGENALAN Pada asasnya kualiti hidup berkait rapat dengan sesuatu yang membuatkan kita gembira, bahagia serta kita begitu berpuas hati dengan kehidupan yang dilalui. Oleh yang demikian, pelbagai definisi, tafsiran serta pengertian dari pelbagai pihak dihujahkan bagi menjelaskan erti kualiti hidup. Namun ternyata, kualiti hidup adalah sesuatu perkara yang amat perlu diberi perhatian kerana ia memberi kesan kepada pembangunan insan, masyarakat dan negara. Oleh yang demikian, tidak ada satu bahagian atau kelompok masyarakat pun yang harus dipinggirkan bagi menikmati kualiti hidup yang baik. Begitu juga dengan masyarakat petani, peladang serta nelayan di negara ini, di mana kualiti hidup mereka harus sentiasa diberi perhatian dan dipertingkatkan. Apatah lagi apabila menyuluh kepada kehidupan peladang atau pekerja di estet-estet perladangan seperti getah dan kelapa sawit, di mana kita sering bertanya, apakah kehidupan naif mereka telah pun berubah atau masih ditakuk lama. Kajian ini cuba meneroka kualiti hidup peladang di ladang kelapa sawit. Dengan mengambil 106 responden dari Ladang Sungai Dingin Kulim, Kedah melalui analisa kuantitatif, kajian ini menemukan beberapa jawapan mengenai kualiti hidup peladang.

DEFINISI KUALITI HIDUP Kualiti hidup merupakan jangka waktu deskriptif yang merujuk kepada emosi manusia, sosial dan fizikal yang sihat dan keupayaan mereka untuk berfungsi dengan tugas biasa dalam kehidupan (Leplege & Hunt, 1997). Menurut Szalai dan Andrews (1980), aspek utama dalam memberi kehidupan yang berkualiti kepada manusia Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

mengandungi empat perkara iaitu, politik, ekonomi, sosial dan pendidikan, sementara aspek-aspek lain yang tidak kurang pentingnya adalah sosial, psikologi, kebudayaan, dan alam sekitar. Sementara menurut Eiser & Morse (2001), kualiti hidup bukanlah konsep yang nyata dan tidak boleh diukur secara terus. Ia terbahagi kepada dua komponen; pertama ialah aspek fizikal seperti kesihatan, diet, perlindungan dari penyakit dan kesakitan. Kedua, aspek psikologi secara semulajadi seperti kebimbangan, tekanan, kepuasan serta emosi yang negatif dan positif. Dalam pada itu, Unit Perancang Ekonomi Jabatan Perdana Menteri (EPU) mendefinisikan kualiti hidup dalam “Kualiti Hidup Malaysia 2011” sebagai pencapaian memuaskan dari unsur-unsur pendidikan, kesihatan, pengangkutan dan komunikasi, penyertaan sosial, perumahan, alam sekitar, kebudayaan dan liburan, persekitaran kerja, pendapatan dan pengagihan, kehidupan keluarga dan keselamatan awam.

KUALITI HIDUP PEKERJA LADANG Muhammad Dahan (1975) menjalankan satu kajian mengenai sosio-ekonomi pekerja-pekerja estat getah dan beliau mendapati bahawa kebanyakan pekerja ladang getah di ladang Kemuning Lebong, Melaka merupakan golongan miskin. Menurut beliau faktor utama yang meningkatkan kemiskinan di kalangan mereka adalah di sebabkan oleh pendapatan yang rendah. Pendapatan yang rendah dengan tanggungan yang banyak menghalang mereka menikmati mobiliti sosial khasnya pendidikan. Dengan pendapatan yang sebanyak itu, tidak cukup untuk memberi makanan dan pakaian, apakah daya mereka untuk menyekolahkan anak-anaknya di luar estet. Ramasamy (1994), pula melihat kemiskinan di kawasan perladangan sebagai satu masalah sosial yang serius di Malaysia. Di dalam hierarki sosial sektor perladangan ini, kelas pekerja merupakan kumpulan yang menjadi mangsa penindasan. Menurut beliau ganjaran yang berbeza-beza diperolehi oleh ketigatiga kelas ini. Bagi kelas pengurus dan penyelia, majikan menyediakan pelbagai kemudahan asas seperti rumah yang lengkap(mempunyai air, elektrik, perabot, tilam-bantal), elaun pemeriksaan kesihatan, elaun pelajaran anak dan sebagainya. Tetapi bagi kelas buruh, majikan hanya menyediakan keperluan-keperluan asas kemudahan pada paras minima sahaja. Azmi (1986) dalam kajiannya mengenai kemiskinan di kalangan pekebun kecil getah pula mengatakan bahawa ketidaksampaian atau kekurangan kemudahan asas dikampung tersebut menyebabkan tahap sosial yang rendah serta mempengaruhi keadaan kemiskinan di kampung tersebut. Secara kesimpulannya, kekurangan kernudahan asas mendorong membesarkan kemiskinan di kampung tersebut. Lim (1988) dalam kajiannya mengenai sosio-ekonomi pekerja-pekerja ladang, mendapati infrastruktur dan kemudahaan awam yang lengkap merupakan faktor penting bagi meningkatkan lagi taraf sosioekonomi pekerja-pekerja ladang ini. Kemudahan infrastuktur seperti kemudahan perumahan, bekalan elektrik dan air, kedai runcit, klinik, kelas tadika, tempat asuhan kanak-kanak, perkhidmataan bas sekolah serta lainlain bentuk kemudahan sosial perlu diberi tumpuan dalam melihat kemiskinan di kalangan masyarakat ladang. Apabila ditinjau dari aspek kemudahan pula, didapati ia tidak mengalami sebarang perubahan atupun berbeza dari zaman penjajahan. Keadaan jelas kelihatan dari segi perumahan pekerja ladang itu sendiri iaitu walaupun berbagai akta telah diluluskan berkenaan standard perumahan di ladang namun rumah pekerja masih jauh di bawah standard tersebut. Kebanyakan rumah pekerja ladang pada amnya hanya mempunyai satu atau dua bilik yang dikongsi oleh enam orang isi rumah. Walaupun peraturan telah menetapkan bahawa bagi keluarga yang mempunyai lebih daripada lima orang ahli, 40 kaki keluasan harus ditambah bagi setiap tambahan ahli. Akan tetapi ia tidak berlaku dalam keadaan realitinya terutamanya di sektor perladangan (Selvakumaran, 1994). Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Mohamad Khan, Munauwar, Fadzli Shah dan Hassan(2002), mendapati faktorfaktor yang menyumbang berlakunya kemalangan dalam sektor perladangan adalah cara pengendalian peralatan yang tidak selamat dan kecuaian pekerja sendiri. Kajian juga mendapati, pada keseluruhannya, ladang-ladang getah dan kelapa sawit di utara Semenanjung Malaysia menunjukkan tiada perbezaan yang signifikan dalam aspek keperihatinan majikan terhadap amalan keselamatan dan kesihatan pekerjaan dari persepsi pekerja,dari aspek sistem pengurusan, faktor asas, dan faktor langsung di mana min keseluruhannya lebih hampir kepada skala setuju. Walaupan terdapat banyak kemudahan yang disediakan kepada pekerja ladang namun banyak kajian dan tulisan menyatakan bahawa kemudahan-kemudahan ini amat tidak mernuaskan hati. Pada masa kini, sektor ladang dikategorikan sebagai kawasan persendirian yang membolehkan kapitalis © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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swasta menggunakan kuasa yang sepenuhnya dalam mengurus dan mengawal aktiviti Jadang. Ini bermaksud walaupun negara mendapat kemerdekaan tetapi pekerja ladang tidak dapat bebas daripada pengurusan dan pengawalan yang terdapat pada zaman penjajahan. Walaupun taraf hidup rakyat Malaysia secara keseluruhannya telah berubah tetapi keadaan pekerja ladang tidak berubah malah menurun kepada tahap yang lebih rendah. Perkembangan sektor perladangan selepas kemerdekaan adalah pesat dari segi peningkatan produktiviti dan teknologi, namun masyarakat ladang masih mengalami taraf hidup yang rendah akibat upah harian yang rendah. Cara upah ditentukan pada masa kini tidak banyak berbeza dengan zaman penjajahan (Kohila Yanasekaran,1998).

KUALITI HIDUP PELADANG DI LADANG SUNGAI DINGIN, KULIM Perbincangan kualiti hidup peladang bagi kajian ini adalah memberi tumpuan kepada sekitar kadar gaji, kemudahan-kemudahan di ladang, program-program yang memanfaatkan pekerja ladang, serta persepsi pekerja ladang terhadap kedudukan kehidupan mereka di ladang.

Kadar Gaji Pekerja Sektor Perladangan Amat penting bagi melihat persoalan kadar gaji dalam kajian kualiti hidup. Ini adalah kerana gaji merupakan sumber pendapatan dan sumber pendapatan ini akan digunakan bagi menyara kehidupan peladang dan keluarga mereka. Kadar gaji yang rendah serta tidak berupaya bagi menyara kehidupan adalah petanda kepada kualiti hidup mereka yang rendah. Dari kajian menunjukkan hampir separuh (49%) dari responden yang ditemui berpendapatan dari RM2000 hingga RM3000 sebulan manakala perbelanjaan adalah lebih dari RM500 sebulan. Namun begitu mereka masih lagi berupaya menabung lebih kurang RM200 sebulan. Ini bermakna pendapatan bagi perbelanjaan adalah di sekitar antara RM1300-RM2300 sebulan. Pendapatan inilah digunakan oleh peladang bagi membiayai perbelanjaan dapur, perbelanjaan untuk sekolah dan pelajaran anak-anak dan juga untuk bersosial. Melihat kepada situasi taraf kehidupan hari ini, pendapatan mereka adalah kurang dari mencukupi, namun berupaya bagi meneruskan kehidupan mereka di ladang. Oleh sebab yang demikian, kebanyakan dari mereka (41%) menyatakan bahawa mereka menerima gaji yang rendah dari majikan serta tidak berpuas hati dengan gaji yang diterima dan menuntut majikan menaikkan gaji (71%). Apatah lagi mereka kebanyakannya hanya bergantung kepada gaji semata-mata tanpa pendapatan sampingan. Rata-rata para peladang ini (63%) menyatakan perbelanjaan mereka sebulan adalah tidak mencukupi.

Kemudahan-Kemudahan Yang Disediakan Dalam Sektor Perladangan Kemudahan yang dimaksudkan adalah tempat tinggal, tempat beribadat, sekolah, kemudahan sosial dan riadah dan sebagainya. Ladang menyediakan tempat tinggal dan hampir 72% tinggal di rumah ( 3 bilik) yang disediakan majikan. Responden menyatakan bahawa bekalan air paip bersih dan bekalan eletrik 24 jam kurang memuaskan dan hanya 44% bersetuju bahawa mereka selesa dengan rumah yang didiami. Manakala jarak rumah ke sekolah tempat anak-anak mereka belajar adalah lebih kurang 11-20 kilometer. Jarak ini agak jauh dan majikan tidak menyediakan perkhidmatan bas sekolah. Kebanyakan anak-anak pekerja ladang ke sekolah adalah dengan berjalan kaki (39%) dan dihantar dengan menggunakan motosikal (34%). Manakala itu ramai responden (49%) menyatakan kemudahan pembelajaran dan sukan adalah kurang memuaskan, namun begitu menurut responden(72%) juga, bilangan murid dalam kelas tidak begitu sesak. Walaupun jarak perjalanan dari rumah ke sekolah agak jauh dan prestasi pelajaran anak-anak mereka kurang memuaskan, namun rata-rata responden (70%) tidak meminta sekolah-sekolah didirikan di ladang mereka. Berkemungkinan mereka berpuas hati dengan sekolah sedia ada, iaitu sekolah-sekolah di luar ladang yang disediakan oleh kerajaan. Sementara itu, hanya 34% menggunakan khidmat klinik kesihatan di ladang dan hanya peratusan ini sahaja yang bersetuju klinik yang lebih besar dibina di ladang. Responden selebihnya berkemungkinan menggunakan khidmat kesihatan di luar ladang. Alasannya ialah pertama klinik kekurangan alat rawatan dan perubatan serta pembantu perubatan jarang berada di klinik. Dalam pada itu, kuil dan masjid disediakan oleh majikan, namun mereka (59%) menyatakan bahawa rumah-rumah ibadat ini tidak diselenggara dengan baik. Di ladang juga kurang kemudahan kedai runcit dan perkhidmatan pengangkutan untuk keluar ladang. Seterusnya, dari penemuan kajian, mendapati majikan tidak menyediakan perlindungan insuran namun mereka bersetuju bahawa majikan membekal alat keselamatan di tempat kerja. Dari sudut penjagaan keselamatan, 68% responden menyatakan bahawa majikan tidak menjaga kebajikan pekerja ladang.

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Program-Program Yang Dilaksanakan Dalam Sektor Perladangan. Kualiti hidup juga diukur berdasarkan penglibatan dalam aktiviti-aktiviti sosial. Kualiti hidup yang baik adalah di mana setiap orang perlu bersosial bagi menghilangkan penat lelah bekerja. Oleh yang demikian, aktiviti sosial memerlukan masa lapang, di luar waktu bekerja dan cuti. Namun begitu dalam hal ini, kajian menunjukkan pekerja ladang tidak diberi cuti pada hari-hari kebesaran seperti Hari Raya dan Deepavali serta Thaipusam. Lebih 60% responden menyatakan mereka tidak diberi cuti pada hari-hari tersebut. Namun begitu penemuan ini harus cuba difahami bahawa cuti-cuti sebegini diberi namun tiada cuti tambahan diberi. Sementara itu, penemuan kajian juga mendapati tiada program-program sosial tertentu yang diadakan oleh majikan diladang seperti tiada ceramah kesihatan serta suntikan vaksin, tiada lawatan oleh pihak SOCSO, lawatan wakil rakyat hanya pada masa-masa tertentu, dan tiada anjuran sukaneka di ladang. Walaupun begitu dari sudut kebajikan, 42% responden bersetuju bahawa majikan mengambil berat tentang soal kebajikan mereka manakala selebihnya menyatakan majikan tidak peduli tentang kebajikan mereka. Lebih kurang 57% menyatakan mereka tidak mendapat bantuan semasa kemalangan, kesusahan atau kematian.

Persepsi Pekerja Mengenai Kehidupan Dalam Sektor Perladangan Bahagian ini meninjau pendapat responden tentang kehidupan mereka di ladang. Hampir separuh (49%) menyatakan rasa selesa tinggal di ladang mereka manakala 43% menyatakan tidak selesa dan 56% responden berhasrat meninggalkan kehidupan mereka di ladang dengan menyatakan kami tidak sayang ladang ini (48%). Responden (61%) menyatakan kehidupan di ladang tidak memuaskan serta tidak bertambah baik sejak lima tahun yang lepas. Seramai 47% responden menyatakan majikan tidak melayan mereka dengan baik. Jelas bahawa kualiti hidup di ladang yang dipilih adalah kurang baik hingga menyebabkan, jika diberi pilihan mereka akan meninggalkan kehidupan di ladang.

CADANGAN Beberapa cadangan dikemukakan di sini terutama kepada pihak majikan dan agensi kerajaan yang bertanggungjawab terhadap sektor perladangan; a. Majikan perlu menyediakan kemudahan perumahan yang selesa kepada semua pekerja ladang mereka. Kemudahan perumahan yang selesa bermaksud dari jumlah bilangan bilik serta keluasan yang sesuai. Perlu kepada bekalan air bersih yang mencukupi serta bekalan elektrik 24 jam tanpa gangguan. Rumah yang selesa dapat memberi keselesaan seharian, kerehatan badan dan minda, dan dengan ini berupaya meningkatkan kesihatan peladang sekeluarga. Manakala keselesaan rumah juga menyediakan suasana pembelajaran yang kondusif bagi anak-anak peladang. b. Pihak Kementerian Pelajaran perlu menyediakan kemudahan sekolah rendah dan menengah yang sempurna di ladang atau membaik pulih keadaan kemudahan sekolah-sekolah sedia ada. c. Gaji dan elaun pekerja ladang perlu dinaikkan sesuai dengan kehidupan masa kini. d. Kemudahan-kemudahan kesihatan seperti klinik ladang perlu dipertingkatkan dengan sekurangkurangnya seorang pegawai perubatan di setiap ladang. e. Kemudahan jalan pengangkutan serta pengangkutan sekolah serta pengangkutan ke luar ladang/ke bandar berdekatan perlu disediakan. f. Pendidikan tabungan serta pewujudan koperasi pekerja perlu diberi perhatian sewajarnya oleh majikan dan pihak-pihak yang berwajib. g. Keupayaan majikan bagi meningkatkan hasil ladang harus diberi keutamaan kerana hasil yang meningkat akan meningkatkan pendapatan peladang. Ini boleh dilakukan dari segi penggunaan teknologi moden, suntikan modal serta kecekapan pemasaran. h. Peladang harus juga dilatih bagi meningkatkan mutu kerja. Kualiti kerja dapat meningkatkan hasil ladang. i. Peladang perlu didedahkan dengan ilmu-ilmu baru seperti kraftangan atau perniagaan bagi mendapat pendapatan sampingan. j. Anak-anak peladang perlu diberi pendidikan sempurna sehingga berupaya ke universiti atau dilatih dengan kemahiran-kemahiran tinggi. k. Pihak-pihak kementerian atau jabatan-jabatan kerajaan yang berkaitan seperti Kementerian Pertanian dan Industri Asas Tani dan Kementerian Komoditi dan Perladangan perlu berinisiatif dan bersungguhsungguh memajukan pekerja ladang serta meningkatkan kualiti kehidupan mereka. Bantuan boleh disalurkan bukan sahaja dari segi kewangan dan kemudahan prasarana dan latihan tetapi juga dari sudut pembangunan rohani dan motivasi kehidupan.

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CADANGAN TERHADAP PENYELIDIKAN MASA HADAPAN Bagi meningkatkan kualiti hidup pekerja ladang kajian-kajian seterusnya perlu dilakukan. Berikut adalah beberapa cadangan untuk kajian akan datang; a. Lokasi kajian perlu diperluaskan ke lebih banyak ladang-ladang lain dengan skala yang lebih besar ( lebih ramai responden dan banyak bilangan ladang). Termasuk kajian di setiap negeri di Malaysia. b. Kajian juga perlu mengambil pendekatan kepada perbezaan kualiti hidup di ladang-ladang yang berlainan seperti ladang getah, kelapa sawit dan sebagainya. c. Kajian lapangan melalui pemerhatian kehidupan di ladang akan menjadi lebih bermakna. Pengkaji mungkin boleh memilih ladang tertentu, tinggal di ladang selama beberapa bulan dengan merasi sendiri kehidupan di ladang di samping dapat menyelami gerak nadi kehidupan seorang peladang. d. Membandingkan kualiti hidup di ladang dengan kualiti hidup di kampong-kampong pesawah dan nelayan. e. Membuat kajian kualiti hidup dari perseptif peladang itu sendiri. Ini bermaksud tiada sebarang ukur tara dikemukakan dari penyelidik, kerana konsep kebahagiaan dan kualiti hidup hanya dapat ditentukan oleh diri seseorang dan ianya amat subjektif.

KESIMPULAN Kajian Kualiti Hidup Peladang menyerlahkan banyak penemuan yang amat berguna. Kita mengakui bahawa kualiti dan taraf hidup masyarakat Malaysia keseluruhannya pada akhir-akhir ini semakin baik berbanding dengan beberapa dekad yang lalu, selaras dengan kemajuan negara ini, namun tahap kemajuan kualiti hidup dikebanyakan sektor perlu terus diberi perhatian. Rata-rata mungkin berpendapat bahawa taraf hidup peladang di negara ini, khusus merujuk kepada kehidupan di estet-estet pertanian, tentunya amat lebih baik dari tahun-tahun 1960an, 1970an, dan 1980an. Ternyata ini sesuatu yang boleh diterima jika dilihat dari sudut kemudahan di ladang-ladang serta gaji yang diterima peladang ternyata lebih baik, namun kualiti hidup tetap subjektif dan dinamik kerana ia sentiasa berubah-berubah mengikut kehendak dan peredaran zaman. Sekiranya kualiti hidup peladang yang dikaji ini diukur pada tahun-tahun 1980an misalnya tentunya ia memperlihatkan kualiti hidup yang amat baik, namun jika diukur kepada persekitaran semasa, kualiti hidup peladang masa kini perlu lebih diberi tumpuan. Apatah lagi jika diukur atau dinilai dari persepsi peladang itu sendiri, kualiti hidup mereka ternyata kurang memuaskan. Banyak perkara perlu diberi perhatian oleh pihak kerajaan atau badan-badan yang bertanggung jawab bagi meningkatkan kualiti hidup peladang masa kini. Selaras dengan hasrat Malaysia mencapai negara maju pada 2020, sektor perladangan perlu diberi dimensi baru dengan transformasi menyeluruh bukan sekadar melihat kepada kadar gaji semata-mata tetapi juga kepada kualiti hidup sebenar diukur selaras dengan kualiti hidup masyarakat lain di negara ini.

RUJUKAN Azmi Hassan (1986). Kemiskinan luar bandar :Satu kajian di kalangan pekebun kecil getah di kampung Kerawi, Mukim TeIoi, Sik ,Kedah. Latihan IImiah. Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Leplege, A., & Hunt, S. (1997). The problem of quality of life in medicine. JAMA, 278:47-50. Lewis, W. Arthur (1954). Economic development with unlimited supplies of labor. Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies, 22, 139–91. Lim Hock Hin (1988). Kajian sosio ekonomi pekerja-pekerja ladang: Satu kajian kes di ladang getah Atlas Pa Jah, Yap Peng, Johor. Latihan Ilmiah. Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Muhammad Dahan Abdullah (1975). Sosio ekonomi pekerja-pekerja estate getah Kumpulan Guthrie Sendirian Berhad di Malaysia: Kajian kes Estate Kemuning Lebong, Melaka. Latihan IImiah. Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Mohamad Khan Jamal Khan, Munauwar Mustafa, Fadzli Shah Abd. Aziz & Hassan Ali (2002). Isu-isu keselamatan dan kesihatan pekerjaan di sektor perladangan di Malaysia. Sintok: Universiti Utara Malaysia. Ramasamy, P. (1994). Satu sosio ekonomi pekerja ladang di Malaysia. Persidangan Kebangsaan Pembangunan di Malaysia, Perancangan Pelaksanaan dan prestasinya. Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Ramasamy, P. (1994). The state unions and Plantation labour in Malaysia. Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Selvakumaran Ramachandaran (1994). Indian plantation labour in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: S. Abdul Majeed & Co. Szalai, A., & Andrews, F., M. (1980). The quality of life: Comparative studies. USA: Sage Studies in International Sociology.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PERSEPSI PENDUDUK DALAM PROGRAM PERUMAHAN RAKYAT (PPR) DI WILAYAH PERSEKUTUAN KUALA LUMPUR TERHADAP ISU SOSIOEKONOMI Junaidi Awang Besar*, Rosmadi Fauzi & Amer Saifude Ghazali *[email protected] Universiti Malaya

Abstract Perumahan didefinisikan sebagai satu siri rumah-rumah yang disatukan di sebuah kawasan petempatan. Dalam satu unsur perumahan, terdapat beberapa sub-unsur rumah-rumah dengan segala kemudahan fizikal seperti kedai, sekolah dan lain-lain. Justeru, adalah menjadi tujuan penulisan makalah ini untuk mengkaji isu sosioekonomi di kawasan Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR). Berdasarkan data soal selidik terhadap 1069 responden di 25 perumahan PPR dalam Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur dan kajian sekunder terhadap bahan-bahan akademik yang berkenaan didapati kehidupan penghuni PPR telah berubah dan lebih baik jika dibandingkan dengan kehidupan di penempatan setinggan. Situasi ekonomi mereka juga bertambah baik dengan pekerjaan serta logistik yang sesuai untuk ke tempat kerja mereka. Kehidupan bersosial dan perpaduan kaum antara satu keluarga dengan keluarga lain juga muhibah, mesra dan harmoni dengan aktiviti kemasyarakatan yang dianjurkan oleh pihak Persatuan Penduduk PPR dengan kerjasama pihak DBKL dan wakil rakyat di kawasan mereka. Namun demikian, kemudahan awam seperti penyelenggaraan lif, tempat pembuangan sampah dan kawasan pakir perlu ambil perhatian oleh pihak yang berwajib untuk memastikan kehidupan mereka selesa dan sihat. Selain itu, gejala sosial dalam kalangan golongan muda agak sukar ditangani disebabkan faktor pengaruh rakan dan juga kesan penggunaan media sosial yang tidak terbatas. Justeru, semua pihak terutamanya ibubapa atau penjaga kepada remaja ini perlu mengambil tahu serta bertanggungjawab terhadap aktiviti harian anak-anak mereka agar masalah sosial dan jenayah di kawasan mereka dapat dikawal untuk mewujudkan situasi kehidupan yang aman, tenteram dan lebih harmoni. Keywords: perumahan, Program Perumahan Rakyat, sosioekonomi, perpaduan kaum, kemudahan awam, gejala sosial

PENGENALAN Proses pembandaran di Negara Sedang Membangun (NSM) seringkali dikaitkan dengan masalah perumahan golongan berpendapatan rendah. Tanah bandar adalah terhad dan kadangkala tanah tersebut menjadi lebih terbatas dengan munculnya fenomena spekulasi dan kawalan kerajaan. Di sepanjang pinggir bandar ini sebenarnya kawasan pembangunan yang wujud lebih luas namun perancangan dan pelaksanaan program pembangunan bandar tidak terurus seperti yang diharapkan dan tidak pula dirancang secara bersepadu dengan pembangunan di pusat bandar. Dengan itu, objektif utama perumahan ialah untuk memberi peluang kepada semua rakyat menikmati kemudahan perumahan yang sempurna, terutama golongan yang Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

berpendapatan rendah. Program pembangunan perumahan bertujuan untuk membasmi kemiskinan dan memupuk perpaduan negara dalam kalangan masyarakat yang berbilang kaum yang merupakan matlamat kerajaan. Dasar Perumahan Negara dirangka untuk memastikan proses pembangunan perumahan negara dapat berkembang pesat seiring dengan kemajuan sosioekonomi dan pembangunan masyarakat. Dasar perumahan menekankan kualiti dan saiz sektor perumahan dengan menekankan penawaran dan pengagihan yang berkait dengan pelaburan. Sektor perumahan negara seperti sektor yang lain sentiasa mengalami perubahan yang dinamik selaras dengan prestasi ekonomi negara. Perkembangan ekonomi negara yang mapan penghujung tahun 1980-an telah mempergiatkan perkembangan pelbagai sektor yang secara tidak langsung memberi kesan yang positif kepada industri perumahan negara. Pembangunan perumahan yang dilaksanakan oleh pemerintah melalui agensi-agensi kerajaan telah melonjakkan industri perumahan awam. Namun, perancangan fizikal dan piawaian perancangan yang dilaksanakan di peringkat tempatan belum mencapai taraf yang memuaskan. Dalam Rancangan Struktur dan Rancangan Tempatan, beberapa ketetapan dan garis panduan yang relevan telah diterima pakai namun oleh sebab wujudnya jurang pemahaman antara penguasa tempatan dengan penduduk sekitar, serta antara birokrat dan profesionalisme, telah melahirkan kepincangan sosial dan ekonomi yang berterusan. Justeru, adalah menjadi tujuan penulisan makalah ini untuk mengkaji isu sosioekonomi di kawasan Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR).

METODOLOGI Sumber data kajian diperoleh daripada data primer dan data sekunder. Bagi data primer, sebanyak 1069 responden disoal selidik di 25 PPR dalam Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur dengan menggunakan satu set borang soal selidik dan responden dibahagikan lagi mengikut etnik. Selain itu, temubual bersemuka turut dilakukan terhadap beberapa orang Pengerusi Persatuan Penduduk PPR di samping pemerhatian di lapangan juga disertai oleh penulis. Bagi data sekunder pula, kaedah rujukan kepustakaan digunakan untuk mendapatkan data yang berkaitan perkembangan perumahan di Kuala Lumpur. Maklumat sekunder diperoleh daripada data, laporan, kertas kerja, artikel, buku prosiding, buku rujukan ilmiah, akhbar dan jurnal.

RUMAH DAN PERUMAHAN Rumah adalah keperluan asas yang perlu ada bertujuan untuk dijadikan sebagai tempat berlindung dan merupakan keperluan peringkat kedua yang mesti dicapai untuk tujuan keselamatan sebelum keperluankeperluan dalam peringkat yang lebih tinggi dipenuhi (Tiun, 2003). Rumah sebagai keperluan diri dan keluarga, merupakan sempadan fizikal yang memisahkan satu keluarga dengan keluarga yang lain (Abdul Aziz et al., 2007). Maslow dalam Teori Hierarki keperluannya mengatakan rumah sebagai tempat berlindung dan merupakan keperluan peringkat kedua yang mesti dicapai untuk tujuan keselamatan sebelum keperluankeperluan dalam peringkat lebih yang tinggi dipenuhi. Rumah sebagai keperluan diri dan keluarga, merupakan sempadan fizikal yang memisahkan satu keluarga dengan keluarga yang lain. Pemisahan begini ada rasionalnya tersendiri kerana dalam kehidupan ini telah ditentukan batas-batas pergaulan di antara seorang individu dengan individu yang lain terutamanya di antara lelaki dan perempuan yang bukan dari keluarga yang sama (Tan dan Hamzah, 1980; Nurizan dan Ahmad Hariza, 2001). Laporan Banci Populasi dan Perumahan bagi Malaysia 1980 menakrifkan satu unit perumahan sebagai: "... is a separate and independent place of abode intended for habitation by one household. Included in this category are makeshift and improvised huts". Manakala Glenn H. Beyer pula mendefinisikan rumah sebagai: "... a product-a highly complex product. First, is bulky, durable and permanent product. It has a fixed location -being used only in the place where it is built. Once built, it tends to remain in existence for many years, frequently, long after it has served its usefulness. It almost becomes a part of the land." (Nor’ Aini, 2007) Rumah adalah satu tempat yang bukan sahaja melindungi ahli yang tinggal di dalamnya dari aspek fizikal malahan melindungi dari segi sosial, rohani dan psikologi. Rumah selain dari merangkumi struktur fizikal, juga mempunyai dimensi-dimensi lain yang sama penting seperti tempat untuk mendapat, menerima dan memberi kasih sayang dan perasaan selamat dalam konteks pertalian antara ahli keluarga juga pertalian erat antara jiran, kawan dan komuniti (Anwar, 1979; Muhamad Hamzah, 2002; Siti Hajar, 2013). Selain itu rumah turut melambangkan simbol diri, sebagai tempat untuk mendapatkan privasi, keselesaan, ketenangan dan tempat untuk berehat, lebih-lebih lagi pula rumah juga adalah tempat yang memberi kestabilan dan tempat © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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untuk menjalankan aktiviti-aktiviti keluarga (Raja Mohd, 1977; Fashbir, 2000; Mohd Taib, 2000). Dari definisi yang dikumpul jelas menunjukkan kepentingan rumah sebagai satu alat kawalan. Sebagai satu alat kawalan, rumah mempunyai fungsi sebagai satu tempat penginapan yang menjaga kesihatan dan keselamatan fizikal pemilik dan penghuni di dalamnya. Namun, fungsinya tidak hanya tertakluk sebagai tempat yang memberi teduhan atau kawalan dari aspek kesihatan fizikal sahaja, malahan lebih dari itu, rumah juga perlu untuk pembangunan mental dan rohani orang yang mendiami di dalamnya (Smith, 1981). Perumahan pula didefinisikan sebagai satu siri rumah-rumah yang disatukan di sebuah kawasan pertempatan. Di dalam satu unsur perumahan, terdapat beberapa subunsur rumah-rumah dengan segala kemudahan fizikal seperti kedai, sekolah dan lain-lain (Balchin,1989; Lambert et al., 1978; Ball, 1983). Di kawasan perumahan masyarakat hidup berkelompok dan bersosialisasi antara satu sama yang lain. Rumah melambangkan identiti sesuatu masyarakat (Mohd Razali, 2005). Pembinaan dan rekabentuk rumah di antara satu masyarakat dengan satu masyarakat yang lain adalah berbeza. Perbezaan inilah yang memberi identiti atau definisi kepada sesuatu masyarakat. "The important element in the environment, varies from one society in degree of importance as an indicator of identity." Oleh itu, satu perumahan awam kos rendah perlu melambangkan identiti masyarakat yang mendiami rumah berkenaan. Tiada satu garis panduan yang tertentu yang mengambarkan masyarakat di kawasan perumahan kos rendah ini, tetapi indikator yang digunakan di Malaysia pada masa ini adalah mereka yang berpendapatan di bawah RM 700.00 sebulan. Pendapatan ini menggambarkan identiti penduduk di kawasan perumahan kos rendah ini adalah mereka yang dalam golongan berpendapatan rendah (Zakiyah et al., 2004). Perumahan juga didefinisikan sebagai satu aktiviti dan proses. Menurut Turner (1976) perumahan perlu dilihat sebagai suatu aktiviti yang melibarkan setiap individu dan sebahagian daripada masa dan tabungan mereka; perumahan juga sebahagian daripada industri dan pengguna kepada sebahagian besar tanah-tanah bandar. Parid (1997: 830) pula mengemukakan perumahan sebagai suatu proses. Menurut beliau, untuk memperoleh rumah, perumahan melibatkan perancangan dan proses peluasan atau pertambahan yang tiada hentinya. Sehubungan itu perumahan boleh dijadikan sebagai instrumen dan alat perubahan contohnya untuk meningkatkan taraf dan kualiti kehidupan. Perumahan juga boleh didefinisikan sebagai ruang membangun sebuah kehidupan (Ismail, 2013). Marcussen (l990) berpendapat bahawa selain menjadi tempat untuk berlindung, perumahan juga mengandungi konsep keselamatan, kasih sayang, keamanan dan kebebasan. Oleh itu perumahan mestilah berfungsi sebagai ruang kehidupan untuk anak-anak, suami isteri dan golongan tua. Perumahan yang selesa menyumbang kepada kesihatan dan kesejahteraan hidup, keyakinan dan keselamatan. Sehubungan itu, cara perumahan disediakan dan pemilikannya akan memberi kesan terhadap matlamat pembangunan seperti agihan kekayaan dan pembasmian kemiskinan (Zakiyah dan Yogi Suprayogi, 2012). Skop perumahan diluaskan lagi hingga merangkumi isu-isu perumahan di lokasi dan persekitaran sosial. Perumahan mestilah mengandungi kemudahan dan perkhidmatan yang mempengaruhi tapak rumah tersebut didirikan seperti air, pembentungan, perparitan, saliran, jalan raya, isu-isu pemilikan dan aspek-aspek utama dalam susun atur kehidupan manusia (Kemeny, 1992; Murie et al., 1976; Williams, 1997). Konsep ini juga merupakan tempat perlindungan (secara fizikal) beserta perkhidmatan dan infrastruktur, termasuk input-input seperti tanah, kewangan dan sebagainya yang diperlukan untuk membina dan menyenggara perumahan tersebut. Sehubungan itu lokasi dan pembinaan perumahan menyentuh isu-isu perancangan bandar dan alam sekitar (Laili dan Sharifah Azizah, 2010).

PROGRAM PERUMAHAN RAKYAT (PPR) PPR adalah satu program kerajaan untuk penempatan semula setinggan dan memenuhi keperluan tempat kediaman bagi golongan berpendapatan rendah. PPR terdiri daripada 2 kategori iaitu PPR Disewa dan PPR Dimiliki. Rumah-rumah PPR Dimiliki dijual pada paras harga antara RM30,000.00 dan RM35,000.00 seunit di Semenanjung Malaysia dan RM40,500.00 di Sabah dan Sarawak. Kadar sewa PPR Disewa ialah RM124.00 sebulan. Ciri-ciri PPR adalah seperti berikut: a. b. c. d.

Jenis rumah bertingkat antara 5 hingga 18 tingkat di kawasan bandar-bandar besar Landed properties di pesisir dan pinggir Bandar Keluasan - Tidak kurang 700 kps Binaan - 3 Bilik Tidur, 1 Ruang Tamu, 1 Ruang Dapur, 2 Bilik Air

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Permohonan PPR adalah melalui Setiausaha Kerajaan Negeri atau Pihak Berkuasa Tempatan. Kementerian Kesejahteraan Bandar, Perumahan dan Kerajaan Tempatan (KKBPKT) hanya bertanggungjawab dalam penyediaan projek PPR dan setelah siap PPR akan diserahkan kepada Setiausaha Kerajaan Negeri atau Pihak Berkuasa Tempatan. Salah satu peranan utama KKBPKT adalah untuk memastikan kehidupan masyarakat yang lebih berkualiti dan harmoni melalui penyediaan perumahan yang mencukupi, sempurna dan dilengkapi dengan kemudahan sosial dan rekreasi. Kerajaan telah memutuskan bahawa rumah yang dibina oleh KKBPKT di bawah Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR) mestilah people-centric. Pelaksanaan PPR oleh KKBPKT adalah dengan mengambil kira bahawa 40 peratus daripada isi rumah merupakan keluarga yang berpendapatan kurang daripada RM2,500 sebulan dan setinggan dapat tinggal di rumah kekal dengan persekitaran yang lebih selesa, santai dan sihat. Ini adalah antara imperatif di bawah Rancangan Malaysia Kesepuluh (RMK-10). Kerajaan bukan sahaja telah menyediakan perumahan bagi rakyat jelata sejak kemerdekaan negara pada tahun 1957 tetapi juga telah bergerak ke atas rantaian nilai selaras dengan masa. Pada hari ini, kerajaan melalui KKBPKT menyediakan perumahan kos rendah dengan ciri-ciri yang berikut: a. keluasan 700 kaki persegi (berbanding dengan 650 kaki persegi dan 600 kaki persegi beberapa dekad yang lalu); b. tiga bilik tidur; c. dua bilik mandi; d. dapur; e. kawasan untuk mengeringkan pakaian; dan f. lantai berjubin. Terdapat juga kemudahan seperti dewan masyarakat, taman permainan kanak-kanak, tadika, kedai, gerai, surau, ruang parkir kenderaan dan lain-lain ruang awam sagar penduduk dapat menikmati kualiti dan persekitaran hidup yang sihat. Semua ini adalah hasil daripada garis panduan yang diperkenalkan untuk memastikan perumahan berkenaan dibina dengan ruang, keselesaan serta kemasan dan kelengkapan yang mematuhi piawaian dan spesifikasi. Sejak PPR diperkenalkan pada tahun 1998 sehingga 31 Disember 2012, kerajaan persekutuan melalui KKBPKT telah membina 67 projek yang terdiri daripada 64,771 unit PPR (Disewa) dan 23 projek yang terdiri daripada 3109 unit PPR (Dimiliki). Unit-unit PPR ini disewakan kepada pemohon yang memenuhi syarat dan kriteria pada kadar sewa RM124 sebulan atau dijual pada harga RM30, 000 hingga RM35, 000 setiap satu. 67 projek PPR (Disewa) telah dibina di seluruh negara iaitu di Perlis, Kedah, Pulau Pinang, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Johor, Sabah, Sarawak dan Kuala Lumpur manakala 23 projek PPR (Dimiliki) semuanya terletak di Pahang. Tambahan daripada itu, sejumlah 21 projek yang melibatkan 11,028 unit berada di pelbagai peringkat pelaksanaan. Di bawah Bajet 2013, sebanyak RM1.9 bilion telah diperuntukkan untuk membina 123,000 rumah mampu milik di lokasi-lokasi strategik di seluruh negara. Daripada jumlah peruntukan tersebut, RM543 juta dikhaskan kepada KKBPKT untuk membiayai 45 projek yang melibatkan 20,454 unit rumah di bawah Projek PPR yang akan dibina menggunakan industrialised building system.

KAWASAN KAJIAN: KUALA LUMPUR Bagi latar belakang kawasan kajian iaitu Kuala Lumpur, beberapa aspek akan diperincikan iaitu sejarah pembukaan Kuala Lumpur, geografi dan persekitaran Kuala Lumpur, pekerjaan serta perumahan dan lokasi perbancian (25 PPR di Kuala Lumpur).

Sejarah Pembukaan dan Perkembangan Kuala Lumpur Kuala Lumpur (berkeluasan 242.49 km persegi) iaitu ibu negara Malaysia merupakan bandar ke-10 yang paling padat di dunia selepas Manila, Filipina. Jika disebut Kuala Lumpur pasti ramai yang membayangkan sebuah bandar yang padat dengan bangunan-bangunan tinggi mencecah awan serta Petronas Twin Towers yang merupakan lambang kejayaan dan kekuatan negara Malaysia hari ini. Kuala Lumpur yang juga dikenali dengan nama samaran ‘KL’ merupakan pusat pentadbiran Malaysia sebelum Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya ditubuhkan dan kemudiannya berpindah ke sana. Dari luaran KL disebut gah namun begitu KL bandar yang pesat membangun ini mempunyai kadar kemiskinan bandar yang tinggi berikutan isu kos sara hidup yang hebat akibat daripada proses urbanisasi yang pesat. Sejarah awal pembukaan Kuala Lumpur ialah penemuan sumber bijih timah yang banyak di sekitar kawasan Ampang. Penemuan sumber bijih timah tersebut telah membuka jalan yang luas terhadap pembangunan bandarnya yang sangat pesat. Nama Kuala Lumpur juga diambil berdasarkan keadaan persekitaran awal di sini iaitu lombong-lombong bijih yang digali memperlihatkan banyak lumpur. Kemasukan buruh Cina pada awal abad ke 19 merancakkan lagi aktiviti perlombongan yang dijalankan lantas menarik minat ramai pelabur © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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asing (Jabatan Penerangan Malaysia, 2013). Kuala Lumpur yang merupakan ibu negara Malaysia telah diisytiharkan sebagai Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur (W.P.K.L) dan Pusat Pentadbiran Persekutuan pada 1 Februari 1974. Kuala Lumpur mempunyai keluasan 242.70 km persegi dan terbahagi kepada tiga daerah iaitu Kuala Lumpur (Pusat Bandar), Cheras dan Setapak. W.P.K.L mempunyai kepada 11 buah parlimen yang terdiri daripada Wangsa Maju, Batu, Kepong, Segambut, Cheras, Seputeh, Bandar Tun Razak, Titiwangsa, Setiawangsa, Bukit Bintang dan Lembah Pantai. Pembangunan Kuala Lumpur boleh dikatakan bermula daripada rentetan sejarah lampau iaitu setelah ditemui oleh pelombong bijih timah berbangsa Bugis iaitu Raja Abdullah. Bijih timah yang ditemui di Sungai Gombak dan Klang telah mengundang Kapitan Cina iaitu Yap Ah Loy untuk meneroka kekayaan Kuala Lumpur. Aktiviti perlombongan menjadi titik tolak kepada perkembangan ekonomi Kuala Lumpur (Jabatan Penerangan Malaysia, 2013). Kuala Lumpur merupakan jantung kepada ekonomi negara Malaysia yang menjadi pusat utama pelbagai jenis industri yang menyumbang kepada KDNK negara terletak dalam sempadan negeri Selangor Darul Ehsan. Kuala Lumpur turut dikenali sebagai Bandaraya Bercahaya, Pusat Kesenian Antarabangsa, Pusat Perundangan Kehakiman dan Kota Budaya Islam di Malaysia. Unjuran penduduknya pada tahun 2012 adalah seramai 1,713,400 prang. Kuala Lumpur City Centre (KLCC) merupakan satu projek pembangunan bandar yang bertaraf antarabangsa dan menjadi mercu tanda gemilang bagi negara Malaysia. Ia berkonsepkan “Bandar Raya-DalamBandar Raya” yang merangkumi kawasan seluas 40 hektar serta menyediakan ruang kegunaan komersial untuk pejabat, perniagaan runcit, hotel dan kediaman seperti Menara Petronas, Masjid Asy-Syakirin, Taman Awam, Suria KLCC, Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre, hotel dan sebagainya. Menara Berkembar Petronas merupakan salah sebuah bangunan tertinggi di dunia iaitu mencecah 452 meter (Jabatan Penerangan Malaysia, 2013). Selain, itu, Kuala Lumpur menawarkan destinasi pelancongan yang menarik seperti Taman Burung, Taman Rama-Rama, Pasar Seni, China Town, Taman Bunga Raya, Istana Negara, Kompleks Budaya Kraf, Taman Tasik, Dataran Merdeka, Menara Kuala Lumpur, Tugu Negara, Masjid Negara, Muzium Negara, Pusat Sains Negara, Kompleks Sukan Negara, Istana Budaya, Zoo Negara, Taman Orkid, Planetarium Negara, Rumah Penghulu Abu Seman, Bangunan Sultan Abdul Samad, Balai Seni Lukis Negara dan Pusat Kraf (Jabatan Penerangan Malaysia, 2013).

Geografi dan Persekitaran Kuala Lumpur Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur ialah ibu negara dan bandar terbesar di Malaysia. Wilayah tersebut meliputi tanah seluas 244 km persegi (94 batu²). Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur ialah salah satu daripada tiga buah Wilayah Persekutuan Malaysia, dan juga sebuah enklaf (satu kawasan kecil dilingkungi dalam satu kawasan besar) dalam negeri Selangor, di pantai barat tengah Semenanjung Malaysia (Mohd Sohaimi, 2012) (Rujuk Rajah 1). Geografi Kuala Lumpur dicirikan oleh lembah besar yang dikenali sebagai Lembah Klang yang bersempadan dengan Banjaran Titiwangsa di timur, beberapa banjaran kecil di utara dan selatan, dan Selat Melaka di barat. Kuala Lumpur memetik namanya daripada kuala yang menemukan Sungai Klang dan Sungai Gombak di tengah-tengah ibu kota itu. Kuala Lumpur yang terletak di tengah-tengah negeri Selangor, pernah tertakluk di bawah pemerintahan kerajaan negeri Selangor, sehingga dipisahkan pada tahun 1974 untuk menjadi Wilayah Persekutuan pertama yang ditadbir secara terus oleh Kerajaan Persekutuan Malaysia. Lokasinya di pantai barat Semenanjung Malaysia yang lebih luas tanah ratanya berbanding pantai timur, menyumbang kepada pembangunan yang lebih pesat berbanding bandar-bandar lain di Malaysia (Lam, 2004). Pekerjaan dan Perumahan di Kuala Lumpur Dari segi kumpulan pekerjaan di Kuala Lumpur, 18.7 peratus bekerja dalam sektor perkhidmatan, pekerja kedai dan jurujual; masing-masing 14.8 peratus bekerja dalam bidang penggubal undang-undang, pegawai kanan dan pengurus serta pekerja perkeranian; 12.4 peratus juruteknik dan profesional bersekutu; 10.9 peratus pekerjaan asas; 9.9 peratus profesional; dan 7.3 peratus bekerja sebagai operator loji dan mesin serta pemasangan (Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia, 2004). Kuala Lumpur adalah kawasan kediaman kepada 1.6 juta penduduk (2005) dan ia dijangka bertambah kepada 2.2 juta menjelang tahun 2020. Dengan penyediaan rumah sebanyak 464,996, sektor perumahan dijangka akan berkembang pesat dan menyumbang kepada ‘urban footprint’ Kuala Lumpur. Kediaman adalah keperluan asas manusia selain makanan, air dan udara. Oleh itu, setiap bandar perlu memastikan setiap keluarga mempunyai tempat tinggal yang selamat, selesa dan sihat. Dengan ini keseluruhan tanah kediaman di Kuala Lumpur menjadi 7,423.84 hektar iaitu lebih kurang 30.65 peratus daripada keluasan Bandar Raya Kuala Lumpur. Sehingga tahun 2005, terdapat 676,163 unit rumah di Kuala Lumpur dengan 188,610 unit rumah Kos Rendah dan Sederhana Rendah dan Sederhana Medium; 158,307 unit rumah Kos Sederhana Sederhana; 288,817 unit rumah kos tinggi; dan 40,429 unit perumahan sementara. Dari segi klasifikasi pemilikan rumah di Kuala Lumpur, harga bagi Perumahan Mampu Milik ialah © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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RM 42,001 – RM 74,999, Perumahan Kos Sederhana RM 75,000 – RM250,000 dan Perumahan Kos Tinggi lebih daripada RM 250,000 (DBKL, 2008). Rajah 1: Peta Kuala Lumpur

Sumber: http://www.mapsofworld.com/malaysia/kuala-lumpur-map.html

Lokasi Perbancian: 25 Perumahan PPR di Kuala Lumpur Operasi penyelidikan di kawasan kajian adalah berdasarkan persempadanan bahagian pilihan raya yang telah ditetapkan oleh pihak Suruhanjaya Pilihan Raya (SPR) mengikut sempadan kawasan Parlimen dan unit terkecil yang dipilih dalam konteks kajian ini ialah Daerah Mengundi (DM). Secara mikronya, kesemua 25 buah PPR dipilih untuk pengumpulan data di lapangan merangkumi keseluruhan lokasi kawasan PPR di Kuala Lumpur iaitu PPR Pekan Kepong, PPR Intan Baiduri, PPR Taman Wahyu I (Beringin), PPR Taman Wahyu II (Wahyu), PPR Pekan Batu, PPR Kg. Batu Muda, PPR Seri Semarak, PPR Sungai Bonus Air Jernih, PPR Ampang Hilir (Hiliran Ampang), PPR Perkasa (Cochrane 1), PPR Jalan Lapangan Terbang Lama Fasa I (Seri Alam), PPR Jalan Lapangan Terbang Lama Fasa II (Seri Alam 2), PPR Laksamana (Cochrane 2), PPR Pudu Hulu, PPR Seri Malaysia, PPR Desa Petaling (Sungai Besi), PPR Malaysia Permai (Raya Permai), PPR Kg. Muhibbah Jalan Puchong, PPR Salak Selatan, PPR Kampung Limau Pantai Dalam, PPR Lembah Pantai Kerinchi, PPR Seri Cempaka (KL Linear City II Fasa II), PPR Pantai Ria (KL Linear City II Fasa I), PPR Seri Anggerik (KL Linear City 1) dan PPR Kg. Baru Air Panas (Rujuk Rajah 2).

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Rajah 2: Peta Kedudukan Perumahan PPR (Program Perumahan Rakyat) Mengikut Kawasan Parlimen di Kuala Lumpur

Sumber: Diubahsuai daripada Peta AGISwlk Kawasan-Kawasan Perumahan Utama Di Kuala Lumpur, Kementerian Wilayah Persekutuan dan Kesejahteraan Bandar, Putrajaya 2012; Pelan Bahagian-Bahagian Pilihan Raya di 11 kawasan Parlimen dalam Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur Mengikut Daerah-Daerah Mengundi, Jabatan Ukur dan Pemetaan Malaysia

HASIL KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Persepsi Responden Terhadap Impak Ekonomi Ekonomi berasal dari perkataan Yunani yang bermaksud peraturan rumah tangga. Ia merupakan ilmu yang mengkaji tentang pengeluaran dan pertukaran kewangan dalam aktiviti manusia. Menurut Smith (1776) ekonomi sebagai kajian tentang sifat dan sebab-sebab kekayaan negara. Di samping itu, ia mengkaji pembahagian sumber yang terhad untuk memenuhi kehendak manusia. Ini termasuklah kajian tentang pengeluaran dan penggunaan melalui pembolehubah yang dapat diukur, meliputi analisis pengeluaran, pengedaran, dan penggunaan barang dan perkhidmatan. Smith (1776) mendefinisikan ekonomi sebagai penyelidikan tentang keadaan dan sebab adanya kekayaan negara. Ekonomi juga merupakan salah satu bidang pengkajian yang mencuba untuk menyelesaikan masalah keperluan asas kehidupan manusia menerusi segala sumber ekonomi yang ada dengan berasaskan prinsip atau teori tertentu dalam suatu sistem ekonomi yang dianggap efektif dan efisien. Samuelson (1967) menyatakan ekonomi merupakan cara-cara yang dilakukan oleh manusia dan kelompoknya untuk memanfaatkan sumbersumber yang terbatas untuk memperoleh berbagai komoditi dan mendistribusikannya untuk digunakan oleh masyarakat. Perkataan ekonomi juga didefinisikan sebagai bagaimana manusia menggunakan sumbersumber pengeluaran yang terhad untuk mengeluarkan barangan dan perkhidmatan bagi memenuhi kehendak manusia yang tidak terbatas. Ekonomi juga dikaitkan dengan percukaian, kemiskinan, pengganguran, budaya pengurusan dan sebagainya. Aspek ekonomi juga terdiri daripada aktiviti ekonomi, pemilikan harta, kemudahan infrastruktur, program-program pembangunan kerajaan dan taraf hidup masyarakat. Geografi ekonomi atau geoekonomi merupakan kajian mengenai taburan ruangan aktiviti-aktiviti ekonomi iaitu pengeluaran, pengedaran dan penggunaan. Bidang kajian ini juga menumpukan kepada faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi letakan dan taburan aktiviti ekonomi serta perubahan yang berlaku dalam konteks masa dan ruang. Bidang kajian geografi ekonomi juga berkaitan dengan isu-isu semasa dunia seperti perdagangan antarabangsa, proses globalisasi dan itu penyusutan sumber (Thoman dan Corbin, 1994).

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Perumahan merupakan salah satu keperluan asas untuk memastikan kesejahteraan hidup rakyat sentiasa terpelihara. Sektor pembinaan juga menyumbang kepada pertumbuhan ekonomi negara yang mempunyai kaitan secara langsung dengan sektor-sektor lain, termasuk sektor perkhidmatan dan sektor pembuatan bahan-bahan binaan. Berdasarkan Laporan Ekonomi Kementerian Kewangan 2010/2011, sektor pembinaan dijangka menyumbang sebanyak 4.9 peratus daripada jumlah Keluaran Dalam Negeri Kasar (KDNK) pada tahun 2010. Oleh itu, Kerajaan perlu terus memberi penekanan terhadap keperluan penyediaan perumahan yang mencukupi, berkualiti dan mampu dibeli atau disewa terutamanya bagi memenuhi keperluan golongan yang disasarkan. Penekanan akan diberi kepada kesesuaian lokasi serta persekitaran tempat tinggal yang kondusif selaras dengan Strategi Keempat, Rancangan Malaysia Kesepuluh (RMKe-10) bagi memastikan akses kepada perumahan berkualiti dan mampu milik. Dalam RMKe-10, Kerajaan telah mensasarkan pembinaan sebanyak 78,000 unit rumah mampu milik bagi memenuhi keperluan golongan berpendapatan rendah dan untuk penempatan semula setinggan. Daripada jumlah tersebut, sebanyak 38,950 unit di bawah Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR) dan 39,050 unit di bawah program yang berkaitan dengan Kementerian Kemajuan Luar Bandar dan Wilayah (KPKT, 2011). Selain daripada itu, dana berjumlah RM500 juta diperuntukkan di bawah RMKe-10 bagi tujuan membiayai kerja-kerja baik pulih dan penyenggaraan rumah mampu milik awam dan swasta. Dana ini akan diagihkan melalui kaedah geran sepadan, di mana separuh daripada kos akan disumbangkan oleh Kerajaan, manakala separuh lagi oleh pihak pengurusan atau persatuan penduduk rumah berkenaan. Selaras dengan Gagasan “1Malaysia: Rakyat Didahulukan, Pencapaian Diutamakan”, adalah menjadi harapan Kerajaan membantu golongan yang kurang bernasib baik dan kurang mampu untuk memiliki tempat tinggal yang selesa. Rancangan Malaysia Kesepuluh (RMKe-10) telah menetapkan bahawa pembangunan perumahan akan terus diberi penekanan untuk menyediakan perumahan yang mencukupi dengan persekitaran yang selamat, sihat dan sejahtera di samping kemudahan awam yang lengkap dan kemudahan taman rekreasi yang bermutu. Justeru itu, sektor swasta diberi kepercayaan untuk memacu industri perumahan negara. Sektor awam pula akan memberi kerjasama sebagai pemudahcara yang berkesan untuk meningkatkan sistem penyampaian perkhidmatan berkaitan dengan sektor perumahan. Sektor awam juga akan memberi penekanan terhadap penyediaan perumahan mampu milik untuk golongan yang berpendapatan rendah (KPKT, 2011). Di bawah Program Transformasi Kerajaan (GTP), Bidang Keberhasilan Utama Negara (NKRA) iaitu “Mempertingkatkan Taraf Kehidupan Isi Rumah Berpendapatan Rendah” dan “Mempertingkatkan Infrastruktur Asas Luar Bandar”, Kerajaan telah memutuskan beberapa langkah drastik diambil untuk mengatasi masalah perumahan, khususnya bagi golongan miskin dan miskin tegar. Antara langkah-langkah tersebut adalah seperti berikut: a. Memberikan bantuan untuk meningkatkan hak milik rumah dengan menawarkan 44,000 unit rumah kos rendah untuk dijual dan disewa melalui Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur (DBKL) dan Jabatan Perumahan Negara (JPN); b. Menyediakan 50,000 unit rumah baru dan dibaik pulih untuk penduduk miskin dan miskin tegar luar bandar menjelang 2012, dua pertiga daripadanya di Sabah dan Sarawak; c. Memastikan penerima bantuan yang berkelayakan sahaja menerima bantuan perumahan. Bakal penerima bagi program perumahan ini dikenalpasti oleh agensi-agensi peringkat daerah dan negeri serta menerusi portal e-Kasih, pangkalan data nasional mengenai isi rumah berpendapatan rendah; dan d. Menawarkan bantuan kewangan bagi bayaran muka, yuran guaman dan pinjaman dengan kadar faedah yang rendah untuk isi rumah berpendapatan rendah yang bukan penerima atau pembeli rumah kos rendah yang disediakan oleh Kerajaan. Dalam memenuhi keperluan ini, faktor-faktor seperti kemampuan pembeli, kos pembangunan dan harga jualan sentiasa mempengaruhi permintaan dan penawaran sektor perumahan. Berasaskan kepada kedudukan semasa, pembangunan perumahan banyak tertumpu di kawasan bandar dan pinggir bandar yang padat dengan penduduk di mana keupayaan pembeli adalah lebih tinggi dan pasaran perumahan adalah lebih meluas. Namun, bagi memenuhi keperluan perumahan masa kini, terutamanya bagi golongan berpendapatan rendah dan sederhana, Kerajaan dan pihak swasta haruslah memainkan peranan masingmasing untuk memenuhi tanggungjawab sosial kepada rakyat. Bagi pelaksanaan pemajuan perumahan oleh pihak swasta, Kementerian Perumahan dan Kerajaan Tempatan (KPKT) sentiasa mengambil tindakan pemantauan dan penguatkuasaan di bawah Akta Pemajuan Perumahan (Kawalan dan Pelesenan) 1966 (Akta 118) untuk memastikan projek-projek berjalan lancar dan disiapkan mengikut tempoh yang ditetapkan (KPKT, 2011). Dalam memenuhi keperluan perumahan bagi golongan berpendapatan rendah dan sederhana, faktor-faktor seperti kemampuan pembeli, kos pembangunan dan harga jualan sentiasa mempengaruhi kedudukan permintaan dan penawaran sektor perumahan. Berasaskan kepada kedudukan semasa, pembangunan perumahan banyak tertumpu di kawasan bandar dan pinggir bandar yang padat dengan penduduk di mana © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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keupayaan pembeli adalah lebih tinggi dan pasaran perumahan adalah lebih meluas. Bagi mengimbangi keperluan perumahan masa kini, terutamanya bagi golongan berpendapatan rendah dan sederhana, pihak Kerajaan dan swasta perlu memainkan peranan masing-masing untuk memenuhi tanggungjawab sosial kepada rakyat. Melalui DRN, pendekatan komprehensif dan menyeluruh diperkenalkan untuk meningkatkan aksesibiliti rakyat bagi memiliki atau menyewa rumah yang disediakan. Jadual 1: Persepsi responden terhadap senario ekonomi

Persepsi Responden Terhadap Senario Ekonomi

Teruk

Baik

Berbanding tahun lepas, apakah pendapat anda mengenai ekonomi Malaysia tahun ini?

7.0

79.6

13.4

Berbanding tahun lepas, apakah pendapat anda mengenai pembangunan ekonomi di kawasan anda pada tahun ini?

5.2

82.3

12.4

10.0

81.9

8.0

Apakah pendapat anda mengenai prospek ekonomi negara pada tahun hadapan?

4.1

40.6

55.3

Apakah pendapat anda mengenai prospek ekonomi kawasan anda pada tahun hadapan?

1.9

40.0

58.1

Apakah prospek ekonomi keluarga anda pada tahun hadapan?

2.1

39.0

58.9

Berbanding tahun lepas, apakah pendapat anda mengenai ekonomi keluarga anda tahun ini?

Tidak Pasti

Sumber: Soal selidik di lapangan 2013

Responden turut ditanya mengenai senario ekonomi pada tiga peringkat iaitu ekonomi makro atau negara, ekonomi setempat, dan ekonomi mikro atau ekonomi keluarga berdasarkan keadaan semasa dan akan datang. Majoriti responden menyatakan keadaan ekonomi ketiga-tiga peringkat pada masa sekarang iaitu ketika soal selidik dijalankan pada bulan Oktober 2013 hingga Januari 2014 adalah baik (Lihat Jadual 1). Ini kerana kerajaan masih mampu mengawal kedudukan ekonomi negara malahan masih mampu menyediakan bantuan kepada rakyat seperti BR1M, BB1M dan sebagainya. Kegiatan ekonomi di kawasan mereka masih positif seperti biasa dan aktiviti ekonomi mikro atau keluarga masih pada tahap baik (Ismail, 2013). Namun apabila ditanya prospek ekonomi pada masa akan datang, majoriti menyatakan ‘tidak pasti’ kerana mereka sedang menantikan impak beberapa polisi ekonomi negara seperti kenaikan harga petrol, kenaikan harga barangan, pengurangan subsidi kerajaan kepada rakyat dan pelaksanaan GST yang dilihat akan memberi kesan besar kepada rakyat di negara ini. Rajah 3: Peratusan persetujuan responden mengenai kepesatan pembangunan di kawasan mereka

Sumber: Soal selidik di lapangan 2013

Apabila ditanya persepsi mengenai tahap kepesatan pembangunan perumahan di kawasan responden, majoriti (84.8 peratus) menyatakan tahap pembangunan di kawasan mereka adalah pesat (Lihat Rajah 3). Kebiasaannya, kepesatan pembangunan di sesuatu kawasan semakin meningkat dengan pembinaan kawasan perumahan serta kemudahan ekonomi seperti bangunan-bangunan perniagaan dan sosial seperti jaringan perhubungan/jalan raya yang baik. Keadaan ini merancakkan lagi proses urbanisasi di kawasan berkenaan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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seterusnya menggalakkan lagi aktiviti ekonomi dan sosial di kawasan berkenaan. Justeru, pembangunan yang pesat tersebut memerlukan perhatian dan pemantauan pihak berkuasa agar kepesatan pembangunan tersebut tidak menjejaskan persekitaran sosial dan alam sekitar di kawasan berkenaan (Ahmad Shukri dan Rosman, 2003). Rajah 4: Peratusan persetujuan responden mengenai kepuasan terhadap rumah PPR sejajar dengan kemampuan dan citarasa mereka

Sumber: Soal selidik di lapangan 2013

Seterusnya, majoriti responden menyatakan rumah PPR yang dibina di kawasan mereka sejajar dengan kemampuan dan citarasa mereka sendiri (Lihat Rajah 4). Ini kerana mereka berpendapat rumah PPR yang mereka duduki tersebut lebih baik dan selesa berbanding rumah setinggan yang mereka tinggal sebelum ini. Dengan keadaan persekitaran yang baru, cantik dan tersusun, mereka menganggap rumah PPR yang mereka duduki memadai dengan kehidupan di bandar yang mempunyai tanah yang terhad dalam masa yang sama mengalami pertambahan penduduk yang semakin meningkat dari semasa ke semasa. Mereka juga masih mampu membayar kadar sewa RM 124 yang dikatakan ‘mampu bayar’, berkemampuan, berpatutan dan sesuai untuk golongan yang berpendapatan sederhana dan rendah di kawasan bandar raya tersebut. Jika mereka tidak dapat membayar sekalipun mereka boleh mendapat bantuan daripada Baitulmal. Tambahan pula, rumah PPR yang mereka duduki tersebut berdekatan dengan bandar, kemudahan asas dan tempat kerja mereka. Mereka juga dapat hidup dengan selesa, harmoni dan terjaga. Namun mereka terpaksa akur dengan keadaan rumah yang agak sempit, bersesuaian dengan harga yang dikatakan paling murah di kawasan bandar tersebut. Rajah 5: Peratusan status pemilikan rumah PPR yang responden duduki sekarang

Sumber: Soal selidik di lapangan 2013

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Bagi responden yang menyatakan rumah PPR yang dibina di kawasan mereka tidak sejajar dengan kemampuan dan citarasa mereka, mereka menyatakan binaan yang kurang memuaskan seperti berlaku keretakan, kebocoran/licking pada bilik air, senget dan tidak rata akibat kualiti bahan binaan yang rendah; ruang yang kecil dan sempit maka sukar untuk keluarga yang besar serta untuk memuatkan barang perabot yang besar dan banyak; lif yang selalu rosak; banyak berlaku masalah sosial; dan tidak mesra pengguna kerana unit rumah dan blok yang terlalu dekat serta kurang privacy. Apabila ditanyakan mengenai status pemilikan rumah PPR yang responden duduki kini, 82.2 peratus menyatakan mereka hanya mampu menyewa (Lihat Rajah 5). Dengan kadar gaji atau pendapatan yang sederhana serta perbelanjaan harian atau bulanan yang hanya sekadar ‘cukup makan’ dan kadar bayaran utiliti (air, elektrik, telefon bimbit dan sebagainya) yang semakin meningkat dari semasa ke semasa maka mereka masih belum mampu untuk memiliki rumah sendiri. Hanya segelintir responden sahaja yang dapat membeli unit rumah yang mereka duduki tersebut terutamanya daripada etnik Cina. Harga rumah mengikut perkiraan pihak DBKL dan Kementerian Perumahan berdasarkan nilai harta dalam bandar semasa ialah RM 35,000.00 dan bayaran sewa atau bayaran rumah PPR sebulan ialah RM 124.00. Kadar tersebut adalah paling murah dalam konteks harga rumah dalam bandar pada masa kini kerana ia merupakan harga subsidi oleh kerajaan dalam usaha untuk membantu ‘penghuni bandar’ ke arah memiliki rumah mampu milik di kawasan bandar/kota yang mempunyai nilai hartanah yang lebih tinggi berbanding di kawasan luar bandar. Cara pembayaran yang dibuat dibuat oleh responden/penghuni rumah PPR ini ialah secara tunai (99.6 peratus) dan cek (0.4 peratus). Mereka membayar sewa di kaunter yang diwujudkan di laman bawah PPR masing-masing melalui wakil yang dilantik oleh DBKL. Rajah 6: Peratusan kepuasan terhadap rumah PPR yang diduduki

Sumber: Soal selidik di lapangan 2013

Apabila ditanya mengenai kepuasan terhadap spesifikasi rumah PPR yang mereka duduki, 79.7 peratus responden menyatakan mereka berpuashati dengan keadaan rumah tersebut berbanding hanya 12.1 peratus tidak berpuashati dan 8.2 peratus tidak pasti (Lihat Rajah 6). Jika dilihat kepada ruang rumah dan bahagian bilik yang mereka duduki masih mengikut keperluan hidup berkeluarga yang kecil dengan adanya ruang tamu, bilik tidur, bilik air dan ruang dapur. Bagi responden yang berpuashati dengan keadaan rumah PPR yang mereka duduki tersebut, antara alasan yang dikemukakan oleh mereka ialah jumlah isi rumah yang kecil sesuai dengan keluasan rumah PPR yang mereka diami, sesuai dengan kehidupan yang sederhana, harga sewa dan nilai rumah yang masih murah, lebih selesa berbanding keadaan di rumah setinggan yang mereka duduki sebelum ini, hampir dengan pusat bandar dan tempat kerja, bersyukur dengan apa yang ada, adanya pengurusan kawasan yang dilihat masih bersih dan tersusun/terjaga, dapat membentuk masyarakat yang bersatu padu dan bekerjasama dalam urusan harian seperti gotong-royong dan kenduri-kendara, dan mempunyai adik-beradik serta saudara mara yang tinggal dalam rumah PPR yang sama. Bagi responden yang tidak berpuas hati dengan rumah PPR tersebut, mereka menyatakan antaranya ialah kerana ruang persekitaran sama ada dalam rumah serta ruang luar iaitu parking yang sempit dan padat, persekitaran yang tidak bersih, dan kebocoran dinding serta siling yang menyebabkan berkulat lif selalu rosak.

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Jadual 2: Pandangan responden (dalam peratusan) mengenai perumahan dan impak geoekonomi

Perumahan dan Impak Geoekonomi

Setuju

Tidak Setuju

Tidak Pasti

Bayaran bulanan (sewa/beli) rumah PPR sekarang sesuai dengan kos sara hidup di bandar sekarang.

96.8

2.2

7.6

Perumahan PPR dapat menjana peluang pekerjaan melalui pembinaan rumah-rumah kedai dan kilang yang berdekatan.

81.4

14.1

4.5

Perumahan PPR dapat mewujudkan peluang perniagaan untuk usahawan kecil.

75.9

18.9

5.2

Perumahan PPR menggalakkan pertumbuhan pusat-pusat membeli-belah.

75.2

18.7

6.1

Lokasi dan logistik perumahan PPR memudahkan perjalanan ke tempat kerja.

74.6

21.7

3.6

Dengan adanya perumahan PPR maka masalah kemiskinan dapat diatasi.

69.7

22.7

7.6

Pembinaan rumah PPR telah meningkatkan taraf hidup keluarga saya.

68.5

26.5

5.1

Rumah PPR merupakan aset penting bagi penghuni bandar.

68.2

15.6

16.2

Perumahan meningkatkan kuasa beli penghuninya.

65.9

13.2

21.0

Nilai hartanah di kawasan perumahan PPR semakin meningkat.

65.6

3.3

31.2

Sumber: Soal selidik di lapangan 2013

Seterusnya responden turut ditanya mengenai perkara-perkara berkaitan perumahan PPR dan impak geoekonomi. Secara keseluruhannya mereka bersetuju bahawa pembinaan rumah PPR untuk penghuni bandar telah memberikan kesan positif kepada aspek geoekonomi (Lihat Jadual 2). Kehidupan mereka dalam skim perumahan PPR telah meningkatkan taraf hidup mereka. Kedudukan rumah PPR yang mereka duduki dari segi lokasi dan logistik adalah sesuai dengan tempat kerja mereka di samping mempunyai kemudahan pengangkutan yang baik seperti kemuda teksi, bas dan LRT. Kuasa beli di kawasan PPR juga semakin meningkat di samping dapat dijadikan aset yang penting kepada penghuni bandar tersebut. Perumahan PPR juga telah menggalakkan pembinaan bangunan-bangunan perniagaan di samping mewujudkan tenaga kerja kepada aktiviti ekonomi di kawasan berdekatan. Selain itu, perumahan PPR juga mewujudkan peluang perniagaan untuk usahawan kecil seperti berniaga makanan, perkhidmatan kebersihan diri seperti kedai gunting rambut dan lain-lain. Ini secara tidak langsung dapat mengatasi kemiskinan bandar seterusnya merancakkan lagi aktiviti ekonomi di kawasan mereka. Responden turut ditanyakan pendapat mengenai rumah PPR dari sudut ekonomi. Mereka beranggapan rumah PPR yang mereka duduki sekarang jika dibeli masih merupakan harga yang murah serta berpatutan dan kadar sewa yang ditetapkan adalah berbaloi dengan spesifikasi ruang dalaman rumah tersebut. Harga tersebut juga sesuai dengan kemampuan golongan yang berpendapatan sederhana dan rendah atau golongan miskin bandar dan juga sesuai dengan kos sara hidup rakyat di kawasan bandar raya tersebut. Meskipun begitu, bagi yang tidak mampu membayar sewa rumah tersebut masih mempunyai peluang untuk mendapat bantuan kewangan daripada Baitulmal. Pada pendapat mereka juga harga RM 124 sebulan merupakan harga termurah bagi kategori rumah bertingkat seperti rumah flat perumahan awam yang terdapat di Kuala Lumpur. Dari segi struktur binaan pula, mereka berpendapat keluasan dalam rumah yang diduduki adalah sempit iaitu kurang sesuai untuk keluarga besar dan sukar untuk meletakkan perabot yang besar dan banyak, tiada balkoni untuk menyidai dan menjemur kain serta bersantai namun bentuk binaan sememangnya moden dan cantik. Sebaliknya kerja-kerja penyimenan pada dinding dan lantai dilihat tidak kemas dan tidak rata. Ini menyebabkan mereka terpaksa membuat renovation atau pengubahsuaian ruang rumah dengan perbelanjaan sendiri mengikut citarasa dan keperluan mereka dari semasa ke semasa. Ruang pakir kenderaan juga tidak mencukupi menyebabkan mereka terpaksa meletakkan kenderaan di luar kawasan PPR yang terdedah kepada kecurian dan kerosakan akibat terlalu lama terdedah kepada cahaya matahari. Terdapat juga masalah kebocoran atau licking dan rekahan akibat daripada kerja-kerja paip air dalam simen yang tidak kemas. Selain itu, lif selalu rosak dan tiada langkah penyelenggaraan segera daripada pihak berwajib. Kedudukan unit rumah yang terlalu dekat menyebabkan ketiadaan privacy seperti gangguan bunyi bising dan masalah bau yang kurang menyenangkan dari rumah yang bersebelahan.

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Persepsi Responden Terhadap Impak Geososial Perkataan sosial mula diguna oleh Comte (1953) dalam perkataan latin ‘socio’ yang bermaksud ‘berkongsi’. Sosial atau budaya merupakan sikap, nilai, orientasi, pendapat dan tanggapan, serta perasaan terhadap politik. Dari aspek perseorangan, ia merupakan panduan pengawalan terhadap tindakan politik yang efektif. Sosial berkumpulan pula membekalkan sesuatu struktur nilai dan pertimbangan rasional yang sistematik hasil daripada keberkesanan tindakan sesuatu institusi. Smelser (1981) mentakrifkan sosial sebagai satu kajian saintifik tentang masyarakat dan hubungan sosialnya. Sosial juga ialah sesuatu yang dicapai, dihasilkan dan ditetapkan dalam interaksi sehari-hari antara warganegara dan pemerintahnya. Sosial lebih dari sekadar jumlah manusia secara individu kerana mereka terlibat dalam kegiatan bersama. Kajian yang berkaitan dengan sosiologi memberi tumpuan terhadap struktur, fungsi dan proses-proses perubahan dalam masyarakat. Sosial juga merangkumi segala bentuk interaksi atau hubungan manusia dengan manusia dalam kehidupan hariannya. Aspek sosial juga adalah merangkumi agama, hubungan penduduk di sekitarnya dan taraf pendidikan (Rohana, 2006; Zawiyah dan Masnizah, 2005). Geografi sosial atau geososial merupakan satu set amalan yang digunakan oleh ahli geografi untuk memeriksa dan berusaha untuk memahami dunia sosial. Bidang kajian ini melihat hubungkait antara manusia dengan tempat serta ruang yang mereka bentuk dan lalui dalam menjalani kehidupan harian dan melihat perbezaan dalam konteks kelas, gender, etnisiti dan agama antara kelompok manusia yang kerapkali membawa konflik dalam kehidupan (Cater dan Jones, 1993). Rumah merupakan keperluan asas dan selaras dengan “shelter for all”, Kerajaan komited dalam memastikan bahawa semua rakyat mampu memiliki atau menyewa rumah. Walau bagaimanapun, keperluan perumahan untuk golongan yang berpendapatan rendah, iaitu golongan yang mempunyai pendapatan isi rumah kurang daripada RM2,500 sebulan masih belum mencukupi. Oleh itu, Kerajaan dan pihak swasta perlu meneruskan usaha penyediaan Perumahan Rakyat Mampu Milik (PRMM) untuk disewa atau dibeli oleh semua golongan rakyat, termasuk orang kelainan upaya (OKU), warga emas serta ibu tunggal. Pelaksanaan rumah-rumah kos sederhana oleh pihak swasta juga digalakkan bagi memenuhi keperluan golongan berpendapatan sederhana, iaitu golongan yang mempunyai pendapatan isi rumah antara RM2,500 hingga RM3,999 sebulan (KPKT, 2011) Sebilangan kawasan perumahan didapati tidak mempunyai kemudahan sosial dan perkhidmatan asas yang lengkap seperti kemudahan pengangkutan, keselamatan dan penyelenggaraan. DRN mencadangkan supaya pemajuan perumahan turut memberi penekanan terhadap peningkatan tahap kemudahan sosial, perkhidmatan asas dan persekitaran yang kondusif. DRN juga menyarankan supaya program-program kejiranan bagi menangani isu-isu sosial, keselamatan awam dan pemuliharaan alam sekitar juga dipertingkatkan. Walaupun pada umumnya kebanyakan rumah yang didirikan telah mencapai tahap kualiti minimum yang ditetapkan, masih terdapat pemajuan yang tidak mematuhi piawaian yang ditetapkan dan menyebabkan kualiti pembinaan rumah adalah rendah. Penggunaan bahan binaan yang tidak berkualiti dan kekurangan tenaga mahir dalam bidang pembinaan serta kebergantungan kepada tenaga kerja asing yang tidak terlatih juga merupakan antara faktor utama yang menyebabkan rumah yang didirikan kurang berkualiti serta tidak mengikut piawaian. DRN menggariskan usaha-usaha untuk meningkatkan kualiti dan produktiviti pembinaan perumahan dengan menggalakkan penggunaan tenaga kerja mahir dan terlatih yang bertauliah, penggunaan piawaian kualiti minimum pembinaan dan penggunaan bahan-bahan binaan tempatan yang berkualiti. Melalui DRN, usaha untuk meningkatkan kemampanan sektor perumahan dilaksanakan melalui pelbagai usaha oleh pihak Kerajaan dan pihak swasta. Antara perkara yang diberi penekanan ialah pelaksanaan pembangunan yang seimbang dan penggunaan konsep pemajuan dan pembinaan rumah yang mesra alam dengan penggunaan teknologi dan inovasi baru. Penekanan diberikan terhadap pelaksanaan konsep teknologi hijau (green technology) yang dapat membantu memelihara alam sekitar dalam konteks kecekapan penggunaan tenaga dan sumber, khususnya dalam reka bentuk bangunan, penggunaan bahan-bahan kitar semula dan pembangunan bangunan pintar (smart building). Secara tidak langsung, ini akan meningkatkan lagi kualiti kehidupan di samping memelihara alam sekitar (KPKT, 2011). Sebilangan kawasan perumahan didapati masih belum dilengkapi dengan kemudahan sosial dan perkhidmatan asas yang sempurna seperti kemudahan pengangkutan, keselamatan dan penyenggaraan. Memandangkan perumahan adalah aspek yang penting bagi membentuk kesejahteraan rakyat dan masyarakat bersepadu, DRN mencadangkan supaya selain menyediakan perkhidmatan asas, pendekatan perancangan pembangunan yang seimbang hendaklah diamalkan dengan memasukkan elemen kemudahan sosial, pembentukan persekitaran yang kondusif serta berdaya huni (liveable) termasuk pelaksanaan konsep Bandar Selamat dan pembangunan komuniti (community building) (KPKT, 2011)

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Rajah 7: Peratusan responden yang berhubung dengan jiran

Sumber: Soal selidik di lapangan 2013

Apabila ditanya mengenai perhubungan atau komunikasi dengan jiran, majoriti menyatakan mereka berhubung dengan jiran, paling tidakpun jiran sebelah rumah (Lihat Rajah 7). Bagi mereka hidup berjiran adalah penting bagi mewujudkan suasana kehidupan yang muhibbah dan saling memahami antara satu sama lain di samping penting untuk meminta pertolongan jika menghadapi sesuatu permasalahan. Mereka juga saling berinteraksi atau berbual antara satu sama lain untuk berkongsi ilmu, pengalaman, bertanya khabar dan berbincang untuk menghadapi atau mengatasi masalah yang dihadapi (Roslan, 2013). Bagi sesetengah jiran tetangga, mereka berhubung untuk berbincang mengenai isu-isu semasa seperti isu politik, ekonomi dan sosial untuk menambah ilmu dan mengukuhkan hujah mereka dari semasa ke semasa (Hisham, 2013). Rajah 8: Peratusan responden mengenai adanya masalah sosial yang berleluasa di kawasan mereka

Sumber: Soal selidik di lapangan 2013

Seterusnya mereka turut ditanya mengenai kebejatan masalah sosial di tempat mereka. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan 75.6 peratus responden menyatakan terdapat masalah sosial yang berleluasa di kawasan PPR mereka (Lihat Rajah 8). Ini kerana berlakunya kes-kes kecurian dalam rumah dan kecurian motorsikal serta membuat bising dengan kenderaan masing-masing yang dikatakan berpunca daripada remaja-remaja yang nakal, tidak berdisiplin, membuang masa, melepak dan melakukan kerja-kerja yang tidak senonoh dan tidak berfaedah (Mohd Rahim, 2013). Remaja-remaja yang tidak dipantau, kurang mendapat perhatian dan kawalan oleh ibubapa atau keluarga masing-masing ini juga didapati terlibat dengan pergaulan bebas yang menyebabkan berlakunya gejala hubungan seks bebas yang membawa kepada pembuangan anak luar nikah di merata-rata tempat sama ada dalam perumahan PPR mahupun di luar komuniti tersebut. Selain itu, kegiatan vandalisme atau merosakkan harta benda awam dengan menconteng dinding bangunan PPR serta

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merosakkan lif telah menyusahkan pengguna yang tinggal di tingkat atas sehinggakan terpaksa menaiki tangga hingga ke paras yang tertinggi (Karim, 2013). Terdapat juga kes bunuh diri oleh orang luar yang terjun dari bumbung rumah PPR akibat kurang pemantauan oleh semua pihak di kawasan tersebut. Kegiatan gengsterisme juga telah merosakkan remaja yang tinggal di rumah PPR yang menjerumuskan mereka ke kancah yang tidak sihat seperti kecurian, samun, ugutan, pergaduhan, berjudi, seks bebas, penagihan dadah dan sebagainya. Masalah sosial juga menyebabkan mereka membuang sampah di merata-rata tempat dan ini mencacatkan permandangan persekitatan seterusnya mencetuskan situasi yang kurang menyenangkan semua pihak. Masalah sosial dan jenayah tersebut menjejaskan keselamatan penghuni terutamanya wanita dan kanak-kanak yang berada di luar rumah masing-masing (Hasan, 2013). Masalah sosial dan jenayah ini berpunca daripada sikap remaja yang terbawabawa daripada kehidupan setinggan mereka sebelum ini, kurang didikan agama dan sivik oleh ibubapa dan keluarga serta sikap tidak ingin ambil tahu dan tidak mahu menasihati remaja-remaja yang bermasalah tersebut. Justeru, semua pihak perlu mengambil peranan dalam usaha mengekang masalah sosial demi kesejahteraan dan ketenteraman kehidupan bersama dalam sesuatu kawasan perumahan (Wan Azmi, 1998). Jadual 3: Pendapat umum responden mengenai impak geososial (peratus)

Penyataan

Setuju

Tidak Setuju

Tidak Pasti

Masalah pakir yang tidak mencukupi menjejaskan keselesaan penghuni PPR.

96.6

1.8

1.6

Perumahan PPR dapat menyelesaikan masalah setinggan.

84.0

9.0

7.0

Bekalan air di kawasan perumahan saya berkeadaan baik.

83.7

11.6

4.7

Persatuan Penduduk di kawasan anda aktif dan dapat menyelesaikan masalah yang dihadapi penduduk dengan baik dan efisien.

76.3

7.5

16.2

Kejiranan di tempat anda tinggal dalam suasana muhibah.

70.6

15.9

13.5

Keadaan reka bentuk rumah yang berhadapan secara dekat menyebabkan berlakunya pencerobohan hak privasi.

70.5

24.5

5.0

Pembinaan rumah PPR meningkatkan perpaduan kaum di tempat anda.

47.7

34.4

17.9

Berlaku masalah pengurusan kutipan sampah di tempat saya.

45.6

50.9

3.6

Tiada kes bunuh diri di PPR ini.

39.5

51.4

9.1

Suasana “1 Malaysia” dalam keadaan baik di kawasan saya.

39.0

40.1

20.9

Masalah pembuangan bayi dapat dibendung di sini.

38.1

26.6

35.4

Jiran-jiran anda boleh dipercayai.

35.6

23.7

40.7

Gejala sakit mental/gila tidak terdapat di kawasan anda.

27.7

42.8

29.5

Lif berfungsi dalam berkeadaan baik.

24.2

73.2

2.5

Gejala penagihan dadah berleluasa disini.

17.2

30.4

52.4

Gejala sosial di kawasan anda dapat dikawal.

16.8

74.9

8.2

Masalah kecurian dapat dibendung.

15.2

75.3

9.4

Tiada pendatang asing tanpa izin dalam PPR ini.

13.7

37.6

48.7

Tidak berlaku perpecahan politik di kawasan anda.

11.6

52.1

36.3

Tiada masalah samseng jalanan/mat rempit.

10.9

74.0

15.2

Tiada kes pelacuran/seks bebas dalam PPR ini.

7.3

35.5

57.2

Isu/masalah hutang dan ugutan ‘along’ tiada di sini.

6.5

49.9

43.7

Tiada masalah kemiskinan bandar dalam kalangan penghuni PPR ini.

5.9

71.3

22.8

Tiada kes perceraian di sini.

4.2

30.2

65.6

Sumber: Soal selidik di lapangan 2013

Berikutnya, apabila ditanya mengenai impak geososial perumahan PPR, majoriti mereka menyatakan sememangnya terdapat beberapa masalah sosial yang berlaku di kawasan masing-masing namun melibatkan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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masalah-masalah sosial yang biasa berlaku di tempat-tempat lain seperti gejala lepak, samseng jalanan, kecurian dan penagihan dadah (Lihat Jadual 3). Sebaliknya mereka percaya bahawa masalah setinggan dapat diatasi dengan pembinaan rumah mampu milik untuk mereka iaitu rumah PPR yang mereka duduki sekarang. Namun beberapa masalah infrastruktur dan penyelenggaraan masih kurang mendapat perhatian pihak berwajib seperti masalah kerosakan lif, pemungutan sampah yang tidak konsisten dan kekurangan pakir kenderaan. Namun demikian mereka berpandangan bahawa Persatuan Penduduk di kawasan mereka aktif dan dapat menyelesaikan masalah yang dihadapi penduduk dengan baik dan efisien berdasarkan aduan yang dibuat kepada badan komuniti tersebut (Zalina, 2013). Responden turut ditanya mengenai isu keselamatan dalam kawasan PPR masing-masing. Masalah-masalah sosial dan jenayah yang ditimbulkan oleh remaja-remaja yang bermasalah menyebabkan adanya kes-kes pecah rumah dan kecurian kenderaan terutamanya motorsikal, pergaduhan, samseng jalanan, vandalisme dan sebagainya. Keadaan ini menimbulkan suasana kehidupan yang tidak selamat di kawasan kediaman masing-masing (Azmi, 2013). Justeru pihak Persatuan Penduduk serta rukun tetangga dengan kerjasama polis perlu melakukan rondaan dan kawalan dengan lebih kerap dan konsisten dalam usaha mengekang masalah keselamatan ini (Sivamurugan, 2005; Siti Hajar, 2002). Dari segi isu kemudahan awam yang disediakan, mereka berpendapat tempat pakir tidak mencukupi di samping lif yang selalu rosak dan tidak dapat digunakan. Taman permainan yang ada juga tidak diselenggara dengan baik dan sesetengahnya tidak dapat digunakan oleh kanak-kanak. Ketiadaan pusat sukan seperti padang bola sepak, gelanggang permainan dalaman sepetti badminton juga menyebabkan mereka tidak dapat beriadah serta tidak dapat meluangkan masa hujung minggu dengan aktiviti yang berfaedah dan menyihatkan badan. Jalan yang sesak terutamanya pada waktu puncak iaitu pada hari bekerja pada awal pagi dan lewat petang menambahkan lagi masalah tekanan kepada pemandu kenderaan. Terdapat juga masalah pengangkutan awam yang terhad seperti kedudukan stesen LRT dan Komuter yang jauh dari kawasan perumahan bagi mereka yang tidak mempunyai kenderaan sendiri yang menyukarkan mereka untuk bergerak dari satu tempat ke tempat lain terutamanya untuk pergi ke tempat kerja dan urusan sosial yang lain. Justeru, pihak berwajib perlu mengambil tindakan susulan agar segala masalah yang berkaitan dengan kemudahan awam di kawasan PPR ini dapat ditangani dan diselesaikan dengan baik untuk mewujudkan komuniti masyarakat yang baik, bahagia dan mempunyai kualiti hidup yang tinggi. Seterusnya isu-isu lain mengenai pembangunan perumahan PPR yang dibangkitkan oleh responden ialah perlunya kawalan terhadap kebanjiran pendatang asing di kawasan perumahan mereka, kawalan keselamatan yang lebih baik, rukun tetangga yang perlu lebih aktif dan mengambil berat terhadap kebajikan penghuni PPR, kebersihan blok PPR perlu dipertingkatkan, perlunya jiran yang mengambil berat dan bertegur sapa antara satu sama lain dan cadangan pembinaan parking bertingkat untuk mengatasi masalah kekurangan pakir di kawasan yang masih mempunyai ruang untuk pembinaan pakir bertingkat tersebut.

Program-Program dan Perkhidmatan yang telah Dilakukan oleh Pihak-Pihak yang Berkaitan di PPR Responden Apabila ditanya program-program dan perkhidmatan yang telah dilakukan oleh pihak-pihak yang berkaitan di PPR responden, bagi BN (UMNO/MCA/MIC dan sebagainya), antara program-program dan perkhidmatan yang telah dilakukan oleh pihak tersebut ialah program-program hiburan, konvoi bermotorsikal, aktiviti kemasyarakatan dan sukan, gotong-royong membersihkan kawasan dan cegah denggi, kempen kesedaran kesihatan, sambutan perayaan etnik dan keagamaan, bantuan BR1M, bantuan kebajikan, bantuan kewangan seperti bayaran sewa rumah, turun padang bertanya khabar permasalahan semasa, hari anugerah kecemerlangan pelajar dan majlis berkhatan, ceramah motivasi kepada pelajar, ceramah penerangan dan perpaduan kaum, sambutan kemerdekaan, karnival kerjaya, pemberian lesen memandu percuma, majlis sambutan tahun baru, pinjaman perniagaan, program pengurusan keluarga dan bantuan makanan kepada yang memerlukan. Kebanyakan program yang dianjurkan pihak BN melibatkan agensi-agensi kerajaan persekutuan dan NGO yang mesra BN yang mendapat peruntukan yang besar. Seterusnya antara program-program dan perkhidmatan yang telah dilakukan oleh Pakatan Rakyat (PAS/ PKR/DAP) ialah ceramah penerangan isu semasa, kempen cegah denggi dengan kerjasama NGO yang mesra PR, aktiviti kemasyarakatan, aktiviti perayaan etnik dan agama, kempen menuntut untuk turunkan harga sewa dan pemilikan rumah PPR, bantuan kebajikan, bantuan kepada mangsa kemalangan, ceramah agama, majlis ilmu dan pidato perpaduan, menyediakan khidmat guaman, gotong-royong membersihkan kawasan persekitaran dan mengecat bangunan, pemberian hadiah kepada anak-anak penghuni PPR yang cemerlang dalam peperiksaan, mengimarahkan masjid, aktiviti surau seperti semarak ramadan dan nuzul quran, menyelesaikan masalah air dan turun padang mendengar rintihan rakyat. Aktiviti anjuran PR melibatkan kos kewangan sendiri sama ada melalui kutipan derma ataupun sumbangan NGO yang pro PR.

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Berikutnya bagi program yang dilakukan oleh Persatuan Penduduk PPR kawasan responden ialah aktif dengan aktiviti kemasyarakatan, aktiviti sukan dan sukaneka serta rekreasi, gotong-royong, sambutan dan jamuan perayaan etnik dan agama, pemantauan persekitaran PPR pada waktu malam, aktiviti surau seperti marhaban, hari mengaji Al-Quran, sambutan hari asyura serta forum perdana ehwal islam, mengimarah bulan ramadhan, ceramah kesedaran penduduk mengenai kepentingan kesihatan dengan kerjasama DBKL, hari kesihatan dan pemeriksaan kesihatan percuma, seminar bantuan guaman, basmi kemiskinan dan basmi maksiat, kem motivasi, karnival belia untuk memerangi masalah sosial, kempen kebersihan dan mengecat bangunan, majlis perpaduan, sambutan maulidur rasul, program makan durian, sambutan di ambang kemerdekaan, program rakan muda untuk belia, pesta dan konsert hiburan dan mengenalpasti dan membantu golongan miskin tegar. Gerak kerja oleh persatuan penduduk kebiasaannya melibatkan penduduk dalam PPR sendiri dengan kerjasama DBKL serta agensi-agensi kerajaan yang berkaitan dengan program yang dilaksanakan.

Cadangan Memantapkan Infrastruktur dan Persekitaran sosioekonomi PPR Responden juga ditanyakan cadangan anda mengenai program dan perkhidmatan lain yang perlu dilakukan di PPR masing-masing. Antara yang dicadangkan oleh mereka ialah memperketatkan kawalan keselamatan terutamanya pada waktu malam, memperbanyakkan kempen kesihatan, mewujudkan gerai-gerai untuk peniaga, memantau gejala sosial remaja, mengadakan majlis-majlis atau aktiviti yang boleh menarik minat penduduk untuk mengeratkan silaturahim, menambah pakir kenderaan, menyediakan air yang ditapis/R.O water, membaiki jalan raya yang rosak, memberi elaun kepada ahli rukun tetangga yang berkawal untuk penduduk PPR, perbanyakkan ceramah agama dan mengimarahkan surau, mewujudkan lebih banyak kedai runcit dan kedai makan, membina pintu pagar yang dapat mengawal kemasukan kenderaan dari luar, menceriakan lagi kawasan persekitaran PPR, mengekang masalah kecurian motorsikal, memperbanyakkan ceramah motivasi kepada golongan muda, kelas Al-Quran percuma, pemantauan terhadap masalah vandalisme, mengadakan kelas bimbingan mengaji dan kelas menjahit serta kelas mengubah bunga untuk golongan suri rumah, menyediakan kawasan riadah yang selamat, mengadakan kelas tuisyen untuk pelajar sekolah, menyediakan peluang pekerjaan dan perniagaan kepada golongan muda, menyediakan pengawal keselamatan di setiap PPR, menyediakan perkhidmatan selenggara lif, menyediakan bengkel baiki motorsikal, menganjurkan pertandingan futsal, rumah ibadat untuk penganut Hindu dan memastikan jadual kutipan sampah yang teratur.

KESIMPULAN Sebagai kesimpulannya, kesan dari segi geoekonomi menunjukkan kehidupan penghuni PPR telah berubah dan lebih baik jika dibandingkan dengan kehidupan di penempatan setinggan. Situasi ekonomi mereka juga bertambah baik dengan pekerjaan serta logistik yang sesuai untuk ke tempat kerja mereka. Seterusnya dari sudut impak geososial pula, kehidupan bersosial dan perpaduan kaum antara satu keluarga dengan keluarga lain juga muhibah, mesra dan harmoni dengan aktiviti kemasyarakatan yang dianjurkan oleh pihak Persatuan Penduduk PPR dengan kerjasama pihak DBKL dan wakil rakyat di kawasan mereka. Namun demikian, kemudahan awam seperti penyelenggaraan lif, tempat pembuangan sampah dan kawasan pakir perlu ambil perhatian oleh pihak yang berwajib untuk memastikan kehidupan mereka selesa dan sihat. Selain itu, gejala sosial dalam kalangan golongan muda agak sukar ditangani disebabkan faktor pengaruh rakan dan juga kesan penggunaan media sosial yang tidak terbatas. Justeru, semua pihak terutamanya ibubapa atau penjaga kepada remaja ini perlu mengambil tahu serta bertanggungjawab terhadap aktiviti harian anak-anak mereka agar masalah sosial dan jenayah di kawasan mereka dapat dikawal untuk mewujudkan situasi kehidupan yang aman, tenteram dan lebih harmoni.

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Turner, J. (1976). Approaches to government sponsored housing. Ekistics, 41 (42), 4-7. Wan Azmi Ramli. (1998). Petaka abad ke-21. Kuala Lumpur: Golden Books Centre Sdn Bhd. Williams, P. (1997). Introduction: directions in housing policy. In Williams, P. (Edt.), Directions in housing policy: towards sustainable housing policies for the UK. London: Pail Chapman Publishing Ltd. Zakiyah Jamaluddin, Sh. Sofiah Atiqah Sy. Ibrahim & Afifah Abu Yazid. (2004). Rumah kos rendah: Masalah dan penyelesaian. Sintok: Penerbit Universiti Utara Malaysia. Zakiyah Jamaluddin & Yogi Suprayogi Suganda. (2012). Strategi pembasmian setinggan bandar: kajian di Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia dan Bandung, Indonesia. Dlm. Rohani Hj. Ab. Ghani. Malaysia-Indonesia: kepelbagaian sudut pandangan. Sintok: Penerbit Universiti Utara Malaysia. Zalina Hassan. (2013). Pengerusi Persatuan Penduduk PPR Kg Baru Air Panas, Temubual pada 7 Oktober di kawasan perumahan PPR Kg Baru Air Panas, jam 2 petang. Zawiyah Mohamad Yusof & Masnizah Mohd. (2005). Sains sosial dan teknologi maklumat. Petaling Jaya: Prentice Hall Pearson Malaysia Sdn. Bhd.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

DASAR WARGA EMAS NEGARA DAN PUSAT AKTIVITI WARGA EMAS (PAWE) DI MALAYSIA Noraida Ibrahim*, Zarina Mat Saad & Fatimah Zailly Ahmad Ramly *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Penuaan penduduk merupakan satu fenomena yang bakal melanda Malaysia pada abad ke-21 kelak. Negara kita sebagai negara membangun dijangka akan mengalami fenomena penuaan penduduk dalam masa terdekat dan kelajuan Malaysia mencapai status negara tua adalah lebih pesat berbanding negara maju yang lain. Menurut Pertubuhan BangsaBangsa Bersatu (PBB), 2007, warga emas di Malaysia akan berganda daripada 7% kepada 14% dalam masa 28 tahun sahaja berbanding negara Sweden yang telah mengambil masa selama 112 tahun untuk perubahan yang sama. Menyedari hakikat ini, Kerajaan telah menggubal Dasar Warga Tua Negara pada tahun 1995. Dasar dan pelan ini kemudianya telah ditambah baik menjadi Dasar Warga Emas Negara (DWEN) pada 5 Januari 2011. Kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan berkaitan DWEN yang menjadi panduan kepada kerajaan untuk melaksanakan segala perancangan berkaitan program pembangunan warga emas bagi menghadapi fenomena penuaan kelak. Sub topik yang akan dibincangkan adalah berkaitan strategi yang terkandung di dalam DWEN. Selain itu pengwujudan Pusat Aktiviti Warga Emas (PAWE) yang merupakan salah satu program pembangunan yang diwujudkan dibawah DWEN bagi menangani isu dan cabaran warga emas akan turut dibincangkan dalam kertas kerja ini selain topik utama berkaitan DWEN. Sub topik berkaitan PAWE yang akan dibincangkan adalah berkaitan aspek pelaksanaan dan kaitan PAWE kepada kesejahteraan warga emas. Sebagai makluman, PAWE adalah satu alternatif kepada warga emas sebagai tempat untuk mendapatkan perkhidmatan serta menjalankan aktiviti harian dan ia turut menyumbang kepada kesejahteraan warga emas di dalam komuniti. Di Malaysia terdapat 22 buah PAWE yang telah diwujudkan melalui peruntukan projek Rancangan Malaysia ke lapan (8) dan sembilan (9). Keywords: penuaan, Dasar Warga Emas Negara, warga emas, Pusat Aktiviti Warga Emas, kesejahteraan dalam komuniti

PENGENALAN Penuaan penduduk menyentuh setiap aspek hidup individu, masyarakat dan negara. Situasi kehidupan di peringkat tua bergantung kepada perjalanan dan perancangan hidup di peringkat awal lagi (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, 2011). Malaysia menggunakan istilah 60 tahun dan ke atas sebagai takrifan warga emas di Malaysia sejajar dengan takrifan oleh United Nations World Assembly on Ageing pada tahun 1982 di Vienna. Malaysia juga menggunapakai takrifan ini bagi merancang dasar dan perancangan untuk warga emas. Menurut Latifah (2010), warga emas pernah dikenali sebagai mereka yang berumur 50 tahun ke atas, namun dengan peningkatan tahap ekonomi dan kesihatan, kini umur warga emas di Malaysia telah diberikan penetapan baru selaras dengan penepatan umur warga emas di negara-negara maju yang lain. Oleh yang demikian, di Malaysia seseorang individu itu dikategorikan sebagai warga emas apabila berumur 60 tahun Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

dan ke atas. Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia (2010) menerusi laporan Banci Penduduk dan Perumahan Malaysia telah melaporkan seramai 2,251,216 orang warga emas di Malaysia iaitu sebanyak 8.0 peratus daripada keseluruhan penduduk di Malaysia. Angka ini dijangka meningkat dan menurut Nurizan Yahaya, Siti Suhailah Abdullah, Yadollah Abolfathi Momtaz, Tengku Aizan Hamid (2010), Malaysia telah mencatatkan 7% daripada warga emas berumur 60 tahun dan ke atas pada tahun 2005, dan angka ini dijangka meningkat kepada 14% pada 2028. Situasi ini hanya mengambil masa selama 23 tahun lagi bagi Malaysia dikenali sebagai negara tua. Jadual 1 - Statistik Kependudukan dan Jumlah Warga Emas di Negeri-negeri Seluruh Malaysia

Lokasi Malaysia

Jumlah Penduduk

Jumlah Warga Emas

(%)

28,334,135

2,251,216

7.9

Perak

2,352,743

280,118

11.9

Perlis

231,541

24,499

10.5

1,561,383

159,285

10.2

821,110

79,422

9.6

Kedah

1,947,651

184,087

9.4

Negeri Sembilan

1,021,064

91,920

9.0

Kelantan

1,539,601

135,935

8.8

Sarawak

2,471,140

211,181

8.5

Johor

3,348,283

278,028

8.3

Pahang

1,500,817

122,719

7.9

Kuala Lumpur

1,674,521

127,825

7.6

Terengganu

1,035,977

78,058

7.5

Selangor

5,462,141

334,289

6.1

Sabah

3,206,742

138,386

4.3

Labuan

86,908

3483

4.0

Putrajaya

72,413

981

1.3

Pulau Pinang Melaka

Sumber : Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia (2010

Menyedari fenomena ini, kerajaan Malaysia telah menggubal Dasar Warga Tua Negara pada tahun 1995 dan Pelan Tindakan Dasar Warga Tua Negara 1999. Dasar dan pelan ini kemudianya telah ditambah baik pada tahun 2011 dengan menggantikkanya dengan Dasar Warga Emas Negara (DWEN) dan Pelan Tindakan Warga Emas Negara (PTWEN).

Dasar Warga Emas Negara (DWEN) Dasar Warga Emas Negara (DWEN) dan Pelan Tindakan Warga Emas Negara (PTWEN) merupakan komitmen kerajaan untuk mewujudkan warga emas yang berdikari, bermartabat diri dan dihormati dengan mengoptimumkan potensi diri melalui penuaan sihat, positif, aktif, produktif dan menyokong untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan hidup dalam pembangunan negara. Usaha ini dilakukan kerana penuaan penduduk adalah fenomena pada abad ke 21 merupakan satu realiti yang perlu diberikan perhatian khusus. Impaknya terhadap negara bergantung kepada sejauh mana negara bersedia untuk menghadapinya (Dasar Warga Emas Negara, 2011). Bagi menjayakannya, antara usaha yang dilaksanakan adalah dengan mewujudkan sistem sokongan kepada keluarga agar warga emas dapat terus hidup di dalam komuniti (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, 1995). Pada peringkat nasional, dokumen dan dasar yang dirujuk dalam penilaian semula Dasar Warga Tua Negara adalah Perlembagaan Persekutuan, Dasar Kebajikan Masyarakat Negara (1990), Dasar Pembangunan Nasional (1991), Dasar Sosial Negara (2003), Dasar Kesihatan Warga Emas (2008) dan Wawasan 2020 serta Rancangan Pembangunan Lima Tahun Malaysia. Pada 5 Januari 2011, DWEN dan PTWEN telah diluluskan oleh Kabinet bagi menggantikan DWTN dan PTDWTN. Penambahbaikan DWEN menyentuh setiap aspek berkaitan penuaan hidup sama ada kepada individu, masyarakat dan negara. Situasi kehidupan di peringkat tua bergantung kepada perjalanan dan perancangan hidup di peringkat awal lagi. Falsafah DWEN adalah untuk mengiktiraf warga emas sebagai warganegara yang terdiri daripada pelbagai latar belakang dan pengalaman, mempunyai © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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hak untuk menikmati kehidupan sejahtera, dihormati dan boleh terus menyumbang kepada pembangunan negara. Prinsip DWEN telah diadaptasi daripada prinsip PBB ke atas warga emas dan Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing (MIPAA) seperti berikut : a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

menggunakan pendekatan perkembangan sepanjang hayat; mengiktiraf hak untuk mendapat keperluan asas yang berkualiti; mengutamakan kesaksamaan peluang untuk mengakses pelbagai sumber; meningkatkan martabat diri dan berdikari; mengeratkan hubungan antara generasi; meningkatkan penyertaan dan penglibatan; dan mengukuhkan kerjasama dan perkongsian tanggungjawab.

Matlamat DWEN adalah untuk mendayaupayakan individu, keluarga dan masyarakat dengan menyediakan perkhidmatan mesra warga emas yang cekap dan berkesan serta membangunkan persekitaran yang memboleh dan membantu supaya warga emas hidup sejahtera. Objektif DWEN ditubuhkan adalah untuk membangunkan masyarakat prihatin terhadap fenomena penuaan dan mendayaupayakan masyarakat bagi menghadapi hari tua. Selain itu, objektif DWEN adalah untuk memudahkan akses pembelajaran sepanjang hayat dalam kalangan warga emas, keluarga dan masyarakat dan menjamin warga emas hidup selamat dan dilindungi. DWEN juga ditambah baik agar dapat membentuk sistem penyampaian perkhidmatan warga emas yang berkesan dan bersepadu serta meningkatkan penglibatan warga emas dalam masyarakat pelbagai umur. Objektif terakhir DWEN adalah untuk menggalakkan penggunaan hasil penyelidikan sebagai asas dalam perancangan, pemantauan dan penilaian program warga emas. Dasar Warga Emas Negara yang telah ditambahbaik pada tahun 2011 (DWEN) telah menggariskan enam (6) strategi yang dibentuk sebagai pendekatan untuk mencapai objektif DWEN. Berikut merupakan 6 strategi DWEN iaitu : a. Promosi dan Advokasi Penumpuan kepada usaha berterusan untuk memupuk kesedaran mengenai isu dan cabaran penuaan dalam kalangan semua lapisan masyarakat. Warga emas dipromosi sebagai aset negara yang boleh terus menyumbang kepada pembangunan negara. b. Pembelajaran Sepanjang Hayat Memberi peluang kepada setiap generasi terutamanya warga emas untuk melengkapkan dan meningkatkan potensi diri dengan ilmu pengetahuan serta kemahiran untuk hidup secara aktif dan produktif dalam keluarga dan masyarakat. Fokus strategi ini adalah kepada pelaburan modal insan yang memberi tumpuan kepada persediaan awal dan tindakan pencegahan serta usaha untuk mengukuhkan hubungan kekeluargaan masyarakat bagi meningkatkan kesejahteraan warga emas masa kini dan masa hadapan. c. Keselamatan dan Perlindungan Strategi ini berkaitan keutamaan keselamatan dan perlindungan warga emas dalam semua aspek tanpa mengira latar belakang mereka. Akses warga emas kepada keperluan asas, keselamatan sosial dan perlindungan daripada pengabaian, penganiayaan, serta penderaan perlu dijamin dalam peruntukan undang-undang. d. Tadbir Urus dan Perkongsian Tanggungjawab Strategi ini mengutamakan tadbir urus yang berkesan dalam tadbir urus insan, pelaksanaan program, penyediaan kemudahan dan perkhidmatan untuk merealisasikan dasar di pelbagai peringkat dan agensi. Akauntabiliti dalam pengurusan dan kewangan menjadi teras kepada penyampaian perkhidmatan dan kemudahan untuk meningkatkan faedah secara langsung kepada warga emas. e. Penglibatan dan Kesepaduan antara Generasi Strategi ini memberi tumpuan kepada pembangunan masyarakat inklusif berlandaskan kepada penglibatan secara berterusan dalam sektor ekonomi dan sosial. Strategi ini turut memfokus kepada usaha memupuk dan mengeratkan hubungan saling melengkapi melalui aktiviti/program pengukuhan hubungan dan perpaduan dalam kalangan warga emas dan antara pelbagai generasi. Aspek warisan dan hubungan saling menghormati dan bantu-membantu antara generasi perlu diketengahkan dalam aktiviti/program.

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f.

Penyelidikan dan Pembangunan Strategi ini memberi tumpuan kepada pengumpulan dan penggunaan data berasaskan umur dan jantina dalam semua proses perancangan, pelaksanaan dan penilaian program yang mesra warga emas. Strategi ini mampu meningkatkan penglibatan pihak-pihak yang berkepentingan (stakeholders) dan keberkesanan penyampaian dasar di pelbagai peringkat untuk menghasilkan program yang menyeluruh dan berterusan.

Keenam-enam strategi ini merupakan perkara yang ditekankan oleh pihak kerajaan dalam mengatasi isu dan cabaran berkaitan penuaan dn salah satunya adalah strategi kedua iaitu pembelajaran sepanjang hayat. Melalui strategi ini, wujud ruang dan peluang bagi warga emas untuk menyumbang dalam program pembelajaran dan pengajaran, perkongsian pengalaman dan penyampaian ilmu serta kemahiran dan ia perlu diutamakan supaya peranan dan status mereka dapat dikekalkan dalam masyarakat (DWEN, 2011). Dalam hal ini, Pusat Aktiviti Warga Emas (PAWE) dilihat sebagai satu alternatif kepada warga emas sebagai tempat untuk mendapatkan perkhidmatan dan menjalankan aktiviti harian serta menyumbang kepada usaha kesejahteraan warga emas di dalam komuniti (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, 1995). Di samping memperolehi pengetahuan dan kemahiran daripada program/aktiviti yang diadakan, warga emas juga dapat menyumbang khidmat sukarela kepada masyarakat (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, 1995).

Pusat Aktiviti Warga Emas (PAWE) Pada tahun 2001 kerajaan telah mewujudkan sebanyak 22 buah Pusat Jagaan Harian Warga Tuan (PJHWT) sebagai satu tempat untuk warga emas menjalankan aktiviti seharian di dalam komuniti setempat melalui projek pembangunan di bawah peruntukan Rancangan Malaysia Ke 8 dan 9 di seluruh negara. Kementerian juga telah meluluskan Garis Panduan Perlaksanaan PJHWT pada Disember 2002 di mana telah menetapkan sebanyak RM33,330 bantuan geran penyelenggaraan kewangan tahunan akan diberikan oleh Kerajaan kepada NGO yang mengendalikan PJHWT (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, 2002). Pusat Jagaan Harian Warga Tua (PJHWT) telah ditukar nama kepada Pusat Jagaan Harian Warga Emas (PJHWE) apabila perkataan warga tua ditukar penggunaannya kepada warga emas. Pada Mesyuarat Majlis Penasihat dan Perundingan Warga Emas Negara Bil.1/2012, bertarikh 14 Februari 2012, PJHWE telah ditukar kepada Pusat Aktiviti Warga Emas (PAWE) bersesuaian dengan konsep untuk menggalakan warga emas menjalankan aktiviti dengan aktif dan bukannya berkonsep jagaan harian. (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, 2012). PAWE ini disasarkan kepada warga emas yang sihat dan dapat menguruskan diri dan melibatkan kerjasama strategik antara KPWKM dengan agensi kerajaan yang lain (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, 1995). Ini juga adalah selaras dengan PTWEN yang mengambilkira pembangunan potensi yang ada pada golongan warga emas dari segi keupayaan mereka yang masih sihat dan bertenaga untuk menyumbang khidmat bakti dan kepakaran mereka kepada komuniti setempat (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, 2011). Objektif penubuhan PAWE adalah seperti berikut: a. Sebagai panduan kepada organisasi pelaksana dalam pengurusan dan pengendalian sebuah Pusat Aktiviti Warga Emas. b. Meningkatkan pengetahuan dan kesedaran masyarakat mengenai program Pusat Aktiviti Warga Emas. c. Menentukan pengurusan Pusat Aktiviti Warga Emas menepati kualiti perkhidmatan yang ditetapkan demi manfaat warga emas. Manakala konsep PAWE adalah seperti berikut: a. PAWE bertujuan untuk memberi satu kemudahan kepada warga emas menjalankan aktiviti terutama bagi mereka yang tinggal keseorangan semasa ketiadaan ahli keluarga yang keluar bekerja. Dengan cara ini, warga emas dapat terus hidup dengan keluarga dan mendapat khidmat sokongan dalam jagaan warga emas yang lebih terjamin. b. PAWE sebagai tempat menjalankan aktiviti bagi membolehkan warga emas belajar berdikari, berinteraksi sesama mereka dan menjalankan aktiviti bersama dengan masyarakat tempatan, memperolehi pengetahuan dan kemahiran serta terus dapat menyumbang khidmat sukarela kepada masyarakat. c. Pelaksanaan program ini dipertanggungjawabkan kepada pertubuhan sukarela kebajikan yang memainkan peranan penting dalam memenuhi keperluan golongan warga emas di negara ini. d. Masyarakat tempatan juga digalakkan untuk melibatkan diri secara aktif atau memberi apa jua sumbangan supaya program di Pusat Aktiviti Warga Emas ini benar-benar dapat mencerminkan penglibatan menyeluruh semua pihak dalam menjamin kebajikan dan kesejahteraan golongan warga emas. Pelbagai perkhidmatan disediakan di PAWE seperti kemudahan beriadah, menjalankan program berbentuk © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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masakan, kraftangan, bersukan, beribadah dan sebagainya. Di sesetengah PAWE juga ada disediakan dengan perkhidmatan van bergerak yang dinamakan Unit Penyayang Warga Emas (UPWE). UPWE ini digunakan untuk membawa warga emas yang berkeperluan untuk mendapatkan rawatan di klinik dan hospital. Sehingga kini terdapat 11 buah van UPWE telah diletakkan di PAWE untuk kemudahan warga emas (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, 2012). Kajian yang dibuat oleh Bradley (1999) telah mengkaji faktor petunjuk kualiti hidup warga emas yang melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti harian. Kajian ini mendapati, faktor demografi seperti jantina dan status perkahwinan memberikan kesan yang tinggi kepada kualiti hidup mereka. Skop kajian ini dibuat pada kawasan separa bandar. Selain itu, Masafumi, Yuichiro, Yoshihisa, Mitsunaga, Hiromi, Jun dan Akihisa (2006) telah membuat kajian berkaitan program penjagaan komuniti di negara yang telah maju dan bertujuan untuk mengekalkan dan meningkatkan kebolehan fungsi dan kesejahteraan warga emas serta dapat dan mengurangkan penggunaan perkhidmatan jagaan institusi dan kematian. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan warga emas yang hadir mengikuti aktiviti di pusat aktiviti dapat mengurangkan risiko kematian daripada 63% kepada 44%. Ini menunjukkan kehidupan sihat di usia tua mempengaruhi lanjut usia warga emas. Walau bagaimanapun, kajian beliau hanya tertumpu kepada warga emas yang tidak berupaya dan tidak produktif.

METODOLOGI Menurut Merriam, Sharan dan Mohamad (2000), terdapat kajian yang dilakukan di barat untuk mengenal pasti faktor yang mendorong penyertaan aktif warga emas di usia tua. Satu daripada faktor yang dikenal pasti adalah hubungan sosial sebagai motivasi dan pendorong utama kepada warga emas untuk mengambil bahagian dan mengenali kawan-kawan baru serta menyumbang khidmat kepada masyarakat. Faktor ini didapati menjadi penyumbang utama kepada penuaan yang berjaya iaitu penuaan yang produktif. Walau bagaimanapun setelah sepuluh tahun penubuhan PAWE, tiada kajian ilmiah yang dikenal pasti telah dilakukan untuk mengkaji keberkesanan PAWE serta agensi pelaksana yang terlibat. Ditambah pula peningkatan bilangan PAWE di seluruh negara, maka kajian mengenai PAWE amatlah penting agar penambahan PAWE kelak tidak menjadi sesuatu yang merugikan kepada pihak kerajaan. Kajian ini akan meninjau keberkesanan PAWE dan peranannya ke atas kesejahteraan warga emas yang terlibat di dalam program atau aktiviti yang dianjurkan. Ini bertepatan dengan salah satu objektif penubuhan PAWE iaitu untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan warga emas selari dengan konsep warga emas aktif dan produktif di dalan DWEN. Tahap kesejahteraan akan dilihat daripada beberapa dimensi yang ditetapkan oleh Pertubuhan Kesihatan Sedunia (WHO) iaitu dimensi kesihatan, hubungan sosial, berdikari, kebebasan & kawalan ke atas kehidupan, persekitaran, psikologi, kewangan dan aktiviti masa lapang. Ia juga hampir menyamai dimensi kesejahteraan yang dinyatakan di dalam DWEN iaitu kesihatan, kerohanian, persekitaran, ekonomi dan sosial (DWEN, 2011). Kajian ini akan dijalankan di lokasi PAWE yang dipilih iaitu PAWE di negeri Selangor. Pemilihan ini dibuat kerana untuk melihat tahap kesejahteraan warga emas yang mewakili kawasan bandar dan luar bandar. Populasi kajian ini terdiri daripada warga emas yang berusia 56 tahun dan ke atas yang menjadi ahli berdaftar dan menjalani aktiviti di PAWE serta petugas dan pihak pengurusan yang menguruskan PAWE. Pemilihan responden warga emas dibuat secara rawak dan dipilih daripada senarai nama daripada rekod ahli berdaftar di PAWE. Data primer untuk kajian ini, dikumpulkan melalui temu bual dengan menggunakan 2 set soal selidik iaitu set soalan 1 adalah set soal selidik semi struktur yang akan diberikan kepada pihak pengurusan dan petugas, mengandungi 9 soalan berkaitan maklumat peribadi responden, 15 soalan berkaitan peranan dan tanggungjawab pihak pengurusan dan penyelia PAWE yang telah dibina oleh pengkaji berdasarkan tugas dan tanggungjawab pihak pengurusan PAWE di dalam garis panduan PAWE. Akhir sekali, 6 soalan pandangan secara keseluruhan. Manakala set soal selidik 2 akan mengandungi 11 soalan berkaitan demografi responden, 35 soalan yang diambil dan diterjemah ke Bahasa Malaysia dari soal selidik Older Person Quality of Life (OPQOL-35) bagi mengukur tahap kesejahteraan warga emas dan 20 soalan yang dibina dan telah diubahsuai oleh penyelidik berdasarkan soalan kepuasan pelanggan berkaitan sesuatu program untuk melihat peranan PAWE dari persepsi warga emas. Untuk tujuan pengumpulan data ini, penyelidik akan menggunakan kaedah temubual dan mengedarkan borang soal selidik kepada responden yang telah dikenal pasti menggunakan borang soal selidik yang telah disiapkan. Proses temu bual ini mungkin mengambil masa selama 30 minit. Namun begitu, set soalan tersebut perlu diuji kebolehpercayaannya terlebih dahulu. Untuk tujuan menguji kebolehpercayaan, seramai 30 orang sampel telah dipilih iaitu warga emas yang berdaftar di PAWE Cheras Baru, Kuala Lumpur telah dipilih sebagai responden kajian rintis ini yang merupakan bukan kawasan kajian. Menurut Bailey dan Kenneth (1982), jumlah © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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30 adalah satu saiz sampel yang paling minimum dalam sesuatu kajian. Sampel dipilih secara mudah untuk menjawab penyataan dalam skala yang telah dibentuk. Sampel dalam kajian rintis ini mempunyai ciri-ciri yang sama dengan sampel yang hendak dikaji. Hasil kajian rintis dianalisis untuk melihat kebolehpercayaan soal selidik. Statistical Package For Social Science (SPSS) 17.0 telah digunakan untuk menguji kebolehpercayaan data. Nilai Cronbach Alpha yang menghampiri 1 menunjukkan tahap kebolehpercayaan yang tinggi. Uma Sekaran (2000) menyatakan kebolehpercayaan di antara 0.6 dikatakan sebagai boleh diterima. Data yang didapati akan dianalisis bagi mengenal pasti tahap, perbezaan dan hubungan beberapa pembolehubah ke atas kesejahteraan hidup warga emas. Perbezaan antara pembolehubah akan dianalisis menggunakan teknik min manakaln hubungan antara pembolehubah akan dianalisis dengan menggunakan teknik korelasi. Kajian ini menggunakan analisis kuantitatif melalui perisian statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 17.0 dan analisis secara kualitatif pula akan mengemukakan soalan berstruktur tentang peranan pihak pengurusan dan peranan petugas di Pusat Aktiviti Warga Emas.

JANGKAAN KEPUTUSAN Kajian ini dijangka akan dapat menerangkan peranan PAWE sebagai satu perkhidmatan yang memainkan peranan yang penting dalam aspek lesejahteraan hidup warga emas di Malaysia. Pentingnya untuk melihat aspek kesejahteraan adalah sebagai persediaan Malaysia dalam menghadapi isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan status Negara tua kelak. Kerajaan akan dapat menjadikan hasil kajian ini sebagai panduan untuk merancang aktiviti dan program yang bermatlamatkan ke aras kesejahteraan hidup warga emas. Pertambahan PAWE juga akan menghasilkan impak yang berkesan dan bukan membazirkan wang kerajaan semata-mata. Selain itu, pertambahan serta perancangan program serta perkhidmatan lain kepada warga emas juga dapat diusulkan setelah kajian ini selesai. Ini kerana isu utama warga emas aadalah berkaitan kesejahteraan hidup mereka. Menurut Donovan dan Halpern (2002), di United Kingdom, kerajaan telah menerima aspek kesejahteraan hidup sebagai salah satu perkara penting dalam membangunkan negara dan malaysia seharusnya berpendirian yang sama juga.

RUJUKAN Bailey, & Kenneth, D. (1982). Methods of social research (edisi ke-2). New York: Free Press. Bedny, Gregory, Meister & David. (1997). The Russian theory activity: Current application to design and learning. Cambridge: MIT Press. Bowling, A., & Dieppe, P. (2005). What is successful ageing and who should define it?.BMJ: British Medical Journal, 331(7531), 1548. Buttel, F.H., Wilkening, E.A., & Martinson, O.B. (1977). Ideology and social indicators of the quality of life. Social Indicators Research, 4, 353-369. Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications. Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications. Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. (2002). Garis Panduan Perlaksanaan PJHWT. Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. (2011). Dasar Dan Pelan Tindakan Warga Emas Negara. Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. (2012). Analisis Perkhidmatan Luar : Pusat Aktiviti Warga Emas. Jabatan Statistik Malaysia. (2010). Laporan banci penduduk dan perumahan. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia. Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga dan Masyarakat Malaysia, Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. (2011). Dasar Warga Emas Negara. Kementerian Perpaduan Negara dan Pembangunan Masyarakat Malaysia, Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. (1995). Dasar Warga Tua Negara. Khadijah Alavi. (2007). Pengalaman anak dewasa berpendapatan rendah yang menjaga ibu bapa tua: Satu pendekatan berteraskan pendidikan komuniti. Kajian Malaysia, XXV (2), 55-71. Kuzuya, M., Masuda, Y., Hirakawa, Y., Iwata, M., Enoki, H., Hasegawa, J., & Iguchi, A. (2006). Day Care Service Use Is Associated with Lower Mortality in Community‐Dwelling Frail Older People. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 54(9), 1364-1371. Latifah Abdul Latif. (2010). Jaga umur biologi. Dicapai pada 29 September, 2010 daripada http: // www.hmetro. com.mymymetroarticlesjagaumurbiologimy MAmyarticle Ma’arof, R. & Asnarulkhadi, A.S. (2006). Hubungan latar belakang terpilih dengan kesejahteraan subjektif di kalangan orang tua. Paper presented at Seminar Psikologi Pembangungan Komuniti, ISM- UKM, 2021 Disember. Mohd Majid Konting. (1990). Kaedah penyelidikan pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Momtaz, Y. A., Hamid, T. A., Yusoff, S., Ibrahim, R., Chai, S. T., Yahaya, N., & Abdullah, S. S. (2012). Loneliness as a © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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risk factor for hypertension in later life. Journal of Aging and Health, 24(4), 696-710. Nurizan Yahaya, Siti Suhailah Abdullah, Yadollah Abolfathi Momtaz, Tengku Aizan Hamid (2010). Quality Of Life Of Older Malaysians Living Alone. Educational Gerontology Journal, 894 Sundar, V., Fox, S. W., & Phillips, K. G. (2013). Transitions in Caregiving: Evaluating a Person-Centered Approach to Supporting Family Caregivers in the Community. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, (justaccepted).

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

INTERVENSI PSIKOSOSIAL BERASASKAN PENDEKATAN KERJA SOSIAL BAGI KOMUNITI MANGSA BANJIR DI MALAYSIA Noremy Md Akhir* & Azlinda Azman *[email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract Bencana banjir adalah sesuatu keadaan yang amat menekankan kerana ia dianggap sebagai situasi krisis. Dalam kebanyakan situasi bencana tidak kira sebesar mana kecederaan atau kehilangan yang dirasai, semua mangsa yang terlibat akan merasa tertekan, bimbang dan risau dengan apa yang berlaku, akibat kehilangan ahli keluarga, tempat tinggal dan hilang punca pendapatan serta sokongan sosial. Tanpa bantuan dan sokongan psikososial, mangsa akan berisiko untuk berhadapan dengan situasi kemurungan. Kesan psikologikal akibat bencana banjir akan mengundang kepada berlakunya tekanan dan ketegangan emosi kepada mangsa banjir.Walaupun pada awal krisis, mangsa bencana nyata memerlukan rawatan kecemasan, keselamatan perlindungan, makanan dan minuman, bantuan kewangan atau apa yang dikatakan sebagai bantuan fizikal semata-mata, namun kebanyakan mangsa turut memerlukan sokongan sosial-emosi serta pemulihan yang berkesan. Kertas kerja ini akan mengupas dan melihat konsep dan bentuk intervensi psikososial yang terbaik dari pelbagai sudut dan pandangan bagi menangani isu psikologikal dan sosio-emosi yang wujud akibat bencana banjir yang berlaku. Keywords: pengurusan bencana, intervensi psikososial, daya tahan (resiliensi), pembangunan komuniti dan kerja sosial

PENGENALAN Merujuk kepada Coppola (2007), bencana adalah kejadian fizikal yang boleh menyebabkan kehilangan nyawa, kecederaan fizikal, kerosakan harta benda, kerosakan infrastruktur, kemusnahan hasil tanaman dan alam sekitar. Malah Strategi Antarabangsa bagi Pengurangan Bencana Pertubuhan Bangsa-bangsa Bersatu (United Nation International Strategic Disasters Reduction UNISDR, 2009) juga mendefinisikan bencana sebagai gangguan kritikal terhadap kefungsian masyarakat, menyebabkan kematian, kehilangan harta benda dan kemusnahan alam sekitar dan ianya menyebabkan individu dan masyarakat tidak dapat menggunakan sumber sedia ada untuk menghadapi situasi kritikal yang berlaku. Manakala Arahan Majlis Keselamatan Negara (MKN) No. 20 mendefinisikan bencana sebagai sesuatu kejadian yang berlaku secara mengejut, bersifat kompleks dan ia mengakibatkan kehilangan nyawa, kemusnahan kepada harta benda, dan alam sekitar serta menjejaskan aktiviti masyarakat setempat. Kejadian ini memerlukan pengendalian yang melibatkan sumber, peralatan dan tenaga manusia yang ektensif daripada pelbagai agensi serta penyelarasan yang berkesan di mana kemungkinan memerlukan tindakan yang kompleks dan jangkamasa yang panjang (Majlis Keselamatan Negara, 2013). Kajian mengenai bencana banjir melibatkan disiplin pelbagai bidang seperti geografi, kejuruteraan, sains persekitaran, psikologi, kerja sosial, perubatan kesihatan dan pengurusan ekonomi. Namun untuk kertas kerja

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

ini, kesan psikologi dan intervensi kerja sosial akan dijadikan fokus perbincangan. Johal (2009) mendefinasikan psikososial sebagai hubungan yang dinamik antara psikologikal dan kesan sosial di mana setiap satunya saling berhubung dan mempengaruhi antara satu dengan yang lain. Manakala Tan dan Rowlands (2008) menyatakan peranan kerja sosial apabila berlakunya bencana adalah menyediakan penjagaan diperingkat komuniti dan sokongan kepada pemulihan, membangunan semula dan membantu ketidakmampuan dan ketidakupayaan yang berlaku dalam masyarakat. Strateginya adalah dengan memastikan sokongan sosial-emosi disediakan, bantuan advokasi diberikan dan merancang pembangunan keupayaan keluarga dan pemulihan komuniti. Malah International Federation Red Cross, IFRC (2009), menjelaskan bahawa sokongan psikososial dianggap sebagai proses menerapkan resiliensi dalam kalangan individu, keluarga dan komuniti untuk bangkit semula daripada kesan krisis yang dihadapi dan seterusnya membantu mangsa untuk berhadapan dengan situasi kritikal pada masa hadapan. Dalam hal ini faktor pembangunan dan pemerkasaan komuniti dikatakan dapat mengurangkan komuniti daripada terdedah kepada masalah psikologikal sewaktu berlakunya bencana. Ia juga bergantung kepada bagaimana hubungan seseorang individu itu dengan persekitarannya (Sagert, 1989; Schwarzer, Hahn & Schroder, 1994). Masalah yang berlaku dalam masyarakat perlu difahami dan strategi perlaksanaan perlu mengambilkira penyelesaian yang efektif dan komprehensif. Orentasi kerja perlu berubah secara progresif daripada memikirkan kerugian dan kehilangan semata-mata kepada penekanan komuniti yang berdaya tahan.

PERBINCANGAN LITERATUR Secara geografinya Malaysia terletak di luar lingkaran api pasifik dan hal ini menyebabkan Malaysia bebas daripada kerosakan dan kemusnahan teruk akibat bencana alam seperti gempa bumi, ribut taufan dan gunung berapi. Namun, tragedi 26 Disember 2004 merupakan detik hitam apabila lebih daripada 288,000 manusia di lebih 12 negara termasuk Malaysia telah kehilangan nyawa akibat gempa bumi Sumatra dan tsunami 2004. Berdasarkan jumlah tersebut, 69 nyawa telah hilang dan lebih 8,700 orang di Malaysia mengalami masalah tekanan emosi disebabkan oleh kehilangan tempat tinggal dan sumber pendapatan (UNICEFT, 2013). Kejadian tersebut telah menyedarkan Malaysia bahawa betapa pentingnya persiapan menghadapi bencana bukan sahaja dari segi bantuan fizikal malah bantuan psikososial. Terkini, bencana banjir kerap kali berlaku di Malaysia. Merujuk kepada Jabatan Ramalan Kaji Cuaca Malaysia, banjir berlaku hampir setiap tahun sewaktu musim terkujuh akibat hujan lebat antara bulan November hingga Mac (Wan Hassan, Subramaniam & Yap, 2012). Manakala Balkema, Rotterdam dan Brookefeld (1993) menyatakan banjir yang berlaku akan menyebabkan aras air meningkat dan melimpah dari paras kebiasaannya. Banjir berlaku disebabkan oleh faktor alam, pembangunan infrastruktur yang tidak terkawal dan juga curahan hujan yang luar biasa pada satu-satu masa (Muhamad, Salmijah, Mazlin, Mohd Ekhwan, Sahibin & Chong, 2010). Banjir yang berlaku ternyata menganggu kesejahteraan kehidupan serta menyebabkan kesan psikologi dan emosi yang membimbangkan.

Masalah Psikososial Kesan dari Bencana Banjir Merujuk kepada Quaranteli (1998) bencana adalah sesuatu keadaan yang amat menekankan kerana ia dianggap sebagai situasi krisis. Konflik juga dikaitkan dengan bencana kerana persaingan sering berlaku untuk mendapatkan sumber yang terhad (Miller, 2003). Dalam kebanyakkan situasi bencana tidak kira sebesar mana kecederaan atau kehilangan yang dirasai, semua mangsa yang terlibat akan merasa tertekan, bimbang dan risau dengan apa yang berlaku ke atas diri mereka. Malah merasakan seolah-olah kehidupan mereka telah dimusnahkan dan masa depan mereka kabur tanpa arah tujuan (Landau, Mittal & Wieling, 2008). Dalam sekelip mata, mereka mungkin telah kehilangan suami, isteri, anak, ibu bapa, ahli keluarga, sahabat dan teman-teman yang disayangi. Mereka mendapati diri mereka sudah kehilangan tempat tinggal dan hilang punca pendapatan serta hilang sokongan sosial. Oleh itu tanpa bantuan dan sokongan psikososial, mangsa akan berisiko untuk berhadapan dengan situasi kemurungan sepertimana yang dilaporkan oleh Coppola (2007). Malah kehilangan dan penderitaan emosi yang dialami oleh mangsa juga boleh mengundang kepada masalah psikologi dan tekanan emosi seperti Post Trumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) pada sesetengah keadaan (Brave & Maria, 2000). Menurut Beck (1999) kesan psikologi akibat bencana banjir akan mengundang kepada berlakunya tekanan dan ketegangan emosi kepada mangsa. Malah Walsh (2006) menyokong dengan menyatakan bahawa keadaan ini akan mengakibatkan seseorang itu bukan sahaja mengalami kemerosotan dan segi keupayaan fizikal malah tidak berdaya dari segi kekuatan emosi dan mental. Walaupun pada awalnya mangsa bencana memerlukan rawatan kecemasan, keselamatan perlindungan, makanan dan minuman serta bantuan kewangan (Resnick, Acierno, Holmes, Dammeyer, dan Kilpatririck, 2000) namun kebanyakkan mangsa akan menunjukkan masalah psikologikal berikutan peristiwa kritikal yang sebenarnya memerlukan bantuan dan sokongan psikososial © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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yang segera. Selain itu, Gray, Maguen, dan Litz(2004) menambah dengan menyatakan bahawa walaupun setiap bangunan, komponen infrastruktur dan rumah diperbaiki, masyarakat akan terus menderita selagi keperluan sosial mereka tidak diberi perhatian dan ditangani segera.Walaubagaimanapun, kebanyakkan pendekatan dalam pengurusan bencana hanya memberi fokus kepada bantuan fizikal semata-mata sedangkan pemulihan yang berkesan daripada bencana perlu mengambilkira sokongan sosial-emosi (Perrow, 2007; Daniels, Kettle & Kunreuther, 2006). Kebanyakkan kes bencana banjir akan diselesaikan dengan hanya memberi bantuan fizikal seperti menempatkan mangsa di pusat pemindahan sementara dan memberi bantuan makanan dan minuman namun sedar atau tidak mereka juga memerlukan sokongan dan bantuan psikososial untuk bangun semula daripada situasi kritikal tersebut. Pertubuhan Kesihatan Sedunia (WHO, 2001) menganggarkan bahawa, dalam situasi bencana, sepuluh peratus daripada orang-orang yang mengalami peristiwa trauma akan mempunyai masalah kesihatan mental yang serius dan sepuluh peratus lagi akan menunjukkan tingkah laku yang akan menghalang keupayaan mereka untuk berfungsi dengan baik dalam kehidupan seharian. Oleh yang demikian, kertas kerja ini akan memperbincangkan intervensi psikososial yang terbaik bagi menangani isu masalah psikologikal dan sosio-emosi yang wujud akibat bencana banjir yang berlaku. Menurut Brave dan Maria (2000) intervensi psikososial boleh menghadkan kepada berlakunya kesan-kesan psikologikal yang kritikal.Oleh itu, pengkaji akan cuba akan mengupas dan melihat konsep dan bentuk intervensi psikososial yang terbaik dari pelbagai sudut dan pandangan bagi menangani isu psikologikal dan sosio-emosi yang wujud akibat bencana banjir yang berlaku di Malaysia.

Bentuk Intervensi Psikososial Johal (2009), melihat intervensi psikososial dalam pengurusan bencana sebagai pemahaman terhadap potensi impak kesihatan mental yang berlaku dalam skala yang besar serta memberi kesan secara amnya terhadap populasi. Oleh itu, sokongan intervensi psikososial bermatlamat untuk membantu komuniti menyesuaikan diri dengan persekitaran baru dan menyusun semula struktur sosial yang berlaku selepas bencana banjir. Ia juga bermatlamat untuk membantu mangsa mengatasi situasi yang berlaku dengan potensi diri individu. Dalam kebanyakkan kes, kesan akibat bencana banjir telah memberi kesan psikososial dalam keadaan tertentu. Kesan emosi yang dirasai mungkin tidak kelihatan secara fizikal namun ianya akan mengambil masa yang panjang untuk dipulihkan berbanding menyelesaikan kemusnahan material (IFRC, 2009). Merujuk kepada Till Mayer (2005), sokongan psikososial perlu menjadi isu pertama yang harus diselesaikan dan ia perlu diikuti oleh bantuan material yang lain. Rajah 1- Psychososcial Intervention Pyramid

Adaptasi daripada Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 2008, IASC Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings: Checklist for Field Use. Geneva: IASC.

Dalam panduan Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) yang dikeluarkan pada 2008, tentang kesihatan mental dan sokongan psikososial dalam waktu kecemasan menyatakan terdapat enam prinsip yang memandu intervensi psikososial iaitu hak dan kesamarataan, penyertaan, tidak mengancam dari segi fizikal mahupun © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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emosi, membina sumber dan keupayaan, sistem sokongan yang padu, dan sokongan pelbagai lapisan kumpulan mengikut keperluan. Kunci untuk membentuk sokongan dan bantuan psikososial adalah dengan membangunkan pelbagai peringkat sistem sokongan yang dapat memenuhi keperluan pelbagai kumpulan kerana setiap orang menerima kesan bencana dengan cara yang berbeza dan memerlukan sokongan dan bantuan yang berbeza mengikut keperluan yang berbeza sepertimana yang ditunjukkan oleh Rajah 1. Berdasarkan panduan IASC (2008), semua lapisan piramid adalah penting dan seharusnya diberikan mengikut keperluan individu dan komuniti dan ianya dikenali sebagai Psychososcial Intervention Pyramid yang mana mengandungi empat peringkat intervensi. Perigkat pertama adalah perkhidmatan asas dan keselamatan yang memberi penekanan kepada keperluan asas seperti makanan, tempat perlindungan, air yang bersih dan asas penjagaan kesihatan. Ianya diikuti oleh sokongan daripada komuniti dan keluarga terutamanya apabila melibatkan kehilangan, perpisahan ahli keluarga, ketakuatan dan hilang kepercayaan terhadap diri di mana penjagaan dan sokongan ini boleh disediakan oleh ahli keluarga, penjaga, rakan dan ahli komuniti. Peringkat ketiga fokus kepada sokongan tidak khusus melibatkan masalah psikologikal yang sederhana termasuklah bantuan kecemasan psikologikal, penjagaan asas kesihatan mental dari pegawai kesihatan, pekerja sosial dan sukarelawan terlatih. Manakala peringkat keempat iaitu peringkat teratas piramid adalah perhidmatan khusus. Bantuan dalam perkhidmatan khusus ini termasuklah sokongan psikologikal dan psikiatri kepada mangsa yang mengalami kecelaruan mental yang hanya boleh dibantu oleh pegawai professional yang terlatih sahaja seperti kaunselor berdaftar, pegawai psikologi dan pegawai psikatri. Sementara itu, panduan IASC (2008) juga menyatakan prinsip utama yang memandu sokongan psikososial di peringkat awal kecemasan adalah dengan membina keupayaan diperingkat komuniti, menyokong bantuan-kendiri dan memperkuatkan sumber luar. Manakala pendekatan International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) terhadap pengurusan bencana juga tidak hanya untuk memenuhi keperluan asas selepas bencana tetapi juga untuk membantu mangsa yang terlibat membina keupayaan, kemahiran dan menggunakan sumber yang sedia ada. Oleh itu, mangsa bencana akan lebih berupaya untuk berhadapan dengan situasi krisis pada masa hadapan. Individu tidak seharusnya dilihat sebagai pasif atau tidak berdayaupaya. Sebaliknya mereka harus diberi galakkan untuk terlibat sama dalam proses penilaian, perancangan dan pelaksanaan pengurusan bencana (IFRC, 2009). Diperingkat pertubuhan antarabangsa sokongan psikososial dilihat sebagai proses menerapkan daya tahan (resiliency) dalam kalangan individu, keluarga dan komuniti. Ia boleh dijalankan dengan melaksanakan aktiviti yang sesuai dengan budaya disamping menghormati kebebasan, kehormatan hak individu dan memberi penekanan terhadap mekanisma mengatasi dan menangani (coping mechanism). Dalam hal ini sokongan psikososial dapat menggalakkan penerapan perpaduan sosial dalam komuniti selepas berlakunya bencana banjir. Selain itu, Peek (2008) menambah dengan menyatakan bahawa kebolehan dan keupayaan untuk menyesuaikan diri terhadap situasi selepas bencana bergantung kepada dua element penting iaitu pertamanya memberi penekanan kepada sumber bantuan yang diperlukan oleh mangsa untuk menghadapi kemusnahan, kehilangan dan kerosakan yang dialami akibat bencana. Ia melibatkan komponen daya tahan (resilience) dengan menggalakkan penggunaan sumber dalaman yang sedia ada dalam diri setiap ahli komuniti. Manakala komponen kedua adalah penekanan terhadap sistem dan sumber luar yang disediakan untuk komuniti bagi membantu mereka berhadapan dengan keadaan yang sukar dan mencabar serta membuat penyesuaian akibat daripada bencana yang berlaku. Oleh itu, komuniti yang resilience mampu menggunakan kekuatan dalaman yang ada dalam diri mereka di samping memanfaatkan sumber luar yang sedia ada bagi menyelesaikan masalah dan cabaran disebabkan bencana yang berlaku (Liu, Jang, Wang, dan Wang, 2010). Kaniasty dan Norris (1999) bersetuju dengan menyatakan bahawa apabila berlaku kejadian bencana dalam sesebuah penempatan atau komuniti, perkembangan resilience adalah digalakkan berbanding sikap bergantungan dan rasa kehilangan sepanjang masa. Menurut Paton dan Johnston (2001), komuniti yang resilience diterjemahkan sebagai kemampuan komuniti untuk kembali semula berfungsi dalam masyarakat dengan menggunakan sumber sedia ada selepas berlaku kejadian bencana. Ia juga termasuk memastikan ahli komuniti mempunyai sumber, keupayaan dan kemampuan menggunakan sumber fizikal dan ekonomi dan mengurangkan penderitaan yang dialami akibat becana yang berlaku. Ia turut melibatkan strategi yang menggalakkan penggunaan sumber personal dan juga sumber persekitaran yang sedia ada. Dally (2009) menambah dengan menyatakan bahawa dalam model daya tahan (resilience) oleh Paton, intervensi perlu melibatkan tiga faktor peringkat iaitu peringkat individu di mana individu perlu mengetahui bahawa apa juga perkara kecil yang dilakukan mampu mengubah diri, keluarga dan komuniti secara positif. Pada masa yang sama individu digalakkan untuk membina kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah, mengukuhkan kepercayaan diri, perlu sentiasa bersedia dan berkebolehan untuk berhadapan dengan situasi bencana. Peringkat kedua adalah faktor komuniti di mana mereka digalakkan untuk terlibat secara aktif dalam hal ehwal komuniti disamping membangunkan keupayaan komuniti untuk menyelesaikan masalah secara kolektif. Manakala peringkat ketiga pula adalah faktor institusi di mana komuniti disokong oleh agensi yang © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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menggalakkan dan memperkasakan kepimpinan dalam komuniti.Ia akan mendorong kepada wujudnya kepercayaan dan rasa hormat di antara ahli komuniti. Selian daripada itu, berdasarkan strength-based perspective Greene (2002) menambah dengan menyatakan bahawa setiap individu sebenarnya adalah pakar penyelesai kepada masalahnya sendiri. Individu dikatakan berkebolehan dan berupaya untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang dihadapai sekiranya mereka ini mempunyai kemahiran dan sumber yang mencukupi. Oleh itu, pengurus bencana yang professional dapat membantu mangsa bencana memperkukuhkan kekuatan ahli komuniti dengan cara mengenalpasti sumber yang sedia ada, membina jaringan sokongan sosial, mempertingkatkan ketahanan kendiri disamping menggalakkan penglibatan ahli komuniti dalam perancangan pengurusan bencana (Liu, Jang, Wang, dan Wang, 2010). Walaubagaimanapun bekerja dalam bidang kesihatan mental dan sokongan psikososial ini mempunyai potensi untuk menyebabkan risiko kepada ganguan emosi yang lebih teruk kerana ia melibatkan isu sensatif seperti perasaan sedih, trauma dan tertekan akibat kehilangan yang dihadapi akibat bencana. Kenyataan ini benar sepertimana yang dinyatakan dalam panduan IASC (2008) yang mana satu daripada prinsip yang memandu kepada pembentukan intervensi psikososial adalah tidak boleh melakukan kecederaan emosi mahupun fizikal (do no harm). Walaubagaimanapun merujuk kepada Mitchell (1996), Psychological Debriefing turut digunakan dalam intervensi kumpulan serta dilihat sebagai sebahagian daripada pendekatan mengurus tekanan dan trauma dan ia juga turut digunakan kepada individu sebagai intervensi perseorangan. Walaubagaimanapun ia bukan rawatan berbentuk psikoterapi iaitu kaedah yang berdasarkan ilmu-ilmu psikologi untuk mengatasi masalah jiwa dan ganguan mental seseorang (Resnick, Acierno, Holmes, Dammeyer & Kilpatrick, 2000). Sebaliknya ia merupakan pendekatan untuk berkongsi maklumbalas terhadap situasi kritikal akibat bencana yang berlaku. Walaubagaimanapun psychological debriefing boleh mengundang kepada masalah mental dan tekanan jiwa yang lebih teruk serta tidak menghalang kepada pembentukan psikopatologi (psychopathology) malah ia membuktikan bahawa majoriti mangsa yang terdedah kepada trauma gagal untuk dipulihkan dengan sepenuhnya jika menggunakan kaedah ini. Ia turut meninggalkan kesan yang lebih teruk kerana mereka terpaksa mendedahkan perasaan mereka dihadapan rakan atau individu lain yang mungkin akan menyebabkan wujud perasaan marah, sedih, dan kecewa. Olehyang demikian, dapatan kajian terdahulu membuktikan bahawa penggunaan teknik ini tidak sesuai untuk populasi yang besar dan dikatakan mempunyai lebih banyak keburukan daripada kebaikkan (Rapheal dan Wilson, 2000; Litz, Gray, Bryan dan Adler, 2002). Dapatan ini selari dengan kenyataan dari Seminar Bancian di Amerika Syarikat yang menyatakan bahawa kaedah ini tidak efektif untuk populasi terutamanya apabila melibatkan satu kes bencana (US Consensus Conferences on Mass Violence and Early Intervention, NIMH, 2001). Ia juga disokong oleh Rapheal (2006) yang menyatakan bahawa walaupun psychological debriefing adalah istilah yang sering digunakan di mana mereka berkumpul dan menceritakan pengalaman yang dirasai, namun tiada bukti yang menunjukkan ianya mampu menghalang mangsa daripada membentuk Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) kesan daripada tekanan akibat bencana yang berlaku. Oleh itu, kaedah psychological debriefing adalah tidak disarankan sebagai intervensi psikososial kepada mangsa bencana (Litz, Gray, Brtant & Adler, 2002; McNally, Bryan & Ehlers, 2003). Ini selari dengan apa yang dinyatakan oleh IASC (2008) di mana apa juga bantuan dan sokongan yang disediakan sewaktu menjalankan intervensi psikososial mestilah tidak mengundang kepada berlakunya kecederaan emosi. Intervensi seharusnya menyokong dan membantu mangsa dengan menyediakan maklumat, memberi keselesaan kepada mangsa dan melindungi mereka daripada sebarang kecederaan fizikal mahupun psikologikal (US Consensus Conferences on Mass Violence and Early Intervention, NIMH, 2001).

RUMUSAN Walaupun semua peristiwa bencana adalah unik dan berbeza dari satu dengan yang lain dari pelbagai sudut dan dimensi, namun tindakbalas yang ditunjukkan oleh komuniti mungkin mempunyai persamaan yang mencukupi untuk proses ini dimodelkan (Lindell dan Whitney, 2000; Paton dan Bishop, 1996; Tobin, 1999; Van den Eyde dan Veno, 1999). Masalah yang berlaku dalam masyarakat perlu difahami dan strategi perlaksanaan perlu mengambilkira penyelesaian yang effektif. Orentasi kerja perlu berubah secara progresif daripada memikirkan kerugian dan kehilangan semata-mata kepada penekanan komuniti yang resilience. Oleh itu, aktiviti sokongan psikososial seharusnya dirancang untuk keseluruhan komuniti dengan memberi fokus kepada memenuhi keperluan individu dan komuniti terutamanya dalam proses pemulihan semula. Aktiviti tersebut boleh membantu individu, keluarga, dan komuniti untuk mengatasi atau menyelesaikan masalah tekanan yang dihadapi disamping menerapkan mekanisma menangani secara positif melalui aktiviti yang melibatkan komuniti. Pendekatan pembangunan komuniti resilience dilihat dapat memenuhi dan menyelesaikan masalah keperluan psikososial. Komuniti dapat diperkasakan dengan saling membantu dan menjaga antara satu © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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dengan yang lain. Dalam hal ini, sumber luar akan dapat dikurangkan melalui penyatuan komuniti, mobalisasi masyarakat serta memperkasakan hubungan dan jaringan dalam komuniti. Ini secara tidak langsung dapat membantu pihak kerajaan mengurangkan sumber perkhidmatan professional yang pastinya melibatkan kos yang jauh lebih tinggi dalam memberi bantuan dan pemulihan khusus selepas berlakunya bencana banjir. Kesimpulannya isu psikososial yang wujud akibat bencan banjir di Malaysia sebenarnya mampu diselesaikan dengan mengambil pendekatan penerapan daya tahan (resilience) dikalangan komuniti dengan sokongan daripada perkhidmatan pertolongan professional seperti pekerja sosial, kaunselor, psikologis dan pegawai kesihatan mental.

RUJUKAN Balkema, A.A.,Rotterdam & Brookefeld (1993). Hydrology and water management of deltaic areas. Netherland: Center for civil engineering research and codes. Beck, A. T. (1999).The cognitive basis of anger, hostility and violence. New York: Harper Collins Publisher. Brave, H., & Maria, Y. H. (2000). Wakiksuyapi: Carrying the Historical Trauma of the Lakota.Tulane Studies in Social Welfare, 21(22), 245-266. Coppola, D. P. (2007).Introduction to International Disaster Management. United Kingdom: Elsevier. Dally, M., Becker, J., Parkes, B., Johnston, D., Paton, D. (2009). Defining and measuring community resilience to natural disasters: A case study from Auckland, Tephra. Daniels, R.J., Kettle, D.F & Kunreuther, H. (2006).Lesson from Hurricane Katrina.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Gray, M.J., Maguen, J.S., & Litz, B. T. (2004). Acute psychological impact of disaster and large-scale trauma: Limitations of traditional interventions and future practice recommendations. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 19(1), 64-72. Greene, R.R. (2002). Resiliency: an intergrated approach to practice, policy and research.Washington DC: NASW Press. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) (2009). Psychosocial intervention: A handbook. Denmark:International Federation Reference Centre for Psychosocial Support. Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) (2008).IASC Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings: Checklist for Field Use. Geneva: IASC. Johal, S.S. (2009).Foundations of psychosocial support in emergency management: Workshop Handbook.New Zealand: National Health Emergency. Ministry of Health. Kaniasty, K. and Norris, F.H. (1995). In search of altruistic community: patterns of social support mobilization following hurricane Hugo. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 447-78. Landau, J., Mittal, M., &Wieling, E. (2008). Linking human systems: Strengthening individuals, families and communities in the wake of mass trauma. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(2),193-209. Liamputtong, P., & Ezzy, D. (2005).Qualitative research methods (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lindell, M.K. and Whitney, D.J. (2000). Correlates of household seismic hazard adjustment adoption. Risk Analysis, 20, 13-25. Liu, L.W., Jang, L.J., Lue, F.Y., Wang, J.J., & Wang, S.T. (2010) From a cross-disciplinary approach to construct a model of community disaster management support system. The Australasian Journal of Disaster, 2. Litz, B. T., Gray, M. J., Bryant, R. A., & Adler, A. B. (2002). Early intervention for trauma: Current status and future directions.Clinical Psychology: Science & Practice, 9(2), 112-134. Majlis Keselamatan Negara (2013). Definisi bencana berdasarkan Arahan MKN. 20. Dipetik daripada www. mkn.gov.my. Miller, J. (2003). Critical incident debriefing and social work: Expanding the frame. Journal of Social Service Research,30(2), 7-25. Mitchell, J. T., & Everly, G.S. (1996).Critical Incident Stress Debriefing: An Operation Manual for the Prevention of Traumatic Stress among Emergency Services and Disaster Workers.(2nd Ed.). Ellicott City, MD: Chevron Publishing Corp. McNally, R.J., Bryant, R.A., & Ehlers, A. (2003). Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress? Psychological Sciences in the Public Interest.4(2): 45-79. Muhammad Barzani, G., Salmijah, S., Mazlin, M., Pereira, J.J., Mohd. Ekhwan Toriman, Sahibin, A. R. & Chong, H.B. (2010). Analisis Banjir Disember 2006: Tumpuan di Kawasan Bandar Segamat, Johor. Sains Malaysiana, 39(2), 181-187. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) (2001). Mental Health and Mass Violence: Evidence Based Early Psychological Intervention for Victims/Survivors of Mass Violence. A workshop to reach consensus on best practices. Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing Office. Dipetik daripada http://www.nimh. nih.gov/research/ massviolence.pdf Paton, D., & Johnston, D. (2001) Disaster and communities: vulnerability resilience and preparedness. Disaster Prevention and Management. 10(4), 270-277. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Peek, L. (2008) Children and Disasters: Understanding Vulnerability, Developing Capacities, and Promoting Resilience: An Introduction. Children, Youth and Environment.18(1):1-29. Perrow, C. (2007). The next catastrophe: Reducing our vulnerabilities to natural, industrial and terrorist disasters. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. Quarantelli, E. L. (1998). What is a Disaster? Perspectives on the Question. New York: Routledge. Raphael, B. (2006). Overview of the development of psychological support in emergencies.In Advances in disaster mental health and psychological support.Edited by Prewitt Diaz, J.O, Murthy, R.S, & Lakshminarayana, R. New Delhi, India:Voluntary Health Association of India Press. pp:6-20. Rapheal, B. & Wilson, J.P. (Eds) (2000).Psychological Debriefing.Theory, practice and evidence.Cambridge University Press. Resnick, H., Acierno, R., Holmes, M., Dammeyer, M., & Kilpatrick, D. (2000). Emergency evaluation and intervention with female victims of rape and other violence. Journal of Clinical Psychology,56(10), 1317-1333. Tan, N.T. & Rowlands, A. (2008). Social redevelopment following the Indian Ocean Tsunami.Social Development Issues, 30(1), 47-58. Till Mayer, M. (2005). Meeting differing psychosocial needs in Sri Lanka. Di petik daripadawww.ifrc.org/en/ news-and-media/news-stories/asia-pacific/sri-Lanka/meeting-differing-psychosocial-needs-in-srilanka/.International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. UNICEFT (2013). Tsunami, selepas dua tahun: Gambaran keseluruhan Malaysia. Dipetik daripada www.uniceft. org/Malaysia/msl/media_5864.html. United Nation International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) (2009).Terminology.Dipetik daripada http://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/terminology Violanti, J.M., Paton, D. and Dunning, C. (2000). Post traumatic Stress Intervention: Challenges, Issues and Perspectives, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL. Walsh, F. (2006). Recovery from trauma, traumatic loss, and major disasters: Strengthening family community resilience. In F. Walsh, Strengthening family resilience, New York: Guilford Press. pp288-317. Wan Hassan, W.A, Subramaniam, S. & Yap, K.S. (2012) Kertas pembentangan Seminar Bencana Alam Dan Perubahan Cuaca di Asia. Bangi: Malaysia. World Health Organizations (2001). The World Health report 2001-Mental Health: New understanding, new hope. Geneva. Dipetik daripada http://www.who.int/whr2001/2001/main/en/pdf/whr2001.en.pdf.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

ISU PSIKOSOSIAL DALAM KALANGAN GELANDANGAN: KAJIAN KES DI NEGERI PULAU PINANG Rajwani Md. Zain* *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Kehidupan bergelandangan sering dikaitkan dengan masalah ekonomi yang seterusnya menyebabkan ketidakmampuan untuk mempunyai penempatan yang sepatutnya. Walaubagaimanapun, banyak lagi isu-isu lain yang sering dikaitkan dengan kehidupan bergelandangan termasuk masalah mental, penyalahgunaan bahan, dan sebagainya. Kajian ini bertujuan menerokai isu-isu yang dilalui oleh mereka yang terlibat sebagai golongan gelandangan termasuk mencari jawapan kepada punca mereka hidup bergelandangan. Temubual bersama lima individu terbabit merupakan kaedah pengumpulan data yang digunakan dan dianalisis menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif sepenuhnya. Lokasi kajian terlibat adalah di beberapa kawasan tumpuan golongan gelandangan di negeri Pulau Pinang. Hasil tinjauan menunjukkan beberapa faktor yang menjadi punca mereka memilih untuk hidup bergelandangan termasuk masalah penyalahgunaan bahan serta faktor pekerjaan dan pendapatan. Selain itu beberapa isu psikososial yang dialami oleh golongan gelandangan termasuk perancangan masa depan, hubungan kekeluargaan dan kualiti hidup. Pihak berkenaan yang memberikan sokongan dan bantuan perlu menitikberatkan intervensi secara holistik dan berbentuk jangka panjang. Bantuan dan sering diterima oleh mereka kebanyakan berbentuk keperluan haraian sahaja terutama makanan dan pakaian. Selain itu, sikap dan nilai diri yang positif perlu ada dalam kalangan golongan gelandangan itu sendiri bagi membolehkan perubahan dilakukan dalam kehidupan mereka. Keywords: gelandangan, psikososial, intervensi, holistik

PENGENALAN Hidup gelandangan adalah pilihan atau tindakan yang terpaksa dibuat oleh sesetengah individu apabila berhadapan dengan masalah tertentu termasuk kemiskinan, kos hidup yang tinggi, krisis keluarga dan sebab-sebab tertentu. Walaupun menyedari risiko tertentu perlu dihadapi seperti keselamatan, keselesaan, persepsi masyarakat dan kesihatan akan terjejas namun desakan kehidupan menyebabkan mereka terpaksa nekad untuk hidup dalam keadaan serba kekurangan. Berdasarkan definisi yang diberikan oleh Jabatan Tenaga Kerja, Kementerian Sumber Manusia, Malaysia gelandangan adalah individu yang hidup dalam keadaan tidak sesuai dengan norma kehidupan yang layak dalam masyarakat setempat. Mereka juga tidak mempunyai tempat tinggal dan pekerjaan yang tetap di wilayah tertentu dan hidup mengembara di tempat umum. Menurut Menteri Menteri Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga dan Masyarakat, Datuk Rohani Abdul Karim golongan gelandangan mempunyai lima kategori iaitu penagih dadah, mereka yang mempunyai masalah mental, bekerja tetapi tidak memiliki kediaman, tidak bekerja dan tiada kediaman. Golongan gelandangan menjadikan kawasan kaki lima sebagai tempat tinggal mereka. Bahkan terdapat kalangan gelandangan yang telah tujuh tahun hidup dijalanan. Antara rutin harian yang terpaksa dijalani oleh mereka adalah tidur beralaskan kotak atau bahan terbuang, membersihkan diri (mandi) hanya ketika Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

berkesempatan sahaja. Mudah mencari rezeki antara alasan mereka terlibat sebagai gelandangan. Kehidupan tidak terurus menyebabkan mereka terdedah dengan penyakit antaranya HIV/AIDS (Harian metro, 19 Jun 2012). Selain itu, kos hidup yang meningkat termasuk harga rumah sama ada sewa atau sewa beli yang semakin mahal menyebabkan ada sesetengah individu yang tidak mampu dan terpaksa mengambil keputusan untuk hidup bergelandangan. Terdapat dua bentuk faktor iaitu luaran dan dalaman yang mendorong seseorang terlibat sebagai gelandangan. Faktor luaran termasuk kemiskinan, tiada pekerjaan, pendapatan terlalu kecil dan tiada kemampuan untuk memiliki rumah sama ada rumah sendiri atau menyewa. Manakala faktor dalaman pula melibatkan mempunyai masalah (simptom) kesihatan mental, kekurangan sokongan/jaringan sosial, mangsa pengabaian dan penderaan pada zaman kanak-kanak dan terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan bahan (MorrellBellai et al, 2000). Kajian oleh Sharifah Mariam Alhabshi & Alifatul Kamilah (2012) juga mendapati antara faktor yang menyebabkan seseorang itu terjebak dengan hidup gelandangan adalah faktor tiada pekerjaan, kemiskinan, terlibat dengan penagihan dadah atau alkohol, penolakan daripada keluarga serta mempunyai masalah mental. Jika ditinjau senario yang berlaku terutama di bandaraya, golongan gelandangan bukan hanya terdiri daripada kaum lelaki sahaja, tidak terhad kepada mereka yang terlibat dengn penyalahgunaan dadah tetapi melibatkan kaum wanita, malah ada yang berkeluarga. Isu gelandangan wanita yang tinggal di kaki lima bersamasama gelandangan lelaki dikhuatiri boleh menyebabkan berlakunya masalah sosial lain seperti eksploitasi, penderaan seksual, terjebak dalam hubungan tidak sah dan sebagainya. Terdapat juga gelandangan yang terlibat dengan jenayah ragut, mencuri dan sebagainya (Harian Metro, 4 Ogos 2011). Kajian oleh Douglas et al (2008) mendapati kesejahteraan dalam aspek spiritual (spiritual well-being) mempunyai pengaruh dan kesan yang besar dalam kehidupan golongan gelandangan. Mereka yang mempunyai pegangan spritual yang rendah lebih cenderung menghadapi perasaan kemurungan, simptom trauma, gaya keibubapaan yang lemah serta mempunyai anak-anak yang mempunyai masalah tingkah laku. Kajian dalam kalangan gelandangan African-American juga mendapati mereka yang mempunyai penghayatan dan nilai spiritual yang positif juga menunjukkan konsep kendiri yang positif, strategi daya tindak aktif, sikap yang positif dalam aspek keibubapaan serta kepuasan apabila mendapat apa-apa bentuk sokongan sosial (Brome, Owens, Allen, & Vevaina, 2000). Individu terutama yang bergelar ibu bapa dan mempunyai anak tetapi hidup bergelandangan akan berhadapan dengan pelbagai isu termasuk memiliki penghargaan kendiri yang rendah (Swick, 2009). Berdasarkan situasi semasa banyak pihak terutama NGO atau orang perseorangan yang muncul dan memberikan bantuan terutama menyediakan makanan, minuman dan pakaian kepada golongan ini. Walau bagaimanapun, masih ada ruang yang perlu diisi bagi tujuan memperbaiki kehidupan golongan yang tidak berkediaman ini. Antara perkara penting yang perlu diberi perhatian adalah dalam aspek agama. Golongan gelandangan sering dikaitkan dengan aktiviti atau tabiat negatif termasuk judi, penyalahgunaan bahan, masalah ekonomi dan penderaan. (Sharifah Mariam Alhabshi & Alifatul Kamilah, 2012). Situasi tersebut bukan hanya berlaku di Malaysia tetapi turut berlaku di negara barat. Hal ini dibuktikan melalui kajiankajian yang telah dilakukan oleh para pengkaji. Melalui kajian yang dilakukan oleh Lowe & Gibson (2011) di Florida, hampir keseluruhan (73 daripada 75) responden yang terlibat dalam kajian ini terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan bahan. Justeru, pendedahan tentang nilai-nilai positif dan penghayatan agama yang kukuh dapat menghindari mereka daripada terus terjebat denan tabiat negatif tersebut. Berdasarkan hasil kajian tersebut menunjukkan perlunya perkhidmtan dan bantuan bagi tujuan memperkukuhkan pegangan agama dalam kalangan gelandangan. Objektif bagi kajian ini adalah: a. Mengenalpasti punca dan faktor responden hidup bergelandangan. b. Menerokai isu-isu yang dialami oleh golongan gelandangan.

METODOLOGI Kajian ini telah dijalankan di negeri Pulau Pinang. Melibatkan lima orang responden kajian yang telah dikenal pasti memenuhi ciri-ciri sebagai responden kajian. Temubual bersama responden kajian telah dijalankan sebagai kaedah pengumpulan data. Persetujuan daripada responden telah diperolehi sama ada untuk ditemubual serta merakamkan temu bual. Lokasi kajian adalah di sekitar masjid Kapitan Keling Penang Road dan perhentian bas hentian KOMTAR. Masa perjumpaan adalah dari jam 11 malam hingga jam 3 pagi. Setiap responden ditemubual antara 15 hingga 30 minit seorang. Analisis menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif sepenuhnya. Pembentukan tema adalah berdasarkan objektif kajian dan isu-isu yang diutamakan oleh responden.

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Responden Kajian Responden yang terlibat dalam kajian ini dalam kalangan golongan gelandangan di sekitar bandaraya Georgetown. Tidak terdapat jumlah populasi sebenar mereka yang hidup bergelandangan. Berdasarkan tinjauan dan program yang pernah dijalankan oleh pengkaji terdapat lebih kurang 150 hingga 200 individu yang bergelandangan. Terdapat tiga lokasi utama yang menjadi sasaran bagi golongan yang bergelandangan iaitu di sekitar masjid Kapitan Keling, di bawah perhentian bas KOMTAR dan di Padang Kota lama. Walaubagaimanapun atas faktor keselamatan pengkaji tidak digalakkan membuat kajian lapangan di Padang Kota Lama kerana kebanyakan gelangangan di lokasi tersebut terdiri daripada penagih dadah.

HASIL KAJIAN Profil Responden Berdasarkan temubual dan penceritaan daripada responden, beberapa perkara berkaitan latar belakang telah diperolehi termasuk demografi (status perkahwinan, umur dan pekerjaan) serta tempoh masa hidup bergelandangan. Profil responden adalah seperti dalam jadual 1. Jadual 1 - Profil responden

Responden

Profil • • • • •

Wanita, berkahwin. 32 tahun, Melayu Tidak bekerja, pendidikan SPM Mempunyai 4 orang anak (1,3,4 dan 5 tahun) 4 bulan hidup gelandangan Berasal dari Terengganu

2

• • • • •

Lelaki, berkahwin, 58 tahun, Melayu Tidak bekerja, pendidikan sekolah rendah Mempunyai ramai anak (tidak dinyatakan bilangan) 2 tahun hidup gelandangan Berasal dari Balik Pulau, Pulau Pinang

3

• • • • •

Lelaki, berkahwin, 52 tahun, Melayu Bekerja penarik beca, pendidikan SRP Mempunyai 3 anak (berusia antara 15 hingga 22 tahun) 3-4 tahun hidup gelandangan Berasal dari Sungai Petani, Kedah

4

• • • •

Lelaki, duda, 40-an, Melayu Tidak bekerja, pendidikan sekolah rendah Beberapa tahun hidup gelandangan (tidak dinyatakan) Berasal dari Taping, Perak

5

• • • •

Lelaki, bujang, lewat 50-an, Cina Bekerja penarik beca, tiada pendidikan formal Beberapa tahun hidup gelandangan (tidak dinyatakan) Berasal dari Pulau Pinang

1

Faktor Bergelandangan Terdapat beberapa faktor yang dinyatakan oleh responden berkaitan faktor mereka terjebak atau mengambil keputusan untuk hidup bergelandangan termasuk masalah kewangan, dipinggirkan oleh keluarga kerana terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan bahan dan faktor pekerjaan. Berdasarkan maklumat yang diberikan, didapati bukan semua yang hidup gelandangan berada dalam keadaan terdesak sehingga memaksa mereka untuk tidak kembali ke rumah dan keluarga (bagi kes individu yang mempunyai keluarga dan rumah sendiri). Sebaliknya, mereka yang membuat pilihan untuk hidup di kaki lima atau tempat awam. Bagi kes tertentu terutama yang sudah berkeluarga, mereka tidak mempunyai pilihan lain selain terpaska membawa anak-anak kecil bersama dan hidup di kaki lima disebabkan masalah kewangan. Keadaan ini menunjukkan keputusan untuk hidup bergelandangan juga mempunyai kaitan dengan isu-isu lain termasuk hubungan kekeluarga dan penglibatan pendapatan yang tidak mampu untuk menyara kehidupan harian. Jadual 2 - Petikan temubual berkaitan faktor bergelandangan

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Responden

Contoh dialog

Responden 1

Dah lama tak bayar sewa rumah, tuan rumah suruh keluar. Jadi tak tahu nak pergi mana, nak sewa rumah lain memang tak de duit. Jadi, abang (suami) kata tidur je lah di sini

Responden 2

Aku ada rumah, ada anak bini, rumah Datuk keramat tu je. Mula-mula jumpa kawankawan sebab ada masalah dengan anak bini, lama-lama ni rasa malas nak balik sebab lebih enjoy lepak dengan kawan-kawan

Responden 3

Saya ada rumah di Sungai Petani. Hidup macam ni sebab tak berbaloi nak balik. Dulu-dulu balik sebulan sekali, makin lama makin jarang balik

Responden 4

Aku ni jadi macam ni sebab family buang. Family tak terima aku sebab dulu-dulu memang aku ambil benda tu (dadah)

Responden 5

Hidup macam ni pun ok apa..tak payah fikir pasal duit sewa, api air. Lagipun hidup sorang-sorang cukup makan satu mulut cukup lah

Isu Psikososial Terdapat beberapa isu psikososial yang dikemukakan oleh responden iaitu berkaitan perancangan masa depan, hubungan kekeluargaan dan kualiti hidup. Dalam aspek kualiti hidup pula meliputi kebersihan, kesihatan, keselamatan dan juga aspek keagamaan.

Perancangan Masa Depan Berdasarkan jawapan yang diberikan oleh responden menunjukkan mereka hanya berserah kepada masa dan keadaan yang akan menentukan masa depan mereka. Reaksi sedemikian mungkin dapat dikaitkan dengan persekitaran dan keadaan semasa yang seolah-olah hanya kais pagi makan pagi iaitu melakukan sesuatu hanya untuk kelangsungan hidup sahaja. Selain itu mereka juga mempunyai pemikiran sedemikian disebabkan tempoh masa hidup bergelandangan yang telah lama dan tidak pasti tentang masa depan mereka. Jadual 3 - Petikan temubual berkaitan isu perancangan masa depan

Responden

Contoh dialog

Responden 1

Masa depan kami yang dah tua ni ikut keadaan lah, cuma risau pasal anak-anak, tapi kalau tengok keadaan sekarang ni satu je yang saya harap, supaya anak-anak tak jadi macam kami, yang lain-lain tu bergantung pada nasib lah

Responden 2

Ikutlah apa nak jadi

Responden 3

Entahlah...mungkin kalau anak-anak berjaya depa (mereka) akan datang cari saya lah kot, tu pun kalau depa (mereka) nak datang cari

Responden 4

Ada masa depan ke aku ni? Tak dan (sempat) nak fikir masa depan lah, fikir nak makan hari-hari je

Responden 5

Masa depan saya disini lah, dengan kawan-kawan yang sama-sama di sini

Hubungan Kekeluargaan Salah satu punca yang menyebabkan responden hidup bergelandangan adalah kerana tidak diterima oleh keluarga kerana terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan bahan. Walaubagaimanapun, bagi responden yang mempunyai alasan lain mereka juga mempunyai masalah/isu dalam hubungan kekeluargaan. Kebanyakana klien enggan atau cuba mengelak daripada berbincang tentang keluarga. Hal ini berkemungkinan mereka enggan mendedahkan identiti sebenar keluar bagi menjaga kehormatan keluarga atau semamangnya mempunya masalah atau konflik keluarga. Isu yang berkaitan hubungan kekeluargaan juga adalah responden berasal daripada keluarga miskin dan tidak mahu membebankan keluarga dengan keadaan yang sedang dihadapi selain terdapat krisis atau konflik yang telah lama tetapi masih belum selesai. Jadual 4 - Petikan temubual berkaitan isu hubungan kekeluargaan

Responden Responden 1

Contoh dialog Siapalah yang sanggup terima kami anak beranak ni, macam ni kot jadinya kalau masa kahwin dulu orang tua tak restu. Tak pe lah...saya tak nak susahkan mereka

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Responden

Contoh dialog

Responden 2

Buat apa cakap pasal depa tu, dok sini lagi baik. Balik rumah lagi sakit kepala sakit hati

Responden 3

Mula-mula dulu memang teringat juga terutama pada anak, tapi sebab dah terbiasa disini. Raya pun saya tak balik tapi anak-anak pun tak de datang cari

Responden 4

Kalau anak-anak perlukan aku, pandai2 lah dia datang cari. Aku tak nak fikir pasal dia semua

Responden 5

Semua orang tua sudah mati, jadi mana ada family lagi. Adik-adik semua sudah ada family sendiri, lagi pun mereka malu nak ambil saya

Kualiti Hidup (Kesihatan, kebersihan, keselamatan dan keagamaan) Kualiti hidup bagi golongan gelandangan adalah dalam aspek kesihatan, kebersihan, keselamatan dan juga aspek keagamaan. Kehidupan mereka yang tidak mempunyai penempatan tetap dan selamat menyebabkan mereka terdedah untuk terlibat dengan aktiviti sosial. Selain itu mereka juga mungkin akan dieksploitasi oleh sindiket pemerdagangan, penyalahgunaan bahan dan sebagainya. Pemerhatian yang dibuat menunjukkan keadaan kebersihan dan persekitaran responden adalah tidak sihat. Berdasarkan temubual yang telah dijalankan menunjukkan responden kurang menitikberatkan aspek kualiti hidup mereka. Responden juga menyatakan aspek kebersihan, kesihatan dan keselamatan tidak lagi diberi perhatian bagi mereka keperluan asas yang utama adalah makanan dan tempat untuk tidur. Selain itu, perasaan malu dan bersalah juga sudah dapat diatasi berbanding pada peringkat awal hidup bergelandangan. Keadaan ini menunjukkan tekanan dan desakan hidup semasa menyebabkan mereka mengubah corak pemikiran dan cara hidup. Jadual 5 - Petikan temubual berkaitan isu kualiti hidup

Responden Responden 1

Contoh dialog Tiap-tiap hari asal cukup makan untuk anak-anak cukuplah, benda lain saya tak tahu nak fikir. Budak-budak ni dah biasa tak mandi, guna apa saja yang ada

Responden 2

Umur dah nak masuk 60, tak de benda dah nak fikir. Dok lepak dengan kawan-kawan sini sementara ada masa. Saya selalu tak sihat tu sebab tak sembahyang

Responden 3

Hidup saya macam ni saja. Tiap pagi bangun untuk cari duit. Dapat duit beli makan, beli barang-barang lain sikit-sikit

Responden 4

Memang saya mengaku dah berpuluh tahun tak sembahyang, tak dapat hidayah lagi gamaknya (sambil ketawa)

Responden 5

Kalau ada tempat saya cuci baju dan mandi. Dulu ada pernah pergi hospital, doktor ada bagitahu saya sakit tapi mana ada duit nak cari ubat. Sampai masa saya mati lah

PERBINCANGAN, IMPLIKASI DAN CADANGAN Hasil kajian mendapati mereka yang hidup bergelandangan mempunyai latar belakang pendidikan yang rendah dan sederhana serta tidak mempunyai pendapatan tetap. Selain itu, ada juga yang mengaku terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan bahan. Walaupun kajian ini tidak melibatkan bilangan responden yang ramai serta tidak boleh digeneralisasikan namun dapatan kajian menyokong hasil kajian Sharifah Mariam Alhabshi & Alifatul Kamilah, 2012; Lowe & Gibson, 2011) dalam aspek latar belakang gelandangan. Walaubagaimanapun, berdasarkan laporan di media massa tempatan terdapat golongan gelandangan terutama di Kuala Lumpur yang mempunyai pekerjaan dan pendapatan tetap. Kos hidup yang tinggi menyebabkan pendapatan yang diterima tidak mampu untuk menyara kehidupan terutama di bandaraya. Dari sudut punca atau faktor hidup bergelandangan hasil temubual juga menyokong kajian oleh Morrell-Bellai et al, 2000 dan Sharifah Mariam Alhabshi & Alifatul Kamilah (2012) yang menyatakan terdapat faktor luaran dan dalaman. Terdapat responden yang terpaksa membuat pilihan untuk hidup di kaki lima kerana faktor kewangan, penolakan ahli keluarga (kekurangan sokongan sosial) dan nilai diri sendiri. Hal ini menunjukkan terdapat individu yang memilih jalan singkat dalam kehidupan terutama bagi mereka yang tidak terlalu terdesak untuk hidup bergelandangan. Contohnya, bagi responden yang mempunyai keluarga dan tempat tinggal tetap tetapi memilih untuk hidup bersama kawan-kawan di perhentian bas. Pihak berkuasa seperti © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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polis dan JKM boleh mendapatkan kerjasama daripada ahli keluarga bagi mengurangkan kadar individu yang bergelandangan. Isu-isu psikososial termasuk kebersihan, kesihatan, keselamatan dan keagamaan yang dinyatakan oleh responden juga menyokong hasil kajian Douglas et al, 2008; Brome, Owens, Allen, & Vevaina, 2000; dan Swick, 2009). Penilaian atau judgement dengan menyatakan mereka tidak menitikbertkan aspek tersebut tidak boleh dilakukan, kerana bagi individu yang hidup bergelandangan isu atau perkara lain lebih menjadi keutamaan mereka seperti keperluan asas untuk meneruskan kehidupan harian terutama makanan dan minuman. Cara pemikiran dan bagaimana mereka mempersepsikan sesuatu isu juga turut dipengaruhi oleh keadaan persekitaran termasuk pergaulan harian, faktor pendidikan dan pengambilan bahan (dadah atau alkohol). Kehidupan golongan gelandangan sememangnya memberikan implikasi kepada banyak pihak terutama kerajaan dan pihak yang terlibat menyediakan perkhidmatan dan bantuan kepada mereka. Isu dalam kalangan golongan gelandangan perlu ditangani oleh pihak kerajaan kerana sedikit sebanyak ia akan menjejaskan imej pihak pemerintah selain menjejaskan pemandangan terutama di mata pelancong. Hal ini kerana mereka menggunakan tempat awam sebagai tempat kediaman mereka. Selain itu, pihak yang sering memberikan bantuan sama ada secara formal atau tidak seperti JKM dan NGO perlu melakukan intervensi secara komprehensif. Antara perkhidmatan yang disediakan oleh JKM ialah menempatkan golongan gelandangan yang diselamatkan di Desa Bina Diri (DBD). Institusi ini perlu dilengkapkan dengan program atau aktiviti sebagai persediaan kepada golongan gelandangan untuk hidup berdikari dan menjalani kehidupan seperti biasa. Berdasarkan hasil tinjauan ini beberapa cadangan boleh diketengahkan untuk dilaksanakan oleh pihak berkenaan termasuk penglibatan pihak penguatkuasaan bagi kes-kes gelandangan tertentu. Bagi mereka yang dikesan terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan bahan dan masalah mental perlu ditempatkan di institusi berkenaan bagi tujuan pemulihan dan rawatan. Selain itu, operasi secara bersepadu yang melibatkan pihak Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat, Majlis Agama Islam, Polis dan sebagainya perlu dilaksanakan kerana terdapat pelbagai isu dan masalah oleh golongan gelandangan. Contohnya terdapat ibu bapa bersama anak-anak kecil yang keciciran persekolahan, warga tua yang hidup di kaki-kaki lima. Melalui tinjauan yang dilakukan menunjukkan terdapat pelbagai pihak yang sering menyediakan makanan dan minuman kepada golongan ini sehinggakan pada waktu-waktu tertentu berlaku pembaziran dan seterusnya menyebabkan keadaan menjadi kotor. Selain makanan, minuman dan pakaian mereka juga memerlukan keperluan harian yang lain seperti tuala mandi, sabun, berus gigi dan alat keperluan harian yang lain. Penglibatan NGO dan pihak tertentu juga diperlukan bagi menubuhkan pusat sehenti atau drop in center atau asrama bagi memudahkan golongan gelandangan ini menjadikan tempat tersebut untuk membersihkan diri, mendapatkan bekalan makanan dan sebagai tempat tidur. Dengan adanya tempat persinggahan ini dapat mengelakkan mereka menggunakan tempat awam untuk dijadikan tempat tinggal.

KESIMPULAN Isu gelandangan merupakan satu isu yang berkaitan dengan tekanan kehidupan termasuk masalah ekonomi dan tuntutan kehidupan yang semakin mencabar. Selain itu, banyak isu-isu lain yang wujud dan dihadapi oleh golongan gelandangan. Perkhidmatan dan bantuan yang perlu diberikan kepada mereka haruslah menyeluruh dan lebih bersifat jangka panjang bagi mengelakkan golongan ini tidak hidup bergelandangan secara berterusan. Bantuan dan sokongan perlu datang daripada pelbagai pihak termasuk ahli keluarga. Namun, perkhidmatan yang diberikan perlu berbentuk meningkatkan keupayaan mereka dan mengelakkan daripada kebergantungan kepada pihak kerajaan semata-mata.

RUJUKAN Brome, D. R., Owens, M. D., Allen, K.,&Vevaina, T. (2000). An examination of spirituality among AfricanAmerican women in recovery from substance abuse. Journal of Black Psychology, 26, 470-486. Douglas, A.N., Jimenez, S., Lin, H.J. & Frisman, L.K. (2008). Ethnic differences in the effects of spiritual well-being on long term psychological and behavioral outcomes within a sample of homeless women. Cultural diversity and ethnic minority psychology, 14(4), 344-352 Kusyi Hirdan (2012). Misi bantuan gelandangan. Harian Metro, 21 Jun 2012. Harian Metro (2011). Hidup gelandangan di tengah kota. Harian Metro, 4 Ogos 2011. Lowe, J. & Gibson, S. (2011). reflections of a homeless population's lived experience with substance abuse. Journal Of Community Health Nursing,28, 92-104 Morrell-Bellai, T., Goering, P.N.& Boydell, K.M. (2000). Becoming and remaining homeless: a qualitative investigations. Issues in mental health nursing, 21, 581-604 © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Sharifah Mariam Alhabshi & Alifatul Kamilah. (2012). Homeless in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: a case of agenda denial. International Journal of Social Science Tomorrow, 1(2), 1-9 Swick, K. (2009). Strengthening homeless parents with young children through meaningful parent education and support. Early childhood education journal, 36(4), 327-332

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SECTION VI

DISABILITY

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

HAK BEKERJA ORANG KURANG UPAYA: SATU TINJAUAN UNDANG-UNDANG DI MALAYSIA Hirwan Jasbir Jaafar*, Harlida Abdul Wahab & Nurli Yaacob *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Kerajaan Malaysia telah menandatangani Konvensyen Hak Orang Kurang Upaya (CRPD) pada 8 April 2008. Ini menunjukkan hasrat dan kesungguhan Kerajaan Malaysia untuk memberikan pengiktirafan kepada Orang Kurang Upaya. Kertas konsep ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji hak Orang Kurang Upaya menjurus kepada hak untuk bekerja berdasarkan Perlembagaan Persekutuan dan Akta Orang Kurang Upaya 2008 di Malaysia. Hasil kajian mendapati hak bekerja OKU di Malaysia dinyatakan dalam Perlembagaan secara umum dan Akta OKU 2008 secara khususnya. Penambahbaikan dalam undang-undang tersebut dan perlaksanaannya perlu diperkukuhkan lagi melalui beberapa cadangan yang akan dikemukakan dalam kertas ini. Ia bagi memastikan hak OKU untuk mendapat pekerjaan diberikan perhatian oleh masyarakat sejajar dengan tujuan asal Akta Orang Kurang Upaya 2008 diwujudkan. Keywords: OKU, hak bekerja, undang-undang

PENGENALAN Seseorang manusia akan menempuh dua proses utama sepanjang kehidupannya iaitu pendidikan dan pekerjaan (Abdul Rahman Aziz, 2000). Proses pendidikan akan mendidik seseorang manusia mengenal dunia manakala proses pekerjaan adalah bertujuan untuk meneruskan kehidupan. Pekerjaan merupakan salah satu keperluan asas dalam kehidupan seseorang manusia. Maka tidak hairanlah hak untuk bekerja dianggap sebagai salah satu daripada hak-hak asasi yang dijamin oleh Perlembagaan Malaysia (Kamal Halili Hassan, 2011). Selain itu, tujuan seseorang manusia itu bekerja adalah untuk menyediakan keperluan asas kepada keluarga di bawah tanggungannya dan sekali gus menjadi penyumbang kepada pembangunan ekonomi keluarga, masyarakat dan negara. Hal ini tidak terkecuali kepada setiap manusia tanpa mengira cukup atau tidak sifat seseorang itu. Bagi Orang Kurang Upaya (selepas ini disebut sebagai OKU), mereka juga tidak terkecuali dalam memainkan peranan sebagai ketua keluarga atau sebahagian daripada masyarakat. Menurut Pertubuhan Kesihatan Sedunia (WHO), 15 peratus atau lebih dari satu bilion penduduk dunia adalah OKU. Di Malaysia, jumlah OKU yang berdaftar dengan Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat pada tahun 2011 adalah seramai 359,203 orang (Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat Malaysia). Namun jumlah yang berdaftar ini dianggarkan tidak mewakili jumlah sebenar OKU di Malaysia kerana dijangkakan jumlahnya lebih besar, memandangkan proses pendaftaran OKU di Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat adalah secara sukarela. Jumlah golongan OKU yang sudah pasti meningkat setiap tahun, mampu mengubah lanskap ekonomi sesebuah negara. Justeru itu, golongan OKU juga memiliki hak sama rata dengan orang yang cukup sifatnya. Mereka bukanlah insan yang boleh dipinggirkan hanya kerana memiliki kekurangan berbanding orang lain.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

DEFINASI OKU Konvensyen Hak OKU (CRPD) telah mendefinasikan OKU melalui Artikel 1 yang menyatakan“Persons with disabilities include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.” Ia bermaksud OKU ialah mereka yang mempunyai kecacatan fizikal, mental, intelektual atau deria jangka panjang yang apabila berinteraksi dengan pelbagai halangan, boleh menyekat penyertaan penuh dan berkesan mereka dalam masyarakat. Manakala menurut seksyen 2 Akta OKU 2008 menyatakan “orang kurang upaya” termasuklah mereka yang mempunyai kekurangan jangka panjang fizikal, mental, intelektual atau deria yang apabila berinteraksi dengan pelbagai halangan, boleh menyekat penyertaan penuh dan berkesan mereka dalam masyarakat;” Berdasarkan seksyen 2, OKU ditafsirkan sebagai mereka yang mempunyai kekurangan jangka panjang fizikal, mental, intelektual atau deria yang apabila berinteraksi dengan pelbagai halangan dan kesukaran yang boleh menyekat penyertaan penuh dan berkesan mereka dalam masyarakat. Berdasarkan definasi yang diberikan di dalam Konvensyen Hak OKU dan Akta OKU 2008, kedua-duanya memberikan tafsiran yang hampir sama. Ini bermakna tafsiran OKU dibawah Akta OKU 2008 adalah selari dengan kehendak Konvensyen Hak OKU. Lorna Jean Edmond (2005) dalam penulisannya menyatakan OKU dianggap sebagai golongan insan yang mengalami kekurangan dari segi fizikal, mental, deria dan lain-lain kekurangan yang menyebabkan mereka tidak dapat melakukan aktiviti kehidupan seperti manusia normal. Oleh yang demikian, OKU boleh dikategorikan sebagai seseorang yang mengalami masalah dalam mengawal mental dan fizikal akibat kekurangan yang dimilikinya berbanding seseorang normal yang lain. Akibatnya seseorang OKU tidak boleh bertanggungjawab terhadap kehidupan dan diri mereka sendiri (Raffaele Monteleone, 2009). Walau apa pun definisi yang diberikan, dapatlah kita simpulkan di sini bahawa OKU ialah orang yang tidak berupaya sama ada dari sudut fizikal atau mental atau kedua-duanya sekali untuk menguruskan kehidupan mereka. Ketidakupayaan ini mungkin berlaku sejak dari awal kelahiran ataupun di sepanjang kehidupan seseorang itu akibat tragedi seperti kemalangan ataupun penyakit. Akibat daripada ketidakupayaan mereka, maka mereka perlu dibantu dan diberikan sedikit keistimewaan agar kekurangan mereka dapat diatasi dan mereka dapat hidup seperti insan normal yang lain.

HAK OKU UNTUK BEKERJA Kehidupan hari ini berteraskan kewangan dan untuk mendapatkan kewangan seseorang itu perlu berusaha untuk mendapatkannya. Menurut Roe (1965), pekerjaan adalah satu cara untuk seseorang mendapatkan kemudahan kediaman, mengelakkan kelaparan dan dahaga, berkeluarga, bersosial dan kebebasan untuk membentuk keperibadian. Justeru itu, bekerja merupakan salah satu cara untuk mendapatkan wang bagi memenuhi segala kehendak dan keperluan dalam kehidupan seseorang manusia. Hak untuk bekerja dianggap sebagai hak asasi manusia dan diktiraf melalui Artikel 23(1) Deklarasi Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat yang berbunyi “Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.” Ia dianggap sebagai salah satu elemen hak asasi. Pertubuhan Buruh Antarabangsa (ILO) turut ditubuhkan bagi memastikan hak untuk bekerja dihormati dan diperlihara seperti mana termaktub dalam Mukadimah ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its Follow-up yang berbunyi “Whereas the ILO should give special attention to the problems of persons with special social needs, particularly the unemployed and migrant workers, and mobilize and encourage international, regional and national efforts aimed at resolving their problems, and promote effective policies aimed at job creation”. Keperluan terhadap pekerjaan amat penting kepada golongan OKU bagi meneruskan kelangsungan hidup sama seperti insan normal yang lain. Di dalam Konvensyen Hak OKU, hak untuk bekerja turut dimasukkan sebagai hak yang perlu dihormati dan mendapat layanan yang sama dengan orang lain. Layanan yang dimaksudkan ialah layanan dari sudut upah yang sama, kemudahan yang sama, kenaikkan pangkat dan beban tugas yang sama dengan pekerja-pekerja lain. Hak untuk bekerja ini, menjadi salah satu hak OKU dalam Artikel 27(1) Konvensyen Hak OKU (CRPD). Melalui Artikel 27(1) (CRPD), “ States Parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to work, on an equal basis with others; this includes the right to the opportunity to gain a living by work freely chosen or accepted in a labour market and work environment that is open, inclusive and accessible to persons with disabilities….” Ini bermakna setiap negara perlu mengiktiraf hak OKU untuk bekerja sama dengan orang lain, dalam erti kata lain mereka perlu diberikan peluang untuk menjalani kehidupan mereka melalui pekerjaan yang mereka pilih berdasarkan pasaran buruh dan persekitaran kerja yang terbuka. Disamping itu, kerajaan juga perlu menyediakan langkah-langkah yang bersesuaian termasuklah perundangan dan lain-lain tindakan yang dapat melindungi kepentingan dan hak OKU untuk bekerja. Oleh yang demikian, jelas disini hak OKU untuk bekerja adalah sebahagian daripada hak asasi mereka Oleh © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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yang demikian, mereka juga berhak untuk bekerja bagi menyara kehidupan mereka dan keluarga. Melalui pekerjaan, seseorang OKU itu dapat meneruskan kehidupan dan bermasyarakat (Abdul Rahman Aziz, 2000).

HAK BEKERJA OKU BERDASARKAN UNDANG-UNDANG DI MALAYSIA Hak OKU untuk bekerja adalah merupakan salah satu hak asasi seseorang OKU. Hak asasi di Malaysia telah dinyatakan dalam undang-undang tertinggi di Malaysia iaitu Perlembagaan Persekutuan. Mana-mana undang-undang yang digubal bertentangan dengan Perlembagaan akan terbatal setakat yang bertentangan sebagaimana yang termaktub dalam Perkara 4(1). Justeru itu, mana-mana undang-undang yang hendak digubal di Malaysia perlulah selari dengan Perlembagaan. Menurut Perkara 6(1) “Tiada seorang pun boleh ditahan sebagai abdi.” Ini bermakna semua orang di Malaysia dilindungi oleh Perlembagaan dari menjadi hamba abdi kepada mana-mana orang atau dipaksa untuk bekerja oleh seseorang yang lain. Kegiatan penghambaan telah lama dimansuhkan dan ianya tidak dibenarkan di seluruh negara yang menganggotai PBB. Sebagai OKU yang bekerja, mereka juga berhak diberikan kebebasan dan layanan yang sama sebagaimana manusia normal yang lain untuk menikmati kehidupan yang bebas tanpa dinafikan hak mereka walaupun mereka tidak memiliki kesempurnaan fizikal mahupun mental. Ia dinyatakan dengan jelas oleh LP Suffian dalam penghakiman kes PP lawan Khong Teng Khen & Anor yang berbunyi “a law must operate alike on all persons under like circumstances, not only simply that it must operate alike on all persons in any circumstance”. Di Malaysia, Akta Kerja 1955 dan Akta Perhubungan Perusahaan 1967 menjadi undang-undang utama dalam melindungi hak pekerja di Malaysia. Berdasarkan seksyen 2 Akta Kerja 1955, seseorang pekerja dianggap sebagai seorang pekerja apabila ia menandatangani kontrak perkhidmatan diantara pekerja dengan majikan. Justeru itu, sesiapa sahaja yang menandatangani kontrak perkhidmatan dengan mana-mana majikan akan dianggap sebagai seorang pekerja dan akan dilindungi dibawah Akta Kerja 1955 dan Akta Perhubungan Perusahaan 1967. Kedua-dua akta tersebut tidak membezakan definasi seseorang pekerja walaupun seseorang pekerja itu merupakan OKU. Disini jelas akta memberikan layanan yang sama kepada semua pekerja tanpa mengira sama ada seseorang pekerja itu adalah seorang yang normal atau memiliki kekurangan sebagaimana OKU. Dalam erti kata lain, golongan OKU tidak diberikan sebarang kelebihan sebagai seorang pekerja dalam kedua-dua akta tersebut. Sehubungan dengan itu golongan OKU telah diberikan keistimewaan apabila Akta OKU 2008 di perkenalkan. Ia telah diluluskan di Parlimen pada 24 Disember 2007 dan diwartakan pada 24 Januari 2008. Ia mula dikuatkuasakan pada 7 Julai 2008 dengan tujuan untuk memberikan pengiktirafan terhadap hak OKU dan menukar konsep OKU di Malaysia daripada konsep kebajikan kepada konsep right-based. Ia telah mengubah tanggapan terhadap golongan OKU daripada golongan yang hanya perlu dibantu kepada golongan yang memiliki hak tersendiri dan hak mereka harus dihormati. Hak-hak ini jelas dinyatakan dalam Akta OKU 2008 dari seksyen 26 sehinggalah seksyen 40. Bagi tujuan kajian ini, pengkhususan akan diberikan kepada peruntukkan berkaitan pekerjaan. Hak berkaitan pekerjaan diperuntukkan dalam seksyen 29(1) hingga seksyen 29(6). Secara umumnya, seksyen 29 Akta OKU 2008 memperuntukkan hak OKU untuk mencari dan mendapat perkhidmatan yang setara dengan pekerja normal yang lain. Melalui seksyen ini secara umumnya OKU diberikan hak untuk dilayan sama rata dari bermulanya proses untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan sehinggalah keadaan semasa bekerja. Seksyen 29(1) memperuntukkan bahawa “Orang kurang upaya hendaklah mempunyai hak untuk akses kepada pekerjaan atas asas kesetaraan dengan orang upaya.” Peruntukan ini menyatakan bahawa OKU berhak untuk memohon dan mendapatkan sebarang pekerjaan sama sebagaimana insan normal yang lain. Ia bermaksud mereka seharusnya diberikan hak untuk memohon sebarang pekerjaan dan menjalani proses untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan seperti proses temuduga dan layanan semasa proses untuk mendapat pekerjaan sama seperti yang diperolehi oleh insan normal yang lain. Dalam erti kata lain faktor kecacatan yang mereka hadapi tidak boleh dijadikan alasan untuk menyekat peluang mereka untuk bekerja. Seskyen 29(2) pula mengkehendaki setiap majikan melindungi hak pekerja OKU sama sebagaimana yang diberikan kepada pekerja normal yang lain. Menurut seksyen 29(2) “Majikan hendaklah melindungi hak orang kurang upaya, atas asas kesetaraan dengan orang upaya, untuk mendapatkan suasana kerja yang adil dan baik termasuk peluang sama rata dan saraan sama rata bagi kerja yang sama nilai, suasana kerja yang selamat dan sihat, perlindungan daripada gangguan dan memulihkan ketidakpuasan hati.” Melalui seksyen ini, tanggungjawab dalam melindungi hak pekerja OKU ditujukan kepada majikan. Majikan harus memberikan perlindungan kepada setiap pekerja OKU yang bekerja di organisasi mereka. Perlindungan yang dimaksudkan ialah seperti menyediakan suasana kerja yang selesa untuk OKU, nilai gaji yang sama rata selaras dengan kerja yang diberikan, persekitaran tempat kerja yang selamat dan sihat serta perlindungan daripada gangguan rakan sekerja dan memulihkan rasa ketidakpuasan hati OKU.

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Manakala seksyen 29(3) memperuntukkan tanggungjawab sosial seseorang majikan untuk menyediakan tempat kerja yang bersesuaian dengan keperluan seseorang pekerja OKU. Menurut seksyen 29(3) ”Majikan hendaklah dalam melaksanakan kewajipan sosialnya berusaha untuk menggalakkan pekerjaan yang stabil bagi orang kurang upaya dengan menilai keupayaannya dengan sewajarnya, menyediakan tempat pekerjaan yang sesuai dan menjalankan pengurusan pekerjaan yang sesuai.” Keperluan yang dimaksudkan ialah kemudahan yang bertujuan untuk memudahkan dan membantu seseorang pekerja OKU melaksanakan tugasnya dengan baik. Tempat kerja yang bersesuaian dengan keperluan OKU adalah berdasarkan kecacatan yang dimiliki oleh seseorang pekerja OKU seperti penyediaan rem untuk masuk ke tempat kerja bagi memudahkan pekerja OKU yang menggunakan kerusi roda, manakala bagi pekerja OKU cacat pendengaran, penyediaan lampu yang memiliki warna tertentu dengan maksud yang tertentu perlu ada bagi memastikan mereka dapat menjalankan tugas dengan sebaik mungkin. Manakala bagi seksyen 29(4) dan (5), tanggung jawab diperuntukkan kepada Majlis Kebangsaan Bagi OKU (selepas ini disebut Majlis) untuk menyediakan program atau dasar pengambilan pekerja di kalangan OKU dan penyediaan latihan untuk mempersiapkan OKU memasuki pasaran buruh serta latihan dan bantuan untuk menggalakkan OKU bekerja sendiri terutamanya sebagai usahawan. Mengikut seksyen 29(4) “Majlis hendaklah, bagi menggalakkan pengambilan kerja orang kurang upaya dalam sektor swasta, merumuskan dasar dan langkah yang sesuai yang boleh termasuk program tindakan afirmatif dan langkah lain.” Majlis dikehendaki merancang dan mewujudkan dasar-dasar yang dapat membantu OKU untuk mendapat pekerja seperti membuka peluang-peluang pekerjaan yang lebih banyak dan insentif kepada majikan yang mengambil OKU bekerja. Manakala seksyen 29(5) pula menyatakan “Majlis hendaklah menggalakkan peluang bagi latihan kepada orang kurang upaya dalam pasaran buruh dan juga peluang untuk bekerja sendiri, keusahawanan, pembangunan koperasi, memulakan perniagaan sendiri dan mewujudkan peluang bekerja dan rumah.” Seksyen ini mengkehendaki Majlis untuk menyediakan program-program latihan bagi menyiapkan OKU untuk berada dalam pasaran buruh. Program-program latihan yang dimaksudkan adalah seperti latihan vokasional dan sebagainya. Majlis juga dipertanggungjawabkan untuk merangka latihan yang dapat membantu seseorang OKU untuk bekerja sendiri seperti membuka perniagaan sendiri atau bekerja di rumah. Apabila seseorang OKU membuka perniagaan sendiri, mereka dapat membantu meningkatkan ekonomi dan membuka peluang pekerjaan kepada OKU yang lain untuk bekerja dengan mereka. Ini dapat mengurangkan kebergantungan OKU untuk bekerja dengan pihak swasta dan kerajaan. Manakala seksyen 29(6) hanya memberikan penekanan kepada tafsiran majikan dalam Akta OKU 2008 yang membawa maksud pihak kerajaan juga dianggap sebagai majikan. Secara keseluruhannya hak pekerja dilindungi dibawah Akta Kerja 1955 dan Akta Perhubungan Perusahaan 1967, namun kedua-dua akta ini memberikan perlindungan yang sama rata kepada semua pekerja tanpa mengira sama ada seseorang pekerja itu normal atau kurang upaya. Bagi golongan OKU, hanya Akta OKU 2008 yang memperuntukkan hak berkaitan pekerjaan secara terperinci dan boleh dijadikan panduan.

PERBINCANGAN DAN CADANGAN Perbincangan terdahulu telah membincangkan tentang kedudukan OKU sebagai seorang pekerja berdasarkan undang-undang sedia ada di Malaysia. Berdasarkan tiga akta yang dibincangkan di peringkat awal iaitu Akta Kerja 1955, Akta Perhubungan Perusahaan 1967 dan Akta OKU 2008, didapati hanya Akta OKU 2008 yang dilihat memberikan ruang dan perlindungan secara khusus kepada golongan OKU yang ingin bekerja dan sedang bekerja. Justeru itu, perbincangan ini akan menghuraikan sedikit sebanyak kelemahan yang wujud dan beberapa cadangan bagi menambahbaik apa yang telah sedia ada. Isu pertama yang ingin ditimbulkan disini ialah isu definasi seorang pekerja OKU. Berdasarkan carian yang dilakukan, tiada sebarang definasi yang khusus diberikan kepada pekerja OKU oleh badan antarabangsa seperti Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu dan Organisasi Buruh Antarabvangsa. Hanya Konvensyen Pemulihan Vokasional(OKU) 1983 (No. 159) yang memberikan tafsiran berkaitan pekerjaan iaitu “OKU ialah seorang yang memiliki prospek untuk mendapatkan, mengekalkan dan memajukan diri dalam pekerjaan namun terhalang kerana kekurangan fizikal atau mental atau yang diiktiraf dengan sewajarnya.” Ketiadaan tafsiran ini menyebabkan tiada tafsiran yang dibuat terhadap pekerja OKU dalam mana-mana undang-undang di Malaysia. Jika dilihat kepada Australia Disability Discrimination Act 1992, mereka memberikan tafsiran kepada pekerja OKU melalui Seskyen 4 yang menyatakan pekerja OKU termasuklah pekerja tetap dan sementara, bekerja dibawah kontrak perkhidmatan, bekerja sebagai pekerja komanwel dan bekerja di sesebuah negeri atau diantara negeri. Disini tafsiran terhadap pekerja OKU yang digunakan di Australia merangkumi semua OKU yang bekerja secara tetap atau sementara dan telah menandatangani kontrak perkhidmatan. Tafsiran sebegini perlu bagi memastikan golongan pekerja yang terdiri daripada OKU ini mendapat perlindungan yang sewajarnya atas kapasiti sebagai seorang pekerja. Ini kerana sudah pasti OKU yang bekerja tidak memiliki kemampuan dan keupayaan sebagaimana yang dimiliki oleh pekerja normal yang lain. Bagi OKU yang ingin © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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mencari pekerjaan, ketiadaan undang-undang khas yang ditetapkan bagi membantu untuk membezakan antara individu normal dan OKU turut menyebabkan OKU tidak mendapat peluang untuk bersaing secara adil terutamanya semasa menjalani proses temu duga untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan. Oleh itu, cadangan berkenaan definasi pekerja OKU diperlukan bagi memastikan keperluan dan layanan yang diterima di tempat kerja adalah sama dan tidak berlaku diskriminasi. Isu kedua yang ingin ditimbulkan disini ialah peruntukan undang-undang yang terkandung dalam Akta OKU 2008 secara keseluruhannya lebih bersifat perlindungan umum tanpa mengkhususkan kepada perlindungan hak seseorang OKU. Semua perkara berkaitan hal ehwal pekerjaan telah disentuh secara umum dalam Akta tersebut. Ini menyebabkan tafsiran dan penguatkuasaan terhadap peruntukan tersebut agak longgar dan menimbulkan pelbagai persoalan khususnya berkenaan hak golongan OKU dalam pekerjaan. Sebagai contoh, seksyen 29(3) Akta OKU 2008 “Majikan hendaklah dalam melaksanakan kewajipan sosialnya berusaha untuk menggalakkan pekerjaan yang stabil bagi orang kurang upaya dengan menilai keupayaannya dengan sewajarnya, menyediakan tempat pekerjaan yang sesuai dan menjalankan pengurusan pekerjaan yang sesuai.” Frasa meletakkan kewajipan sosial seseorang majikan tidak menjadikannya sesuatu yang wajib dan sekali gus membuka ruang kepada majikan untuk tidak mematuhi peruntukan tersebut. Oleh yang demikian, bagaimana seksyen ini hendak memainkan peranan dalam melindungi hak OKU untuk bekerja sedangkan kewajipan majikan hanya sekadar kewajipan sosial. Oleh yang demikian, adalah dicadangkan agar frasa kewajipan sosial perlu diganti dengan suatu frasa yang lebih dilihat mengikat atau memaksa seseorang majikan untuk melaksanakan tanggungjawabnya. Isu ketiga ialah impak atau kesan perlanggaran yang dilakukan terhadap Akta OKU 2008. Akta OKU 2008 hanya menyatakan tanggungjawab dan kewajipan majikan untuk menjaga hak tanpa diikuti dengan kesan atau implikasi kepada kegagalan mematuhi peruntukan-peruntukan yang terdapat dalam akta tersebut. Ketiadaan suatu bentuk hukuman terhadap perlanggaran peruntukan undang-undang dalam akta ini turut mengundang kepada masalah kegagalan akta untuk berfungsi secara berkesan. Jika dirujuk peruntukan undang-undang di United Kingdom (selepas ini disebut UK), hak OKU diberikan perhatian sewajarnya sehinggakan remedi boleh dikenakan kepada pihak-pihak yang melanggar peruntukan undang-undang yang melindungi golongan OKU. Sebagai contoh, seksyen 8 ‘UK Disability Discrimination Act 1995’ menyatakan mana-mana majikan yang melanggar akta ini boleh dihadapkan kepada tribunal perindustrian dan jika didapati bersalah boleh dikenakan denda berbentuk pampasan. Di sini jelas prosedur yang boleh diambil terhadap majikan yang melanggar peruntukan dalam akta tersebut dan sekiranya bersalah majikan hendaklah membayar satu bentuk pampasan kepada pekerja kurang upaya tersebut. Manakala di Australia pula, seksyen 42 ‘Disability Discrimination Act 1992’ memperuntukkan penjara enam bulan kepada mana-mana pihak yang melakukan penindasan sebagaimana diperuntukkan dalam akta tersebut. Hal ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa di UK dan Australia terdapat prosedur dan bentuk hukuman yang jelas kepada sesiapa yang mengingkari peruntukan undang-undang khususnya undang-undang berkaitan OKU. Namun peruntukan sebegini masih belum wujud di Malaysia. Atas dasar itu, cadangan agar peruntukan berkaitan hukuman perlu dimasukkan ke dalam Akta OKU 2008. Hukuman sama ada berbentuk dendaan atau penjara perlu digubal bagi memastikan Akta OKU 2008 dihormati dan diberikan perhatian yang sewajarnya oleh masyarakat.

KESIMPULAN Hak golongan OKU tidak boleh dipandang ringan oleh mana-mana pihak. Mereka tidak diminta lahir dengan kecacatan atau menjadi cacat akibat kemalangan atau sakit. Justeru itu, mereka juga berhak untuk menikmati kehidupan sebagaimana manusia normal yang lain. Mereka tidak meminta belas ihsan tetapi meminta agar hak mereka dihormati dan diberikan sewajarnya. Undang-undang memainkan peranan penting dalam memastikan hak golongan OKU terpelihara. Selain daripada mewujudkan hak bagi golongan OKU, undangundang turut meletakkan tanggungjawab kepada semua pihak agar menghormati dan memenuhi hak yang telah termaktub dalam undang-undang. Golongan OKU turut menginginkan kehidupan yang selesa dan bahagia tanpa perlu meminta bantuan dari mana-mana pihak. Sekiranya mereka diberikan peluang untuk menjalani kehidupan yang sama dengan manusia normal yang lain, mereka mampu berdikari dan menguruskan kehidupan mereka. Justeru itu, undang-undang yang mantap dan bersifat menyeluruh diperlukan bagi memastikan hasrat mereka tercapai. Mereka juga mampu mengubah kehidupan mereka seandainya peluang diberikan kepada mereka. Kewujudan Akta OKU 2008 telah memberikan peluang kepada golongan OKU untuk menikmati hak untuk menjalani kehidupan sama seperti manusia normal yang lain. Walaupun kewujudan Akta OKU 2008 ini masih baru, namun sekurang-kurangnya ia telah membuka mata pihak-pihak yang selama ini tidak menyedari atau sengaja meminggirkan golongan OKU. Persepsi bahawa golongan OKU tidak layak untuk berdikari harus dikikis dan kewujudan undang-undang ini mampu sekurang-kurangnya mengikis tanggapan negatif masyarakat terhadap golongan OKU. Walaubagaimanapun masih terdapat kekurangan di beberapa seksyen © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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dalam Akta OKU 2008 yang sekiranya ditambahbaik dapat membantu memantapkan lagi kemampuannya untuk melindungi hak OKU.

RUJUKAN Abdul Rahman Aziz. (2000). Pekerjaan Dalam Kehidupan Manusia. Selangor: Prentice Hall, Pearson Education Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. Convensyen On The Right Of Person With Disabilities. http://www.un.org/disabilities/default.asp?id=259 Kamal Halili Hassan. (2011). The Rights Of Litigants In Employment Dispute Resolution In Malaysia [2011] 1 LNS(A) xx Laman Sesawang Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat Malaysia, http://www.jkm.gov.my/index.php?option=com_ jdownloads&Itemid=314&task=viewcategory&catid=41&site=2&start=10&lang=ms (akses pada Februari 8, 2012) Lorna Jean Edmonds. (2005). Disabled People And Development. Poverty And Social Development Papers No. 12/June 2005. Poverty Reduction And Social Division Regional And Sustainable Development Department Asian Development Bank. Mohd Rizal Bin Mohd Said & Rosmawati Bt. Sulaiman. (2010). “Faktor-Faktor Yang Mendorong Golongan Orang Kurang Upaya(OKU) Bekerja di JARO(Johor Rehabilation Organisation),” Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 2010. www.eprints.utm.my. (akses pada Februari 26, 2012) Raffaele Monteleone. (2009). Integrated employment policies for disabled person; Organisational innovation between obstacles and opportunities. International Journal Of Sociology And Social Policy, 29(11/12), 649-661. Roe A. (1965). The Psychology Of Occupation. New York: John Willey & Son Texts of Convention No. 159 and Recommendation No. 168 Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons) Convention, 1983 (No. 159) http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/ilc/ ilc86/r-iii1ba.htm diakses pada 1 September 2013. The Universal Declaration Of Human Right 1948. http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ World Health Organisation & World Bank, “Summary World Report On Disability, 2011,” WHO & World Bank, www.who.int/disabilities/world_report/2011/chapter1.pdf ( akses pada September 1, 2012) Zianida Ariffin. (2006). Kerjaya Untuk Orang Kurang Upaya Kuala Lumpur: PTS Professional Publishing Sdn. Bhd.

Akta Akta Orang Kurang Upaya 2008, Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad. American With Disability Act 1990. http://www.ada.gov/ Australia Disability Discrimination Act 1992 http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2013C00022 Perlembagaan Persekutuan Malaysia, Selangor: International Law Book Service. UK Disability Discrimination Act 1995. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1995/50/contents

Kes PP lawan Khong Teng Khen & Anor [1976] 2 MLJ 166

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

SEARCHING FOR GOLD IN A HAYSTACK: THE REALITY OF A VISUALLY IMPAIRED STUDENT IN A HIGHER EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA Mariam Mohamad* & Balakrishnan Muniandy [email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract This study explores the extent of the life of a visually impaired student in a higher education setting in Malaysia. It concentrates to identify the needs that might have been overlooked. The research design of this study is qualitative and based on a single case study methodology. Data collection methods include interviews with the visually impaired student as well as observation during lectures and examinations. The study found out that there is a need for higher education to make some changes in the institutional system so that it would be more disable friendly. It is important to provide assistive technologies such as embosser and screen reader as well as a human reader to support visually impaired learners in learning activities. In addition, there is also a need to improvise the examination system, where the type of questions need to be reviewed so that it would be more suitable for the visually impaired student. The library also needs to add resources that are suitable for visually impaired students such as audio books and e-books. Lecturers also need to be more aware about the needs of these students. Moreover, it would be helpful if the campus area is equipped with a track block to enhance mobility. The study is important to help stakeholders in higher education Malaysia to understand the needs of visually impaired learner in supporting them as a member in higher education. This is in accordance with the vision and philosophy of higher educations in Malaysia in providing education for all. Keywords: visually impaired, SEN learner, Malaysian higher education, assistive technology, inclusive education

INTRODUCTION Special Education Needs Leaner or SEN learner is one of the important stakeholders in higher education. Although they are considered as minority, their existence should not be ignored. They are special students with potential, and need to be supported to achieve their full potential in that they can contribute in the community when they graduated. Types of disability among these SEN learners might vary, from hearing or visually impaired to limited mobility or more severe condition such as cerebral palsy. There are some studies by Malaysian academics in exploring the emerging issues related to SEN learner in Malaysia. There was a suggestion to use emerging technologies such as mobile technology to support SEN learner in Malaysian higher education (Alias, Alias & Ibrahim, 2012). In another study, Alias, Alias & Ibrahim (2013) believed that through mobile technology such as e-book, SEN learner may reap the benefit from the sensory rich interactive to support them in learning activities. On reflection, it is an alternative learning tool which should be considered to support SEN learner. In addition, there was a study in evaluating the condition of the facilities for the SEN learner in Malaysian higher education. It was a surprise revelation when it was Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

concluded from the study that the provisions for the SEN learner in the study are far from sufficient (Aripin & Mahmud, 2010). It is far from the vision of “Inclusive Education for All”, where it is envisioned that Malaysia would provide education for everyone despite of any physical limitation and disabilities (Mohd Jelas & Mohd Ali, 2012). There was also a study which explored peer attitude towards SEN learner in a higher education institution in Malaysia. The study revealed that students in the higher education have positive attitude towards SEN learner, however, their awareness regarding the SEN learner are limited (Toran et al, 2010). This is on the contrary, compared to previous studies by Toran et al, (2009). The findings highlighted that even though there are peer supports in term of mobility and learning activities, there were limited support from friends in different faculties. These studies could be an indication that awareness should be increased to initiate positive attitude towards SEN learner in Malaysian higher education. In this study, concentration is given to the case of visually impaired students. As a SEN learner, challenges for visually impaired students are unique. They do not only face challenges in learning activities, but also in daily activities. As highlighted in a report by The Star, Simrit Kaur (2007) in an article entitled “Are we doing enough: the disable have proven their capabilities by gaining places in public universities.”, visually impaired students in higher education institutions struggled to be independent as possible despite the limitation that they faced. Therefore, this study is conducted to enlighten the issues and to provide additional information about the perspective of current visually impaired student regarding the challenges they faced in daily life in Malaysian higher education. It is envisaged that this study would add value towards understanding the needs of SEN learner in Malaysian higher education.

METHODOLOGY A single case study methodology was employed to explore the reality of how a visually impaired student surviving in a higher education in Malaysia. The research design of this study is qualitative and the data collection methods include interviews as well as observation during lectures and examinations. A personal approach is applied in this study; it is qualitative in nature, so that researchers would be able to dive into the participants’ feeling and emotion. It is interpretivism in that it promotes multiple interpretations in evaluations. It involves qualitative approaches and natural settings with the examination and analysis of text. Being interpretivism, it interprets the data through the lens of the researcher. All this will bring as the researcher’s reality, so the conclusion is the researcher’s reality, but impacted upon by the realities expressed.

Abdul Abdul is an undergraduate student in social science and humanities who is visually impaired since he was 16 years due to glaucoma. He was a bright student and studied in science stream in a boarding school before he lost his vision. Despite of his situation, he is a motivated student and always strive hard in his class. He is also a friendly person, and is considered as a popular student in his cohort. He is diligent, always on time during lectures and always submit his assignment according to deadline. His academic progress is considered as excellent. He is ICT literate. He has knowledge and skills in various kinds of assistive software, including Jaws, Window Eyes, Nvda and Talks. He can read braille. His ambition is to become an editor in a leading publication company.

RESULTS The study found out that there is a need for higher education to make more efforts so that it would be more disable friendly. As highlighted by Abdul in the interview: “I always need to depend on friends to read books or other print out materials so that I can continue with my study. Sometimes I think it would be better if there is a permanent reader, anyone, or maybe a student who is appointed by the university to assist students like me. It is difficult to ask for help from friends all the time because sometimes they also have their own commitments” This indicates that there is a need to at least provide a reader to visually impaired students like Abdul so that they can bring out the best from them, not restricted by the limitation that they have. Appointed reader would be able to provide full assistance, so that SEN learner does not have to depend on empathy and sympathy from friends. Moreover, it was also surprising when Abdul declared that the assistive technology, specifically screen readers © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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that he is using are illegal. These software are important to help him navigate the computer; so that the text output appeared on the monitor can be translated into voice. For student like him, he could not afford to buy the original version. Ironically, he has to utilize the illegal version because there is no provision from any organization, including the university to assist him to get a copy of the software. Abdul tried three types of screen readers; Jaws, Nvda and Window Eyes and all this is not original because of money constraint. As stated by Abdul, each of these screen readers have limitation. Jaws for example, cannot be accessed using the mouse, and therefore keyboard tab is essential all the time. With regard to Nvda, it cannot access slide from the presentation software such as Power Point. Windows Eyes have another limitation; it is prone to become frozen and would be a problem when typing essays or related documents. These are in accordance to the study by Lazer et al (2007) regarding the frustration of visually impaired people in using screen readers. Implying on this, in addition to finding the most suitable and effective screen reader for SEN learner, it is also essential to find a way to provide screen reader to SEN learner. Non-profit organizations as well as the university ought to provide funding for the SEN learner. Private companies can also be encouraged to participate, and in return incentives can be considered for their contribution. In addition to screen readers, there is also a need to restructure the library so that it would be SEN learner friendly. More audio books should be provided as printed books are inaccessible to SEN learner. Embosser is also essential to assist SEN learner to print out the reading materials before being processed by braille machine. These are some of the necessary assistive technology, which should be considered so that the library would become a valuable institution for SEN learner to gain knowledge. Abdul also had a request that it would be very useful to provide a track block for mobility around the campus area. As he stated: “Mobility is also important. I need a track block to guide me moving around, from a place to another. So that I would be able to just follow the track.” Stakeholders in the university also need to have more awareness on how to provide the SEN learner friendly environment. First of all, the lecturers need to be aware of the limitations that these students have. As posited by Abdul: “Sometimes I face some difficulties to read the slides prepared by lecturers. As the screen reader only can translate text to audio, I have difficulty to read graphs, figures because the screen reader cannot read images.” Abdul adds: “One more thing is the Pdf file. Most of the time, there is a restriction when I read a PDF document. There are times when the screen reader gets stuck, and to read the whole paragraph would take a time” The key point established in this statement that lecturers need to bear in mind when preparing learning materials when they teach SEN learner like Abdul. It would be helpful, if they can spend some time to find out which materials are suitable for these learners. One size fit all formula cannot be used when there is a SEN learner in a class. Not only during lectures, for exam purposes, exam questions need to be revised so that exam questions would be suitable for every student including SEN learner. From the observation, it has been found out that Abdul had difficulties answering multiple choice questions (MCQ) when arranged by roman numbers, for example questions with answers; A (I and II), B (I and III), C (I and IV) and D (I, II, III). It is difficult for visually impaired student like Abdul to arrange the array of proposed answers without exactly seeing the proposed answers. It has also been observed that Abdul also faced another challenge during the exam. It is to deal with technical glitches of the screen reader when reading the examination questions. There were times when the screen reader become frozen, and Abdul had to ask for help from the examination assistant to read the examination questions. As the result of these challengers, it had been observed that Abdul was exhausted to continue the examination even though he was given 30 minutes more than other students. When asked, why he did not want to wait until the additional time finish, he answered: “I already feel burned out. I think it is enough just to follow the normal time as other students. I don't want to go through the questions once again. I am really tired.”

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Observation during class revealed that there are significant challenges for Abdul. For example, Abdul has to work harder than his fellow friends when attending lectures. Attending lectures is not a simple affair for him as he has to listen attentively to every word delivered by the lecturers. He also needs to record them before transcribing into study notes for further revision. These are some of the issues highlighted by Abdul and gathered during the observation about the needs of SEN learners in Malaysian higher education. These issues ought to be considered seriously by the relevant stakeholders. Action must be taken toward building a SEN learner friendly institution. This would be in accordance with the vision of the Malaysia Ministry of Education to provide education for all.

DISCUSSION, SUGGESTION AND CONCLUSION One of the basic tenet and foundation of educational psychology is that there are individual differences between learners. Each and every other learner is a unique being with a unique learning style. This uniqueness must be respected and adhered to by all, specifically those involved in all aspects of delivering instruction. This uniqueness are even more seriously considered when they are those who have disability in learning. In the inclusive nature of education, students with disabilities must also be considered when planning for instructional practices. This includes the use of appropriate computer resources and other learning infrastructures. In this study, although one individual is involved, we can learn from the participant’s experiences on how we can facilitate learning environments that are suitable. In this study, Abdul’s experiences have suggested a number of findings. In the first place we need to ensure that the facilities and the resources we plan must be suitable for all our students. In the case of Abdul we need to ensure that we care for his learning. Thus we need to ensure the assistive technology they use is authentic and suitable. We also need to prepare volunteer readers who can help them. Additionally, we need to put ourselves in the place of the students with disabilities when planning for the suitable learning environment. We need to make sure that no student is left behind in the pursuit of education. Besides the processes of teaching, we also need to ensure that the students with disabilities are made to be comfortable during the examination. Students with disabilities often feel challenged during the examination and this need to be looked into. As a concluding remark, we need to ensure that all students are given the appropriate treatment based on their needs in the teaching-learning processes. This is even more serious when the students have a variety of disabilities. This is just a preliminary study involving just one student, Abdul. It is also suggested that more studies of similar nature are carried out in the future so that we as educators become of considerate, emphatic and caring parallel to the vision of the Malaysia Ministry of Education to provide education for all.

REFERENCES Alias, R. , Alias, N.A., Ibrahim, A.B. (2012) Mobile technology for special educational needs (SEN) in Malaysian Higher Education, 1st International Conference on Mobile Learning, Applications, and Services (mobilcase2012), Univerisiti Teknikal Melaka (UTeM), Main Campus, Durian Tunggal, Melaka, 18-20 September 2012. Alias, R. , Alias, N.A., Ibrahim, A.B., Jalaluddin, J. (2013). Proposed Technology Solutions for Special Educational Needs (SEN) Learners: Towards Inclusive Education in Malaysian Universities. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 3(2), April 2013. Aripin, R., Mahmud, Z. (2010). Facilities and Accessibility for the Disabled at Institutions of Higher Learning in Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Sport Science and Recreation, 6(2), 13-24. Lazar, J., Allen, A., Kleinman, J., Malarkey, C. (2007) What frustrates screen reader users on the web: A study of 100 Blind Users. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 22(3), 247-269. Mohd Jelas, Z., Mohd Ali, M. (2012) Inclusive education in Malaysia: policy and practice. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 1(13). Simrit Kaur (2007) The Star, Simrit Kaur (2007) Are we doing enough : the disable have proven their capabilities by gaining places in public universities. (Call Number: H 2007 8) Toran, H. , Mohd Yasin, M.H., Tahar, M.M., Sujak, N. (2009). Sokongan dan Halangan yang Dihadapi Pelajarpelajar Kurang Upaya di Institusi Pengajian Tinggi di Malaysia, Asean Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 1(2). Toran, H., Muhamad, T.A. Mohd Yasin, M.H., Tahar, M.M., Hamzah, N.H. (2010) Pengetahuan dan sikap rakan sebaya terhadap pelajar kurang upaya di sebuah IPTA di Malaysia, AJTLHE: ASEAN Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 2 (2). pp. 22-34. ISSN 1985-5826

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SOCIAL INCLUSION FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES IN MALAYSIA THROUGH SUPPORTED EMPLOYMENT – AN INTRODUCTION TO JOB COACH PROGRAMME Pathmanathan A/L R. Nalasamy* *[email protected] Department of Social Welfare Malaysia

Abstract Equal opportunity in employment for persons with disabilities is still being a challenge although the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) has been ratified by Malaysia since 19 July 2010. Job Coach has been introduced to enable social inclusion for persons with disabilities (PWDs) through supported employment. Job Coach provides support for PWDs and their employers. Job Coaches are the key personnel of Supported Employment. They provide individualized support for persons with disabilities from preemployment preparation stage right up to the follow-up stage during employment. This article will discover more about the situation of PWDs in Malaysia in general and special focus on the role of Job Coach in creating social inclusion for PWDs. Keywords: supported employment, job joach

INTRODUCTION For the past two decades, issues relating to persons with disabilities (PWDs) have experienced a paradigm shift, from the charity-based to rights-based approach. Malaysia has moved in line with this paradigm shift and has taken various steps and initiatives to promote equal opportunities and full participation of PWDs to be mainstreamed into the national development agenda. Persons with disabilities (PWDs) need to be independent. For this, they need to be empowered. Not all PWDs obtained an opportunity to be empowered due to many social and economical problems. PWDs remain disproportionately undereducated, untrained, unemployed, underemployed and poor because of insufficient access to the mainstream labour market partially due to social exclusion, lack of trained and competent staff and adequate training for independent workers (UNDP, 2007). Equal opportunity in education and employment for persons with disabilities are still being a challenge although the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) has already been ratified by Malaysia. PWDs need some kind of basic support before and during employment process. A systematic Supported Employment (SE) for PWDs vital in developing their capability and capacity. It will help the PWDs to be independent and enable to do special task that assigned to them. SE in Malaysia implemented systematically after 2005 when Job Coach has been introduced. Job Coach is an Employment Support Services for Persons with Disabilities. The Government has formed strategic partnership with Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) to introduce employment support services for persons with disabilities including “Job Coach” programme under the Project to Support Participation of persons with disabilities in the year 2008. This program has made transfer of knowledge between ASEAN countries and Asia Pacific Region.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

ANALYSIS OF DATA Ministry of Women, Family and Community through Department of Social Welfare (DSW) Malaysia has been instrumental in the development and well-being of the persons with disabilities in Malaysia. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 10-15 % of the world populations are persons with disabilities. In Malaysia, the statistics up to February 2014 shows a total of 498,906 persons with disabilities have been registered with the DSW, which is about 1.6 % of the total population. Of these, it was found that the majority of persons with disabilities those registered with the department are from the category of learning disabilities. Table 1, indicates the number persons with disabilities based on category. Table 1 : Registered Number of Persons With Disabilities Based on Category (Feb 2014)

No.

Category of Disability

Number of PWDs

Percentage (%)

1

Learning disabilities

180,067

36.09

2

Physical disabilities

163,809

32.83

3

Hearing disabilities

59,161

11.86

4

Visually Impaired

46,875

9.40

5

Mental disabilities

20,492

4.11

6

Speech disabilities

3,717

0.75

7

Multiple disabilities

24,785

4.97

498,906

100.00

Total Source: Department of Social Welfare, Malaysia

Meanwhile, Department of Social Welfare (DSW) also has implemented an Information Management Systems for Persons with Disabilities called Sistem Maklumat Orang Kurang Upaya or SMOKU since 2011. Under this system, DSW has registered and issued persons with disabilities cards for a total of 292,417 as of 6th June 2014. In DSW’s view, this figure is certainly much lower than expected because there are many more persons with disabilities who are not registered. As registration is voluntary, it is not reflective of the real numbers in the country. Table 2: Registered Number of Persons with Disabilities Based on Category as of 6th June 2014

No

Category of Disability

Number of PWDs

Percentage (%)

1

Learning disabilities

106,709

36.49

2

Physical disabilities

97,974

33.50

3

Hearing disabilities

25,328

8.66

4

Visually Impaired

25,904

8.86

5

Mental disabilities

21,782

7.45

6

Speech disabilities

1,386

0.47

7

Multiple disabilities

13,334

4.56

292,417

100.00

Total Source: SMOKU (Department of Social Welfare, Malaysia

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Table 3: Registered Number of Adult Persons with Disabilities Based on Category as of 6th June 2014

No

Category of Disability

Number of PWDs

Percentage (%)

1

Learning disabilities

44,122

21.52

2

Physical disabilities

86,575

42.22

3

Hearing disabilities

20,627

10.06

4

Visually Impaired

22,833

11.14

5

Mental disabilities

21,648

10.56

6

Speech disabilities

817

0.40

7

Multiple disabilities

8412

4.10

205,034

100.00

Total Source: SMOKU (Department of Social Welfare, Malaysia)

RESULTS Table 2, shows that persons with disabilities those have registered in SMOKU system. It is clear to us that the category of learning disabilities is the largest group. This is because number of students enrolled in special education classes increased significantly. In Table 3, it shows the registration of adult PWDs who were enrolled in SMOKU system. Almost 70% of the registered PWDs are adult those need employment to be productive. A pattern change has occurred in adult PWDs. The majority are from physical disabilities which comprising a total of 86,576 PWDs (42.22%). This shows that more needs to be done for PWDs with physical disabilities and learning difficulties to participate in the job market. Thus, supported employment through Job Coach is very important to be systematically implemented in Malaysia to help the PWDs.

JOB COACH Job Coach is a key player in Supported Employment (Ogawa, 2012). Job Coaching refers to training and related support given to disabled employees by job coaches to help them learn and perform job tasks as well as interpersonal skills necessary to be accepted as workers and to enable them stay on their employment. Job Coaches also help employers and other employees in understanding disabilities and the needs of disabled employees. The role of Job Coach is to be a bridge or intermediary to connect PWDs and companies by providing support for both throughout the process of employment (Ogawa, 2012). Job Coaching for people with disabilities and Supported Employment services can include: • • • • • • • • •

Clarification of career goals Assistance with completing job applications, interviews, understanding benefit packages Preparing a resume and helping to develop, obtain and maintain a job Travel training Job site training and advocacy Intensive training on specific work tasks Developing effective communication and proper workplace behaviour/dress code Acting as a liaison between work supervisors and co-workers On and off-site support available

Source: http://www.viscardicenter.org

This concludes that a Job Coach become a mediator between PWDs and Employer. They need to deeply understand and strategically plan an individual employment programme for PWDs. The initial part of the Malaysia (DSW) – JICA project (2005 to 2008) was focused on capacity building and raising awareness on supported employment and job coaching. Personnel from government, NGOs as well as private sectors were sent to Japan under the sponsorship of JICA to be trained as job coaches. Table 4, indicates that as of 2013, total of 29 personnel have been trained as Job Coach Trainers in Japan from various organizations.

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Table 4: Job Coach Trained in Japan from Various Organizations

Organisation

Trained Job Coach

Department of Social Welfare

9

Social Security Organization

6

Department of Labour

1

Hospital Permai (Mental Health Hospital)

1

Various NGO

9

GCH Retail

1

InterContinental Hotel

1

OMRON

1

Total

29

Source: Department of Social Welfare

In addition, 90 social welfare officers were also trained locally by Job Coaches, those trained in Japan. The train on trainers (TOT) programme usually conducted jointly by Job Coach Network Malaysia, JICA and DSW. Experts from Japan also frequently fly down to carry out training and awareness programmes on Job Coaching in Malaysia. In 2012, the DSW – JICA project aims for at least one Job Coach in every parliamentary constituency. Currently we have 222 parliamentary constituencies. The implementation of Job Coach Programme has shown significant improvement in retaining PWDs in work place. Table 5, shows total of 164 PWDs from various categories have been benefited through Job Coach Programme. Table 5: PWDs Employed by Job Coach Support (March 2012 – March 2014)

Category of PWDs

No. of Trained PWDs

Learning Disabilities

90

Visually Impaired

64

Physical Disabilities

5

Hearing Disabilities

6

Total

164

Source: Department of Social Welfare

Involvement of private organisation in employing PWDs seems to be very encouraging in past year. Thus Job Coach Programme will be considered as an important tool in the process of social inclusion for PWDs in Malaysia. Private organizations’ human resources department need to be enlightened to hire more PWDs in their organization. For that, DWS and JICA have conducted training for private companies. By March 2014, 21 companies have been involved with 170 staff attended Job Coach Training and Disability Equality Training (DET). Remarkably all these companies have recruited 722 PWDs in various positions.

DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTION Work and employment is a basic right. However, work and employment is among one of the major challenges faced by the PWDs. Due to their disabilities, lack of training opportunities and lack of accessibility to the built environment including public transportation, many PWDs are unable to find work and employment in the open labour market. The Government of Malaysia has taken several initiatives to address this issue. Among which is the introduction of a Policy on 1% Job Opportunity in the Public Sector for PWDs which came into force on 1 April 2008. This Policy is further enhanced in 2010 to include affirmative action so as to ensure the effective implementation of the Policy. In the private sector, the Department of Labour under the Ministry of Human Resources Malaysia has introduced an online job registration and job matching known as Sistem Penempatan Orang Kurang Upaya (SPOKU). The System allows job matching of the right candidates (among PWDs) with the right job. Job Coach should be constantly improved and simplified so that PWDs are able to use Job Coach Service as an alternative to obtain a job. Job Coach as one of the main components of the Supported Employment should © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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also be given support and attention by all parties, including the government. The government, through DSW, Department of Labour and SOCSO should ensure expertise to train new and available Job Coach. The DSW – JICA Project will come to an end by 2015. Are we ready to take the lead to conduct Job Coach by 2015? Job Coach allocated allowances of RM15 per hour with a maximum of 60 hours or RM900 for every PWD. The researcher felt that every 5 years the rate has to be reviewed to ensure that Job Coach always eager and able to serve. Job Coach those serving as part-time are quite challenging to provide effective services. Maybe it is time the government need to consider to appoint permanent Job Coach to enable better and effective services. However, Job Coach’s appointment should be made carefully to make sure only those professionally equipped with knowledge on the requirements, capability, welfare and rights of PWDs are appointed. We should also seriously consider planning a long term strategy before the DSW – JICA Project comes to an end.

CONCLUSION In ensuring sustainability in the work force, the Government through the National Action Plan for PWDs, has introduced a programme known as “job coaching” as one of the employment support service. The Government also conducts Disability Equality Training (DET) which aims to promote an understanding of disability from social model perspective as well as to identify the barriers in the society and facilitates proactive measures towards removing these barriers. Smart partnership between the government agencies and NGOs is crucial in implementing Supported Employment successfully. In addition, the government need to encourage the NGOs to play a more active role in advocacy and reaching out to people. The NGOs are able to reach out to the community as they have networking, manpower and expertise. The government in return may provide the necessary funding to support and encourage NGOs in their efforts and programmes. The involvement of NGOs is also vital in policy development. Hence, implementing agencies should engage and include persons with disabilities in planning, developing and implementing policies and programs for persons with disabilities. Ultimately, as end users and considering the diversity of persons with disabilities, it is important that they are involved in the process.

REFERENCES Job Coaching and Supported Employment. (2014). Accessed on 8 June 2014 from http://www.viscardicenter. org/services/job-coaching-support-employment.html: Ogawa, Horoshi. (2004). Job Coach Nyumon (Introduction to Job Coach : For the Employment of Persons with Disabilities. Tokyo: Tsutsui-Syobo. Ogawa, H., Sakai, D., Yeo S.L., & Kuno, K. (2012). Job Coach Promoting Sustainable Employment of Persons with Disabilities. Kuala Lumpur: MPH Group. United Nations Development Programme. (2007). Encouraging increased participation by Persons with Disabilities in the workforce in the State of Johor, Malaysia.

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2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

ORANG KELAINAN UPAYA MENURUT PERSPEKTIF ISLAM: SATU KEFAHAMAN UNTUK KAUNSELOR Azzahrah Anuar [email protected] Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

Abstrak Orang kelainan upaya (OKU) merupakan kumpulan minoriti yang sering dilabel oleh sesetengah ahli masyarakat. Salah satu faktor yang boleh mempengaruhi sikap ahli masyarakat terhadap individu kelainan upaya adalah faktor agama, budaya atau kepercayaan masing-masing. Artikel ini akan mengupas kefahaman asas tentang hak dan tanggungjawab terhadap orang kelainan upaya (OKU) menurut perspektif Islam berdasarkan ajaran al-Quran dan sunnah dan hasil penulisan ahli cendiakawan atau ahli akademik Islam. Kesedaran tentang orang kelainan upaya dari sudut Islam adalah penting bagi kaunselor yang bekerja dengan klien OKU beragama Islam dan kefahaman ini merupakan ilmu tambahan bagi kaunselor yang terlibat dengan golongan OKU ini. Keywords: orang kelainan upaya (OKU), Islam

PENGENALAN Islam mempunyai perspektif yang universal dalam isu yang melibatkan golongan kelainan upaya. Antara intipati khutbah terakhir yang disampaikan oleh Rasulullah s.a.w ialah baginda menyatakan, “Wahai Manusia, dengarlah baik-baik kata-kataku ini, sembahlah Allah, dirikanlah solat lima kali sehari, berpuasalah di bulan Ramadhan, dan tunaikanlah zakat dari harta kamu. Kerjakanlah ibadah haji sekiranya kamu mampu. Ketahuilah bahawa setiap yang beragama Islam adalah bersaudara. Kamu semua adalah sama; tidak seorang pun yang lebih mulia dari yang lainnya kecuali atas dasar taqwa dan amal soleh”. Islam tidak membenarkan sama sekali amalan diskriminasi terhadap orang lain atas dasar latar belakang mereka termasuk jantina, bangsa, status pendidikan, status sosioekonomi dan paras rupa dan bentuk fizikal dan apa sahaja aspek yang boleh mendorong kepada penindasan individu atau kumpulan tertentu seperti yang ditegaskan dalam Hadis Riwayat Muslim "Seorang Muslim adalah bersaudara dengan seorang Muslim yang lain. Janganlah kamu menzaliminya, jangan pula menghinanya dan juga jangan merendahkan mereka”. Islam juga mempunyai konsep kepelbagaian (diversity) supaya perbezaan yang wujud sesama manusia dilihat sebagai cara untuk melengkapi antara satu sama lain seperti yang dinyatakan dalam Surah al-Maaidah (5:48), “Dan Kami turunkan kepadamu (wahai Muhammad) Kitab (Al-Quran) dengan membawa kebenaran, untuk mengesahkan benarnya Kitab-kitab Suci yang telah diturunkan sebelumnya dan untuk memelihara serta mengawasinya. Maka jalankanlah hukum di antara mereka (Ahli Kitab) itu dengan apa yang telah diturunkan oleh Allah (kepadamu), dan janganlah engkau mengikut kehendak hawa nafsu mereka (dengan menyeleweng) dari apa yang telah datang kepadamu dari kebenaran. Bagi tiap-tiap umat yang ada di antara kamu, Kami jadikan (tetapkan) suatu Syariat dan jalan agama (yang wajib diikuti oleh masing-masing). Dan kalau Allah mengkehendaki nescaya Ia menjadikan kamu satu umat (yang bersatu dalam agama yang satu), tetapi Ia hendak menguji kamu (dalam menjalankan) apa yang telah disampaikan kepada kamu. Oleh itu berlumbalumbalah kamu membuat kebaikan (beriman dan beramal soleh). Kepada Allah jualah tempat kembali kamu semuanya, maka Ia akan memberitahu kamu apa yang kamu berselisihan padanya”.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

HAK DAN TANGGUNGJAWAB TERHADAP ORANG KELAINAN UPAYA (OKU) Tanggungjawab melindungi orang kelainan upaya harus dipikul oleh semua ahli masyarakat. Dalam Islam, konsep ihsan perlu diaplikasikan dalam interaksi dengan golongan OKU. “Sesungguhnya Allah telah mewajibkan berbuat ihsan atas segala sesuatu” (Hadis Riwayat Muslim). Berdasarkan hadis tersebut, ihsan kepada orang lain dilakukan dengan memberi layanan dengan penuh kasih sayang sehingga mereka merasa dekat dengan Allah Talla dan hadis ini juga merangkumi layanan terhadap orang kelainan upaya. Ketidakupayaan tidak seharusnya dilihat sebagai satu bebanan atau halangan untuk melindungi golongan OKU tetapi ianya merupakan satu ujian yang Allah Taala berikan kepada hambaNya dan barangsiapa yang melalui ujian tersebut dengan penuh kesabaran akan diberikan ganjaran yang tinggi di sisi Allah Taala seperti yang dinyatakan dalam Surah Asy-Syarh (94:5-6) iaitu “ Oleh itu, maka (tetapkanlah kepercayaanmu) bahawa sesungguhnya tiap-tiap kesukaran disertai kemudahan. (Sekali lagi ditegaskan): bahawa sesungguhnya tiap-tiap kesukaran disertai kemudahan”. Rasulullah s.a.w pernah mendapat teguran daripada Allah Taala melalui Surah Abasa (80:1-11) iaitu, “Ia memasamkan muka dan berpaling. Kerana ia didatangi orang buta. Dan apa jalannya engkau dapat mengetahui (tujuannya, wahai Muhammad)? Barangkali ia mahu membersihkan hatinya (dengan pelajaran agama yang didapatinya daripadamu)! Ataupun ia mahu mendapat peringatan, supaya peringatan itu memberi manfaat kepadanya. Adapun orang yang merasa keadaannya telah cukup, tidak berhajat lagi (kepada ajaran Al-Quran), Maka engkau bersungguh-sungguh melayaninya. Padahal engkau tidak bersalah kalau ia tidak mahu membersihkan dirinya (dari keingkarannya). Adapun orang yang segera datang kepadamu, Dengan perasaan takutnya (melanggar perintah-perintah Allah), Maka engkau berlengah-lengah melayaninya. Janganlah melakukan lagi yang sedemikian itu! Sebenarnya ayat-ayat Al-Quran adalah pengajaran dan peringatan (yang mencukupi)”. Ayat ini telah diturunkan setelah Baginda tidak memberikan maklum balas apabila diminta oleh Abdullah Ummi Maktum yang cacat penglihatan untuk diajarkan ilmu agama kepada beliau semasa Baginda berdakwah dengan pembesar Quraisy yang terdiri daripada golongan kelas atasan. Melalui peristiwa ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa golongan OKU berhak mendapat akses bukan sahaja dalam urusan agama tetapi juga dalam aspek kehidupan yang lain. Allah Taala menyeru agar mencontohi amalan Rasulullah s.a.w dalam melayani orang kelainan upaya. Sebelum kedatangan Islam, penduduk Madinah sering meminggirkan orang kelainan upaya dan yang berpenyakit dan tidak mahu berkongsi makanan kerana rasa jijik terhadap kumpulan ini. Keadaan berubah apabila Islam mulai menyinari Madinah. Saiditina Aishah r.a. menyatakan golongan OKU dan yang mempunyai penyakit telah diberikan perlindungan semasa penduduk Islam yang lain keluar untuk menyertai peperangan bersama Rasulullah s.a.w (Zulkifli Mohd Yusoff & Muhammad Mukhlis, 2012) dan disebut dalam Surah An-Nur (24:61) di mana Allah Taala berfirman telah berfirman, “Tidak ada salahnya bagi orang buta, dan tidak ada salahnya bagi orang tempang, dan tidak ada salahnya bagi orang sakit (jika masing-masing tidak menjalankan sesuatu perintah disebabkan keuzurannya menghendaki ia berlaku demikian), dan juga tidak ada salah bagi kamu (termasuk orang-orang yang tersebut turut sama) makan di rumah kamu sendiri, atau di rumah bapa kamu, atau di rumah ibu kamu, atau di rumah saudara kamu yang lelaki, atau di rumah saudara kamu yang perempuan, atau di rumah bapa saudara kamu (sebelah bapa), atau di rumah emak saudara kamu (sebelah bapa), atau di rumah bapa saudara kamu (sebelah ibu), atau di rumah emak saudara kamu (sebelah ibu), atau di rumah yang kamu kuasai kuncinya, atau di rumah sahabat kamu; tidak juga menjadi salah bagi kamu, makan bersama-sama atau berasing-asing. Maka apabila kamu masuk ke mana-mana rumah, hendaklah kamu memberi salam kepada (sesiapa yang seperti) kamu dengan memohon kepada Allah cara hidup yang berkat lagi baik. Demikianlah Allah menerangkan ayat-ayat (yang menjelaskan hukum-hukumNya), supaya kamu memahaminya.” Individu kelainan upaya mempunyai hak untuk dinilai kerana kelebihan dan potensi mereka dan bukan kerana ketidakupayaan yang mereka alami. Rasulullah s.a.w juga telah mengiktiraf kelebihan-kelebihan sahabat Baginda yang kelainan upaya. Abdullah Ummi Maktum merupakan penduduk Mekah yang awal memeluk Islam. Abdullah Ummi Maktum bersama dengan Mus’ab Ibn Umair menjadi golongan sahabat yang pertama berhijrah di Madinah dan diberikan tanggungjawab yang besar dalam urusan dakwah di Madinah oleh Rasulullah s.a.w. Beliau juga telah dilantik oleh Baginda menjadi muazzin selain daripada Bilal bin Rabah r.a.. Beliau menyertai peperangan al-Qaadisiyyah untuk memerangi kekejaman Byzantine di bawah pimpinan Saidina Umar al-Khattab r.a. selepas Rasulullah s.a.w wafat. Selain itu, terdapat tokoh-tokoh OKU lain yang dicatatkan dalam sejarah Islam. Ini menunjukkan bahawa sudah wujud kesedaran tentang OKU semenjak dari zaman Rasulullah s.a.w dan selepas kewafatan Baginda. Ata’ ibn Abu Rabah yang mengalami ketidakupayaan fizikal mempelajari agama daripada sahabat Rasulullah s.a.w dan akhirnya beliau menjadi tokoh ilmuan dan dilantik menjadi mufti Mekah dan perlantikan ini diiktiraf oleh Khalifah Malik ibn Marwan. Nusaibah binti Ka’ab merupakan seorang pahlawan wanita yang terlibat dalam perang Uhud, Yunain dan Hamamah dan telah kehilangan lengannya serta menyaksikan Perjanjian Aqabah yang diketuai oleh Rasulullah s.a.w. Beliau © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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merupakan tokoh wanita OKU yang penting dalam sejarah kehidupan Rasulullah s.a.w. Golongan OKU harus diberi keyakinan bahawa mereka juga boleh menjalani kehidupan seperti individu yang lain seperti membina hubungan sosial supaya mereka tidak merasa dipinggirkan oleh kumpulan majoriti. Seorang sahabat Rasulullah bernama Julaybib r.a. bersaiz genit dan sering menjadi mangsa cemuhan penduduk di Madinah kerana paras rupanya yang buruk. Sebaliknya, Rasulullah s.a.w menemui Julaybib dan menjodohkan beliau dengan seorang wanita Ansar yang cantik. Kebijaksanaan Baginda dalam berdakwah telah menyebabkan isteri Julaybib r.a. bersedia untuk menerima Julaybib r.a. sebagai teman hidupnya kerana beliau percaya nilai keimanan kepada Allah Taala adalah lebih penting daripada aspek kehidupan yang lain. Islam melarang penganutnya menghina atau menjatuhkan maruah orang lain dengan label-label yang negatif dan hal ini telah diberi penegasan dalam Surah Al-Hujurat (49:11) iaitu, “Wahai orang-orang yang beriman! Janganlah sesuatu puak (dari kaum lelaki) mencemuh dan merendah-rendahkan puak lelaki yang lain, (kerana) harus puak yang dicemuhkan itu lebih baik daripada mereka; dan janganlah pula sesuatu puak dari kaum perempuan mencemuh dan merendah-rendahkan puak perempuan yang lain, (kerana) harus puak yang dicemuhkan itu lebih baik daripada mereka; dan janganlah setengah kamu menyatakan keaiban setengahnya yang lain; dan janganlah pula kamu panggil-memanggil antara satu dengan yang lain dengan gelaran yang buruk. (Larangan-larangan yang tersebut menyebabkan orang yang melakukannya menjadi fasik, maka) amatlah buruknya sebutan nama fasik (kepada seseorang) sesudah ia beriman. Dan (ingatlah), sesiapa yang tidak bertaubat (daripada perbuatan fasiknya) maka merekalah orang-orang yang zalim”. Bagi individu kelainan upaya yang beragama Islam, mereka perlu diberi peringatan dan dibimbing supaya sentiasa patuh kepada ajaran Allah Taala dan melaksanakan ibadah yang diwajibkan kepada mereka meskipun mereka mempunyai ketidakupayaan. Islam merupakan agama yang menekankan toleransi dan ajaran Islam adalah sesuai dengan kemampuan manusia seperti yang dinyatakan dalam Surah al-Taghabun (64:16) Allah Taala telah berfirman, "Oleh itu bertaqwalah kamu kepada Allah sedaya upaya kamu" dan Allah Taala juga berfirman dalam Surah al-Baqarah (2:286), "Allah tidak mempertanggungjawabkan seseorang melainkan apa yang terdaya olehnya". Sekiranya ibadah yang wajib dilakukan tidak dapat dilaksanakan kerana ketidakupayaan yang dialami, terdapat mekanisme atau kaedah alternatif untuk memudahkan individu tersebut menjalani ibadah dengan sempurna. Sebagai contoh, dalam solat fardhu, seseorang boleh solat dalam keadaan duduk atau berbaring sekiranya tidak mempunyai keupayaan berdiri. Perkara ini dijelaskan oleh Rasulullah s.a.w, "Solatlah dengan berdiri. Jika tidak mampu maka dengan duduk. Jika tidak mampu maka dengan baring mengiring" (Hadis riwayat al-Imam al-Bukhari). Allah Taala memberi peringatan agar memberi keringanan dan memudahkan urusan individu kelainan upaya. Allah Taala berfirman dalam Surah Al-Fath (48:17), “Tidaklah menjadi salah kepada orang buta, dan tidaklah menjadi salah kepada orang tempang, dan tidaklah menjadi salah kepada orang sakit (tidak turut berperang, kerana masing-masing ada uzurnya). Dan (ingatlah), sesiapa yang taat kepada Allah dan RasulNya, akan dimasukkanNya ke dalam Syurga yang mengalir di bawahnya beberapa sungai, dan sesiapa yang berpaling ingkar, akan diseksaNya dengan azab yang tidak terperi sakitnya”. Allah Taala menyamakan kedudukan seorang yang kelainan upaya yang mahu berjuang ke jalan Allah tetapi tidak dapat melakukannya kerana ketidakupayaannya dengan individu lain yang mempunyai niat yang sama seperti yang dijelaskan dalam Surah An-Nisaak (4:95), “Tidaklah sama keadaan orang-orang yang duduk (tidak turut berperang) dari kalangan orang-orang yang beriman selain daripada orang-orang yang ada keuzuran dengan orang-orang yang berjihad (berjuang) pada jalan Allah (untuk membela Islam) dengan harta dan jiwanya. Allah melebihkan orang-orang yang berjuang dengan harta benda dan jiwa mereka atas orangorang yang tinggal duduk (tidak turut berperang kerana uzur) dengan kelebihan satu darjat. Dan tiap-tiap satu (dari dua golongan itu) Allah menjanjikan dengan balasan yang baik (Syurga), dan Allah melebihkan orangorang yang berjuang atas orang-orang yang tinggal duduk (tidak turut berperang dan tidak ada sesuatu uzur) dengan pahala yang amat besar”. Ayat ini diturunkan apabila Abdullah bin Jahsy dan Abdullah Ummi Maktum mengajukan soalan kepada Rasulullah s.a.w tentang rukhsah (kemudahan) yang diberikan kepada mereka yang cacat penglihatan dalam menghadapi perang Badar (Zulkifli Mohd Yusoff & Muhammad Mukhlis, 2012). Bantuan dan sokongan kepada golongan OKU perlu diperkasakan demi memastikan kelangsungan kebajikan OKU ini terpelihara dan tidak terabai. Rasulullah s.a.w dikenali dengan sifat prihatin terhadap situasi orang kelainan upaya dalam kehidupan Baginda. Baginda pernah didatangi oleh seorang wanita yang menghidapi sawan dan aurat beliau sering terdedah akibat daripada penyakit tersebut dan Baginda telah memberi katakata semangat dan mendoakan agar Allah Taala menyembuhkan penyakit wanita tersebut. Baginda juga pernah menziarahi seorang pemuda Ansar yang buta bernama Etban ibn Malik setelah beliau membuat permintaan supaya Rasulullah s.a.w menunaikan solat di rumah beliau dan akhirnya beliau mendapat inspirasi untuk menjadikan tempat kediaman beliau sebagai masjid untuk memudahkan beliau dalam melaksanakan tanggungjawabnya terhadap Allah Taala. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Usaha membantu golongan OKU diteruskan selepas kewafatan Rasulullah s.a.w, Khalifah Umar ibn Abdul Aziz mengarahkan pembancian dilakukan untuk mendapatkan senarai individu kelainan upaya dan beliau melantik beberapa pekerja untuk menjaga kebajikan kumpulan ini. Khalifah al-Waleed Ibn Abdul Malik telah membina sebuah pusat penjagaan untuk OKU (Tafsir Ibn Kathir). Golongan OKU juga layak menerima zakat bagi meringankan beban mereka. Menurut Multaqa Asatizah dan Du’at atau Himpunan Para Ustaz dan Pendakwah yang dikenali sebagai Murshid yang dipengerusikan oleh Dr. Zaharuddin Abdul Rahman telah mengklasifikasi OKU kepada tiga kategori dalam aspek pembahagian zakat iaitu golongan OKU sebagai asnaf fakir miskin, asnaf fi sabilillah dan asnaf al-riqab. OKU yang dikategorikan sebagai asnaf fakir miskin adalah golongan yang tidak mempunyai keupayaan untuk bekerja dan mencari pendapatan serta tidak mempunyai saudara yang boleh membantu menyara hidup mereka. Bagi kategori asnaf fi sabilillah, golongan OKU berhak menerima zakat kerana limitasi dan cabaran yang dilalui oleh mereka khususnya dalam memperolehi pendidikan agama. Golongan OKU boleh mendapat perlindungan di pusatpusat jagaan dan institusi pendidikan di bawah kategori ini. Golongan OKU di bawah kategori asnaf riqab adalah individu beragama Islam yang layak menerima zakat kerana penindasan oleh kumpulan majoriti dan situasi kehidupan mereka yang tidak terbela kerana tidak mempunyai penjaga yang boleh melindungi hak mereka.

PERBINCANGAN DAN KESIMPULAN Kaunselor perlu mempunyai pengetahuan tentang orang kelainan upaya dengan mempelajari sumbangan OKU dalam sejarah Islam. Kaunselor seharusnya mempunyai minda yang terbuka dalam isu-isu berkaitan OKU dan perlu menggunakan kreativiti dan berfikiran analitikal bagi memahami keadaan, keperluan dan permasalahan OKU. Dengan menghayati pendekatan yang digunakan oleh Rasulullah s.a.w dalam member layanan dan berinteraksi dengan OKU, kaunselor dapat menggabungkan ilmu pengetahuan kaunseling dan konsep agama dalam proses kaunseling dengan OKU. Dalam kaunseling pemulihan untuk OKU, proses pencarian makna kehidupan merupakan aspek penting kerana kehidupan mereka yang serba kekurangan sama ada daripada aspek fizikal atau mental dan terpaksa menghadapi tanggapan negatif ahli masyarakat. Pendekatan agama atau spiritual merupakan medium yang boleh membantu OKU untuk menerima realiti, menyesuaikan diri dengan kehidupan sebagai OKU serta menanamkan sifat positif pada diri mereka. Kaunselor yang membantu golongan OKU boleh dianggap melakukan satu usaha jihad (Murshid, 2011). Kaunselor hendaklah sentiasa berusaha untuk meningkatkan kesedaran dan keprihatinan terhadap OKU di kalangan ahli masyarakat kerana menghormati martabat keinsanan dan manusia adalah sumber hak asasi seperti yang dijelaskan dalam Surah Al-Isra’ (17:70), Allah Taala berfirman, “Dan sesungguhnya Kami telah memuliakan anak-anak Adam; dan Kami telah beri mereka menggunakan berbagai-bagai kenderaan di darat dan di laut; dan Kami telah memberikan rezeki kepada mereka dari benda-benda yang baik-baik serta Kami telah lebihkan mereka dengan selebih-lebihnya atas banyak makhluk-makhluk yang telah Kami ciptakan”.

RUJUKAN Equallyable Foundation (2013). Disability in Islam. Dimuat turun pada 5 April 2014 daripada http://www. equallyable.org/ Hasnain, R, Shaikh, L. C., & Shanawani, Hasan (2008). Disability and the Muslim perspective: An introduction for rehabilitation and health care providers. CIRRIE: USA. Multaqa Asatizah dan Du’at (2011). Pendirian Murshid berkenaan zakat untuk OKU. Surah.My (2014). Terjemahan Al-Quran bahasa Melayu. Dimuat turun pada 13 Mei 2014 daripada http://www. surah.my The Islamic Workplace (2012). Disabled and physically impaired muslims. Dimuat turun pada 5 April 2014 daripada http://theislamicworkplace.com/disability-and-islam/ Yusoff, Z. M., & Mukhlis, M. (2012). Asbabun nuzul: Sebab-sebab turunnya ayat al-quran. PTS Darul Furqan Sdn. Bhd.: Selangor.

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SECTION VII

SOCIAL POLICY, LAW AND ADVOCACY

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

THE SILENT SCREAM: DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN MALAYSIA Mariny Abdul Ghani*, Noor Azizah Ahmad & Syaliza Adiha Tewiran [email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract This paper offers some reflections on coming to terms with the situation of domestic violence in Malaysia. The issue of domestic violence has been identified across all religions, ethnicities, cultures, ages and economic statuses. Indeed, it also describes as a significant social and public health problem in many countries in the world. The common definition of domestic violence is often referred to as the violence occurred between husband and wife, non-married partners (dating as well as cohabitation) and among the same sex relationships. In Malaysia, however, the explanation of domestic violence situation is only regarded as the violence occurring among intimate partners who are either spouses or ex-spouse of a legal relationship. Since the ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1970, the government has established numerous plans and developed various strategies in order to assist domestic violence victims and survivors in Malaysia. Therefore, this paper seeks to critically review the recent scenario of the problem particularly to describe the magnitude of domestic violence against women in Malaysia as well as to identify limitations in combating this social problem in the country. Keywords: domestic violence, violence against women, domestic abuse, family violence, intimate partner violence, spousal abuse

INTRODUCTION Domestic violence is a traumatic episode which is influenced by complex social, cultural, and psychological factors. Mitchell and Hodson (1983) state that women rather than men are at higher risk of being targeted as a victim, either in marriage or in a relationship. This claim was supported by the findings from the British Crime Survey (BCS) in 2001 which found the percentage of women experiencing domestic violence was approximately twice that of men (Walby & Allen, 2004). Besides being a tremendous burden to social services, health care and the criminal justice system, the harm wrought by domestic violence is more problematic in terms of the physical, emotional, psychological and behavioural damage (Berry, 2000). In reality, domestic violence has been recognized as one of the significant social and public health problems in many countries including Malaysia.

THE DEFINITIONS There are many definitions for domestic violence, which may differ from one another depending upon the perspective of the definer(s). Healey, Smith and O’Sullivan (1998) refer the situation as the acts of violence and abusive behaviours used by adults to control and dominate their intimate partners. The revised version of the definition used in the United Kingdom states (Home Office, 2014):

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

“Any incident or pattern of incidents of controlling, coercive or threatening behaviour, violence or abuse between those aged 16 or over who are or have been intimate partners or family members regardless of gender or sexuality”. Meanwhile, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in the United States identifies domestic violence as offences against the family and children and describes it as “Unlawful violent acts by a family member (or legal guardian) that threaten the physical, mental, or economic well-being or morals of another family member and that are not classifiable as other offences, such as assault or sex offences. Attempts are included” (FBI, 2006). Straus and Gelles (1990) argued that proper definitions of domestic violence are essential, since without accurate description the problems related to the occurrence of violent domestic incidents seem to get more severe. In Malaysia, domestic violence is only regarded as the violence occurring among intimate partners who are either spouses or ex-spouse of a legal relationship as stated in the Domestic Violence Act 521 (1994) [DVA]. Other definitions from non-governmental organizations, however, comprise the followings: “Domestic violence is an abuse of power. It is when one partner, usually a boyfriend or husband, attempts to control and dominate the other, usually a girlfriend or wife through violence, threat of violence, or by controlling the couple's finances and social life” (WAO, 2009) “The incident when a partner, former partner or family member attempts to control and dominate a person through violence, the threat of violence or other means of control such as deprivation” (AWAM, 2009)

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ACT 521 (1994) The question remains; ‘why does the issue of domestic violence remain as a social problem notwithstanding the numerous support mechanisms that have been established?’ The answer may lie with the weaknesses in the Domestic Violence Act 521 (1994) itself. The official definition of domestic violence in the Act means the commission of any of the following acts (Domestic Violence Act 521, 1994: 6): a. willfully or knowingly placing, or attempting to place, the victim in fear of physical injury; b. causing physical injury to the victim by such act which is known or, ought to have been known would result in physical injury; c. compelling the victim by force or threat to engage in any conduct or act, sexual or otherwise, from which the victim has a right to abstain; d. confining or detaining the victim against the victim’s will; or e. causing mischief or destruction or damage to property with intent to cause, or knowing that it is likely to cause distress or annoyance to the victim, by a person against • • • • •

his or her spouse; his or her former spouse; a child an incapacitated adult; or any other member of the family

Section 2 under Laws of Malaysia: Domestic Violence Act 1994, Act (521), (1996) refers to the term spouse as a person who has gone through a form of ceremony which is recognized as a marriage ceremony according to the religion or custom of the parties concerned, notwithstanding that such a ceremony is not registered. Section 1 under Laws of Malaysia: Domestic Violence Act 1994, Act (521), (1996) defines child as a person below the age of eighteen years who is living as a member of the offender’s family or of the family of the offender’s spouse or former spouse, as the case may be. Incapacitated adult means a person who is wholly or partially incapacitated or infirm, by reason of physical or mental disability or ill-health or old age, who is living as a member of the offender’s family. [Section 2, Laws of Malaysia: Domestic Violence Act 1994, Act (521)], (1996). The definition of this Act in the first place was seen as problematic because the legal enforcement of the Act (power of arrest) only focuses on physical injury rather than non-physical forms of violence even though the Act’s interpretation to include sexual and psychological abuse. As a result, there has been amendments made to the present Act, the Domestic Violence Act A1414 (2012) in regards to the issue mentioned above related to psychological form of abuse. Nonetheless, other debateable issues such as marital rape and violence in dating relationship/cohabitation (for non-Muslim) are still pending. Adding to such flaws, it is believed that many of the abused women in Malaysia are not fully aware of such an Act as well as not being well informed on how to seek protection under the Domestic Violence Act 521 (1994).

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The efforts to include civil reforms in the Domestic Violence Act 521 (1994) also raised controversy when it was believed that this conflicted with Sharia Law. At present, the Domestic Violence Act 521 (1994) is officially applicable to all Malaysians regardless of their religion. However, in the matter of divorce petition related to partner violence, Muslims are bound to file the case via the Islamic Religious Affairs Department (for Sharia Law) whereas non-Muslims need to seek advice from the National Registration Department (for Family Law).

MOVEMENTS OPPOSING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN The first Malaysian refuge center was opened in 1982 by the Women’s Aid Organization with the objective of providing shelter to women victims who seek refuge because of domestic violence. As an independent agency liaising with the government, WAO had started with basic facilities such as providing face-to-face counseling for emotional support, a safe house (shelter) and also assisting the victims to access other social and welfare services provided by government agencies, namely the Social Welfare Department and the Royal Malaysian Police and courts (WAO, 2009). The idea of setting up a refuge for domestic violence victims was largely inspired by the example of western countries, for instance in the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Since the establishment of ‘refuges’, people have started to recognise and become more aware of the domestic violence problem. In 1985, the Malaysian women’s movement began when various non-government organizations and individuals anonymously agreed to collaborate under the name of the Joint Action Group (JAG). After four years of speaking out on domestic violence issues at the national level, a committee was finally formed by the government to revise the memorandum submitted by JAG. The members of the committee included representatives of the Association of Women Lawyers, the Women’s Aid Organization of Malaysia (WAO), the All Women’s Action Society (AWAM), the Royal Malaysian Police (RMP) and other government agencies. Their aimed was to discuss and propose new legislation on domestic violence in Malaysia (Amirthalingam, 2003). After much debate and lobbying, the Domestic Violence Act 521 was successfully enacted in 1994. This was seen as a positive development in terms of legislation by the women’s groups because the Act provided legal protection for domestic violence victims (WAO, 2009). Long before the Domestic Violence Act 521 (1994) was enacted, domestic violence prosecutions were only available through criminal proceedings and injunctions under the penal code. As these incidents were regarded more as a private and family matter, the police as well as the courts were generally unwilling to take any action against the perpetrators (WAO, 2009). Thus, the 1994 Act actually conveyed a meaningful message to the whole nation that combating the domestic violence problem was a serious matter. The implementation of the Domestic Violence Act 521 (1994) was, however, postponed for two years due to concerns over its application to Muslims as in Malaysia a dual justice system is practiced, namely the Criminal and Civil Law and Islamic Family Law. The first is administered under Federal Government jurisdiction and is applicable to all Malaysians, while the latter (called Sharia Law) is a matter for state law which is only applicable to Muslims and has jurisdiction over family and personal law matters such as marriage, inheritance and apostasy. After a series of revisions, the Act was eventually implemented in 1996 after Pusat Islam (the Islamic Centre) declared that the Act did not conflict with Sharia Law (Amirthalingam, 2005). Undoubtedly the Act has been of huge significance in terms of service provision for domestic violence victims in Malaysia. The Act has enabled various agencies under the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development for instance the Social Welfare Department and the Women Development Department to initiate relevant programmes as well as offering the services to abused women. The services provided by the ministry include individual as well as marriage counseling, providing temporary shelters or safe houses (in collaboration with the non-government organizations such as WAO and WCC (Women Centre for Change or formerly known as Women Crisis Centre) and establishing a helpline called ‘Talian Nur’ (Nur Helpline) in an effort to provide domestic violence victims with immediate round-the-clock assistance and support (Hernandez, 2007).

PREVALENCE OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Statistics on violence in families are still a matter of some dispute. In fact, the real magnitude of the domestic violence problem worldwide has remained unclear as available data on violence against women varies depending on the sampling procedures, the research methods applied and the parameters used to define the term ‘domestic violence’ itself (Gazmararian, Lazorick, Spitz, Ballard, Salzman & Mark, 1996). “Some experts believe domestic violence is increasing. Others believe that there has been a slight decrease, but that more

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women are reporting abuse. Either way, the numbers prove that it still happens far, far too often” (Berry, 2000: 6). Krug, Dahlberg, Mercy, Zwi and Lozano (2002) revealed that between 10 and 69 per cent of women in their survey had reported intimate partner violence at some point in their lives meanwhile Tjaden and Thoennes (2000) found 22 per cent of women had reported being assaulted by their male partner or ex-partner compared to a figure of only 7.4 per cent regarding male victims. The prevalence rates for abuse among cohabiting and dating relationships have been found to be as significant as between married couples (Deal & Wampler, 1986; Makepeace, 1983). In the UK, statistics show that one in every four women has experienced episodes of domestic violence at some point in their lives (Women’s Aid, 2009) and in the United States, approximately two million women are subject to violence by their intimate partners every year (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). Most developed countries such as the United Kingdom and New Zealand recorded the prevalence rates as being 15 to 35 per cent. Conversely, countries such as India and Japan reported to be among the highest prevalence rates with 45 per cent and 59 per cent respectively (UNICEF, 2000). Similarly, regarding our country, Malaysia, the magnitude of this social issue is huge and it has been put forward as part of the national agenda. According to a report in 2006, national data on the prevalence of domestic violence in Malaysia is problematic. The lack of awareness of the true extent of domestic violence incidents is due to the following reasons (National Report on Violence and Health (Malaysia), 2006): a. Domestic violence is believed to be hugely underreported, as there appears to be discrepancies between figures on the national survey and the number of cases received by the police in the same period of time. b. Data captures only violence occurring among intimate partners who are either spouses or ex-spouses in a legal relationship. c. No statistics on violence occurring between intimate partners outside the marriage institution are available. As shown in the figure below, the Royal Malaysian Police had received an average of 3000 reports concerning the abuse cases every year since 2000 to 2010 (WAO, 2009). Figure 1: Number of reported domestic violence cases from year 2000 to 2010.

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Despite the above limitations on disclosing the real extent of domestic violence, a few studies have been conducted to examine the prevalence rates among Malaysian women (Norasikin, 2002; Women’s Aid Organisation of Malaysia, 1995). Both findings showed that the prevalence rate of domestic violence in the country was about 35 to 58 per cent. The highlight of those studies was low reporting of domestic violence cases due to factors such as being unfairly stigmatized by the community as well as lack of awareness on existing assistance from various supports networking.

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OBSTACLES IN COMBATING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Combating domestic violence is a huge challenge in Malaysia. The influence of many factors such as the patriarchal society, religious matters, the cultural dimension and political issues needs to be considered while dealing with this problem. In order to put an end to domestic violence, efficient strategies and plans must be drafted together with utmost co-operation and collaboration from various parties such as the police, medical teams, government agencies, women’s groups and so forth. The cultural perception that urged Malaysian women to tolerate the violence and accept their situation within an abusive marriage needs to be changed. Traditionally, men appear to be the breadwinner and head of the family in Malaysian society. These days, however, the opportunity for women to have better education has gradually increased and women have started to become financially independent from their husbands/ partners. Hence, there is a possibility that men may feel their ‘position’ has been challenged (male ego) and this circumstance may contribute to some kind of dissatisfactions which later on triggers the violent behaviour towards their female counterparts. ‘Not to do your dirty laundry in public’ is a Malay proverb that best explain circumstances of many abused women when it comes to disclosure of violence in their relationships. In our culture, it certainly takes a lot of courage for women to reveal the abuse. As the woman herself is experiencing a shameful situation, the retaliation of the husband/partner will make the feelings of shame even worse. As a matter of fact, disclosing partner violence brings a connotation of dishonouring the husband’s pride) and not to mention, disrespectful. A serious consideration needs to be given to law reform and enforcement regarding domestic violence in order to reduce and prevent the problem. The improvements in social and policy making should signal positive changes regarding domestic violence developments within the nation. Apparent shortcomings in the Domestic Violence Act 521 (1994) regarding issues such as marital rape, sexual violence perpetrated by husband as well as violence in dating relationship and cohabitation also need to be resolved through the policy making process as soon as possible. Adding to the list, public campaigns which aim to increase community awareness of this social problem, as well as disseminating knowledge about violence against women to the general public, particularly to female adults, will help to eliminate the cultural stigma experienced by victims of violence. There should be a reasonable approach to tackle domestic violence issues so as to draw more attention to it from all levels within Malaysian society. It will hopefully subsequently change the social attitudes of the general public regarding domestic violence in the country. Last but not least, political efforts may be the most effective approach in addressing issues on sex-based discrimination, women’s rights and gender equality as well as violence against Malaysian women in general. Over and above this, existing domestic violence resources available in the country should be empowered and improved in order to benefit the service providers and create better facilities for battered women.

CONCLUSIONS Malaysia has regarded violence against women as one of the national social problems since 1979 under the ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Since then, the country has developed a variety of strategies and plans to combat any form of violence against women namely the enacment of Domestic Violence Act (1994), safe houses, careline services and a mixture of supports via government agencies as well as non-governmental organizations. Alongside the patriarchal system maintained within society, male dominance is widely practiced especially in relation to marriage and family matters. Thus, women’s rights and inequality issues are still debatable in Malaysian society despite long years of independence. In summary, this article reviews the scenario of domestic violence problem in the aspect of its prevalence, support provisions and limitations from the perspective of Malaysia.

REFERENCES All Women’s Action Society (AWAM). (2009). What is domestic violence? Retrieved on 22 May 2014, from http:// www.awam.org.my/domesticv.html Amirthalingam, K. (2003). A feminist critique of domestic violence laws in Singapore and Malaysia. Singapore: Asia Research Institute. Berry, D.B. (2000). The domestic violence sourcebook. 3rd Edition. New York: McGraw Hill. Deal, J.E. & Wampler, K.S. (1986). Dating violence: The primacy of previous experience. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 3, 457-471. Domestic Violence Act 521 (1994). Malaysia Act 521 (1994). Petaling Jaya: International Law Book Services. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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FBI. (2006). Crime in the United States. Retrieved on 26 May, 2014, from http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/05cius/about/ offense_definitions.html Gazmararian, J.A, Lazorick, S., Spitz, A.M., Ballard, T.J., Salzman, L.E. & Mark, J.S. (1996). Prevalence of violence against pregnant women. The Journal of American Medical Association. 275(24), 1915-1920. Healey, K., Smith, C. & O’Sullivan, C. (1998). Batterer intervention: Program approaches and criminal justice strategies. National Institute of Justice, United State. Hernandez, V. (2007). Malaysia launches hotline to curb domestic violence. Retrieved on 3 December, 2009 from http://www.allheadlinenews.com/articles/700938226 Home Office. (2013). Extended definition of domestic violence takes effect. Retrieved on 20 December 2013, from https://www.gov.uk/government/news/extended-definition-of-domestic-violence-takes-effect Krug, E.G., Dahlberg, L.L, Mercy, J.A., Zwi, A.B. & Lozano, R. (2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva: World Health Organization [WHO]. Makepeace, J.M. (1983). Life events, stress and courtship violence. Family Relations, 32, 101-109. Mitchell, R.E. & Hodson, C.A. (1983). Coping with domestic violence: Social support and psychological health among battered women. American Journal of Community Psychology, 11(6), 629-654. National Report on Violence and Health (Malaysia). (2006). World Health Organization, Kobe: WHO Publications. Norasikin, M. (2002). Domestic violence against women: The prevalence of domestic violence and factors associated with it among women who seek treatment at Hospital Pontian Out Patient Department. Malaysian Journal of Public Health Medicine, 2(1), 58-64. Straus, M.A., & Gelles, R.J., (1990). Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families. New Brunswick: Transaction. Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Full report prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women. Research Report, U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs: National Institute of Justice. UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. (2000). Domestic violence against women and girls. Florence: Innocenti Digest. Walby, S. & Allen, J. (2004). Domestic violence, sexual assault, and stalking: Findings from the British Crime Survey. Home Office Research Study 276. Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate. Women’s Aid Organisation of Malaysia. (1995). Report on ‘Battered women in Malaysia: Prevalence, problems and public attitudes’. Selangor: WAO. http://www.wao.org.my/backup_v1_21.7.2011/research/singlemom.htm Women’s Aid Organisation of Malaysia (WAO). (2009). Domestic Violence. Retrieved 23 November 2009, from http://www.wao.org.my/research/domesticviolence.htm

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

RELEVANCE OF NATIONAL BREASTFEEDING POLICY (NBP) IN MALAYSIAN SOCIETY Vasumathi A/P Subramanian* *[email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract Breastfeeding, a natural way of parenting has now become a secondary choice in modern society due to increasing promotion and commercialization of the artificial substitute called formula milk. The benefits of breastfeeding are not limited just to mothers and babies but it expands to the families and society. Malaysia’s breastfeeding policy recommends exclusive breastfeeding for first six months of life and continued breastfeeding along with complementary food up to two years of age. Code of Marketing of Infant Formula Products (Code) and Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) serves as two important pillars of implementing this policy. The Code protects breastfeeding by controlling competitive promotion and advertising of commercial products which may undermine mothers’ ability and intent to breastfeed. Whereas, BFHI promotes breastfeeding by creating a conducive condition in hospitals which will empower women to make the right choice on infant feeding. Despite having all these efforts, the Third National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS III) 2006 marks only 14.5% of mothers are exclusively breastfeeding in Malaysia which warrants us to analyze the contributing factors to relatively low rate. In contrary, the usage and promotion of formula milk have taken a drastic expansion covering not only infants but mothers to be and toddlers. This paper examines the key challenges in the implementation of this policy, covering various elements from social, legislation and healthcare system in Malaysia. Keywords: Policy, Breastfeeding, Women Rights, Child

INTRODUCTION Breastfeeding brings various benefits for babies, women and the society in large. It is the best way of fulling an infant’s need which are warmth, nutrition and safety. Breastfed babies are: protected against infectious diseases such as upper and lower respiratory tract infections, gastrointestinal illnesses and otitis media during the infant period and beyond; protective against Type 1 diabetes; recommended for reducing asthma and atopic disease in childhood. Whereas for mothers it is: protective against developing premenopausal and probably postmenopausal breast cancer; help recovery after childbirth and suppress maternal fertility; protect against ovarian cancer and protective effects for rheumatoid arthritis; increased postpartum weight loss; decreases maternal depression and improves mother-infant bonding (Allen & Hector, 2005). At global level, many legislations has been declared to further promote and protect breastfeeding. On the prespective of child rights, the Convention of The Rights of the Child (Article 24) states that it is the right of children to enjoy the highest attainable standard of health and no child is denied the access to such a healthcare services. It emphasizes that state parties shall ensure that all segments of society especially parents and children are have information about nutrition and the advantages of breastfeeding (United Nations, 1989). Whereas The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights endorses the right to food and health. General Comment 12 on the Right to Adequate Food (Article 11) states - “measures may therefore need Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

to be taken to maintain, adapt or strengthen dietary diversity and appropriate consumption and feeding patterns, including breastfeeding” (United Nations Economic and Social Council, 1999). Besides that, The Innocenti Declaration recognizes breastfeeding as a unique process and promotes optimal health benefits for mothers and babies (UNICEF, 2005). The declaration was produced and adopted by participants at the WHO/UNICEF policymakers' meeting on "Breastfeeding in the 1990s: A Global Initiative”, at Florence, Italy, from 30th July till 1st August 1990 and its declaration was revisited in 2005. Another important legislation is Global Strategy on Young Child Feeding (IYCF) which serves as a guide for all stakeholders and provides a framework for actions (WHO, 2003) pertaining to infant and child feeding. However, World Health Organization’s recommendation serves as the fundamental guuideline for breastfeeding pratice at in many countries. It recommendes exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life and continued breastfeeding along with complementary food up to two years of age and beyond. This adoption was made base on a scientific review of the optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding which strongly recommends the duration to be at least six months (Kramer & Kakuma, 2002).

NATIONAL BREASTFEEDING POLICY The National Breastfeeding Policy (NBP) of Malaysia was established in 1993 which recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first four to six months of life and continued up to two years old. However, this policy was revised in 2005 in accordance with 41st World Health Assembly (WHA), Resolution 54.2 which recommends exclusive breastfeeding for first six months of life. Since the introduction of the policy in year 1993, breastfeeding promotion in Malaysia has been intensified dramatically by adopting the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) (UNICEF Malaysia, 2008) and the International Code of Markerting of Breastmilk Substitute (will be referred as Code hereafter) (Ministry of Health Malaysia, 1995). Both of these policies stands as the two pillars which supports and protects breastfeeding by creating an enabling environment for mothers to breastfeed and protect them againts the extensive marketing of formula milk. BFHI was launched in 1991 globally and it’s objective is to empower women to make the right choice on feeding and to create conducive conditions in hospitals to breastfeed. It is an effort by the UNICEF and the WHO to ensure that all maternities whether free standing or in a hospital, become centers of breastfeeding support. A maternity facility can be designated 'baby-friendly' only when it does not accept free or low-cost breastmilk substitutes, feeding bottles or teats, and has implemented ten specific steps to support successful breastfeeding (UNICEF Malaysia, 2008). It clearly indicates ten steps to be followed by healthcare systems to promote breastfeeding which is more known as Ten Steps to Succesful Breastfeeding. The steps are:Ten Steps to Succesful Breastfeeding Step 1

Have a written breastfeeding policy that is routinely communicated to all healthcare staff.

Step 2

Train all healthcare staff in skills necessary to implement this policy.

Step 3

Inform all pregnant women about the benefits and management of breastfeeding.

Step 4

Help mothers initiate breastfeeding within one half-hour of birth.

Step 5

Show mothers how to breastfeed and maintain lactation, even if they should be separated from their infants.

Step 6

Give newborn infants no food or drink other than breast milk, unless medically indicated.

Step 7

Practice rooming in - that is, allow mothers and infants to remain together 24 hours a day.

Step 8

Encourage breastfeeding on demand.

Step 9

Give no artificial teats or pacifiers (also called dummies/soothers) to breastfeeding infants.

Step 10

Foster the establishment of breastfeeding support groups and refer mothers to them on discharge from the hospital or clinic.

Malaysia is one of country which was commited to implement BFHI since it’s global level launching in 1991. By March 1998, Malaysia was recognized by WHO as the third country in the world, after Sweden and Oman, in which all government hospitals were baby friendly (WHO, 2013). As of 2011, there were 136 hopsitals with BFHI accreditation in Malaysia. This is consits of 125 goverment hopsitals under Ministry of Health, 2 army hopsitals, 2 university hopsitals and 7 private hospitals (Ministry of Health, 2011). This makes almost 97% of goverment hospitals are BFHI accredited and definately more private hospitals have to take the same initiative. On the other hand the Code stands as another protection level which regulates and monitors the marketing of formula milk. The Code was launched in 1981 and it bans all promotion of bottle feeding and sets out © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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requirements for labeling and information on infant feeding. Since the introduction, 37 countries has made it has law (UNICEF, 2011). However, in Malaysia the Code has been adopted on voluntary basis and it is known as Code of Ethics for Infant Formula Products. The latest revision was done in August 2012 and it was renamed to Code of Ethics for the Marketing of Infant Foods and Related Products (Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2010). The overall aim of this code is to uphold the supremacy of breast milk; to assist in the safe and optimal nutrition of infants by protection, promotion and support of breastfeeding (Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2010). It covers the following aspects of marketing especially through healthcare facilities and professionals: • • • • • •

Advertising. Distribution of free samples to mothers and families. Promotion in healthcare facilities (product displays, posters, distribution materials). Promotion through health workers (gift or samples). Free supplies to healthcare system. Labeling which indicates the superiority of breastfeeding and no pictures of infants or text idealizing the use of infant formula.

Implementation of both BFHI (since 1991) and the Code (since 1981) clearly shows Malaysia’s commitment in promoting breastfeeding. But what is the state of breastfeeding in Malaysia? The Third National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS III) 2006 reports that the overall prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding below six months was 14.5% (Fatimah, Siti Saadiah, Tahir, Hussain Imam, & Ahmad Faudzi, 2010). This prevalence was highest among infants younger than two months; 26.7% and decline rapidly to 11.7% among infants aged between two to three months old. This figure further reduces to 6.1% (almost half ) in infants between four to five months old. To be noted here is the percentage of infants stopped breastfeeding is higher after four months. Continued breastfeeding up to two years was 37.4%. However the prevalence of infants initiated breastfeeding within one hour of birth was 63.7% and the prevalence of children (among children aged less than twelve months) ever breastfed was 94.7%. Table 1: Comparison of Breastfeeding Rate for South East Asia

Country

Initiation of breastfeeding within first 1 hour (%)

Exclusive breastfeeding (%)

Percentage ever breastfed (%)

Nepal (2001)

31.1

68.3

98.0

Bangladesh (2004)

24.2

36.4

98.1

India (1998)

16.4

46.8

96.5

Indonesia (2002)

38.7

39.5

95.9

Philippines (2003)

54.0

33.5

86.5

Cambodia (2000)

11.0

11.4

95.7

Malaysia*

63.7

14.5

94.7

Source: “Infant and Young Child Feeding Update, September 2006” (*data is from NHMS III)

Whereas another study conducted in Klang showed that 32.8% of the respondents exclusively breastfeed for six months, 14.5% practiced mixed feeding and 52.7% practice infant formula feeding (Tan, 2009). The study studied about the Knowledge, Attitude and Practice on breastfeeding among 220 mothers attending two Maternal and Child Health clinics in Klang, between 19th June and 19th October 2006. Another study titled ‘Factors Associated with Exclusive Breastfeeding among Infants less than Six Months of Age in Peninsular Malaysia’ indicates 43.1% of the babies were exclusively breastfed (Tan, 2011). It ranges from 63.3% for infants aged 1 month to 32.4% for infants aged six months. This study was conducted in Klang, for a period of four months in 2006 involving 682 mother-infant pairs with infants up to six months old. A study related to breastfeeding practice at a polyclinic in Klang Road, Selangor in January 2001, shows that breastfeeding initiation rate is very high (99.3%) but the exclusive breastfeeding rate is just 12.5% (C K Siah & H Yadav, 2002). The common reasons given for cessation of early breastfeeding were: - insufficient milk, child is old enough to stop practice, child’s refusal to breastfeed, returning to work, sample of formula milk were given and became pregnant again. However, MOH’s 2011Annual Report, reported an increase in exclusive breastfeedign rate among babies attending goverment health clinics. The number had increased from 16.2% (2010) to 23.3% (2011) (Ministry of Health, 2011) but no any factor was described for the increase. Yet, this is a definetely a positive sign and © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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efforts have to doubled to march towards achieving a higher number. Needless to say that the Third National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS III) 2006 is more relevant because the sampling was designed to proportionate the population size throughout Malaysia. Table 1 shows a simple comparison of breastfeedign rate among South East Asia countries. The table shows that, Malaysia’s exclusive breastfeedign rate is considered low compared to other countries but it marks higher number for initiation of breastfeedign within 1 hour. The fact that timely initiation of breastfeeding is a ‘one-time’ activity also makes it easier to achieve higher initiation rate, especially with the implementation of the BFHI in most of the government hospitals (Fatimah, Siti Saadiah, Tahir, Hussain Imam, & Ahmad Faudzi, 2010). These data shows that there are multiple factors hindering Malaysian mothers to continue breastfeeding despite having a National Breastfeeding Policy which urge mothers to breastfeed exlcusively for 6 months.

CHALLENGES Women need to be informed and supported to enable her to breastfeed her baby. She needs support and right information at the right time, even before she delivers her baby. In an analogy, if we want a student to pass his or her exam in flying colors, we need to provide them with all the support in order to achieve the target; from sending to school, buying books, tutors, study corner at home, motivation and others. Without all these support structure it will be difficult for them to study and it is unfair to put the blame on them if the student fails. The same goes for a woman who wants to breastfeed. All the factors around her, such as her husband, family, community, healthcare, government, employment and workplace should support her and provide a breastfeeding friendly environment. Without encountering all these factors, achieving the NBP which recommends six months of exclusive breastfeeding will be a major challenge.

Work and Maternity Protection In today’s ever demanding lifestyle it has been a challenge for women to breastfeed. Often, she has to choose between doing her paid work and “mother” work. This becomes a huge challenge for women. International Labour Organization (ILO) passed a convention in year 2000 which requires employers and countries to provide minimum 14 weeks of paid maternity leave (WABA, 2012). ILO believes, this will enable a positive environment to achieve optimal breastfeeding. In Malaysia, government employees are entitled for a customized maternity leave between 60days – 90 days whereas most private sectors provide 60 days of maternity leave in compliance with Malaysia’s Employment Act 1955 . This becomes an hinderance for mothers to establish or continue breastfeeding because the maternity leave is too short. A sudden drop in breastfeeding rate after 2 months (from 26.7% for infants below 2 months to 11.7% for infants aged between 2 to 3 months) proves that returning to work have a negative impact on breastfeeding (Fatimah, Siti Saadiah, Tahir, Hussain Imam, & Ahmad Faudzi, 2010). ILO also covered 7 key elements of maternity protection:- scope, leave benefits, health protection, job protection, non-discrimination, breastfeeding breaks and breastfeeding facilities (IBFAN ASIA, 2010). All these 7 elements will help a mother to continue breastfeeding even if she has to return to work early. In the situation of having short maternity leave, a breastfeeding supportive workplace is vital in ensuring breastfeeding is continued. A simple facility such as having a comfortable room/corner to express and store milk will create a positive impact. A study conducted in Petaling Jaya, Malaysia states that not having adequate breastfeeding facilities at the workplace was also a risk factor for discontinuation of breastfeeding (Rahmah, Zakiah, Shamsul, Azlan, Khadijah, & Rosnah, 2011). The study further asserts that, it is important that workplaces provide adequate breastfeeding facilities such as room to express breastmilk, refrigerator to store and flexible time to express. Similar result found in another study conducted at Klang district, where mothers who have a job were 3.5 times more likely not to exclusively breastfeed compared to non-working mothers (Tan, 2009). This explains that returning to work impacts the duration of exclusive breastfeeding. Therefore better maternity protection and a breastfeeding friendly workplace must be established in order to motivate women to breastfeed. If not 14 weeks at least 12 weeks! This duration is the crucial period to establish breastfeeding and also where babies need their mothers very much. However in Malaysia, the maternity leave is still short and there is no legislation on having breastfeeding breaks or rooms at workplace. Some workplaces which realize the collective benefits of breastfeeding, have decided to have breastfeeding rooms and breastfeeding breaks on voluntary basis.

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Lack of Breastfeeding Information Breastfeeding is a learned skill and informed knowledge. Women need to learn about breastfeeding even before she delivers her baby. Often we encourage women to breastfeed but we fail to tell her how to breastfeed! Basic knowledge about breastfeeding such as positioning, understanding new born babies behavior, how body produces milk and what is exclusive breastfeeding will make a mother more knowledgeable of what she is going to do once she delivers. Knowledge is powerful, thus it will build her confidence to breastfeed her baby. This is also stated in step 3 of BFHI:- inform all pregnant women about the benefits and management of breastfeeding. Is this being executed effectively? Most Malaysian mothers go to maternal and child health clinic for their antenatal checkups and these clinics are not BFHI accredited even though they are dealing with pregnant mothers. They go to hospitals only for delivery. Worst still, mothers who choose to go to private hospitals are left on their own to seek the knowledge on breastfeeding either by enrolling oneself to an antenatal class or learn from friends and families. Both scenarios explain that, there are still gap in providing breastfeeding information to pregnant mothers. From authors own experience, a lot of mothers are unaware that for the first six months babies need only breastmilk and they should not be supplemented with water or any other liquid. A report from World Health Organization emphasizes that:“Even though breastfeeding is a natural act, it is also a learned behavior. Virtually all mothers can breastfeed provided they have accurate information, and support within their families and communities and from the healthcare system. They should also have access to skilled practical help from, for example, trained health workers, lay and peer counselors, and certified lactation consultants, who can help to build mothers’ confidence, improve feeding technique, and prevent or resolve breastfeeding problems.” (Infant and Young Child Nutrition: Global Strategy on Infant and Young Child Feeding, Fifty-Fifth World Health Assembly A55/15,Provisional agenda item 13.10, 16 April 2002 Page 5)

To be noted here, women need accurate information and support to build her confidence to breastfeed. Learning about breastfeeding can be as informal as watching another breastfeeding mother tend to her child, or the kind of information sharing that might take place in a healthcare setting (Vickers & Smith, 2009). Unfortunately, in today’s ever growing usage of formula milk, it is being rare for women to see another women breastfeeding and in contrary, formula feeding is becoming the norm. Mothers, families and our society at large have lost the knowledge on breastfeeding that used to be passed from mothers to daughters and within the community. Many young girls grow up now without seeing any mother breastfeed. As a result, mothers need to be advised on infants feeding (Lee, 2009). Now we are at ajuntion where we need to find ways to educate mothers either via healthcare settings, family, friends or women themselves need to seek for it. Providing information here does not limit to only the mothers but all the people around her. To support women and mother in their efforts to improve their health and nutritional knowledge for infants and children, it is important that nutrition education and information be provided to various other individuals who are influential with the family such as fathers, grandparents, and parents-in-law. These education effort and information sharing should be carried out with their active participation. For example, healthcare system in Denmark emphasizes more on educating pregnant women about the importance of breastfeeding. It is culturally acceptable for women to nurse their children in Denmark publicly. Mothers are educated about the benefits of breastfeeding before they give birth and are provided with excellent healthcare (Newcomb, 2009). The result is, 99% of mothers in Denmark breastfeed their babies! To be highlighted here, Denmark provides 6 months of maternity leave for all women. Therefore, more breastfeeding information should reach every mother and the community in large. Breastfeeding need to be normalized by having more awareness, advertisement and campaigns. Maternal and child health clinics and private hospitals should conduct more antenatal classes to provide breastfeeding information. If possible this information should be provided with no fee, so that no mothers will be left out due to her affordability.

Family and Community Support Breastfeeding babies will feed frequently, which means a mother with a new born baby have to attend to her baby more often. She may also feel tired and fatigue because of this overwhelming responsibility. In this vulnerable situation she definitely needs support from people around her especially her family. In reality a woman faces a lot of other challenges when she tries to breastfeed especially if it is her first child. Inadequate © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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knowledge and skill cause low self confidence in breastfeeding. This has been proven in a study, which says women with more than 1 children breastfeed successfully because she acquire the knowledge from her own experience of feeding her older child (Tan, 2009). Therefore she needs support and encouragement from all the people around her especially family members. The systems surrounding her have big impact on her decision to breastfeed. During the early stage of post natal, mothers will be physically weak and mentally depressed because of all the changes that are happening in her body and at the same time she have to attend to her demanding new born. An encouraging word from her partner will motivate her to breastfeed her child. On the other hand, her family can provide practical support for her by preparing a healthy and nutritious food, providing help with household chores and help taking care of her older children. Fathers can motivate mothers by affirming their love and appreciation for the motherly work that she is doing thus enabling her to take adequate rest whenever possible. Often what mothers need most from family and friends is not breastfeeding advice or cans of formula. They need practical help with housework, meals and caring for older children, because learning to breastfeed can take up a lot of time in the early days and weeks. And they need encouragement and reassurance. Knowing that the people around her feel confident in her ability to master breastfeeding make the mother feel more confident as well (Pitman, 2008) This is also proven in a research conducted in Malaysia which showed that breastfeeding is common among mothers with supportive husbands (Tan, 2011). The same research also mentioned that lack of support from mother-in-laws who accompany mothers during confinement period (especially after first delivery) could influence mothers not to breastfeed. Mothers or mother-in-laws have a lot of impact on breastfeeding women. Their supportive words, willingness on helping a new mother and knowledge about breastfeeding will create a positive environment. A review conducted by G. Dixon, emphasizes older, respected and loved women who may be members of the household are likely to have a profound influence on the new mother's behavior, possibly greater influence than a stranger who represents official healthcare (G.Dixon, 1992). If so, attempts to change attitudes may have to be directed at the traditional opinion leaders in order to enlist their aid. By enlisting the aid of the traditional authorities, important messages about such matters as the value of colostrum, hand washing, breastfeeding, pure water and the dangers of supplemental feeding might be reinforced and the vital emotional support a new mother gains from following the advice of people she loves and respects might be preserved. Most of the time mothers don’t get the support due to the ignorance of the family members and the community which sees breastfeeding as something troublesome. Breastfeeding is always perceived as something intimate or personal between a baby and mother. But, it is the collective effort of the whole family in nurturing the child by providing the nutritious food. In Malaysia, breastfeeding in public places is viewed as a taboo due to the actual or gesture of exposing the breast. Education and awareness must be imparted to the community regarding breastfeeding to eliminate the hostility among the community on women who needed to breastfeed in public places (Tan, 2009). This shows the importance on educating the public, older generation and husbands about the benefits of breastfeeding and how they can support women. They too need to be included in the breastfeeding education process which is not addresses by the NBP.

Healthcare system As of 2011 there are 136 hospitals in Malaysia with BFHI accreditation, which means all these healthcare settings supports breastfeeding. According to BFHI procedures mothers will be helped to initiate breastfeeding within half an hour of birth and rooming in will be practiced to remain mothers and infants together. This has contributed to high number of early initiation of breastfeeding which is 63.7% as per the NHMS III and this number is easy to be achieved because it is just a first attempt of feeding at the hospitals. The reality is, breastfeeding is an ongoing process and mothers need continues support especially once they are discharged from hospitals. That is the reason the 10th step of BFHI recommends: - foster the establishment of breastfeeding support groups and refer mothers to them upon discharge from hospital or clinic. However, it takes a lot of courage and effort to establish support groups for almost 400,000 deliveries that takes place in Malaysia every year (Ministry of Health, 2009). Medical staffs will be over whelmed with work if they were to help or provide support to breastfeeding mothers who may need their help at odd times. This effort can be done by community based support group or more known as breastfeeding peer support. NMHS III report also has affirmed that to achieve sustained population-level breastfeeding behavior change, community based breastfeeding promotion and support is one of the most important approaches. Thus long term community based interventions need to be carried out © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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in partnership with existing healthcare systems to achieve optimal breastfeeding. The BFHI has been implemented since 1997 and there was no formal evaluation has been conducted, thus it is clear that the effectiveness of the implementation need to be improved (Fatimah, Siti Saadiah, Tahir, Hussain Imam, & Ahmad Faudzi, 2010).The government has to do an evaluation of the implementation of BFHI and focus on establishing mother support groups or empowering the existing support groups which can provide information, guidance and support to mothers. On the other hand, out of 183 private hospitals, only 8 private hospitals or 4.4% have been accredited as BFHI. Malaysia Health Minister, Datuk Seri Liow Tiong Lai has expressed his disappointment about this and he requested private hospitals to take initiative to achieve the status . First of all, a research need to be conducted, why private hospitals are not taking initiative to acquire BFHI even though it has been in practices in Malaysia for decades. Practices in non-BFHI hospitals are totally different. These hospitals do not practice, rooming in and often mothers and babies will be separated after delivery. This will interrupt the early process of establishing good breastfeeding process whereby new born babies need to be fed frequently. Frequent feeding is very essential because it sends more signals to the brain to produce milk. Separating babies from mothers need to be avoided because mothers have to walk or taken to the nursery to feed and this may hesitate them to breastfeed. This will be very challenging especially for mothers who delivered via caesarean. Keeping mother and baby together is very important to establish breastfeeding because, babies stay warm and cry less, and breastfeeding gets off to a better start when mothers and their babies have frequent time together, beginning at birth. Mothers learn to recognize their baby's needs, responding tenderly and lovingly (Crenshaw, 2007). With the increasing numbers of neonatal jaundice, both private and government hospitals should allow mothers to stay in the hospital with reasonable cost. When mothers and babies stay together, breastfeeding becomes easier and if left otherwise, it will be a huge challenge in this country.

Extensive Marketing of Formula Milk The Code of Marketing of Breast milk Substitutes governs the marketing of formula milk globally and Malaysia has adopted it on voluntary basis. It is a set of guidelines designed to control competitive promotion and advertising of commercial products which may undermine mothers’ ability and intent to breastfeed especially through healthcare facilities and professionals. Even though it has been implemented for decades, the vigorous marketing of breastmilk substitute is unable to be controlled. There is already a close relationship between healthcare professionals and the infant milk industry (Lee, 2009). Companies are said to have employed a wide range of marketing strategies to reach mothers and infants, including use of the mass media (e.g. newspapers, magazines), retail outlets (e.g. displays, labels, discounts, and tie-in sales), healthcare staff and facilities (e.g. free samples, booklets, pamphlets, gifts) and professional bodies (e.g. sponsorship of conferences, literature and lunches) as the medium through which promotional messages are carried through to the public. Incentives in cash or kind are often offered to healthcare professionals, in exchange for their obligation. Healthcare workers who associated with companies help to lend credibility to these marketed products (Koe, 2008). The challenge here is, public or to be specific, the household members are unaware of the code existence. Mothers, who are the target group, do not know that it is a violation if a doctor is handing over a packet of formula milk to her. She is not aware that distribution of free samples of formula in hypermarket is a violation too. She is not aware that, a sales person should not promote formula milk to her. It is very difficult to resist something that is being offered for no cost. Formula milk companies are very smart in manipulating the code for their best. The code only covers infant formula milks. Therefore, they have ‘invented’ growing up milk which is meant for toddlers aged 1 year and above. This goes on up to 10 years old. On the other hand, milk for pregnant mothers and breastfeeding mothers have also been introduced and marketed rapidly. Often, the advertisement portrays that women are making good decision in enriching their babies health and intelligent by choosing their product. Formula companies try to build brand loyalty by influencing mothers when they are pregnant. Breastfeeding milk is projected as a compulsory for breastfeeding mothers because it is often associated with ability to produce milk. This indirectly undermines the mothers confident and ability in producing milk and makes them dependent on formula milk even if they choose to breastfeed. Naturally a mother who consumed a particular brand when she was pregnant will tend to use the same brand if at all she chooses to formula feed. This is where formula milk companies try to widen their marketing strength. Some formula companies offer attractive gifts for mothers who sign up in their club when they are © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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pregnant and they use this opportunity to collect all the details of the mother and approach them after the delivery. Unfortunately, mothers are unaware that they are being victimized. On the other hand there is very limited advertisement in the mass-media about breastfeeding, even though the benefits of it are tremendous. Government has to look into this seriously and promote breastfeeding via media. Advertisement for formula milk is very common and sooner or later women will start to believe in it. Hence, the awareness of the code need to conducted. Public or more specific, mothers need to be educated about the existence of the code and if possible the code needs to be changed as a law!

CONCLUSION It is ironic to realize that a perfect and a free nutritional product, individually produced and naturally distributed to all families, are not universally used (Lee, 2009). There are so many policies and legislations related to breastfeeding implemented globaly to protect and promote this benefiting culture. However, the Code and BFHI serves as the most two important legislations worldwide. Malaysia as adopted a national breastfeedign policy based on WHO’s recommndation and adopted both Code and BFHI to further strengthen the policy. However, the exclsive breastfeedign rate is still low which shows that Malaysia needs a high level campaign and awareness to intervene all the aspects that is related to breastfeeding. A formal evaluation of BFHI will help us to determine the effectiveness and the successfulness of the implementation. Most importantly, listening to mothers, the target groups’ feedback and input are essential. Knowing from them what are the obstacles that they are facing and what do they need to continue breastfeeding is critical. However, mothers are seldom brought into participation even when the discussion is for them and about them. When a policy is designed for mothers, we need to give them the opportunity to express their feelings and opinion. Feedback and input from mothers need to be heard clearly before any policy being designed for them. Making the Code into law is very vital in controlling formula milk from reaching to mothers unethicaly. At this juncture it makes us to think why Malaysia is not making the Code into law even after decades of implementation. Malaysia has shown high interest in BFHI implemeantion and why it is not reflected in Code implementaiton? If BFHI and Code stands as two pillars of breastfeeding policy, both have to be given same level of strength in order to uphold the National Breastfeedign Policy. Reexamining the original policy with today’s trend is also vital. The effects of current work place practices, availability of breastfeeding information, healthcare system, formula milk marketing practices and finally the community support infrastructure need to be understood further. Without these efforts, it will be nearly impossible to attain the target of National Breastfeeding Policy.

REFERENCES Allen, J., & Hector, D. (2005). Benefits of Breastfeeding. New South Wales Public Health Bulletin , 16 (4), 42-46. C K Siah, M., & H Yadav, F. (2002). Breastfeeding Practices Among Mothers in an Urban Polyclinic. Med J Malaysia , 57 (2), 188-193. Crenshaw, J. (2007). Care Practice #6 : No Separation of Mother and Baby, with Unlimited Oppurtunities for Breastfeeding. The Journal of Prenatal Education . Fatimah, S., Siti Saadiah, H., Tahir, A., Hussain Imam, M., & Ahmad Faudzi, Y. (2010). Breastfeeding in Malaysia: Results of the Third National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS III) 2006. Malaysian Journal of Nutrition , 16 (2), 195-206. G.Dixon. (1992). Colostrums Avoidance and Early Infant Feeding in Asian Societies. Asia pacific J Clin Nutr , 1, 225-229. IBFAN ASIA. (2010). The State of Breastfeeding in 33 Countries 2010, Tracking Infant and Young Child Feeding Policies & Program Worldwide. BPNI/IBFAN Asia. Koe, S. L. (2008, October). Launch of New Code of ethics. Berita MPA Newsletter , p. 4. Kramer, M. S., & Kakuma, R. (2002). The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding A Systematic Review. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Lee, K. S. (2009). Breastfeeding. International E-Journal of Science, Medicine & Education , 3 (2), 1-2. Ministry of Health. (2011). Annual Report 2011. Putrajaya: Ministry of Health. Ministry of Health. (2009). Health Report 2009. 76. Ministry of Health Malaysia. (1995). Code of Ethics for Infant Formula Products. Malaysia: MOH. Ministry of Health Malaysia. (2010). Code of ethics for the Marketing of Inant Foods and Related Products (4th ed.). Putrajaya: MOH. Ministry of Health Malaysia. (2010). Health Report 2009. Putrajaya: MOH. Newcomb, C. (2009). Breastfeeding and Mothering in Denmark. New Beginnings , 6, pp. 56-59. Pitman, T. (2008). Circles of Support : Family and Social Network. World Breastfeeding Week 2008 (1). Rahmah, A. M., Zakiah, S. M., Shamsul, S. A., Azlan, D., Khadijah, S., & Rosnah, S. (2011). Work Related Determinants of Breastfeeding Discontinuation Among Employed Mothers in Malaysia. 6 (4). © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Tan, K. L. (2011). Factors Associated With Exclusive Breastfeeding Among Infants Under Six Months of Age in Peninsular Malaysia. International Breastfeeding Journal , 6 (2). Tan, K. L. (2011). Factors Associated With Exclusive Breastfeeding Among Infants Under Six Months of Age in Peninsular Malaysia. International Breastfeeding Journal , 6 (2), 6. Tan, K. L. (2009). Factors Associated with Non-Exclusive Breastfeeding Among 4-Week Post-Partrum Mothers in Klang District, Peninsular Malaysia. Mal J Nutrition , 15 (1), 11-18. Tan, K. L. (2009). Knowledge, Attitude and Practice on Breastfeeding in Klang, Malaysia. The International Medical Journal , 8 (1). UNICEF. (2005). Celebrating The Innocenti Declaration on the Protection, Promotion & Support of Breastfeeding. New York: Unicef. UNICEF Malaysia. (2008). Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative. Unicef Malaysia Communications. UNICEF Malaysia. (2008). Fact Sheet : Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative. Malaysia: Unicef Malaysia Communication. UNICEF. (2011). National Implementation of the International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk. New York: UNICEF. United Nations. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Geneva: United Nations. United Nations Economic and Social Council. (1999). General Comment No.12 : The Rght to Adequate Food (Art.11 of the Covenant). Geneva: UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR). Vickers, M. C., & Smith, P. (2009). Mother Support for Breastfeeding. Penang: WABA. WABA. (2012). Understanding the Past, Planning for the Future. 20th World Breastfeeding Week Action Folder . WHO. (2013). Global Nutrition Policy Review. Geneva, Switzerland : World Health Organization. WHO. (2003). Global Strategy for Infant & Young Child Feeding. Geneva: WHO. World Health Organization. (2002). Infant and Young Child Nutrition: Global Strategy on Infant and Young Child Feeding, Fifty-Fifth World Health Assembly A55/15,Provisional agenda item 13.10. Geneva: WHO.

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THE INFLUENCE ON POLICY AND PRACTICE OF PARTICULAR NOTIONS OF REHABILITATION OF OFFENDER WITHIN THE MALAYSIAN PRISON INSTITUTIONS Rosfizah Md. Taib* *[email protected] Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris

Abstract The paper attempts to review the extent to which the notion of offender rehabilitation has been interpreted by the Malaysia Prisons Department, particularly in relation to the provision of educational opportunities amongst young prisoners. The data from the interviews with prison officials is discussed as to provide answers why the Malaysian government has been providing educational opportunities for young prisoners. It is expected that the understanding of prison officials on the topic will give an answer to which why the Malaysian government is seen committed to providing educational opportunities for young prisoners in prisons. Finally, the paper will suggest the Malaysian prison officials believe the implementation of the notion of offender rehabilitation amongst young prisoners by using education will help the government to fulfil the national interest towards producing useful citizens once they are released later. Keywords: education, young prisoners/offenders, prison, offender rehabilitation, Malaysia, national interest

INTRODUCTION The Prisons Department in Malaysia, being a correctional entity,1 through its vision and mission is responsible to provide a safe detention and rehabilitation institution. 2 Besides controlling over the residents by treating them humanely upon implementing the detention order by the court, one of the functions of the Malaysia Prisons Department is to implement the rehabilitation programme for the residents through various approaches.3 The Offender Management division is the responsible unit that formulates, designs and implements various rehabilitation programmes for offenders. All the rehabilitation programmes are designed based on the principles of “Knowledge, Attitudes, Skills, Intelligence and Humanity” (KASIH) which “KASIH” has been declared to be the motto of the division. The division believes every offender has potentials to be rehabilitated and so its main objective is to shape the attitudes among the offenders to be responsible and socially productive towards their return into the society. 4

1)  See further Rosfizah Md. Taib, Empowering Young Inmates through Lifelong Learning Programs in Malaysia: Prospects and Challenges, 2011, retrieved at http://iclll2011.oum.edu.my/extfiles/pdf/Empowering%20Young%20Inmates%20Through%20Lifelong%20Learning%20Programs%20 in%20Malaysia%20Prospects%20and%20Challenges.pdf 2)  Prisons Department of Malaysia, (accessed 2009, October 27). Vision, Mission and Objectives. Retrieved from http://www.prison.gov.my/bi/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=288&Itemid=64 3)  See website of the Prisons Department of Malaysia, (accessed 2011, August 3). Vision, Mission, Objectives and Functions. Retrieved from http:// www.prison.gov.my/portal/page/portal/hijau/visi 4)  Further details, refer “Pengurusan Banduan” (“Offender Management” division), retrieved at http://www.prison.gov.my; accessed 12 August 2010 Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

The data covers the interviews with five respondents who were selected based on the purposive sampling: the Director General of the Prisons Department, Malaysia (at the time of the interview was the Deputy Director General of the Prisons Department, Malaysia), secondly; the Director of the Management Offender division (the division was formerly known by the Rehabilitation and Treatment Unit of the Prisons Department, Malaysia), thirdly; the Education Section Officer of the Prisons Department, Malaysia, fourthly; the Chief Inspector of the Prisons Department, Malaysia, who represented the Director of the Kajang Prison and fifthly; the Director of the Henry Gurney School, Malacca. The data interviews from each respondent were transcribed verbatim and subsequently analyzed thematically according to a set of established themes in order to perform a continuous flow of discussion. The current paper presents some of the data from a recent study, adopting a qualitative methodology, exploring the views of the Malaysian prison officials regarding the significance of the notion of offender rehabilitation, particularly in relation to the provision of educational opportunities amongst young prisoners. In this paper, the author outlines the discussion into 2 sections; namely: a. How do the prison officials in Malaysia perceive regarding the notion of offender rehabilitation? and; b. How do the prison officials in Malaysia observe the relationship between the notion of offender rehabilitation and the provision of educational opportunities amongst young prisoners? Therefore, the aim of this paper is to discuss whether the attitudes of the Malaysian prison officials in understanding the significance of the notion of offender rehabilitation in the provision of educational opportunities for young prisoners would help the government to fulfil the national interest towards producing useful citizens who may positively contribute to the national development once released later?

ATTITUDES OF THE PRISON OFFICIALS REGARDING THE NOTION OF OFFENDER REHABILITATION Definition of ‘Rehabilitation of Offenders’ In relation to the term “rehabilitation of offenders”, in the context of young prisoners, the interview data with prison officials demonstrates a few points. First, the author discovered that the terms “improve”, “rehabilitate“ and “reform” have been used interchangeably by the respondents during the interviews as to mean “to help the young inmates improve their negative attitudes and thinking styles to be better persons throughout certain planned and structured rehabilitation programmes during the institutionalization.”

‘Dynamic Security’ Secondly, the prison officials perceived that prior to the introduction of the Human Development Plan in 2002, 5 the main function of the Prisons Department was always focused on maintaining the security element of the offenders within the penal institutions rather than rehabilitating them. During that period, rehabilitation programmes for offenders were not implemented in such a structured way. However, the interview data shows the Prisons Department had started to seriously implement rehabilitation programmes for offenders in 2004 when new prison buildings were being built along with equipment for both security and rehabilitation facilities in that year. The Director General commented, “[b]efore 2004, we only implemented programmes on security, and if there were any plans for rehabilitation programmes, we only included ... an unorganized programme... If there was an opportunity for us to implement rehabilitation, we would do it. After 2004, we could see its structure, so the rehabilitation programme was implemented. This means that after 2004, we moved on to the construction of new prison buildings because we needed the facilities for rehabilitation and security. Previously, we focused primarily on security, but we have since realized that rehabilitation is an important process, which will determine the security and safety of the offenders... so we call it dynamic security. It was present before but not integrated”. The Director of Rehabilitation and Treatment supported this statement, “[I]n 2004, we launched the PPI [“Pelan Pembangunan Insan” (PPI) or Human Development Plan] and we are now moving towards rehabilitation… I could see in 2007, the structure of the Headquarters... the total number of staff for the Rehabilitation unit was 30% more than the Security division... so with the launch of the PPI, the structure of the Prisons Department was also modified...” 5)  Refer to “Bahagian Pemulihan dan Rawatan” (“Rehabilitation and Treatment” Division) at page 18, retrieved at http://www.prison.gov.my; accessed 12 August 2010.

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From the above, the author understood that the Prisons Department had been formally heading towards rehabilitation for offenders in 2004 in conjunction with the launch of the Human Development Plan, though it was documented that the plan was introduced in 2002 as mentioned earlier.

POTENTIAL OF YOUNG PEOPLE Next, the data confirms that all the respondents discussed the Human Development Plan as being the blueprint for rehabilitation of offenders within penal institutions. From the data, the author wishes to highlight that most officials expressed their understanding of the obligation to undertake the task of rehabilitating offenders as mentioned in the Human Development Plan, which is to shape the attitude of offenders to enable them to return to society as responsible and productive individuals. Therefore, the data further suggests that all the officials recognized their function to implement rehabilitation strategies based on the philosophy that every prisoner has the potential to be rehabilitated.6 The Director General commented, “You never know; in the future they might become leaders...”, another respondent, the Director of HGS expressed, “It is worthwhile to give assistance to these offenders, although they have been placed in these institutions... we believe that they have the potential to change their lives, to create a positive future for their race and nation… They have the potential to become model citizens...'' and another respondent, the Chief Inspector added, “[T]hese young offenders, there is a high possibility for them to be reformed...” Therefore, based on the above quotations, we may denote that the prison officials seemed sincere and passionate to help young people to be rehabilitated and reformed during the institutionalization period. Also, the findings imply that the desire of officials to assist young prisoners to improve themselves is most likely based on the belief that every young prisoner may have huge potential if they truly want to change for the better.

ATTITUDES OF THE MALAYSIAN PRISON OFFICIALS REGARDING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE NOTION OF OFFENDER REHABILITATION AND THE PROVISION OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AMONGST YOUNG PRISONERS The findings illustrate the Malaysian prison officials view there is a close relationship between the notion of offender rehabilitation and the provision of educational opportunities amongst young prisoners.

Education and/or the Knowledge-Based Rehabilitative Approach From the interview data, we may perceive that since the respondents have so much experience in dealing with the problems of these young prisoners, the prison officials felt that the best approach to change the behaviour of the youths during imprisonment is to apply a programme which has elements of education. The Director General informed, “The concept that we use is based on the concept of education. We understand that these offenders are still young so they need to have an education... Education presents the opportunity for students to be equipped with knowledge and think as mature and positive individuals. This is the knowledge that we want to channel to them so they can build their own principles in life, to improve their knowledge so they would be able to determine where they want to head in life.” The Director of Rehabilitation and Treatment continued, “Our stand is that knowledge can lead to attitude change... so we need to provide them with knowledge...” Also further commented by the Education Officer, “We see education as the catalyst for change in a person's life... especially a youngster's life. That's why we need to provide these kids with an education”. From the above quotations, the officials posit that the concept of knowledge-educational rehabilitative programmes can be an essential element capable of building young people's thinking skills and attitudes. The respondents believe that if young offenders have more room to get an education, they will be more knowledgeable and able to think and act wisely. As this process continues, these young people will gradually turn into better persons who are more matured and would be more determined to move forward positively in their future lives. From the findings, the officials also think that education is the best tool to rehabilitate these young people and 6)  Refer to “Bahagian Pemulihan dan Rawatan” (“Rehabilitation and Treatment” Division) at page 2, retrieved at http://www.prison.gov.my; accessed 12 August 2010.

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that every rehabilitation programme is considered as one form of training towards preparing them to adapt a more positive lifestyle whilst in incarceration. Hence, the Prisons Authority established certain regimented methods into a comprehensive programme called the Putra Module within the prisons settings. These methods aim to discipline young people to adapt good values both in thinking and attitude based on the principles of Knowledge, Attitudes, Skills, Intelligence and Humanity (“KASIH”) as contained in the Human Development Plan. Here, we can therefore interpret that the prison officials generally consider that the Putra Module, which is based on the elements of KASIH, should be adopted as a procedure used to discipline the routine life of all young offenders during their institutionalization.

Education and/or Knowledge as a Means to Discipline Young People Also according to the officials, it is observed that the Putra Module gives greater emphasis on the personal development of each youth in the institutions from both aspects of character and attitude. Following the Putra Module, the young people are trained to inculcate good moral values which they learn from various rehabilitation modules ranging from academic, vocational, religious, moral, co-curriculum and psychological subjects. The Director of HGS explained, “[W]e do stress on the importance of discipline, which means that while they are here, they need to practise a regimented way of life and also need to have good discipline.” In addition, the Director of Rehabilitation and Treatment stressed, “[W]e would like the offenders to behave in a disciplined manner in this (prison) institution. So, if they are like this everyday, always disciplined, this will become their culture. Since we already know that they are not as knowledgeable as other people, maybe they have a negative attitude, so we provide them with this training”. The author assumes the prison officials believe the more disciplined the young people are taught to be, the more positive kind of people they would turn into. Nevertheless, from the data, the author discovered that all the respondents tended to give more emphasis on developing the personal attitude and character of the young people rather than only to stress on academic and skills achievements. The Chief Inspector in a supportive statement said, “Attitude, manners... change for the better... that is important...” And the Education Officer commented, “[T]hese two [academic and/or skills plus moral values] parts should not be separated... we must have knowledge, and we must also have moral values. These should be developed, if possible, in terms of percentage; I would say the moral values should exceed the knowledge aspect so that they would be better equipped to become better citizens... who provide value to the country when they join the society.”

Attitude Changes The data thus demonstrates that the tendency of the prison officials to help inculcate moral values in young people during incarceration is set to the belief that these youths can be shaped into being better citizens who are later capable of contributing positively to society upon their reintegration. The respondents also presume that they can ascertain the attitude change amongst these young people who can be said to be ‘rehabilitated’, which usually involves inmates who are heading towards a more positive lifestyle during their incarceration. As the Chief Inspector said, “[n]o bad incidents have happened... no fights... no difficult cases for us to solve. So we think the offenders have gone through this activity rather well.” The Director General further inserted, “[t]he offenders have the awareness to control themselves... if they want to get into fights, they will think first... so with this knowledge, the negative things can be decreased...” while another respondent, the Director of HGS informed, “I do realize that these juveniles may have committed crimes, but if we help them to reform, they will not continue with their life in crime and we could probably see a drop in crime rates.” So far, we may gather that the Malaysian prison officials believe that educational provision for the young people has close relationships with the Prisons Department’s aim to rehabilitate the youths and lead them away from future criminal acts.

EDUCATION AND/OR KNOWLEDGE-BASED REHABILITATIVE APPROACH AS A VALUE ADDED TO THE BEHAVIOURAL REFORM OF YOUNG PEOPLE To Discipline and to Guide Young People When these young people received certain aspects of their education, the prison officials observed that the youths tended to be more receptive in accepting the prison rules and regulations which were designed to © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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discipline them. The findings would further suggest that the educational system which is currently being implemented in the prisons and the Henry Gurney Schools acts as a system that fulfils two main purposes, namely, to discipline the young people, and secondly, to guide them to become better persons. To again quote the Director of Rehabilitation and Treatment, he emphasized that; “We would like the offenders to behave in a much more disciplined manner in these institutions [prisons]. So if they are like this everyday, always disciplined, this will become their culture…” and the Director of HGS further said, “We do stress on the importance of discipline, which means that while they are here, they need to practise a regimented way of life and also need to have good discipline.” Here, the above data can be construed to show that, in the prison officials view, the education component is extremely important for young offenders as a means to discipline the youths and have them committed doing useful activities during their imprisonment, and that eventually this will encourage the youths to become better persons during and after their incarceration. The Director General further clearly commented, “The rehabilitation aims to mould the offenders using modification of behaviour. This means that if we combine the two [components of rehabilitation added to education and/or a knowledge-based rehabilitative approach], they are supposed to help each other... the Prisons Department uses education to assist the modification process... If there's no education component, it will be difficult as the offenders will not have the awareness. It will be difficult for us to encourage them to do something positive. Because they won't be able to see it, they only see the negative aspects. That's why I believe that when they have the awareness, it becomes easier to help them; faster, easier to mould them. When they realize the situation that they are in... they are aware of their roles to become successful people, good people. Because if they don't have the knowledge, it will be hard to implement the rehabilitation… before the inclusion of the educational content, we felt that it was difficult for us to help decrease the recidivism rate.” From the above quotation, we may denote that the understanding of the management of the Malaysia Prisons Department towards providing educational opportunities for young people in prisons and Henry Gurney Schools is quite closely connected to their motivation to help discipline young people to become better and useful persons during and after their imprisonment. The education component has also been observed to be an appropriate mechanism that is being used by the Prisons Authority, which they expect to enhance the entire process of transforming personal behaviour amongst young people. As a matter of fact, it has become obvious to us at this point that the Prisons Department has considered putting greater emphasis on helping young offenders to change their behaviour and attitude towards becoming useful persons during and after institutionalization. We may therefore note that the prison officials see education as a diversionary activity which diverts young offenders from misbehaving in prisons, thus amounting to a tool to maintain good order and discipline.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS The responses from the data would suggest the prison officials in Malaysia opine the implementation of the notion of offender rehabilitation amongst young prisoners by using education will help the government to fulfil the national interest towards producing useful citizens once they are released later. The findings further recommend that the officials view when young people in penal institutions enjoy a wide variety of educational opportunities available in the institutions, they will be more exposed to the holistic development towards becoming valuable assets to the country in the future. The data suggest the prison officials also believe every young offender has potentials to be rehabilitated becoming better persons through enduring a systematic and structured rehabilitation programme like the Putra Module based on the principles embedded in the Human Development Plan. The data from senior prison officials from the Kajang Prison and the Malacca Henry Gurney School also show that young people in penal institutions should be regarded as a potential source of human capital for the country even though they are now being institutionalized. In addition, all the respondents verify that adequate and proper educational opportunities offered to young offenders in prison institutions are expected to meet the aspirations of the Prisons Department to change the status of youths from the "burden" of the country and society to the "assets" worth in the future. Therefore, we can say that the government uses the idea of offender rehabilitation to improve the confidence of young people in prisons that they still have an important role to contribute to national development. Furthermore, the data from senior officials of the Malaysia Prisons Department also indicate their full understanding towards supporting the government's stance in putting effort to promote the dissemination

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of education and/or knowledge among young people in institutions to better develop the potential of each individual offender to the fullest extent during incarceration that teaches them to become useful citizens during their reintegration process. This aim appears consistent with the mission of the government to produce useful citizens who can become successors of the nations when the country was able to become a fully developed nation by the year 2020. Therefore, for this reason, the author assumes the Malaysia Prisons Department was compelled, from time to time, to constantly improve the management aspects of offender rehabilitation primarily to produce former prisoners who are healthier, independent and crime-free before they are released from institutions. Finally, the data from the current study also indicate that the prison officials are more enthusiastic to expose young offenders with types of education and/or knowledge that can guide the youths to develop their self behaviour and build character rather than focusing solely on academic and/or skills achievements.

CONCLUSION The present study sought to analyze whether the attitudes of the Malaysian prison officials towards understanding the significance of the notion of offender rehabilitation influences the provision of educational opportunities amongst young prisoners. The author discovers the perceptions of the prison officials towards understanding the significance of the notion of offender rehabilitation signify their thinking that every young offender has potential to be better persons and that they are able to positively contribute to the national development once they are released from the institutions. Furthermore, the paper would like to conclude that the Malaysian prison officials believe the the idea of offender rehabilitation, especially among young prisoners has become the main driving factor that has prompted the Malaysian government to provide educational opportunities for young prisoners in the penal institutions. Finally, the author would like to suggest that more empirical studies should be carried out in the future to find out how effective the implementation of the notion of offender rehabilitation is being performed within the prison institutions in Malaysia as at today?

REFERENCES Dewey, J (2007), “Democracy in Education”, The Echo Library, Middlesex, UK. “Pembelajaran Sepanjang Hayat” (“Lifelong Learning”), the Malaysia Prisons Department “Pembelajaran Sepanjang Hayat”, published in Utusan Malaysia, dated 23 September 2005, accessed 1 July 2011 retrieved at www.utusan.com.my Bee, T G, (undated). Institutional Treatment and Management for Juvenile Offenders in Malaysia, Retrieved from http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/PDF_rms/no59/ch12.pdf (Accessed on 11 January 2008) Omar, Zulkifli, (undated). Current Issues in Correctional Treatment and Effective Countermeasures, Retrieved from http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/PDF_rms/no57/57_24.pdf (Accessed on 8 January 2008) For further information about UNAFEI, refer: http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pages/History.htm “The United Nations Asia and Far East Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders (UNAFEI) is a United Nations regional institute, established in 1962 by agreement between the United Nations and the Government of Japan, with the aim of promoting the sound development of criminal justice systems and mutual cooperation in Asia and the Pacific Region.” Z N Hashim, (1984). Correction of Young Offenders in Malaysian Prisons, UNAFEI Resources Material Series, 26; 134-142, Retrieved from http://www.njcrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=99377(Accessed on 30 July 2008) Ali, A., (2005), “Lifelong Learning: Policy of Malaysia and the Role of OUM”, Korea, retrieved at http://asiapacificodl.oum.edu.my/C33/F250.pdf; accessed 1 July 2011 Leong, Y. K, (1997), “Lifelong Learning and Vision 2020 in Malaysia”, retrieved at http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ ED411882.pdf; accessed 1 July 2011 http://www.prison.gov.my Child Act, 2001 Prison Act, 1995 © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Prison Rules 2000 Henry Gurney Rules, 1949 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (“the Beijing Rules”) United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners 1954

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2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PEMERKASAAN WANITA MALAYSIA KE ARAH PEMBANGUNAN MODAL INSAN Noor Azizah Ahmad*, Mariny Abdul Ghani & Zalinah Ahmad *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Dasar Wanita Negara menghendaki pelbagai pihak memainkan peranan untuk merealisasikan aspirasi bagi membangunkan modal insan yang berdaya saing dalam aktiviti pembangunan Negara. Pelbagai tindakan telah diambil untuk menjayakan hasrat ini selaras dengan pernyataan dalam strategi dan pendekatan yang telah ditetapkan melalui dasar tersebut. Pelan Tindakan Pembangunan Wanita juga telah dijadikan panduan dalam membentuk program dan aktiviti yang sewajarnya dilaksanakan bagi mencapai matlamat yang ditetapkan. Salah satu dari pendekatan tersebut ialah mewujudkan sumber manusia yang berpengetahuan dan terlatih bagi membolehkan penglibatan yang menyeluruh dalam aktiviti pembangunan. Pelan ini juga menuntut komitmen menyeluruh dari agensi-agensi kerajaan, sektor swasta dan juga pertubuhan bukan kerajaan. Selaras dengan itu, artikel ini akan mengupas program-program yang telah dan sedang dilaksanakan oleh pelbagai pihak untuk memperkasa wanita ke arah membangunkan modal insan yang mampu menyumbang tenaga dan berdaya saing dalam aktiviti pembangunan Negara. Keywords: Dasar Wanita Negara, memperkasa, modal insan, wanita, Malaysia

PENGENALAN Artikel ini akan membincangkan tentang usaha pelbagai pihak merangkumi agensi-agensi kerajaan dan badan bukan kerajaan melaksanakan program-program bertujuan untuk membangunkan modal insan dalam kalangan wanita. Perlaksanaan program-program ini adalah bertujuan untuk meningkatkan penglibatan dan daya saing wanita dalam aktiviti pembangunan Negara selaras dengan matlamat Dasar Wanita Negara. Matlamat ini dibentuk selaras dengan kesedaran perlunya melibatkan wanita yang merupakan sebahagian dari modal insan dalam Negara ini dalam aktiviti pembangunan. Perbincangan dimulakan dengan meneliti peruntukan yang terdapat dalam Dasar Wanita Negara 1989 dan 2009 dan juga Pelan TIndakan Pembangunan Wanita. Ini diikuti dengan perbincangan tentang program-program yang telah dan sedang dilaksanakan bagi mencapai matlamat yang telah ditetapkan.

DASAR WANITA NEGARA DAN PELAN TINDAKAN PEMBANGUNAN WANITA Menyedari pentingnya sumbangan wanita kepada aktiviti pembangunan Negara, pihak Kerajaan telah melaksanakan pelbagai usaha ke arah meningkatkan lagi penglibatan mereka. Pengiktirafan ini boleh dijelaskan dengan terbentuknya Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita Keluarga dan Masyarakat (sebelum ini dikenali sebagai Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita dan Keluarga) dan juga pembentukan Dasar Wanita Negara yang dilengkapi dengan Pelan Tindakan Pembangunan Wanita pada tahun 1989 dan kemudiannya telah disemak dan dilancarkan semula pada tahun 2009.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Meneliti aspek perkembangan polisi, Dasar Wanita Negara 1989 diperkenalkan bertujuan menggalakkan penglibatan wanita dalam dalam pelbagai sektor merangkumi ekonomi, politik dan sosial. Pembentukan dasar ini dipengaruhi oleh komitmen Negara terhadap pelbagai resolusi berkait dengan wanita seperti Resolusi Pertubuhan Bangsa-bangsa Bersatu tentang Dekad untuk Wanita (1976-1985), Deklarasi Sekretariat Komenwel tentang Wanita dan Pembangunan (1985), dan Resolusi Persidangan Menteri-menteri yang bertanggungjawab kepada Wanita di Zimbabwe (1987) yang mendesak kerajaan Negara-negara yang terlibat untuk memformulasikan polisi berkait dengan isu-isu wanita dan usaha mengintegrasikan penglibatan mereka dalam pembangunan Negara. Untuk menunjukkan komitmen kepada resolusi-resolusi tersebut, agensi-agensi kerajaan ketika itu seperti HAWA dan National Council of Women’s Organizations (NCWO), dan juga Pertubuhan-pertubuhan Bukan Kerajaan (NGOs) telah mengambil inisiatif menganjurkan bengkelbengkel dan perundingan untuk mendapatkan sokongan dan konsensus bagi melaksanakan komitmen tersebut. Pada bulan Januari 1986, kerajaan telah bersetuju menggunapakai kertas kerja yang disediakan oleh National Advisory Council for the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID) sebagai asas ke arah merealisasikan pelan tindakan untuk wanita dalam pembangunan. Malaysia telah memformulasi dan meluluskan Dasar Wanita Negara berasaskan kepada prinsip dan strategi yang ditetapkan dalam Nairobi Forward Looking Strategy, 1985. Dasar ini telah digunapakai pada Disember 1989 atas kesedaran bahawa wanita tidak mampu bersaing dengan lelaki disebabkan oleh pelbagai halangan untuk penglibatan secara menyeluruh dalam arus pembangunan. Sebelum pembentukan Dasar Wanita Negara, kerajaan telah memperuntukan sumber kewangan untuk aktiviti melibatkan wanita melalui Rancangan Malaysia Ketiga (1976-1980). Walau bagaimanapun, peruntukan ini telah digunakan dalam aktiviti yang lebih berunsur mengekalkan peranan wanita dan fungsi-fungsi mereka sebagai isteri, ibu dan hanya membantu suami dalam menjana pendapatan (supplementary income earners). Selaras dengan itu, peruntukan kewangan tersebut disalurkan melalui agensi-agensi seperti Lembaga Pembangunan Penduduk dan Keluarga Negara dan Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. Keadaan ini menyebabkan kurangnya usaha dilakukan untuk meningkatkan pengupayaan wanita. Perlaksanaan Dasar Wanita Negara pada tahun 1989 adalah bermatlamatkan untuk: a. Menjamin perkongsian yang saksama di antara lelaki dan wanita dalam pemilikan sumber dan maklumat di samping mendapatkan peluang dan faedah dari pembangunan; b. Untuk mengintegrasikan wanita ke dalam semua sektor pembangunan selaras dengan kemampuan dan keperluan mereka bagi tujuan meningkatkan mutu kehidupan, membasmi kemiskinan, menghapuskan kejahilan dan buta huruf serta memastikan Negara berada dalam keadaan aman dan makmur. DWN ini kemudian telah disemak semula bagi melakukan pengubahsuian selaras dengan perubahan persekitaran dan keperluan semasa. Pada bulan Ogos 2009, Dasar Wanita Negara Kedua atau lebih dikenali sebagai Dasar Wanita Negara 2009 telah dilancarkan sempena sambutan Hari Wanita Peringkat Kebangsaan dengan menekankan kepada objektif kesaksamaan gender, pembasmian kemiskinan, dan menginterasikan wanita dalam semua aspek pembangunan. Dasar Wanita Negara 2009 telah memperincikan lagi matlamat dasar yang terdahulu dengan memberi perhatian kepada usaha mengupayakan wanita dan usaha mewujudkan persekitaran yang kondusif ke arah meningkatkan penglibatan wanita dalam semua aspek kehidupan. Antara matlamat DWN 2009 yang boleh dikaitkan dengan usaha memperkasa wanita dan pembangunan modal insan ialah: a. Membangunkan potensi dan mendayaupayakan wanita dari pelbagai lapisan masyarakat dan dalam semua sektor sebagai agen perubahan kepada masyarakat serta penyumbang kepada pembangunan ekonomi dan sosial Negara; b. •encapai perkongsian saksama antara wanita dan lelaki dalam memperoleh dan mengawal sumber dan peluang penyertaan serta menikmati manfaat pembangunan; c. Meningkatkan dan mengukuhkan perkongsian adil dan saksama antara wanita dengan lelaki dalam semua aspek kehidupan bagi memantapkan institusi keluarga serta membangunkan komuniti dan masyarakat. Kedua-dua Dasar Wanita Negara ini dilengkapi dengan Pelan Tindakan Pembangunan Wanita bertujuan memberikan panduan kepada pihak pelaksana tentang aspek yang perlu difokuskan. Pelan ini menjelaskan aspek yang perlu dicapai dalam 13 bidang yang telah dikenalpasti dan aktor-aktor yang terlibat bagi mencapai matlamat yang ditetapkan. Menyedari bahawa penglibatan wanita dalam pasaran tenaga buruh adalah lebih rendah berbanding dengan lelaki, maka salah satu daripada aspek yang ditekankan ialah Wanita dan Ekonomi. Contohnya, terdapat sejumlah 10.9 juta tenaga buruh di Malaysia pada tahun 2007, dari jumlah tersebut, 6.9 juta (63 peratus) adalah dari kalangan lelaki dan hanya 3.9 juta (36.1%) adalah golongan wanita. Statistik ini menunjukkan ketidakselarasan antara jumlah wanita yang melanjutkan pelajaran di institusi pengajian tinggi dengan jumlah mereka yang terlibat dalam guna tenaga buruh. Kajian yang dijalankan oleh Kementerian © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga dan Masyarakat dengan Jabatan Statistik pada tahun 2003 mendapati wanita menyumbang kepada 75.6 peratus untuk kerja-kerja yang tidak menumbangkan kepada gaji/upah yang tetap. Ini menyumbang kepada nilai anggaran berjumlah RM75.6 juta dan jumlah ini tidak dikira dalam Keluaran Dalam Negara Kasar. Oleh itu, pelbagai usaha telah dilakukan untuk mengurangkan jurang antara lelaki dan wanita dalam pasaran kerja. Contohnya, Pelan Tindakan Pembangunan Wanita dalam aspek Wanita dan Ekonomi telah menggariskan objektif dan strategi termasuk usaha meningkatkan kemahiran, pengetahuan dan peluang bagi wanita menceburkan diri dalam bidang ekonomi yang mampu memberikan pulangan lebih baik kepada mereka. Rancangan Malaysia Ke Sembilan (2006-2010) dan Rancangan Malaysia Ke Sepuluh (2011-2015) juga telah menggariskan tindakan bagi mewujudkan persekitaran yang lebih kondusif dan menyokong usaha merealisasikan peningkatan penglibatan wanita dalam aktiviti pembangunan. Usaha ini menampakkan kejayaan apabila berlakunya peningkatan jumlah wanita di peringkat pembuatan keputusan dari 6.9 peratus pada tahun 1995 kepada 30.5 peratus pada tahun 2010 (Jabatan Pembangunan Wanita, 2012). Walau bagaimanapun, peningkatan ini hanya dapat dikesan di sektor awam. Dasar Wanita Negara tahun 1989 mendapati kerajaan lebih menumpukan kepada usaha mewujudkan jentera pentadbiran untuk menyelaraskan aktiviti wanita dalam pembangunan Negara. Pembentukan jentera pentadbiran ini penting kerana ia berperanan bagi melaksanakan fungsi menyuarakan isu-isu berkait dengan wanita bagi membantu kerajaan mengintegrasikan isu-isu tersebut dalam pembentukan dasar dan program negara. Ini boleh diperhatikan dari perubahan jentera pentadbiran bermula dari Unit Hal Ehwal Wanita (HAWA) kepada Jabatan Pembangunan Wanita sehingga kepada pembentukan Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita dan Keluarga. Usaha memperkukuhkan lagi jentera pentadbiran ini turut dikesan dalam Dasar Wanita Negara 2009 apabila menekankan kepada kerjasama antara sektor awam, sektor swasta dan organisasi bukan kerajaaan bagi melaksanakan aktiviti latihan bagi meningkatkan pengetahuan dan kemahiran dalam kalangan wanita. Dasar Wanita Negara 1989 menekankan kepada perkongsian bersama antara lelaki dan wanita dalam pemilikan sumber dan maklumat dan juga dalam aspek kehidupan yang lain. Ini bertujuan mewujudkan institusi keluarga yang lebih baik dan pembangunan komuniti dan masyarakat yang lebih seimbang. Sementara itu, Dasar Wanita Negara 2009 mempromosikan pemerkasaan wanita dalam usaha mempertingkatkan potensi mereka sehingga tahap optima ke arah mewujudkan kesaksamaan gender. Selaras dengan itu usaha telah dilakukan untuk mengarusperdanakan gender dalam semua aspek merangkumi pembuatan polisi, dan juga perlaksanaan program dan projek. Kedua-dua polisi ini menekankan kepada aspek kesaksamaan gender, namun Dasar Wanita Negara 2009 semakin memfokuskan kepada strategi untuk menerapkan elemen kesaksamaan gender dalam semua peringkat masyarakat.

USAHA-USAHA KE ARAH MEMPERKASA WANITA Usaha atau tidakan ke arah memperkasa wanita Negara ini akan dibincangkan dengan merujuk kepada aspek meningkatkan pengetahuan dan kepekaan wanita tentang hak-hak mereka dan juga usaha meningkatkan kemahiran melalui latihan dan bengkel yang dianjurkan oleh pelbagai pihak merangkumi sektor awam dan swasta. Jabatan Pembangunan Wanita melalui agensi-agensi lain di bawahnya seperti Pejabat Pembangunan Wanita Negeri yang diwujudkan di setiap negeri dan wilayah persekutuan dan juga State Council of Women and Family Development telah melaksanakan pelbagai program bagi membangunkan wanita Negara ini. Salah satu program iaitu Nur Bestari telah dilaksanakan di semua kawasan Parlimen. Nur Bestari boleh dirujuk sebagai payung yang bertanggungjawab melaksanakan sebahagian besar aktiviti dan program bagi meningkatkan pengetahuan dan kesedaran dalam kalangan wanita. Program-program yang dilaksanakan merangkumi isuisu berkait dengan wanita seperti kerjaya, pengurusan stress, pengurusan keluarga, kesihatan, keganasan rumahtangga, kesedaran undang-undang, kesaksamaan gender dan perancangan kewangan. Aktiviti-aktiviti seperti seminar, bengkel atau perbincangan ini dijalankan secara berkala dilaksanakan bergantung kepada permintaan atau isu semasa dan terbuka kepada semua yang berminat. Pejabat Pembangunan Wanita Negeri Kelantan contohnya, telah menganjurkan Seminar Wanita Anti Jenayah (WAJA) dan Akta Keganasan Rumahtangga pada bulan Julai 2013. Program ini menumpukan kepada usaha membentuk kesedaran dan kepekaan kepada komuniti tentang hak-hak wanita dan langkah-langkah bagi menjaga kebajikan wanita. Program yang sama dianjurkan di seluruh Negara pada bulan Mei dan Jun 2013 bertujuan mendedahkan pengetahuan kepada komuniti, terutama kaum wanita bagi membasmi keganasan terhadap wanita. Statistik yang dikeluarkan oleh Polis Diraja Malaysia dan Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga dan Masyarakat (2013) menunjukkan sebahagian besar mangsa yang terlibat dalam masalah © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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keganasan adalah wanita. Pada tahun 2012 jumlah laporan kes ialah 3488 berbanding dengan hanya 3173 kes pada tahun 2010 dan 3277 kes pada tahun 2011. Walau bagaimanapun, perlu diingat bahawa ini adalah angka bagi kes yang dilaporkan. Statistik yang dikeluarkan oleh Women’s Aid Organisation menyatakan 40 peratus wanita Malaysia terdedah dengan masalah keganasan namun hanya 10 peratus dari kes-kes ini dilaporkan (Pragalatah, 2012). Melalui kaedah-kaedah ini, Kementerian telah memainkan peranan peranan penting dalam meningkatkan kesedaran tentang isu-isu berkait kesejahteraan wanita. Kementerian juga telah menggunakan media sosial seperti Facebook dan Twitter untuk menyebarkan maklumat berkait dengan isu keganasan rumahtangga. Jabatan Pembangunan Wanita juga telah memuat naik program-program yang telah dilaksanakan oleh pelbagai Pejabat Pembangunan Wanita Negeri. Selain itu, kementerian telah mengambil langkah mewujudkan talian telefon khas bagi melaporkan kes-kes keganasan. Contohnya, Talian Nur 15999 diperkenalkan pada tahun 2007, talian khas untuk kanak-kanak, Childline 15999 padam tahun 2010 memandangkan terdapat peningkatan kes dan masalah dalam kalangan kanak-kanak. Kerajaan juga mengambil langkah mewujudkan talian khas untuk orang awam melaporkan atau memaklumkan kes-kes keganasan rumahtangga yang dikenali sebagai Malaysia Control Centre di bawah kendalian Polis Diraja Malaysia. Pertubuhan Bukan Kerajaan (NGOs) seperti Women’s Aid Organization (WAO) dan Women’s Centre for Change (WCC) juga turut terlibat dalam membantu kementerian berkait hal ini. Mereka telah bekerjasama dengan pihak sekolah menganjurkan program-program bertujuan mewujudkan kesedaran pada peringkat usia yang lebih muda. Contohnya, WAO telah menganjurkan program RESPECT bertujuan membina hubungan sihat antara pelajar lelaki dan perempuan dan juga anggota keluarga. Peningkatan kes-kes sumbang mahram telah menggalakkan WCC di Pulau Pinang untuk menganjurkan aktiviti bagi menjelaskan kepada para pelajar tentang cara membezakan antara sentuhan yang baik atau sesuai dan sentuhan yang tidak baik atau tidak sesuai walaupun dalam kalangan anggota keluarga. Organisasi ini juga telah mengambil inisiatif mengeluar dan menyebarkan risalah dan maklumat tempat-tempat untuk mendapatkan nasihat dan bantuan sekiranya diperlukan oleh para pelajar. Usaha-usaha juga telah dilakukan oleh pelbagai pihak untuk memberi latihan kemahiran dan bantuanbantuan lain seperti modal dan peralatan untuk meningkatkan pengupayaan wanita dalam aktiviti menjana pendapatan. Tindakan ini secara langsung mampu mempertingkatkan pengupaaan wanita dan menggalakkan penglibatan mereka dalam pembangunan Negara. Jabatan Pembanguan Wanita dan NGOs misalnya telah mengambil inisiatif menganjurkan Program Jejari Bestari, Program Inkubator Ibu Tunggal (I-KIT), Program Small Office Home Office, dan Program Pembangunan Kapasiti Wanita Orang Asli. Tindakan ini diambil atas kesedaran bahawa golongan wanita sering dikaitkan dengan masalah kemiskinan terutama dalam kalangan ibu tunggal yang sebelum ini bergantung hidup kepada suami mereka. Walaupun terdapat bantuan yang diberikan oleh pelbagai pihak seperti Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat melalui Bantuan Am dan Bantuan Kanakkanak dan juga Pejabat Zakat, ia sekadar membantu meringankan beban hidup setiap bulan namun tidak mampu mengeluarkan mereka dari masalah kemiskinan dan mmeningkatkan kesejahteraan hidup. Oleh itu, melalui Pelan Tindakan Pembangunan Wanita, kerajaan telah menggariskan program pendidikan dan latihan bagi membantu ke arah penjanaan pendapatan yang lebih baik. Program I-KIT telah diperkenalkan mulai Rancangan Malaysia Ke Sembilan. I-KIT memberikan tumpuan kepada tujuh bidang kemahiran merangkumi jahitan, kraftangan, pelancongan, terapi kecantikan, perniagaan, keusahawanan dan penjagaan kanak-kanak. Program I-KIT dilaksanakan berdasarkan dua fasa. Fasa pertama melibatkan usaha memberikan latihan dan kemahiran dalam bidang-bidang seperti jahitan kraftangan, terapi kecantikan, penternakan, dan perniagaan. Wanita yang mengikuti latihan ini boleh mendapat sijil yang diiktiraf seperti Sijil Kemahiran Malaysia dan melayakkan mereka untuk mendapat pembiayaan atau peruntukan kewangan dari agensi-agensi seperti Tekun Nasional, Majlis Amanah Rakyat, Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia dan The Small and Medium Enterprise Corporation (SMECorp.). Fasa kedua merujuk kepada bimbingan keusahawanan kepada mereka yang telah berjaya menamatkan Fasa Pertama. Aktiviti pada fasa ini melibatkan kerjasama dari agensi-agensi yang menyalurkan bantuan atau pinjaman kewangan seperti Institut Keusahawanan Negara, Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia dan Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat melalui geran pelancaran. Selain itu, aktiviti kemahiran lain meliputi Program Jejari Bestari dan Inspirasi Kreatif yang dijalankan berdasarkan kawasan Parlimen pula memberikan penekanan kepada pembuatan aksesori dan sulaman; Program Small Office-Home Office pula memberikan latihan selama tiga bulan bagi membolehkan wanita bekerja sendiri di rumah tanpa menjejaskan urusan keluarga; dan Program Home Managers bertujuan memberi pendedahan tentang cara mengurus rumahtangga dengan baik dan professional. Pihak lain yang terlibat memperkasa wanita melalui penyaluran kemahiran ialah Pertubuhan Bukan Kerajaan (NGOs) seperti Majlis Pertubuhan Ibu Tunggal Malaysia (MIPTM) dan Yayasan Pembangunan Keluarga Darul Ta’zim (YPKDT). MIPTM adalah merupakan gabungan 17 persatuan ibu tunggal yang memainkan peranan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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memberi khidmat nasihat kepada ahli-ahli berkenaan permohonan bantuan, pinjaman, khidmat nasihat dan geran bagi membolehkan ibu tunggal memulakan perniagaan. Sementara YPKDT pula menganjurkan program seperti Projek Menjana Pendapatan Golongan Berpendapatan Rendah melibatkan kerjasama pihakpihak seperti Badan Amal Isteri Wakil-wakil Rakyat dan Johor Corporation. Projek ini telah dimulakan pada tahun 2003 dan dibuka untuk mereka yang berpendapatan di bawah RM700 sebulan, berdaftar dalam Sistem e-Kasih dan YPKDT. Peserta-peserta yang telah Berjaya menamatkan latihan diberi peluang untuk mendapat bantuan peralatan (Yayasan Pembangunan Keluarga Darul Ta’zim, 2012). Namun begitu, keberkesanan program-program ini dalam memperkasakan wanita masih belum dapat dipastikan. Diyana, Doris dan Nor Aini (2009) berpandangan aspek penilaian program yang dilaksanakan masih lagi kurang menjadi fokus dalam kajian-kajian di negara ini. Mereka berpandangan hal ini amat merugikan memandangkan keberkesanan dan keupayaan sesuatu program membantu meningkatkan pengupayaan ibu tunggal tidak dapat dipastikan dengan tepat. Ini bermakna kerajaan membelanjakan peruntukan yang banyak tanpa mengambil kira keberkesanan program. Situasi ini boleh membawa kepada pembaziran peruntukan kerajaan sekiranya program-program ini dilaksanakan dalam tempoh masa yang panjang. Usaha meneliti keberkesanan perlaksanaan program terhadap ibu tunggal telah dilakukan oleh Zanalisa (2012) dengan memfokuskan kepada program latihan kemahiran (I-KIT) yang dianjurkan oleh Jabatan Pembangunan Wanita Negeri Johor. Seramai 49 orang ibu tunggal yang terlibat dalam latihan ini terlibat sebagai responden kajian. Kajian menunjukan responden memberikan reaksi positif terhadap empat aspek yang dikaji iaitu kepuasan peserta terhadap latihan kemahiran, perolehan pengetahuan dan peningkatan kemahiran, perubahan tingkah laku serta perubahan dari segi pendapatan. Kajian oleh Thuaibah @ Suaibah et. al (2004) tentang aktiviti keusahawanan ibu tunggal di Negeri Johor pula mendapati bahawa penglibatan mereka dalam aktiviti perniagaan adalah tinggi. Walau bagaimanapun, aktiviti ini hanya terbatas kepada perniagaan secara kecil-kecilan sekadar untuk mendapatkan sumber kewangan bagi menyara kehidupan mereka. Boleh dikatakan bahawa kajian ini tidak dapat menentukan sejauhmana program-program yang dilaksanakan sebelum ini berjaya atau tidak meningkatkan skil dan pengupayaan ibu tunggal di negara ini.

KESIMPULAN Dapat disimpulkan bahawa banyak usaha telah dilakukan oleh pelbagai pihak merangkumi agensi-agensi kerajaan dan bukan kerajaan bagi meningkatkan pengupayaan wanita. Tindakan ini bertujuan membangunkan modal insan bagi memboleh mereka berfungsi dengan lebih baik bagi meningkatkan kesejahteraan hidup mereka dan keluarga. Tindakan ini dilakukan selaras dengan usaha mencapai matlamat Dasar Wanita Negara (1989 dan 2009) untuk memperkasakan wanita dan menjamin perkongsian saksama lelaki dan wanita. Strategi-strategi telah dibentuk untuk mencapai matlamat ini dan telah digariskan dalam Pelan Tindakan Pembangunan Wanita. Berdasarkan dokumen-dokumen ini, banyak pihak telah melaksanakan programprogram bagi meningkatkan pengetahuan dan kepekaan berkait dengan wanita. Selain itu, menyedari wanita adalah merupakan golongan yang lebih ramai terdedah dengan masalah kemiskinan dan halanganhalangan penglibatan menyeluruh wanita dalam sektor pekerjaan seperti kekurangan kemahiran dan urusan rumahtangga telah membawa kepada perlaksanaan program-program seperti I-KIT dan Jejari Bestari oleh Jabatan Pembangunan Wanita untuk melakukan program-program yang boleh memperkasa wanita dan memberi peluang kepada mereka untuk melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti yang menjamin pendapatan yang lebih baik. Perlaksanaan program-program ini turut dibantu oleh sektor swasta dan pertubuhan-pertubuhan bukan kerajaan.

RUJUKAN Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga dan Masyarakat (2014). Dasar Wanita Negara, 1989.http://www. pmo.gov.my/dokumenattached/Dasar/17DASAR_WANITA_NEGARA.pdf. Diakses pada 4 Jun 2014. Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga dan Masyarakat (2014). Dasar Wanita Negara, 2009. http://www. kpwkm.gov.my/documents/10156/181254/dasarwanitanegara.pdf. Diakses pada 4 Jun 2014 Diyana Isahak, Doris Padmini Selvaratnam & Nor Aini Haji Idris (2009). Isu dan cabaran dalam menghadapi perubahan persekitaran global. Prosiding Kebangsaan Ekonomi Malaysia (PERKEM), Jilid 1, 324-336. Pragalatah, K. (2012). More fund needed to fight domestic violence. http://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/ category/nation/2012/09/12/more-funds-needed-to-fight-domestic-violence/. Access on June 15, 2014. Unit Perancang Ekonomi (2006). Rancangan Malaysia Ke-Sembilan (2006-2010) http://www.epu.gov.my/ ninth-malaysia-plan-2006-2010. Diakses pada 19 Jun 2014. Unit Perancang Ekonomi (2011). Rancangan Malaysia Ke-Sepuluh (2011-2015. http://www.epu.gov.my/tenthmalaysia-plan-10th-mp- . Diakses pada 19 Jun 2014. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Rohayu Roddin, Marina Ibrahim Mukhtar, Ahmad Esa, Sarebah Warman, Maziana Mohamed, Anizam Mohamed Yusof dan Azmanirah Ab Rahman (2010). Pendidikan kemahiran keusahawanan dalam kalangan wanita ketua isi rumah luar Bandar. http://eprints.uthm.edu.my/444/1/Rohayu_Roddin%28Dekan2010%29. pdf. Diakses pada 28 Januari 2013. Thuaibah @ Suaibah Abu Bakar, Azlah Md Ali, Hishamuddin Md Som, Rozeyta Omar, Shaharizatul Noorizwan Mokhtar, dan Rossilah Jamil (2004). Aktiviti keusahawanan ibu tunggal di Johor. http://www. academia.edu/1036501/Aktiviti_Keusahawanan_Di_Kalangan_Ibu_Tunggal_Di_Johor. Diakses pada 30 Januari 2013 Women’s Aid Organization (WAO), (2013), Annual Review. Petaling Jaya:WAO. Yayasan Pembangunan Keluarga Darul Ta’zim, (2012). Laporan Tahunan 2011. http://www.ypkdt.org.my/ ypkbm/images/document/2011PROJEKSOSIAL.pdf. Diakses pada 20 Jun 2014. Zanalisa Mgt Mat Isa (2012) Keberkesanan perlaksanaan program latihan kemahiran (I-KIT) terhadap ibu tunggal di JPW Negeri Johor http://www.fp.utm.my/ePusatSumber/pdffail/ptkghdfwP/ ZANALISAAP073175D2012TTP.pdf. Thesis Ijazah Sarjana Muda Teknologi serta Pendidikan . Diakses pada 15 Januari 2013.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

ANAK TIDAK SAH TARAF DI DALAM INSTITUSI KEKELUARGAAN ISLAM; KAEDAH HITUNGAN ENAM BULAN DUA LAHZAH DAN HIKMAH Ahmad Irfan Ikmal Hisham* *[email protected] Universiti Malaysia Pahang

Abstrak Statistik Anak Tidak Sah Taraf (ATST) dalam kalangan Muslim adalah amat membimbangkan di Malaysia. Di dalam undang-undang kekeluargaan Islam, ATST akan dinafikan nasab sekiranya ianya lahir kurang daripada enam bulan dua lahzah mengikut taqwim hijriy, selepas daripada tarikh perkahwinan. Di Malaysia, kaedah pengiraan ini masih belum diseragamkan di peringkat pihak berkuasa agama negeri. Selain itu, hikmah undang-undang ini juga masih belum diperjelaskan sebagai sesuatu yang menepati objektif syari’ah sebagai rahmat kepada manusia. Kertas ini akan mencadangkan kaedah pengiraan yang tepat serta mempunya elemen rahmat kepada manusia yang terlibat di dalam isu ATST ini. Keywords: anak tidak sah taraf, Syariah, Islam, falak, taqwim

PENDAHULUAN Institusi kekeluargaan adalah penting di dalam Islam. Ianya dilihat sebagai asas kepada sebuah masyarakat dan negara yang sejahtera. Firman Allah SWT:

Dan di antara tanda-tanda yang membuktikan kekuasaannya dan rahmatNya, bahawa Ia menciptakan untuk kamu (wahai kaum lelaki), isteri-isteri dari jenis kamu sendiri, supaya kamu bersenang hati dan hidup mesra dengannya, dan dijadikanNya di antara kamu (suami isteri) perasaan kasih sayang dan belas kasihan. Sesungguhnya yang demikian itu mengandungi keterangan-keterangan (yang menimbulkan kesedaran) bagi orang-orang yang berfikir. (Al-Rum:21) Antara matlamat manusia digalakkan untuk hidup berpasangan ialah untuk mendapat keturunan dan zuriat. Di dalam Islam, persoalan zuriat yang baik amat dititikberatkan. Firman Allah:

Harta benda dan anak pinak itu, ialah perhiasan hidup di dunia; dan amal-amal soleh yang kekal faedahnya itu lebih baik pada sisi Tuhanmu Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

sebagai pahala balasan, dan lebih baik sebagai asas yang memberi harapan. (Al-Kahfi: 46) Pun demikian, isu anak tak sah taraf di negara kita amat membimbangkan. Berdasarkan laporan rasmi Jabatan Pendaftaran Negara, terdapat 152,182 bayi yang direkodkan kelahirannya tanpa bapa antara tahun 2008 hingga 2010. Secara purata, 141 orang bayi tak sah taraf dilahirkan setiap hari di negara kita dalam tempoh tersebut. Persoalan implikasi anak tak sah taraf dibincangkan di dalam literatur fiqh Islam. Ianya penting kerana membabitkan pelbagai masalah terbitan yang lain, seperti hak kebajikan anak, isu perwalian, perwarisan, persoalan tuduhan zina atau qazaf dan lain-lain. Fatwa mengenai anak tak sah taraf telah jelas banyak digazetkan di kebanyakan negeri, antaranya menyentuh persoalan anak yang dilahirkan kurang daripada tempoh enam bulan dua lahzah. Kertas ini akan cuba untuk menghuraikan secara ringkas asas perbahasan kepada anak tak sah taraf, selain memfokuskan kepada pengiraan enam bulan dua lahzah serta beberapa masalah terbitan daripadanya.

METODOLOGI Penyelidikan topik ini dilakukan menerusi metodologi kualitatif berasaskan kajian dan analisis teks daripada laporan pihak berkuasa yang berkaitan dengan kekeluargaan dan hal ehwal Islam, sumber perundangan Islam klasik dan moden, pengamalan perundangan di Malaysia serta pandangan ulama’ kontemporari. Penyelidikan juga turut mengambil kira kaedah pengiraan taqwim di dalam ilmu falak.

ETIMOLOGI PERISTILAHAN ANAK TAK SAH TARAF Di dalam literatur Arab klasik dan moden, anak-anak yang dilahirkan tanpa ikatan perkahwinan yang sah disebut sebagai walad al-zina (anak yang dilahirkan daripada hubungan zina; anak zina). Istilah ini menjadi perdebatan dalam kalangan ulamak termasuklah di Malaysia. Sebahagian menolak penggunaan istilah anak zina kerana faktor kegelinciran psikologi anak tersebut apabila mengetahui status itu dewasa kelak. Sebahagian lagi menolak atas faktor implikasi hukum fiqh, iaitu berkemungkinan si ibu itu diqazaf secara literal kerana berzina, sedangkan ianya berlaku di luar keinginannya. Lalu, berkembanglah istilah kepada anak zina ini di Malaysia, kepada anak luar nikah, anak haram, anak gampang; kesemuanya tidak diterima di dalam literasi moden atas faktor psikologi lalu diperkenalkan istilah anak tak sah taraf.

DEFINISI SYARAK DAN UNDANG-UNDANG Perbahasan anak tidak sah taraf tertakluk di bawah Undang-undang Keluarga Islam (UUKI) Negeri-negeri di Malaysia. Ianya bertujuan bagi memastikan kesucian dan keabsahan institusi perkahwinan dan kekeluargaan umat Islam di negara kita. Akta UUKI (Wilayah-wilayah Persekutuan) 1984 (Akta 303), disebut di dalam seksyen 2. Tafsiran – ‘tidak sah taraf’ , berhubung dengan seseorang anak, ertinya dilahirkan di luar nikah dan bukan anak dari persetubuhan syubhah. Menurut Fatwa Mengenai Garis Panduan Anak Tak Sah Taraf Menurut Hukum Syarak di Negeri Selangor yang telah diwartakan pada 28 April 2005, sighah berkaitan anak tak sah taraf menurut hukum syarak adalah: a. Anak yang dilahirkan tanpa nikah sama ada daripada zina, rogol atau melalui cara saintifik yang bertentangan dengan hukum syarak. b. Anak yang dilahirkan kurang daripada enam bulan dua lahzah qamariah dari waktu ‘imkan al-dukhul’ dan bukan hasil daripada persetubuhan syubhah. c. Anak yang dilahirkan lebih daripada enam bulan dua lahzah qamariah dari waktu ‘imkan al-dukhul’ selepas akad yang sah dan ada bukti dari segi syarak bahawa anak tersebut ialah anak tanpa nikah melalui iqrar (pengakuan) mereka yang berkenaan (suami dan isteri tersebut atau salah seorang daripadanya), atau empat orang saksi yang memenuhi hukum syarak.1

STATUS ANAK TAK SAH TARAF DI DALAM FIQH Ulamak bersepakat dalam menyatakan pandangan yang anak yang dilahirkan sebelum pernikahan kedua-dua ibu bapa biologinya adalah anak tak sah taraf. Khilaf berlaku di dalam membincangkan persoalan implikasi 1)  Warta Kerajaan Negeri Selangor No. 9, Jil 58, [Mufti Sel. 500-2; PU. Sel. AGM. 0007 Jld. 2].

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terhadap kelahiran anak tak sah taraf, antaranya membabitkan isu nasab. Khilaf ini berpunca daripada perbezaan mereka memahami nas hadith Bukhari dan Muslim yang menyatakan: “Anak itu ialah bagi pemilik katil (tempat melakukan hubungan kelamin bagi pasangan yang sah), sementara seorang penzina tidak punya hak atas anak yang lahir daripada penzinaannya. “ Di Malaysia, hampir keseluruhan negeri menerima pendapat jumhur dalam menyatakan anak yang tak sah taraf tidak boleh dinasabkan kepada bapa biologinya, walaupun setelah bapa biologinya itu berkahwin dengan ibunya. Pendapat ini memberikan implikasi daripada sudut penamaan, keturunan anak, pergaulan dalam keluarga, hadanah, nafkah, pusaka, wali, kematian, amal kebajikan, penghakiman hukum qisas dan hudud serta lain-lain lagi. Pun demikian, sebahagian daripada ulamak fiqh seperti Ibn Qayyim al-Jauziyyah2 yang membawa pandangan bahawa anak yang lahir di luar nikah boleh dinasabkan dengan bapa biologinya. Ini bagi memastikan hak kepada si bayi itu terpelihara, khasnya hak untuk mempunyai nasab. Tanpa nasab, beberapa hak lain bagi si bayi yang tidak berdosa itu turut ternafi. Pendapat yang sama turut dikongsi oleh Ishaq bin Rahawiyah, Urwah, Sulaiman bin Yasar dan Abu Hanifah. Berkata Abu Hanifah: “Aku berpandangan tidak mengapa bagi seseorang lelaki yang berzina dengan perempuan, kemudian perempuan itu mengandung daripada zina tersebut, untuk berkahwin dengan perempuan itu dan memeliharanya, dan anaknya itu adalah anaknya.”

STATUS ANAK TAK SAH TARAF DI DALAM PENDAFTARAN BAYI Berdasarkan surat bertarikh 1 Oktober 1988 yang dihantar oleh Bahagian Hal Ehwal Islam, Jabatan Perdana Menteri kepada Ketua Pengarah JPN, telah pun disahkan bahawa takrifan anak tak sah taraf bagi Muslim adalah anak yang dilahirkan oleh ibu kandungnya tanpa akad nikah yang sah dalam Islam dan anak yang dilahirkan ibu kandungnya kurang enam bulan melalui bulan qamariah dari tarikh pernikahan ibu kandungnya dengan lelaki pasangannya. Ianya selari dengan fatwa yang telah diwartakan pada 18 Januari 2001. Di dalam Peruntukan Seksyen 13, Akta 299, disebut: Walau apa pun yang terkandung dalam peruntukan terdahulu di dalam Akta ini, dalam hal anak tak sah taraf, tiada seorang pun sebagai bapa kepada kanak-kanak itu dikehendaki memberi maklumat berkenaan dengan kelahiran kanak-kanak itu, dan Pendaftar hendaklah tidak mencatatkan ke dalam daftar nama mana-mana orang sebagai bapa kanak-kanak itu kecuali atas permintaan bersama oleh ibu dan orang yang mengaku dirinya sebagai bapa kanak-kanak itu, dan orang itu hendaklah dalam hal sedemikian menandatangani daftar itu bersama dengan ibu itu. Mengikut prosedur JPN, prosedur pendaftaran kelahiran dan penamaan anak tak sah taraf yang beragama Islam adalah seperti berikut: a. Anak tak sah taraf Islam didaftarkan dengan maklumat kanak-kanak dan ibu sahaja. Maklumat bapa tidak didaftarkan. • Kanak-kanak didaftarkan dengan nama penuh dan di’bin’kan atau di’binti’kan kepada Abdullah atau pilihan nama-nama Asma al-Husna yang lain. • Kanak-kanak boleh didaftarkan dengan nama keturunan ibu kandungnya. b. Walau bagaimanapun, sekiranya ibu dan orang yang mengaku diri sebagai bapa atas permintaan bersama dan kedua-duanya hadir untuk menandatangani daftar di hadapan Pendaftar, maklumat orang yang mengaku diri sebagai bapa boleh didaftarkan sebagaimana peruntukan Seksyen 13 299. • Pendaftaran anak tak sah taraf di bawah peruntukan Seksyen 13 Akta 299 adalah terpakai bagi pasangan Islam samada berkahwin (perkahwinan tidak cukup 6 bulan atau berkahwin selepas kelahiran anak) atau tidak berkahwin. • Pendaftaran anak tak sah taraf di bawah peruntukan Seksyen 13 Akta 299 adalah tidak terpakai bagi pasangan di mana salah seorang ibu atau bapa bukan beragama Islam. • Kanak-kanak didaftarkan dengan nama penuh dan di’bin’ atau di’binti’kan kepada Abdullah atau pilihan nama-nama Asma al-Husna yang lain. • Kanak-kanak boleh didaftarkan dengan nama keturunan orang yang mengaku diri sebagai bapa sekiranya pasangan tersebut berkahwin (perkahwinan tidak cukup 6 bulan) atau nama keturunan ibu kandung sekiranya pasangan tersebut tidak berkahwin atau berkahwin selepas kelahiran anak.

2)  Zad al-Ma’ad fi Hadyi Khairil ‘Ibad. Kitab ini adalah kitab sirah tetapi ditulis dengan unik kerana latar kepakaran sunnah yang mempengaruhi pemikiran Ibn Al-Qayyim. Beliau hanya mencatatkan sirah yang absah dan autentik dan meninggalkan riwayat yang tasahul daripada keabsahan. Komentar diberikan berdasarkan kepada dimensi pelbagai termasuklah persoalan fiqh.

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ANALISIS PENGIRAAN ENAM BULAN DUA LAHZAH Enam bulan yang dimaksudkan merujuk kepada perkiraan di dalam sistem kalender hijrah. Oleh kerana sifat kalender hijrah yang mempunyai bilangan hari yang tidak tetap, sama ada 29 atau 30 hari, justeru terdapat perbahasan ulamak mengenai bilangan keseluruhan hari yang merujuk kepada 6 bulan tersebut. Menurut Ibnu Hajar al-Haithami3 dan Baijuri4 yang mewakili pandangan Al-Shafi’iyyah, kiraan tersebut hanya mengambil kira 30 hari bagi setiap bulan. Ini bermakna, 6 enam qamariyah itu dihitung sebagai 180 hari.5 Pendapat ini pandangan jumhur ulamak. Terdapat satu riwayat di dalam mazhab Maliki yang menghitungnya sebanyak 175 hari.6 Sementara dua lahzah itu pula merujuk kepada: a. Lahzah al-Firash / lahzah al-dukhul: Tempoh atau waktu berlakunya persetubuhan. b. Lahzah al-Wiladah: Tempoh atau waktu anak dilahirkan. Justeru, pengiraan enam bulan itu adalah merujuk antara lahzah al-firash dengan lahzah al-wiladah. Terdapat beberapa analisis masalah fiqh di sini: a. Bilakah tempoh lahzah al-firash itu dikira? Di dalam kitab I’anah al-Tolibin apabila membincangkan persoalan saksi perkahwinan, Sayyid Bakri Syata menitikberatkan persoalan rekod lengkap tarikh dan detik perkahwinan itu berlaku. Di dalam persoalan lahzah firash, ianya secara tidak langsung menunjukkan yang kepentingan rekod tarikh dah detik perkahwinan itu menunjukkan yang firash yang dimaksudkan adalah pada saat termetrainya aqad nikah. Apatah lagi kerana definisi nikah itu sendiri adalah harmoni dengan definisi firash. Selain itu, untuk tujuan ihtiyati, sebahagian ulamak menggunakan istilah imkan al-dukhul apabila merujuk kepada lahzah firash. Imkan al-dukhul bermula pada saat aqad nikah, atau dengan erti kata lain, pasangan yang baru berkahwin dianggap boleh mula untuk berwat’ie bermula daripada saat aqad. Pun demikian, di dalam budaya beberapa masyarakat Arab, selain daripada merekodkan masa aqad, mereka juga merekodkan saat pertama pasangan yang berkahwin itu melakukan persetubuhan melalui haflah al-dakhlah. Sekiranya budaya ini wujud di dalam sesebuah masyarakat, persoalan fiqh yang boleh dibangkitkan ialah adakah boleh lahzah firash itu bermula daripada saat persetubuhan pertama? Sebahagian pengkaji membahaskan dengan lebih mendalam, iaitu saat yang berkemungkinan air mani itu sampai dan menembusi dinding ovum isterinya. Mengikut sains perubatan moden, ianya boleh berlaku antara 45 minit sehingga 12 jam selepas ejakulasi. Terdapat beberapa kitab fiqh yang menggunakan istilah lahzah al-‘uluq, iaitu masa di mana persenyawaan itu berlaku. b. Bilakah lahzah wiladah itu bermula? Pendapat yang masyhur menyatakan lahzah wiladah itu bermula pada saat bayi itu keluar daripada perut ibunya. Ini juga sejajar dengan perubatan moden dan juga rekod pendaftaran bayi, yang hanya mengambil kira saat tersebut. Pun demikian, mungkin ada yang akan membangkitkan kemungkinan lahzah wiladah itu bermula daripada saat pertama ibu berasa sakit. Pendapat ini agak lemah kerana setiap ibu yang mengandung akan mempunyai rasa dan tempoh sakit yang berbeza dengan ibu yang lain. Dan sakit pertama sebelum bersalin itu juga subjektif. c. Wiladah bukan secara normal. Enam bulan dua lahzah pada kebiasaannya merujuk kepada kelahiran normal. Akan tetapi, terdapat juga kes perubatan moden yang menunjukkan bahawa bayi yang lahir kurang daripada 6 bulan masih boleh hidup dan diselamatkan. Kemungkinan kelahiran ini mempunyai sebab yang pelbagai, seperti jangkitan penyakit yang dialami oleh ibu serta faktor yang lain. Menurut Dr. Murad,7 bayi yang lahir dengan berat sekitar 700 gram boleh hidup. Bayi 700 gram itu, dengan faktor deviasi yang pelbagai, mungkin berusia kurang daripada enam bulan.8 Sekiranya berlaku kes sebegini, adakah ianya dianggap sebagai anak tak sah taraf? Atau adakah perlu dibuat kajian lanjutan berdasarkan anggaran berat fetus atau bayi sebagai

3) Al-Tuhfah 4)  Syarah Fathul Qorib 5)  Asyhur ‘Adadiyyah 6)  Asyhur Hilaliyyah – 5 bulan 29 hari, 1 bulan 30 hari 7)  Bekas Profesor Madya Kuliyah of Medicine IIUM. Seorang pakar kesuburan. Sekarang menjadi konsultan kesuburan di hospital swasta. 8)  Pada usia enam bulan, semua organ telah terbentuk, kecuali paru-paru yang akan terbentuk pada 7 bulan. Bayi yang lahir pada bulan keenam akan dirawat di dalam incubator

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sokongan bagi tempoh enam bulan dua lahzah?9 d. Pengiraan umur janin di dalam kandungan daripada sudut perubatan moden. Teks fiqh jelas menyebut mengenai tempoh yang menjadi hitungan ialah tempoh mengandung seorang ibu. Di luar daripada teks fiqh ini, terhadap kaedah lain untuk membuat hitungan, iaitu pengiraan umur janin di dalam perut ibu. Memahami kaedah pengiraan perubatan moden mungkin akan menimbulkan isu lain di dalam pengiraan dan penentuan status anak tak sah taraf. Di dalam perubatan moden, umur janin dikira bukan bermula daripada persenyawaan. Akan tetapi, tiada kaedah yang tepat untuk menentukan masa yang tepat berlakunya persenyawaan. Ini kerana persenyawaan boleh berlaku antara 45 minit hingga 12 jam selepas ejakulasi. Sebahagian jurnal mencadangkan lebih daripada 12 jam. Justeru, kaedah perubatan moden mengukur janin bermula daripada bilakah kitaran haid terakhir,10 atau lebih dikenali sebagai Last Menstrual Period (LMP). Contoh senario adalah seperti tertera dalam Jadual 1. Berdasarkan senario di atas, sekiranya A bertemu pengamal perubatan moden pada 15 September, umur janin ialah ialah 6 minggu, walaupun pasangan ini baru berkahwin selama 4 minggu.11 Jadual 1 - Contoh Senario Mengukur Janin Mengikut Kitaran Haid Terakhir

Tarikh

Keterangan

1 Ogos

Gadis A datang bulan, keluar darah haid pertama

7 Ogos

Darah haid berhenti

9-15 Ogos

Waktu subur bagi gadis A

15 Ogos

A melangsungkan perkahwinan. Malamnya, melakukan persetubuhan dan berlaku persenyawaan.

1 September

Kebiasaannya A sudah datang bulan. Tetapi kali ini tidak.

7 September

Membuat pemeriksaan kehamilan sendiri. Positif.

Berdasarkan kaedah pengiraan ini, sekiranya satu pasangan berzina seminggu sebelum perkahwinan, kemudian atas sebab kesihatan si ibu terpaksa melahirkan anak pada hari yang ke 170 kehamilannya. Di di dalam rekod perubatan, hospital mungkin akan mencatatkan usia janin berdasarkan LMP, iaitu mungkin 184 hari, lalu menyebabkan anak itu secara status pendaftarannya menjadi anak sah taraf. Isu ini perlukan kajian lanjutan. e. Kaedah pengiraan, 180 hari atau 175 hari. Seperti yang telah diterangkan sebelum ini, terdapat dua pendapat yang masyhur dalam memberikan penjelasan 180 hari atau 175 hari apabila merujuk kepada enam bulan qamariyah. Di Malaysia, pihak berkuasa agama berpegang kepada pendapat jumhur. Bagi tujuan pentadbiran dan wehdatul hukmi, penulis berpendapat tempoh kiraan yang sepatutnya ialah 180 hari. Akan tetapi sekiranya ingin meringankan serta memberikan rahmat kepada anak tersebut dalam keadaan masih ingin berpegang kepada pendapat mashyur ternafinya nasab, maka bolehlah pihak berkuasa mempertimbangkan pendapat 175 hari tersebut. Ini juga berasaskan kepada ilmu falak yang menyatakan tidak mungkin di dalam kalender hijrah, berlakunya 3 bulan serentak yang mengandungi 30 hari di dalamnya, apatah lagi sekiranya membabitkan enam bulan yang berterusan. Ihtiyat untuk mengithbatkan nasab bagi menjamin hak dankebajikan anak yang tidak berdosa, dilihat sebahagian ulamak lebih utama daripada ihtiyat untuk menafikan nasab.

PENGENALAN PENGIRAAN KALENDER HIJRAH Kalender hijrah turut dikenali sebagai kalender lunar atau bulan. Kalender berasaskan bulan yang paling tua direkodkan telah ditemui di Crathes Castle di Scotland. Kalender hijrah diperkenalkan oleh Umar Al-Khattab semasa zaman pemerintahannya sebagai permulaan hitung taqwim lunar dengan merujuk kepada tahun di mana berlaku peristiwa Hijrah Nabi Muhammad dari kota Makkah ke Madinah. 9)  Rujuk Lampiran 1 – jadual anggaran berat fetus atau bayi 10)  Kaedah ini tepat bagi ibu yang mempunyai kitaran haid yang normal, serta perlu disemak ketepatannya pada bulan ketiga kehamilan 11)  Pengiraan ini lebih bertujuan untuk membuat anggaran tarikh kelahiran sahaja, bukan umur janin sebenar

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Kalender hijrah adalah berasaskan jadual putaran bulan ke atas bumi berasaskan pusingan synodic dengan mengambil kira tempoh antara satu bulan baru dengan bulan baru yang lainnya.12 Ianya mempunyai 12 bulan dalam setahun, dengan dimulai oleh Muharram dan diakhiri dengan bulan Zulhijjah. Berbeza dengan kalender suria yang mempunyai bilangan hari dalam setiap bulan secara tetap, kalender lunar mempunyai bilangan hari dalam sebulan yang berbeza setiap bulan, sama ada 29 atau 30 hari, bergantung kepada kenampakan anak bulan. Pengiraan paling tepat untuk menghitung bilangan hari dalam sebulan di dalam kalender lunar ialah 29.53059 hari. Ini bermakna di dalam setahun kalender lunar, terdapat 354.36708 hari, iaitu kurang sekitar 11 hari berbanding kalender solar. Selain itu, antara perbezaan yang signifikan antara kalender lunar dengan solar ialah kalender lunar bermula pada waktu Maghrib, tidak seperti kalender solar yang bermula pada tengah malam. Ini amat penting bagi tujuan pengiraan enam bulan bagi anak tak sah taraf.

DISKUSI, IMPLIKASI DAN CADANGAN Ironinya, pengiraan tempoh enam bulan ini amat penting bagi memastikan hak nasab itu terpelihara serta selari dengan tuntutan syara’. Atas keperluan untuk memberikan rahmat kepada anak-anak ini, penulis cenderung berpandangan bahawa tempoh yang dihitung itu adalah merujuk daripada saat aqad nikah kerana faktor imkan al-dukhul, sehingga saat lahirnya anak, ialah selama 175 hari sahaja berdasarkan kepada teori pengiraan kalender hijrah berasaskan ilmu falak. Penulis juga ingin mengesyorkan beberapa kajian lanjutan: a. Pembangunan kalkulator (prototaip) bagi tujuan pengiraan tepat. b. Pembangunan SOP pendaftaran yang mengambil kira waktu dan tarikh kelahiran di dalam taqwim hijri di hospital dan pejabat pendaftaran. c. Pembangunan SOP baru bagi pendaftaran perkahwinan. d. Hak-hak lain bagi si bayi setelah dinafikan nasab kepada bapa biologi penzina, terjamin menerusi saluran undang-undang, seperti wasiat wajib dan lain-lain.

KESIMPULAN Antara objektif perlaksanaan syariat (maqasid syari’ah) ialah memelihara keturunan. Objektif ini dianggap amat penting khasnya di dalam konteks pemeliharaan terhadap silsilah masyarakat yang teratur, termasuklah juga jaminan kebajikan terhadap ATST yang tidak berdosa ini. Antara kebajikan yang boleh dilihat ialah memendekkan tempoh pengiraan enam bulan itu daripada 180 hari kepada 175 hari selain keperluan jaminan nafkah kepada ATST.

RUJUKAN Al-Quran al-Karim Al-Hadith Abas bin Nordin. (2013). Kedudukan Anak Tak Sah Taraf: Dari Aspek Perundangan. Slide Power Point sempena Kempen ‘Sah Nikah, Sah Nasab’, anjuran JAKIM. Abdul Majid bin Omar. (2013). Kedudukan Anak Tak Sah Taraf Dari Aspek Pandangan Syarak, Nasab dan Pewarisan Serta Kekeluargaan Islam. Kertas Kerja sempena Kempen ‘Sah Nikah, Sah Nasab’, anjuran JAKIM. Akta UUKI (Wilayah-wilayah Persekutuan) 1984 Al-Dimyathi, Abu Bakr Utsman bin Muhammad Shata. (1995). I’anah al-Tolibin. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah. Al-Jauziyah, Ibn Qayyim. (2012). Zad al-Ma’ad fi Hadyi Khairi al-‘Ibad. Al-Zuhaily, W. (2011). Al-Tafsir Al-Munir (11th ed.). Beirut: Dar al-Fikri. Al-Zuhaily, W. (2012). Al-Fiqh Al-Islamiy wa Adillatuhu (33rd ed.). Beirut: Dar al-Fikri. Warta Kerajaan Negeri Selangor No. 9, Jil 58, [Mufti Sel. 500-2; PU. Sel. AGM. 0007 Jld. 2]. Zaidan, A. K. (2000). Al-Mufassal fi Ahkam al-Mar’ah wa Bait al-Muslim (3rd ed.). Beirut: Mua’ssasah al-Risalah.

12)  Satu lagi jenis pergerakan bulan ialah sidereal, iaitu putaran 360 bulan mengelilingi bumi. Ianya mengambil masa 27.321 hari dalam sebulan. Di dalam perbahasan falak, terdapat beberapa peristilahan teknikal jenis taqwim hijrah yang lain, seperti taqwim istilahi, taqwim hakiki, taqwim wujud al-hilal dan taqwim imkan al-rukyah.

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LAMPIRAN 1 Gestational age

Length (US)

Weight (US)

(crown to rump)

Length (cm)

Mass (g)

(crown to rump)

8 weeks

0.63 inch

0.04 ounce

1.6 cm

1 gram

9 weeks

0.90 inch

0.07 ounce

2.3 cm

2 grams

10 weeks

1.22 inch

0.14 ounce

3.1 cm

4 grams

11 weeks

1.61 inch

0.25 ounce

4.1 cm

7 grams

12 weeks

2.13 inches

0.49 ounce

5.4 cm

14 grams

13 weeks

2.91 inches

0.81 ounce

7.4 cm

23 grams

14 weeks

3.42 inches

1.52 ounce

8.7 cm

43 grams

15 weeks

3.98 inches

2.47 ounces

10.1 cm

70 grams

16 weeks

4.57 inches

3.53 ounces

11.6 cm

100 grams

17 weeks

5.12 inches

4.94 ounces

13 cm

140 grams

18 weeks

5.59 inches

6.70 ounces

14.2 cm

190 grams

19 weeks

6.02 inches

8.47 ounces

15.3 cm

240 grams

20 weeks

6.46 inches

10.58 ounces

16.4 cm

300 grams

(crown to heel)

(crown to heel)

20 weeks

10.08 inches

10.58 ounces

25.6 cm

300 grams

21 weeks

10.51 inches

12.70 ounces

26.7 cm

360 grams

22 weeks

10.94 inches

15.17 ounces

27.8 cm

430 grams

23 weeks

11.38 inches

1.10 pound

28.9 cm

501 grams

24 weeks

11.81 inches

1.32 pound

30 cm

600 grams

25 weeks

13.62 inches

1.46 pound

34.6 cm

660 grams

26 weeks

14.02 inches

1.68 pound

35.6 cm

760 grams

27 weeks

14.41 inches

1.93 pound

36.6 cm

875 grams

28 weeks

14.80 inches

2.22 pounds

37.6 cm

1005 grams

29 weeks

15.2 inches

2.54 pounds

38.6 cm

1153 grams

30 weeks

15.71 inches

2.91 pounds

39.9 cm

1319 grams

31 weeks

16.18 inches

3.31 pounds

41.1 cm

1502 grams

32 weeks

16.69 inches

3.75 pounds

42.4 cm

1702 grams

33 weeks

17.20 inches

4.23 pounds

43.7 cm

1918 grams

34 weeks

17.72 inches

4.73 pounds

45 cm

2146 grams

35 weeks

18.19 inches

5.25 pounds

46.2 cm

2383 grams

36 weeks

18.66 inches

5.78 pounds

47.4 cm

2622 grams

37 weeks

19.13 inches

6.30 pounds

48.6 cm

2859 grams

38 weeks

19.61 inches

6.80 pounds

49.8 cm

3083 grams

39 weeks

19.96 inches

7.25 pounds

50.7 cm

3288 grams

40 weeks

20.16 inches

7.63 pounds

51.2 cm

3462 grams

41 weeks

20.35 inches

7.93 pounds

51.7 cm

3597 grams

42 weeks

20.28 inches

8.12 pounds

51.5 cm

3685 grams

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF EFFICACY AND THE ROLE CONLICT ON CARRIER WOMEN OF IDONESIAN AIR FORCE OFFICER’S WIVES AT HUSEN SASTRANEGARA RESIDENCE Lilim Halimah* & Nuke Mayorita *[email protected] Bandung Islamic University, Indonesia

Abstract Komplek Husein Sastranegara adalah salah satu pemukiman para anggota TNI-AU. Di komplek ini tinggal berbagai tingkatan anggota TNI-AU, mulai dari tamtama hingga perwira. Sebagai seorang istri TNI khususnya TNI-AU mempunyai kewajiban yang lebih dibandingkan istri seorang pegawai sipil lainnya. Kewajiban itu adalah ketika sudah menikah dengan seorang anggota TNI-AU, maka secara otomatis akan menjadi anggota dari PIA (Persatuan Istri Angkatan Udara). Seorang istri perwira TNI-AU akan memiliki posisi strategis dalam PIA sesuai mengikuti jabatan suami yang bersangkutan. Hal ini tentunya menjadi suatu kewajiban tambahan di luar kewajiban yang ada dalam rumah tangga. Seiring dengan kebutuhan, tak jarang istri TNI-AU yang juga bekerja atau sebagai wanita karir, maka ada tiga peran sekaligus yang harus dijalani, yaitu sebagai seorang ibu rumah tangga, pekerja serta pengurus dalam PIA. Menjalani tiga peran sekaligus bukanlah hal yang mudah. Dibutuhkan suatu keyakinan bahwa istri perwira TNI-AU ini dapat melakukan seluruh kewajibannya. Keyakinan akan kemampuan ini disebut sebagai self efficacy. Apabila kemampuan tersebut tidak muncul, maka akan timbul beberapa kondisi yang menyebabkan ketidak seimbangan dalam menjalani berbagai peran. Selain itu juga akan ada tumpang tindih antara satu kewajiban dengan yang lain, yang disebut sebagai konflik peran.Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui bagaimana hubungan self efficacy dengan konflik peran. Penelitian ini adalah penelitian populasi sebanyak 15 orang. Teknik pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah menggunakan angket yang mengacu pada teori self efficacy dari Albert Bandura serta teori konflik peran dari Greenhaus & Beutell serta menggunakan analisis korelasi dari Spearman. Dari hasil analisis data dengan bantuan SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), maka diketahui koefisien korelasi (r) = - 0,554, maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa ada hubungan negatif antara self efficacy dengan konflik peran. Artinya adalah semakin rendah self efficacy maka semakin tinggi konflik peran. Keywords: self efficacy, konflik peran

PENDAHULUAN Lapangan pekerjaan yang terbuka luas dan beraneka ragam di Bandung menyebabkan wanita masa kini lebih memilih untuk bekerja. Hal lain yang memicu wanita untuk bekerja adalah tingginya kebutuhan rumah tangga dan kebutuhan sehari-hari. Tingginya kebutuhan hidup saat ini membuat para wanita untuk bekerja demi terpenuhinya kebutuhan sehari-hari. Disamping itu, pendidikan yang semakin tinggi menyebabkan wanita masa kini ingin mengaplikasikan ilmu yang telah dimilikinya yaitu dengan bekerja.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Pekerja wanita yang telah memasuki tahap perkembangan dewasa dini tentunya memiliki tugas perkembangan yang harus dipenuhi. Salah satunya adalah menikah. Menikah merupakan salah satu tugas perkembangan dalam tahap dewasa dini dan pada tahap tersebut terjadi beberapa peralihan peran. Peralihan peran tersebut yaitu menjadi seorang istri yang memiliki kewajiban dalam rumah tangga untuk mengurus rumah tangga, suami serta anak. Oleh karena itu pekerja wanita yang sudah menikah memiliki peran yang lebih dari satu. Peran wanita yang lebih dari satu yaitu disebut sebagai peran ganda (Gunarsa & Gunarsa, 2000). Seorang wanita untuk menikah dengan pasangannya tentunya memiliki perbedaan – perbedaan latar belakang, meliputi pekerjaan, pendidikan, keluarga, suku bangsa dan sebagainya. Salah satunya adalah wanita yang memilih pasangannya yang berlatar belakang pekerjaan sebagai seorang tentara. Menjadi istri seorang tentara khususnya angkatan udara memiliki beberapa konsekuensi, salah satu diantaranya adalah diharuskan menjadi bagian dari organisasi istri tentara antara lain dalam PIA Persatuan istri Angkatan udara. Para istri memiliki kewajiban untuk berperan dalam organisasi tersebut. Bentuk kegiatannya pun bermacammacam, ada yang berupa kegiatan sosial, budaya, ekonomi, dan lainnya. Pelaksanaan dari kegiatan tersebut dilaksanakan dalam berbagai waktu. Ada yang bersifat rutin dan ada yang bersifat situasional. Kegiatan rutin meliputi pertemuan rutin para pengurus dan kegiatan sosial lainnya, Sedangkan kegiatan situasional meliputi kunjungan kerja dari pengurus pusat dan serah terima jabatan. Dengan berbagai peran yang harus dilakukan oleh para wanita pekerja tersebut sering menimbulkan konflik dalam pembagian perannya. Konflik peran merupakan ketidakharmonisan yang dirasakan dalam menjalankan kewajiban atau tuntutan peran yang berbeda secara bersamaan. Konflik peran diukur melalui konflik peran yang berasal dari dalam diri wanita bekerja antara lain pada saat para pekerja wanita tersebu mengalami situasi dilematis karena dituntut untuk menjalankan dua tuntutan peran yang sama-sama penting dalam waktu yang bersamaan, serta kesulitan dalam membagi waktu dan prioritas antara karier dan rumah tangga. Komplek pemukiman Husein Sastranegara merupakan salah satu komplek pemukiman TNI-AU. Pemukiman ini terdiri atas anggota TNI-AU yang masih berdinas aktif. Selain itu dalam pemukiman ini juga terdiri atas anggota dengan pangkat tamtama, bintara maupun perwira. Para istri TNI AU yang bekerja dan berperan sebagai pengurus aktif di PIA, bahwa dalam menjalani ketiga peran ini terdapat beberapa kesulitan. Kesulitan tersebut berkaitan dengan pengaturan waktu antara peran saat beberapa kewajiban datang bersamaan, munculnya kondisi psikis yang mengganggu seperti muncul ketegangan dan kecemasan pada saat menjalani ketiga peran serta kesulitan dalam memposisikan diri saat menjalankan masing-masing peran. Kondisi konflik yang dialami para pekerja wanita ini tentunya berbeda-beda. Hal ini dapat digambarkan melalui perasaan, keyakinan, persepsi, kepercayaan terhadap kemampuan yang nantinya akan berpengaruh pada cara mengatasi situasi yang akan dihadapinya. Dalam hal ini kemampuan tersebut disebut sebagai self efficacy. Terdapat perbedaan self efficacy pada istri perwira TNI-AU yang bekerja. Mereka menyatakan merasa ragu, apakah seluruh perannya dapat terlaksana sesuai dengan apa yang diharapkan. Selain itu, saat berbagai peran tersebut datang secara bersamaan, mereka akhirnya hanya memilih salah satu perannya saja dan meninggalkan peran yang lain. Hal lainny pekerja wanita mencoba untuk membuat cara lain dalam menghadapi hal ini akan tetapi hal tersebut tidak berhasil dilakukan. Akibatnya, konflik yang terjadi menjadi berulang saat kewajiban masing-masing peran muncul pada waktu yang sama. Berdasarkan penjelasan tentang self efficacy yang dimiliki oleh istri perwira TNI-AU yang bekerja memungkinkan ia dapat merespon konflik-konflik yang berkaitan dengan tiga peran yang dijalaninya. Oleh karena itu peneliti tertarik untuk melakukan penelitian tentang “Hubungan Antara Self Efficacy dengan Konflik Peran Wanita Bekerja Pada Istri Perwira TNI-AU di Komplek Husein Sastranegara ”, sehingga rumusan masalahnya “Seberapa erat hubungan antara self efficacy dengan konflik peran wanita bekerja pada istri perwira TNI-AU di Komplek Husein Sastranegara?”

SELF EFFICACY Albert Bandura (1997) menyatakan bahwa self efficacy adalah keyakinan individu terhadap kemampuan mereka akan mempengaruhi cara individu dalam bereaksi terhadap situasi dan kondisi tertentu. Selain itu Albert Bandura (dalam Friedman dan Schustack, 2006) menyatakan bahwa self efficacy adalah ekspektasiekspektasi (harapan) tentang seberapa jauh seseorang mampu melakukan suatu perilaku dalam suatu situasi tertentu. Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa self efficacy adalah perasaan, keyakinan, persepsi, kepercayaan terhadap kemampuan mengatasi suatu situasi tertentu yang nantinya akan berpengaruh pada cara individu mengatasi situasi tersebut.

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Dimensi Self Efficacy Albert Bandura (1997) menyatakan bahwa self efficacy dibedakan atas tiga dimensi, dimensi tersebut adalah:

1. Level/magnitude Penilaian kemampuan individu pada tugas yang sedang dihadapinya. Dimensi ini mengacu pada tingkat kesulitan suatu masalah yang dipersepsikan berbeda dari masing-masing individu. Ada yang menganggap masalah itu sulit ada juga yang menganggap masalah itu mudah untuk dilakukan. Apabila individu merasa sedikit rintangan yang dihadapi maka masalah tersebut mudah ditangani.

2. Strength Mengacu pada ketahanan dan keuletan individu dalam menyelesaikan masalah. Individu yang memiliki keyakinan yang kuat tehadap kemampuannya untuk menyelesaikan masalah akan terus bertahan dalam usahanya meskipun banyak kesulitan dan tantangan. Sejauh mana kekuatan yang dimiliki oleh individu mengenai level, apakah kuat atau lemah yang dapat dilihat dari konsistensi individu tersebut dalam mengerjakan tugasnya. Seseorang yang memiliki strength tinggi akan memiliki keyakinan yang kuat mengenai kompetensi dirinya sehingga tidak mudah frustrasi dalam menghadapi hambatan dan memiliki kemungkinan untuk berhasil lebih besar lagi daripada individu dengan strength yang rendah yang akan terguncang oleh hambatan kecil dalam pekerjaannya.

3. Generality Mengacu pada penilaian efficacy individu berdasarkan aktivitas keseluruhan tugas yang pernah dijalaninya. Dalam dimensi ini akan dilihat bagaimana seorang individu mampu menggeneralisasi tugas-tugas dan pengalaman-pengalaman sebelumnya ketika mengadapi suatu tugas atau pekerjaan. Generality yang tinggi akan membuat individu yakin akan kompetensinya untuk melaksanakan tugas dalam berbagai situasi. Sedangkan, individu dengan generality rendah akan menganggap dirinya hanya mampu melaksanakan tugas dalam situasi tertentu saja. Dalam penjelasan ketiga dimensi tersebut ditegaskan kembali oleh Albert Bandura (1997) bahwa self efficacy menentukan seberapa besar usaha yang akan dikerahkan oleh seseorang untuk mengerjakan suatu kegiatan, seberapa lama waktu yang akan dihabiskan untuk bertahan dalam menghadapi berbagai masalah dan kendala yang ada, seberapa ulet seseorang bertahan menghadapi situasi berbeda. Pada akhirnya semakin tinggi self efficacy yang dimiliki indivdu makan semakin besar pula usaha, waktu, dan tenaga yang dikeluarkan untuk tugas itu.

Karakteristik Individu yang Memiliki Self Efficacy Tinggi a. Percaya pada kemampuan diri yang mereka miliki b. Menganggap tugas yang sulit sebagai tantangan untuk dihadapi bukan sebagai ancaman yang perlu dihindari. c. Mengontrol diri untuk mencapai tujuan.

Karakteristik Individu yang Mempunyai Self Efficacy yang Rendah a. Memandang mereka tidak mempunyai kemampuan untuk melakukan tugas b. Menganggap tugas yang sulit sebagai sebuah ancaman c. Tidak mampu mengontrol diri untuk mencapai tujuan

Self Efficacy Pada Wanita Dewasa Dini Bandura membagi masa dewasa menjadi dua kelompok yaitu, masa dewasa muda dan dewasa pertengahan. Self efficacy penting pada masa dewasa muda yakni dalam hal penyesuaian terhadap perkawinan dan peningkatan karir. Individu yang mempunyai self efficacy rendah tidak akan mampu berhadapan dengan situasi social dan gagal menyesuaikan diri (dalam Schultz, 1994). Self efficacy pada wanita juga berhubungan dengan pengalaman mereka terhadap peran stres. AlbertBandura (dalam Erdwins et al., 2001) menyatakan bahwa self efficacy seseorang digunakan untuk mengurangi persepsi dan reaksi mereka terhadap stres. Ozer (dalamErdwins et al., 2001) menyatakan ada hubungan yang signifikan antara kesejahteraan psikologis dan kombinasi pengukuran efficacy bekerja dan keluarga bagi wanita kembali bekerja setelah kelahiran anak pertamanya. Ada kemungkinan self efficacy memiliki hubungan dengan dukungan social dan ketegangan peran (role strain), dimana dukungan bisa didapat dari pasangan, keluarga, © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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atau teman kerja dimana bisa meningkakan secara efektif permintaan terhadap peran yang bervariasi, dan bisa mengurangi role strain itu sendiri (dalam Erdwins et al., 2001). Penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Erdwins et al. (2001) ternyata diketahui bahwa ada hubungan antara self efficacy bekerja dan keluarga dengan konflik peran ganda. Hubungan antara dua konstruk ini bersifat negatif yang artinya apabila seorang individu memiliki self efficacy bekerja dan keluarga yang tinggi maka konflik peran ganda yang dialaminya rendah dan sebaliknya apabila individu memiliki self efficacy bekerja dan keluarga yang rendah maka konflik peran ganda yang dialaminya tinggi.

Konflik Peran Definisi Konflik Peran Greenhaus dan Beutell (dalam Lambert, 2005) mendefinisikan konflik peran sebagai suatu bentuk konflik antar peran dimana tekanan-tekanan dari pekerjaan dan keluarga saling tidak cocok satu sama lain. Seseorang akan menghabiskan waktu yang lebih untuk digunakan dalam memenuhi peran yang penting bagi mereka, oleh karena itu mereka bisa kekurangan waktu untuk peran yang lainnya. Hal ini bisa meningkatkan kesempatan seseorang untuk mengalami konflik peran. Greenhaus dan Parasuraman (dalamLambert,2005) mendefinisikan konflik peran ganda adalah ketika sikap dalam satu peran secara positif tertumpahkan ke dalam perannya yang lain atau ketika pengalaman dalam melayani satu peran sebagai sumber daya memperkaya yang lain dalam kehidupan. Jadi pengertian di atas dapat diperoleh bahwa konflik peran ganda adalah salah satu bentuk konflik antar peran yang diakibatkan peran dalam pekerjaan dan peran dalam keluarga saling tidak harmonis satu sama lain. Terjadi tumpang tindih antara kewajiban pekerjaan yang mengganggu kehidupan rumah tangga, permintaan, waktu dan ketegangan dalam keluarga yang disebabkan harapan dari dua peran yang berbeda.

Dimensi Konflik Peran Menurut Greenhaus dan Beutell (dalam Susan J.Lambert, 2005) konflik peran ganda itu bersifat bi-directional dan multidimensi. Bi-directional terdiri dari: a. Work-family conflict yaitu konflik yang muncul dikarenakan tanggung jawab pekerjaan yang mengganggu tanggung jawab terhadap keluarga. Netemeyer et el. (dalam Hennessy, 2005) mendeskripsikan workfamilyconflict sebagai suatu bentuk konflik antar peran dimana secara umum permintaan, waktu dan ketegangan yang diakibatkan oleh pekerjaan mengganggu tanggung jawab terhadap keluarga. b. Family-work conflict yaitu konflik yang muncul dikarenakan tanggung jawab terhadap keluarga mengganggu tanggung jawab terhadap pekerjaan. Netemeyer et el. (dalam Hennessy, 2005) mendeskripsikan family-workconflict sebagai suatu bentuk konflik antar peran dimana secara umum permintaan, waktu dan ketegangan dalam keluarga mengganggu tanggung jawab pekerjaan. Menurut Greenhaus dan Beutell (dalam Susan J.Lambert, 2005) multidimensi dari konflik peran ganda muncul dari masing-masing direction dimana antara keduanya baik itu work-family conflict maupun family-work conflict masing-masing memiliki 3 dimensi yaitu: time-based conflict, strain-based conflict,behavior-based conflict. Greenhaus dan Beutell (dalam Susan J.Lambert, 2005) mendefinisikan tiga jenis dari konflik peran ganda, yaitu: a. Time-based conflict, yaitu konflik yang terjadi karena waktu yang digunakan untuk memenuhi satu peran tidak dapat digunakan untuk memenuhi peran lainnya artinya pada saat yang bersamaan seorang yang mengalami konflik peran ganda tidak akan bisa melakukan dua atau lebih peran sekaligus. b. Strain-based conflict, yaitu ketegangan yang dihasilkan oleh salah satu peran membuat seseorang sulit untuk memenuhi tuntutan perannya yang lain. Ketegangan peran ini bisa termasuk stres, tekanan darah meningkat, kecemasan, cepat marah dan sakit kepala. c. Behavior-based conflict, yaitu konflik yang muncul ketika pengharapan dari suatu perilaku yang berbeda dengan pengharapan dari perilaku peran lainnya.

Faktor-Faktor Yang Mempengaruhi Konflik Peran Faktor-faktor yang menimbulkan konflik peran menurut GreenhausdanBeutell (1985): a. Faktor yang berhubungan dengan pekerjaan • Career salience, yaitu identifikasi secara psikologis mengenai peran dalam pekerjaan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Work role salience mengarahkan seseorang pada tingkat konflik pekerjaan-keluarga yang lebih tinggi. Ketika identitas karir seseorang berkembang, dia akan meningkat sepenuhnya dalam perannya dalam pekerjaan. Dengan demikian, komiten waktu juga akan meningkat pada peran tersebut. Namun ketegangan akan mengganggu peran lain. Hasilnya tekanan-tekanan peran dan konflik antar peran akan muncul. Involvement, yaitu tingkat partisipasi seseorang dalam pekerjaan akan mempengaruhi waktu serta usaha yang digunakan Fleksibilitas pekerjaan. Tingginya fleksibilitas kerja memfasilitasi kesesuaian pekerjaan-keluarga, dan dengan demikian mengurangi konflik pekerjaan dan keluarga.

b. Faktor yang berhubungan dengan keluarga c. Orientasi keluarga Ideologi peran seks tradisional, perempuan telah diajarkan untuk memiliki orientasi lebih kuat dibanding lakilaki. Untuk istri bekerja, tekanan peran dan konflik waktu akan muncul lebih sering sebagai hasil dari dua komitmen pada pekerjaan dan keluarga.

METODA PENELITIAN Penelitian mengenai self efficacy yang berkaitan dengan konflik peran ganda pada istri TNI-AU yang bekerja merupakan penelitian yang bersifat korelasional. Penelitian korelasional bertujuan untuk menjelaskan hubungan antara dua atau lebih gejala atau variabel. Melalui penelitian ini diketahui bagaimana korelasi antara dua atau lebih variabel baik pola, arah, sifat, bentuk, maupun kekuatan hubungannya (Ulber Silalahi, 2009). Variabel penelitian terdiri dari dua variabel yaitu Self Efficacy dan Konflik Peran. Alat ukur yang digunakan adalah kuisioner self efficacy yang diturunkan berdasarkan konsep self efficacy dari Albert Bandura dan kuesioner konflik peran yang dikonstruksikan berdasarkan konsep konflik peran dari Greenhaus dan Beutell. Adapun populasi dalam penelitian ini terdiri dari 15 orang istri perwira TNI AU yang tinggal di komplek TNI AU Husen Sastranegara.

HASIL KAJIAN Perhitungan pengujian hipotesis tersebut dilakukan dengan menggunakan perhitunganSpearman dan bantuan penggunaan software SPSS 19.0 for Windows. Perhitungan tersebut memberikan hasil sebagaimana tercantum dalam Jadual berikut. Jadual 1 - Nilai Korelasi Self Efficacy – Konflik Peran

Variabel

rs

t hitung

db

t tabel

Keputusan

X dan Y

-0,554

-2,401

13

-1,771

Ho ditolak

Keterangan Signifikan

Dari Jadual 1 di atas dapat diketahui bahwa koefisien korelasi (r) antara self efficacy dengan konflik peran adalah -0,554, besaran korelasi ini menurut kriteria Guilford tinggi. Berdasarkan nilai korelasi (r) antara self efficacy dan konflik peran -0,554, dapat diketahui juga nilai t hitung yakni -2,041 Dengan taraf α (taraf signifikansi) 0,05 atau 95% diperoleh t tabel -1,771 Bila dibandingkan t hitung dan t tabel, diketahui bahwa t hitung lebih besar dibandingkan dengan t tabel ( t hit > t tab), sehingga Ho ditolak dan H1 diterima. Dengan demikian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa, ”Terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara self efficacy dengan konflik peran wanita bekerja pada istri perwira TNI-AU di Komplek Husein Sastranegara”. Jadual 2 - Data Hasil Sebaran Responden Setiap Dimensi Self Efficacy

Dimensi Self Efficacy Level Strength

Kategori Self Efficacy Kategori

Frekuensi

Prosentase

Tinggi

5

33,33%

Rendah

10

66,67%

Tinggi

4

26,67%

Rendah

11

73,33%

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Kategori Self Efficacy

Dimensi Self Efficacy Generality

Kategori

Frekuensi

Prosentase

Tinggi

6

40%

Rendah

9

60%

Berdasarkan Jadual 2 di atas adalah 10 orang responden memiliki self efficacy yang rendah. Hal ini terlihat dengan skor terendah pada dimensi strength yaitu 73,33%, diikuti dengan dimensi generality 60% serta dimensi level 33,33%. Sedangkan 5 orang responden yang memiliki self efficacy tinggi memiliki sebaran skor tertinggi pada dimensi level sebesar 66,67%, kemudian dimensi generality sebesar 40%, serta dimensi strength sebesar 26,67%. Jadual 3 - Data Hasil Sebaran Responden Setiap Dimensi Konflik Peran

Kategori Konflik Peran

Dimensi Konflik Peran Time based work-family conflict Time based family-work conflict Strain based work-family conflict Strain based family-work conflict Behavioral work-family conflict Behavioral family-work conflict

Kategori

Frekuensi

Prosentase

Tinggi

10

66,67%

Rendah

5

33,33%

Tinggi

10

66,67%

Rendah

5

33,33%

Tinggi

10

66,67%

Rendah

5

33,33%

Tinggi

8

53,33%

Rendah

7

46,67%

Tinggi

9

60%

Rendah

6

40%

Tinggi

8

53,33%

Rendah

7

46,67%

Jadual 4 - Tabulasi Silang Tingkat Konflik Peran Berdasarkan Self Efficacy

Self Efficacy

Konflik Peran

Rendah

Tinggi

Rendah

0

5 (33,33%)

Tinggi

10 (66,67%)

0

PERBINCANGAN Dari hasil perhitungan statistik nilai rs ≠ 0, hal ini berarti Ho ditolak dan H1 diterima. Ini memperlihatkan bahwa terdapat hubungan antara self efficacy dengan konflik peran. Kemudian diketahui bahwa hubungan antara self efficacy dengan konflik peran memiliki korelasi yang sedang yaitu – 0,554. Artinya adalah semakin rendah self efficacy maka semakin tinggi konflik peran. Demikian juga sebaliknya, tingginya skor pada self efficacy akan diiringi oleh rendahnya skor konflik peran. Hubungan antara self efficacy dengan konflik peran merupakan hasil dinamika antara dimensi yang terdapat dalam self efficacy yakni level, strength dan generality, yang kemudian akan berkontribusi pada bagaimana seseorang memberikan respon untuk berperilaku dalam menghadapi tugasnya dalam menjalani peran sebagai ibu rumah tangga, bekerja dan kegiatan PIA. Semakin rendah self efficacy yang ditunjukkan seseorang melalui tiga dimensi tersebut, maka semakin tinggi pula konflik peran yang dialaminya. Sebaliknya, semakin tinggi self efficacy maka akan semakin rendah pula konflik peran yang dialaminya. Berdasarkan data tabulasi silang (Jadual 4) diketahui bahwa 10 orang responden (66,67%) memiliki self efficacy yang rendah serta konflik peran yang tergolong tinggi. Sedangkan 5 orang responden (33,33%) memiliki self efficacy yang tinggi dengan konflik peran yang rendah. Secara umum hasil tersebut memperlihatkan bahwa responden yang memiliki self efficacy yang rendah, kurang mampu menjalani ketiga perannya secara

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seimbang dibandingkan dengan responden yang memiliki self efficacy pada kategori tinggi. Seramai 10 orang responden (66,67%) yang memiliki self efficacy rendah dengan konflik peran tinggi ini dapat dikatakan bahwa responden tersebut kurang dapat percaya akan kemampuannya dalam menyelesaikan tugasnya. Hal ini terlihat berdasarkan pada dimensi strength sebanyak 73,33% responden tergolong rendah, sehingga bisa dikatakan responden rata-rata tidak konsisten dari apa yang telah direncanakan dengan pelaksanaanya dalam menjalankan tugasnya di berbagai peran. Konsisten dalam menjalankan ketiga perannya merupakan hal yang diperlukan agar dalam menjalankan berbagai peran tercipta suatu keseimbangan. terjadi tumpang tindih antara peran satu dengan yang lain yang pada akhirnya menimbulkan konflik dalam menjalankan peran. Selain itu timbulnya konflik peran pada responden memberikan dampak pada kondisi psikologis yang berpengaruh dalam self efficacy yang dimilikinya. Kondisi seperti merasa bersalah karena harus meninggalkan beberapa kewajiban dalam rumah tangga seperti mengurus anak , mengikuti perkembangan pendidikan anak, harus meninggalkan anak karena urusan pekerjaan maupun kegiatan PIA, kemudian muncul juga perasaan segan kepada rekan dan atasan di kantor karena pada beberapa kesempatan harus meninggalkan kewajiban karena urusan rumah tangga maupun kegiatan PIA, serta perasaan malu dan segan pada rekan-rekan di PIA karena tidak dapat mengikuti aktivitas PIA secara rutin karena memiliki kewajiban lain di pekerjaan serta rumah tangga. Selanjutnya, responden yang kurang mampu untuk konsisten dalam berperilaku (strength) akan lebih sulit untuk belajar dari pengalaman terdahulunya (generality). Dalam hal ini responden lebih melihat bahwa pengalaman terdahulunya sebagai suatu hambatan bukan sebagai tantangan yang harus dihadapi. Akibatnya adalah saat menghadapi suatu situasi yang sama baginya, maka hal yang dilakukan adalah menganggap dirinya tidak mampu melakukannya karena sebelumnya pun hal itu tidak dapat dilakukan. Oleh karena responden yang kurang mampu belajar dari pengalamannya terdahulu, maka akan berakibat pada keyakinan responden dalam menilai tugas yang akan dihadapinya (level). Penilaian pengalaman menjadi suatu yang ditakuti dan dihindari akan membuat penilaian terhadap tugas yang serupa menjadi sesuatu yang menghambat. Ini menjadikan penilaian terhadap tugas yang baru menjadi sesuatu yang menghambatnya dan merasa dirinya tidak mampu untuk melakukannya, bahkan seringkali dihindari karena takut hal buruk yang lalu terjadi lagi. Seramai lima orang responden (33,33%) yang memiliki self efficacy tinggi dengan konflik peran rendah dapat diartikan memiliki keyakinan, persepsi serta kepercayaan terhadap kemampuannya dan hal tersebut berpengaruh dalam pelaksanaan tugas yang dihadapinya menjalani ketiga peran yang berbeda. Hal ini terlihat pada Jadual 2 bahwa pada dimensi level memiliki hasil skor tertinggi dibandingkan dimensi generality dan strength. Ini mengindikasikan bahwa responden menilai tugas yang dihadapinya sebagai suatu tantangan dan responden pun meyakini dirinya mampu untuk melaksanakannya, sehingga konflik antar peran yang muncul mampu diminimalisir. Berdasarkan data Jadual 3 pada hasil sebaran tingkat konflik peran, terdapat 10 orang responden yang memiliki konflik peran tinggi. Data tersebut memiliki sebaran dimensi time based work-family conflict, time based family-work conflict, dan strain based work-family conflict yang sama tinggi yaitu 66,67% serta merupakan sebaran dimensi tertinggi. Secara umum hasil tersebut memperlihatkan bahwa konflik peran yang terjadi pada responden lebih banyak dirasakan dalam hal waktu baik yang lebih banyak digunakan untuk keluarga maupun pekerjaan, serta ketegangan yang muncul saat berada di rumah setelah menjalani pekerjaan maupun kegiatan PIA. Pada dimensi time based work-family conflict dan time based family-work conflict merupakan dua dimensi yang tertinggi. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa waktu merupakan salah satu kendala utama para responden dalam menjalankan ketiga perannya. Dari jenis pekerjaan maka diketahui terdapat perbedaan jenis pekerjaan antara responden yang mendapat skor tinggi dan rendah. Responden yang mendapat skor tinggi lebih banyak berprofesi sebagai tenaga medis, dimana jam kerja dari tenaga medis sendiri biasanya lebih banyak dari pekerjaan yang lain. Pada time based work-family conflict jelas terlihat bahwa jam kerja yang dimiliki responden dapat mempengaruhi penggunaan waktu yang dimiliki oleh mereka sehingga lebih banyak menggunakan waktu untuk bekerja. Akan tetapi time based family-work conflict yang dimiliki oleh para responden juga tinggi. Hal ini terkait dengan usia anak yang dimiliki oleh para responden. Usia anak para responden yang pada dimensi ini memiliki skor tinggi yaitu berada pada usia 0-6 tahun dimana anak dengan usia seperti itu masih membutuhkan perhatian lebih dari orang tua karena belum mampu melakukan tugas-tugasnya secara mandiri. Dimensi berikutnya yang mendapat skor tertinggi adalah strain based work-family conflict. Pada dimensi ini ketegangan, kecemasan, kelelahan, depresi, atau sifat lekas marah muncul di rumah serta PIA setelah

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responden menjalani pekerjaannya. Kembali pada pekerjaan yang dimiliki oleh para responden yang sebagian besar bertugas melayani masyarakat serta beban kerja yang cukup tinggi menimbulkan munculnya simptomsimptom ketegangan, kecemasan, kelelahan, depresi, atau sifat lekas marah di rumah serta PIA. Pekerjaan yang bersifat melayani tentu saja menuntut pelayanan sebaik-baiknya yang harus diberikan pada responden. Dimensi strain based family-work conflict memiliki skor yang lebih rendah dibandingkan strain based workfamily conflict. Hal ini tentu saja dapat melihat kembali tuntutan pekerjaan yang dimiliki oleh para responden. Pada strain based family-work conflict responden memiliki skor yang lebih kecil karena profesionalitas dalam bekerja lebih diutamakan oleh para responden sehingga munculnya ketegangan, kecemasan, kelelahan, depresi, atau sifat lekas marah lebih banyak muncul setelah responden melakukan pekerjaannya di kantor. Dimensi behavioral work-family conflict merupakan dimensi selanjutnya yang mendapat skor tinggi. Pada dimensi ini memiliki skor yang lebih tinggi daripada behavioral family-work conflict. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa peran yang dijalankan di pekerjaan lebih banyak terbawa ketika berada di rumah dan PIA.

SIMPULAN Dari hasil penelitian ini dapat disimpulkan Terdapat hubungan antara self efficacy dengan konflik peran pada istri perwira TNI-AU yang bekerja. Hubungan antara self efficacy dengan konflik peran bersifat negatif yaitu r = – 0,554. Hasil ini menunjukkan bahwa semakin rendah self efficacy maka semakin tinggi konflik peran wanita bekerja pada istri perwira TNI-AU di Komplek Husein Sastranegara. Gambaran responden self efficacy dengan kategori rendah adalah level, strength, dan generality. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa responden kurang mampu berperilaku yang sesuai dengan keyakinan akan kemampuannya sehingga tidak konsisten apa yang telah direncanakan dengan apa yang dilakukan oleh responden. Kemudian dari hal tersebut berpengaruh pada kurangnya kemampuan responden untuk belajar dari pengalamannya dan mengakibarkan responen memiliki keyakinan yang rendah akan kemampuannya dalam melaksanakan tugasnya. Terdapat faktor yang memicu tingginya konflik peran yaitu usia anak yang relatif dini sehingga belum mampu mandiri dalam menjalankan tugasnya dan masih membutuhkan bantuan.

RUJUKAN Azwar, Syaifuddin. (2003). Penyusunan Skala Psikologi. Yogyakarta :Penerbit PustakaPelajar. Bandura,Albert.(2002).Self-Efficacy:The Exercise of Control.New York:W.H.Freeman. Bandura,Albert.(2006).Self Efficacy Beliefs Of Adolescents.Diunduh pada 22-04-2013 dari http: //www.uky. edu/~eushe2/Bandura/BanduraGuide2006.pdf‎ Bardwick, J. (1971). The Psychology of Woman ; A Study of Biocultural Conflict. New York : Harper and Row. Duxbury, L. E & C. A. Higgins. (1991). Gender Differences in Work – Family Conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology. Gunarsa, S.D & Gunarsa, S.Y.(2000). Psikologi Praktis: Anak, Remaja, dan Keluarga. Jakarta: BDK Gunung Mulia. Hennesy,Kelly D.(2005).Work-Family Conflict Self-Efficacy: A Scale Validation Study.Diunduh pada 21-03-2013 dari http: // drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/2526/1/umi-umd-2410.pdf. Herst,David Evan Loran.(2003).Cross-Cultural Measurement Invariance Of Work/Family Conflict Scales Across English-Speaking Samples.Diunduh pada 20-12-2012 dari http: //scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd. Hurlock,Elizabeth B.(1980).Psikologi Perkembangan, Suatu Pendekatan Sepanjang Rentang Kehidupan Edisi 5.Jakarta:Erlangga. Kossek,Ellen Ernst dan Susan J.Lambert.(2005).Work and Life Integration Organizational, Cultural, and Individual Perspectives.New Jersey:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Mulyani,Endah Sri.(2012).Hubungan Antara Dukungan Sosial Suami dengan Konflik Pekerjaan Keluarga Pada Istri yang Bekerja di Badan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Keluarga Berencana Pemerintah Kota Cimahi. Skripsi,Fakultas Psikologi Universitas Jendral Ahmad Yani.Tidak diterbitkan. Munandar, S. C. Utami. (1985). Emansipasidan Peran Ganda Wanita Indonesia :Suatu Tinjauan Psikologis (Cet. Ke-2). Jakarta :Universitas Indonesia Press. Rumsari,Meiliana.(2008).Hubungan Antara Konflik Peran Dengan Fear Of Success Pada Karyawati Yang Menjabat Sebagai Kepala Bagian Di PT.Bank Bengkulu.Skripsi,Universitas Islam Bandung. Tidak diterbitkan. Silalahi,Ulber.(2010).Metode Penelitian Sosial.Bandung:Refika Aditama. Sugiyono.(2012).Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif Kualitatif dan R&D.Bandung:Alfabeta. Victoriana, Evany.(2012).Studi Kasus Mengenai Self Efficacy Untuk Menguasai Mata Kuliah Psikodiagnostika Umum Pada Mahasiswa Magister Profesi Psikologi Di Universitas “X”.Skripsi,Fakultas Psikologi Universitas Kristen Maranatha. Tidak diterbitkan.

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SECTION VIII

PSYCHOLOGY

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

MATERNAL ATTACHMENT AND COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING OF CHILDREN IN INSTITUTIONALIZED CARE IN MALAYSIA: VARIATION BY SEX Siti Zakiah Syed Mustafa, Rozumah Baharudin*, Firdaus Mukhtar & Nor Sheereen Zulkefly *[email protected] Universiti Putra Malaysia

Abstract Children maltreatment is becoming an issue in Malaysia due to the increasing number of cases reported every year. Institutionalized children are often those who are maltreated in terms of abuse and neglect particularly by their parents. The present study aims to determine the extent to which maternal attachment (MA) influences institutionalized children cognitive functioning (CF). Additionally, the study examined whether the relationship varies across sex. Sample comprised 257 children (mean age: 10 year) in institutionalized care in selected states in Malaysia. The Malay version of Inventory for Peer and Parent Attachment-revised (IPPA-Malay Children) parent scale was used to measure retrospective MA, while CF was assessed using Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices (R-CPM). Data were collected using semi-structured technique at the respective institutions. At the bivariate level, children who reported to experience better attachment with their mothers demonstrated higher levels of CF. Hybrid model analysis using SEM showed that the relationship between MA and CF is stable across sex of child. The study concludes that MA significantly influences the CF of children residing in institutionalized care. Sex of child is not a significant moderator in the relationship. Findings imply the important role of attachment to a significant other in fostering the CF of children. Findings might be useful to those involve in prevention and intervention programs related to cognitive development of children in institutions. Keywords: maternal attachment, emotion regulation, cognitive functioning, institutionalized children, Malaysia

INTRODUCTION The institutional care for children in Malaysia was established under the Children Act 2001 Section 54. The establishment of the institutions or widely known as Children Homes was in response to the need of providing substitute care and protection to abused (physical, sexual and emotional) and neglected children below the age of 18 years old. The Homes under the jurisdiction of Department of Social Welfare aimed to promote the growth of physical, emotional and mental health of the children in a harmonious family atmosphere. Thus, the Homes provide support and address any issues related to the children in a systematic, structured and professional yet family-oriented environment. These include academic education, early intervention programs in reading and writing, human development programs, and vocational skills training (Social Welfare Dpt. Annual Report, 2009). Although quality care is being extended to these children, could the institutions continue with such provisions given their growing population? Children maltreatment cases is showing an increasing trend in Malaysia. In 2009, 2789 cases were reported Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

followed by an increased to 3267 cases in 2010, which later escalated to 3428 in 2011 (Social Welfare Department, 2010 & 2011). As of May 2012, there were 1500 cases of children (515 boy and 985 girls) in need of protective service in the existing 12 institutions in Malaysia. The majority of cases was reported to involve children in the age category of 7 to 12 years old, while the second was among three years old infants and below. The statistics from the Social Welfare Department also reported that in 2011, the main perpetrator of child maltreatment was always the one who spend most time with the child and in many cases were the housewives/mothers. In the same year, a study by (Choo, Dunne, Marret, Fleming, & Wong, 2011) Malaysian sample was consistent with the Department’s report. Choo et al. (2011) revealed that the most perpetrators were adults with parents making up the largest group (39.9%) and a substantial proportion was female (38.3%) specifically, the mother (18.9%). Similar to the Department, Choo et al. noted that the main reason for mother to act abusive was due to conflict within the family. Other factors related to maltreatment highlighted by Choo et al.’s study were gender, poor quality of parent-child relationship, and perceived low quality of school and neighbourhood environments. A mother is a source for safety and comfort to a child. A warm and responsive mother tends to form secure pattern of attachment with the child whereas a mother who seems unengaged in social interaction besides inappropriate and delayed in response form insecure pattern of attachment. As mothers were more often reported as abuser in maltreatment cases in Malaysia, may be suggestive of impaired mother-child attachment growing within the society. Children with insecure maternal attachment tend to have deprived psychological, physical and cognitive functioning as compared to the children with secure pattern of attachment (Shiakou, 2012; Stevenson-Hinde, 2007). Maltreated children who were reported to have insecure maternal attachment also often to show low IQ (West, Mathews, & Kerns, 2013), perform poorly in academic at school during childhood, which continues to adolescence and later facing difficulty in career when entering into adulthood (Slater, 2007; Sroufe, 2005). A study in Malaysia also found that a majority of those who involved in prostitution suffered from physically, emotionally, sexually or multiple abuse during their childhood (Lukman, 2009). Thus, the role of a mother as the primary and protective caregiver is vital in a child’s early age. Childhood is conceived as highly eventful and unique period of life that lays an important foundation for the adult years (Santrock, 2013). One of the phases in childhood is middle and late childhood that include the developmental period from 6 to 11 years of life, and also known as elementary school years. During this phase, the fundamental skills such as reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered by a child. The child is also formally exposed to the larger world and its culture. On the other hand, attachment to a primary caregiver is formed at the first age of a child’s life that determined his or her functioning through the entire life span. A securely attached child will actively explore the environment and becomes knowledgeable and competent whereas the insecurely attached child is inhibited in exploring the environment and placing constraint on learning. The inhibition of environment exploration is expected to negatively impact the cognitive performance of the child. A child with insecure attachment pattern feels unconfident to explore the world and master the three basic education skills (West, et al., 2013). Considering the importance of the influence of primary caregiver attachment on cognitive performance of elementary school years’ children, a study was deemed necessary to be conducted. To date, there is limited studies using Malaysian or even East Asian samples to provide evidence on the link between maternal attachment and cognitive functioning of institutionalized children. Thus, this study was designed to examine the relationship of maternal attachment and cognitive functioning among children in institutional care in Malaysia. Additionally, this study examined the stability of the relationship across sex. Findings from this study will highlight the important role of attachment to a significant other in fostering the cognitive functioning of children. The findings might be also useful to those involve in prevention and intervention programs related to cognitive development of children in institutions. Figure 1. illustrates the hypothesized hybrid model for this study. Hybrid model is a causal model with latent variables representing a mix of path analysis and confirmatory path analysis (Kenny, 2011).

METHODOLOGY This study utilized the quantitative approach with correlational and cross sectional research designs to test the hypotheses. A total of 257 children (n=133, 52.0% boys; n=123, 48.0% girls) aged between 7 and 11 years old were selected using probability proportional to size (PPS) cluster sampling from six Children Homes located in five states in Malaysia namely, Pulau Pinang, Perak, Kuala Lumpur, Pahang, Sabah and Sarawak. Mean age of the participants was 9.89 years. Most of them were Malays (n=182, 71.1%) followed by Bumiputra (n=31, 12.1%), Indian (n=27, 10.5%) and Chinese (n=16, 6.3%). A majority of the participants was in Homes located in peninsular (n=196, 76.6%), and the others were in Borneo (n=60, 23.4%).

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Figure 1- Hypothetical hybrid model

Measures Maternal Attachment. The Malay version of Inventory for Parent and Peer Attachment-revised (IPPA-Malay Children) parent scale was adapted from Gullone and Robinson (2005). The IPPA-Malay Children was used to assess children’s retrospective attachment patterns to their mother comprises 28 items (a=0.653) in three subscales: Secure (a=0.781), Insecure-Resentment (a=0.575) and Insecure-Avoidant (a=0.475). Total items were rated on 3-point Likert scale and ranged from lowest frequency “never true” to the highest frequency “always true”. Higher scores in the Secure subscale and lower scores in the Insecure-Resentment and the Insecure-Avoidant subscales indicate secure attachment. On the contrary, lower scores in the Secure subscale and higher scores in the Insecure-Resentment and the Insecure-Avoidant show insecure attachment. Cognitive Functioning. Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices (R-CPM) (Raven, 1936) was used to measure general intelligence of the children. The test comprises 36 items (a=0.899) in three subtests: Missing Parts (a=0.663), Relationships (a=0.794) and Abstracts (a=0.797). Each subtest contains 12 matrices that were arranged according to level of difficulty. Scores ranged from 0 to 36 which according to the scale manual, higher scores would indicate higher intelligence while lower scores are otherwise.

Ethical Considerations Ethical clearance was granted by the Universiti Putra Malaysia Ethics Committee (JKEUPM) and the Malaysian Social Welfare Department. Informed consent was obtained from principles of respective Homes.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The hypothesized model was estimated using several fit statistics by Hooper, Coughlan and Mullen (2008): Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA) value below 0.08 shows a good fit, Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and Goodness of Fit statistic (GFI) values greater than 0.90 are indicator of good fit. Non-significant Chi-square (c2) result at 0.05 threshold is also an indicator of good fit however, the c2 goodness of fit indices is sensitive to sample size where large sample size leads to rejection of the model. The hypothesized model was designated by considering three patterns of maternal attachment (secure, insecure-resentment and insecure-avoidant) as exogenous variables and three dimensions of children’s cognitive functioning (missing parts, relationships and abstracts) as endogenous variables. The paths were constructed based on relevant theory and literature. Figure 2. shows a direct model examining the relationships among patterns of maternal attachment and dimensions of cognitive functioning. Using multiple fit indices, the RMSEA for the model was 0.266 whereas CFI, TLI and GFI values were lower than 0.90. Since, the fit indices were not within acceptable thresholds which reflected a poor fit of model, the model was revised through modification indices technique. The modification indices suggested three pairs of error terms to covary. The items were item 7 and 8, item 8 and 9; and item 7 and 9. Two paths with regression weight below than 0.7 and not significant were released © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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which were insecure-avoidant to relationship path and insecure-avoidant to missing parts path. The revised model resulted in better goodness-of-fit. The comparisons of fit indices for both hypothesized and revised model are as shown in Table 1. Factors loadings on all variables were reasonably adequate and in logical directions. Above all, only four factors loadings were significant, namely secure to relationships path, insecureresentment to missing parts path, insecure-resentment to relationships path and insecure-resentment to abstract path. Insecure-resentment were found to be significant to all three endogenous variables. Surprisingly, factors loadings on insecure-avoidant were found not adequate to establish significant relationship to any of cognitive functioning dimensions. As hypothesized, secure maternal attachment was associated significantly with higher children’s cognitive functioning while insecure-resentment maternal attachment was linked to lower children’s cognitive functioning besides it was found to have strongest prediction on the endogenous variable based on standardized estimates. Insecure-avoidant maternal attachment was not related to children’s cognitive functioning. Therefore, the first null hypothesis regarding the relationship between secure maternal attachment and cognitive functioning and the second hypothesis, the relationship between insecureresentment maternal attachment and cognitive functioning were rejected. The third null hypothesis which was concerning the relationship between insecure-avoidant maternal attachment and cognitive functioning however, failed to be rejected. The findings were consistent with the findings revealed by Figure 2 - Revised hybrid model with standardized estimates and model fit (check placement of table, follow rules noted above)

Table 1 - Summary of Model Fit Model

c2

df

ρ

c 2/df

RMSEA

CFI

GFI

TLI

Hypothesized

381.647

20

0.000

19.082

0.266

0.447

0.758

0.004

Revised

11.677

17

0.819

0.687

0.000

1.000

0.990

1.017

Note: RMSEA=Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation, CFI=Comparative Fit Index, GFI=Goodness of fit statistics, TLI=Tucker-Lewis Index.

West et al. (2013) found that secure attachment correlated to high IQ in middle childhood at grade three to four while insecure attachment correlated to low children’s IQ however no significant correlation was found to correlate avoidant maternal attachment and children’s IQ.

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Two steps of analysis were performed to cross-validate the model across sex. The first, an unconstrained model was developed in order to test the hybrid model path across male and female simultaneously, which resulted in a baseline c 2value of 42.608. Next, the hybrid model path were constrained equally between two groups thus producing another c 2 value (c 2= 38.435) that is tested against the baseline value for any statistical difference. The invariance test across sex group did not demonstrate improvement in the model fit based on the nonsignificant change in c 2 values (Δc 2=4.173, Δdf=7, p>0.05). The results for moderating effect testing were shown in Table 2. This indicates sex is not a moderator for the relationship. It is also appropriate to say that sex does not have any influence on the relationship between maternal attachment and cognitive functioning of children in institutional care. Thus, the fourth null hypothesis regarding the moderating effect of sex on the relationship between maternal attachment and cognitive functioning failed to be rejected. Finding from this study was inconsistent with the past study (Wongpakaran, Wongpakaran & Wedding, 2012). Wongpakaran et al. (2012) found East Asian sample significant difference in attachment on functioning of children across sex. Table 2 - Results of Moderation Effect Testing

Variable Sex

Model

c2

Variance

38.435

34

Invariance

42.608

41

df

Δdf 7

Critical value 14.07

Δc 2 4.173

Note. p<0.05

CONCLUSION Findings from the present study provide confirmation on the validity of the hybrid model, which indicates that mother-child attachment relationship predicts cognitive performance in children. In particular, secure attachment to mother promotes higher children’s intelligence whereas insecure-resentment attachment is on the contrary. These findings are consistent with the Bowlby and Ainsworth’s Attachment theory. Unexpectedly, inconsistent with the theory insecure-avoidant was found to have no association with children’s intelligence. Additionally, finding on the moderation test of sex was consistent with what was expected. The present study found that the model linking patterns of maternal attachment to dimensions of cognitive functioning was stable across sex. Thus, findings from present study revealed that secure attachment links to higher intelligence while insecure-resentment links to lower intelligence are the same between male and female children in institutional care. Insecure-avoidant was not a significant predictor of intelligence for the children. This finding was inconsistent with other study conducted in the West and East Asian. Few limitations were drawn from present study. First, the data were collected using survey method. Second, the data were assessed at only one point of time hence generalizability of the findings to other point of time is not possible. Thus, a longitudinal study is possible to yield a more rigorous test of the hypotheses besides examining the directionality of the findings. Secondly, the data were collected from a single source, which is self-reported. The validity of the hybrid model will be enhanced by the use of multiple sources of information for example data from the guardian of respective institution.

REFERENCES Choo, W. Y., Dunne, M. P., Marret, M. J., Fleming, M., & Wong, Y. L. (2011). Victimization experiences of adolescents in Malaysia. J Adolesc Health, 49(6), 627-634. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.04.020 Hooper, D., Coughlan, J. & Mullen, M. R. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53-60. Kenny, D. A. (2011). Structural models with latent variables. Retrieved Jun 2, 2014 from http://davidakenny. net/cm/sem.htm Lukman, Z. M. (2009). Childhood abuse among children involved in prostitution in Malaysia. The Social Science, 4(6), 567-572. Santrock, J. W. (2013). Life-span development. Mc-Graw Hill: New York. Shiakou, M. (2012). Representations of Attachment Patterns in the Family Drawings of Maltreated and Nonmaltreated Children. Child Abuse Review, 21(3), 203-218. doi: 10.1002/car.1184 Slater, R. (2007). Attachment: Theoretical development and critique. Educational Psychology in Practice, 23(3), 205-219. doi: 10.1080/02667360701507285 Social Welfare Development. (2010). Laporan Statistik 2010. Retrieved June 2, 2014 http://www.jkm.gov.my/ file/file/Statistic_2010/BHG%20B%204%20-%20KANAK-KANAK%20YANG%20MEMERLUKAN%20 PEMELIHARAAN%20DAN%20PERLINDUNGAN.pdf

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Social Welfare Development. (2011). Laporan Statistik 2011. Retrieved June 2, 2014 http://www.jkm.gov.my/ file/file/Statistic_2011/BHG%20B%202%20-%20KANAK-KANAK%20YANG%20MEMERLUKAN%20 PERLINDUNGAN%20DAN%20PEMULIHAN.pdf Sroufe, L. A. (2005). Attachment and development: a prospective, longitudinal study from birth to adulthood. Attach Hum Dev, 7(4), 349-367. doi: 10.1080/14616730500365928 Stevenson-Hinde, J. (2007). Attachment theory and John Bowlby: some reflections. Attach Hum Dev, 9(4), 337342. doi: 10.1080/14616730701711540 West, K. K., Mathews, B. L., & Kerns, K. A. (2013). Mother–child attachment and cognitive performance in middle childhood: An examination of mediating mechanisms. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(2), 259-270. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.07.005

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

WHAT MAKES YOU FEEL GRATEFUL? A QUALITATIVE STUDY TO EXAMINE GRATITUDE-ELICITING EVENTS Yeo Yet Phing* & Intan Hashimah Mohd. Hashim *[email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract Although many studies focusing on benefits of gratitude, only a few researchers have looked into factors of gratitude. These studies also tend to focus on the experience of gratefulness towards others’ help but not on the more comprehensive sources of gratefulness. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to examine all possible events or situations that can potentially elicit one’s gratefulness. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 30 undergraduate students from a public university in Malaysia. The participants were asked to list down the events that could elicit their gratefulness. In addition, they were asked to indicate the most frequently occurring events and the events that elicited highest level of gratitude. The findings identified 7 domains and 25 categories (under the 7 domains) that developed from a total of 780 events reported by the participants. Findings showed that gaining something especially getting help from family would make people feel most grateful and it happens frequently. Furthermore, staying connected with people was also reported as happening frequently, which may be attributed to human’s motivation to maintain relationship with others. Moreover, individuals felt most grateful for others’ welfare and thank God for othersrelated events. This implies that the members from collectivist culture (e.g., Malaysia) value others welfare over their own welfare. Lastly, the events were organised into a simpler version that consist of only 96 events that serve as a guideline for future researchers to develop measurement on gratitude-eliciting events. The limitations of present study and recommendations for future research were discussed. Keywords: gratitude, gratitude-eliciting events, sense of appreciation, family, positive psychology

INTRODUCTION The investigation by Shamsuddin and colleagues (2013) showed an increase in the prevalence of stress, depression, and anxiety symptoms among university students in Malaysia as compared to the prevalence reported by Gan, Nasir, Zalilah, and Hazizi in 2011. This issue would be more problematic as most a large proportion of the university students were unwilling to get professional help (e.g., counsellor or mental health professional) despite they feel the high level of stress, depression, and/ or anxiety (Salim, 2010). According to Salim, society’s stigma to counselling is one of the causes to this. Although there are a lot of campaigns, talks, or workshops being conducted to raise society’s knowledge and awareness about the importance of seeking professional assistance, the effectiveness is rather questionable. This trend indicates a need for a self-help approach where the society or university students are able help own selves to cope with stressful life hassles. Therefore, it is important to explore the positive elements in human as a buffer of stress. Being grateful has also been proven to be advantageous to individuals as well as the society (Bono, Emmons, Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

& McCullough, 2004). The researchers showed that gratitude has a strong relationship with one’s physical and psychological health, as well as social connection. For instance, Emmons and McCullough (2003) found that the people who feel gratitude in their life spend significantly more time to exercise, getting more hours of sleep every night, and having better quality of sleep as compared to the people who always focus on hassles events in their life. In addition, the gratitude individuals experience fewer symptoms of physical illness (Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Froh, Yurkewicz, & Kashdan, 2009). Related to psychological health and well-being, gratitude has a negative relationship with narcissistic trait and depression, and positive relationship with subjective well-being (Watkins, Woodward, Stone, & Kolts, 2003) and optimism (Froh et al., 2009). In addition, several studies provided evidences that gratitude has strong relations with many positive affects. For instance, proud, hopeful, inspired, forgiving, excited (Froh et al., 2009), happiness, thankfulness, and contentment (Watkins et al., 2003). With regard to social well-being, Froh and colleagues (2009) found that gratitude shows a positive association with social support and prosocial behaviour. Moreover, Emmons and McCullough (2003) also revealed that the people who practice more gratitude in their life have the higher tendencies to report having offered emotional support to others. These results suggested that prosocial motivation is one of the consequences of gratitude induction. In short, these studies provide strong evidence that gratitude is related to one’s biospychosocial components of health and well-being. Moreover, gratitude is not only beneficial to an individual, it also brings positive impact to the people around the individual. Therefore, gratitude can be viewed as a human strength that could help people to increase positive experiences in their lives. Even though many studies focusing on benefits of gratitude, only a few researchers looked into factors of gratitude (e.g., Bar-Tal, Bar-Zohar, Greenberg, & Hermon, 1977; Tesser, Gatewood, & Driver, 1968; Okamoto & Robinson, 1997). These studies tend to focus on the experience of gratitude towards someone’s help, but not on the broader sources of gratefulness. Furthermore, these studies are focusing on one’s experience of gratitude in a more passive rather than active way. In fact, individuals can feel grateful passively (i.e., externally triggered by something happened around them, such as receiving help from someone) or actively (i.e., internally triggered by own thoughts, belief, or perception, such as feeling grateful for enjoying the nice scenery while walking in the garden). In short, the previous studies were unable to capture gratitude in a more diversified manner. Therefore, more studies need to be conducted to examine the broader aspects of gratitude.

Gratitude The topic of gratitude is a broad area that can and had been explored from numerous viewpoints (Chen, Chen, & Tsai, 2012). Various studies conceptualised it either as moral affect, affective trait, attitude, emotion, mood, or life orientation (e,g., Chan, 2013; Chen et al., 2012; Froh, Sefick, & Emmons, 2008; Froh et al., 2009; McCullough, Kilpatrick, Emmons, & Larson, 2001; McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002; McCullough, Tsang, & Emmons, 2004; Toepfer, Cichy, & Peters, 2012; Watkins et al., 2003; Watkins, Grimm, & Kolts, 2004; Wood, Froh, & Geraghty, 2010). However, the present study applies the definition by Froh and colleagues (2008) that defined gratitude as an emotional experience caused by giving credit to others in own positive gains or outcomes. The positive outcome or personal gain can be material or nonmaterial (Emmons & McCullough, 2003), such as getting financial aid or emotional support. In addition, the sources of gratitude is not only limited to human, it can also be impersonal (a sense of gratefulness that intrinsically elicited by the beauty of nature) or originated from non-human sources like God or animal (Froh et al., 2008). According to some studies of gratitude, the factors of gratefulness are religion and spirituality, making external attribution to personal achievement, having a sense of appreciation to life or own ability, and getting aid (e.g., Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Okamoto & Robinson, 1997; Tesser, Gatewood & Driver, 1968; Watkins et al., 2003; Weiner, Russell, & Lerman, 1979; Zaleski, 1988). All of these factors are taking into consideration in the present study.

Gratitude-eliciting Events Despite the limited information about factors of gratitude, there are some findings that could be used as a reference in the present study. First, gratitude could be triggered by thinking about God’s blessing (which termed as religion and spirituality in the present study). According to Watkins and colleagues (2003), grateful people are prone to acknowledge the gift of God. Moreover, the participants in Emmons and McCullough’s (2003) study included thankfulness to God as the experiences that elicited their gratefulness. These studies supported the notion that religion and spirituality can be one of the factors of gratitude.

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Second, gratitude could be elicited by attributing successfulness to other sources. The grateful people tend to use external attribution in own achievement (Weiner et al., 1979; Zaleski, 1988). External attribution means an individual recognising other people or sources for own favourable gain (Bono, 2013). According to Watkins and colleagues (2003), although individual with higher gratitude level recognise contribution of others to their well-being, they will also take proper self-recognition in their achievement. This indicates that grateful people are not only making external attribution to their achievement, they also appreciate their own ability in contributing to the outcome. Third, appreciation could be one of the factors of gratitude too. If one is not able to appreciate things, then one would not be able give thanks. According to Watkins and colleagues (2003), grateful people tend to appreciate simple pleasure in their life. “Simple pleasures refers to those pleasures in life that are readily available to most people” (Watkins et al., 2003, p. 432). In addition, the participants in Emmons and McCullough’s (2003) study listed the experiences that portray appreciation as their gratitude-inducing experiences. Hence, this can support Froh and colleagues’ (2008) statement that one of the objects of gratitude is nature. Last, individuals will feel grateful when they are getting aid from someone or somewhere. According to Watkins and colleagues (2003), appreciating others’ contribution to own well-being is one of the characteristics of individual with high level of gratitude. Furthermore, Tesser and colleagues (1968) proved that people are more likely to feel grateful when they receive benefits from others, particularly when the individuals perceive the provider as selflessly helping them, the benefit gained is costly the provider, and the benefit is valuable to them. Likewise, Okamoto and Robinson (1997) showed that individuals would be more grateful when benefit gained is costly to the provider. Concisely, the determinants of gratitude are religion and spirituality, external attribution of accomplishment, appreciation, and getting aid. Nonetheless, there are countless factors that could contribute to gratitude which are not yet being explored by the researchers. Thus, the present study could provide a broader view regarding the factors of gratitude by exploring a broad range of events that can elicit gratitude.

This Study This study aims to explore the determinants of gratitude in general. By asking the participants to list the events or situations that are able to elicit (also known as “trigger”, this study use “elicit” and “trigger” interchangeably) their gratefulness (also known as “gratitude”, this study use “gratefulness” and “gratitude” interchangeably), the researchers can look at more comprehensive sources of gratitude. Open-ended question were asked to ensure the participants could answer in a free and subjective manner. Moreover, the participants were asked to indicate the most frequently occurring events and also events that elicited highest level of gratitude. By doing so, the researchers are not only able to capture the broad sources in the factors of gratitude, they also able to examine the gratitude-eliciting events that happen most frequently in individual’s life, and the events that lead to most intense state of gratitude. Knowing the factors of gratitude, or more specifically, events that leading to the experience of gratitude can help both researchers and practitioners to come out with some approaches to increase one’s gratefulness. As a result, the approaches could be introduced to the public so that the importance of being grateful could be emphasised as a coping strategy when dealing with stress and as a mean to have a better life. This study aims to examine the potential events that could elicit one’s gratefulness and categorised these events into various categories. In addition, this study also aims to identify categories that represent the highest percentage of the total events, categories reported as eliciting the highest intensity of gratefulness, and categories reported as happen most frequently.

METHODOLOGY Research Design This research employed qualitative research in which respondents responded to a set of open-ended questionnaire in a semi-structured interview. The semi-structured interview was used in this study as it permits the interviewer to ask beyond the standard questions, if necessary (Mitchell & Jolley, 2010). Moreover, the selfreport inventory is to enable the participants to refer to the written answers if needed.

Sampling Approach This study used purposive sampling, which is one if the non-probability samplings. The purpose of using this sampling method is to attain the sample who meets the criterion set before (Wilson & MacLean, 2011). The © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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criterion is the undergraduate students who aged between 19-39 years old.

Participants The participants in this study were 30 undergraduate students (13 male and 17 female) who were recruited from one of the public universities in Malaysia. The response rate is 100%. The participants’ age ranged from 19 to 23 years old (M = 20.73, SD = 0.94). The percentage for different ethnicity is 43.33%, 36.67%, 13.33%, and 6.67% for Malay, Chinese, Indian, and other ethnicity (i.e., Siamese, Kadazan) respectively. In addition, the religions of the participants were Islam (43.33%), Buddhism (40%), Christian (6.67%), and Hinduism (6.67%). There was one Atheist (3.33%) among the 30 participants. This sample represents various ethnic and religious groups of university students.

Research Procedure The undergraduate students in a public university were recruited to participate in this study. Announcement of the study was made in a lecture of a university-wide course. The students who are interested to participate in the study were asked to approach the researchers to make an appointment for interview. The venues of interview were classrooms or foyer in a building around campus. The interview session was a one-to-one interview to enable the participants to have sufficient privacy and freedom to express their feelings and thoughts. In the beginning of the interview session, the interviewer (researcher) had built some rapport with the participants and had explained the privacy and confidentiality issues to the participants. Next, the participants were given a set of questionnaire to be completed. Participants were allowed to ask for clarification, if they want. A token of appreciation was given to every participant. The whole process took about 25-45 minutes.

Apparatus The apparatus used in this study is a set of questionnaire that consists of demographic information and Gratitude-triggering Events. Gratitude-triggering Events is a self-constructed questionnaire that requires the participants to list the events or situations that elicited their gratitude in the past 6 months (refer appendix A1). To ensure the flexibility when recalling the events, participants were allowed to write the events that happen many years ago. This is because some of the past events might be very significant to them and they feel extremely grateful towards that, so the researcher does not want to miss any significant event that provides a remarkable impact to the participants. In addition, some standard questions will be asked after they complete the questionnaire to identify the events that trigger highest level of gratefulness and the events that happen most frequently (refer appendix A2).

RESULTS The data were manually analysed. The answers were allocated in different categories based on the nature of the answers.

The Gratitude-eliciting Events There were 346 events that have been reported as potentially able to elicit individual’s gratefulness. The events cut across 7 domains, which are gaining, external attribution of success, sources of help/ support, religion/ spirituality, sense of appreciation, self-related life events, and others-related life events: grateful for others’ well-being. There were 25 categories (based on the 7 domains) formed according to the nature of the events. Although the categories are exclusive, there were some events that could be grouped into two or more categories, like “I thanks my teachers, friends, and parents for helping me in achieving a good result in my exam” would goes under “accomplishment”, “To educators”, “To friends”, and “To family” categories. This is a normal phenomenon (Payne, 2007) where one event could mean many things. In the abovementioned instance, the participant had made an external attribution of success (i.e., achieved good result in exam) to his teachers, friends, and parents. Therefore, this event could be grouped into the “gaining” domain (i.e., accomplishment category), and “external attribution of success” domain (i.e., to educators, to friends, and to family categories). After summing the number of redundant events with the original 346 events, the grand total of gratitudeeliciting events is 780. Refer table 1 in appendix B1 for definition of domain and categories as well as example of gratitude-eliciting events in each category. Last, the events were reorganised to a simpler version that consist of only 96 items (i.e., event) that could serve as a parameter for future researchers to develop questionnaire.

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Domain and Category that yield the Highest Percentage from the Grand Total Number of Events From table 2 (in appendix B2), “gaining” domain yields the highest percentage from the total number of events, which consists of 285 events (36.54%) out of 780 events. In addition, the “getting help/ support” category (from “gaining” domain) yields the highest percentage from the total number of events. There were 140 events (17.95% from 780 events) in the “getting help/ support” category.

Domain and Category that reported as elicited the Highest Intensity of Gratefulness From table 3 (in appendix B3), when the percentages were calculated based on the grand total of events (i.e., 780 events), the domain that reported as elicited highest gratitude was “gaining” domain. It yields 2.82% (22 events) from the grand total of 780 events. Besides, the category that reported as making them felt most grateful was “from family” (under “sources of help/ support” domain). It yields 1.41% (11 events) from the grand total of 780 events. When the percentages were calculated based on the total number of particular domain or categories, the events under “other-related life events: Grateful for others’ well-being” domain were reported as elicited the highest intensity of gratefulness among the participants. There were 20.59% (7 events) from 34 events in the particular domain have been reported as making them to feel most grateful. Furthermore, the events from “others-related” category (under “religion/ spirituality” domain) have been reported as triggered most gratefulness. There were 44.44% (4 events from a total number of 9 events from that category) of events have been reported as elicited most gratitude from the participants.

Domain and Category that reported as Happened Frequently From table 4 (in appendix B4), when the percentages were calculated based on the grand total of events (i.e., 780 events), the domain that reported as happened frequently by the participants was “gaining” domain. It yields 11.41% (89 events) from 780 events. In addition, the category that reported as happened frequently was “getting help/ support” category. It yields 6.54% (51 events) from the grand total number of 780 events. When the percentages were calculated based on the total number of particular domain or category, the events under “sources of help/ support” domain have been reported as happened most frequently in the past 6 months. There were 38.67% (87 events out of 225 events in that domain) of events were reported as happened frequently. Moreover, the events under “keep in touch with people” category were reported as happened frequently (80%, which is 4 events out of 5 events from that category).

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION From the findings of this study, it can be concluded that there are many life events that could potentially be eliciting one’s gratefulness. The results in this study not only support the evidences from the previous studies regarding the determinants of gratitude (viz., religion and spirituality, external attribution of success, appreciation, and getting aid), the present study also added a number of factors that could contribute to gratitude. For example, accomplishment, sense of abundance, spending time with family and friends, stay connected with old friends and previous teachers, making downward social comparison, and even grateful for others’ welfare. Refer table 1 in appendix B1 for more information of the events.

Gain Something in Life Among those events, the “gaining” domain yields the highest percentage over the grand total number of events, suggested that one would be grateful when they gain something in their life, specifically when they achieve something important (i.e., getting accomplishment in term of academic or extra-curriculum), when they getting help or support, and when they are having sense of abundance (i.e., focusing on what we have, Watkins et al., 2003). This finding is consistent with findings by Watkins and colleagues (2003) who found that having a sense of abundance could be associated with gratitude. Furthermore, the events in “gaining” domain were reported as elicited highest intensity of gratitude and happened most frequently (when the percentage was calculated based on the grand total of events—780 events). This implies that the participants not only feel that gaining something has elicited their gratefulness, they also feel most grateful because of this and they are gaining something very frequently. Particularly, results showed that the events that happen most frequently are getting help or support from God, family, © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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friends, romantic relationship’s partner, educators, institution, or society. The finding in present study suggests that the participants recognize others’ contribution (i.e., help or support) to them. This is in line with Watkins and colleagues’ (2003) study that showed grateful individual tend to acknowledge and appreciate others’ contribution to own self. In addition, the result showed that “getting help/ support” category yields the highest percentage from the grand total of events (i.e., 780 events). This finding again confirms that individuals would be grateful when they get something, especially when they get help or support. Fruthermore, this suggests that the participants always get help from their social networking and they indeed feel grateful towards the help and support provided. Most importantly, the present study had confirmed Tesser and colleagues’ (1968) result that getting help or support could really make individual feel grateful. Moreover, the participants in the present study reported that they felt most grateful for the help or support from their family (when the percentage was calculated based on the grand total of events). This indicates that participants’ level of gratitude is highest when they received help or support from family compared to the other events listed. According to Bal-Tal and colleagues (1977), the closer the relationship between one person and another (i.e., family relationship), the lesser gratitude will be expressed if help is given as the help is viewed as obligatory. In other words, one is less likely to express their gratefulness if they receive help from their family members. However, the result in present study showed that individual felt most grateful for their family’s help. Our finding suggests that although individuals are less likely to express their gratefulness to the close person in their life (Bal-Tal et al., 1977), at least they feel very grateful to them.

Religion and Spirituality When the percentage was calculated based on the total number of particular category, the participants felt most grateful to God for others-related events. This means they felt grateful for the events that the benefits are not directly (but may be indirectly) beneficial to them. For example, they felt gratitude because their parents and siblings are still alive, and because God giving them opportunity to serve their parents. Most of the events listed in this category are family based. In other words, they are grateful for God’s blessing towards their family members. The finding in present study supports the previous studies that stated God’s blessing could elicit one’s gratefulness (e.g., Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Watkins et al., 2003). Furthermore, the present study added the information that individuals feel gratitude for God’s blessing not only to self-related events, but also to others-related events. God’s blessing to others-related events could even make one feeling most grateful.

Keeping in Touch and Feeling Close to People When the percentage was calculated based on the total number of particular category, the finding showed that keeping in touch and feeling close to old friends and previous teachers happened most frequently to the participants. This finding suggested that the bonding among participants and friends (or previous teachers) is indeed being valued, hence it happened frequently, and it is able to trigger their gratitude to some extent. According to Baron and Branscombe (2014), all human beings have a need for affiliation. In other words, people are motivated to seek out and maintain interpersonal relationship to feel connected with people (Baron & Branscombe, 2014). Hence, the finding in present study is able to provide a support to Baron and Branscombe’s statement. People are indeed having the motive to stay connected with friends and significant others in their life, and they even feel grateful because of having this social connection.

Grateful for Others’ Well-being When the percentage was calculated based on the total number of particular domain, the result indicated that others-related life events would make individuals felt most grateful. In other words, individuals feel most grateful when the people around them feel happy or success. According to Jaafar and colleagues (2012), Malaysian society (which adheres to collectivist values) put family and group welfare as the highest contributor of their happiness. Therefore, the result in the present study is in line with the concepts that people in collectivist culture are concerned more about family and group’s well-being rather than personal benefits (Jaafar et al., 2012; Ward, 2002).

Limitations of Current Study and Suggestions on How to Address the Limitations There are several limitations in this study. First, this study could not be generalised to the whole population in Malaysia. This is due to the sample and sampling approach in this study. The sample is only consisted of the undergraduate students from one particular public university in Malaysia, so it could not be generalised © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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all young adult in Malaysia. A sample that consists of young adult from different background in term of education, socioeconomic status, environment (e.g., staying in urban or rural area), ethnicity, religion, age range, and gender is needed to provide more diversified results. Certainly, the background of the sample could be narrowed down to certain aspect based on the focus of the study, such as recruiting the children who aged 5-12 years if the study is focusing on the children at school age based on Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stage. In addition, the more suitable sampling approach would be to use a proportionate stratified random sampling—one of the sampling approaches under probability sampling (Mitchell & Jolley, 2013; Shaughnessy, Zechmeister, & Zechmeister, 2009). In this method, a sample will be drawn based on the known proportionate of the population. By drawing a sample that is in accordance with the distribution of the general population, the sample will be more representative and thus generalisation can be made to the population (Shaughnessy et al., 2009). Second, although this study is comprehensive in term capturing the gratitude-eliciting events, situations, or experiences; however, it failed to capture the other aspects of gratitude inclusively. For example, when individual are more likely to think gratefully? Is being grateful all the time really good (e.g., Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005)? When will individual hardly feel grateful (e.g., Price, 2007)? How do people express their gratitude (e.g., Okamoto & Robinson, 1997)? Gratitude is related to which human strengths (e.g., Froh et al., 2009; Polak & McCullough, 2006)? Even though several studies have been conducted to answer the above questions, additional studies are needed to test and apply the result to different culture. Hence, the future researchers could investigate the cause and effect of being grateful to provide more ample information regarding gratitude in the field of positive psychology. Third, although the instruction was asked for responses in event form, some of the participants tended to answer the questions in target form. For instance, “thank God because I am here and able to finish my diploma” is an example of target form—in which the target of gratitude precede the event or situation. Whereas, “I got my government loan” is example of an event form—in which they mentioned the event or situation at the first place, and might or might not mention about the target afterwards. This would make it difficult to categories the responses if clarification is not obtained from the participants. Thus, future researchers should ensure that the participants are clear about the instruction given. In fact, it may be better to ask the participants to state the event together with the target of gratitude. This means asking the participants to state the events that make them feel grateful, as well as to whom they would like to thank because of this particular event. According to McCullough and colleagues (2002), the number of targets that one feels gratitude because of a positive outcome is one of the features of grateful individual. In other words, the higher the number of targets that a person feels grateful for in a single outcome, the higher the level of gratefulness in that person. Therefore, it is indeed important to identify the target of gratitude as it could be one of determining aspects of one’s level of gratefulness. Last, this study faced a challenge in capturing some ambigious events. This is because some of the participants would write only the events (as instructed), but they would not specifically point out the target (i.e., who they feel grateful for). For instance, some participants would state “I feel grateful when I get into this university”, and did not mention the target. The researchers noticed about this after the interview session with few participants; so, they asked the remaining participants to inform the target of gratitude. However there were some participants who could not tell even after the researcher asked. For example, “doing things in a peaceful environment” and “walking alone in big field”. They were just simply cannot think of any source to be grateful for. Indeed, not every event would have a target to be grateful for, like the examples of events stated above are the events that goes under “appreciate simple enjoyment/ travel” category. Most of the events under that category were non-target based. This means that the events were merely a pleasure experience of the participants and they are not necessarily thinking of someone to be grateful for when they enjoy the scenery. In fact, this situation is normal as the sources of gratitude can be elicited by the lovely nature (Froh et al., 2008). However, it is still important for the interviewer to further clarify with the interviewee, as some of them might attribute the joy of pleasure moment to deity (e.g., Emmons & McCullough, 2003).

Recommendation for Future Researches and Implication The future researchers could group the gratitude-eliciting events into active and passive groups. As mentioned before, one’s gratitude can be triggered by things that happen to them (viz., passive) or their own cognitive or enjoyment of pleasure moment (viz., active). By grouping the events into these two groups or categories, the researchers could identify which experience of gratitude could trigger more gratefulness and happen most frequently. Individuals might feel extremely grateful when somebody help them (i.e., passive form of © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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gratitude), but they would not experience it as frequently as enjoying beautiful scenery (i.e., active form of gratitude). In addition, future researchers can examine whether the exact experience of some events (i.e., passive) or merely recalling some past positive experiences (i.e., active) have a difference in one’s intensity of gratefulness. If the difference is not significant, then the researchers could apply it as a way to boost one’s gratefulness and regard it as a self-help approach to cope with life hassles. This is because we may not necessarily (passively) experience positive events that could make us grateful every day, but we could make ourselves a grateful person by (actively) thinking of our past positive experiences or appreciating simple enjoyment in our life. Moreover, when the researchers in the present study compiled the listed events by participants, they found that the participants tend to use the words that describe happiness like happy, glad, and overjoyed very frequently. This implies that the participants tend to link gratitude with happiness. In fact, there are numerous studies found that gratitude have the positive relationship with happiness (e.g., Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Polak & McCullough, 2006; Watkins et al., 2003). Although there are a number of researches in this field, the similar research in Malaysia is relatively scarce. Therefore, future researchers, especially Malaysian could try to investigate the relationships between gratitude and positive emotion or happiness. By doing so, the researchers could link the benefits of gratitude with one’s happiness or well-being. Granted this is true in our culture, this will make the self-help approaches not only boosting one’s gratitude, but also boosting one’s happiness. Moreover, future researchers could investigate gratitude of individuals from different cultures (e.g., Farashaiyan & Tan, 2012). This is because culture might play a role in shaping one’s attitude, thoughts, and behaviours. Therefore, there is a reason to believe that people from different culture experience gratitude for different matters, people, and reasons. The findings from different cultures can be compelling and remarkable. In sum, the findings in the present study could help the future researchers to develop a questionnaire that focuses on gratitude-triggering events. In addition, the future researchers can also come out with some selfhelp approaches that can boost one’s gratitude by referring to the results and suggestions in this study.

CONCLUSION As a conclusion, this study is not only able to address the previous studies’ limitation, it also enrich the information about the determinants of gratitude. The findings in this study support the results from previous researchers as well as add on some new elements of gratitude. Moreover, the results indicated that individual feel most grateful when they are gaining something, when they getting help or support from family, and when the people around them living in good condition and happy. In addition, the events that reported as happened most frequently were gaining something, getting help or support from various sources (e.g., God, family, friends, romantic relationship’s partner, educators etc.), and stay connected with old friends and previous teachers. By looking at the events that most likely to happen and elicit one’s gratefulness, the gratitude-boosting strategies could be accurately constructed and applied in future. Last, this study also highlights the need to further explore the construct of gratitude.

REFERENCES Bar-Tal, D., Bar-Zohar, Y., Greenberg, M. S., & Hermon, M. (1977). Reciprocity behavior in the relationship between donor and recipient and between harm-doer and victim. Sociometry, 40(3), 293-298. Retrieved from http://ehis.ebscohost.com Baron, R. A., & Branscombe, N. R. (2014). Social psychology (13th ed.). London, England: Pearson Education Limited. Bono, G. (2013). Unexpected lessons in gratitude and character for teens. In G. Bono, & J. J. Froh (Eds.), Making Grateful Kids (Fall 2013). Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/making-gratefulkids/201311/unexpected lessons-in-gratitude-and-character-teens Bono, G., Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2004). Gratitude in practice and the practice of gratitude. In P. A. Linley, & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive Psychology in Practice (pp. 464-481). Retrieved from http://www. researchgate.net Chan, D. W. (2013). Subjective well-being of Hong Kong Chinese teachers: The contribution of gratitude, forgiveness, and the orientations to happiness. Teaching and Teacher E d u c a t i o n , 3 2 , 2 2 - 3 0 . doi:10.1016/j.tate.2012.12.005 Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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377–389. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.377 Farashaiyan, A., & Tan, K. H. (2012). A cross-cultural comparative study of gratitude strategies between Iranian and Malaysian postgraduate students. Asian Social Science, 8(7), 139- 148. doi:10.5539/ass.v8n7p139 Froh, J. J., Sefick, W. J., & Emmons, R. A. (2008). Counting blessings in early adolescents: An experimental study of gratitude and subjective well-being. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 213-233. doi:10.1016/j. jsp.2007.03.005 Froh, J. J.,Yurkewicz, C., & Kashdan,T. B. (2009). Gratitude and subjective well-being in early adolescence: Examining gender differences. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 633-650. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.06.006 Gan, W. Y., Nasir, M. T. M., Zalilah, M. S., & Hazizi, A. S. (2011). Disordered eating behaviors, depression, anxiety and stress among Malaysian university students [Abstract]. College Student Journal, 45(2), 296-309. Retrieved from http://ehis.ebscohost.com Jaafar, J. L., Idris, M. A., Ismuni, J., Yoo, F., Jaafar, S., Ahmad, Z., Sugandi, Y. S. (2012). The sources of happiness to the Malaysians and Indonesians: Data from a smaller nation. Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences, 65, 549–556. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.164 Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9(2), 111-131.doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111 McCullough, M. E., Emmons, R. A., & Tsang, J.-A. (2002). The grateful disposition: A conceptual and empirical topography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 112–127. doi:10.1037//00223514.82.1.112 McCullough, M. E., Kilpatrick, S. D., Emmons, R. A., & Larson, D. B. (2001). Is gratitude a moral affect? Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 249-266.doi:10.1037//0033-2909.127.2.249 McCullough, M. E., Tsang, J.-A., & Emmons, R. A. (2004). Gratitude in intermediate affective terrain: Links of grateful moods to individual differences and daily emotional experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(2), 295–309. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.295 Mitchell, M. L., & Jolley, J. M. (2010). Research design explained (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Mitchell, M. L., & Jolley, J. M. (2013). Research design explained (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Okamoto, S., & Robinson, W. P. (1997). Determinants of gratitude expressions in England. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 16(4), 411-433. doi:10.1177/0261927X970164003 Payne, S. (2007). Grounded theory. In E. Lyons, & A. Coyle (Eds.), Analysing qualitative data in psychology (pp. 66-86). London, England: Sage. Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Retrieved from http://teachingpsychology.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/character-strengths-and virtues.pdf Polak, E. L., & McCullough, M. E. (2006). Is gratitude an alternative to materialism? Journal of Happiness Studies, 7, 343–360. doi:10.1007/s10902-005-3649-5 Price, C. (2007). Stumbling toward gratitude. Retrieved from http://www.psy.miami.edu Salim, S. (2010). Psychological help seeking attitudes among Malaysian college and university students. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, 301–305. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.117 Shamsuddin, K., Fadzil, F., Ismail, W. S. W., Shah, S. A., Omar, K., Muhammad, N. A., .Mahadevan, R. (2013). Correlates of depression, anxiety and stress among Malaysian university students. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 6(4), 318-323. doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2013.01.014 Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2009). Research methods in psychology (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Tesser, A., Gatewood, R., & Driver, M. (1968). Some determinants of gratitude. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9(3), 233-236. Retrieved from http://ehis.ebscohost.com Toepfer, S. M., Cichy, K., & Peters, P. (2012). Letters of gratitude: Further evidence for author benefits. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13(1), 187-201. doi:10.1007/s10902-011-9257-7 Ward, A. R. (2002). Mouse morality: The rhetoric of Disney animated film [Google eBook]. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.my/books?id=EW0f0d5dj_8C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Watkins, P. C., Grimm, D. L., & Kolts, R. (2004). Counting your blessings: Positive memories among grateful persons. Current Psychology, 23(1), 52-67. Retrieved from http://ehis.ebscohost.com Watkins, P. C., Woodward, K., Stone, T., & Kolts, R. L. (2003). Gratitude and happiness: Development of a measure of gratitude, and relationships with subjective well-being. Social Behavior and Personality, 31(5), 431452. 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integration. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 890–905. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.005 Zaleski, Z. (1988). Attributions and emotions related to future goal attainment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 563-568. Retrieved from http://ehis.ebscohost.com

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

CONTENT VALIDATION OF SCALES ASSESSING PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF CROWDS AMONG HAJJ PILGRIMS Shukran Abdul Rahman, Nor Diana Mohd. Mahudin & Mohd Arif Shuib International Islamic University Malaysia Zulkarnain Ahmad Hatta, Noraida Abdul Ghani, Jasni Sulong & Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim Universiti Sains Malaysia Zarina Mat Saad Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract The objective of this paper is to report the process of quantifying the content validity of items in five newly developed scales that measure the psychological antecedents of crowds during Hajj (i.e., Personality, Crowd mood, Expected Crowdedness, Perceived Lawlessness, and Hajj Familiarity). The purpose of content validation is to assess whether the items in the scales represent the construct of specific interest, referred to as the concept of content validity for the scales. The content validation exercise helps test developers to assess the extent to which the scale samples or represents all domains of a given concept. A scale may lack content validity if it only assesses a dimension of the construct and fails to take into account the remaining dimensions as have been defined for the respective construct. This exercise quantifies the degree of experts’ agreement (N=15) as to whether the sample of items developed adequately represent a particular dimension of the construct in question, after which the content validity ratio for each item was calculated. The value of content validity ratio serves as important basis for the acceptance of an item in the scales, as it provides the agreement of subject matter experts about the representativeness of the items, and, in turn, leads to the index for high content validity. Keywords: content validation, content validity, content validity ratio, psychological variables, crowd, hajj

INTRODUCTION Mass gatherings attended by large crowds of people have been associated with potential disasters including stampede, crushing, asphyxiation, and deaths. For example, the Ibrox stand incident of 1902 in Glasgow and the crushing accident at Bolton in 1946 have contributed to deadly disasters (Mohd Mahudin, 2003). In the context of hajj activities, since they also involve a set of place for human activity, hujjaj are also exposed to disasters, which necessitate attention on the importance of efficient crowd management system. Effective and safe management of large crowds during Hajj are vital as the statistics of pilgrims or hujjaj are reaching four million per season in the coming years (Shuib et al. 2013). The Hajj management has thus far emphasised on the technical aspects of crowd management by using sophisticated tracking and positioning system, computer simulations, and automated video analyses (Johansson, 2010). Another important aspect Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

in hajj crowd management, i.e., the psychological makeup of the crowds that influences the behaviours of the hujjaj, have only recently been explored (e.g., Shuib et. al., 2013, Curtis, Guy, Zafar, & Manocha, 2011). These studies, nevertheless, indicate the essentiality of understanding psychological and human factor aspects of crowds. Capturing the underlying psychological and social factors affecting this crowd type before the Hajj season, hence, could yield efficient safety practices, evacuation simulations, and injury preventions. Nevertheless, before any intervention could be suggested, relevant information of the nature of crowd during hajj time should be assessed. Given the available literature on the nature of crowd during hajj does not cover much of the psychosocial characteristics of hajj pilgrims, plus the unavailability of specific tool to measure the characteristics, a new measuring instrument is therefore essential.

SCALES TO MEASURE THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF CROWDS AMONG HUJJAJ A new set of tests have been developed to measure the psychological antecedents of crowds among hujjaj. The process of test development followed that of Cohen, Swerdlik, and Sturman (2012), which involves five major stages: conceptualisation, item construction, test tryout, analyses, and revision. The initial stage of the test development project requires the scale developer to define and identify the domains to be included in the test. This is followed by the items construction stage. After the test construction stage, and before the items are tried-out on the test takers, the items should be endorsed by a group of subject matter experts. This is an important stage so as to content-validate the items, vis a vis the domains included in the definition of the construct of interest. This paper reports the process of quantifying the content validity of the items in a set of newly developed scales that measures the psychological antecedents of crowds among Hajj pilgrims or hujjaj. These scales are Personality, Crowd-mood, and Expected Crowdedness, Perceived Lawlessness, and Familiarity with Hajj activities.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCALES The development of an assessment tool, such as a scale, must be based on the relevant literature review. However, it is also deemed as necessary to engage the expertise of subject matter experts (SMEs). SMEs play a significant role in the first two essential steps of scale, i.e., scale conceptualization and construction development (Cohen, Swerdlik, & Sturman, 2012) in such a way that for each domain, relevant content areas will be determined by SMEs and the scale developers then generate items for each domain based on the breakdown stated by the SMEs. The items generated are subsequently subjected to content validation so as to assist scale developer in editing, screening, and selecting the final items for the scale. The process of conceptualization and construction development, particularly those conducted in the current study, are further discussed below:

a.

Scale Conceptualization Pilot work involves inspection of relevant literature, and discussion with subject matter experts (SMEs) in defining the psychological constructs among Hajj pilgrims. The literature review of crowd studies found that there are various aspects that requires investigation, hence necessitating for the assessment tools to be in place. The identified aspects from this initial exercise are: a. Personality, referred to as the dynamic organisation within the individual of on psychophysical systems that determine his/her characteristics, behavior and thought (Allport, 1961, p. 28). For this construct, it refers to distinctive traits of an individual that can be categorised into Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness (Saucier, 1994). b. Crowd mood, referred to as a descriptor of crowd emotion (Pines & Maslach, 1993; Zeitz et al., 2009). This construct refers to behaviors that manifest an individual’s emotion in terms of (1) interaction, (2) physical movement, (3) physical contact, (4) participation, (5) cooperation, and (6) level of violence when he/she is in the Hajj crowd. c. Expected crowdedness in this scale refers to the extent to which one expect to be crowded (Parsons & Mohd Mahudin, 2009). With reference to the current measurement context, it refers to the extent to which respondents expect to be crowded in the Hajj environment. d. Perceived lawlessness refers to the extent to which the degree of lawlessness as perceived by individuals (Parsons & Mohd Mahudin, 2009). The construct refers to the perception of

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respondents on the behavior of others in the crowd in relation to adherence to the (1) rules and regulations, (2) manners, and (3) laws. e. Hajj familiarity, referred to as the extent of respondents' prior knowledge and experience with crowded conditions (Parsons & Mohd Mahudin, 2009). This construct refers to (1) prior knowledge and (2) prior experience of the Hujjaj about crowded conditions. These five constructs have been defined to contain relevant domains based on the relevant literature and input from SMEs. The content domains identified at this stage helped scale developers to construct items which were representative of behaviour of these domains. This step is essential as the proposed psychological scales adopted a content-oriented test construction procedure. The domains for the psychological variables are depicted in the Table 1. TABLE (1) - Blueprint of Psychological Antecedents of Crowd

No 1

2

Construct Personality Scale *Big Five MiniMarkers (Saucier, 1994) Total items: 40 Crowd Mood Scale *Crowd mood classification (Pines & Maslach, 1993; Zeitz et al., 2009). Total items: 6

Domain

Number of Items

Extraversion

8

Agreeableness

8

Conscientiousness

8

Emotional Stability

8

Openness

8

Manifested emotions in terms of interaction

1

Manifested emotions in terms of physical movement

1

Manifested emotions in terms of physical contact

1

Manifested emotions in terms of crowd participation

1

Manifested emotions in terms of cooperation

1

Manifested emotions in terms of level of violence

1

3

Expected Crowdedness Scale Total items: 5

Expectation of crowdedness

5

4

Perceived Lawlessness Scale Total items: 6

Perceived adherence to rules and regulations

2

Perceived adherence to manners

2

Perceived adherence to laws

2

Hajj Familiarity Scale Total items: 6

Prior knowledge

3

Prior experience

3

5

Total items for all six scales: 63

b.

Scale Construction Scaling. The proposed scales adopted a rating-scale format, referred to as a group of statement on which judgments of the strength of agreement on a particular statement is given for the respondents to choose (Cohen, Swerdlik, & Sturman, 2012). The rating scale used was the Likert–type Scale, with five alternative responses ranging from 1 to 5. However there were different responses across different scale measuring different constructs. The examples of the responses are: a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

“Very inaccurate to Very accurate” “No talking to Very high degree of taking” “No physical movement to Very high degree of physical movement” “No physical contact to Very high degree of physical contact” “No participation to Very high degree of participation” “No cooperation to Very high degree of cooperation” “No violence to Very high degree of violence”

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CONTENT VALIDITY The constructs measured in any scales must contain the samples of items from the populations of items that correspond to the behaviours that reflect the constructs. Generally, content validity refers to the extent to which a scale samples or represents all facets of a given social concept. A scale may lack content validity if it only assesses a dimension of the construct and fails to take into account the remaining dimensions as have been defined for the construct. Content validity is addressed as a degree of experts’ agreement about whether a sample of behaviours adequately represents a particular dimension of the construct in question. Their disagreement about the representativeness of the behaviours will prevent a scale from having high content validity (Donald, 2003). A scale that lacks content validity at the item development phase will not significantly relate to theoretical framework of the construct (Hinkin, 1995) Inspection on the concept of content validity indicates that it has a number of pertinent notions. Adcock and Collier (2001) refer to content validity as the assessment of the degree to which a scale represents the universe of content defined in the construct being measured. Haynes, Richard, and Kubany (1995) state that content validity is a component of construct validity and define it as “the degree to which elements of an assessment instrument are relevant to and representative of the targeted construct for a particular assessment purpose” (p. 239). The definitions indicate that content validity is subjected to all assessment instruments, including questionnaire while the term ‘element’ of an assessment instrument refers to all of the aspects of the measurement process that can affect the obtained data such as the elements of items, response formats and instructions of a scale. The term ‘the degree to’ refers to the fact that content validity is a quantitatively based judgment (e.g., quantitative estimates of relevance and representativeness). The relevance of the scale refers to the appropriateness of its elements for the targeted construct and function of assessment (Ebel & Frisbie, 1991; Guion, 1977; Messick, 1993; Suen, 1990) while its representativeness refers to the degree to which its elements or items are proportional to the facets of the targeted construct (Lynn, 1986; Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994; Suen & Ary, 1989). Content validity is the lowest level of validity to be established; i.e., it forms the starting point because the procedure of content validation can be used to assist the subsequent steps of screening, editing, and refining items in scale development. There are two approaches to retain items for a scale. The first approach is an empirical approach to test construction which requires scale developers to conduct item analysis after the item construction stage. This is to determine which items can be retained in the final scale. Another approach is the rational approach to test construction, which is the establishment of content validity. This is the method adopted for establishing the content validity of a set of scales to assess the psychological antecedents of crowds in this study. Following the rational approach to test construction, there are two methods of content validation: qualitative and quantitative content validation. The former solicits qualitative feedbacks from SMEs about the scale questionnaire in terms of grammar, wording, necessity, significance, item allocation, and scaling, while the latter involves validation and refinement of the proposed construct and provides evidence of the construct validity of the scale as it subsumes all categories of validity (Anastasi, 1988; Smith & McCarthy, 1995). The quantification of validity is also expressed as the degree to which “experts” agree about the domain and facets of the construct (Murphy & Davidshofer, 1994). The process typically involves gauging a panel of raters or judges agreement about how essential a particular item is to the construct measured by the test. The judges respond to the question on whether the aspects measured by the item are essential, or useful but not essential, or not necessary (Cohen, Swerdlik, & Sturman, 2012). An item has at least some content validity if more than half of the panellists indicate the item as essential, calculated by using the following formula, where Ƞe refers to the number of panellist indicating essential, and N/2 refers to the number of total panellist divided by two.

A negative CVR is obtained when fewer than half of the panellist indicates essential, e.g. 4/10 panellist indicate essential, while zero CVR happens when half of the panellist indicates essential, and positive CVR occurs when more than half but not all indicate essential. Lawshe (1975) also proposed the computation of content validity index (CVI – mean of items CVRs) as a quantitative indication of content relevance of a test, i.e., one of the important indices in the later process of test validation. In the current study, Lawshe’s (1975) method to measure content validity is conducted and reported in the subsequent section.

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METHOD Participants Fifteen subject matter experts from IIUM, USM, and UUM, all of whom fulfilled the criteria of expert panel members to sit in a content review process as set by the American Educational Research Association, were involved in this study. To be deemed as experts in this area, the SMEs have to further fulfil the following criteria: they must have an academic background in Islamic studies, Psychology, and Sociology, and have years of academic experience of learning, teaching, publication, and research dealing with psychological and sociological concepts and principles.

Procedures of Quantitative Content Validation In the quantitative content validation procedure, CVR was calculated for the 63 items with a panel of 15 subject matter experts (SMEs). The exercise was proceeded with the SMEs were invited to rate how essential a particular item was to measure the constructs of the scales.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The CVR for the identified psychological constructs were calculated. The results of the CVR exercise are as presented in Table 2.1 till Table 2.6. With the size of 15 panel members, Lawshe’s (1975) suggested that the minimum indicator of item acceptance CVR value is 0.49. Table (2.1) - Personality

Domain Extraversion

Agreeableness

Items

Content validity ratio

Remark

Segan-silu Bashful

0.33

Rejected

Berani Bold

0.73

Accepted

Bertenaga Energetic

0.47

Rejected

Ekstrovert Extraverted

0.87

Accepted

Pendiam Quiet

1.00

Accepted

Pemalu Shy

0.73

Accepted

Suka bercakap Talkative

0.73

Accepted

Menyisihkan diri Withdrawn

0.60

Accepted

Dingin* Cold

0.33

Rejected

Berkerjasama Cooperative

1.00

Accepted

Kasar* Harsh

0.60

Accepted

Baik hati Kind

1.00

Accepted

Biadap* Rude

0.47

Rejected

Mudah bersimpati Sympathetic

0.73

Accepted

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Domain

Conscientiousness

Emotional Stability

Openness

Items

Content validity ratio

Remark

Tidak bersimpati* Unsympathetic

0.60

Accepted

Mesra Warm

0.87

Accepted

Cuai* Careless

0.60

Accepted

Tidak teratur Disorganised

0.60

Accepted

Cekap Efficient

1.00

Accepted

Tidak cekap* Inefficient

0.60

Accepted

Teratur Organised

0.73

Accepted

Praktikal Practical

0.60

Accepted

Selekeh* Sloppy

0.47

Rejected

Sistematik Systematic

0.73

Accepted

Iri hati* Envious

0.47

Rejected

Perengus Fretful

0.73

Accepted

Cemburu* Jealous

0.47

Rejected

Muram* Moody

0.87

Accepted

Tenang Relaxed

1.00

Accepted

Ada angin* Temperamental

0.73

Accepted

Mudah tersinggung* Touchy

0.87

Accepted

Tidak iri hati Unenvious

0.60

Accepted

Kompleks Complex

0.60

Accepted

Kreatif Creative

1.00

Accepted

Licik Deep

-0.07

Rejected

Imaginatif Imaginative

1.00

Accepted

Intelektual Intellectual

0.60

Accepted

Berfalsafah Philosophical

0.33

Rejected

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Domain

Items

Content validity ratio

Remark

Tidak kreatif* Uncreative

0.60

Accepted

Tidak cerdik* Unintellectual

0.20

Rejected

Table (2.2) - Crowd Mood

Domain

Items

Content validity ratio

Remark

Manifested emotions in terms of interaction

Bagaimanakah anda menggambarkan tentang interaksi di kalangan para Jemaah Haji? How would you describe the interaction in the Hajj crowd?

0.73

Accepted

Manifested emotions in terms of physical movement

Bagaimanakah anda menggambarkan tentang pergerakan fizikal di kalangan para Jemaah Haji? How would you describe the physical movements in the Hajj crowd?

1.00

Accepted

Manifested emotions in terms of physical contact

Bagaimanakah anda menggambarkan tentang sentuhan fizikal dengan orang lain di kalangan para Jemaah Haji? How would you describe the physical contact in the Hajj crowd?

0.87

Accepted

Manifested emotions in terms of crowd participation

Bagaimanakah anda menggambarkan tentang tahap penyertaan di kalangan para Jemaah Haji? How would you describe the crowd participation during Hajj?

0.73

Accepted

Manifested emotions in terms of cooperation

Bagaimanakah anda menggambarkan tentang tahap kerjasama di antara para Jemaah Haji? How would you describe the level of cooperation in the Hajj crowd?

1.00

Accepted

Manifested emotions in terms of level of violence

Bagaimanakah anda menggambarkan tentang tahap kekasaran di kalangan para Jemaah Haji? How would you describe the level of violence in the Hajj crowd?

0.73

Accepted

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Table (2.3) - Expected Crowdedness

Content validity ratio

Remark

Saya menjangkakan bahawa persekitaran kawasan Haji akan sesak. I expect that Hajj areas to be crowded.

1.00

Accepted

Saya mengagak ramai orang akan hadir sewaktu musim Haji. I expect that many people will be present during Hajj.

0.87

Accepted

Saya menjangkakan bilangan jemaah Haji yang ramai akan menakutkan saya. I expect the number of Hujjaj to be intimidating to me.

0.47

Rejected

Saya menjangkakan jemaah Haji akan berkerjasama di dalam kumpulan. I expect Hujjaj to cooperate in the crowd.

0.47

Rejected

Saya menjangkakan perhimpunan jemaah Haji sebagai satu situasi yang selamat. I expect the Hajj crowd to be safe.

0.60

Accepted

Content validity ratio

Remark

Orang ramai dengan mudah boleh memasuki kawasan larangan semasa musim Haji. People can easily enter restricted areas during Hajj.

0.87

Accepted

Menggunakan tandas yang disediakan untuk jantina yang berlainan adalah perkara biasa semasa musim Haji. Using opposite gender toilets is normal during Hajj.

0.87

Accepted

Bertolak-tolak, berhimpit-himpit, dan berebut-rebut adalah normal semasa musim Haji. Pushing, squeezing, and shoving are normal during Hajj.

1.00

Accepted

Pembaziran makanan adalah scenario biasa semasa musim Haji. Food wastage is a general scenario during Hajj season.

0.47

Rejected

Kecurian kecil (contohnya, penyeluk saku, kecurian beg, kecurian telefon bimbit) di tempat-tempat yang sesak semasa musim Haji adalah berleluasa. Petty theft (e.g., pickpocketing, bag theft, mobile phone theft) in crowded places during Hajj is rampant.

1.00

Accepted

Kawasan Haji terdedah kepada gejala merosakkan harta benda awam (vandalisma). Hajj areas are vulnerable to vandalism.

0.73

Accepted

Domain Expectation of crowdedness

Items

Table (2.4) - Perceived Lawlessness

Domain Perceived adherence to rules and regulations

Perceived adherence to manners

Perceived adherence to laws

Items

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Table (2.5) - Hajj Familiarity

Domain Prior knowledge

Prior experience

Content validity ratio

Remark

Saya biasa dengan kawasan-kawasan ibadat Haji. I am familiar with the Hajj areas.

1.00

Accepted

Pembacaan kisah-kisah dan ilmu Haji membantu saya bersedia menghadapi kesesakan ketika musim Haji. Reading stories and facts about Hajj helps me prepare for congestion during the Hajj season.

1.00

Accepted

Pendidikan serta bimbingan ibadah haji yang diberikan oleh pihak berkenaan membiasakan saya dengan kawasan-kawasan Haji yang sesak. Education and guidance given by the respective authority have made me familiar with congested areas at Hajj sites.

1.00

Accepted

Saya biasa dengan keadaan sesak semasa musim Haji. I am familiar with how crowded Hajj can be.

1.00

Accepted

Saya biasa berada di dalam kumpulan yang besar. I am familiar with large groups of people.

0.87

Accepted

Saya menyesuaikan diri dengan baik di tempat-tempat yang sesak. I adapt well to crowded places.

1.00

Accepted

Items

Based on Lawshe's Table (1975), there are 13 out of 63 items which CVR values are below 0.49. The others showed significant level of CVR; i.e. CVR values of 0.49 and above. The 13 items will be omitted from the scales based on the assumption made by Lawshe (1975) that a CVR of 0.00 means that 50% of the experts in the panel believe that a measurement item is “essential” and, therefore, is content valid to a certain degree. Thus, if more than 50% of the experts’ agreement is obtained the item has some reasonable degree of content validity. Using the CVR cut-off of 0.49 the final number of items retained was 50.

CONCLUSION The content validity confirmed the validity and clarity of the psychological antecedents of crowds scales developed in the current study, with evidences for the relevance of the items based on the considerable degree of agreement between opinions of the relevant SMEs. Based on the results of this process, 50 items in five domains were confirmed. These findings imply that the developed scales are suitable for studying the psychological antecedents of crowds due to its appropriate validity, simplicity, and functionality, particularly in Hajj.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was supported by the Ministry of Education Malaysia under the LRGS 203.PTS.6728002 grant, for which the authors are grateful.

REFERENCES Adcock, R. & Collier, D. (2001) Measurement validity: A shared standard for qualitative and quantitative research. American Political Science Review, 95, 533-546. Allport, G.W. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston. Anastasi, A. (1988) Psychological testing (6th ed.). USA: Macmillan Publishing Company. Cohen, R. J., Swerdlik, M. E., & Sturman, E. (2012). Psychological testing and assessment: An introduction to tests and measurement (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Curtis, S., Guy, S. J., Zafar, B., & Manocha, D. (2011, November). Virtual tawaf: A case study in simulating the behavior of dense, heterogeneous crowds. In Computer Vision Workshops (ICCV Workshops), 2011 IEEE International Conference On (pp. 128-135). IEEE. Donald, P (2003). Essential Personality. UK:Arnold. Ebel, R. L. & Frisbie, D. A. (1991). Essentials of educational measurement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Guion, R. M. (1977). Content validity–The source of my discontent. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 1-10. Haynes, S.N., Richard, D.C.S., & Kubany, E.S. (1995). Content validity in psychological assessment: A functional approach to concepts and methods. Psychological Assessment, 7, 238-247. Hinkin, T. R. (1995). A review of scale development practices in the study of organizations. Journal of management, 21(5), 967-988. Johansson, A. (2010, October). Crowd management and control: preventing crowd disasters during the Hajj. In Lancet conferences: global forum on mass gathering medicine implications and opportunities. October (pp. 23-25). Lawshe, C. H. (1975). A quantitative approach to content validity. Personnel Psychology, 28, 563-575. Lynn, M. R. (1986). Determination and quantification of content validity. Nursing Research, 35, 382-385. Messick, S. (1993). Validity. In R. L. Linn (Ed.), Educational measurement (2nd ed. pp. 13-104). Phoenix: American Council on Education and Oryx Press. Mohd Mahudin, N. D. (2003). Development of a Crowd Stress Index (CSI). Unpublished master’s thesis, Loughborough University, United Kingdom. Murphy, K. R. &Davidshofer, C. O. (1994). Psychological testing: Principles and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Nunnally, J. C. & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. Parsons, K., & Mohd Mahudin, N.D. (2009). Development of a Crowd-Stress Index (CSI) For Use in Risk Assessment. Contemporary Ergonomics 1984-2008: Selected Papers and an Overview of the Ergonomics Society Annual Conference, p. 569, Edited by Philip D Bust. Taylor & Francis. Pines A, & Maslach C. (1993). Experiencing Social Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill. Saucier, G. (1994). Mini-markers: A brief version of Goldberg's unipolar Big-Five markers. Journal of Personality Assessment, 63(3), 506-516. Shuib, Mohd Arif and Abdul Rahman, Shukran and Mohd Mahudin, Nor Diana (2013) Assessing psychosocial elements of crowds during hajj: scale construction and content validation. In: 5th National Seminar on Crowd & Health Issues During Hajj, 27th & 28th August 2013, Equatorial Hotel, Penang. (Unpublished) Smith, G. T., & McCarthy, D. M. (1995). Methodological considerations in the refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 300. Suen, H. K. & Ary, D. (1989). Analyzing quantitative observation data. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Suen, H. K. (1990). Principles of test theories. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Zeitz, K. M., Tan, H. M., Grief, M., Couns, P. C., & Zeitz, C. J. (2009). Crowd behavior at mass gatherings: A literature review. Prehospital and disaster medicine, 24(01), 32-38.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIRTH ORDER, PERSONALITY AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIP SATISFACTION AMONG UTAR UNDERGRADUATES Tay Kok Wai*, Mah Siew Huei, Pon Poh Yee & S. Annie Margaret [email protected] Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman

Abstract There are many debates on how birth order (only born, first born, second born, middle born, and last born) can have an effect on personality. Equally important, McGlade (2008) suggested that there is a moderate relationship between personality and romantic relationship satisfaction. Thus, to put in other words, birth order might lay either a direct or indirect effect on romantic relationship satisfaction. Nevertheless, romantic relationship satisfaction cannot be predicted efficiently based on the birth order of a particular partner, for a romantic relationship is undeniably a mutual relationship that involves two parties. Therefore, birth order combination of a couple should be given emphasis (Leman, 2009). Hence, the current study attempts to study the relationship between birth order, personality, and romantic relationship satisfaction. A sample of 100 participants from UTAR was recruited to conduct this study. The present study found that there was no significant difference in personality among participants of different birth order. Likewise, no significant difference in romantic relationship satisfaction was found among participants with various birth order combinations. However, there were significant weak to moderate correlations between certain Big Five personality traits and romantic relationship satisfaction. Keywords: birth order, personality, romantic relationship satisfaction, birth order combinations

INTRODUCTION Adler (1931/2013) first proposed birth order could influence one’s personality. To date, there have been suggestions and theories that how birth order might have influences on personality, and how personality might have influences on romantic relationship satisfaction. Based on the premise that birth order might have influences on personality, it could imply that birth order might lay either a direct or indirect effect on romantic relationship satisfaction. However, birth order of a spouse alone is not a determinant of romantic relationship satisfaction as a romantic relationship is a mutual relationship that involves two persons. Thus, researchers are interested in how birth order combination of a couple can influence romantic relationship satisfaction. To summarize, the three parts of this study include (a) birth order and personality, (b) personality and romantic relationship satisfaction, and (c) birth order combination and romantic relationship satisfaction. Further details of them are discussed in subtopics followed.

BIRTH ODER AND PERSONALITY Birth order (first born, second born, last born) is the chronological sequence of the birth of children and siblings born into a family (Strickland, 2001; Montes de Oca & Stewart, n.d.). Over the past century, it generates Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

much interest among researchers and most notably, Adler has proposed the importance of birth order and its influences on personality. This idea has been debated among researchers till now and still, no conclusive evidence is found. To date, some of the researches suggest that first borns are predicted to be more conscientious and neurotic; middle borns to be more agreeable, extraverted, and open to experience; and last borns tend to have similar characteristics as middle borns since previous researches tend to code middle borns and last borns as later borns (Paulhus, Trapnell, & Chen, 1999; Badger & Reddy, 2009; Healey, 2008; Michalski & Shackelford, 2002; McCartin, 2004; Sulloway, 1999; Stansbury, 1993; Gordon, 2012). Even within these studies, the results are contradicting. For instance, Michalski and Shackelford (2002) suggested that first borns are actually more open to experience compare to others. The idea of how birth order might influence personality is further challenged as some other researchers argued the effects of birth order on personality are hallucinations, delusions, or even mirage; and some studies show no significant difference in personality among people of different birth order (Sulloway, 1996; Marini & Kurtz, 2011; Michalski & Shackelford, 2002; McCartin, 2004; Gordon, 2012). Thus, the first aim of this study is to examine the association between birth order and personality. The results might serve as an effort to validate “halo effect” based on one’s birth order. It is important to note that general public tends to hold the belief that birth order can influence personality (Herrera, 2001). It is important to note that only borns are omitted from this study because they possess both the characteristics of first born and last born (Blair, 2011).

PERSONALITY AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIP SATISFACTION McGlade (2008) suggested that there is a relationship between personality and relationship satisfaction. In the light of the divorce rate in Malaysia is rising, this study is interested on how personality can have influence on relationship satisfaction (Goh, 2013; OnIslam.net, 2013). Speaking in Big Five Personality traits, previous researches showed that couples with higher level of neuroticism predict lower level of relationship satisfaction (Mead, 2005; Charania, 2006; Samaneh et al., 2012; Esmat, Alireza, & Hamdolla, 2012; Abbas, Bahman, & Rouhangiz, 2012). Researches also found that relationship satisfaction is significantly correlated with the other four traits of personality (Kaufman, 2011; Charania, 2006; Samaneh et al., 2012; Slatcher & Vazire, 2009; Mead, 2005; Abbas et al., 2012). However, the results from previous studies are mixed, for instance some studies suggested the higher the level of openness to experience, the higher the relationship satisfaction; while some disagree with that and suggest the negative of it (Charania, 2006; Kaufman, 2011). Thus, this study aims to examine the relationship between personality and relationship satisfaction in Malaysia context (among students at Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Perak Campus). It is essential to know how personality might influence relationship satisfaction and the findings could be applied in the field of marital counselling. The essence is to have an established connection between personality and romantic relationship satisfaction so that people can be enlightened with a better insight and awareness regarding their own relationship in order to create a fulfilling, satisfied and sustaining long-term relationship.

BIRTH ORDER COMBINATION AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIP SATISFACTION Birth order combination in relationship is how couples of their own birth order in their respective family meet. The possible birth order combinations in this study include first born to first born, first born to middle born, first born to last born, middle born to middle born, middle born to last born, and last born to last born. Only born combinations are excluded for mentioned reasons. There were previous researches that studied how birth orders might influence romantic relationship satisfaction and its formation (Raetz, 2011; Hartshorne, Salem-Hartshorne, & Hartshorne, 2009). However, these studies are not efficient in predicting how birth order can influence the satisfaction as Leman (2009) proposed the crucial aspect is actually the birth order combination between partners. In his book, he suggested that certain birth order combinations are the best mix and some others, the worst. For example, he mentioned that first bornfirst born is one of the worst combinations. Lyngstad and Skirbekk (2006) research that found that first bornfirst born relationship is unstable supported Leman’s suggestion. To date, there are limited studies focusing directly on how different birth order combinations among partners can affect the romantic relationship satisfaction and more researches should be conducted in that area (Raetz, 2011; Murphy, 2012). Thus, this study aims to examine how birth order combinations affect romantic relationship satisfaction. If a significant result is found, the result could be employed in future premarital © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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counselling as guidance for both the counsellors and their clients to improve relationship satisfaction; which will aid in reducing the divorce rate in Malaysia.

HYPOTHESES The three hypotheses of the present study were: a. There is a significant difference in Big Five personality traits among all participants of different birth order, at least the Big Five personality traits of one particular birth order is different from the orders. b. There is a significant relationship between Big Five personality traits and the level of romantic relationship satisfaction. c. The level of romantic relationship satisfaction among all participants of different birth order combinations in relationship is not the same, at least the level of romantic relationship satisfaction of one particular birth order combination in romantic relationship is different.

METHODOLOGY This study was a quantitative research and it focused on survey research design. Convenience sampling and purposive sampling were employed to recruit 102 participants from Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Perak Campus. Convenience sampling was used to select participants who were available and willing to respond; while purposive sampling to select participants who were currently in a romantic relationship and to exclude only borns and potential participants who have only born as romantic partner. Later, two of the participants were dropped due to incomplete responses in the questionnaire.

Instruments Big Five Inventory (BFI). The study utilized BFI to assess Big Five Personality traits of the participants. BFI is a 44-item self-report inventory and it has eight to ten items to measure each Big Five Personality traits (John & Srivastava, 1999). BFI has an internal consistency score of 0.80 to 0.83 and has a corrected convergent validity with Trait Descriptive Adjectives and NEO Five-Factor Inventory ranges from 0.83 to 0.95 (John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991). The cronbach alpha value of BFI for each trait in this research ranged from 0.46 to 0.76. Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS). The study utilized RAS to measures global relationship satisfaction of the participants. RAS is a seven-item self-report inventory and a higher score in it indicates higher level of romantic relationship satisfaction (Hendrick, 1988; Renshaw, McKnight, Caska, & Blais, 2011). RAS has an internal consistency score of 0.88 and has a moderate to high correlations with instruments of martial satisfaction (Downing, 2008; Hendrick, Dicke, & Hendrick, 1998; Andreas & Friedrich, 2005). The cronbach alpha value of RAs in this research is 0.76.

RESULTS Descriptive Statistics Based on the result that shown in Table 1, the participants scored highest in openness to experience (M=33.51, SD=4.02) and lowest in neuroticism (M=22.50, SD=5.71). Among the six types of birth order combination, last born to last born combination has highest romantic relationship satisfaction (M=29.0, SD=4.84) whereas middle born to middle born combination has lowest romantic relationship satisfaction (M=26.62, SD=3.75) (see Table 1). Table 1 - Scores of Big Five Personality and Romantic Relationship Satisfaction (N=100)

n

Mean

SD

Openness to experience

100

33.51

4.02

Conscientiousness

100

29.36

4.63

Extraversion

100

26.80

4.13

Agreeableness

100

32.68

4.09

Neuroticism

100

22.50

5.71

Big Five Personality

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n

Mean

SD

First born to First born

20

27.10

4.79

Middle born to Middle born

13

26.62

3.75

Last born to Last born

8

29.00

4.84

First born to Middle born

20

28.80

3.38

First born to Last born

25

27.12

3.21

Middle born to Last born

14

27.86

3.80

Romantic Relationship Satisfaction

Inferential Statistics Big Five personality and birth order. The result showed that there was no significant difference in personality among all participants of different birth order. More specifically, there was no significant difference in openness to experience, F (2, 97) = .32, p = .73; conscientiousness, F (2, 97) = .85, p = .43; extraversion, F (2, 97) = .70, p = .93; agreeableness, F (2, 97) = .39, p = .68 and neuroticism, F (2, 97) = .47, p = .63. Big Five personality and romantic relationship satisfaction. The result revealed that certain traits from Big Five personality have significant correlation ranged from weak to moderate with romantic relationship satisfaction. Openness to experience (r = .25, p = .012), conscientiousness (r = .28, p = .005) and agreeableness (r = .41, p = .000) have significant positive correlation with romantic relationship satisfaction; whereas neuroticism (r = -.28, p= .006) has a significant weak negative correlation with romantic relationship satisfaction. For extraversion, it has an insignificant positive correlation with romantic relationship satisfaction (r = .13, p = .20) (see Table 2). Romantic relationship satisfaction and birth order combination. The result showed that there was no significant difference in romantic relationship satisfaction among different birth order combinations, F (5, 94) = .91, p = .48. Table 2 - Correlations of Big Five Personality and Romantic Relationship Satisfaction

Variables

Romantic Relationship Satisfaction

Openness to experience

.25*

Conscientiousness

.28**

Extraversion

.13

Agreeableness

.41**

Neuroticism

-.28**

*p <0.05; **p < 0.01

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION For birth order and personality, the result showed there was no significant difference in personality among all participants of different birth order. In other words, it infers that first borns are not more conscientious and neurotic compared to others, and middle borns and last borns are not more agreeable, open to experiences and extraverted than others. One possible explanation for the insignificance of the results was psychological birth order. Some mention that actual birth order does not necessarily to mirror psychological birth order as a number of variables like gender, number of siblings, adoption, and death of siblings can affect (Sulloway, 1996; Richardson & Richardson, 2000; Leman, 2009; Szobiová, 2008; Keller & Zach, 2002). This research did not take that into account as a study by Campbell, White, and Stewart (1991) revealed that there is a significant positive correlation between actual and psychological birth order. Future research might look into that to demonstrate significant differences in personality among people of different birth order. More researches are needed in this area to draw consensus whether birth order influence personality, and to answer whether the influences are intra-family or across families. For personality and romantic relationship satisfaction, the results revealed that openness to experience, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and neuroticism have significant weak to moderate correlations with romantic relationship satisfaction. Although the correlations range from weak to moderate, the combinations of personality traits might have a great impact on romantic relationship satisfaction.

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For birth order combination and romantic relationship satisfaction, the insignificance of the result made no surprise because its premise was invalid based on the data in this research. Without the personality differences among individuals with different birth orders, it is almost impossible to expect significant results from birth order combination. However, relationship duration and attachment style combinations might be factors that somehow skew the results (McWalter, 2012; Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2010; Cramer, 2000). It is recommended that future researches consider the factors mentioned. All in all, future studies should include more participants to ensure the sample could better reflect the population and to increase the external validity of the research.

CONCLUSION This study reveals that there is no significant difference in Big Five personality traits among participants of different birth orders. Thus, it is inappropriate to assign certain personality traits on someone based solely on birth order. Factors like gender, number of siblings and others should be considered. It is important to prevent unjustified “halo effect”. More studies could be done on this area since Adler (1931/2013) mentioned even siblings are born into the same family, there are vast differences in the rearing environment; which in turn affects the development of lifestyles that include personality. Besides, current study reveals certain personality traits like openness to experience, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and neuroticism have significant correlations with romantic relationship satisfaction. The findings could be applied in marital counselling and other related fields to highlight the importance of certain traits in successful romantic relationship. It is important to realize that, even one cannot change their personality easily; it is always possible to learn the behaviours of other personality traits. Lastly, there is no significant difference in romantic relationship satisfaction among couples of different birth order combinations. Although the result is insignificant, it serves as a new piece of work in a relatively scarce research field. Future researches could be conducted based on the recommendations mentioned.

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British Columbia, Canada: Self-Counsel Press. Samaneh, N., Maryam, F., Ozra, E., Vahid, G., Mohammad, R. A., & Fatemeh, B. (2012). Personality types and marital satisfaction. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 4(5), 372-383. Retrieved from http://journal-archieves23.webs.com/372-383.pdf Slatcher, R. B., & Vazire, S. (2009). Effects of global and contextualized personality on relationship satisfaction. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 624-633. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.02.012 Stansbury, V. K. (1993). Birth order and personality type preference (Doctoral dissertation). Available from

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ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Database. (UMI No. 9329233) Strickland, B. R. (Ed.). (2001). The gale encyclopedia of psychology (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. Sulloway, F. J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York, NY: Vintage Books. Sulloway, F. J. (1999). Birth order. In M. A. Runco & S. R. Pritzker (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Creativity (Vol. 1, pp. 189202). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Szobiová, E. (2008). Birth order, sibling constellation, creativity and personality dimension of adolescents. Studia Psychologica, 50(4), 371-381. Retrieved from http://www.elis.sk/download_file.php?product_ id=1230&session_id=pnda4670pdv3mo2nj1ctej70f3

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY (CBT) FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES IN MALAYSIA Seyed Reza. Alvani* & Norzarina Mohd Zaharim *[email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract Diabetes is on the rise around the world and highly prevalent condition in Malaysia as well. Therefore, estimating its prevalence and finding better ways of coping with everyday demands of diabetes is crucial. Co-morbid psychological factors such as stress, and well being in diabetics is associated with level of glycemia and diabetes complications. This paper introduces a group cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for better control of glycemia in people with type 2 diabetes in Malaysia. It describes the contents and structures of group CBT for diabetic people with a focus on psychological complications. Expected results will focus on the effect of this therapy on psychological complications such as, stress, and well being which can affect level of glycemia in type 2 diabetes. Therefore, by implying this technique on diabetics, this study will attempt to shed further light on the effectiveness of group CBT as the complimentary methods to regular medication treatment for better control of blood sugar, and bridge the gape in the investigation into the effectiveness of group CBT by linking psychological facts to diabetes. Keywords: psychotherapy, Type 2 Diabetes, stress, well-being, glycemic control

INTRODUCTION The need for the study of diabetes in Malaysia Diabetes Mellitus is a global health problem and numbers of diabetics are increasing around the world (Alberti et al., 2004; Amos, McCarty, & Zimmet, 1997; King, Aubert, & Herman, 1998). This rising trend is due to many factors such as, population growth, urbanization, aging, and changes in life style and physical patterns (Wild, Roglic, Green, Sicree, & King, 2004). Undoubtedly, given that there is a major shift in the lifestyle and longevity of population, Malaysia will most certainly be affected by a diabetes epidemic (Yun, Hassan, Aziz, Awaisu, & Ghazali, 2007), and this is corroborated by the fact that the prevalence of diabetes mellitus in Malaysian population, specifically among the adults, has increased from 0.65% in 1960 to 10.5% in 1996 (Mafauzy, 2006a). When compared to the estimation by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) for all regions in the world, it is observed that the prevalence of diabetes in Malaysia is above the average (Letchuman et al., 2010). In 1985, the population of diabetic individuals in the world was estimated at 30 million, but by 1995 this figure had soared to 135 million (Zaini, 2000). Based on the current trend at that time, epidemiologists predicted that the population of diabetic individuals will swell up to a staggering 300 million by the year 2025, with more than half of this increment occurring in Oceania. In Malaysia, the First National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS 1) conducted in 1986 reported a prevalence of diabetes mellitus of 6.3% and ten years later, in 1996, the Second National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS 2) found that prevalence rose to 8.2%. The prevalence was reported to be higher at 10.5% according Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

to a study in Kelantan. The WHO at that time has estimated that in 2030, Malaysia would have a total number of 2.48 million diabetics compared to a mere 0.94 million in 2000, marking a 164% increase (Mafauzy, 2006b). As a matter of fact, the third National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS3) results have shown that Malaysia has already reached the projected prevalence for the year 2025. In addition, Dr Hilary King of WHO pointed out that there will be a projected rise of about 42% in developed countries whereas the developing countries will see an escalation to the magnitude of 170% (Zaini, 2000). The prevalence of type 2-diabetes in those aged between 30 and 50 years in developing countries is also high in comparison with other countries (Cockram et al., 1993; Kim et al., 2006; Lu, Yang, Wu, Wu, & Chang, 1998; Takahashi et al., 2000). On the contrary, in the case of Malaysia, there are no known specific curricula written for group therapy with adults who have type 2 diabetes which emphasized on the aspects of psychological factors to reduce misery of diabetes (Debono & Cachia, 2007; DeVries, Snoek, & Heine, 2004; Edmunds, Roche, Stratton, Wallymahmed, & Glenn, 2007; Kramer, Ledolter, Manos, & Bayless, 2000) that targets patients’ coping skills through a cognitive behavioral therapy orientation. This matter is of particular importance especially when considering that diabetes distress and psychological well-being are often a co-morbid diagnosis for those with diabetes (Goldney, Phillips, Fisher, & Wilson, 2004).

Group Psychological Interventions for Diabetic People CBT encompasses a broad rang of theories, models, and techniques, all of which are designed to promote positive change from a combined cognitive and behavioral perspective. As such, little consistency exists across studies with respect to the exact therapy protocols used with psychiatric and medical conditions, including diabetes. Any inconsistencies notwithstanding, several researchers have shown relationships exist among depression, self-esteem, education, and exercise as they relate to adherence to diabetic regimens. Lustman and his colleagues (1998) studied the effect of CBT in the treatment of depression among 42 patients with both major depression and type 2 diabetes. The intervention included disputing irrational beliefs by attempting to restructure individual’s thoughts, perceptions and beliefs, and self-monitoring. Depression was remitted in a greater percentage of those treated with CBT than the controls, and there was improved glycemic control. Non-remission of depression was also associated with lower compliance with medical regimen and higher weight. Lustman and colleagues (1998) also identified psycho-education as one of the cornerstones of diabetic treatment. Psycho-education benefits diabetic people, who feel overwhelmed by the demands of a diabetic regimen, even thought they might not be considered depressed by clinical standards. An earlier study, Forlani et al. (2009) compared an Elementry Nutritional Education (ENE) group program with a group CBT among type 2 diabetes people and they discovered the association of group CBT with less usage of insulin however, their metabolic control didn’t change significantly (Forlani et al., 2009). In a different study Der Ven et al. (2005), conducted a study to assess the effect of group CBT on glycemia control and the well being in type 1 diabetes people. They couldn’t find any significant changes in level of HbA1c, whilst improvement in well-being followed by decreased in level of distress and depression (Der Ven et al., 2005). In line with these studies, Karlsen et al. (2003) designed a study to determine whether a group based counselling program with emphasize on CBT approaches resulted decrease in diabetes related stress and improve on psychological well-being as well as achieving glycaemic control closer to an acceptable level. They mentioned that program had the potential to reduce the level of stress as well as achieving better glycemic control and improvement in psychological well-being after 6 months follow-up (Karlsen, Idsoe, Dirdal, Rokne Hanestad, & Bru, 2004). In more recent study with similar topic, Gonzalez and McCarl (2010) worked on adults with type 2 diabetes. They used CBT to influence, adherence and depression symptoms in diabetes participants. At the end of program they fund decrease in depression severity and improvement in diabetes self-care as well as better control over glycemic level (Gonzalez & McCarl, 2010). These short interventions aimed at reducing psychological arousal in adults, whom were not successful in control of psychological variables (like stress and depression) which effect on glycemic control. These findings suggest that diabetes people had good respond to psychological intervention with regard to better control of glycemia level. As previously mentioned, the researcher couldn’t find any evidence regarding the study of psychological intervention on Malaysian diabetes sample. The only research had done by Al Haddad (2008), was a thesis with relevant content, entitled as, diabetes self-management program among diabetes adults in Universiti Sains Malaysia. It was a comparison between structured and less structured educational programs with 4 months follow up. Al Haddad fund significant reduction in HbA1c among structured intervention group where as less structured group resulted in unexpected significant increase in HbA1c after intervention (Al-Haddad, 2008). He mentioned only structured group showed significant increase after the program in diabetes care factor. In addition he measured participant’s attitude towards diabetes and fund negative attitude decreased and positive attitude increased in structured intervention group (Al-Haddad, 2008). Although this study was not about CBT but it is important as the only psychological intervention on diabetes Malaysian sample. As discussed, due to the diabetes complications and chronicity risk factors such as obesity, lifestyle modification is crucial for the long term living with diabetes. People must learn how to adopt lifelong, low-fat eating habits and regular activity © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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patterns and monitor it during their entire life to modify their lifestyle.

METHODOLOGY The process of data collection will divide in two phases. Phase one will investigate inclusions criteria (such as, participants should have been diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus at least a year before entering to therapy, and level of HbA1c > 8) and exclusion criteria (such as, no history of severe psychological problem). The second phase, group CBT will apply to participants who are interested to join to the program for entire 3 months. Eight therapy sessions will conduct for experimental groups. First month there will be weekly sessions and the rest will be once every two weeks. Psychological instruments (such as, stress and well-being) will employ in two different times on all participants. Once before entering any participants to therapy (pre-test) and next time after finishing therapeutic sessions (post-test) on all participants.

Procedure of Therapy In this study, three strategies will be used according to group CBT: a. Behavioral strategies to involve patients in pleasurable social and behavioral

activities.

Monitoring glucose regularly, following a meal plan, and correctly preparing and remembering to take oral medications at the right time are practiced. Learning how to prevent and control the negative responses to stress is helpful, particularly if the causes are relatively permanent. Patients are asked to record situation that lead to stress. For example, if cooking dinner, bathing children, and doing laundry constitute a typical stressful evening, and that stress is a relatively permanent part of life for several years, it must be dealt with accordingly. b. Problem solving procedures to help resolve stressful circumstances. Many individuals with diabetes have set global vague goals that may exacerbate stress. “Lose weight,” “take better care of my diabetes,” and “improve my glycemic control” are examples of vague and unhelpful goals. Examples of realistic, measurable goals include, “I will walk 20 minutes each day on Monday, Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday at 5:00 p.m.”; “I will drink diet cola instead of cola with sugar”; and “I will lose 5 kg over the next 9 weeks by following my meal plan and increase my walking time to 30 minutes for 5 days per week.” c. Techniques to identify distorted or maladaptive thought patterns, and replace them with more accurate, adaptive, and useful views. People with diabetes need to believe that the outcome of the treatment will be positive, such as acceptable glycemic control leading to a lower risk of developing diabetes complications. They have to be confident that they will be able to adopt appropriate behavior to fight their condition. Negative feelings in patients with diabetes can be a result of multiple experiences of failure and pessimistic attitudes towards diabetes and one’s self. This negative cycle of events that can ultimately lead to a state of emotional exhaustion is defined as diabetes burnout. Situation: (I have high blood glucose); Thoughts: (I will never be able to get my diabetes under control); Feeling: (sad, down, and angry); Behavior: (Doing nothing, letting it all go). The eight therapy sessions will have same structure and contain the same procedure. Each session will have four parts: Part (1), greeting and sharing of notes and Blood Glucose diary sheet; Part (2), sharing thoughts about the progress in the previous week and problems in the “here and now,” and a group decision is made regarding which thoughts to concentrate on and deal in this session (1–2 thoughts); Part (3), relaxation techniques, the use of imagery, and reading of affirmations; and Part (4), to give summary and feedback, and setting of homework for the coming week. Before talking about the four parts of the sessions in more detail, the type of therapy for the patients should be discussed first. The most important things that can separate this type of therapy from other types is the “be © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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your own therapist” technique, wherein certain methods are used to allow a patient to have “control” over his own health and his own life.

Part 1 Filling up the Blood Glucose (BG) diary sheet is compulsory for all patients. In each column, patients will describe how they felt during the day. They will also list the food they ate under the column “What you ate.” The column, “What is your comment about what you feel about it now,” should also be filled up. The person may ask himself, “Why are we doing this?” The answer to this question is that this exercise will help the person gain control over his health and treatment. All the patients must be able to look over what they ate and how they felt about it. The BG sheet will document all these information, which this study will utilize for comparison with previous information. Every night, before going to bed, the participants will write down their experiences during the day and evaluate the information according to their ideas. At the beginning of each new session, therapist will give them new forms for the upcoming week. The therapist will compare the forms and attempt to identify the association of higher levels with the food they had. The therapist will also determine their diet performance and acknowledge the progress for that week.

Part 2 Part 2 usually lasts for 30 minutes. Each group member will attempt to list his or her(list his or her what?) through process whenever a decision needs to be made in eating a certain food. A person’s thoughts have great influence on his or her emotions and behavior. With the help of the therapist, the patients will be asked to try to identify a particular problem, and evaluate what are the thoughts that are going through their mind at the time of the problem. Next, the validity of the thoughts will be evaluated through examining the evidences that support the accuracy or the contradiction of the thought, and making a functional plan of action creates a response to the dysfunctional thoughts and beliefs. When dysfunctional thoughts are challenged by rational reflection, one’s emotions generally change. The best way to accomplish this is by staying in the “here and now” focus about being diabetic. An individual can make decisions based on that thought and can go over the process regarding that thought. Encouragement is given whenever they are unable to come up with a thought. The therapist will guide them in identifying the food they ate the past week that they should not have, such as a sugary snack, and encourage them to write their emotions after eating.

Here-And-Now Focus The here-and-now refers to the focus on the interpersonal current relationships within the group. The focus in the here-and-now activity is of paramount importance in Yalom’s theory (sharing the raw, honest thoughts and feelings about what's happening in the moment) and is a concept that patients need to be familiar and comfortable with to facilitate an interpersonal process-oriented group (Yalom, 1995). For this reason, a therapist should discuss this concept in greater detail than any other concepts in this theory. To implement a here-and-now focus, patients need to know that this process occurs on two levels: an “experiential” level and an “illumination of process” level. In the experiential level, group members experience feelings in the here-andnow activity. Some of these feelings will be strong and will affect other group members, the facilitator, and the group as a whole. The focus of this portion of the group will be based on these feelings. The identification and sharing of these feelings with the group is one of the primary goals of each member. The here-and-now focus will remain incomplete without the second level, the illumination of process. The “process commentary” (i.e., explaining what the patient observed/heard happening in the group) on the events that occur in the here-andnow activity should be facilitated. Experience is insufficient to facilitate change; therefore, experience must be accompanied by interpersonal learning, which occurs through process commentary (e.g., reflection on the experience and sharing it in the group). Thus, the therapist has two tasks: 1) facilitate a here-and-now focus, and 2) lead the group in an exploration of the here-and-now experiences (e.g., thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and interactions). The group will live in the here-and-now experience, and then reflect back on the thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and/or interactions that have occurred. Some techniques may aid therapists in activating a here-and-now focus; however, therapists are strongly encouraged not to rely on these techniques alone in a prescriptive format, rather to understand the purpose and intent behind the techniques. The therapist’s focus should be on attempt to bring each group session, each event into the here-and-now experience. The therapist should reflect on questions such as, “How can I get this discussion into the here-and-now?” This will help keep the therapist in a here-and-now focus. This focus should be achieved as early as the first group session. For instance, the therapist may interrupt the group with a process comment after group introductions and initial discussions. Yalom provides the following narrated example: “We’ve done a great deal here today so far. Each of you has shared...But I have a hunch that something else is going on, and that you are sizing each other up, each arriving at some impressions of the other, each wondering how you will fit in with the others. I wonder now if we could spend some time discussing what each of us has come up with thus far.” © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Clearly, from this example, the therapist can directly influence a here-and-now focus. The occurrence of group members talking to the therapist should be identified and group communication should be encouraged. Other examples of moving the focus to a here-and-now focus will be presented in the training sessions. Another strategy is to provide feedback on how to ask and give feedback to and from other group members. It may be necessary for clients to check out their beliefs with the group occasionally. The therapist should help clients avoid group questions, such as “Do you like me?” in favor of more effective questions such as “What is it about me that you like most and least?” This type of activity promotes process commentary and includes the following sequence: a. A description of the behavior. Clients learn to see themselves as others see them. b. The impact of your behavior on others. Clients learn how their behavior makes others feel. c. The impact of your behavior on other’s attitudes toward you. Clients learn how others feel about them because of their behavior. d. The impact of your behavior on your attitude toward yourself. Clients learn how their behavior influences their own attitude about themselves.

Deal with thought According to the CBT core beliefs, people with diabetes fall into three categories: a. Being demanding toward one’s self (e.g., “I must adhere to my diabetes regimen in all circumstances, otherwise I am not a good patient.”); b. Being demanding toward others (e.g., “My doctor must always listen to me, or else he is a bad doctor.”); and c. Being demanding toward the world (e.g., “My life must always be enjoyable, or else it is not worth living.”). Holding these irrational beliefs can easily cause feelings of frustration and result in dysfunctional behaviors, which lead to poor diabetes control. This negative experience, in turn, reinforces a person’s pre-existing negative attitude toward diabetes. From this perspective, the effect of negative thoughts towards their mood and behavior may be extremely helpful for patients with poorly controlled diabetes by challenging these beliefs with more constructive and self-helping cognitions. This could result in reduced negative feelings and more adaptive coping. Such thoughts become dysfunctional when invalidated assumptions are made (e.g., I’ll lose my eyesight no matter what I do.”), or when exaggeration takes place (e.g., “I can never do anything pleasant due to my diabetes.”). Patients can benefit from looking critically at negative thoughts that are overwhelming and paralyzing, and then replacing them with cognitions that are more positive. A good example is Albert Ellis, the founder of REBT and a diabetes patient himself, who experienced a few problems in adjusting to the demands of the diabetes treatment regimen. The patients and the therapist could agree that whenever one thinks thoughts that are “bad about one self” or “like a bad person,” these thoughts should be written on the sheet. Both the patient and the therapist should check the validity of that thought by examining the evidence, which supports the accuracy or contradiction of the thought. Then the thought patterns that lead to the person saying this to himself should be identified. This will serve as the learning process of the thought wherein a person acquires the ability to speak to himself in a more appropriate way to control certain behaviors. In this process, internal verbalizations, which arise from assumptions that constitute their belief system regarding this thought, need to be identified.

Self-verbalizations This part of the session should be accomplished by utilizing Socratic questioning. The therapist should challenge the patient’s thoughts through logical persuasion. Personal worth and control over their illness should be highlighted. However, the participant should verbalize their feelings about the diagnosis of diabetes by discussing the feelings and recognizing the impact they might have on the control of diabetes. Myths that surround the reasons for contracting diabetes should also be dispelled. These myths often include the participants thinking that they might have done something bad, or they ate too much sugar. Asking from participants what they feel of their diagnosis and identifying what life style changes are most difficult to incorporate into their lives are the hardest parts to manage. The chart could be used as follows: Core-belief  Intermediate-beliefs  Behaviors/Physiology.

Situation 

Automatic-thought 

Reactions/Emotions/

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Part 3 This part will use a relaxation technique and guided imagery. Relaxation techniques are one of the proven helpful methods for people to maintain control even when out of the group. The group can perform this part together. The entire exercise is less than ten minutes. The participants are requested to keep their eyes closed. If they feel uncomfortable, they can opt to leave them open. “Focuses on what I am saying” takes them through the relaxation series. When the patient’s eyes are closed, specific muscles from head to toes can be triggered. The therapist can speak soothingly and take them through several breaths counting from 10 backwards. An image of a big, strong, and healthy horse is encouraged. After pausing for a few seconds, the relaxation technique can be ended. While relaxed, the six affirmations are read as a group. The patients will affirm what work has been done. A series of affirmations are: a. b. c. d. e. f.

We accept that we are worthy because we are alive (we are worthy of receiving help); We have considerable control over our diabetes; We can learn to live more comfortably with diabetes; We can learn to be our own therapists with the help of homework; We can control our thoughts about our illness by replacing them with better ones; and We can control our behavior and feel better about our situation.

Part 4 This part usually lasts for five minutes. The therapist will summarize what was done during the session and the participants will have the chance to give feedback. Therefore, the patients got their first general picture of the structure of the group therapy sessions and each of the four parts was performed in detail. In Part 1, participants greeted and shared notes and BG sheets, introduced themselves, talked about taking daily notes of their food, and discussed how they felt at that time. Each session, the therapist collected the sheets, and a new sheet was given to them. The therapist also discussed how their BG sheets should be brought daily for comparison. In Part 2, sharing of thoughts regarding progress in the previous week and thoughts which are problems in the “here and now,” making a group decision regarding the thoughts on which to concentrate on and deal with during that session (1–2 thoughts), the participants shared their thought (according what was written together) and a decision was decided on (according to that chart). In Part 3, relaxation techniques were used, involving the use of imagery, and the reading of affirmations, such as, “you close your eyes and I take you through a relaxation technique and guide you to an image of a strong and healthy horse.” In part 4, a summary is given and participants are encouraged to provide feedback based on their opinions (e.g., “How did you feel about what we did today?”). The homework for the coming week is also set if none was given in this session, the therapist can encourage them again next week. The therapist ends the session by saying, “Good luck and nice work today.” All sessions will follow the same structure except the last session of the therapy. The therapist will study how this group has benefitted from the therapy, and the patient’s feedback will be taken into consideration. The last section involves the performance of the assignment (i.e., “You are strongly encouraged to continue taking of what you are eating and feeling after the whole day.” and “I’ve recorded all of your BG sheets and the level of blood sugar in all of you, and I hope you continue this structure for as long as you need to feel better.”) At the end of the session, the therapist will provide the entire certificate of the patient for completing the sessions.

DISCUSSION The present method will demonstrate that a group CBT can be an effective technique for better control over the diabetes psychological complication (e-g. stress, anxiety), which can affect the level of glycemia. Aging and lifestyle changes are major contributors for the increase in type 2 diabetes cases. In developing countries most people with type 2 diabetes are of working age, between 40 and 60 years (Shaw, Sicree, & Zimmet, 2010). In 1970, only 5.2% of the Malaysian population was over 65 years old. However, the percentage is projected to reach 9.5% by the year 2020. Adults at this stage of the life may undergo problems such as financial difficulties due to occupational status, physical complications such as poor control risk factors, and psychological complications like, depression or anxiety. Therefore, increased number of cases implies that Malaysian society will have a considerable number of diabetics who will have emotional related problems. These problems can impair the way diabetics’ function within their homes, the workplace, and society. Diabetics are a part of society, and their psychological health is important. With the help of an investigation of how psychological factors can affect level of blood sugar, appropriate diagnosis and treatment methods can be discovered for the benefit of Malaysian diabetes people. As explained before education is one of the fundamental parts of CBT, which emphasized in presented method © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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of treatment. In a qualitative research which had done by Al-Qaza et al. (2011) at Universiti Sains Malaysia, mentioned only few of patients knew whether their diabetes was type 1 or 2, and participants awareness about the seriousness of their disease was not good enough to stick firmly to the treatment regimen (Al-Qazaz, Hassali, Shafie, Syed Sulaiman, & Sundram, 2011). Education on all of the treatment components for diabetics can be delivered within the context of psycho-educational groups. Groups, which include information on diabetes, healthy lifestyle habits, nutrition, medication compliance, and self-esteem, cognitive restructuring for depression, and etc. will improve not only knowledge of diabetes, but also the chances that diabetics will practice effective adherence. Salmiah (2010), demonstrated depression, anxiety, and stress were highly correlated each other among diabetes population of Malaysia. Another study conducted by Kaur et al. (2013) on a huge number of diabetics (n = 2508) revealed that the prevalence of depression, anxiety and stress symptoms was high among type 2 diabetics in Malaysia and they recommended for screening of mental illnesses in diabetes population (Kaur, Tee, Ariaratnam, Krishnapillai, & China, 2013; MA, 2010). As a result, psychological complications are often a co-morbid diagnosis for diabetics, thus CBT program can be effective by identifying and modifying the clients’ maladaptive though process and problematic behaviors through cognitive restructuring and behavioral technique to achieve adequate changes. The addition of homework as an essential part of CBT will increase concern over the foods, level of blood sugar, taking medication punctually, and changing behavior following changes in emotions. The forgetting medication was one of the factors that noticed in Al-Qaza’s research at Universiti Sains Malaysia. By practicing to record the daily activities, can help the participants to prevent them to forget their medication. The regimen of diabetic care will consider as daily monitoring (food diary) may also influence the patients to eat more appropriate foods to achieve the desire blood sugar by day so they will be able to review their entire day activities. The routine diabetic regimen may have an influence on the decrease in the HbA1c, if one can control it continuously. In part, the regimen includes medication (as standard treatment), education gained through diabetic management, nutritional education, learning more effectively some skills that can help the participants to overcome with daily demands of diabetes, and understanding emotion and behaviors which are related to those emotions. Therefore, by implying this technique on diabetics, this study will attempt to shed further light on the effectiveness of group CBT as the complimentary methods to regular medication treatment for better control of blood sugar, and bridge the gape in the investigation into the effectiveness of group CBT by linking psychological facts to diabetes.

CONCLUSION The number of diabetics in Malaysia is in alarming rate and control of diabetes is affected by psychological factors but still there is no specific psychological intervention for diabetics in Malaysia. Rate of depression, stress, and anxiety are high among diabetics in Malaysia. Therefore a form of psychotherapy that integrates theories of cognition and learning with treatment techniques derived from cognitive therapy and behavior therapy can be an effective method to improve control of glycemia level. This study provides a clear structure of group CBT for diabetes people. The therapy will integrate elements of several effective therapies (e.g cognitive restructuring technique, and problem solving) in structured protocols. This therapy will use to improve the control of blood sugar level in diabetes people type 2.

REFERENCES Al-Haddad, M. S. d. M. (2008). Economic, Social And Clinical Evaluations Of Diabetes Self Management Program At Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Center: Comparison Between Structured And Less Structured Educational Programs [RC660. H126 2008 f rb]. Universiti Sains Malaysia. Al-Qazaz, H. K., Hassali, M. A., Shafie, A. A., Syed Sulaiman, S. A., & Sundram, S. (2011). Perception and knowledge of patients with type 2 diabetes in Malaysia about their disease and medication: A qualitative study. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 7(2), 180-191. Alberti, G., Zimmet, P., Shaw, J., Bloomgarden, Z., Kaufman, F., & Silink, M. (2004). Type 2 Diabetes in the Young: The Evolving Epidemic The International Diabetes Federation Consensus Workshop. Diabetes care, 27(7), 1798-1811. Amos, A. F., McCarty, D. J., & Zimmet, P. (1997). The rising global burden of diabetes and its complications: estimates and projections to the year 2010. Diabetic medicine, 14(S5), S7-S85. Cockram, C. S., Woo, J., Lau, E., Chan, J., Chan, A., Lau, J.,Donnan, S. (1993). The prevalence of diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance among Hong Kong Chinese adults of working age. Diabetes research and clinical practice, 21(1), 67-73. Debono, M., & Cachia, E. (2007). The impact of diabetes on psychological well being and quality of life. The role © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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of patient education. Psychology, Health and Medicine, 12(5), 545-555. Der Ven, N., Hogenelst, M., Tromp‐Wever, A., Twisk, J., Der Ploeg, H., Heine, R., & Snoek, F. (2005). Short‐term effects of cognitive behavioural group training (CBGT) in adult Type 1 diabetes patients in prolonged poor glycaemic control. A randomized controlled trial. Diabetic Medicine, 22(11), 1619-1623. DeVries, J., Snoek, F., & Heine, R. (2004). Persistent poor glycaemic control in adult Type 1 diabetes. A closer look at the problem. Diabetic Medicine, 21(12), 1263-1268. Edmunds, S., Roche, D., Stratton, G., Wallymahmed, K., & Glenn, S. M. (2007). Physical activity and psychological well-being in children with Type 1 diabetes. Psychology, health & medicine, 12(3), 353-363. Forlani, G., Lorusso, C., Moscatiello, S., Ridolfi, V., Melchionda, N., Di Domizio, S., & Marchesini, G. (2009). Are behavioural approaches feasible and effective in the treatment of type 2 diabetes? A propensity score analysis vs. prescriptive diet. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 19(5), 313-320. Goldney, R. D., Phillips, P. J., Fisher, L. J., & Wilson, D. H. (2004). Diabetes, Depression, and Quality of Life A population study. Diabetes Care, 27(5), 1066-1070. Gonzalez, J. S., & McCarl, L. A. (2010). Cognitive behavioral therapy for adherence and depression (CBT-AD) in type 2 diabetes. Journal of cognitive psychotherapy, 24(4), 329. Karlsen, B., Idsoe, T., Dirdal, I., Rokne Hanestad, B., & Bru, E. (2004). Effects of a group-based counselling programme on diabetes-related stress, coping, psychological well-being and metabolic control in adults with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. Patient Education and Counseling, 53(3), 299-308. Kaur, G., Tee, G. H., Ariaratnam, S., Krishnapillai, A. S., & China, K. (2013). Depression, anxiety and stress symptoms among diabetics in Malaysia: a cross sectional study in an urban primary care setting. BMC family practice, 14(1), 69. Kim, S., Lee, J., Lee, J., Na, J., Han, J., Yoon, D., Choi, K. (2006). Prevalence of Diabetes and Impaired Fasting Glucose in Korea Korean National Health and Nutrition Survey 2001. Diabetes Care, 29(2), 226-231. King, H., Aubert, R. E., & Herman, W. H. (1998). Global burden of diabetes, 1995–2025: prevalence, numerical estimates, and projections. Diabetes care, 21(9), 1414-1431. Kramer, J. R., Ledolter, J., Manos, G. N., & Bayless, M. L. (2000). Stress and metabolic control in diabetes mellitus: Methodological issues and an illustrative analysis. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 22(1), 17-28. Letchuman, G., Wan Nazaimoon, W., Wan Mohamad, W., Chandran, L., Tee, G., Jamaiyah, H., Ahmad Faudzi, Y. (2010). Prevalence of diabetes in the Malaysian national health morbidity survey III 2006. Med J Malaysia, 65(3), 180-186. Lu, F. H., Yang, Y. C., Wu, J. S., Wu, C. H., & Chang, C. J. (1998). A population‐based study of the prevalence and associated factors of diabetes mellitus in southern Taiwan. Diabetic medicine, 15(7), 564-572. MA, S. (2010). Validation and psychometric properties of Bahasa Malaysia version of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS) among diabetic patients. Malaysian Journal of Psychiatry, 18(2). Mafauzy, M. (2006a). Diabetes control and complications in public hospitals in Malaysia. Medical Journal of Malaysia, 61(4), 477. Mafauzy, M. (2006b). Diabetes mellitus in Malaysia. Medical Journal of Malaysia, 61(4), 397. Shaw, J., Sicree, R., & Zimmet, P. (2010). Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes research and clinical practice, 87(1), 4-14. Takahashi, Y., Noda, M., Tsugane, S., Kuzuya, T., Ito, C., & Kadowaki, T. (2000). Prevalence of diabetes estimated by plasma glucose criteria combined with standardized measurement of HbA1c among health checkup participants on Miyako Island, Japan. Diabetes Care, 23(8), 1092-1096. Wild, S., Roglic, G., Green, A., Sicree, R., & King, H. (2004). Global prevalence of diabetes estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030. Diabetes care, 27(5), 1047-1053. Yun, L. S., Hassan, Y., Aziz, N. A., Awaisu, A., & Ghazali, R. (2007). A comparison of knowledge of diabetes mellitus between patients with diabetes and healthy adults: a survey from north Malaysia. Patient education and counseling, 69(1-3), 47. Zaini, A. (2000). Where is Malaysia in the midst of the Asian epidemic of diabetes mellitus? Diabetes research and clinical practice, 50, S23-S28.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

RELATIONSHIP OF PERSONALITY-ACADEMIC ENVIRONMENT CONGRUENCE AND FACTORS OF CAREER DECISION MAKING AMONG STUDENT TEACHERS’ IN PUBLIC HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTE (IPTA) Siti Haswa Niza Abdullah* & Rosy Talin *[email protected] Universiti Sabah Malaysia

Abstract

The purpose of this paper to explore the relationship of personality with academic environment congruence of the university student teachers’ toward teaching as a potential career choice are defined. Preliminary findings shows that more environmental factors influence an individual's motives in choosing teaching as a career. However, the tendency of dominant motivation attitude due to personal factors. Nevertheless, the overall findings explain the existence of a significant relationship between personality and academic environment congruence factors influencing the teaching profession. The study found that positive student teachers to the concept of congruence will make them active in the system environment of academic activities. At the end of the discussion proposed some suggestions to improve the congruence to promote an academic environment that is conducive and effective in producing quality teachers and will remain in the teaching profession. Keywords: congruence, personality-academik environment, career decision making, student teachers’

INTRODUCTION Ministry of Education not only wanted a high quality teacher but also teacher that will remain that high standard throughout their time of service in the education system. Based on this scenario, Malaysian Ministry of Education always make shifts and changes in teacher’s career system, for example offering a reward package and potential promotion for teachers to attend courses in a relevant and critical line of study. Furthermore, ministry’s shift as showed in the Education Development Master Plan (PIPP, 2006-2010), New Development in Education Policy 2010-2012 (2009), Malaysian Teachers Standard Document (2009); Manual of Education Work Pathway: Realizing Nation’s Transformation Agenda (2011); Education Development Strategic Plan 2011-2020 (2011) and Malaysia Education Development Plan 2013-2025 (2013). Since 2005, more strict entry requirements for teacher candidates have been applied. This is for recruiting only high quality and ideal candidates for teaching career. Meanwhile, by the beginning of 2007 the process of recruiting teacher candidates was stricter where candidates have to sit for Malaysian Educators Selection Inventory (MedSI) test. The inventory is a first stage of screening measuring the consistent between personality and individual’s personality trait with academic course applied (Sidek 2002). Individual will face the second Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

screening after succeeded the first screening, an interview session. This is to evaluate their intellectual competency and skills level in accordance to the academic course they succeeded applied. However, another issue arises when the academic qualification is appropriately fit, the personality is also suitable, can it be assume that the individual really is interested in their occupation? Can they be congruence with the academic environment? However, there are opinions saying it is not impossible that individual’s awareness, interest and attitude with a high commitment towards teaching profession can be cultivated while they were in teachers training institute. Therefore, the effort of testing how far a teacher’s personality is congruence with the academic environment is very meaningful, especially the individual whom already in that environment.

RESEARCH BACKGROUND Learning environment in teachers education institutions is not only for forming teacher’s professional values but related with the reflection of teacher’s behavior towards analyzing skills, facilitating, innovative desire, motivated and self-confidence to improve themselves as a high qualities teacher (Yamagat-Lynch dan Smaldino 2009; Avalos 2011; Norzaini Azman 2012; Gitonga, Kigen, Wangeri, Orodho, 2013). Additionally, with curriculum and co-curricular in public higher education institute, it is complete for training a high quality character student teachers’ (KPTM 2007). However, the effectiveness of final learning outcome also needs an active involvement of student teachers individual in the academic environment activity system (KPTM, 2007; Syed Ismail dan Ahmad Subki, 2010). Figure 1 The Conceptual Framework

Therefore, in this study focused on individual’s behaviors that were determined by the interaction between personality and their environment. In other words, aware to know individual’s personality and environment pattern, we can predict a few things including the motives of their career choice, work motivation, work productivity and work stability. Based on this study, career choice is the dependent variables. Nevertheless, in this study the researcher focusing on individual already in the field of education exclusively to evaluate their motivation, productivity and stability in those academic environments. The study based on the Holland’s career typology model and Engestrom activity system model. According to the conceptual framework below, it explains the processes that have to been through by all student teachers’ individuals that follow teacher’s education in public higher education institute. Independent variables are subjects, community and objects that depicted to have a reciprocal relationship among each other just like the explanation in Engestrom model (Engestrom, Miettinen dan Punamaki, 1999). The process begins with individual doing evaluation towards the academic course they are going to choose through as many information as they can get. Then, individual will come into second phase that is community which can be categorize into two condition, first is academic personality that is more inclined to the student teachers’ type that were measured according to Holland’s six personality type categorization (1992). The second component is the academic environment that was evaluated through their attitude skill also parallel to the Holland’s six environment type (1992). In this phase, individual’s congruence process also will be form where is the contributor in socialization process with the © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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environment develop in a continuous measuring. It consists of elements stated in standard 1 domain ‘teaching professionalism value practice’ that has been identified through Malaysian Teacher Standard (SGM, 2009) that were specifically practiced throughout learning. Based on Figure 1, the whole process explains the association between student teachers individuals towards the relationship of personality with their academic environment. Hence showing the student teachers process of environment socialization inclination in three of the independent variables is congruent towards their career choice in teaching profession. In this case, we will find out whether these student teachers motives for choosing teaching as the main career decision making or the contrary. Moreover, in order to appropriately address the steps involve in how the student teachers develop personality and academic environment congruence through environment activities.

CAREER CHOICE Processes of career choice have to be in accord with the individual’s interest because this will reduce the incident of shifting career in a short period. However, this journey not only depends on the interest, it cannot be determine whether the individual will continue having safisfaction doing their job and giving a quality service throughout their service (Azlin Norhaini, Lorna Fisher, Mohamad Sattar, Mohd Burhan & Nurhayati, 2012). According with Mohd Sani Ismail (2011) review which concluded that in this 21st century, more teachers that worked. However, they keep changing their career throughout the life due to unhappiness and not strive satisfaction of their career choice. This statement be agreed with the finding of study Mastura Mahfar, Ishak Mad Shah, Hamdan Abdul Kadir (2007), Gitonga, Kigen, Wangen dan Orodho (2013), Abdul Hamid (2013) and Ruzina Jusoh (2012) where also study in the education fields. Besides that, each individual have their own desire relating to the type of career and the desire towards the occupation with a meaning, both psychologically and sociology, that important and credible. These desires will influence individual in making career choice. Career choice made by individual also influenced by the amount of information they can get about the career. The more and precise the information available there is, the more accurate individual in making their choice. For example Rohana Abdul Rahim (2010) study, the frequency of individual’s receiving career information is significant to the career choice made. This includes the field of academic course chose, academic achievement and academic performance that can influence formation of expected outcome. Similarly, with statement of Sidek (2002), that these two related implications: a. The need of getting the right individual for the right occupation, so it can increase the usage of workfoce / manpower to the maximum level possible. b. The need of getting the programme of study matches the individual’s criteria or potential so it will increase the academic excellence to a higher level. Holland (1996) stated that to express the accuracy of making career choice is a big function that is by knowing thyself and occupation’s information more accurate. This is because for Holland, each decision made was assumed to be not influencing anyone randomly. Nevertheless, with interest expectation or effect from the expectation of one’s action will influence the goal either intentionally or not. This is because someone will expand their goal due to their passion and interest. Consistent with the findings of study by Rohana Abdul Rahim (2010) and Ahmad Munawar Ismail, Zakaria Stapa (2011), when somebody make a consideration regarding career choice, he will judge himself from various viewpoint relating to the chosen profession like his ability, qualification, talent and personality.

Personality and Career Attitude According to Betz and Taylor (2006), attitude factor in career decision making includes five elements that need to be devoured by individual are self-evaluation, career information, chosen goal, problem solving and planning to show his earnest in career chosen. Table 1 below, shows that the descriptions when an individual only have interest in that certain career, it will only lead to selection and goal formation to that specific career only but it gives least aspiration effect on the individual (M.H Mohamad, M.A Radzali, F.Azhar 2008). This is because the interest factors only an expression of individual’s personality trait (Holland 1985). For this reason, individual should make career choice decision that suits their attitude, which is congruent for them to express themselves more widely. One is a review study by Hamdan Said and Nasrudin Talib (2000), who that stated education system in this new era needs a high commitment from the teacher. One of it, teachers need to be self-friendly, that is not to be own worst enemy but have to be honest, sincere, genuine and always aware of own strength and weakness. This attitude awareness will make the individual willing to improve their ability and ready to make changes

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according to current needs. Individual also need to be change-friendly that is seeing changes and innovation in education system environment as an opportunity to test their potential, capability and ways to optimize their self-development. Table 1 - Classification type, personaity trait, attitude and Academic Majors

No.

Environment Attitude

Akademik Majors

Realistic (R)

Mechanical, technical, less interaction, materialistic, practical, non flexible.

Practical action, organized, systematic, dealing with machines or animals.

Electrical, mechanical, dafting, sains gunaan

2

Invertigative (I)

Carefully, inquisitive, rational, critical.

Symbolic observation activities, systematic, repetitive character, documented

Mathematics, biology, finance, chemistry, economics, sociolgy, general studied

3

Artistic (A)

Expressive, idealistic, emotional, sociable

Independent activities, Language, art, music, innovatif, be imaginative achitecture

4

Social (S)

Empathetic, patient, kind, idealistic, generous

Explicit, manipulationof other to train, love to do explanation

History, political science, counseling

5

Enterprising (E)

Aggressive, confident, optimistic, adventurous

Involving motivational situation, manipulative, systematically, empathy.

Business, management, computer technician

Conventional (C)

Carefully. Management capability, practical, persevering, inflexible

Explicit activities, continious action, management skills

Accoubtant, economist, argicultur

1

6

Type

Personality Traits

EDUCATION LEARNING ENVIRONMENT In realizing human capital development, one of among the focus and strategy been look into carefully by public higher education institute is to equipped trainee teacher with numerous hard and soft skills. Hard skills normally refer to technical task relatively to their field of study. Soft skills referred as ‘people skills’ that enable individual to get the chances of getting the work and continue his work and successfully upgrade his interpersonal skills. Hence, every student teachers has to be groomed with technical skills and soft skills so they will always ready to fulfill numerous challenges in their working realms latter kelak (Rohana Abdul Rahim 2010; Roselina Shakir 2009; Pauline Swee Choo Goh , 2012). Meanwhile, the making of Malaysian Teacher Standard Model is a benchmark for Malaysian teachers and teacher trainees in forming a high quality teacher. However, for student teachers learning is more focus on the standard component only, which are the education professionalism values practice that includes self, profession and social domain. This practice tendency domain is able to shape the teacher to build a basis towering personality and worldview in his teaching profession. However, the emphasis in this domain should be practice with cooperation of surroundings community members. In line with the previous notion Abd. Rahim (2007) for instance, that dedication in the teaching professionalism values practice can be incorporate with a role model from fellow friends, lecturers as well as senior teachers in school and education institute.

Engagement In Campus Activity Through this study, it explains the activeness of individuals involving themselves in campus activity is one way students can gain experience in learning and improve the quality of outcome achievement. Experience and individual’s academic achievement also depends on the activity they do around campus (Kahu, 2011). This process depict by the Engestrom (1993 Lisa and sharon 2009)) activity system analysis. It means that the individual doing the activity with their self-awareness simultaneously. This is due to the components are all supporting each other’s. Refer to figure 2. There are six components in the model explained as follows: a. Subject: individual or groups involved in the activity. b. Object: purpose or objective of the activity (it can be a in a form of material or mental outcome). c. Tools: mediating artifact, material or concept that shapes the activity. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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d. Rules: procedure and norms that control the activity. e. Division of labor: responsibility and variations of role in performing the activity. f. Community: social context and environment cultures where the activity operates. Figure 2 Activity System Model

Figure 2 shows how the three stages of processing. The process starts with the program execution (tool) concept that related to the program objectives (object) which forms to match the targeted participant (subject), and consistent with the outcome goal to be achieve. Then, in the activity to achieve the program objective (object), in the same time there will be a sharing (community) of individual’s viewpoint, perspective, knowledge as well as evaluating the ideas formed. Here, the concept of collaboration will develop and the engagement among members in reaching consensus (division of labor) and changes to the partnership concept will took place. On the other hand, this will be indirectly forming the consistent social interaction process among the members and shaping the culture collaboration factors (include subject – community – rules). In the context of this study, participant (subject) is the student teachers’ that study according to their chosen academic field (include community – rules), which will effects the personality and their response attitude (division of labor – tool) in the environment (object). Those effects can change the knowledge, awareness and motivation with the needs in the academic environment (outcomes). This explains the importance of each individual interacts with others in campus environment because it can effect individual’s personal achievement. Similarly, with Kim and Sax (2009) study that opinion in their study that stated efficiencies that form in the interaction encourage the individual to think, imagine and responding in a certain way according to his level of understanding.

THE BENEFITS OF CONGRUENCE Students attends their studies in university based on their academic qualification after went through several selection process. This issue arouse when some individual attended the specific course that are neither their choice nor their main interest. There are individuals who succeeded attending their choice field of specialization but after gone through some period, they found that the course is not congruence with their interest and their personality type. Incongruence in choosing field of specialization in university also will cause the individual fail to achieve satisfaction in their learning, less motivated, unable to adapt to the specific environment of the field they chose and might probably give negative effect towards their academic achievement. This scenario is not only effecting someone’s career development but also cause a loss to the higher education institute and the government in terms of the time, cost and productivity employment for Malaysia’s development (Mastura Mahfar, Ishak Mad Shah, Hamdan Abdul Kadir, 2007). Kenyataan ini di sejajar dalam kajian Culpepper, Austin (2006), Lisa, Sharon (2009.), Pringle, DuBose, Yankey (2010), Pike, Smart dan Ethington (2011). Individual’s personality-environment congruence enables someone to understand and predict the needs and desire of the personality type and environment type. Based on Holland’s career typology theory (1985, 1992), it put the emphasis on the desire and needs of the individual. Individual’s desire and needs act as the promoter to him to like and choose one type of occupation over another occupation. Therefore, the psychological and sociological needs were considered as very important in career choice of an individual. For Holland, each individual can be categorized based on the consistent to one of the six personality type, which is RIASEK. This personality type consisting from the interaction of various culture and personal influences. Six environment type (RIASEC) that are the same with Holland’s personality type categorized according to different interest, competency and propensity. Each individual tend to find the kind of environment that enables them to use their skills and abilities as well as the one that can express their personality type. Figure 3 shows the overall picture of Holland’s personality and environment type congruence. Holland’s Hexagonal Model are arranged in clockwise order: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Conventional. According to Holland (1997), the shorter the distance between two type the greater their similarity. The shorter the distance between a personality type and an environment type the greater their congruence. For example, individual from Investigative type is more congruence with the Artistic environment compared to the Enterprising environment. Figure 3 - Holland Hexsagon Model

Thus, it is important that the environment congruence with the personality trait been cultivate and form to ensure the learning objective is achieve. It is because congruence learning environment is able to help in developing a good social community such as an affective work relationship, strong unity, mutual trust, mutual respect, the feel of belonging, satisfactory and sense of belonging. The current study sought to extend to understanding that individual will chose their academic major assuming that academic environment is congruent with their personality type. They assume that campus environment is the key for application of process elements to improve their career skills. The issue is through student’s assumptions relating to knowledge schema, information and their evaluation about those environments itself. It includes how the student reacts to build experience, adding and altering that information. Hence, developing a career choice stereotype in creating the difference of making the personality – academic environment congruence process. In this approaches, the aim of the present study was to explore the views held student teachers concerning about the relative merits of psychological and sociological interpretations between personality – academic environment congruence on the teaching as a career choice factor among student teachers. This study also influence how student teachers respond to their environment, acting as catalysts or deterrents to certain types of behavior. Strong relationship between student teachers personality type and their career choice would support their a psychological interpretatio n. Whereas strong relationships between academic major choice and academik environment would support their sociological interpretation (Pike 2006). Explore the relationship between personality type and academic environment type as well as their assumptions towards the future career choice. A strong significant association between personality type and individual’s selection of career will give support in their psychological interpretation. If there is a strong significant between types of academic study and individual’s academic environment, it can give support in their sociological interpretation. Thus, the needs of two supports, both psychological and sociological interpretation will give impact to the importance of congruency for every trainee teacher in order to achieve the goal of a good quality teacher.

FINDINGS, DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTION Preliminary findings found that all participants involved in the study have their own motives in for the teaching field as their future career. It is either been influenced by the altruistic factor, personality factor or even the environment factor. Although, the overall motives of their selection is congruence with the academic study they are choosing. At the early stage of selection, participant tends to be influenced by the environment factor. Even though the analysis findings also explain, the strong significant engage with the personal factor in making it congruence with their environment. Similarly, findings of Noorroziyana’s (2000) study that concluded the factors how individual choose the teaching career: a. A way to express their personality b. As behaviour that express the individual’s motivation, knowledge and capability. c. Due to background, life history and family development in the same career makes them to be interested © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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in the same field. d. Each individual have their own stereotype relating to that specific field of work realm. This stereotype will influence individual in their career choice. For the second question, it is relating to their motivation attitude tendency. Evaluation is based on the teaching professionalism values practice domain involving the activity they participated in their academic environment. In the process of developing the congruency in the environment, personal factor is more dominantly influencing them. Where the security aspect (i.e.; GP2: …work situation is more easy to control) and reward aspect (i.e.: GP4: working days is only five days a week..) has been participant’s priority. At last examination, participants were categorized according to the Holland’s personality – environment type constructs and found that all of them are congruence with the academic environment in order to achieve their goal. The interview analysis findings were simplified based on the themes formed as shown in Table 2 below: Table 2 - Theme Categorization analysis Interview Study

Factor Altruistic

Motives • • • • •

Personal

• •

• • • Environment

• • • •

Loving children Doing good in community Like teaching activities Interest priority High potential earnings Secure career The course is more easy compared other courses Family hopes Influence of friends and acquaintances Influence of social media Influence of print media Influence of school techers and adviser school Academik quaification A lot of public holidays

N* 1

• • • •

3

• • •

• • 4

• •

Components

N*

Public relation Aesthetic

2

• • •

Artistic Social Enterprising

Safety Exciting employment Health Fair Reward

5

• • •

Realistic Social Enterprising

3

• • • •

Realistic Social Artistic Enterprising

Competition Related religious & morality Friendship Physical appearances

Constructs

Notes: * there are participants responded to more than one

However, some of the participants that are not very interested in their field of study but still keep going to make it congruence with their environment for the sake of the career chose. Just as this student teachers explained: “..teaching is a my second choice field of study…maybe it was meant to be...luckily I got mathematic field of specialization…that makes me able to continue (study)...(smile)” (GP2) “..during the first semester, I was not into this education subject..I stick to it because of my mother...(cough)..but em..with my ‘sporting’ (layback / open minded) classmates and my lecturers..i am motivated with ‘teacher is the nation’s pillar’…so I have to be persistent excellence...! (GP6) Findings of the interview, found that in overall it is consistent with Holland’s observation (1985), where it explains reasons of some individual make career decision making and why the environment congruency factor is important. Holland added that the higher the degree of congruency between personality type and working environment, individual is more likely to be satisfied from their task. The relationship between individual and the environment is determined by the degree of congruency. Highest degree of congruency is achievable when the personality type is in accord to the environment (Holland 1985, 1992). In general, the importance of evaluation and exploring the degree of congruence are because it can predict individual’s behaviour in career choice. However, for Paul dan Helen (2005), M.H Mohamad, M.A Radzali, F. Azhar (2008) and Ruzina Jusoh (2011) study, those developments are all depends on the individual to express it. Whether it succeeds or not depends on © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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how the individual make their interest (personality) more congruence with their awareness attitude towards academic environment hence shaping their experience.

Suggestion Based on the researcher’s literatures summary, there are a few suggestions can be apply to fill up the needs and improve the process of making the personality – academic environment congruence of student teachers to make it lasts and more effective. The suggestions are as follows: a. Collaborate with colleagues in planning and evaluating in order to improve. b. Increase student teachers individual participation with class discussion activity such as forum, question and answer also discussion: to manage the inner landscapes’ of teaching. c. Conduct a joint assessment (student teachers – lecturer) for every activity and program: to drawing strength from each other. d. Encourage activity on the field at rural school and focus on the school students’ reactions: to build leadership matters.

CONCLUSION The importance of exploring student teachers personality – academic environment congruence is to know the vital things that needed and have been mastered by them before get into the career field. Knowing individual career interest (personality), attitude towards involvement in the environment (environment) and level of soft skills (socialization practice), will help them to try and change themselves and be successful. It might as well help them to adapt themselves in the teaching career. Thus, a study identifying the real life situation should be conduct. This study findings able to acknowledge about career personality, career attitude, soft skills and career choice that these student teachers have. Implication of this study explains the practice in shaping and encouraging the existence of congruence between personality – academic environment have to be cultivate in the campus social environment space so it would be blend in every individual.

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of Selected Documents in Psychology, 8(73), 1740. Gitonga C. M. , Kigen E., Wangen T. dan Orodho J. A. (2013). Is Congruence a predictor of Sarisfaction With the Choice of Degree Program Among University Student in Kenya. Journal of Education and Practice, 4(17), 108-115. Mastura Mahfar, Ishak Mad Shah, Hamdan Abdul Kadir. (2007). Kekongruenan Personaliti-Persekitaran Kursus Dan Hubungannya Dengan Pencapaian Akademik Di Kalangan Pelajar UTM. Simposium Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran UTM Kecemerlangan Pendidikan Menerusi Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Berkualiti. (SPPUTM 07); 1-8. Mohamed Najib Abdul Ghafar dan M. Noor Ariffin. (2008). Kesan Latihan Perguruan Ke Atas Faktor Pemilihan Perguruan. Jurnal Teknologi, 48(E); 15–31. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Mohd Sani Ismail. (2011). Kematangan Kerjaya, Efikasi Kendiri Kerjaya Dan Penglibatan Pelajar Dalam Aktiviti Program Bimbingan Dan Kaunseling Kerjaya.Tesis PhD. Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Bangi. Tidak diterbitkan. M.H Mohamad, M.A Radzali, dan F.Azhar. (2008). Aspirasi Kerjaya Di Kalangan Pelajar Kolej Komuniti. Persidangan Pembangunan Pelajar Peringkat Kebangsaan 2008, 22-23 Oktober. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Merriam S. B. (2001). Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. Ed. San Francisco: JosseyBass Publishing. Noorroziyana Abdul Rani. (2000). Darjah Kongruen Personaliti-Persekitaran Serta Hubungnya Dengan Kepuasan Kerja: Tinjauan Di Kalangan Guru-guru Sekolah Menengah Yang Mengajar Mata Pelajar Pendidikan Seni, Pendidikan Islam,Pendidikan Jasmani Dan Matematik. Laporan Projek Penyelidikan Sarjana. Fakulti Pendidikan (Teknologi Serta Pendidikan),UTM, Skudai Johor. Tidak diterbitkan. Kahu, (2011). Framing student engagement in higher education. Journal of studies in higher education, 1,1-16. Kim Y. K., dan Sax L. J. (2009). Student–Faculty Interaction in Research Universities: Differences by Student Gender, Race, Social Class, and First-Generation Status, Research Higher Education, 50, 437–459. Kreijns, K., Kirchner, P. A., Jochems, W., dan Buuren, H. V. (2007). Measuring perceived sociability of computersupported collaborative learning environments. Computers & Education, 49, 176-192 Kementerian Pelajaran Tinggi. (2010). Membangun dan mengekalkan modal insan bertaraf dunia. Bab 5. Rancangan malaysia ke-10. Hlm. 193-251. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. (2011). Haluan Kerja Pendidikan merealisasikan agenda transformasi negara. Majlis buku kebangsaan Malaysia. Cyberjaya. Lisa c. Yamagat-Lynch dan Sharon Smaldino. (2009). Using Activity Theory to Evaluate and Improve K-12 school and University Partnership. Evaluation and Policy Planning Journal, 30, 364-380. Pauline Swee Choo Goh. (2012). The Malaysian Teacher Standards: a look at the challenges and implications for teacher educators. Educ Res Policy Prac., 11, 73–87. Paul W. Richardsona dan Helen M.G. Watt. (2005). ‘I’ve decided to become a teacher’:Influence s on career change. Journal of Teaching and Teacher Education, 21, 475–489. Pike G. R., Smart J. C., Ethington C. A. (2011). The Mediating Effects of student engagement on the relationships between academic disciplines and learning outcomes: An Extension of Holland’s Theory. Research in Higher Education, 53, 550-575. Pike G. R. (2006). Student’s Personality types, intended majors, and college expectations: Further Evidence Concerning Psychological and Sociological Interpretations of Holland’s Theory, Research in Higher Education, 47 (7), 801-822. Pringle C. D., DuBose P. B., dan Yankey M. D. (2010). Personality Characteristics and Choice of Academic Major: Are Tradisional Stereotypes Obsolete?. College Student Journal, 44(1), 131-142. Roselina Shakir. (2009). Soft skills at the Malaysian institutes of higher learning. Asia Pacific Educ. Rev., 10, 309–315 Ruzina Jusoh. (2012). Job satisfaction of New Teachers in Malaysia: Understanding Challenges and Experiences of Leaving the Problem. Phd Thesis. Colorado State University. Colorado. Tidak diterbitkan. Rohana Abdul Rahim. (2010). Minat Kerjaya, Efikasi Kendiri Keputusan Kerjaya, Kemahiran Employabiliti, D a n Pilihan Kerjaya Pelajar Vokasional Pertanian Di Semenanjung Malaysia. Phd Tesis. Universiti Putra Malaysia. Serdang. Selangor. Tidak diterbitkan. Spokane A. R., Meir E. I., Catalano M. (2000). Person–Environment Congruence and Holland’s Theory: A Review and Reconsideration, Journal of Vocational Behavior,57,137– 187. Standard Guru Malaysia. (2009). Bahagian Pendidikan Guru, Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, Putrajaya. Syed Ismail syed Mustapa dan Ahmad Subki Miskon. (2010). Guru dan Cabaran Semasa. Penerbitan Multimedia. Puchong, Selangor Sidek Mohd. Noah. (2002). Perkembangan Kerjaya: Teori dan Praktis. Serdang: Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

MEMAHAMI FAKTOR MEMPENGARUHI EMOSI: SATU ULASAN KARYA Zhooriyati Sehu Mohd.*, Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim & Zulkarnain Ahmad Hatta * [email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract Kertas kerja ini membincangkan emosi serta faktor-faktor yang boleh mempengaruhinya dalam konteks kehidupan harian seseorang. Secara umumnya, emosi merupakan sesuatu yang sangat kompleks dan merupakan komponen asas dalam kehidupan. Setiap individu mengalami pelbagai bentuk emosi sepanjang hari dalam pelbagai intensiti. Kertas kerja ini mengupas teori-teori dan kajian yang telah dijalankan yang berfokus kepada usaha untuk memahami perkara-perkara yang mempengaruhi dinamik pengalaman emosi seseorang. Perbincangan ini adalah penting untuk mengenalpasti faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan seseorang individu mengalami emosi tertentu dalam intensiti tertentu pada satu-satu situasi dalam kehidupan harian mereka. Kertas kerja ini adalah dalam bentuk ulasan karya dan ia penting sebagai latar belakang kepada kajian yang memberi fokus kepada pengalaman emosi. Keywords: emosi, faktor emosi, pengalaman emosi

PENGENALAN Emosi merupakan pusat kepada pelbagai perkara dalam psikologi dan merupakan amaran sosial yang sangat berkuasa. Sepanjang tempoh kita berjaga, perasaan dan mood memberi kesan kepada sikap, motivasi, dan interaksi dengan individu sekeliling kita (Brown, 2003). Emosi seseorang manusia dikenalpasti sebagai merupakan sesuatu yang pelbagai bentuk. Misalnya, menangis, ketawa, marah, geram, sedih, murung, takut, risau, benci, cemburu, dan sebagainya merupakan antara bentuk emosi serta perasaan yang sering dialami oleh seseorang individu normal. Emosi dikenalpasti menghantar pesanan kepada kita dengan cepat, secara kuat (powerful), fizikal yang membenarkan kita untuk bertindak terhadap persekitaran (Furnham, 2012). Selain itu, emosi juga menyebabkan kita untuk berfokus terhadap masalah-masalah yang releven dan memberi arahan kepada tingkahlaku kita (Deacon, 2013). Walau bagaimanapun, perkara ini tidak bermaksud emosi adalah sentiasa betul kerana kadang-kala emosi juga boleh menyebabkan seseorang mengambil keputusan yang kurang baik. Walau bagaimanapun, secara amnya emosi adalah baik berbanding tidak mengalaminya langsung. Menurut Lazarus (1993), emosi dikaitkan dengan satu set emosi positif seperti kasih sayang, cinta, kegembiraan, dan ketenangan dan juga satu set emosi negatif seperti marah, cemburu, takut, keluh, sedih, dengki, dan benci. Manusia bertutur secara emosi, menunjukkan emosi mereka melalui ekspresi wajah, perubahan suara, pergerakan badan, dan kedudukan badan (posture). Rangsangan fisiologikal memulakan reaksi yang spesifik yang menyebabkan berlakunya ekspresi karekteristik (Furnham, 2012).

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

DEFINISI EMOSI Secara umumnya, tiada definisi khusus untuk emosi yang dipersetujui oleh ramai pihak. Jika dibandingkan dengan konsep-konsep psikologi yang lain, istilah emosi adalah sukar untuk dijelaskan dengan tepat (Kalat & Shiota, 2007). Terdapat pelbagai bentuk tanggapan yang diberikan oleh para ahli psikologi mengenai istilah ini. Walau bagaimanapun, tiada mana-mana pandangan ahli psikologi yang dikatakan benar dan dianggap sebagai definisi yang tepat kepada istilah ini (Kalat & Shiota, 2007). Solomon (2008) berpendapat definisi emosi adalah sukar untuk dijelaskan dan ia merupakan perasaan yang dilaporkan bersama dengan fisiologikal, kognitif, dan komponen tingkahlaku. Walau bagaimanapun, kebanyakan ahli psikologi menjelaskan emosi sebagai pengalaman perasaan yang subjektif, bersama beberapa perubahan psikologikal dalam badan, biasanya bersama perubahan ekspresi wajah, kedudukan badan (body posture) atau tona suara (tone of voice). Akhirnya, dan paling penting, emosi adalah berkait dengan beberapa cara perlakuan tingkahlaku (Deacon, 2013). Terma ‘emosi’ menggambarkan sesuatu gerakan (motion/e-motion) iaitu bergerak keluar. Biasanya, emosi (emotion) digunakan untuk merujuk kepada gangguan atau pergolakan. Seseorang individu juga merujuk ribut petir (thunderstorm) sebagai emosi di atmosfera. Pada hari ini, definisi ini diringkaskan maksudnya kepada pengalaman pergolakan yang dirasakan oleh manusia dan juga binatang (Kalat & Shiota, 2007). Dalam kajian Plutchik (1982) menyimpulkan emosi sebagai urutan yang kompleks kepada tingkahlaku yang mendorong kepada penaksiran kognitif, perubahan subjektif, autonomik dan rangsangan saraf (neural arousal), dorongan terhadap kelakuan, dan tingkahlaku diaturkan untuk menerima kesan terhadap pendorong yang memulakan urutan yang kompleks itu.

KOMPONEN EMOSI Perasaan emosi merupakan sesuatu yang kompleks dan mempunyai pelbagai komponen yang menjadi punca kepada kelakuan seseorang individu. Ia mempunyai sekurang-kurangnya enam komponen (Frijda, 1986; Lazarus, 1991) yang hadir bersama dan menyebabkan perasaan-perasaan emosi yang tertentu (Smith, Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, & Loftus, 2003). Secara umumnya, perasaan emosi bermula daripada taksiran kognitif (cognitive appraisal) iaitu penilaian peribadi terhadap keadaan semasa seseorang individu. Oleh itu, taksiran kognitif dianggap sebagai komponen utama sesuatu perasaan emosi. Manakala pengalaman subjektif (subjective experience) pula merupakan komponen yang sering kita melihat, iaitu tona perasaan yang disebabkan oleh emosi. Komponen ketiga yang berkait rapat ialah fikiran dan kecenderungan tingkahlaku (thought and action tendencies), iaitu memaksa untuk berfikir dan berkelakuan mengikut sesuatu cara. Apabila sesuatu perkara menarik minat seseorang, misalnya mahu mengkaji dan mempelajari dengan lebih lanjut tentang perkara itu. Apabila seseorang memarahi kita, kita mungkin menjadi marah terhadap orang itu, samada secara fizikal atau verbal. Komponen keempat pula berkaitan sistem dalaman badan (auntonomic nervous system), terutamanya berkenaan iaitu pembahagian sempadan sistem saraf yang mengawal jantung dan otot-otot halus. Misalnya, apabila seseorang mengalami perasaan risau atau takut, jantung mungkin berdegup kencang dan tapak tangan berpeluh. Komponen kelima pula merangkumi ekspresi wajah (facial expression) seseorang, iaitu otot bertindak mengikut sesuatu cara. Misalnya, apabila berdepan dengan keadaan yang menyebabkan perasaan meluat atau kurang jijik, kita mungkin mengerutkan dahi (frown) sambil mengangkat bibir atas dan menutup mata sedikit sebagai tanda kurang selesa. Komponen terakhir adalah tindak-balas berdasarkan emosi (responses to emotion), iaitu bagaimana seseorang mengendalikan atau bertindak terhadap emosi sendiri atau situasi yang dialami itu (Smith, Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, & Loftus, 2003).

BENTUK DAN PENGALAMAN EMOSI Dengan cara berkomunikasi tanpa bahasa manusia, dapat dikenalpasti emosi mereka. Kita juga tahu bahawa apa yang dipaparkan oleh seseorang individu juga tidak semestinya melambangkan bentuk emosi sebenar yang dialami oleh mereka (Mahmood Nazar, 1990). Dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh Coleman dan Glaros (1983) didapati tiga kategori intensiti perasaan yang dialami oleh seseorang manusia, iaitu daripada intensiti © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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yang ringan, jenis serius, dan penyerakan. Emosi berbentuk ringan adalah sering diikuti dengan perasaan berhati-hati atau berjaga-jaga. Selain itu, perhatian juga tertumpu terhadap perkara-perkara yang penting, dan rasa sedikit tegang berbanding selalu. Pengalaman ini sering dialami oleh seseorang individu ketika menonton cerita seram atau melihat kejadian yang menakutkan serta mencemaskan seperti pembunuhan. Bentuk emosi ini adalah baik walaupun ketika mengalami perasaan yang negatif seperti marah atau takut. Hal ini kerana emosi jenis ini akan dapat memberi perasaan yang berlainan kepada tubuh badan individu yang mengalaminya. Selain itu, perasaan ini juga boleh dikawal oleh individu yang mengalaminya (Mahmood Nazar, 1990). Seterusnya, emosi berbentuk serius berlaku apabila seseorang individu berhadapan dengan sesuatu keadaan bahaya yang boleh mengancam nyawanya. Sebaliknya, jika seseorang individu terlalu gembira dan ketawa dengan kuat tanpa dapat dikawal, perubahan fisiologi seperti degupan jantung, tekanan darah, dan aktiviti hormon adrenaline akan meningkat dengan kadar yang pantas. Pada masa yang sama, sel-sel darah merah dari limpa dan hati juga akan dilepaskan keluar ke dalam saluran darah. Hal ini adalah persediaan kepada kemungkinan akan berlaku kecederaan pada tisu dan supaya darah yang keluar itu akan cepat beku (Mahmood Nazar, 1990). Manakala emosi penyerakan merupakan bentuk emosi serius yang dialami dalam tempoh masa yang panjang. Secara amnya, individu yang mengalami emosi atau perasaan jenis ini juga mengalami tekanan hidup yang amat serius dan terdapat pakar yang melaporkan bahawa tekanan hidup yang dialami adalah punca berlakunya penyerakan.Misalnya, askar-askar yang pernah terlibat dalam peperangan pada zaman dahulu, sering berdepan dengan emosi takut, cemas, dan bimbang terhadap persekitarannya sekarang. Pengalaman semasa peperangan itujuga akan terus menjejaskan kehidupanhariannya (Mahmood Nazar, 1990). Pengalaman-pengalaman emosi yang sering dialami oleh seseorang manusia normal adalah seperti perasaan takut, cemas, dan bimbang. Ketiga-tiga bentuk perasaan ini adalah sangat penting untuk menguji, menandingi, dan menilai seseorang manusia. Selain itu, manusia juga mengalami perasaan rasa bersalah apabila melakukan sesuatu perkara yang tidak baik seperti melanggar peraturan-peraturan yang ditetapkan dan sebagainya. Perasaan bersalah bolehlah dikatakan sebagai salah satu masalah serius kerana jika seseorang mengalami perasaan bersalah yang serius, ia boleh menyebabkan mereka mengalami masalah kemurungan (Mahmood Nazar, 1990). Sebagai manusia normal, manusia juga cenderung mengalami perasaan berbentuk negatif seperti sedih dan murung. Kedua-dua bentuk emosi ini akan mengganggu dan menjejaskan aktiviti harian individu yang mengalaminya. Manakala perasaan marah merupakan suatu bentuk reaksi yang disebabkan oleh beberapa rangsangan atau situasi seperti ancaman, keagresifan secara langsung, serangan verbal, kekecewaan, dan sebagainya (Chaplin, 1985). Secara ringkasnya, bolehlah dikatakan bahawa dalam kehidupan seharian, manusia berdepan dan mengalami pelbagai bentuk emosi. Emosi yang dialami oleh manusia juga adalah bergantung kepada sesuatu situasi atau peristiwa yang dialaminya.Perkara ini menentukan bentuk emosi serta keadaan kesihatan mereka juga.

FAKTOR PERUBAHAN EMOSI Menurut teori kognitif penaksiran (appraisal) (seperti Smith & Lazarus, 1993), emosi berlaku apabila diaktifkan oleh penaksiran seseorang individu (Nezlek & Vansteelandt, 2008). Emosi dan perasaan juga sering berlaku dalam diri seseorang untuk memberi tindakbalas terhadap stimuli iaitu kejadian disekeliling kita dan tindakan dan tingkahlaku individu lain yang kita sedang berbual (Brown, 2003). Menurut ahli teori penaksiran (seperti Roseman, 1984; Scherer, 1984; Smith dan Ellswoth, 1985), emosi berlaku apabila seseorang menilai sesuatu kejadian atau situasi sebagai penting kepadanya atau kesejahteraanya (Schmidt, Tinti, Levine, Testa, 2010). Misalnya, hasil kajian yang Schmidt dan rakan-rakan (2010) mendapati perasaan takut atau risau berlaku apabila pelajar menganggap peperiksaan sebagai sesuatu yang penting dan kemampuan mereka untuk menghadapinya adalah rendah. Manakala emosi positif pula berlaku apabila pelajar mengganggap peperiksaan sebagai sesuatu yang penting, kemampuan untuk menghadapinya adalah tinggi, dan hasilnya bukan bergantung terhadap luaran, iaitu faktor diluar kawalan. Ekman (1972) dan Frijda (1986) misalnya mencipta konsep dimana dilaporkan proses menghasilkan emosi bermula apabila sesuatu kejadian dalaman atau luaran memberikan petunjuk kepada individu bahawa sesuatu penting yang mungkin dalam risiko (Gross, J. J., Richards, J. M., & John, O. P., 2006). Apabila dihadapi dan dinilai, satu set kemungkinan respon yang tersusun yang melibatkan experiential, tingkahlaku, dan central serta sempadan sistem fisiologikal berlaku. Apabila respon emosi ini wujud, ia mungkin memberi kesan didalam banyak cara, ianya membentuk respon yang boleh dilihat pada individu (Gross, J. J., Richards, J. M., & John, O. P., 2006). © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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KESIMPULAN Dari perbincangan di atas, beberapa kesimpulan tentang emosi boleh dibuat. Kesimpulan ini kemudiannya mempunyai implikasi penting kepada mana-mana penyelidikan yang memfokus untuk mengkaji pengalaman emosi. Pertamanya emosi berkisar sekitar pengalaman subjektif dan ini menjadikan usaha mengkaji pengalaman emosi bukanlah sesuatu yang mudah. Kajian berfokus kepada pengalaman emosi perlu mengambilkira tentang hal ini dan mengunakan pendekatan yang benar-benar bersesuaian agar pengalaman subjektif ini dapat dikaji dengan setepat mungkin. Perbincangan di atas juga menunjukkan emosi terdiri lebih dari satu komponen. Pengkaji perlu membuat pertimbangan mendalam tentang komponen emosi yang menjadi fokus kajian. Paling penting ialah komponen penilaian kognitif dan pengalaman subjektif. Mana-mana kajian yang melihat kepada pengalaman emosi, perlu menilai dua komponen ini dengan mendalam. Analisa ulasan karya di atas juga mencadangkan tiga kategori emosi; emosi ringan, emosi serius dan emosi penyerakan. Walaupun agak jelas, kepentingan untuk mengkaji emosi serius dan emosi penyerakan, di mana kedua kategori ini tampak jelas pengaruh mereka kepada kesihatan dan kesejahteraan diri individu, emosi ringan masih perlu dikaji. Besar kemungkinan pengalaman emosi serius dan emosi penyerakan bergantung kepada dinamik emosi ringan yang berlaku. Akhir sekali, jelas bahawa perubahan pengalaman emosi bergantung kepada proses penilaian yang dikaitkan dengan kejadian tertentu. Untuk memahami dinamik emosi dalam sesuatu pengalaman kehidupan, paling penting untuk penyelidik memahami proses penilaian yang dikaitkan dengan sesuatu kejadian itu. Perbincangan awal telah menunjukkan proses penilaian sebagai sesuatu yang subjektif. Mana-mana kajian yang cuba memahami pengalaman emosi dalam situasi tertentu (contohnya dalam konteks perjalanan spiritual seperti menunaikan Haji) pengkaji perlu terlebih dahulu memahami penilaian subjektif individu tentang pengalaman ini.

RUJUKAN Brown, R. B. (2003). Emotions and behavior: Exercises in emotional intelligence. Journal of Management Education, 27, 122. Chaplin, J. D. (1985). Dictionary of psychology. New York: Dell Publishing Company (Edisi kedua). Coleman, J. C. & Glaros, A. G. (1983). Contemporary psychology and effective behaviour. Glenview III: Scott Foresman & Co. (Edisi Kelima). Deacon, L. (2013). Brilliant psychology. United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited. Ekman, P. (1972). Universals and Cultural Differences in Facial Expressions of Emotions. In Cole, J. (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (207-282). Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press. Frijda, N. H. (1986). The emotions. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Furnham, A. (2012). 50 Ideas you really need to know: Psychology. London: Quercus. Gross, J. J., Richards, J. M., & John, O. P. (2006). Emotion regulation in everyday life. In Snyder, D. K., Simpson, J. A., & Hughes, J. N., Emotion regulation in couples and families: Pathways to dysfunction and health (13-35). The University of California: American Psychological Association. Kalat. J.W., & Shiota, M. N. (2007). Emotion. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth/Vicki Knight Publishing. Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press. Lazarus, R. S. (1993). Why we should think of stress as a subset of emotion. Dalam L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Ed), Handbook of stress theoritical and clinical aspects. New York: The Free Press A Division Of Macmillan, Inc. Mahmood Nazar, M. (1990). Pengantar psikologi satu pengenalan asas kepada jiwa dan tingkah laku manusia. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Nezlek, J. B. & Vansteelandt, K. V. (2008). Appraisal-Emotion Relationships in Daily Life. Emotion, 8 (1), 145-150. Plutchik, R. (1982). A psychoevolutionary theory of emotions. Social Science Information, 21, 529-553. Roseman, I. J. (1984). Cognitive determinants of emotions: A structural theory. In P. Shaver (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology, (11–36). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Scherer, K. R. (1984). On the nature and function of emotion: A component process approach. In K. R. Scherer & P. E. Ekman (Eds.), Approaches to emotion, (293–317). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Schmidt, S., Tinti, C., Levine, L. J., & Testa, S. (2010). Appraisals, emotions and emotion regulation: An integrative approach. Motivation and emotion, 34, 63-72. Smith, C. A., & Ellsworth, P. C. (1985). Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 813–838. Smith, C. A., & Lazarus, R. S. (1993). Appraisal components, core relational themes, and the emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 7, 233–269. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Smith, E., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Frederickson, B., & Loftus, G. (2003). Atkinson &Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Publishing. Solomon, R. C. (2008). The philosophy of emotions. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barret (Eds.), Handbook of emotions. New York: Guilford Press.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

USING THE INVENTORY OF PARENT AND PEER ATTACHMENT-MALAY (IPPA-MALAY) FOR ASSESSMENT OF ATTACHMENT RELATIONSHIPS AND DEPRESSION OF MALAYSIAN ADOLESCENTS Nor Sheereen Zulkefly* *[email protected] Universiti Putra Malaysia Ross Wilkinson

University of Newcastle, Australia

Rozumah Baharudin Universiti Putra Malaysia

Abstract This study examined the utility of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment Malay (IPPAMalay) for the prediction of adolescent depression. Adolescents (N = 2040) (mean age =14.4 years), randomly selected from urban and rural schools across Malaysia completed self-report measures of attachment, self-esteem and depression. Based on exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, the three dimensions of Trust, Communication and Alienation of the measurement model of the IPPA-Malay was not supported. An alternative measurement model which focused more on common attachment factors (secure, contentment and anxious) was obtained. Structural analysis revealed that adolescents with anxious attachment are more at risk of experiencing depression compared to adolescents with secure and contentment attachment relationships. Furthermore, findings highlight the role of self-esteem as a mediator between secure and contentment attachment and depression. In addition, this study tested the stability of the structural model across age and gender and found that some paths in the model varied in which the influence of attachment relationships on self-esteem and depression appear stronger for females and younger adolescents. Implications for research elucidating the links between attachment and psychological health of adolescents are discussed. Keywords: attachment, psychological health, depression, self-esteem, adolescents

INTRODUCTION There is considerable evidence on the importance of parents and peer attachment relationships on the prevention of depression in adolescents. Past studies highlight comparative observations between adolescents with secure attachment relationships to their significant others, i.e. their parents and peers, and those with more insecure relationships. In each study, securely attached adolescents had a healthier, more positive psychological profiles than the adolescents with an insecure relationship with their parents and peers (Laible, Carlo, & Raffaelli, 2000). These adolescents were more likely to have poor psychological outcomes such as, low self-esteem and depression. During early childhood and throughout adolescence, mothers and fathers play an important role in Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

adolescents’developmental outcomes (Laible, Carlo, & Roesch, 2004; Shochet, Homel, Cockshaw, & Montgomery, 2008; Sim & Ng, 2007; Sund & Wichstrom, 2002; Tambelli, Laghi, Odorisio, & Notari, 2012). However, as adolescents develop, their relationship with peers become increasingly important (De Goede, Branje, & Meeus, 2009). Adolescents tend to turn to peers for emotional and social support and become less dependent on parents for emotional support (Capaldi, Dishion, Stoolmiller, & Yoerger, 2001; Scholte, van Lieshout, & van Aken, 2001). Nevertheless, mothers and fathers continue to be salient attachment figures during adolescence. The present study aims to measure adolescents attachment relationships to their mothers, fathers, and peers by utilizing the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA), a well-established measure of attachment. Past researchers have argued the suitability of using a Western developed measure in a non-Western culture (Rothbaum et al., 2000). Therefore, the present study examines the psychometric properties of the IPPA in a sample of Malaysian adolescents. In addition, the present study aims to test the hypothesized study model of the relationship between the attachment variables (attachment to mother, father and peer), self-esteem, and depression in one structural model (see Figure 1). The present study also investigates gender and ageinvariance in adolescent specific attachment relationships and its linkages with depression in Malaysian adolescents. Figure 1 - The hypothetical model

Maternal Attachment Depression Paternal Attachment

Self-Esteem

Peer Attachment

METHODOLOGY The present study involed 2040 adolescents randomly selected from urban and rural high schools across five states in Malaysia. Adolescents were between 12 and 17 years old (Mean = 14.35, SD = 1.285). Out of this sample, more than half (56.1%) were females while 43.9% were males. Most of these adolescents were Malays (58.8%); the rest were Chinese (13.2%), Indians (10.6%) and Aborigines (17.3%).

Measures Attachment Relationships The attachment relationships of adolescents were measured using the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA), a 75-item scale developed by Armsden and Greenberg (1987). Participants completed 25 items for each of the Mother, Father and Peer scales that were translated into Bahasa Melayu using forward backward translation process. Each scale consists of three domains: Trust, Communication and Alienation. Items on the IPPA were rated on a 5-point Likert scale, where sum of scale would indicate greater attachment to specific attachment figures after reverse scoring appropriate items. The IPPA scale displayed a reasonable level of internal consistency; Father Scale (Cronbach’s α = 0.88), Mother Scale (Cronbach’s α = 0.87), Peer Scale (Cronbach’s α = 0.86). In terms of the IPPA subscales, the reliabilities varied from moderate to good. For the Father scale, the Cronbach’s alpha for the Trust, Communication and Alienation factors were .80, .77 and .69, respectively. For the Mother scale, the Trust and Communication factors had good reliabilities (Cronbach’s α = 0.79; 0.76), while the Alienation domain had moderate reliability with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.67. The Peer scale showed moderate to good reliability on the three subscales as well, where Cronbach’s alpha for the Trust, Communication and Alienation factors were .84, .86 and .59, respectively. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Self-esteem Adolescents’ level of self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-esteem scale RSES) (Rosenberg, 1965). This scale contained 10 items and was scored using a 5-point Likert Scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Prior to obtaining total score, five items (i.e,. items 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9) were reverse coded. High scores on the RSE indicate high level of self-esteem. The RSE is reported to have good level of reliability (alpha coefficient 0.92) with test-retest reliability correlations of .85 and .88 (Rosenberg, 1965). In the current study, overall alpha reliability was 0.72.

Depression The depressive symptom of adolescents were measured using the 20-item Beck Depression Inventory-Malay (BDI-M) adapted by Mukhtar and Oei (2008) from the 21-item Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck et al., 1961). One item measuring sexual interest was dropped from the original scale due to cultural and religious issues. The BDI-Malay is reported to have a high coefficient reliability of .90 (Mukhtar & Oei, 2008).

Data Processing and Analysis The analyses performed in this study consisted of multiple steps. First, a psychometric investigation was performed on the IPPA-Malay using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Prior to conducting analyses, the study sample was split into two random groups (Group A = 1040; Group B = 1000). EFA was conducted on the first group, while Confirmatory Factor Analysis CFA was conducted on the second group. Subsample creation was guided by the desire to cross-validate and test the stability of EFA results. Several recommended fit indices were utilized to evaluate the stability of the factor structures (Hu & Bentler, 2000; Kline, 2004; Schumacker & Lomax, 2004): chi-square (χ2), chi-square/degrees of freedom; the root mean square error of approximation index (RMSEA); the comparative fit index (CFI); the goodness of fit index (GFI). The suggested cut-off value indicating good fit for the RMSEA ranged from 0.05 or lower (Hu & Bentler, 2000; Marsh, Hau, & Wen, 2004), while the CFI and GFI values greater than 0.90 are indicative of an acceptable fit (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Prior to examining the the structural relationship between attachment relationships, self-esteem and depression in adolescents, a measurement model of attachment was examined using structural equation modeling (SEM). Additionally, parceling technique was utilized to construct multiple indicators of the key variables (i.e., maternal attachment, paternal attachment and peers attachment, self-esteem, and depression) of the study. Next, the modification indices were examined and parameters were freed as appropriate. Finally, the fit indices of the modified model was evaluated.

RESULTS Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Prior to the psychometric and structural evaluation performed in this study, descriptive statistics and correlations between the key study variables were inspected. Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, reliability coefficients, and correlations of the study variables. Results from the correlational analyses showed that maternal and paternal attachment variables were highly correlated. Moreover, both parental attachment relationships were significantly correlated with peer attachment. Additionally, the present study found significant relationships between adolescents’ levels of self-esteem, and depression. Table 1: Correlations, Means, Standard Deviations

Variable

1

2

3

4

5

Paternal Attachment

0.89

Maternal Attachment

.83**

0.88

Peer Attachment

.26**

.26**

0.86

Self-esteem

.42**

.42**

.27**

0.72

Depression

-.36**

-.36**

-.24**

-.49**

0.86.

Mean

89.12

92.48

83.81

28.05

11.25

Sd.

15.44

14.83

13.87

4.19

8.14

Note. **p<0.01

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Correlation analyses were also performed on the parcelled variables of the study. Results revealed a similar correlational patterns to that of the key study variables. Generally, the correlational analyses suggested that the attachment parcelled items and self-esteem had significant relationships on depression. These findings were consistent with past research in which adolescents with better quality of attachment to their parents and peers have higher self-esteem, and are less prone to experience depression.

Psychometric Investigation of the IPPA-Malay The present study investigated the underlying factor structure of the IPPA Mother, Father and Peer scales by performing EFA. Analysis revealed that the Mother and Father scales both comprised three-factor structure. However, items loaded on each factor were different to that of the original scale (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987) as it consisted of a combination between the three original dimensions of Trust, Communication and Alienation. In view of the differences of item distribution across the three factors, these factors were renamed to Secure, Anxious and Contentment. Meanwhile, EFA analysis on the Peer Scale revealed a two-factor structure which was completely in contrast to Armsden and Greenberg’s (1987) three dimensional modal of Trust, Communication and Alienation. Further review on the item distributions revealed that 18 items from the Trust and Communication scales from the original scale loaded on one factor, while 7 items from the Alienation factor loaded on the other factor. As the IPPA-Malay Peer scale had different factor structures and item distribution than the original IPPA (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987), the factors were labelled as Secure and Anxious. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was then performed on the three dimensional models of the IPPA-Malay Mother and Father scales, and two-dimension model for peer scale to determine its stability in a sample of Malaysian adolescents. Results revealed that the three-factor structure of the IPPA Mother and Father Scale and two-factor structure of the Peer Scales were stable across the Malaysian data set. This tends to suggest that the IPPA-Malay Mother, Father and Peer scales are usable in a sample of adolescents in Malaysia. Despite differences in the factor structure between the IPPA-Malay and the original IPPA (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987), reliability test performed on each of its subscales and total (25 items) scales that is, of the IPPA-Malay Mother, Father and Peer, revealed moderate to high internal consistency. The reliability test for the Secure, Anxious and Contentment factors of the Mother scale generated coefficient alpha’s of .90, .67 and .79. While, the coefficient alpha’s for the Secure, Anxious and Contentment factors of the Father scale are .91, .68 and 0.60. The reliability test on the IPPA-Malay Peer scale revealed high internal consistency, where the Secure and Anxious factor produced Cronbach’s alpha of .89 and .88, respectively. These results tend to imply that the IPPA-Malay is a reliable measure of Malaysian adolescents’ perception of attachment relationships to mother, father and peer.

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) A measurement model of attachment was examined prior to conducting the structural model test. This measurement model of attachment was proposed by grouping the attachment indicators of the three latent variables (mother, father and peer attachment) and forming latent constructs named as Secure, Contentment and Anxious. Analysis was performed on this measurement model of attachment and results indicated that it was a good fit to the Malaysian data. Thus, this measurement model of attachment was utilized for further structural analysis. Structural equation modelling was performed to examine the relationships between attachment relationships, self-esteem, and depression. Results indicated that all the paths were in the expected directions. However, two paths were found not to be statistically significant (i.e., Contentment to Depression, and Secure to Depression). Although the model achieved an acceptable fit, removing the two non-significant paths would possibly improve the fit of the model. Thus, the model was re-evaluated after the two paths were removed. The revised model (see Figure 2) was found to have an acceptable fit indices where χ2=425.08, df= 67, p <0.001; CFI = 0.98; GFI = 0.97; RMSEA = 0.05. Results revealed that the attachment variables of contentment, secure and anxious were directly related to self-esteem. As expected, secure and contentment attachment positively influenced adolescents self-esteem, while anxious had a inverse linear relationship with self-esteem. These findings suggest that adolescents with secure and contentment attachments relationships had better self-esteem than adolescents with anxious attachment relationships. Furthermore, findings revealed that the secure and contentment had indirect effect on depression via self-esteem. On the other hand, anxious attachment was found to have a direct effect on depression. This indicates that adolescents with anxious relationships with their parents and peers are more prone to experience depression compared to their peers who have good attachment to their mothers, fathers and peers. Consistent with past studies (e.g., Joiner, 2000; Orth et al., 2008) self-esteem was found to have a © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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significant and negative relationship to depression. Hence, adolescents with good attachment relationships with their parents and peers are more likely to have positive self-esteem which would prevent them from being at risk for depression. Figure 2. Final structural model

Testing gender and age invariance of the final study model The structural model of the study was tested across gender and age of the adolescents using multiple steps as suggested by Byrne (2010). First, a baseline χ2 value was obtained by simultaneously analysing on both male and female adolescents without constraining the structural model. Next, the structural paths between each latent construct (Anxious-Secure; Anxious-Contentment; Contentment-Secure; Anxious-Self-esteem; Contentment- Self-esteem; Secure-Self-esteem; Contentment-Depression; Sec-Depression; Self-esteemDepression) were constrained to be equal for the male and female groups, which produced another χ2 value. Lastly, the differences between the χ2 values obtained were examined for statistical significance. These steps were repeated in order to examine the age-invariance of the study model. Table 2 presents the results of the multi-group structural analyses. Table 2. Results of multiple-group modeling

Variables Gender Age

χ2

df

Unrestricted

593.06

142

Constrained

564.41

134

Unrestricted

542.69

142

Constrained

525.39

134

Critical-value

χ2 change

20.09

28.65*

20.09

17.3

Note. * p<0.01

The invariance analysis across gender revealed a significant changes to the χ2 value (∆χ2=28.65, df=8). This tend to suggests that the study model varied across male and female adolescents. In contrast, results of the structural analysis across age did not show any significant change in the χ2 value (∆χ2=17.3, df=9). This suggests that the paths in the structural model were consistent between older and younger adolescents.

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION Findings from the present study provide evidence that the IPPA, was not replicable in a sample of Malaysian adolescents. This study found that the IPPA-Malay had a different psychometric properties than that of the orignal IPPA (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987). A three-factor structure with different item loadings than the © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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IPPA-Original was found to be more suitable for the IPPA-Malay mother and father scales, whereas a two-factor structure was more suitable for the peer scales. The differences in the psychometric findings of the IPPA-Malay could be best explained based on the nature of attachment in Asian cultures, which strongly emphasised interdependence, socialisation and in-group harmony. Consistent with past research, the study found that the attachment relationships to parents and peers are important contributors to the psychological health and adjustment of adolescents (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987; Nakash-Eisikovits, Dutra & Westen, 2002; Sund & Wichstrom, 2002; Wilkinson, 2004). Adolescesnts with secure and contentment attachment relationships with both their parents and peers had a higher scores of self-esteem compared to their peers with anxious attachment relationships. This study also revealed that both secure and contentment attachment relationships influenced the development of depression via self-esteem, whereas anxious attachment had direct relationship to depression. This suggests that adolescents with a lack of positive attachment relationships and poor self-esteem were more prone to developing depression. Additionally, this study supported past findings on the role of self-esteem (Millings, Buck, Montgomery, Spears & Stallard, 2012; Wilkinson, 2004) and family life adversity (Carlton et al., 2006) on the development of depression in adolescents, where adolescents with poor self-esteem are more vulnerable to depression. Further analysis on the structural model of the study indicates that the paths between attachment variables and psychological health were different between male and female. Findings from this study implies that secure parental attachments to both mothers and fathers are crucial in determining the psychological health and adjustments of adolescents. Parents need to develop and maintain positive parenting skills in order to communicate effectively with their adolescents. Therefore, programmes should be created to assist parents in achieving effective parenting skills to support and guide adolescents during transition periods. Additionally, it is important for parents, peers, teachers and clinicians to promote the self-esteem of adoelscents. As self-esteem was found to be an important mediator in preventing depression, programmes and public awareness should be increased and centralized on nurturing adolescents’ self-esteem by enforcing good parenting and communication behavior, thus making them less likely to succumb to any psychological disturbances.

CONCLUSION Overall, this study found that secure and contentment attachment relationships to parents and peers are important for the prevention of adolescent depression. Adolescents who are secure in their relationships with their parents and peers are more inclined to have a better view of themselves, and are less at risk of developing psycholoigical disturbances such as depression. Moreover, a culturally valid attachment measure would be more able to measure the specific attachments of adolescents in Malaysia. Although the present study provides evidence on the reliability and cultural appropriateness of the IPPA-Malay, results obtained will need to be interpreted with caution since the study data were based on a self-report measure using a cross-sectional design. Future studies may therefore wish to consider a mixed method approach that includes interview and questionnaire techniques using a longitudinal design.

REFERENCES Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment: Individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 427-454. Beck, A.T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961) An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571. Capaldi, D. M., Dishion, T. J., Stoolmiller, M., & Yoerger, K. (2001). Aggression toward female partners by at-risk young men: The contribution of male adolescent friendships. Developmental Psychology, 37, 61-73. Carlton, B. S., Goebert, D. A., Miyamoto, R. H., Andrade, N. N., Hishinuma, E. S., Makini, G. K., . . . Nishimura, S. T. (2006). Resilience, Family Adversity and Well-Being Among Hawaiian and Non-Hawaiian Adolescents. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 52(4), 291-308. doi: 10.1177/0020764006065136. De Goede, I. H. A., Branje, S. J. T., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2009). Developmental changes in adolescents’ perceptions of relationships with their parents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 75–88. doi:10.1007/s10964008-9286-7. Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (2000). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 6, 1-55. Joiner, T. E. (2000). Depression's Vicious Scree: Self-Propagating and Erosive Processes in Depression Chronicity. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 7(2), 203-218. doi: 10.1093/clipsy.7.2.203 © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Kline, R. B. (2004). Principles and practice of structural equation modelling 2nd ed. New York: Guildford. Laible, D., Carlo, G., & Raffaelli, M. (2000). The Differential Relations of Parent and Peer Attachment to Adolescent Adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29(1), 45-59. doi: 10.1023/a:1005169004882. Laible, D. J., Carlo, G., & Roesch, S. C. (2004). Pathways to self-esteem in late adolescence: The role of parent and peer attachment, empathy, and social behaviors. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 703-716. Marsh, H.W., Hau, K.T., and Wen, Z. (2004), "In Search of Golden Rules: Comment on Hypothesis-Testing Approaches to Setting Cutoff Values for Fit Indexes and Dangers in Overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler's Findings " Structural Equation Modeling, 11(3), 320-41. Millings, A., Buck, R., Montgomery, A., Spears, M., & Stallard, P. (2012). School connectedness, peer attachment, and self-esteem as predictors of adolescent depression. Journal of Adolescence, 35(4), 1061-1067. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.02.015 Mukhtar, F., & Oei, T. P. (2008). Exploratory and confirmatory factor validation and psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory for Malays (BDI-Malay) in Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Psychiatry, 18(1), 36-48. Nakash-Eisikovits, O. R. A., Dutra, L., & Westen, D. (2002). Relationship Between Attachment Patterns and Personality Pathology in Adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(9), 1111-1123. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J., Pott, M. L., Miyake, K., &Morelli, G. (2000). Attachment and culture: Security in the United States and Japan. American Psychologist, 55, 1093-1104. doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.55.10.1093 Scholte, R. H. J., van Lieshout, C. F. M., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2001). Perceived relational support in adolescence: Dimensions, configurations, and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11, 71–94. doi: 10.1111/1532-7795.00004 Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Shochet, I. M., Homel, R., Cockshaw, W. D., & Montgomery, D. T. (2008). How Do School Connectedness and Attachment to Parents Interrelate in Predicting Adolescent Depressive Symptoms? Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 676-681. doi: 10.1080/15374410802148053. Sim, T. N., & Ng, E. L. (2007). Parental Attachment and Adjustment to Higher Learning Institutions: The Role of Stress for a Malaysian Sample of Late Adolescents. Journal of Counseling & Development, 85(4), 467474. doi: 10.1002/j.1556-6678.2007.tb00615.x Sund, A. M., & Wichstrom, L. (2002). Insecure attachment as a risk factor for future depressive symptoms in early adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1478–1485. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Tambelli R., Laghi F., Odorisio F., Notari V. (2012). Attachment relationships and internalizing and externalizing problems among Italian adolescents. Children and Youth Service Review, 34, 1465-1471 doi: 10.1016/j. childyouth.2012.04.004 Wilkinson, R. B. (2004). The Role of Parental and Peer Attachment in the Psychological Health and Self-Esteem of Adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(6), 479-493.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PATERNAL PARENTING BEHAVIOUR AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING IN MALAYSIAN ADOLESCENTS: VARIATION BY SEX Amira Najiha Yahya, Nor Sheereen Zulkefly*, Rozumah Baharudin & Zanariah Ismail *[email protected] Universiti Putra Malaysia

Abstract Few studies have focused on the influence of paternal parenting on adolescents’ psychological well-being. Thus, using structural equation modelling, the study sought to elaborate on and clarify the link between paternal parenting behaviour and psychological well-being of adolescents. In addition, the study examined if the relationship vary across sex. A total of 1000 adolescents (mean age: 13.91 year) from government’s daily secondary schools in selected states in Malaysia was sampled using the probability proportional to size (PPS) cluster sampling technique. Paternal parenting behaviour was measured using Malaysian Parenting Behaviour Inventory (Baharudin et al., 2012). Psychological wellbeing was indicated using two measures: General Health Questionnaire (Goldberg, 1978) and Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965). Data were obtained through selfadministered questionnaire at the selected schools. Results indicated that paternal warmth, indigenous and harsh discipline had significant influences on adolescents’ self-esteem. However, only paternal harsh discipline had direct relationship to adolescents’ psychological health. A multigroup analysis revealed that the structural relationship between paternal parenting behaviour and adolescents’ psychological well-being is unstable across sex. The study concludes that warmth and indigenous paternal parenting promote adolescents’ selfesteem whereas harsh discipline parenting appeared to suppress self-esteem. Additionally, results revealed that paternal harsh discipline reduced adolescents’ psychological health. Sex of adolescents was further found to interact with the paternal parenting behaviour and adolescent psychological well-being linkage. Findings therefore refined knowledge on the important role of paternal behaviour in adolescents’ development particularly, psychological well-being and its variation by sex. Keywords: paternal parenting behaviour, psychological health, self-esteem, psychological wellbeing, adolescents, sex

INTRODUCTION Adolescence is a critical transition period occurs in human growth and development. During this period, numerous key development experiences take place (i.e. physical, emotional and cognitive changes). The changes happen throughout this stage are characterized by difficulties especially in terms of their social relationship, due to tremendous changes in psychological development (Viner et al., 2012). Psychological well-being is an integral component of adolescents’ healthy development and optimal functioning. Various factors influence adolescents’ psychological well-being. One of the important factors found to be salient by past studies is the quality of paternal parenting behaviours (Jafari, Baharudin, & Archer, 2013; Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Gonzales, Coxe, Roosa, White, Knight, Zeiders, & Saenz, 2010; Marsiglio, Amato, Day, & Lamb, 2000). Over the past few decades, the changes in family structures as well as family roles have turned father’s roles to become more diverse, vague and debatably than before (Carlson, 2006). Fathering becomes less important in a cultural necessity when compared to mothering, resulting in greater variability in the type and nature of paternal parenting (Williams & Kelly, 2005). Recently, fathering started to gain increasing attention in parenting studies (Yap et al., 2013; Saleh and Hilton, 2011). However, most of the studies were specific to Western contexts. Thus, it is deemed necessary to study what role fathers play in the adolescents’ psychological well-being in Malaysia as there is a drastic increase of psychological distress amongst adolescents. Malaysia is a young developing country with almost half (43%) of its population consisting of young population (i.e. age 24 years old and below) in which totalling to 12.5 million of Malaysia citizens (Haniff, 2011). Adolescents constitute about 20 % of the young population and amounting about 5 million (Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2008). According to statistics from the Population and Housing Census 2000, adolescents between 10 and 19 years old constitutes approximately one-fifth of the 23.3 million Malaysian (Department of Statistics, 2008). Adolescents in Malaysia are important national asset. Despite a rapid development and major changes in Malaysia social economic structure, adolescents are vulnerable to various psychological problems. A National Health and Morbidity Survey conducted by Malaysia Ministry of Health in the year 2000 found that the prevalence rates for emotional problems and aggressiveness among adolescent were 49% and 41%, respectively (Hsien-Jin, Jun & Kuan, 2010). Besides, Malaysia National Mental Health Survey III conducted in the year 2006 revealed that almost 6.4% of adolescents were having acute suicidal thought (Mental health status of Malaysians, 2006). Additionally, the survey also unveiled that 11% of Malaysian adolescents aged 16 and above suffered more psychological distress than other age group. Overall, Malaysia National Health Morbidity Survey (2011) reported an increment of psychological problems amongst children and adolescents from 13% in the year 1996 to 20% in the year 2011. Looking at these numbers, the prevalence of psychological problems in Malaysian adolescents is alarmingly higher and at a worrying stage. Therefore, it is crucial to explore what factors contribute to psychological problems in adolescents. Past studies have shown that adolescents’ psychological well-being is associated with environmental factors such as relationship with parents (Dwairy et al., 2009; Gonzales et al., 2011; Maurizi, Gershoff, & Aber, 2012). Up until now, parents remain as a salient factor of adolescents’ psychological development (Maccoby, 2000). A plethora of past studies related to adolescents’ psychological health has focused on paternal and maternal parenting behaviour (Grunwald, Lockwood, Harris, & Mennis, 2010; Maljaars, Boonen, Lambrechts, Van Leeuwen, & Noens, 2014). Despite the relative abundance of research on parenting behaviour, yet there is still considerable sparse empirical study which has solely focused on paternal compare with maternal parenting behaviour (Majdandzic, Moller, de Vente, Bogels, & van den Boom, 2014;Cabrera, Tamis-LeManda, Bradley, Hofferth, & Lamb, 2000). Recently, empirical investigations have begun to examine the contribution of paternal parenting behaviour as fathers have been shown to have unique and significant influences on adolescents’ psychological well-being (Kane & Garber, 2004). Thus, this study is crucial in order to refine the understanding on the importance of father’s role toward adolescent’s psychological development especially self-esteem and psychological health. The role of fathers always has been side-lined although they do play a big role and able to influence the development of adolescents. This study is expected to be an eye opener to many factions so as not to marginalize the efforts and role of fathers at present. On the other hand, few local studies have employed a more sophisticated method in analysing the different aspects of paternal parenting behaviour. A structural equation modelling was utilized in the present study in order to validate a hypothesized model on the role of paternal parenting behaviour (i.e. warmth, monitoring, harsh discipline and indigenous) on adolescents psychological well-being (self-esteem and psychological health). In addition, gender invariance was tested on the model. The current study builds upon the principles of Brofenbrenner’s bio ecological system theory. According to the theory, adolescents and their fathers are elements in the microsystem. Microsystem is the closest layer which has direct contact as well as bidirectional influences on adolescents. In microsystem environment, bidirectional interactions have the most powerful influence on adolescents since fathers can influence their behavior and vice versa. The father  adolescent’s microsystem operates within the larger contexts of the macrosystem of father’s cultural values, tradition and laws (Berk, 2000), which subsequently influences father’s belief and behaviour in child rearing practice. In summary, this study was designed to investigate the contribution of father in adolescent’s development particularly, self-esteem and psychological health within microsystem of the family. Based on the theory, the hypothetical model for the present study is presented as in Figure 1.

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Figure 1 - Hypothetical Model

METHODS A total of 1000 (50.2% males, 49.8% females) adolescents aged 13, 14 and 16 years was drawn from a large national study on parenting, Development of Malaysian Parenting Behaviour Inventory (Baharudin et al., 2012). The sample was recruited from daily government schools in four selected regions i.e. north, central, east and south in Peninsular Malaysia. Representing these regions were Perak (north region), Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur (central region), Terengganu (east region) and Malacca (south region). In this national study, a total of 50 secondary schools from 43 districts was involved. Data collection was conducted in an orderly sequence. Consents were obtained from the related parties before distributing a self-administered to the respondents at the respective schools. About half (50.2%) of these respondents were male and the rest (49.8%) were female. The mean age of the respondents was 13.91 (Sd. = 1.05) years. A majority (70.7%) of these respondents were Malays, followed by Chinese (17.4%), Indians (10.2%) and other races (1.7%). Most respondents reported that their family as having a decent family income (below RM3000 per month) with a mean monthly income of RM2283.90 (sd. 2193.50). Respondents were also found to come from families that were moderate in size with an average of four children.

MEASURES Malaysian Parenting Behavior Inventory Paternal parenting behaviour as perceived by adolescents was measured using the Malaysian Parenting Behavior Inventory (MPBI) (Baharudin et al., 2012). The MPBI comprised four subscales: each assessed parenting behaviour of fathers and mothers. However, only the father scale, with 32 items was used in the present study. These items were administered through five point Likert-scale that ranged from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). There were ten items under warmth (i.e. Say love to you) (α=.90), five items under monitoring (i.e. Know who your friends are) (α=.84), six items under harsh discipline (i.e. Nag you for your wrong doing) (α=.82), and eleven items under indigenous (i.e. Remind you about reward and sin) (α=.95). Higher scores on warmth, monitoring and indigenous subscales will indicate a better quality paternal parenting behaviour, whereas higher score on harsh discipline indicated ineffective parenting behaviour.

Self-Esteem The Rosenberg Self-esteem scale (RSE) (Rosenberg, 1965) was used to measure the level of self-esteem of the adolescents in this study. The RSE scale included 10 items and was rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The five negatively worded items (items 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9) were reverse coded and summed up with remaining five items to yield the score for adolescents’ level of self-esteem. The total score ranged from 10 to 40. This scale comprised positive and negative items such as “on the whole, I am satisfied with myself” and “at times I think I am no good at all”, respectively. Higher summation scores indicated that the respondent possess a positive self-esteem. Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to be at 0.60.

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Psychological Health Psychological health of the respondents was measured using the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (Goldberg, 1978). The GHQ, containing 12 items was utilized to identify two main classes of problems: inability to carry out one’s normal ‘healthy’ functions, and the appearance of new phenomena of a distressing nature. It focuses on breaks in normal functioning rather than on life-long traits; therefore, it only covers disorders or patterns of adjustment associated with distress. The GHQ was scored on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 (very less than usual) to 4 (better than usual). Lower scores on the GHQ indicated that the respondents experience psychological distress and the subsequent maladjustment, which undermine well-being. The GHQ consists of positive statements, such as “been able to concentrate on whatever you are doing”, and negative statements, such as “lost must sleep over worry”. The scale was found to be highly reliable with a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.73.

RESULTS The full SEM model which included the parcelled indicators of the paternal parenting behaviour, self-esteem and psychological health was examined to determine whether the model fits the data using the recommended goodness-of-fit: Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA) value close to 0.06, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) values greater than 0.90 and non-significant (χ2) result at 0.05 threshold (Hair et al. 2010). Nevertheless, with respect to the sensitivity of chi-square to sample size, normed chi-square (χ2/df ) was utilized (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). The criterion of an acceptable normed chi-square is χ2/df < 5. Figure 2 shows the structural model with estimated standardized regression coefficients. The fit statistics indicated that the model achieved an acceptable fit. The overall fit indices were, χ2=397.35, df =104, χ2/ df =3.82, p <0.001; CFI = 0.96; GFI = 0.95; RMSEA = 0.05. Nonetheless, the model demonstrated that four (Monitoring  Self-esteem, Indigenous  Psychological Health, Warmth  Psychological Health and Monitoring  Psychological Health) out of nine paths were not statistically significant at the p < 0.05. Figure 2- Structural model with standardized estimates

Although the proposed structural model obtained an acceptable goodness-of-fit, a better-fit statistics for the data would possibly be achieved by eliminating the non-significant paths (Monitoring  Self-esteem, Indigenous  Psychological Health, Warmth  Psychological Health and Monitoring  Psychological Health). In order to obtain a more parsimonious model, the non-significant paths between the exogenous variables of Monitoring and Self-esteem, Indigenous and Psychological Health, Warmth and Psychological Health and Monitoring and Psychological Health were deleted from the model. The statistical fit indices of modified model were then reanalyzed.

Testing the modified study model and fit indices Further analysis was conducted without including the non-significant paths (Monitoring  Self-esteem, Indigenous  Psychological Health, Monitoring  Psychological Health, and Warmth  Psychological Health). The final model (see Figure 3) of the study was reanalyzed. The fit statistics revealed the goodness-offit for the final model achieved acceptable fit indices where χ2=405.61, df = 108, χ2/df =3.76, p <0.001; CFI = 0.96; GFI = 0.95; RMSEA = 0.05. The fit of the modified four-dimensional model was a significant improvement

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over the initial model (Δχ2=8.26, df=4, p <0.05). Results from the structural analysis found that all of the paths weights were in the appropriate directions and significant at the 0.05 level. The comparison of fit indices for both hypothesized and revised model is displayed in Table 1. Table 1- Summary of Model Fit

Model

χ2

Df

P

CFI

GFI

RMSEA

χ2 change 8.26*

Hypothesized

397.35

104

0.00

0.96

0.95

0.05

Revised

405.61

108

0.00

0.96

0.95

0.05

Note. CFI = Comparative Fit Index; GFI = Goodness of Fit Index; RMSEA = Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation, *p<0.05

Figure 3 - Revised structural model with standardized estimates

Examination on the final model revealed that only the exogenous variables of Harsh Discipline had a direct, yet small, influence on psychological health. Whereas, Warmth (0.15) and Indigenous (0.13) variables only had an indirect effect on Psychological Health. Self-esteem was found to have a moderate direct effect on Psychological Health. Furthermore, the exogenous variables of Warmth, Harsh Discipline and Indigenous were observed to have a lower moderate direct effect on Self-esteem. The Warmth variable was found to have a higher influence on Self-esteem compared to Harsh Discipline and Indigenous. As expected, the Harsh Discipline variable had an inverted relationship to Self-esteem.

Testing sex invariance of the final study model The measurement and structural equivalence of the structural model was tested across gender according to several steps as outlined by Byrne (2010). Initially, a simultaneous analysis on both male and female adolescents without constraining the structural and measurement path as performed which resulted in baseline χ2 value. In attempt to test the sex-invariant of the structural model, the structural paths between each latent construct (Warmth-Monitoring, Warmth-Harsh Discipline, Warmth-Indigenous, Monitoring-Harsh Discipline, Monitoring-Indigenous, Harsh Discipline-Indigenous, Warmth-Self-esteem, Harsh Discipline-Self-esteem, Indigenous-Self-esteem, Harsh Discipline-Psychological Health) was constrained to be equal for the male and female groups, which produces another χ2 value. Finally, the differences between the χ2 values obtained were examined for statistical significance. Results of the multi-group structural analyses are presented in Table 2. Results of the structural invariance across sex revealed a significant statistically change in the model fit (∆χ2= 22.87, df=11, p<0.05). Findings tend to suggest that the structural model did not remain stable across male and female. It was found that male and female adolescents were different with the respect to the paths from Warmth, Harsh Discipline, and Indigenous to Self-esteem as well as path from Self-esteem and Harsh Discipline to Psychological Health varied between male and female adolescents (see Table 3).

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Table 2 - Results of multiple-group modeling

Variables Sex

χ2

df

Unrestricted

588.03

227

Constrained

565.16

216

Critical-value

χ2 change

19.66

22.87*

Note: *p<0.05

Table 3 - Gender invariance

Paths

Male

Female

SRW

SRW

CR

p-value

Structural Components .105

.198

5.145

***

-.247

-.243

-8.499

***

IndigenousSelf-esteem

.206

.102

4.455

***

Self-esteem  Psychological Health

.428

.484

12.780

***

-.057

-.090

-3.875

***

WarmthSelf-esteem Harsh Discipline Self-esteem

Harsh Discipline  Psychological Health Note. ***p<0.001, **p<0.01, SRW=Standardized Regression Weight

Analysis unveiled that female adolescents had a slightly higher association between Warmth and Self-esteem than male adolescents (standardized factor correlation male vs. female: Φ = .105 vs. .198, p<0.001). However, the path between Harsh Discipline and Self-esteem was found to be higher in male adolescents compared to female adolescents (standardized factor correlation male vs. female: Φ = -.247 vs. -.243, p<0.001). Likewise, the path between Indigenous and Self-esteem was also higher for male than female adolescents (standardized factor correlation male vs. female: Φ = -.206 vs. -.102, p<0.001). The path from Self-esteem to Psychological Health was stronger for females than males (standardized factor correlation male vs. female: Φ = .428 vs. .484, p<0.001). Similarly, the path from Harsh Discipline to Psychological Health was higher for females than males (standardized factor correlation male vs. female: Φ = -.057 vs. -.090, p<0.001).

DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION Structural equation modeling was performed to identify the direct and indirect effect of the paternal parenting behaviour on adolescents’ psychological well-being (self-esteem and psychological health). Overall, the proposed structural model yields an acceptable goodness-of-fit. Findings showed that the paternal parenting behaviour variables of warmth and indigenous were found to indirectly influence psychological health via self-esteem, while harsh discipline variable was found to have a direct effect on psychological health. This tends to suggest that adolescents who perceived their fathers as being warmth would develop a positive psychological health. Similarly, adolescents experiencing more indigenous parenting were more likely to maintain good psychological health. In contrast, adolescents experiencing harsh discipline from their fathers are prone to poor psychological health. These findings support the view that paternal warmth plays significant role in promoting healthy psychological well-being amongst adolescents (Chen & Liu, 2011; Gonzales et al., 2011). Additionally, these study findings consistent with the results found in past studies, where adolescents who experienced harsh discipline will negatively affect their psychological well-being, specifically leading them to battle psychological problems (Benner & Kim, 2010; Boe et al., 2013; Gonzales et al., 2011). Other than that, these study findings concur with the evidence found in past literature (Li, Chan, Chung, & Chui, 2010; Veselska et al., 2010) in which low self-esteem acted as an indicator of susceptibility to psychological distress. Thus, the present study findings demonstrated that the father  adolescent interaction in the microsystem influenced the adolescents’ psychological outcomes. Consistent with the notion of human ecological theory, the study underscored that the interaction within the family ecosystem influenced adolescents’ psychological well-being (i.e. self-esteem and psychological health). Additionally, invariance test was performed to investigate whether the structural model of the study was different between male and female adolescents. In general, our results clearly revealed that the structural model of the study was different between male and female adolescents. This finding is in contrast to past studies (Uji, Sakamoto, Adachi, & Kitamura, 2013). Results suggested that female adolescents who received high warmth from their fathers had higher levels of self-esteem than their counterparts. On the other hand, male adolescents with higher levels of paternal harsh discipline tend to demonstrate poor levels of selfesteem compared to females. Additionally, male adolescents with high levels of paternal indigenous were © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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more engaged in high self-esteem than females. Finally, female adolescents who experienced higher levels of paternal harsh discipline and poor self-esteem were more vulnerable to psychological problems compared to males. Constraints and limitation are very common to all population sample survey. Although this study contributes to the body of knowledge of literature on paternal parenting behaviour and adolescents’ psychological well-being, it is not without limitations. First, this study used a self-report measurement in order to obtain adolescent’s information. Thus, the reliability of the information obtained depended solely on the honesty of the respondents. For this limitation, future research may use other methods such as interviewing adolescents’ fathers personally or let fathers answer the questionnaire on behalf of respondents in order to gain accurate information. Besides, this study was cross sectional in which sample was collected at one time and thus underlying interference cannot be determined. Hence, future study could be improved by conducting longitudinal method in order to obtain the level of paternal parenting behaviour since respondents were young until their adolescence stage and at the same time examine their level of psychological well-being.

REFERENCES Baharudin, R., Zulkefly, N. S. & Arshat, Z. (2012). Development of Malaysian Parenting Behaviour Inventory (Vol. MYR44000). Malaysia: Fundamental Research Grant Scheme. Benner, A. D., & Kim, S. Y. (2010). Understanding Chinese American adolescents' developmental outcomes: Insights from the family stress model. J Res Adolesc, 20(1), 1-12. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00629.x Berk, L. E. (2000). Child development (5th ed.). Needham Heights, MS: Allyn & Bacon. Boe, T., Sivertsen, B., Heiervang, E., Goodman, R., Lundervold, A. J., & Hysing, M. (2013). Socioeconomic status and child mental health: The role of parental emotional well-being and parenting practices. J Abnorm Child Psychol. doi: 10.1007/s10802-013-9818-9 Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with Amos: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis Group. Cabrera, N., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Bradley, B., Hofferth, S. & Lamb, M. (2000). Fatherhood in the 21st Century. Child Development, Millenium Issue, 71(1), 127-136. Carlson, M. J. (2006). Family structure, father involvement and adolescent behavioral outcomes. Journal of Marriage and Family. 68(1):137-154. Chen, J. J.-L., & Liu, X. (2011). The Mediating Role of Perceived Parental Warmth and Parental Punishment in the Psychological Well-Being of Children in Rural China. Social Indicators Research, 107(3), 483-508. doi: 10.1007/s11205-011-9859-9 Department of Statistics. (2008). Yearbook of Statistics Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Perangka. Dwairy, M., Achoui, M., Filus, A., Rezvan nia, P., Casullo, M. M., & Vohra, N. (2009). Parenting, mental health and culture: A fifth cross-cultural research on parenting and psychological adjustment of children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(1), 36-41. doi: 10.1007/s10826-009-9340-4 Goldberg, S. (1978). Prematurity: Effects on parent- infant interaction. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 3, 137144. Gonzales, N. A., Coxe, S., Roosa, M. W., White, R. M., Knight, G. P., Zeiders, K. H., & Saenz, D. (2011). Economic hardship, neighborhood context, and parenting: prospective effects on Mexican-American adolescent's mental health. Am J Community Psychol, 47(1-2), 98-113. doi: 10.1007/s10464-0109366-1 Grunwald, H. E., Lockwood, B., Harris, P. W., & Mennis, J. (2010). Influences of neighborhood context, individual history and parenting behavior on recidivism among juvenile offenders. J Youth Adolesc, 39(9), 10671079. doi: 10.1007/s10964-010-9518-5 Hair, J. F. J., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Haniff, H. (2011). On Agenda Item 27 B: Social Development, Including Questions Relating To The World Social Situation And To Youth, Ageing, Disabled Persons And The Family: Meeting Devoted To The Launch Of The International Year Of Cooperatives 2012. New York: 66th Session of The United Nations General Assembly Hsien-Jin, T., W.P. Jun, and C.S. Kuan. (2010). Malaysian Youth Mental Health and Well- Being Survey. Available from: http://www.ippbm.gov.my/v2/index.php?option =com_rubberdoc& view=category&id=40&Item id=46&lang=bm. Jafari, M., Baharudin, R., & Archer, M. (2013). Fathers' Parenting Behaviors and Malaysian Adolescents' Anxiety: Family Income as a Moderator. Journal of Family Issues. doi: 10.1177/0192513x13513580 Kane P, Garber J. (2004. The relations among depression in fathers, children’s psychopathology, and fatherchild conflict: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review. 24, 339–360. Li, H. C., Chan, S. L., Chung, O. K., & Chui, M. L. (2010). Relationships among mental health, self-esteem and © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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physical health in Chinese adolescents: an exploratory study. J Health Psychol, 15(1), 96-106. doi: 10.1177/1359105309342601 Maccoby, E. E. (2000). Parenting and its effects on children: On reading and misreading behavior genetics. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 1–27. Majdandzic, M., Moller, E. L., de Vente, W., Bogels, S. M., & van den Boom, D. C. (2014). Fathers' challenging parenting behavior prevents social anxiety development in their 4-year-old children: a longitudinal observational study. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 42(2), 301-310. doi: 10.1007/s10802-013-9774-4 Maljaars, J., Boonen, H., Lambrechts, G., Van Leeuwen, K., & Noens, I. (2014). Maternal parenting behavior and child behavior problems in families of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord, 44(3), 501-512. doi: 10.1007/s10803-013-1894-8 Marsiglio, W., & Cohan, M. (2000). Contextualizing father involvement and paternal influence: Sociological and qualitative themes. Marriage and Family Review, 29, 75-95. Maurizi, L. K., Gershoff, E. T., & Aber, J. L. (2012). Item-Level Discordance in Parent and Adolescent Reports of Parenting Behavior and Its Implications for Adolescents’ Mental Health and Relationships with Their Parents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(8), 1035-1052. doi: 10.1007/s10964-011-9741-8 Ministry of Health Malaysia. (2008). Malaysia's Health. Malaysia, Health Informatics Centre. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Saleh, M. F., & Hilton, J. M. (2010). A Comparison of the Paternal Involvement of Low-Income Fathers in Four Developmental Stages: Adolescence, Young Adult, Adult, and Midlife. The Family Journal, 19(1), 4755. doi: 10.1177/1066480710387496 Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. The 3rd National and Health Morbidity Survey. (2006). Mental health status of Malaysians. Development of Human Resources in Rural Areas. [Updated 1 December 2008, cited 20 November 2010.] Uji, M., Sakamoto, A., Adachi, K., & Kitamura, T. (2013). The Impact of Authoritative, Authoritarian, and Permissive Parenting Styles on Children’s Later Mental Health in Japan: Focusing on Parent and Child Gender. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23(2), 293-302. doi: 10.1007/s10826-013-9740-3 Veselska, Z., Madarasova Geckova, A., Gajdosova, B., Orosova, O., van Dijk, J. P., & Reijneveld, S. A. (2010). Socioeconomic differences in self-esteem of adolescents influenced by personality, mental health and social support. Eur J Public Health, 20(6), 647-652. doi: 10.1093/eurpub/ckp210 Viner RM, Ozer EM, Denny S, Marmot M, Resnick M, Fatusi A, Currie C. (2012). Adolescence and the social determinants of health. Lancet. 379(9826):1641-52. Apr 28. Williams, S. K., & Kelly, F. D. (2005). Relationships among involvement, attachment, and behavioral problems in adolescence: Examining father’s influence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 168-196. Yap, S. T., Baharudin, R., Yaacob, S., & Osman, S. (2013). Paternal and Maternal Involvement in Malaysian Adolescents: Test of Factor Structure, Measurement Invariance and Latent Mean Differences. Child Indicators Research, 7(1), 193-208. doi: 10.1007/s12187-013-9209-3

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EXPLORING EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCES DURING HAJJ: THE ROLE OF SOCIAL INTERACTIONS Intan Hashimah M. Hashim*, Zulkarnain A. Hatta & Noraida Abdul Ghani *[email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia Nor Diana Mohd. Mahudin & Shukran Abdul Rahman International Islamic University Zarina Mat Saad Universiti Utara Malaysia Jasni Sulong, Zhooriyati Sehu Mohd. & Salahuddien Ayob Universiti Sains Malaysia Mohamad Arif Shuib International Islamic University Nurulhuda Ramli Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract This paper discusses how emotional experiences can be influenced by the social interactions during a spiritual context of Hajj. One of the components of emotion is the triggering events and the interpretation of the triggering events. This paper focuses on potential triggering events related to social interactions in the context of Hajj and debates on potential appraisals that are likely to be associated with these events. It can be argued that these ‘social’ events and appraisals associated with the events are likely to influence emotional experiences during Hajj. Dividing ‘social’ events into interactions in private and public spaces, this paper explores potential emotions in terms of types and intensity that can be elicited by each one of these events. This discussion is important to provide the background for any empirical studies on emotional experiences during Hajj. Keywords: emotions, Hajj, social interactions, spiritual, events

INTRODUCTION Hajj refers to one of the major rituals in Islam where millions of Muslims travel to Mecca every year to perform various complicated spiritual tasks together with thousands of others and over an extended period of time that range from 30 to 40 days. During this journey, people performing Hajj (hujjaj) interact with many others. This set of “temporary” social network may comprise of both private and highly personal relationships and public, impersonal and casual relationships. These relationships on the other hand can be sources of social events during the confined period of Hajj. More specifically, social events can be in the form of both positive (e.g. giving directions) and negative (e.g. shoving while walking) that in turn can be appraised positively (e.g. Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

communicating support) or negatively (e.g. threatening behaviour). Both events and appraisals can in turn elicit either positive or negative emotions thus shaping the major part of the emotional experience of hujjaj. This study explores the “temporary” social network associated with Hajj, the social exchanges in the form of social events and the appraisal of the events and the emotions as elicited by these exchanges. This provides important background for further and more comprehensive investigation of people’s emotional experiences during Hajj. Social relationships around an individual are generally referred to as social networks (Umberson & Montex, 2010). They particularly represent a set of social relationships surrounding an individual and describe specific types and strength of each type of the relationship. In this study, social network of the hujjaj can be considered as the “temporary” social network as existed during the journey. For example people going for Hajj will have family and friends they left behind but still in contact with via some kind of communication medium (e.g. telephone, FB, e-mails, whatsapp). Many of hujjaj travel with family and friends to Hajj. These people represent another category in their social network of family and friends travelling together to Mekah. These two groups together represent the more personal and intimate relationships of the hujjaj. On the other hand, there are more public and casual and less personal relationships. These include people travelling together with the hujjaj in that trip, other hujjaj who may not be travelling together but are still in close contact with especially at the mosque and during Hajj activities like tawaf and saie. Hajj operator especially mutowwif (guidance) represents another sources of social interactions. Many times, hujjaj have to deal closely with mutowwif and rely on them for information and support. Some social interactions in public spaces occur with services providers including hotel operators (e.g.cleaners, bellboys) and caterers. Sales person and guards at the mosque represent another group. This brings us to the question of who are the people representing the personal and intimate relationships and who are the people representing the impersonal and casual relationships in the so-called contemporary network of the Hujjaj? This study/paper firstly explores this. Social events can be both positive and negative depending on the appraisal associated with the events. Drawing upon literature on emotions, two main components of emotion are the triggering events and the interpretation of the triggering events (Frijda, 1986). This paper/study focuses on potential triggering events related to social interactions in the context of Hajj and explores on potential appraisals that are likely to be associated with these events. From the literature, there are four domains of positive exchanges i.e. companionship, emotional support, informational support and instrumental support whereas for parallel negative domain of negative exchanges are rejection/neglect, unsympathetic/insensitive behaviour, unwanted advice and failure to provide help (Liu & Rook, 2013). In the context of this study, these exchanges are viewed as part of the appraisal and not the event. For instance an event may be “someone giving direction” and the appraisal of this event will be “informational support”. These social events and appraisals all form social exchanges that occur between hujjaj and the people in their social networks that in turn affect their emotional experience. Emotions on the other hand, can be defined as complex organizations with different components. Current approach to studying emotion differentiates between these two categories; positive vs. negative emotions (Hashim, et al, 2013). According to Lazarus (1993), emotions can generally be divided into a set of positive emotions like happiness and calm and a set of negative emotions like anger, frustation and sadness. During a spiritual journey such as Hajj, emotions are likely to be influenced by various factors include situational and personal. This study focuses on the social events as occuring between hujjaj and other people in their relationships during Hajj and how these social events can influence emotional experiences. The main source of the analysis in this study is provided by 10 preliminary and explorative interviews with people who have performed their Hajj. Since this study is explorative in nature, identification of the sampling was mainly based on convenient sampling (the interviewer approached 10 persons known to have already performed their Hajj) and the questions focused around: a. Temporary social network during Hajj b. Nature of social events/interactions/exchanges during Hajj c. Appraisals and emotions elicited by the social events/interactions/exchanges during Hajj

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METHOD Participants and Procedure Ten persons who have performed their Hajj were interviewed either face to face or by telephone (see Table 1). They have been identified via convenient sampling. Five were females and 5 were males. Their age ranged from 33 to 72. In the case when Hajj was performed more than 10 years ago, respondents recently went back to Mekah for Umrah recently. Table 1 - Descriptive of Respondents

Number

Age

Sex

Year Peforming Hajj

Respondent 1

40 year old

Female

2005

Respondent 2

51 year old

Female

2013

Respondent 3

72 year old

Male

1994

Respondent 4

33 year old

Male

2013

Respondent 5

54 year old

Male

2013

Respondent 6

51 year old

Female

1978

Respondent 7

45 year old

Female

2010

Respondent 8

46 year old.

Male

2005

Respondent 9

53 year old

Female

2013

Respondent 10

56 year old

Male

2010

Interview questions focused around: a. b. c. d. e.

Age Year performing Hajj Social network Social events and appraisals Emotions elicited by social events and appraisals

ANALYSIS Temporary Social Network During Hajj Table 2 - Descriptions of sources of social network

Intimate and personal relationships

Families and friends left behind Families and friends travelling together

In between sources of social network

Other hujjaj travelling together Mutowwif

Casual and impersonal sources of social network

Other jemaah (Malaysians vs. non Malaysians) Hotel operators Guards at the mosque Salesperson

From the response and as expected, the two major sources of personal and intimate social interactions were friends and families. Depending on their age, some left behind parents, some left behind children and some left behind both parents and children. For parents leaving behind children, they were more likely to stay with touch with them using various mediums of communication including telephones and electronic messages. For people leaving behind friends, communication occurred less frequently and only when it was convenient to contact.

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Hujjaj also interacted closely with family and friends travelling with them. They went together for most activities including tawaf, saie, prayer and eating. Many shared the same room with family and friends travelling with them There is another category that represents a more dynamic group. It is dynamic in a way that it it changed from casual relationships to become more personal and intimate. This group represent the people hujjaj travelled closely together with and how these relationships turned closer over the period of Hajj. Many respondents described these types of relationships. The other major relationship is the mutowwif travelling with hujjaj. All respondents reported being assigned to a mutowwif and they relied on mutowwif for important information especially related to travel and the ritual they need to perform during Hajj. Other jemaah represents another important part of the temporary social network of hujjaj. They include other jemaah from Malaysia and other jemaah outside Malaysia. Interactions mainly occurred at the mosques and during important Hajj rituals. The more casual, very fleeting form of “relationships” occurred with other people including the service providers such as cleaner and bellboys and salesperson. Hujjaj also reported coming in contact with guards.

Categories of Social Events - Positive and Negative Events and Appraisal From the explorative interviews, events can be categorised into the following categories and appraisals. The events are also specific to sources. However, it is important to note that respondents reported generally positive events that negative events. Negative social exchanges during Hajj have another elements i.e. threatening behaviour of others. Table 3 : Sources of network, event and appraisals

Exchanges

Sources of network

Events

Appraisal

Positive social exchanges

• Families and friends travelling together • Other hujjaj travelling together

• Going together to the mosque • Going together for meals and shopping • Going together to trips

• Companionship

• Families and friends travelling together

• Caring when sick • Taking you to the mosque • Caring for others

• Emotional support

• Families and friends travelling together • Other hujjaj travelling together • Mutowwif

• Correcting ways of doing rituals • Giving directions

• Informational support

• Families and friends travelling together • Other hujjaj travelling together • Other jemaah

• Giving way • Waiting on the lift for you

• Instrumental support

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Exchanges Negative social exchanges

Sources of network

Events

Appraisal

• Families and friends travelling together

• Leaving your behind

• Rejection/neglect,

• Families and friends travelling together

• Ignoring when you are sick

• Unsympathetic/ insensitive behaviour

• Other jemaah

• (Strangers) correcting ways of doing rituals • Wrong information

• Unwanted advice

• Families and friends travelling together

• Not taking you to mosque when you wanted

• Failure to provide help

• Other jemaah • Guards • Salesperson

• Pushing around the mosque during crowding situations • Aggresive behaviour (of the guards and the sales person)

• Threatening behaviour

Table 4 - Sources of network, event and appraisals and categories of emotions

Appraisal

Emotions associated with events

Exchanges

Sources of network

Events

Positive social exchanges

• Families and friends travelling together • Other hujjaj travelling together

• Going together to the mosque • Going together for meals and shopping • Going together to trips

• Companionship

• Happy

• Families and friends travelling together

• Caring when sick • Taking you to the mosque • Caring for others

• Emotional support

• Content

• Families and friends travelling together • Other hujjaj travelling together • Mutowwif

• Correcting ways of doing rituals • Giving directions

• Informational support

• Happy

• Families and friends travelling together • Other hujjaj travelling together • Other jemaah

• Giving way • Waiting on the lift for you

• Instrumental support

• Content

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Exchanges Negative social exchanges

Sources of network

Events

Appraisal

Emotions associated with events

• Families and friends travelling together

• Leaving your behind

• Rejection/neglect,

• Sad

• Families and friends travelling together

• Ignoring when you are sick

• Unsympathetic/ insensitive behaviour

• Angry

• Other jemaah

• (Strangers) correcting ways of doing rituals • Wrong information

• Unwanted advice

• Irritated

• Families and friends travelling together

• Not taking you to mosque when you wanted

• Failure to provide help

• Angry/sad

• Other jemaah • Guards • Salesperson

• Pushing around the mosque during crowding situations • Aggresive behaviour (of the guards and the sales person)

• Threatening behaviour

•

Angry

From the explorative interviews, emotions associated with the particular social events can be divided into the above categories. Positive social exchanges generally associated with positive emotions and vice versa.

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION The above analyses highlight several important points. Firstly, hujjaj’s social network, although temporary in nature but represents a complex and dynamic relationships. Particularly dynamic is the relationships hujjaj formed with other people travelling together and how the period of Hajj allows for these newly found friendships to develop and strengthen. Secondly, these social networks can be sources of various social events that can have different appraisals and can be both positive or negatives. Although more positive events were reported, the impact of relatively rare but still occuring negative events cannot be underestimated. It is important to understand the whole dynamic of both positive and negative events. Thirdly, events affect emotions in that negative events elicited negative emotions and positive events elicited positive emotions. However, since positive events occurred more frequently, it can be concluded (with caution) that social network of hujjaj provides more positive exchanges and therefore should be fostered and encouraged to ensure more positive experience for Hajj.

CONCLUSION This paper/study highlights the importance of looking into social aspects of hujjaj’s experience during Hajj that can give better understanding about the whole Hajj’s experience. Clearly, further and more comprehensive studies need to be conducted to fully capture how emotional experience of hujjaj is influenced by the social events, especially as elicited from their “temporary” social network.

REFERENCES Frijda, N. H. (1986). The emotions. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Intan, H. M. Hashim, Zulkarnain, A. H., Noraida, A. G., Nor Diana, M., Shukran, A. R., Zarina, M. S., Jasni, S., Zhooriyati, S. M., Salahuddien, A., and Mohamad, A. S. (2013). The dynamics of emotion at crowded places during Umrah: A qualitative study. Proceedings of 5th National Seminar on Hajj Best Practices on Crowd & Health Issues. Pulau Pinang, Malaysia: Hajj Research Cluster. Kalat. J.W., & Shiota, M. N. (2007). Emotion. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth/Vicki Knight Publishing. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press. Lazarus, R. S. (1993). Why we should think of stress as a subset of emotion. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Ed), Handbook of Stress Theoritical and Clinical Aspects. New York: The Free Press A Division Of Macmillan, Inc. Liu, S.B. & Rook, K.S. (2013) Emotional and social loneliness in later life: Associations with positive versus negative social exchanges. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 30 (6) 813-832. Rosenberg, E. L. (1998). Levels of analysis and the organization of effects. Review of General Psychology, 2, 247-270. Umberson, D.& Montez, J.K. (2010) Social relationships and health. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 51 (1) 554-566.

Funding This research was supported by Long-term Research Grant Scheme (LRGS) from Ministry of Education, Malaysia.

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2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

REVIEWING RESEARCH ON FLOW IN SCHOOL SETTING Kee Chong Wei* & Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim *[email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract Flow refers to a psychological state in which people are undergoing optimal experience during a particular activity. Specifically, people who experience flow are happy, cognitively efficient, and motivated at the same time. The concept of flow has begun to be widely applied in school setting ever since it was established. However, limited work has focused on systematic review of the current trend of the literature. The aim of this paper is to review published studies on flow within the school setting. A total number of 233 research studies including journals, journal’s articles, dissertations, and books that are related to flow has been reported in various academic databases. Various research studies that are related to flow in school setting have been reviewed to understand the contemporary trend. In depth discussion on specific academic exercises (e.g., writing, reading, and teaching) has been selected as one of the major focuses in this review. The limitations in term of research development of flow in school setting are also discussed. Keywords: Optimal performance, pedagogy of flow, experience sampling method

INTRODUCTION The idea of flow as a psychological construct was first introduced by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi in the late seventies during his studies on the creative process (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). It refers to a psychological state where people are experiencing optimal performance in activities that they are engaged on. For more than 40 years, researches on flow have been focusing on a series of related questions that range from “what makes people repeatedly involve themselves in activities without any external reward” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) to “what are the quality experiences in flow” and “what are the conditions of flow” (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). Today, the study of flow has become one of the major focuses in psychology to promote good life (see, Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

WHAT IS FLOW? How do we know when flow occurs? According to Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi (2002), there are nine dimensions of flow that can be distinguished into two different types. First, there are six experiential of flow. In flow, people feel that they are concentrated and merging into action and awareness (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Earlier studies described it as a stage of cognitive efficiency (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984). In flow, people felt in controlled without worry or boredom nor anxiety (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). When the level of intensity of flow increases, people will also experience loss of reflective self-consciousness and even altered sense of time (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). The flow experience often described as an autotelic experience (Asakawa, 2004). It is an experience where people are intrinsically motivated to repeat back the activity because of the enjoyment that one’s can discover inside that particular activity. On the other hand, the conditions of flow refer to the requirement that needed to produce flow experience. The Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

balance between perceived challenge and skill of the main activity has been used as a guideline to determine whether one is experiencing flow (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). It has been applied to categorize flow experience into four quadrants (e.g., Asakawa, 2004; Bassi & DelleFave, 2004). According to Massimini and Carli (1988), flow quadrant refers to circumstance where both perceived challenge and skill are high. Boredom quadrant refers to circumstance where one’s perceived skill is higher than his or her perceived challenge. Anxiety happens when one’s perceived skill is lower than the challenges of the activity. Last but not least, one’s is most likely to experiences apathy when both perceived challenge and skill are in low level. Having series of clear goals and immediate feedback on the task on hand have also seen as one of the conditions to produce flow experience (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002).

WHY DOES FLOW MATTER IN SCHOOL SETTING? Why do we need to promote flow in school setting? Several antecedents yielded behind this need. Perhaps most importantly is that flow is an optimal experience in human functionary. The optimal experience leads to better quality of experiences. A study in Japanese sample showed that adolescents who experience flow reported feeling happier, concentrated better, experienced more enjoyment, and feeling more in control of the activity (Asakawa, 2004). Additionally, similar results were found in the western sample (see, Schmidt, Shernoff, and Csikszentmihalyi, 2007). The autotelic experience on the other hand served as a conditioned stimulus that motivated one’s to maintain inside the activity. It produced a sense of rewarded and motivation behind the performance of activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Ergo, experiences of flow have served as a positive stimulation in learning that involves emotion, cognitive, and motivational aspects (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984). The conditions of flow are systematic procedure that guide people to improve their quality of experience, specifically in learning. To match one’s action of capabilities to their action of opportunities is an important prerequisite of flow experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). A study of 89 undergraduate students showed that skills and demands compatibility is vital as a determinant of flow experience in an inductive reasoning task (Schiefele & Raabe, 2011). In particular, concentration and activation were affected by the difficulty of the tasks. On the other hand, Kawabata and Mallett (2011) who recruited a total number of 1048 Japanese sample attempted to study flow experience in physical activity. The empirical examination of higher order confirmatory factor model showed that the proximal conditions of flow, namely the balance of challenge and skill and have a series of clear goals are vital to helps one to enter the flow state. Both examples of the studies above showed similar proximal conditions regardless whether it is a cognitive task or a physical activity. Therefore, the conditions of flow can be used to demonstrate as a systematic guideline that allows people to uplift their capabilities in order to excel in an activity. Ultimately, it also enhances the quality experiences of the activity (Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde, 1993). The concept of flow has begun to be widely applied in school setting ever since it was established (Shernoff, Csikszentmihalyi, Schneider, & Shernoff, 2003). However, limited studies have focused on a systematic review of the current of trend of the literature (Miles, 2012). By interpreting why it is important from the perspectives of experiences and conditions of flow, it reflected that how flow is essential in term of learning. Thus, the goals of this article review will focuses on flow in school setting. In particular, we are concerned about (1) the trend of flow in school setting and (2) academic exercises that have been involved flow.

RATIONAL AND METHOD OF REVIEW The researches of flow begun in year 1974. Today, there are a total number of 1,567 sources available in various academic databases. In particular, there are 1,246 of academic journals, 69 of dissertations, 58 of books, 42 of reviews and 25 of magazines showed in EBSCO database with the keywords of “Flow” AND “Optimal Experience” (see, Table 1.). The selection of studies in this review is not random. EBSCO database has been selected as our primary search engine because of the richness and availability of other academic databases within the search engine itself. Moreover, other academic database such as ProQuest, Science Direct, JSTOR, Scopus, and Sage are also included to search for resources.

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Table 1 - Source types and number retrieved from EBSCO database on 27th of May 2014 with the keywords of “Flow” AND “Optimal Experience”

Source Types

Number(s)

Academic journals

1246

Dissertations

69

Books

58

Reviews

42

Magazines

25

Other(s)

127

Total

1567

The exploration over 1576 researches and studies has indeed revealed that only limited studies that studied on flow in school setting. In particular, there are only a number of 233 sources found when we further narrow down our keywords to “Flow” AND “Optimal Experience” AND “Education”. A selected classification of flow in education is shows in Table 2. Table 2. Selected classifications of flow in educational retrieved from EBSCO database on 27th of May 2014 with the keywords of “Flow” AND “Optimal Experience” AND “Education”

Classifications

Number(s)

Educational psychology and educational measurement

10

Academic learning and achievement

7

Curriculum, programs, and teaching methods

4

Classroom dynamics, student adjustment and attitudes

2

Cognitive and perceptual developments

2

Gifted and talented

1

Total

26

TREND OF FLOW IN SCHOOL SETTINGS The primary root of studying flow in school setting was mainly aimed to understand how students spend their time during the school day or after and what make them engaged. In particular, Experience Sampling Method (ESM) has been widely applied to study the experience of flow with the contextual, perceptual and also personal factors of school settings (see, Hektner, Schmidt, & Csikszentmihalyi, 2007). The ESM has high ecological validity that enable researcher to understand how the external environments such as time, daily activity, and companions play the role on the perceptual and quality of experience or vice versa (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1987). Several studies have showed the application of ESM in subjective experience such as flow. Using the longitudinal sample of 526 high school students, Shernoff and his colleague (2003) have found that students were reported more engaged in individual and group works compared to listening to lectures, taking notes, and doing homework or studying. In particular, activities that are academically intense and foster positive emotions stand the best chance of engaging students. Moreover, ESM also allows researchers to perform statistical analysis in both interpersonal as well as intrapersonal comparisons in the quality of daily experience across times and situations. For instance, Johnson (2004) has demonstrated a comparative analysis of nontraditional and traditional schools in his dissertation. Specifically, one of the major distinctions between the two types of schools was that nontraditional school students tend to spend time on school related extracurricular activity while traditional school students spent most of their time on schoolwork inside of class. The study of flow is not only concerned with the experience of flow but more importantly with how the contextual factors that would play a role in a reciprocal manner. Quality of experience is a synonym of flow. The theory of flow is one of the least theoretical perspectives that managed to explain the affective, cognitive and motivational components simultaneously (Csikszentmihalyi, Larson & Prescott, 1977). As flow has been defined as a psychological construct that involves feeling of happiness, positive enjoyment, intense of concentration, and intrinsic motivation, the tread of flow in school

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setting had utilized it to understand the internal state of experiences in school settings (Schweinle, Meyer, & Turner, 2006). In particular, the study of Schweinle and her colleagues (2006) attempted to discover how student motivational constructs were related to affective components, specifically in mathematic classes. The results suggest that balance of challenge and skill, self-efficacy, value for mathematics, and fostering positive affect can lead to better motivation in mathematic classroom. However, there is a shift in how schools are being viewed. Pazzanese (2014) who has wrote about the current issue on education in Harvard Gazette highlighted that classrooms of future should be more dynamic and emphasize more on practice-based learning. Students should learn by being engaged in a collaborative, teambased experience. Instead of studying flow that occurred in individual manner, Armstrong (2008) illustrated a study to explore the nature of experience of group flow in mathematic classes. In particular, group flow is defined as a collective state that occurs when a group is performing at the optimal level of its abilities. The findings suggested that meaningful feedback is important in order for group flow to occur. Nevertheless, group flow will more arduous to happen when one member has taken the expert role thus consequently leading other members within the group. This finding suggests that members of the group may have to decentralize in order to foster group flow. In Malaysia, there are only a small number of studies regarding flow have been conducted. First, Habibah, Sharifah Muzlia, Samsilah, and Sidek (2010) have examined the potential relationship between flow and motivational forces among secondary school students. In specific, only future time perspective and selfdetermination are one of the motivational forces that significantly predicting flow. Moreover, there is another study that explored the relationship between achievement need and flow in high school student (Sharifan Muzlia. Habibah, Samsilah, & Sidek, 2011). The results suggested that parents and teachers have the responsible to highlight achievement need motivation to promote flow when performing academic related task. Although there are efforts that have been investigated on flow in Malaysia, several shortfall of current research needed to be highlighted. First, both studies are actually using preliminary data that only consists of 94 samples size in their study. Ergo, further analysis with larger sample is needed. Second, the study has measured flow in school setting in relatively general manner. Students might face ambiguity that consequent them hard to image and recall their experiences of flow for the passed moments. Enhanced research methodology shall be applied to improve future studies.

FLOW AND ACADEMIC EXERCISES On the other perspective, flow in school settings has also focused on more specific domains and disciplines. Several research studies have narrowed down to the aims of their research to specific academic exercise. The academic exercises in this review refer to writing, reading and teaching in school setting. There are 4 studies has been selected in this review.

Writing The first study of in this review is from Abbott (2000), who studied about flow experience in writing. The primary objective of the study was to interpret the intrinsic motivation for writing and how flow experiences was associated with writing. The qualitative analysis was employed. Data for the study drew from several sources including various interviews (i.e., the children, child-designated teacher), children’s texts, notes of the informal conversations, contextual circumstances during scheduled visits, and demographic and academic achievement data. The result showed that two boys were identified an avid writers, experienced a sense of flow when they engaged to self-determined interests activity (i.e., writing). At personal level, autonomy-supportive environment and the degree of perceived choice of individual was critical in promoting flow experience in writing. In term of social context, classroom influenced engagement in writing. Last but not least, this study had also reported that intrinsic motivation was associated with writing.

Reading On the others hand, there were also researches that have been done in other academic areas such as reading. Robinsion (2010) had conducted his research to address his concerns on what will motivate English language learners, and why is it difficult for them to find motivation to engage in reading. By using qualitative research design, a total of 10 formal interviews were conducted and several factors had been uncovered. Firstly, type and selection of comprehension tasks showed as a significant motivator to engage in reading. Secondly, family and importance of grades had been seen as one of the factors that will helps English language learners to sustaining motivation to reading. Finally, this study also revealed that educators and read-aloud were the third factor discovered as an essential element in learners’ engagement in the reading material. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Moreover, Miles (2012) who had recently published her doctoral dissertation aimed to study the optimal experience of adolescent literacy that involved independent reading. Twenty-three high school freshmen students had participated in this research, ergo several antecedents of flow had been identified. First, the antecedents of flow in independent reading were predominantly themes of interest and the importance of isolation in aiding concentration. This study has also further explained the characteristics of flow by using the word “telepresence” to indicate the situation whereby beginning flow in book is as being “sucked into that world” and finishing a book as being “ripped out of the book”.

Teaching While the above studies have all focused on students, Hood (2007) had decided to demonstrate a study that reviews a different group of sample. The study conducted by Hood (2007) was to determine the factors that teacher used to reach flow when teaching reading. Hence, he was concerned about what are the factors that define and measure flow among reading teachers and how these factors relate with the demographic information. By using cross-sectional survey, stratified random sampling method was demonstrated and a total number of 526 responses were returned. This study had concluded that factors that teacher used to reach flow were through (1) reward through challenges and requisite skills, (2) focused on the reader(s), (3) guided by the reader(s) through an awareness and competence, and (4) suspended in the teaching zone with the reader(s).

LIMITATIONS OF EXISTING LITERATURES Although the theory of flow has been widely studied across variety of fields, such as in the music (Custodero, 2010), sports (Woran & Arnberger, 2012), gaming (Admiraal, Huizenga, Akkerman, & Dam, 2011; Kara & Cagiltay, 2013), industry and organization (Chu & Lee, 2012; Rupayana, 2008), there are very few studies that have been done in school setting, specifically in academic exercises. For expansive purposes to fill the gap of flow theory in literacy, further exploratory research needs to be done. While research in flow begun to develop dramatically from year to year, one of the shortfalls in this area is that most of the studies were done in targeted gifted population samples (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Rathunde, 1996). Schweinle and her colleague (2006) had pointed out that majority researches of flow in school setting were based on the samples of targeted talented students who were engaged in their gifted areas. Therefore, research on flow should focus more on general population sample in order to gain more understanding among ordinary group of students. As most of the researches in flow were conducted in Western population samples, there is a shortage of Eastern population samples in this area (Asakawa, 2004). There is a need of research in this area. Culture is likely to influence how people experience flow, particular how people view skills and challenges. In line with the research of flow, ESM can be considered as one of the methods to collect information pertaining flow experience. In specific, researches can places more concern on how contextual, perceptual, and individual factors influence the quality of experience in comparison to Western population.

CONCLUSION Flow is a psychological state in which people experience positive affection, better cognitive functioning, and become intrinsically motivated. The conditions of flow have seen as a yardstick of progress that uplifting one’s existing skills. The experiences of flow other the other hand, have seen as optimal experience of learning that will produce greater experience. In Malaysia, the concept of flow is still new. Therefore, efforts in term of empirical testing are needed to investigate the adequacy of flow theory. Practically, academicians could utilize information of this article reviews to apply implement planning in their own classroom setting. Moreover, future researcher shall address the limitations of existing literatures.

REFERENCES Abbot, J. A. (2000). “Blinking out” and “having the touch”: Two fifth-grade boys talk about flow experiences in writing. Written Communication, 17(1), 53-92. doi: 10.1177/0741088300017001003. Admiraal, W., Huizenga, J., Akkerman, S., & Dam, G, T. (2011). The concept of flow in collaborative game-based learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 1185-1194. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2010.12.013. Armstrong, A. C. (2008). The fragility of group flow: The experience of two small groups in a middle school mathematics classroom. Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 27, 101-115. doi: 10.1016/j. jmathb.2008.08.001. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Asakawa, K. (2004). Flow experience and autotelic personality in Japanese college students: How do they experience challenges in daily life? Journal of Happiness Studies, 5(2), 123-154. doi: 10.1023/B:JO HS.0000035915.97836.89. Bassi, M., & DelleFave, A. (2004). Adolescence and the changing context of optimal experience in time: Italy 1986-2000. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5(2), 155-179. doi:10.1023/B:JOHS.0000035914.66037.b5. Chu, L. C., & Lee, C. L. (2012). Exploring the impact of flow experience on job performance. The Journal of Global Business Management, 8(2), 150-158. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/13 12295493?accountid=14645. Custodero, L. A. (2010). Seeking challenge, finding skill: Flow experience and music education. Arts Education Policy Review, 103(3), 3-9. doi: 10.1080/10632910209600288. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Play and intrinsic rewards. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 15(3), 41-63. doi: 10.1177/0022168787501500306. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers, Inc. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass. (Original work published 1975). Csikszentmihalyi, M. & Larson, R. (1984). Being adolescent. Conflict and growth in the teenage years. New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc. Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Larson, R. (1987). Validity and reliability of the experience-sampling method. The Journal of nervous and mental disease, 175(9), 526-536. Csikszentmihalyi, M., Larson, R., & Prescott, S. (1977). The ecology of adolescent activity and experience. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 6(3), 281-294. doi: 10.1007/BF02138940. Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Rathunde, K. (1993). The measurement of flow in everyday life: Toward a theory of emergent motivation. In J. E. Jacobs (Eds.), Development perspectives on motivation (pp. 57-97). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Habibah. E., Sharifah Muzlia, S. M., Samsilah, R., & Sidek. M. N (2010). Examining potential relationships between flow and motivational forces in Malaysian secondary school students. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 2042-2046. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.443. Hektner, J. M., Schmidt, J. A., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2007). Experience sampling method: Measuring the quality of everyday life. United State: Sage Publications, Inc. Hood, M. S. (2007). A description of the relationship of flow theory and effective teaching of reading. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304853027?accountid=14645. (304853027). Johnson, L. S. (2004). Academic engagement from the perspective of flow theory: A comparative analysis of nontraditional and traditional schools. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://search.proquest. com/docview/305135831?accountid=14645. (305135831) Kara, N., & Cagiltay, K. (2013). Flow experience of adolescents in terms of internet cafe environment and computer game play characteristics. Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences, 89, 298- 307. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.850. Kawabata, M., & Mallett, C. J. (2011). Flow experience in physical activity: Examination of the internal structure of flow from a process-related perspective. Motivation and Emotion, 35, 393-402. doi: 10.1007/ s11031-011-9221-1. Massimini, F., & Carli, M. (1988). The systematic assessment of flow in daily experience. In M. Csikszentmihalyi & I. S. Csikszentmihalyi (Eds.), Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness (pp. 266-287). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Miles, S. E. (2012). In the flow: A mixed-methods phenomenological study of optimal experience in adolescent literacy. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1114553864?ac countid=14645. (1114553864). Moneta, G. B., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). The effect of perceived challenges and skills on the quality of subjective experience. Journal of Personality, 64(2), 274-310. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00512.x. Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). The concept of flow. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 89-105). New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://myweb. stedwards.edu/michaelo/2349/paper1/ConceptOfFlow.pdf. Pazzanese, C. (2014, May 26). Sea of change in technology: Education. Beyond The Horizon. Retrieved from http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/beyond-the-horizon/education/. Robinsion, J. L. (2010). English language learners’ motivation to engage in reading. (Doctoral dissertation) Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/756252303?accountid=14645. (756252303). Rathunde, K. (1996). Family context and talented adolescents’ optimal experience in school-related activities. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 6(4), 605-628. Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ534648). Schiefele, U., & Raabe, A. (2011). Skill-demands compatibility as a determinant of flow experience in an inductive reasoning task. Psychological Reports, 109(2), 428-444. doi: 10.2466/04.22.PR0.109.5.428-444.

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Schmidt, J. A., Shernoff, D. J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2007). Individual and situational factors related to the experience of flow in adolescence. In A. D. Ong & M. H. M. Van Dulmen (Eds.), Oxford handbook of methods in positive psychology. (pp. 542-558). New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from: http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~shernoff/schmidtisf.pdf. Schweinle, A., Meyer, D. K., & Turner, J. C. (2006). Striking the right balance: Students’ motivation and affect in elementary mathematics. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(5), 271-293. doi: 10.3200/ JOER.99.5.271-294. Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychological Association, 55(1), 5-14. doi: 10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.5. Sharifan Muzlia. S. M., Habibah, E., Samsilah, R., & Sidek, M. N. (2011). Exploring the relationship between achievement need and flow in high school students. Journal of Education and Practice, 2(2), 40-49. Retrieved from http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/article/viewFile/127/7. Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Schneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. Schol Psychology Quarterly, 18(2), 158-176. Retrieved from http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~shernoff/pdf/shernoff.spq.pdf Woran, B., & Arnberger, A. (2012). Exploring relationship between recreation specialization, restorative environments and mountain hikers’ flow experience. Leisure Science, 34, 95-114. doi: 10.1080/01490400.2012.652502.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

A COMPARISON OF SAME-ETHNICITY AND CROSSETHNICITY FRIENDSHIP QUALITY OF ADOLESCENTS IN VIETNAM Le To-Do-Quyen* & Norzarina Mohd-Zaharim *[email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia Huynh Van-Son Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Vietnam

Abstract The present study explored the differences of same-ethnicity and cross-ethnicity friendship quality of adolescents in Vietnam. Participants were 200 ethnic majority students and 200 ethnic minority students from two public high schools in DakLak, Vietnam. The participants answered the McGill Friendship Questionnaire-Respondent's Affection (MFQRA). Adolescents from ethnic majority and minority groups did not show any significant differences for same-ethnicity friendship quality, but for the cross-ethnicity friendship quality, adolescents from ethnic minority groups reported significantly higher “positive feelings for a friend” than adolescents from the ethnic majority group. In contrast, there were significant differences between genders in same-ethnicity friendship quality but not in cross-ethnicity friendship quality with girls reporting significantly higher “positive feelings for a friend” and overall same-ethnicity friendship quality than boys. These findings are discussed vis-à-vis past research on intra- and inter-ethnic friendship and gender comparison in friendship. Keywords: Friendship quality, adolescents, ethnicity, gender, Vietnam

INTRODUCTION Friendship is a distinctively personal relationship characterized by intimacy and grounded by the concern of a person for the welfare and sake of the other. Friendship plays a central role of our lives, because one part of a broader set of concerns we have is the special concern for friends and because our friends can help shape who we are (Helm, 2005). As such, friendships have significant influences on the developmental, environmental, and social aspects of individuals across all cultures throughout their lifespan. Numerous studies have explored how friendship affects psychological well-being (Moore & Boldero, 1991; Parker & Asher, 1993; Thomas & Daubman, 2001; Waldrip, Malcolm, & Jensen-Campbell, 2008). Friendship quality can be considered as people’s “impression of the degree to which a given relationship meets specified needs ranging from the provision of opportunities for play and companionship to allowing intimate disclosure and exchange” (Nangle, Erdley, Newman, Mason, & Capenter, 2003, p. 547). Friendship quality is particularly important because it not only has direct effects on many aspects of children’s social development, including their self-esteem and social adjustment, but also has indirect effects on their attitudes and behaviors (Berndt, 2002). Most theorists perceive friendship quality as multidimensional, addressing both positive aspect (e.g., companionship, trust and support, disclosure, communication and validation, prosocial behavior, self-esteem support, intimacy, loyalty, etc.) and negative aspect (e.g., conflict and betrayal, dominance attempts, and rivalry) of the relationship (Berndt, 2002; Parker & Asher, 1993). Adolescents’ self-esteem and psychological health may be enhanced by high-quality friendships Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

(Berndt & Keefe, 1995). Previous studies have highlighted the influences of environmental or contextual characteristics on the interethnic formation of friendship. The more opportunity for intergroup contact, the higher the quality of friendship; the lower the intergroup contact, the lower the quality of friendship (Blau, 1977). On the other hand, culture influence individuals’ developmental and social processes and can be considered as an important shaper of mind. As such, the various society's cultural norms and values may lead to differing friendship qualities across cultures (Bae, 2003). Ethnicity, as an index of cultural distinctions, may influence how friendship quality is perceived (Rodebaugh, Fernandez, & Levinson, 2012). So, ethnicity is a major factor that should focused on when we explore friendship quality. Same-ethnicity friendships are more stable than interethnic friendships, even after controlling for a variety of contextual and dyadic characteristics, such as school ethnic composition and friends' similarities in attitudes and behaviors. Reciprocity and closeness are strong predictors of friendship stability and appear to dampen the effects of ethnicity. This suggests that ethnicity is important in structuring the social lives of adolescents. More attention should be paid to the quality of interethnic friendships, as measured by degree of reciprocity and closeness (Rude & Herda, 2010). Friendships of girls and boys have often been assumed to differ: girls have more self-disclosure, empathy, interdependence, and a need for nurturance in an intimate friendship, whereas boys normally search for companionship, competition, control, and conflict in larger friendship groups. Differences in how relationships are perceived or evaluated could result in differences in friendship quality, and males and females have different views of friendship (Bae, 2003; De Goede, Branje, & Meeus, 2009; Rodebaugh et al., 2012). Previous studies indicated that the underlying construct of friendship quality for males and females is slightly but significantly different. In several important ways the friendships of males and females are assumed to differ, and some evidence demonstrated that the strong gender differences observed in childhood peer relationships may extend into adulthood (De Goede et al., 2009).

METHODOLOGY Participants and Procedure The participants were recruited using non-probability convenient sampling. They were 200 ethnic majority students (Kinh) and 200 ethnic minority students (Ede, Mnong, Tay, Nung, Dao) from two public high schools in DakLak, Vietnam (mean age = 15.26, SD = .57; 71% female). The participants responded to a questionnaire in class under the guidance of the researcher (i.e., the first author). Earlier, approval to conduct the research at the two high schools was obtained from the Ministry of Education and the school principals.

Measurement Friendship quality was measured by using McGill Friendship Questionnaire-Respondent's Affection (MFQRA) (Mendelson & Aboud, 1999, 2012). This 16-item questionnaire has two subscales designed to assess two components of friendship quality: positive feelings for a friend (9 items) (e.g., “like x a lot”) and friendship satisfaction (7 items) (e.g., “pleased with my friendship with x”). Respondents were asked to indicate the degree of agreement with each positively worded item on a 9-point Likert scale ranging from -4 to 4 and to think about their closest friendships while answering the items. Each participant completed one MFQ-RA for a same-ethnicity best friend and one for a cross-ethnicity best friend. The average of all the items determined the positive feelings for a friend and friendship satisfaction of the participants, with the higher scores reflecting the higher friendship quality. This instrument was translated from English into Vietnamese and was adapted for Vietnamese students. Forward translation method was used for questionnaire translation before sending to Vietnamese psychologists as well as to English experts for editing and correcting. The reliability of the MFQRA (Vietnamese version) was determined using Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.85). A factor analysis with oblique rotation applied to the MFQ-RA yielded a two-factor solution (eigenvalues = 9.2, 1.0; % of variance = 57.6, 6.2). Factor 1 consisted of the six satisfaction items, which were averaged as one subscale and factor 2 consisted of the ten other positive-feelings items, which were averaged as another subscale.

RESULTS Comparison of same-ethnicity and cross-ethnicity friendship quality between ethnic majority and minority adolescents To examine ethnicity and gender differences in participants’ friendship quality dimensions, t-tests were conducted with ethnicity and gender as independent variables and the two domains of friendship quality © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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as dependent variables. Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations for the friendship domains as well as overall same-ethnicity friendship quality for adolescents from ethnic majority and minority groups. Although the results indicated that the means of “friendship satisfaction,” “positive feelings for a friend” and overall friendship quality for ethnic minority adolescents were slightly higher than those for ethnic majority adolescents, these differences were not statistically significant. Table 1 - Comparison of Same-Ethnicity Friendship Quality between Ethnic Majority and Minority Adolescents

Friendship Quality Dimension Friendship satisfaction Positive feelings for a friend Overall

Ethnicity

M

SD

Majority

1.51

1.30

Minority

1.52

1.00

Majority

2.21

1.29

Minority

2.29

.888

Majority

1.95

1.23

Minority

2.00

.865

t (p) -.074 (.941) -.710 (.478) -.494 (.622)

Note. *p < .05; **p < .005; ***p < .001

The means of the two friendship dimensions and overall cross-ethnicity friendship quality for ethnic minority adolescents were higher than those for ethnic majority adolescents. As can be seen in Table 2, significant differences were found in “positive feelings for a friend” (t(335) = -2.080, p < .05) but not in “friendship satisfaction” and overall friendship quality. Table 2 - Comparison of Cross-Ethnicity Friendship Quality between Ethnic Majority and Minority Adolescents

Friendship Quality Dimension Friendship satisfaction Positive feelings for a friend Overall

Ethnicity

M

SD

Majority

1.35

1.60

Minority

1.54

1.12

Majority

1.93

1.62

Minority

2.22

1.02

Majority

1.71

1.56

Minority

1.96

1.00

t (p) -1.386 (.167) -2.080 (.038*) -1.893 (.059)

Note. *p < .05; **p < .005; ***p < .001

Comparison of same-ethnicity and cross-ethnicity friendship quality by gender The means of same-ethnicity friendship quality for male adolescents were lower than those for female adolescents, for the two friendship dimensions and overall cross-ethnicity friendship quality (see Table 3). t-tests revealed significant differences in “positive feelings for a friend” (t(184) = -2.076, p < .05) and in the overall same-ethnicity friendship quality (t(186) = -2.040, p < .05). There was no significant difference in “friendship satisfaction” between genders. Table 3 - Comparison of Same-Ethnicity Friendship Quality by Gender

Friendship Quality Dimension Friendship satisfaction Positive feelings for a friend Overall

Gender

M

SD

Male

1.39

1.28

Female

1.57

1.10

Male

2.05

1.24

Female

2.33

1.04

Male

1.80

1.18

Female

2.04

1.00

t (p) -1.336 (.183) -2.076 (.039*) -2.040 (.042*)

Note. *p < .05; **p < .005; ***p < .001

Table 4 shows that female adolescents had higher cross-ethnicity friendship quality then male adolescents for the two friendship dimensions and overall cross-ethnicity friendship quality. However, t-tests showed no significant differences in “friendship satisfaction,” “positive feelings for a friend” and overall cross-ethnicity friendship quality between genders. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Table 4 - Comparison of Cross-Ethnicity Friendship Quality by Gender

Friendship Quality Dimension Friendship satisfaction Positive feelings for a friend Overall

Gender

M

SD

Male

1.28

1.47

Female

1.51

1.35

Male

1.87

1.53

Female

2.16

1.28

Male

1.65

1.44

Female

1.92

1.25

t (p) -1.539 (.125) -1.826 (.070) -1.881 (.061)

Note. *p < .05; **p < .005; ***p < .001

DISCUSSION The present study revealed that Vietnamese adolescents from ethnic minority groups reported higher positive feelings and friendship satisfaction for a same-ethnicity best friend as well as for a cross-ethnicity best friend than did those from the ethnic majority group. This finding is consistent with the ethnic differences in friendship quality reported in the literature although such differences were quite small or not significant (Rodebaugh et al., 2012; Rude & Herda, 2010). As expected, adolescents from both groups did not show any significant differences for same-ethnicity friendship quality. However, for cross-ethnicity friendship quality, a significant difference in the dimension “positive feelings for a friend” was found between ethnic minority and majority adolescents. These results support the idea that future studies should focus more attention on exploring the quality of interethnic friendships, as measured by degree of reciprocity and closeness and suggest ways to promote interethnic friendships by encouraging equal-status contact in friendships, improving racial attitudes and reducing racial prejudice (Rude & Herda, 2010). It is assumed that interethnic friendships can provide ethnic minority adolescents greater chance to access the resources and opportunities available to the majority group. Cross-ethnicity friendships may serve as "bridging ties" that help connect disparate social networks and ensure a degree of cohesion in a society traditionally divided by ethnicity (Briggs, 2007). For the differences in friendship quality between genders, the findings of this study are consistent with previous research (Bae, 2003; Mendelson & Aboud, 1999, 2012; Rodebaugh et al., 2012; Thomas & Daubman, 2001). Girls had higher friendship quality than boys for both same- and cross-ethnicity friendship quality. It is inferred that males and females perceive friendships differently. Females may be more attentive and sensitive to their friends, tend to use more personality characteristics to describe best friends, perceive their friendships to be closer, and emphasize the importance of trust and confidence in a friend more than do males (Bae, 2003; Rodebaugh et al., 2012). Girls also tend to be more supportive and focus on equality than do boys because they are generally two years ahead of boys in intellectual and social-cognitive functioning (De Goede et al., 2009). In addition, females are hypothesized to be more willing and tend to share more information on intimate topics with their best friend than their male counterparts. Moreover, males may engage in less self-disclosure because of homosexual adjudgment or societal gender role that stresses expressiveness for only females (Bae, 2003). Further, boys in same sex groups would be expected to present less expressive and engage in more agentic behaviors in order to secure and maintain mastery and power over the other partner, whereas girls would be expected to engage in more communal behaviors, such as striving for intimacy and connectedness (Zhou, Li, Zhang, & Zeng, 2012). It is notable that in the present study, there were significant differences between genders for same-ethnicity friendship quality but not for cross-ethnicity friendship quality. This brings us to the question of what factors contributed to these differences and highlights the need for future studies to focus on same-ethnicity friendship quality by gender across ethnic groups in Vietnam.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was supported by a fellowship to the first author from the Institute of Postgraduate Studies (IPS), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Malaysia. We are indebted to all students and headmasters in Vietnam who participated in the study.

REFERENCES Bae, Y. A. (2003). Differences in friendship qualities of Korean and American college students" (2003). Honors Projects, Illinois Wesleyan University, USA. Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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11, 7-10. Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends influence on adolescents adjustment to school. Child Development, 66, 1312-1329. doi: 10.2307/1131649 Blau, P. M. (1977). Inequality and Heterogeneity: A Primitive Theory of Social Structure. New York: Free Press. Briggs, X. d. S. (2007). 'Some of my best friends are...': Interracial friendships, class, and segregation in America. City and Community, 6(4), 263-290. De Goede, I. H. A., Branje, S. J. T., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2009). Developmental changes and gender differences in adolescents’ perceptions of friendships. Journal of Adolescence 32, 1105 – 1123. doi: 10.1016/j. adolescence.2009.03.002 Helm, B. W. (2005). Friendship. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved Jul 9, 2009, from http:// plato.stanford.edu/entries/friendship Mendelson, M. J., & Aboud, F. (1999). Short report measuring friendship quality in late adolescents and young adults: McGill friendship questionnaires. . Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 31(2), 130-132. Mendelson, M. J., & Aboud, F. (2012). McGill Friendship Questionnaire - Respondent's affection (MFQ-RA) . Measurement Instrument Database for the Social Science. Moore, S., & Boldero, J. (1991). Psychosocial development and friendship functions in adolescence. Sex Roles, 25(9/10), 521-536. Nangle, D. W., Erdley, C. A., Newman, J. E., Mason, C. A., & Capenter, E. M. (2003). Popularity, friendship quantity, and friendship quality: Interactive influences on children's loneliness and depression. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 546-555. Parker, J. G., & Asher, S. R. (1993). Friendship and friendship quality in middle childhood: Links with peer group acceptance and feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction. Developmental Psychology, 29(4), 611-621. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.29.4.611 Rodebaugh, T. L., Fernandez, K. C., & Levinson, C. A. (2012). Testing the effects of social anxiety disorder on friendship quality across gender and ethnicity. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 41(2), 130–139. doi: 10.1080/16506073.2012.661451 Rude, J., & Herda, D. (2010). Best friends forever? Race and the stability of adolescent friendships. Social Forces, 89(2), 585-608. Thomas, J. J., & Daubman, K. A. (2001). The relationship between friendship quality and self-esteem in adolescent girls and boys. Sex Roles, 45(1/2), 53-65. Waldrip, A. M., Malcolm, K. T., & Jensen-Campbell, L. A. (2008). With a little help from your friends: The importance of high-quality friendships on early adolescent adjustment Social Development, 17(4), 832-852. Zhou, H., Li, Y., Zhang, B., & Zeng, M. (2012). The relationship between narcissism and friendship qualities in adolescents: Gender as a moderator. Sex Roles, 67, 452 – 462. doi: 10.1007/s11199-012-0169-8

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ADAPTATION INDEX FOR OVERSEAS MALAYSIAN STUDENTS Mazni Mustapha* *[email protected] Universiti Malaysia Sabah Michael E. Hyland Plymouth University, United Kingdom

Abstract The main purpose of this study was to develop an index that measures adaptation experiences of Malaysian students who are studying abroad from two perspectives: “Missing things at home” and “Enjoyment of being abroad”. Prior to this study, a series of interviews had been carried out on seven postgraduate Malaysian students in Devon, United Kingdom (UK) to explore their experiences in adapting to new life abroad. Based on the information found in the interviews, 62 items were generated; with 34 items measuring “Missing things in the UK” and 28 items measuring “Enjoying things in the UK”. Data were collected from 100 student participants across the UK in various methods. In the questionnaire, participants were asked to indicate the clarity of each item. Items that were not clear were removed from future analyses. Results of the Principal Component Analysis indicated that each of the subscale (Missing and Enjoyment) was explained by a single construct. Internal consistencies of both sub-scales were found to be high (Cronbach’s Alpha >.90), indicating that they were highly reliable. Keywords: adaptation, Malaysia, students, missing, enjoyment

INTRODUCTION This paper is a report of a pilot study on developing an “adaptation to life” index. There are three aims for the study. The first aim is to generate items on the basis of information found from the previous interview studies and literature reviews. The second aim is to reduce items on the basis of clarity, by asking participants to indicate the clarity of the item. Finally, the third aim is to reduce items on the basis of psychometric properties. The following questions are examined: to what extent are the items developed clear to the participants? what are the underlying constructs of the two sub-scales? to what extent are the sub-scales reliable? what is the relation between these constructs?

LITERATURE REVIEWS Several scales have been developed to measure cultural adaptation or acculturation experiences (e.g. Anderson, 1994; Sam & Berry, 1995; Searle & Ward, 1990). In Sam and Berry’s (1995) study acculturation experience had been conceptualised as acculturation stress which relied on scales on negative self-evaluation, depressive tendencies, and psychological and somatic symptoms. In comparison, Searle and Ward (1990) measured acculturation stress by looking at the internal (psychological) and external process (socio-cultural) of adjustment. Ward and colleagues strongly supported the idea that adjustment or adaptation during crosscultural transitions can be broadly divided into two categories: psychological and socio-cultural adjustment Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

(Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Searle, 1991 in van Tilburg & Vingerhoets, 2007). Psychological adjustment deals with feelings of well-being and satisfaction, and socio-cultural adjustment refers to ‘the ability to ‘fit-in’ or negotiate negative interactive aspects of the host culture’ (in van Tilburg & Vingerhoets, 2007, p. 23). According to Ward and Kennedy (1993), predictors in any psychological and socio-cultural adjustment study are unique in the studied samples. Diverse situations and culture-specific factors underlying the samples may produce a different magnitude in the relationship between psychological and socio-cultural adjustment. Ward and colleagues further suggested that measurement of adjustment variables can be distinguished into that of culture-specific (socio-cultural adaptation; e.g. culture distance, command of language, and general knowledge about the host culture) and non-culture specific or culture-general (psychological adaptation; e.g. locus of control, life changes, and social support) (van Tilburg & Vingerhoets, 2007). People may often experience the loss of traditional conventional pattern of support and resources whilst adapting in a new country (Pliskin, 1987, in Safdar, et.al, 2003). For immigrants who originated from a collectivistic culture, their collectivistic values that have been deeply-rooted within them, such as interdependency, could serve as a support system for these people to adapt well in a new culture (Wong, 1999). Adaptation of immigrants however, is a multifaceted process that could as well be explained by the balance of perceived gains (positive outcome of migration) and losses (negative outcome of migration) (MaydellStevens, Masgoret & Ward, 2007). Maydell-Stevens et al. (2007) explored this perspective through a qualitative study among six Russian speaking immigrants in New Zealand. Participants indicated positive outcomes of migration as being able to have a family reunion, increased feelings of safe and secure, and having freedom. On the other hand, losses indicated by the participants were categorised as, the loss of self-fulfilment and the loss of sense of belonging. Participants also reported feelings of loss related to their work achievements, social status, financial assets and life satisfaction. The loss of sense of belonging was indicated through the loss of contact with former friends, relatives and social networks, and a loss of continuity with their ancestries. Maydell-Stevens, et al, (2007), concluded that the balance of these perceived positive and negative experiences implied the immigrants’ evaluation of the success of his or her adaptation process, and reflected attitude as a whole on immigration. As adaptation experience involves two perspectives of ‘gain’ and ‘loss’, it is reasonable to examine future international students’ adapting experiences into two perspectives - the negative feelings a person may encounter, such as missing home or experience homesickness, or losing sense of authority, and the positive feelings in experiencing a new exciting life abroad. Integration of these two types of experiences would explain the level of adaptation which may have some effects on the immigrants’ well-being. Given that this perspective has not been fully explored in research, it offers a new insight to the future study of international student adaptation.

METHODOLOGY Development of items This index was developed to measure adaptation experiences among international students in the UK. In this study, adaptation is perceived as a blend of “missing things at home” and “enjoyment experienced of being abroad”. The interviews held earlier on seven PhD students from Malaysian studying in the UK explored these two types of adapting experiences. Items for the adaptation measurement were generated from the themes that emerged from the interviews. Seven themes indicating “missing experiences whilst in the UK” and six themes indicating “enjoyment experience whilst in the UK” were found. The themes are displayed as in Table 1. Table 1 - Themes found from the interviews based on missing and enjoyment experiences in the UK Table 4 - Correlations between the factors in the Internet Addiction Test

Missing experiences

Enjoyment experiences

Ease in own culture

Self-development

Maintaining social contacts

Recreational activities

Maintaining family ties

Products and Services

Sense of belonging

Supportive educational environment

Practice of religion

Technology

Climate

Cultural knowledge and interaction

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The first step in developing items for the index was to look at the emerging themes which describe both types of adapting experiences. The next step was to examine previous measurement on adaptation amongst immigrants or foreigners whether or not it matches with the emerging themes. To begin with, the Social Cultural Adaptation Scale (SCAS) by Ward and Kennedy (1990) was used. This scale which touches on the difficulties experienced by migrants is probably the closest to measuring “missing home” experiences in the context of this study. According to Ward and Kennedy (1996), SCAS was a flexible instrument and can be simply adapted to meet the characteristics of the “sojourning samples”. In SCAS, participants are requested to indicate the amount of difficulties they are facing in a number of areas by using a five-point scale. Some of the items in SCAS were found to match with the themes found in the interviews, whilst some did not fit with any items (see Table 2 and 3). Table 2 - Items for SCAS that matched with the themes in missing experiences

Themes Missing Experiences

Sample items from SCAS

•

Sense of belongingness

•

Making yourself understood

•

Practice of religion

•

Worshipping in your usual way

•

Climate

•

Dealing with the climate

•

Recreational activities

•

Going shopping

•

Easiness in own culture

•

Getting used to the local food/finding food you enjoy Going to coffee shops/food stalls/ restaurant outside

• •

Maintaining family-ties

•

Leaving away from family members overseas

•

Maintaining social contacts

•

Making friends

Table 3 - Items for SCAS that matched with the themes in missing experiences

Themes Enjoyment Experiences

Sample items from SCAS

•

Self-development

•

Expressive your ideas in class

•

Recreational activities

•

Going shopping

•

Product and services

•

Dealing with unsatisfactory services

•

Supportive academic environment

•

Coping with academic work

•

Advanced technology

•

N/A

•

Cultural knowledge and interaction

• •

Adapting to local etiquette Understanding cultural differences

Some items in SCAS were more or less revolving around the themes found in the interview, except for “advanced technology” (see Table 3), which is an additional element for positive experiences of being overseas. As the interviews provided a more detailed picture of international students’ adaptation experiences, items had been created based on the interview findings, which were thought to describe the international students’ life adaptation experiences better than any existing questionnaires, such as SCAS. Initially, 62 items were developed for this index, with 34 items measuring “missing things in the UK” and the other 28 items measuring “enjoying things in the UK”. An ordinal scale was used as the answering scale that ranged between ‘0’ to ‘7’. The number ‘0’ indicated “I don’t miss this at all”/ “I don’t enjoy this at all” and ‘7’ indicated “I miss this a lot”/ “I enjoy this a lot”. Both Table 4 and 5 provide details of development of items based on themes found in the interviews.

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Table 4 - Original items developed based on emerging themes for the Missing scale in Adaptation to Life Index

Themes

Items for Missing Scale

Ease in own culture

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

ease of getting the right food, traditional food, eating out activities, staying in your own house, speaking in the mother tongue, a peaceful life, not having to bother about being trendy, confidence with appearance, a safe place to live and work, satisfaction of salary received every month, easier money making activities, varieties of food choice, understood by people when talking

Maintaining social contacts

• • •

hanging out with friends, making friends, support from friendship

Maintaining family ties

• • • • • •

hanging out with family members, involvement in decision-making within the family, having a face-to-face conversation with family, spending quality time with family, helping family, physical and mental supports by the family)

Sense of belonging

• • •

a sense of belongingness, preserving customs and cultural values, not being isolated by others)

Practice of religion

• • •

performing prayers, practice of your religion, attending religious talks

Climate

• •

nice weather back home, not to be bothered by having to dress appropriately to the weather back home.

Recreational activities

• • • •

do hobbies, recreational activities during weekend, shopping during leisure, visiting different places

Table 5 - Original items developed based on themes for the Enjoyment scale in Adaptation to Life Index

Themes

Items for Enjoyment scale

Self-development

• • • • • •

being respected for your uniqueness, opportunity for personal development, opportunity for career progression, having more freedom to express yourself, becoming more independent, busy and fulfilling life

Recreational activities

• • • •

learn new type of activities and hobbies, an opportunity to travel to neighbouring countries, sight-seeing activities, voluntary activities

Products and services

• • •

lots of choice of goods and services, cheap goodies, high quality of goods and services

Supportive educational environment

• •

having a face-to-face conversation with experts, a supportive studying environment

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Themes Technology

Items for Enjoyment scale • •

Cultural knowledge and interaction

Establishing social contacts

• • • • •

being exposed to the latest technology in telecommunication, easy access to the internet resources

• • •

opportunity about the UK’s culture and norms, get to know British people, experience of four season weather, western food, an opportunity to get to know people from other cultures, opportunity to practice English, transparent communication, flexible working hours

• • •

developing meaningful relationship, being with a close group of friends, helping others

Clarity of items In the questionnaire, there is a section of “clarity of items” whereby participants are asked to select a number that indicates the extent to which participants think the item is clearly stated by circling a number in an ordinal scale between ‘1’ (unclear) to ‘4’ (clear). The index was then face validated by two female and one male academic experts in psychology from the UK and Malaysia. After that, it was showed to five Malaysian PhD students (three females and two males) of whom majoring in psychology, business studies, and computer studies from different universities in the UK. They were asked to answer a questionnaire comprised of both subscales, and reported the suitability of items asked in each of the subscale, whether or not they understand the instructions and the questions (items) asked, as well as feasibility of timing in answering the questionnaire.

Participants and Procedure In total 100 international students from all over UK universities took part in the study. They were recruited through various sampling approaches; the random, snowball, and accidental approach. In the random approach, an email was sent out to the Plymouth’s International Student Advisory Board asking for the help of inviting all the international students at the university to take part in the study in their weekly electronic mail. All of international students of the university should be able to receive the email once they have registered their university’s email account. The announcement of the study provided some information of the study, i.e. the aim of the study, types of participant, and contact details of the researcher. Another approach was by sending out emails to several students’ mailing lists from all over UK explaining about the study with a questionnaire attached. In this email participants were asked if they could forward the email to anyone who was eligible to be recruited as a participant for the study. In this snowball technique, potential participants would be contacted through emails provided by their referees. Lastly, in the accidental sampling, the participants were recruited among the researcher’s colleagues and acquaintances who were studying at the same university. Participants who were interested would contact the researcher via email. A reply email was then send together with two attachment files containing the questionnaire and a cover letter explaining about the study. Participants were asked to bold or underline the numbers that best described their answers, then save the document and send it back to the researcher via email. Another way of doing this was through pencil-and-paper form. Most of the participants who involved in this procedure were the researcher’s colleagues and acquaintances. They were approached individually face-toface by the researcher, and asked if they would be willing to take part in the study. They were given an option whether to answer it through a questionnaire prepared in MS Word format forwarded through email, or to answer it on paper. For the participants who favoured the paper-based questionnaire, they were given a set of questionnaire with an envelope that had already been written down with the researcher’s name and address. Once completed, participants were asked to put the questionnaire in the envelope and sealed it, before sending it back to the researcher through the internal post service. There were participants who handed the questionnaire themselves. Since the study had been slow in the data collection, which presumably due to its method, with the help of © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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a technician staff, an online version of the questionnaire was developed in order to increase the response. Emails were sent out to possible numbers of individuals and several mailing lists of Malaysian students all over the UK which contained a link to the online study. The online data could be retrieved by typing in a special password created for the study. The data displayed on the computer page would be converted into Microsoft Excel before copying it down to the SPSS. By doing this, the number of participants has increased from the initial number of 68 to 100.

Data analysis Data were entered and analysed through the SPSS version 17. Four types of analysis were carried out. Frequency analysis was run to see the participants’ responses on clarity of items. Principal component analysis was performed to identify the underlying structure of the index. Cronbach’s Alpha test was performed to identify the internal consistency of the items. Pearson product moment correlation analysis was performed to examine the relation between the constructs.

RESULTS Clarity of items In relation to the second aim, which is to shorten the questionnaire on the basis of clarity, a criterion has been selected that was; if the items received 10% or more responses on ‘1’ and ‘2’ in the clarity of item section, they were perceived as unclear and need to be removed from the sub-scales. Based on the initial sample (N=68), results showed that 8 items in the Missing sub-scale and one item in the Enjoyment sub-scale were ‘unclear’ to the participants, and therefore had been excluded in the next analyses, leaving 26 items for the Missing and 27 items for Enjoyment subscale. Table 6 and 7 show the distribution of samples on items found to be unclear in both sub-scales. Table 6 - Responses on items found to be ‘unclear’ (response ‘1’ and ‘2’) of missing experiences in the UK (N= 68)

Missing experiences in the UK

N

%

Item2

“Eating out activities”

7

10.3

Item3

Ease of getting the right food

5

7.4

Item4

Varieties of food choice

6

8.8

Item5

Hanging out with friends

2

2.9

Item6

Making friends

3

4.5

Item7

Support from friendship

4

5.9

Item9

Involvement in decision making within the family

3

4.4

Item10

Having a face-to-face conversation with family

1

1.5

Item11

Spending quality time with family

2

2.9

Item12

Helping family

6

8.8

Item13

Physical and mental supports from the family

4

5.9

Item14

Staying in your own house

5

7.4

Item15

“Satisfaction with salary received every month”

15

22.4

Item16

“Easier money-making activities”

10

14.7

Item18

“Performing prayers”

7

10.3

Item19

Practising of your religion

3

4.4

Item20

Attending religious talks

3

4.5

Item21

Nice weather

6

8.8

Item 22

“Not having to bother about being trendy”

20

29.4

Item23

Recreational activities during weekends

2

2.9

Item24

Shopping during leisure

1

1.5

Item26

A peaceful life

6

8.8

Item27

Do hobbies

2

2.9

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Missing experiences in the UK

N

%

Item 28

“Confidence with appearance”

9

13.2

Item29

Preserving customs and cultural values

5

7.4

Item31

Understood by people when talking

2

2.9

Item 32

“Not being isolated from others”

10

14.7

Item33

A sense of belongingness

5

7.4

Item 34

“Having to dress appropriately to the weather”

15

22.1

Note : Items in bold were removed in the next analyses

Table 7 - Responses on items found to be ‘unclear’ (response ‘1’ and ‘2’) of enjoyment experiences in the UK (N=68)

Enjoyment experiences in the UK

N

%

Item1

Having a face-to-face conversation with experts

1

1.5

Item2

Sight-seeing activities

4

5.9

Item3

A high quality of goods and services

1

1.5

Item5

Western food

1

1.5

Item6

An opportunity to travel to neighbouring countries

1

1.5

Item8

Experience of a four season weather

2

2.9

Item9

Lots of choice of goods and services

1

1.5

Item10

Cheap goodies

5

7.4

Item12

Being respected for your uniqueness

5

7.4

Item13

Being exposed to the latest technology in telecommunication

3

4.4

Item15

Get to know British people

2

2.9

Item16

Opportunity for personal development

2

2.9

Item17

Opportunity for career progression

1

1.5

Item18

Learn new types of activities or hobbies

2

2.9

Item19

Being with a close group of friends

3

4.4

Item 20

Developing a meaningful friendship

5

7.4

Item 21

A busy and fulfilling life

2

2.9

Item 22

Helping others

1

1.5

Item 23

Voluntary activities

4

5.9

Item 24

Having more freedom to express yourself

1

1.5

Item 25

Transparent communication

13

19.1

Note : Items in bold were removed in the next analyses

Psychometric analyses To shorten the items based on psychometric properties, the underlying structure of those items had to be identified. Because of both Enjoyment and Missing subscales offer a unique adaptation experience, a separate principal component analysis was run on each of the sub-scales based on 100 participants.

Missing-subscale Based on 26 items, six components were extracted from the sub-scale with the Eigenvalues > 1. The loading values were plotted in a graph called Scree Plot. A Scree plot is a graphical display of the variance of each component in the dataset which is used to determine how many components or factors should be retained in order to explain a high percentage of the variation in the data. The Scree plots in Figure 1 shows the components extracted from the Missing sub-scale indicating the underlying structure of the items. In the missing sub-scale, the results showed that all of the items gained the highest factor loadings in the first factor (explained by 37.23% of total variance), indicating that there was a single construct underlying the sub-scale, with 0.40 as the cut-off point. Table 8 summarises the results of factor loadings. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Figure 1 - Scree plot of components extracted from the missing sub-scale

Figure 2 - Scree plot of components extracted from the enjoyment sub-scale

Enjoyment sub-scale Based on 27 items, seven components were extracted from the sub-scale with the Eigenvalues > 1. The loading values were plotted in the Scree Plot graph. The Scree plots in Figure 2 shows the components extracted from the Enjoyment sub-scale indicating the underlying structure of the items. In the Enjoyment sub-scale, a single construct emerged (explained by 28.65% of total variance), whereby all of the items gained the highest factor loadings in the first factor. Three items (i.e. Item 25, 26, and 28) received factor loadings lower than 0.40 (i.e. 0.39, 0.30, and 0.32 respectively) (see Table 8 for reference). These three items were excluded from next analyses. In summary, 26 items from the Missing subscale and 24 items from the Enjoyment subscale were retained for next analyses. Table 8 - Factor loadings of items in missing and enjoyment sub-scale

Missing sub-scale Item Item1

Traditional food

Enjoyment sub-scale Factor loadings

Item

0.58

Item1

Factor loadings Face-to-face conservation with experts

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518

Missing sub-scale Item

Enjoyment sub-scale Factor loadings

Item

Factor loadings

Item3

Ease of getting food

0.57

Item2

Sight-seeing activities

Item4

Varieties of food choice

0.63

Item3

Item5

Hanging out with friends

0.53

Item4

Supportive studying environment

0.52

Item6

Making friends

0.6

Item5

Western food

0.5

Item7

Support from friendship

0.59

Item6

Opportunity to travel to neighbouring countries

0.46

Item8

Hanging out with families

0.65

Item7

Opportunity to get to know people from other culture

0.59

Item9

Involvement in decision making with family

0.6

Item8

Experience of a four-season weather

0.48

Item10

A face-to-face conversation with family

0.73

Item9

Lots of choice of goods and services

0.65

Item11

Quality time with family

0.73

Item10

Cheap goodies

0.59

Item12

Helping family

0.55

Item11

Opportunity to learn about UK’s culture and norms

0.59

Item13

Supports from family

0.72

Item12

Being respected to your uniqueness

0.58

Item14

Staying in your own house

0.55

Item13

Exposure to latest telecommunication technology

0.46

Item17

A safe place to live and work

0.64

Item14

Opportunity to practice English

0.47

Item19

Practicing of your religion

0.58

Item15

To know the British people

0.66

Item20

Attending religious talk

0.53

Item16

Opportunity for personal development

0.59

Item21

Nice weather

0.49

Item17

Opportunity for career progression

0.58

Item23

Recreational activities during weekends

0.65

Item18

Learn new types of activities or hobbies

0.48

Item24

Shopping during leisure

0.54

Item19

Being with a close group of friends

0.64

Item25

Visiting different places

0.53

Item20

Developing a meaningful relationship

0.65

Item26

A peaceful life

0.71

Item21

A busy or fulfilling life

0.6

Item27

Do hobbies

0.67

Item22

Helping others

0.48

Item29

Preserving customs and cultural values

0.71

Item23

Voluntary activities

0.54

Item30

Speaking in the mother tongue

0.57

Item24

Having more freedom to express yourself

0.71

Item31

Understood by people when talking

0.51

Item25

Flexible working hours

0.39

High-quality of goods and services

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0.44 0.51

519

Missing sub-scale Factor loadings

Item Item33

Enjoyment sub-scale

A sense of belonging

0.66

Factor loadings

Item Item26

Becoming more independent

0.3

Item28

Easy access to the internet resources

0.32

Note : Items in bold were removed in the next analyses

In order to examine the reliability of the sub-scales, Cronbach’s Alphas were calculated. Results showed that the Cronbach’s Alpha for the Missing sub-scale was 0.94 (26 items), and 0.90 for the enjoyment sub-scale (24 items), suggesting that items in both measurements were high in terms of internal consistency. High internal consistency indicates that both sub-scales were reliable. To determine the relation between the Missing and Enjoyment sub-scale, Pearson product moment correlation was used. Result showed that Missing and Enjoyment sub-scale did not correlate with one another (r = -.21, p = .09), which could be due to the small sample size. However, these data suggest that both sub-scales were comparatively independent.

CONCLUSION Adaptation to Life Index was finally made up by 50 items derived from the following sub-scales; Missing experiences and Enjoyment experiences. Both sub-scales were independent from each other. The reliability for each sub-scale was found to be strong.This index will be further used in the research to examine the Malaysian students’ adaptation experience in the second phase of a longitudinal survey involving Malaysian students abroad.

REFERENCES Anderson, L. E. (1994). A new look at an old construct: Cross-cultural adaptation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 18, 293-328. Maydell-Stevens, E., Masgoret, A-M, & Ward, T. (2007). Problems of psychological and sociocultural adaptation among Russian speaking immigrants in New Zealand. Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, 30, 178198. Safdar, S., Lay, C., & Struthers, C. W. (2003). The process of acculturation and basic goals: Testing a multidimensional individual difference acculturation model with Iranian immigrants in Canada. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 52(4), 555-579. Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (1995). Acculturative stress among young immigrants in Norway.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 36, 10-24. Searle.W., & Ward, C. (1990).The prediction of psychological and sociocultural adjustment during cross-cultural transitions.International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 449-464. Ward, C. & Kennedy, A. (1990). The measurement of the Sociocultural Adaptation.International Journal of Intercultural Relation, 32(4), 659-677. Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1993). Where’s the culture in cross-cultural transition? Comparative studies of sojourner adjustment.In M. Van Tillburg, & A.J.J.M. Vingerhoets, Psychological aspect of geographical moves. Amsterdam: Amsterdam Academic Archieve. Ward, C., & Searle, W. (1991).The impact of value discrepancies and cultural identity on psychological and socio-cultural adjustment of sojourners.International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 15(2), 209224. Wong, S. K. (1999). Acculturation, peer relations, and delinquent behavior of Chinese-Canadian youth. Adolescence, 34(133), 107-19.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PERSEPSI MASYARAKAT TERHADAP KECUAIAN IBU BAPA DALAM KAWALAN KE ATAS ANAK-ANAK: KAJIAN KES DI NEGERI KEDAH Noor Azniza Ishak*, Jamaludin Mustafa, Azemi Shaari, Kamal Ab Hamid, Nur Qurratul’ Aini Ismail & Mohd Hilmi Hamzah *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Kajian ini secara umumnya memfokuskan kepada aspek pandangan masyarakat terhadap peranan ibu bapa/penjaga dalam menjaga dan mengawasi anak-anak. Selain itu, kajian ini juga mengenal pasti faktor-faktor berlaku kecuaian dan tindakan yang perlu diambil dalam menangani masalah tersebut. Reka bentuk penyelidikan ini menggunakan kaedah tinjauan yang menggunakan borang soal selidik di mana saiz sampel yang diambil sebanyak 300 orang responden yang terdiri daripada masyarakat di Alor Setar, Kedah. Hasil dapatan kajian menunjukkan masyarakat berpendapat ibu bapa atau penjaga perlulah memainkan peranan dalam mengawasi anak-anak bagi mengelak berlakunya masalah kecuaian. Secara keseluruhannya responden menyatakan persetujuan kepada lapan faktor penyebab berlakunya kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anak-anak. Responden juga telah mencadangkan lapan langkah dalam mengatasi masalah kecuaian ini. Berdasarkan kepada dapatan kajian juga dapatlah dirumuskan bahawa peranan ibu bapa dan keluarganya mempengaruhi sikap kecuaian dalam membesar, mendidik dan mengasuh anak-anak. Keluarga yang kucar kacir akibat perceraian, saiz keluarga yang besar, faktor sosial ekonomi dan kefahaman ibu bapa dalam ilmu keibubapaan menunjukkan faktor utama kepada kecuaian ibu bapa dalam keluarga terhadap anak-anak. Keywords: persepsi, kecuaian, kawalan, ibu bapa, anak-anak

PENGENALAN Menurut Farah Nini (2009), Kecuaian ataupun pengabaian tidak ditakrifkan secara khusus mengikut akta, tetapi ada dua implikasi yang timbul daripada apa yang boleh kita katakan kecuaian atau pengabaian terhadap kanakkanak. Pertama, jika seseorang ibu bapa atau penjaga didapati sudah abai untuk mengadakan pemeliharaan yang mencukupi untuk kanak-kanak maka kanak-kanak itu di bawah Seksyen 17 dikatakan memerlukan perlindungan dan pemeliharaan, maka di dalam keadaan ini pelindung iaitu pegawai kebajikan masyarakat dapat mengambil kanak-kanak berkenaan ke dalam jagaan sementara sehingga mahkamah memutuskan tindakan selanjutnya. Ia memungkinkan pihak berkuasa mengambil alih penjagaan kanak-kanak itu jika mahkamah berpuas hati penjaga tidak berkelayakan untuk menjaga kanak-kanak berkenaan. Jika terbukti mana-mana ibu bapa melakukan pengabaian dan terbukti bersalah ia boleh didenda sehingga RM20,000 atau dipenjarakan selama tempoh tidak melebihi 10 tahun atau kedua-duanya. Kategori ini selalunya terpakai dalam kes dengan kanak-kanak terabai hingga tidak mendapat makanan dan minuman serta pendidikan secukupnya. Kedua, kanak-kanak ditinggalkan tanpa pengawasan yang berpatutan.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Kecuaian dan sikap leka segelintir ibu bapa terhadap perihal anak kecil mereka selalunya membawa musibah. Ini terbukti sejak akhir-akhir ini dengan insiden-insiden yang banyak dilaporkan di media seperti kemalangan di rumah yang kecederaan serius. Kes kecuaian terhadap kanak-kanak semakin serius dengan peningkatan sekurang-kurangnya lima peratus setiap tahun (Md. Azrin, 2014). Menurut Menteri Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga dan Masyarakat, Datuk Seri Rohani Abdul Karim berkata, peningkatan kes tersebut dapat dilihat pada tahun 2007 dengan 2,279 kes, 2,314 kes (2008), 2,789 kes (2009), 3,257 kes (2010) dan 3,428 kes (2011). Menurut beliau lagi sebanyak 1,847 kes baharu pula telah dilaporkan kepada Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat (JKM) setakat enam bulan pertama tahun lalu berbanding 3,831 kes sepanjang 2012 (Md. Azrin, 2014). Itu belum lagi mengulas lebih lanjut tentang kes yang lebih memilukan seperti penculikan, penderaan mahupun kematian (Jagatheswary Narayanan, 2013). Mengikut kepada perangkaan Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia, peratusan kanak-kanak yang mendapat kecederaan atau menemui ajal di dalam rumah semakin meningkat. Ini melibatkan 25 peratus kemalangan di rumah membabitkan kemalangan kecil seperti luka, terseliuh dan bengkak. Manakala 10 peratus mengalami kemalangan perlu dirawat seperti patah, luka besar yang perlu jahitan, disengat serangga berbisa dan melecur. Justeru itu, kertas kerja ini membincangkan sejauhmanakah masyarakat bersetuju ibu bapa/penjaga perlu dihukum sekiranya mereka cuai sehingga membahayakan anak-anak mereka di samping untuk mencari jalan dalam menangani masalah tersebut dan hasil penemuan kajian ini dapat membentuk satu strategi untuk menangani masalah kecuaian ibu bapa terhadap anak-anak.

KONSEP KECUAIAN Kecuaian atau kelalaian ialah keadaan tidak berhati-hati atau tidak bersungguh-sungguh dalam melakukan sesuatu. Lalai selalu dialami oleh manusia yang leka dan asyik dalam melakukan sesuatu aktiviti. Kecuaian merupakan satu konsep sah dalam undang-undang yang boleh menyebabkan seseorang itu terpaksa memberi pampasan. Kecuaian sebagai tort didefinisikan sebagai perlanggaran kewajipan undang-undang untuk berjaga-jaga oleh defendan yang mengakibatkan kerosakan yang tidak diinginkan kepada plaintif. Menurut definisi yang diberikan oleh Lord Wright di dalam kes Loghelly Iron & Coal v M’Mullan [1934] AC 1, 25: “Negligence means more than heedless or careless conduct….. it properly connotes the complex of duty, breach and damage thereby suffered by the person to whom the duty was owing.” Berdasarkan kepada definisi di atas, jelas di sini bahawa kecuaian merupakan suatu perbuatan yang melebihi dari suatu perbuatan kelalaian dan perbuatan yang tidak berhati-hati. Ia mempunyai hubung-kait yang rapat dengan konsep-konsep tanggungjawab, pelanggaran tanggungjawab serta kecederaan, kerosakan atau kerugian yang dialami oleh seseorang (Muhammad Rizal 2002).

ULASAN KARYA Aminudin (2012) menyatakan bahawa bimbingan dalam pendidikan sangat penting dalam menjaga dan mengawasi anak-anak. Menurut Aminudin (2012), ibu bapa mahupun guru di sekolah boleh memainkan peranan sebagai seorang kaunselor Muslim. Walau bagaimanapun, mereka harus mempunyai peribadi yang dapat dicontohi dan dikagumi oleh murid atau anak. Sebagai contoh, ibu bapa atau guru mempunyai sifat benar, amanah, bijaksana, ikhlas, bertanggungjawab, boleh menyimpan rahsia, teliti dan berhati-hati, sabar dan tenang, beriman dan bertakwa serta berani. Aminudin (2012) turut menyatakan bahawa kaunseling dalam Islam mempunyai pengertian dan kedudukan yang tersendiri. Pelaksanaannya mesti berdasarkan syariat dan bukan sekadar proses menolong dan membantu individu menyesuaikan diri dengan pelbagai masalah dihadapinya. Oleh itu, penyelesaian mesti merujuk kepada petunjuk dalam dua sumber syariat yang sudah dinyatakan, iaitu Al-Qur’an dan Al-Sunnah. Anak yang bermasalah mestilah didekatkan dengan penghayatan membaca, memahami ayat Al-Qur’an dan Al-Sunnah yang dapat menyedarkan mereka atas perbuatan dan keterlanjuran yang dilakukan (Aminudin, 2012). Mary (2012 ) pula menyatakan bahawa sifat kanak-kanak yang suka meneroka, mencuba sesuatu benda baru, bermain dan berkawan menjadi salah satu faktor mereka tidak mempunyai pengetahuan dan kefahaman yang secukupnya untuk mengenali bahaya. Beliau berpendapat kanak-kanak tidak mempunyai kematangan untuk melihat situasi dari sudut yang berlainan dan membuat penilaian yang baik. Tambahan pula, apabila mereka seronok bermain, mereka mudah leka dan mungkin tidak boleh bertindak balas dengan cukup cepat terhadap bahaya yang datang secara tiba-tiba dan tidak diduga. Oleh itu, Mary (2012) yang juga seorang Pakar Pediatrik menyatakan bahawa ibu bapa perlu memainkan peranan melatih anak-anak dengan menerangkan tentang peraturan keselamatan. Dalam masa yang sama, ibu bapa perlu menunjukkan contoh yang baik kepada anakanak dengan mematuhi peraturan ini. Selain itu, apabila menemani anak-anak keluar untuk berjalan-jalan dan bersiar-siar, ibu bapa patut menunjukkan situasi yang boleh mengundang bahaya dan mengingatkan anak© ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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anak tentang peraturan-peraturan keselamatan supaya mereka boleh membiasakan diri dan menjadikannya sebahagian daripada rutin tetap (Mary, 2012 ). Kajian Aminuddin Ruskam dan Siti Nur Huda (2010) yang dijalankan di Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia ini secara keseluruhannya menunjukkan bahawa pelajar peka tentang jenayah terhadap kanakkanak. Selain itu, dapatan juga menunjukkan bahawa kebimbangan masyarakat tentang jenayah terhadap kanak-kanak adalah pada tahap yang tinggi. Namun, punca berlakunya jenayah kanak-kanak ini adalah dari diri sendiri yang kurang didikan agama, dari ibu bapa yang mengabaikan tanggungjawab, serta masyarakat yang tidak peduli keadaan sekeliling. Oleh itu, semua pihak bertanggungjawab memainkan peranan masingmasing untuk mengatasi masalah ini. Masalah penculikan kanak-kanak tidak lagi mengenal kedudukan, pangkat serta kekayaan sesebuah keluarga miliki. Senario menculik kanak-kanak dan meminta wang tebusan bukan lagi satu fakta yang harus diikuti kerana ianya kini sudah berubah. Oleh itu, pelbagai tindakan perlu dilakukan untuk mengatasi masalah penculikan dari terus berleluasa. Salah satunya adalah mempertingkatkan pertahanan diri. Hal ini turut diakui oleh Azrul Affandi (2012) yang menyatakan bahawa kanak-kanak perlu diajar ilmu pertahankan diri dan menanamkan rasa curiga terhadap orang yang tidak dikenali. Menurut Azrul Affandi (2012), kanak-kanak perlu diajar cara mempertahankan diri, sekurang-kurangnya tahu menepis atau mengelak apabila dipegang seseorang, tidak menyerah begitu saja. Paling penting, mereka perlu belajar teknik mengawal situasi. Jika ada sesuatu yang mencurigakan, mereka berupaya mengelak segera. Dalam masa yang sama juga, ibu bapa perlu menanam rasa curiga dalam kalangan anak mereka. Sebagai contoh, jika nampak kenderaan diperlahankan berhampiran mereka, cepat beredar dan berada di tempat ramai orang. Tidak boleh selalu bersangka baik kerana ia berisiko membahayakan diri pula. Mustaffa (2004) menegaskan bahawa pendidikan keibubapaan adalah sebagai salah satu elemen dalam membentuk sikap ibu bapa yang prihatin terhadap anak-anak. Menurut Mustaffa (2004 ), pendidikan keibubapaan penting untuk dipelajari oleh semua ibu bapa dalam mmengetahui serba serbi berkaitan dengan perkembangan kanak-kanak, ilmu psikologi, ilmu pendidikan, ilmu kesihatan, ilmu pemakanan, ilmu keselamatan dan sebagainya. Pengetahuan yang mendalam terhadap semua aspek ini dapat membantu dalam menyempurnakan tugas dan tanggungjawab sebagai ibu bapa. Menurut Giordano, Monica dan Wendy (2001) struktur keluarga mampu mempengaruhi kepada masalah kepada anak-anak.

METODOLOGI Reka bentuk kajian berbentuk kuantitatif yang digunakan adalah kaedah tinjauan (borang soal selidik). Sampel kajian adalah seramai 300 orang responden yang terdiri daripada masyarakat di negeri Kedah. Cara pemilihan responden dibuat dengan menggunakan kaedah persampelan rawak ringkas. Instrumen dalam kajian ini telah diubahsuai daripada kajian-kajian lepas mengikut kesesuaian kajian yang mengambil kira pemboleh ubah pendapat masyarakat terhadap peranan ibu-bapa dalam menjaga dan mengawasi anak-anak, faktor-faktor penyebab berlakunya kecuaian dan strategi yang disarankan dalam mengatasi masalah kecuaian. Data akan dianalisis dengan menggunakan pakej komputer Statistical Package For Sciences (SPSS) Windows versi 20.0. Penganalisisan ini melibatkan statistik deskriptif yang melibatkan pengiraan kekerapan dan peratusan bagi setiap pemboleh ubah. Persembahan data kekerapan dan peratusan ini akan dipersembahkan menggunakan jadual bagi menunjukkan gambaran keseluruhan hasil kajian.

HASIL KAJIAN Pendapat Masyarakat Terhadap Peranan Ibu bapa Dalam Menjaga dan Mengawasi Anak-Anak Jadual 1 memerihalkan dapatan kajian bagi item-item pemboleh ubah pendapat masyarakat terhadap peranan ibu-bapa/penjaga dalam menjaga dan mengawasi anak-anak. Hasil dapatan kajian bagi item anakanak perlu dipaksa untuk mematuhi apa yang ibu bapa mereka fikirkan betul demi untuk kebaikan mereka menunjukkan responden bersetuju dengan penyataan tersebut di mana sebanyak 39.3 peratus menyatakan sedemikian. 36 peratus responden menyatakan tidak pasti dan 24.7 peratus tidak setuju dengan penyataan item tersebut. Bagi item Ibu bapa harus mengamalkan kaedah ‘give-and-take’ apabila mendapati peraturan dalam keluarga tidak memberi kesan baik kepada anak-anak menunjukkan sebanyak 59.7 peratus menyatakan setuju dengan penyataan tersebut. Selebihnya menyatakan tidak pasti (30.0%) dan tidak bersetuju (10.3%). Dari segi item kebanyakan ibu bapa terlalu merasakan bahawa apa yang anak-anak mereka perlukan adalah © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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mendapat kebebasan untuk membuat keputusan sendiri dan melakukan apa yang mereka mahu lakukan menunjukkan 41.0 peratus dan 40.7 peratus responden menyatakan tidak bersetuju dan tidak pasti dengan penyataan tersebut. Hanya 18.3 peratus responden bersetuju bahawa anak-anak bebas melakukan apa sahaja dan membuat keputusan sendiri. Dapatan juga menunjukkan responden (65.3%) bersetuju bahawa ibu bapa seharusnya membenarkan anakanak mereka untuk mempersoalkan setiap keputusan yang telah dibuat oleh mereka. Hanya 26.0 peratus dan 8.7 peratus menyatakan tidak pasti dan tidak bersetuju dengan penyataan item tersebut. Responden juga menyatakan bersetuju dengan item kebanyakan ibu bapa tidak merasakan bahawa anak-anak mereka perlu mematuhi undang-undang dan peraturan-peraturan tingkah laku dengan peratusannya menunjukkan sebanyak 85.7 peratus responden. 11.0 peratus menyatakan tidak pasti dan 3.3 peratus menyatakan tidak bersetuju dengan penyataan item tersebut. 71.7 peratus responden menyatakan kebanyakan ibu bapa terlalu menginginkan anak-anak mereka menjadi seperti apa yang mereka jangkakan. Hanya 19.3 peratus responden tidak pasti dan 9.0 peratus tidak bersetuju. Hasil analisis juga menunjukkan responden (72.7%) bersetuju bahawa ibu bapa perlu bijak mengajar anak-anak mereka sejak awal yang mereka adalah bos dalam keluarga dan perlu dipatuhi. Hanya 22.0 peratus menyatakan tidak pasti dan 5.3 peratus tidak bersetuju dengan penyataan tersebut. Namun dari segi item kebanyakan ibu bapa jarang memberikan anak-anak harapan dan garis panduan bagi tingkah laku mereka menunjukkan responden (50.3%) tidak bersetuju dengan penyataan tersebut. 30.3 peratus menyatakan tidak pasti dan 19.3 peratus bersetuju dengan penyataan tersebut. Responden (41.6%) juga menyatakan bahawa kebanyakan ibu bapa merasakan bahawa masalah dalam masyarakat akan diselesaikan jika ibu bapa tidak menyekat aktiviti anak-anak mereka, keputusan, dan keinginan mereka. 41.3 peratus tidak pasti sama ada perlu menyekat aktiviti-aktiviti anak mereka 17.0 menyatakan perkara tersebut perlu disekat. Responden (51.7%) juga bersetuju bahawa kecuaian ibu bapa antara punca menyebabkan jenayah penculikan terhadap kanak-kanak. Hanya 35.7 peratus tidak pasti dan 12.7 peratus tidak bersetuju bahawa kecuaian menyebabkan berlakunya jenayah penculikan. Jadual 1: Pendapat masyarakat terhadap peranan ibu bapa dalam menjaga dan mengawasi anak-anak mengikut item

Item

Tidak Setuju f

Tidak Pasti

Setuju

%

f

%

f

%

Anak-anak perlu dipaksa untuk mematuhi apa yang ibubapa mereka fikirkan betul demi untuk kebaikan mereka.

74

24.7

108

36.0

118

39.3

Ibubapa harus mengamalkan kaedah ‘giveand-take’ apabila mendapati peraturan dalam keluarga tidak memberi kesan baik kepada anak-anak.

31

10.3

90

30.0

179

59.7

Kebanyakan ibubapa terlalu merasakan bahawa apa yang anak-anak mereka perlukan adalah mendapat kebebasan untuk membuat keputusan sendiri dan melakukan apa yang mereka mahu lakukan.

123

41.0

122

40.7

55

18.3

Ibubapa seharusnya membenarkan anakanak mereka untuk mempersoalkan setiap keputusan yang telah dibuat oleh mereka.

26

8.7

78

26.0

196

65.3

Kebanyakan ibubapa tidak merasakan bahawa anak-anak mereka perlu mematuhi undangundang dan peraturan-peraturan tingkah laku.

10

3.3

33

11.0

257

85.7

Ibu bapa terlalu menginginkan anak-anak mereka menjadi seperti apa yang mereka jangkakan.

27

9.0

58

19.3

215

71.7

Ibubapa perlu bijak mengajar anak-anak mereka sejak awal yang mereka adalah bos dalam keluarga dan perlu dipatuhi.

16

5.3

66

22.0

218

72.7

Kebanyakan ibubapa jarang memberikan anak-anak harapan dan garis panduan bagi tingkah laku mereka.

151

50.3

91

30.3

58

19.3

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Item

Tidak Setuju

Tidak Pasti

Setuju

f

%

f

%

f

%

Kebanyakan Ibubapa merasakan bahawa masalah dalam masyarakat akan diselesaikan jika ibu bapa tidak menyekat aktiviti anak-anak mereka, keputusan,dan keinginan mereka.

51

17.0

124

41.3

125

41.6

Kecuaian ibu bapa antara punca menyebabkan jenayah penculikan terhadap kanak-kanak.

38

12.7

107

35.7

155

51.7

Persepsi Masyarakat Terhadap Faktor-Faktor Kecuaian Ibu Bapa Dalam Menjaga Anak-Anak Hasil dapatan kajian (Jadual 2) bagi persepsi masyarakat terhadap faktor-faktor kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anak-anak menunjukkan secara keseluruhannya menyatakan bersetuju bahawa lapan faktor penyebab kepada berlakunya kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anak-anak. Faktor-faktor penyebab tersebut akan diterangkan satu persatu. Faktor utama yang menyebabkan berlakunya kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anak-anak adalah kerana sesebuah keluarga terlalu besar sehinggakan payah hendak diberi perhatian oleh ibu bapa di mana sebanyak 85.7 peratus responden menyatakan sedemikian. 11 peratus menyatakan tidak pasti dan 3.3 peratus menyatakan faktor tersebut bukan penyumbang utama kepada masalah kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anak-anak. Faktor kedua disebabkan perubahan struktur dalam keluarga penyumbang (85.3%) dan masalah komunikasi (85.3%) dalam sesebuah keluarga penyebab berlakunya kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anak-anak. Faktor ketiga disebabkan usia dan tahap kematangan ibu bapa terutamanya golongan muda yang berkahwin mengambil remeh tentang penjagaan anak-anak di mana sebanyak 77.7 peratus responden menyatakan sedemikian. Selebihnya iaitu 16.7 peratus responden tidak pasti dan 5.7 peratus menyatakan tidak bersetuju bahawa faktor tersebut menyumbang kepada masalah kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anak-anak. Faktor keempat, responden (76.3%) bersetuju bahawa kurangnya praktis didikan agama dalam sesebuah kekeluargaan penyebab berlakunya kecuaian. Hanya 18.0 peratus dan 5.7 peratus responden menyatakan tidak pasti dan tidak bersetuju dengan penyataan item tersebut. Faktor kelima disebabkan situasi ekonomi (74.0%) dalam kehidupan yang semakin hari semakin tinggi merupakan penyebab berlakunya kecuaian. Hal ini disebabkan ibu bapa sibuk untuk meningkatkan ekonomi sehingga mengabaikan anak-anak. 68 peratus dan 3.3 peratus responden menyatakan tidak pasti dan tidak bersetuju dengan penyataan item tersebut. Faktor keenam, responden (71.7%) bersetuju bahawa kejadian-kejadian yang berlaku sebelum ini kurang diberi perhatian oleh ibu bapa. Mungkin belum terjadi pada keluarga mereka hal itu mereka kurang mengambil perhatian terhadap perkara yang berlaku sebelum ini. 24.0 peratus dan 4.3 peratus menyatakan tidak pasti dan tidak bersetuju bahawa faktor tersebut penyebab berlakunya kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anakanak. Faktor ketujuh iaitu yang terakhir, 61.3 peratus responden menyatakan kesibukan bekerja merupakan salah satu faktor juga penyebab berlakunya kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anak-anak. Hanya 26.3 peratus dan 12.3 peratus menyatakan tidak pasti dan tidak bersetuju dengan penyataan item tersebut. Jadual 2: Faktor-faktor berlakunya kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anak-anak mengikut item

Item

Tidak Setuju f

Tidak Pasti

Setuju

%

f

%

f

%

79

26.3

184

61.3

Kesibukan bekerja

37

12.3

Komunikasi

14

4.7

30

10.0

256

85.3

Situasi ekonomi semasa menyebabkan keluarga memerlukan dua sumber pendapatan untuk menampung kos sara hidup yang semakin tinggi

10

3.3

68

22.7

222

74.0

Ibu bapa tidak mengambil iktibar kejadiankejadian sebelum ini

13

4.3

72

24.0

215

71.7

Kurangnya praktis didikan agama dalam sesebuah kekeluargaan

17

5.7

54

18.0

229

76.3

Perubahan struktur dalam keluarga

11

3.7

33

11.0

256

85.3

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Item

Tidak Setuju

Tidak Pasti

Setuju

f

%

f

%

f

%

Usia dan tahap kematangan ibu bapa

17

5.7

50

16.7

233

77.7

Keluarga besar

10

3.3

33

11.0

257

85.7

Langkah-Langkah Mengatasi Masalah Kecuaian Terhadap Kanak-Kanak Jadual 3 memerihalkan dapatan kajian bagi langkah-langkah atau cadangan sesuai dalam mengatasi masalah kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anak-anak. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan sebanyak 90.0 peratus responden mencadangkan langkah utama untuk mengatasi masalah ini iaitu pihak Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga dan Masyarakat; Menteri yang menjaga portfolio Undang-Undang, Pejabat Peguam Negara dan Polis DiRaja Malaysia harus merangka satu undang-undang atau memperbaiki undang-undang yang sedia ada untuk mengambil tindakan tegas jika terbukti kematian dan kehilangan anak-anak yang tidak berdosa ini disebabkan oleh kecuaian dan sikap tidak bertanggungjawab ibu bapa. Langkah kedua yang dicadangkan oleh responden iaitu sebanyak 85.3 peratus menyatakan bahawa kebanyakan masalah dalam masyarakat akan dapat diselesaikan jika kita boleh mendapatkan ibu bapa yang tegas dan secara paksa berurusan dengan anak-anak mereka apabila mereka tidak melakukan apa yang mereka sepatutnya lakukan. Langkah ketiga iaitu Ibu bapa harus memberitahu anak-anak tentang tingkah laku yang diharapkan dan jika anak-anak tidak memenuhi jangkaan yang mereka inginkan, hukuman harus diberi kepada anak-anak di mana sebanyak 81.7 peratus bersetuju dengan penyataan tersebut. Langkah keempat, iaitu sebanyak 79.0 peratus responden menyatakan ibu bapa perlu menggunakan kuasa yang lebih untuk memastikan anak-anak mereka berkelakuan seperti apa yang mereka inginkan. Langkah kelima, ibu bapa perlu sentiasa memberi arahan dan panduan yang rasional dan berobjektif kepada anak-anak di mana sebanyak 76.3 peratus responden menyatakan sedemikian. Begitu juga langkah seterusnya (langkah keenam) di mana 72.0 peratus responden menyatakan ibu bapa perlu sentiasa menimba ilmu tentang aspek-aspek keselamatan kanak-kanak melalui pembacaan buku ataupun majalah yang sesuai. 68.3 peratus responden mencadangkan ibu bapa harus sentiasa mengarahkan aktivitiaktiviti dan keputusan anak-anak dalam keluarga melalui tindakan disiplin (langkah ketujuh). Langkah yang terakhir yang dicadangkan oleh responden iaitu sebanyak 60.0 peratus mencadangkan supaya Akta KanakKanak 2001:Penguatkuasaan semula tugas dan tanggungjawab ibu bapa atau penjaga perlu dikaji balik. Namun dari segi cadangan praktis kerja sosial dan kaunseling dalam kalangan guru kaunselor atau Pekerja sosial sekolah dalam mengatasi masalah ini kebanyakan responden iaitu sebanyak 65.7 peratus menyatakan tidak pasti. Hal ini mungkin kerana mereka tidak mengetahui lebih lanjut peranan atau tugas kaunseling dan pekerja sosial di sekolah. Hanya 21.7 peratus bersetuju langkah ini perlu dikemukan. Jadual 3 - Langkah-langkah atau strategi bagi mengatasi masalah kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anak-anak mengikut item

Item

Tidak Setuju f

% 6.0

Tidak Pasti

Setuju

f

%

f

%

77

25.7

205

68.3

Ibubapa harus sentiasa mengarahkan aktivitiaktiviti dan keputusan anak-anak dalam keluarga melalui tindakan disiplin.

18

Ibubapa perlu menggunakan kuasa yang lebih untuk memastikan anak-anak mereka berkelakuan seperti apa yang mereka inginkan.

14

4.7

49

16.3

237

79.0

Ibubapa perlu sentiasa memberi arahan dan panduan yang rasional dan berobjektif kepada anak-anak.

11

3.7

60

20.0

229

76.3

Ibubapa harus memberitahu anak-anak tentang tingkah laku yang diharapkan dan jika anak-anak tidak memenuhi jangkaan yang mereka inginkan, hukuman harus diberi kepada anak-anak.

7

2.3

48

16.0

245

81.7

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Tidak Setuju

Item

f

Tidak Pasti

Setuju

%

f

%

f

%

Kebanyakan masalah dalam masyarakat akan dapat diselesaikan jika kita boleh mendapatkan ibu bapa yang tegas dan secara paksa berurusan dengan anak-anak mereka apabila mereka tidak melakukan apa yang mereka sepatutnya lakukan.

9

3.0

35

11.7

256

85.3

ibu bapa perlu sentiasa menimba ilmu tentang aspek-aspek keselamatan kanak-kanak melalui pembacaan buku ataupun majalah yang sesuai

18

6.0

66

22.0

216

72.0

Praktis kerja sosial dan kaunseling dalam kalangan guru kaunselor atau Pekerja sosial sekolah

38

12.7

197

65.7

65

21.7

Akta Kanak-Kanak 2001:Penguatkuasaan semula tugas dan tanggungjawab ibu bapa atau penjaga

48

16.0

72

24.0

180

60.0

Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga dan Masyarakat; Menteri yang menjaga portfolio Undang-Undang, Pejabat Peguam Negara dan Polis DiRaja Malaysia harus merangka satu undang-undang atau memperbaiki undang-undang yang sedia ada untuk mengambil tindakan tegas jika terbukti kematian dan kehilangan anak-anak yang tidak berdosa ini disebabkan oleh kecuaian dan sikap tidak bertanggungjawab ibu bapa.

12

4.0

18

6.0

270

90.0

PERBINCANGAN Peranan Ibu Bapa/Penjaga Dalam Menjaga dan Mengawasi Anak-Anak. Dapatan analisis kajian menunjukkan anak perlu dipaksa dalam membantu ibu bapa mengawasi anak mereka, dengan 59.7% menyatakan setuju cara gaya mengawasi anak-anak melalui paksaan. Dapatan ini selari dengan penyataan dalam Al-Qur’an yang menyatakan ibu bapa mempunyai kedudukan yang tinggi dalam menentukan hala tuju keluarga. Begitu juga penyataan Aminuddin (2012), yang menyatakan ibu bapa adalah pembimbing, kaunselor dan pemimpin dalam keluarga. Malah menurut beliau lagi ibu bapa adalah model terbaik dalam menentukan kesinambungan kehebatan peribadi keluarga, khususnya anak-anak. Dapatan ini selari dengan dapatan Noor Hamizah (2012), yang menyatakan ibu bapa mempunyai tanggungjawab penyelamat dalam menentukan keperibadian anak-anak di masa hadapan. Pendapat dan ulasan penyelidik sebelumnya yang selari dengan dapatan kajian ini membuktikan pendidikan secara paksaan dalam penerapan elemen nilai murni dalam keluarga amat berkesan.

Faktor-Faktor Kecuaian Ibu Bapa Dalam Menjaga Anak-Anak Analisis soalan kajian kedua iaitu faktor kecuaian ibu bapa dalam menjaga anak-anak menunjukkan pengaruh saiz atau bilangan anggota keluarga dan perubahan struktur keluarga menjadi punca utama. Hasil analisis kajian selari dengan dapatan Noor Hamizah (2012), Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat (2009), Lee (2012), dan Mustaffa (2004), merumuskan kemampuan dan kebolehkuasai ahli atau kelompok dalam keluarga dapat membantu anak-anak mudah dikawal. Anak –anak yang ramai dalam sebuah keluarga akan menyebabkan kebolehmampuan mengawal, mengenal pasti, memberi perhatian dan kasih saying menjadi begitu terhad. Kajian Noor Aziah (2012), menepati dapatan kajian ini, di bina struktur keluarga yang pincang, seperti perceraian, keganasan dan permasalahan sosial ekonomi akan menjadi punca kecuaian dalam keluarga. Kecuaian dalam mengemudikan keluarga boleh menjadi terbantut kerana faktor-faktor kewangan, perceraian dan saiz keluarga yang besar, begitu juga pengaruh sosial ekonomi turut mengerakkan kepada permasalahan kecuaian.

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Langkah-Langkah Menangani Masalah Kecuaian Terhadap Kanak- Kanak Dapatan kajian menunjukkan langkah yang terbaik dalam menghadapi sikap kecuaian ibu bapa adalah melalui perundangan yang lebih ketat, cara gaya paksaan dalam mendidik anak-anak dan ibu bapa perlu bersikap rasional dalam tindakan mendidik dan membesarkan anak-anak. Dapatan yang selari dengan kehendak agama Islam, dalam mendidik anak-anak perlu ada toleransi dan kekerasan mendidik mengikut situasi. Begitu juga dalam kajian oleh Mustaffa (2004), menyatakan keperluan ibu bapa memahami pendidikan keibubapaan. Bukan sahaja Mustaffa (2004), malah Giordano, Monica dan Wendy (2001) bersependapat dengan dapatan kajian ini. Keputusan kajian selari dengan dapatan kajian sebelum ini, dapat dirumuskan bahawa pendidikan keibubapaan, bersama undang – undang yang lebih tegas dan mendekatakan anak-anak bersama keluarga dalam menghayati Al-Qur’an adalah jalan terbaik dalam menghadapi isu-isu kecuaian ibu bapa terhadap anak-anak.

KESIMPULAN Hasil dari dapatan kajian jelas menunjukkan peranan ibu bapa dan keluarganya mempengaruhi sikap kecuaian dalam membesar, mendidik dan mengasuh anak-anak. Keluarga yang kucar kacir, contoh perceraian, saiz keluarga yang besar, faktor sosial ekonomi dan kefahaman ibu bapa dalam ilmu keibubapaan menunjukkan faktor utama kepada kecuaian ibu bapa dalam keluarga terhadap anak-anak. Erti kata yang tepat tidak melaksanakan amanah Allah S.W.T dalam membesar dan mendidik anak-anak.

RUJUKAN Al-Qur’an, Surah Al-Anfal, ayat 28 Al-Qur’an, Surah At-Taghabun, ayat 64 : 15 Aminuddin Ruskam Al-Dawamy & Siti Nur Huda Sulaiman (2010). Persepsi pelajar tentang kejadian jenayah terhadap kanak-kanak. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia: Fakulti Pendidikan. Akhbar Satar (2012), Kanak-kanak seawal empat tahun wajar diberi pendedahan jenayah. Sinar Harian. Atas talian http://www.sinarharian.com.my. Aminudin Mansor (2012). Penjernihan roh imbangi nafsu. Harian Metro. Atas talian http://www.hmetro.com. my/. Farah Nini Dusuki (2009. The UN convention on the rights of the child and the administration of juvenile justice: An examination of the position in Malaysia. Asia Law Quarterly, 1(1), 141-158. Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat (2009). Dasar Kanak-Kanak Negara. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat (2009). Dasar Perlindungan Kanak-Kanak Negara. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat. Lee Lam Thye (2012) Didik kanak-kanak cara hindari jenayah. Harian Metro. Atas talian http://www.hmetro. com.my/. Giordano, P,. C., Monica A., L, & Wendy D., M. (2001). “A conceptual portrait of adolescent romantic relationships. Sociological Studies of Children and Youth, 11–39. Mary Joseph Marret (2012 ). Keep your child safe. Protect & Save The Children Association. Selangor: Petaling Jaya. Md. Azrin Rosly (2014). Pinda Akta Kanak-kanak 2001. Utusan Malaysia. Atas talian http://www.utusan.com. my. Muhammad Rizal Razman (2002). Pemakaian undang-undang kecuaian dalam menangani pencemaran alam sekitar di Malaysia. Isu-isu persekitaran di Malaysia, 61-76. Mustaffa Daud (2004). Pendidikan keibubapaan: Satu pengenalan ringkas. Universiti Utara Malaysia: Jabatan Pengajian Umum, Fakulti Sains Kognitif dan Pendidikan. Noor Aziah Mohd Awal (2012). Elok jaga tepi kain orang. Harian Metro. Atas talian http://www.hmetro.com. my/. Noor Hamizah Abu Bakar (2012). Jaga keselamatan anak-anak anda. Utusan Malaysia. Atas talian http://www. utusan.com.my/.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

KESEDARAN METAKOGNITIF : IMPLIKASI TERHADAP KEYAKINAN DIRI MANUSIA Hilmiyah Zakaria* & Noor Azniza Ishak *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Kajian ini adalah untuk mengkaji kesedaran metakognitif pelajar dan implikasinya terhadap keyakinan pelajar. Kajian kuantitatif secara soal selidik pada peringkat kajian awal (preliminary study) ini melibatkan 60 orang pelajar tingkatan 5 (19 lelaki dan 41 perempuan) yang terdiri dari dua kelompok kelas yang berbeza tahap pencapaian akademik. Kelompok A mempunyai pencapaian akademik yang lebih baik berbanding kelompok B.Kajian ini menggunakan inventori ‘Metacognitive Awareness Inventory’ (MAI) untuk mengukur tahap metakognitif. Nilai kebolehpercayaan Cronbach Alpha yang diperolehi ialah .928. MAI terdiri dari dua komponen utama iaitu pengetahuan kognisi dan peraturan kognisi serta lapan sub-komponen yang lain. Hasil kajian secara keseluruhan menunjukkan tahap metakognitif pelajar berada pada tahap sederhana. Perbandingan dua kelompok kelas menunjukkan kelompok A mempunyai skor metakognitif yang lebih baik dengan min 130.67 berbanding kelompok B dengan min 106.60. Pelajar-pelajar dalam kelompok A juga mempunyai skor metakognitif yang lebih tinggi berbanding pelajar kelompok B bagi semua sub-komponen yang diukur. Analisa menunjukkan tidak terdapat perhubungan yang signifikan antara jantina dengan tahap metakognitif. Walaupun begitu, min tahap metakognitif pelajar lelaki didapati lebih tinggi iaitu 122.03 manakala min tahap metakognitif pelajar perempuan ialah 116.68. Metakognitif memberikan implikasi terhadap keyakinan diri pelajar dari sudut konsep kendiri dan juga penghargaan kendiri. Keywords: metakognitif, keyakinan, pencapaian, jantina

PENGENALAN Kehidupan manusia masa kini penuh dengan pelbagai cabaran dan ujian. Setiap detik pasti ada peristiwa berlaku yang memerlukan kita sebagai manusia normal berfikir dan bertindak dengan waras kerana segala tindakan dan tingkah laku kita akan memberi kesan kepada diri kita, keluarga, rakan dan masyarakat umumnya. Fikiran yang matang dan yakin dengan diri sendiri menyumbang kepada kesejahteraan manusia sejagat. Justeru itu, untuk menjamin kehidupan yang sejahtera, manusia harus mempunyai keyakinan diri yang mantap supaya sesuatu perkara yang dihadapi dapat difikirkan dengan bijak dan betul. Peningkatan tahap keyakinan diri akan memperbaiki kehidupan manusia, interaksi sesama manusia bahkan juga kepada orang-orang di sekeliling kita. Dalam proses membuat sesuatu keputusan, otak manusia akan berfikir dan berfikir yang dinamakan metakognitif. Perjalanan kehidupan seharian memerlukan manusia berfikir untuk melakukan sesuatu perkara. Namun, tahap berfikir itu tidak sama bermula dari tahap berfikir yang rendah sehinggalah kepada peringkat berfkir yang tinggi. Biasanya untuk melakukan perkara seharian yang telah menjadi rutin kehidupan seharian seperti pengurusan diri tidak memerlukan tahap pemikiran yang tinggi. Eggen & Kauchack (1996) menyatakan pemikiran aras tinggi dan pemikiran kritikal melibatkan kombinasi pemahaman yang mendalam dalam Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

sesuatu perkara atau topik serta aplikasi proses kognitif secara berkesan.Apabila seseorang manusia itu sedar tentang proses pemikirannya maka adalah mudah baginya untuk mengawal tindakan yang akan diambil seterusnya. Kesedaran berfikir ini apabila wujud memerlukan seseorang individu merancang, memantau dan menilai apa yang dipelajarinya. Pendekatan metakognitif di Malaysia dimulakan dengan sekolah bestari di mana pendekatan pengajaran terdiri daripada strategi arahan, strategi pemerhatian, strategi perundingan, strategi penjanaan, strategi kolaboratif, strategi konteks luaran dan strategi metakognitif (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 1997). Strategi metakognitif menekankan konsep perbincangan dan konsep renungan. Pelajar akan terlibat dalam sesi perbincangan, sesi refleksi dan sesi dialog (Ab. Rahim, 2000). Di samping itu, pelajar seharusnya sentiasa didorong untuk terusmemperkembangkan kebolehan meta kognitif mereka bagi meningkatkan kualitipemikiran dan tingkah laku dalam kehidupan mereka kelak. Kaunselor boleh membantu pelajar menyedari proses pemikiran yang terlibat semasa prosespembelajaran dan bagaimana mereka boleh menggunakan kesedarantersebut untuk meningkatkan prestasi akademik. Mereka digalakkan mempertingkatkan kebolehan meta kognitif dengan mengamalkan regulasi kendiri dalam proses pembelajaran yang dijalankan bagi memperbaiki prestasi akademik mereka.

METODOLOGI Kaedah kajian adalah berbentuk tinjauan dengan mengedarkan soal selidik kepada semua pelajar dari setiap kelompok kelas yang dipilih. Seramai 60 orang pelajar tingkatan lima dari sebuah sekolah luar bandar di Kedah telah dipilih dalam kajian ini. Pelajar telah dikelompokkan kepada dua kelas iaitu kelompok A dan kelompok B. Setiap kelompok terdiri dari 30 orang. Pelajar dari kelompok A mempunyai pencapaian akademik yang lebih baik berbanding dengan kelompok B. Inventori yang digunakan untuk mengukur tahap metakognitif ialah Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI). MAI dibina oleh (Schraw & Dennison (1994) untuk menilai tahap metakognisi pelajar. MAI terdiri daripada 52 item yang terdiri dari dua komponen iaitu komponen pengetahuan kognisi dan regulasikognisi. Komponen pengetahuan kognisi terdiri daripada 17 item yang terdiri dari 8 item pengetahuan deklaratif (declarative knowledge), 4 item pengetahuan prosedural (procedural knowledge) dan 5 item pengetahuan kondisional (conditional knowledge). Bagi komponen regulasi kognisi terdiri daripada 35 item iaitu 7 item perancangan (planning), 10 item strategi pengurusan maklumat (information management strategies), 7 item pemantauan kefahaman (comprehension monitoring), 5 item strategi debug (debugging strategies) dan 6 item penilaian (evaluation). Schraw & Dennison (1994), telah mehagikan metakognitif kepada dua komponen iaitu pengetahuan kognisi dan regulasi kognisi. Pengetahuan kognisi boleh disub-katagorikan kepada tiga subkomponen iaitu pengetahuan deklaratif, pengetahuan prosedural dan pengetahuan kondisional (Schraw & Moshman, 1995). Ia merujuk kepada apa yang individu tahu tentang kognisi mereka dan membantu pelajar mengawal pembelajaran mereka. Rajah 1 menggambarkan komponen metakognitif menurut Schraw & Dennison (1994). Pengetahuan metakognitif bolehlah diterangkan sebagai apa yang kita tahu mengenai proses kognitif pada diri kita sendiri. Regulasi kognisi pula boleh dikatagorikan kepada lima sub-katagori iaitu perancangan, pengurusan maklumat, pemantauan kefahaman, strategi debug dan penilaian. Regulasi kognisi merupakan pengetahuan mengenai cara-cara untuk merancang dan melaksanakan strategi, memantau dan menilai sesuatu kefahaman dengan betul. Pengetahuan deklaratif merujuk kepada pengetahuan yang dipunyai oleh seorang individu mengenai maklumat atau sumber-sumber yang diperlukan misalnya apakah objektif sesuatu tugasan, apakah sumber yang diperlukan untuk selesaikan masalah dan apakah jenis tugas yang berkaitan untuk menjalankan tugas yang diberikan. Ia melibatkan apa yang kita tahu mengenai bagaimana kita belajar dan apa yang mempengaruhi pembelajaran kita. Pengetahuan prosedural merujuk kepada pengetahuan atau kepercayaan seseorang mengenai sesuatu tugas yang diberikan dan perkara yang akan dilakukan. Ia juga merupakan pengetahuan mengenai perbezaan pembelajaran dan strategi atau prosesur ingatan yang sesuai dengan seseorang individu.Persepsi kendiri individu akan mempengaruhi keupayaan seseorang untuk melakukan sesuatu tugasan. Kebanyakan pengetahuan ini diwakili secara huristik dan strategi. Individu yang mempunyai tahap pengetahuan prosedural yang tinggi akan dapat melakukan sesuatu kerja secara spontan dan berupaya untuk mengkategorikan maklumat baru (Pressley, Borkowski, Schneider, 1987). Pengetahuan kondisional pula merujuk kepada bila, mengapa, kemahiran, strategi kognitif, metod dan kaedah yang sesuai digunakan untuk menyelesaikan masalah (Garner, 1990). Pengetahuan kondisional

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penting kepada pelajar untuk memperuntukkan sumber-sumber dan menggunakan strategi dengan lebih berkesan. Pelajar yang berkesan tahu bila dan apa maklumat yang dibacanya serta berupaya merngubahsuai cabaran dalam sesuatu situasi pembelajaran. Rajah 1 : Definisi operasional bagi katagori komponen metakognitif Schraw & Dennison (1994)

Metakognitif

Pengetahuan Kognisi (knowledge of cognition)

a. Pengetahuan deklaratif - pengetahuan mengenai sesuatu kemahiran, sumber intelek, dan keupayaan pelajar (learner) b. Pengetahuan prosedural - pengetahuan bagaimana untuk mengaplikasi prosedur pembelajaran (strategi) c. Pengetahuan kondisional pengetahuan mengenai bila dan kenapa menggunakan prosedur pembelajaran

Regulasi Kognisi (regulation of cognition)

a. Perancangan - perancangan, matlamat dan sumber pengetahuan sedia ada b. Pengurusan maklumat - kemahiran dan susunan strategi yang digunakan untuk memproses maklumat dengan lebih berkesan (susun atur, ulasan, ringkasan) c. Pemantauan - enilaian terhadap sesuatu pembelajaran atau strategi yang digunakan d. Penghapusan (debugging) - strategi yang digunakan untuk membetulkan kefahaman dan prestasi ralat e. Penilaian - menganalisa pencapaian dan keberkesanan strategi selepas sesuatu episod pembelajaran

Pengetahuan bersyarat merujuk kepada mengetahui bila dan mengapa untuk menggunakan perisytiharan dan prosedur pengetahuan. Sebagai contoh, pelajar yang berkesan tahu bila dan apa maklumat yang membacakan. Pengetahuan bersyarat adalah penting kerana ia membantu pelajar terpilih memperuntukkan sumber-sumber mereka dan menggunakan strategi yang lebih berkesan (Reynolds, 1992). Pengetahuan bersyarat juga membolehkan pelajar untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan tuntutan situasi yang berubah-ubah setiap tugas pembelajaran. Secara keseluruhannya, pengetahuankognisi adalah merujuk kepada apa yang kita tahu tentang bagaimana kita belajar; apa yang kita tahu mengenai prosedur dan strategi yang paling berkesan untuk kita; dan, apa yang kita tahu tentang keadaan di mana pelbagai aktiviti kognitif yang paling berkesan (Schraw & Moshman, 1995). Kesimpulannya, pengetahuan deklaratif merujuk kepada mengetahui “tentang” sesuatu perkara; pengetahuan prosedural merujuk kepada mengetahui "bagaimana" untuk melakukan sesuatu; pengetahuan kondisional merujuk kepada mengetahui "mengapa" dan "apabila". Peraturan kognisi merujuk kepada satu set aktiviti yang membantu pelajar mengawal pembelajaran mereka. Instrumen MAI menggunakan skala likert 0 hingga 4 bagi jawapan hampir selalu kepada hampir tidak pernah iaitu 4 = hampir selalu, 3 = selalu, 2 = selalu, 1 = jarang-jarang 0 = hampir tidak pernah.,Pengiraan skor adalah berdasarkan jumlah skala likert 0 - 4. Jadual 1 menunjukkan interpretasi bagi skor metakognitif secara © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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keseluruhan. Interpretasi skor bagi setiap sub-skala adalah berbeza daripada jadual ini. Jadual 1 - Tahap metakognitif secara keseluruhan

Skor

Interpretasi

172 dan ke atas

kesedaran metakognitif yang sangat tinggi

129 – 171

kesedaran metakognitif yang tinggi

86 – 128

kesedaran metakognitif yang sederhana

85 ke bawah

kesedaran metakognitif yang rendah

Objektif Kajian Kajian ini secara umumnya bertujuan untuk menentukan tahap metakognitif pelajar berdasarkan dua kelompok kelas dan implikasinya terhadap keyakinan diri manusia. Objektif khusus kajian ini adalah untuk: a. Mengenalpasti tahap metakognitif pelajar bagi kelompok A dan kelompok B b. Mengenalpasti hubungan antara metakognitif dengan jantina.

KESEDARAN METAKOGNITIF Konsep metakognisi mula diperkenalkan oleh John Flavell pada awal tahun 70-an, berdasarkan terma metaingatan (metamemory) yang bermaksud berfikir tentang pemikiran. Metakognitif diperkenalkan sebagai suatu teknik dalam penyelesaian masalah. Flavell (1979) menganggap metakognisi sebagai "pengetahuan kognisi tentang fenomena kognitif". Ia merupakan suatu proses mental yang menggunakan strategi kognitif untuk memantau, menilai dan merancang proses-proses pembelajaran seseorang (Brown, 1980; Flavell, 1979). Keadaan ini akan memaksa seseorang pelajar untuk berfikir dengan lebih aktif dalam pembelajarannya juga kepada manusia umumnya supaya berfikir dengan lebih cermat dan mendalam dalam membuat sesuatu pekerjaan atau tindakan. Ini kerana metakognitif melibatkan keupayaan otak manusia untuk membangunkan pelan tindakan (sebelum), mengawal dan memantau perancangan (semasa) dan menilai apa yang telah dirancang (selepas) dalam sesuatu tugasan. Metakognitif ditakrifkan dengan pelbagai maksud oleh ahli psikologi. Beyer (1987) menjelaskan metakognitif merupakan kebolehan sesorang individu untuk merancang, memantau dan membuat penilaian di luar kemahiran kognitif. Brown (1980) menyatakan metakognitif sebagai kesedaran atau pengetahuan seseorang untuk mengawal proses berfikir dan aktiviti pembelajaran yang dilakukan. Garner (1990) merujuk metakognitif sebagai kebolehan mengawal proses berfikir dan ia dipengaruhi oleh faktor umur dan pengalaman seseorang individu. Weinert & Kluwe (1987) mengatakan metakognitif sebagai tahap kedua dalam pemikiran manusia yang melibatkan pengetahuan, pemikiran dan refleksi dalam sesuatu tugasan. Livingston (1997) melihat metakognitif sebagai tahap pemikiran aras tinggi yang melibatkan kawalan aktif proses kognitif dalam pembelajaran, perancangan dan bagaimana menyelesaikan sesuatu tugasan. Ormrod (2004) menggambarkan metakognitif sebagai "suatu pengetahuan dan kepercayaan seseorang individu tentang proses kognitifnya dan cubaannya untuk mengawal selia proses-proses kognitif untuk memaksimumkan pembelajaran dan ingatan". Ringkasnya, metakognitif bolehlah dirumuskan sebagai kebolehan dan kemahiran seseorang untuk merenung atau berfikir kembali, memahami dan mengaplikasi strategi kognitif dalam proses berfikir. Antara strategi-strategi kognitif yang dimaksudkan termasuklah latihan(rehearsal), pemantauan ke atas pemahaman (comprehension monitoring) menyusun atur (organization), penghuraian (elaboration) dan strategi afektif (seperti pengurusan masa, menumpu perhatian, mengawal kebimbangan dan sebagainya). Rubin (2001) menerangkan strategi metakognitif sebagai teknik pengurusan di mana seseorang pelajar mengawal pembelajaranya melalui perancangan, pemantauan, penilaian dan modifikasi dalam pendekatan pembelajarannya.Ketikapembelajaran sedang berjalan, seseorang individu boleh memikirkan kemahiran dan strategi yang sesuai mengikut keperluan tugasan pemikiran dan ia penting kerana mempengaruhi proses pembelajaran individu. Kepentingan strategi metakognitif telah ditekankan oleh (O’Malley, Chamot, StewnerManzanares, P.Russo, & Kupper, 1985) dengan menyatakan bahawa pelajar yang belajar tanpa menggunakan pendekatan metakognitif pada dasarnya adalah belajar tanpa arahan atau peluang untuk mengkaji semula kemajuan, pencapaian dan hala tuju masa depan mereka. Pembelajaran begini akan menyebabkan pelajar lemah kerana mereka kurang mahir dalam mengatur strategi metakognitif dalam menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah yang diberi (Schoenfeld, 1987). Justeru itu, kemahiran metakognitif yang berkesan perlu diajar kepada pelajar kerana ia dapat membantu meningkatkan prestasi (Paris & Winograd, 1990). © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Metakognitif memainkan peranan penting dalam setiap aspek kehidupan manusia termasuk komunikasi, pembacaan (pemahaman), pemerolehan (acquisition) bahasa, kognitif sosial, perhatian, kawalan kendiri, ingatan, arahan kendiri, menulis, penyelesaian masalah, dan pembangunan personaliti (Flavell, 1979; Okoza, Aluede, & Owens-Sogolo, 2013). Kepentingan metakognitif tidak terhad kepada pembelajaran seorang pelajar sahaja malah kepada manusia amnya kerana kehidupan melibatkan pembelajaran sepanjang hayat sama ada secara sedar atau tidak. Metakognitif penting untuk pembelajaran yang berjaya kerana ia membolehkan seseorang individu menguruskan kemahiran kogntif dengan lebih baik dan juga menentukan kelemahan yang boleh dibetulkan dengan pembinaan semula kemahiran kognitif yang baru.

IMPLIKASI METAKOGNITIF TERHADAP KEYAKINAN DIRI MANUSIA Keyakinan adalah kepercayaan yang benar-benar mantap oleh seseorang individu tentang sesuatu atau seseorang. Keyakinan diri boleh ditafsirkan sebagai kepercayaan yang tinggi bahawa seseorang individu itu dapat mengatasi segala halangan dan cabaran dalam hidup dengan baik. Keyakinan diri merupakan konstruk psikologi yang penting dalam memahami tingkah laku manusia dan mempunyai kaitan dengan kesejahteraan manusia (Maclellan, 2014). Justeru itu, kebolehan seseorang individu mengatasi segala halangan dalam hidup banyak dipengaruhi oleh keyakinan pada diri sendiri yang secara tidak langsung mempengaruhi penghargaan kendiri. Manusia yang mempunyai keyakinan diri boleh menjana dan memproses maklumat dengan baik serta lebih berhati-hati berbanding dengan individu yang mempunyai tahap keyakinan yang rendah (Wan & Rucker, 2013). Proses menjana dan memproses maklumat ini merupakan sebahagian dari proses metakognitif yang terlibat dalam pemikiran manusia Pemikiran yang jelas dan kebolehan pemikiran untuk memproses maklumat adalah bergantung kepada pengetahuan dan dipengaruhi oleh kejelasan dan jumlah maklumat yang didapati. Manusia yang mempunyai tahap keyakinan yang rendah tidak berasa pasti sama ada mereka mempunyai pengetahuan yang cukup untuk mengendalikan sesuatu perkara dengan betul atau tidak. Anderson (2002) menyatakan individu yang mempunyai kesedaran metakognitif akan menyebabkan perkembangan kemahiran kognitif yang lebih kukuh dan pemprosesan maklumat yang lebih mendalam. Kemahiran kognitif yang mantap akan memberikan lebih keyakinan kepada seseorang individu kerana ia mempengaruhi tingkah laku. Dalam sesetengah keadaan manusia yang mempunyai tahap keyakinan yang rendah juga lebih cenderung untuk mengambil tindakan berdasarkan maklumat di depan mata sahaja dan ia memberi kesan samaada mereka menggunakan kognitf dalam membimbing tingkah laku mereka (Luttrell, Brinol, Petty, Cunnungham, & Diaz, 2013). Jelasnya, tahap keyakinan dan tahap metakognitif bagi setiap manusia adalah berbeza. Manusia yang mempunyai tahap metakognitif yang tinggi dikatakan mempunyai tahap keyakinan yang lebih tinggi berbanding dengan manusia yang mempunyai tahap keyakinan yang rendah (Mata, Ferreira, & Sherman, 2013). Situasi ini disebabkan metakognitif akan membantu meningkatkan proses berfikir dan membimbing seseorang dalam memahami sesuatu situasi, menyelesaikan masalah dan menentukan tingkah laku yang diambil kerana keyakinan diri mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan dengan metakognitif (Saemah Rahman & Philips, 2006; Kleitman & Stankov, 2007). Metakognitif sangat penting kepada manusia kerana ia memberi implikasi dalam kehidupan seharian. Sebagai contoh, seorang pelajar pelajar yang keletihan setelah belajar semalaman untuk menghadapi peperiksaan perlu membuat pilihan samada untuk terus tidur atau mengambil secawan kopi dan meneruskan ulangkaji. Keputusannya akan memberi kesan dari aspek pengambilan kafein ke atas badannya, tingkah laku belajar dan juga keputusan peperiksaan (Schwartz & Perfect, 2002). Dalam proses pembelajaran seharian, metakognitif ialah kesedaran tentang apa yang manusia ketahui dan apa yang tidak ketahui. Metakognitif akan melibatkan cara untuk meningkatkan kesedaran mengenai proses berfikir dan pembelajaran yang berlaku. Kesedaran yang wujud akan membolehkan seseorang mengawal fikirannya dengan merancang, memantau dan menilai apa yang dipelajari. Keupayaan metakognitif akan membantu manusia mengelak daripada membuat kesilapan yang sama dua kali dan mengelak daripada menggunakan masa yang berlebihan untuk membuat keputusan berdasarkan eviden yang tidak boleh dipercayai (Yeung & Summerfield, 2012). Aktiviti pembelajaran hendaklah sampai ke tahap metakognitif supaya hasilnya adalah sempurna, berpandangan luas dan boleh mencapai hingga ke tahap applikasi. Latihan metakognitif yang diberikan kepada pelajar akan membantu pelajar meningkatkan keyakinan diri dan rasa tanggungjawab, memberikan motovasi untuk belajar dan seterusnya membangunkan diri mereka (McCombs & Marzano, 1990).

KEPUTUSAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Hasil kajian dibincangkan berdasarkan objektif kajian dan dibincangkan dalam subtajuk berikut. Data dianalisis menggunakan Statistical Package For The Social Sciences (SPSS), Version 19.0.

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Kebolehpercayaan instrumen Jadual 2 menunjukkan jadual keputusan ujian kebolehpercayaan pembolehubah kajian. Berdasarkan analisis menggunakan analisis ketekalan dalaman menggunakan Cronbach's Alpha,nilai yang diperolehi adalah .928. Secara relatifnya nilai Cronbach's Alpha yang melebihi .63 bagi setiap pembolehubah atau domain adalah tinggi (Nunally & Berstein, 1994). Jadual 2 : Nilai kebolehpercayaan instrumen

Cronbach’s Alpha .928

N 52

Min metakognitif berdasarkan sub-skala mengikut kelompok Jadual 3 menunjukkan nilai min metakognitif bagi semua sub-skala. Analisis menunjukkan min metakognitif bagi keseluruhan sub-skala.ialah 118.38. Nilai min ini menggambarkan secara keseluruhannya tahap metakognitif pelajar berada pada tahap sederhana. Jadual 3 - Tahap metakognitif pelajar mengikut sub-skala

Sub-skala

Min

Tahap Metakognitif

a. Pengetahuan deklaratif

16.98

sederhana

b. Pengetahuan prosedural

7.78

sederhana

c. Pengetahuan kondisional

11.82

tinggi

d. Pengetahuan perancangan

16.53

tinggi

e. Sistem pengurusan maklumat 20.47

tinggi

f.

14.4

rendah

g. Strategi debug

16.03

tinggi

h. Penilaian

14.37

tinggi

Pemantauan

Jadual 4 - Min metakognitif mengikut sub-skala berdasarkan kelompok

Min kelompok pelajar Sub-skala

A

Tahap Metakognitif

B

a. Pengetahuan deklaratif

18.43

tinggi

15.53

sederhana

b. Pengetahuan prosedural

8.97

sederhana

6.60

sederhana

c. Pengetahuan kondisional

13.87

tinggi

9.77

sederhana

d. Pengetahuan perancangan

17.37

tinggi

15.70

tinggi

e. Sistem pengurusan maklumat 22.47

tinggi

18.47

sederhana

f.

16.33

tinggi

12.47

sederhana

g. Strategi debug

17.07

tinggi

15.0

tinggi

h. Penilaian

15.67

tinggi

13.07

tinggi

Pemantauan

Tahap Metakognitif

Min metakognitif secara keseluruhan bagi kelompok A ialah 130.17 manakala min metakognitif bagi kelompok B ialah 106.60. Analisis ini menunjukkan kelompok A mempunyai tahap metakognitif yang lebih tinggi berbanding kelompok B. Dapatan ini adalah selari dengan Schraw & Dennison (1994) yang mengatakan skor metakognitif yang lebih tingi sepatutnya menunjukkan pencapaian yang lebih baik.

Hubungan antara metakognitif dengan jantina Analisis kajian ini menunjukkan tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara tahap metakognitif dengan jantina. Begitu juga kajian yang dijalankam oleh Zaidatun Tasir dan rakan-rakan ke atas 153 orang pelajar tahun satu dari Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi Malaysai (UTM) mendapati tiada hubungan yang signifikan antara metakognitif dengan jantina (Zaidatun Tasir, Jamalludin Harun, & Nur Wahida Zakaria, 2008).

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Kajian-kajian lain yang menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan antara metakognitif dengan jantina ialah oleh Halina Kasmani (2003); Nurul Shida Noni & Mohd Ali Jasmi (2011). Walaubagaimanapun hasil kajian yang dijalankan oleh Ahmad Azman Mokhtar (2001); Norzeliana Idris, Saniah Sembak, & Nor Hasnida Ghazali (2011) mendapati perempuan mempunyai tahap metakognitif yang lebih tinggi berbanding lelaki.

KESIMPULAN Secara keseluruhannya dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan tahap metakognitif pelajar berada pada tahap sederhana dengan min bagi kelompok pelajar lebih pandai adalah lebih tinggi berbanding kelompok pelajar sederhana. Kajian ini juga menunjukkan lelaki dan perempuan tidak menunjukkan perbezaan tahap metakognitif yang berbeza secara signifikan. Walaupun begitu, terdapat kajian yang mendapati tahap metakognitif perempuan adalah lebih tinggi daripada lelaki. Metakognitif memainkan peranan yang penting dalam kehidupan manusia kerana individu yang mempunyai tahap metakognitif yang tinggi dapat membuat sesuatu keputusan dengan lebih baik, yakin dan secara spontan. Selain itu, tahap metakognitif yang berbeza memberi implikasi kepada manusia kerana manusia yang mempunyai tahap metakognitif yang lebih tinggi dapat mengurus aktiviti mental dan menggunakan strategi kognitif dengan lebih baik. Paling penting, metakognitif dapat membantu seseorang meningkatkan keyakinan diri dan memotivasi diri dalam setiap aktiviti yang dijalankan. Transformasi kehidupan manusia kini dalam segenap aspek memerlukan penggunaan metakognitif yang berkesan yang mampu memikir, merancang, mengawal atur, menyelia dan menilai setiap aktiviti yang dilakukan. Justeru itu, manusia harus sedar dengan kesedaran metakognitif yang tinggi, manusia akan lebih yakin dalam melakukan sesuatu tindakan.

RUJUKAN Ahmad Azman Mokhtar. (2001). Relationships between metacognltlve awareness , learning styles , and reading comprehension in english language learning. Universiti Putra Malaysia. Anderson, N. (2002). The Role of Metacognition in Second Language Teaching and Learning. ERIC Digest. ERIC Digest. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED463659.pdf Beyer, B. K. (1987). Practical strategies for the teaching of thinking. Allyn and Bacon Boston. Brown, A. L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In Theoretical issues in reading comprehension perspectives from cognitive psychology, linguistic, artificial intelligence, and education (edited by., pp. 453–482). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and Cognitive Monitoring: A new Area of Cognitive Development Inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–911. Garner, R. (1990). When children and adults do not use learning strategies: Toward a theory of settings. Review of Educational Research, 60(4), 517–529. Halina Kasmani. (2003). Regulasi Kendiri Metakognitif dan tahap keupayaan penyelesaian masalah kimia di kalangan pelajar tingkatan empat. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Livingston, J. A. (1997). Metacognition: An Overview. Retrieved July 02, 2006, from http://www.gse.buffalo. edu/fas/shuell/cep564/metacog.htm Luttrell, A., Brinol, P., Petty, R. E., Cunnungham, W., & Diaz, D. (2013). Metacognitive confidence : A neuroscience approach. Revista de Psicología Social, 28(3), 317–332. Maclellan, E. (2014). How might teachers enable learner self-confidence? A review study. Educational Review, 1–18. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00131911.2013.768601 Mata, A., Ferreira, M. B., & Sherman, S. J. (2013). The metacognitive advantage of deliberative thinkers: a dualprocess perspective on overconfidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105(3), 353–73. doi:10.1037/a0033640 McCombs, B. L., & Marzano, R. J. (1990). Putting the self into self-regulating learning: The self as agent in integrating will and skill. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 51–69. Norzeliana Idris, Saniah Sembak, & Nor Has Oida Ghazali. (2011). Kesedaran metakognisi dan pemahaman konsep dalam penyelesaian masalah matematik. In National Academic Conference (ENRICH). Nunally, J. C., & Berstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw Hill. Nurul Shida Noni, & Mohd Ali Jasmi. (2011). Kemahiran metakognitif pelajar politeknik dalam mennyelesaikan masalah matematik. In Persidangan Kebangsaan Pendidikan Teknikal & Kerjaya, Politeknik Johor Bahru 2011 (Vol. 05). O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., Stewner-Manzanares, G., P.Russo, R., & Kupper, L. (1985). Learning strategy applications with students of English as a second language. TESOL Quarterly, 19(3), 134–161. Okoza, J., Aluede, O., & Owens-Sogolo, O. (2013). Assessing students ’ metacognitive awareness of learning strategies among secondary school students in Edo State , Nigeria. Research in Education, 90(90). Ormrod, J. E. (2004). Human learning. Upper Saddle River: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.

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Paris, S. G., & Winograd, P. (1990). How Metacognition can Promote Academic Learning and Instruction. In B. F. J. and L. Idol (Ed.), Dimensions of Thinking and Cognitive Instruction (pp. 15–51). Hillsdale: NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Pressley, M., Borkowski, J. G., Schneider, W., & others. (1987). Cognitive strategies: Good strategy users coordinate metacognition and knowledge. Annals of Child Development, 4, 89–129. Reynolds, R. E. (1992). Selective attention and prose learning: Theoretical and empirical research. Nal Psychology Review, 4, 345–391. Rubin, J. (2001). Language learner self-management. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 11(1), 25–37. Saemah Rahman, & Philips, J. A. (2006). Hubungan antara Kesedaran Metakognisi , Motivasi dan Pencapaian Akademik Pelajar Universiti. Jurnal Pendidikan, 31(2006), 21–39. Retrieved from http://journalarticle. ukm.my/161/ Schoenfeld, A. H. (1987). Cognitive science and mathematics education. Psychology Press. Schraw, G., & Dennison, R. S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 460–475. Schraw, G., & Moshman, D. (1995). Metacognitive theories. Educational Psychology Review, 7(4), 351–371. doi:10.1007/BF02212307 Schwartz, B. L., & Perfect, T. J. (2002). Applied Metacognition Edited by. In T. J. Perfect & B. L. Schwartz (Eds.), Applied Metacognition (pp. 1–14). United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Wan, E. W., & Rucker, D. D. (2013). Confidence and Construal Framing: When Confidence Increases versus Decreases Information Processing. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(5), 977–992. doi:10.1086/666467 Weinert, F. E., & Kluwe, R. (1987). Metacognition, motivation, and understanding. Lawrence Erlbaum. Yeung, N., & Summerfield, C. (2012). Metacognition in human decision-making : confidence and error monitoring. The Royal Society, 1310–1321. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0416 Zaidatun Tasir, JamalludinHarun, & Nur Wahida Zakaria. (2008). Tahap kemahiran metakognitif pelajar dalam menyelesaikan masalah Matematik. In Seminar Kebangsaan Pendidikan Sains dan Matematik (pp. 1–11). Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor. Retrieved from http://eprints.utm.my/7783/

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PENYELIAAN KAJIAN TINDAKAN : SATU PENGALAMAN DI INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURU (IPG) Zuraida Ahmad* *[email protected] Institut Pendidikan Guru Kampus Darulaman Noor Azniza Ishak

Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Pengalaman menjalankan penyeliaan kajian tindakan ini didokumenkan bertujuan untuk berkongsi pengalaman dengan mereka yang terlibat dengan penyeliaan penyelidikan pendidikan sama ada di Institut Pendidikan Guru (IPG) atau di sekolah-sekolah di seluruh Malaysia. Kajian ini dijalankan terhadap dua orang responden yang merupakan pelajar tahun akhir Program Ijazah Sarjana Muda Perguruan (PISMP). Penyeliaan dilakukan pada dua peringkat iaitu semasa penyediaan proposal di semester 7 dan penulisan laporan di semestser 8. Masalah utama semasa penyeliaan ialah kekangan masa, kualiti penyeliaan dan penguasaan kandungan ilmu bidang Pendidikan Khas (Masalah Pembelajaran). Rekabentuk kajian ini dijalankan menggunakan kaedah temubual berstruktur. Hasil dapatan kajian mendapati kedua-dua responden sangat berpuashati dengan penggunaan kaedah emel untuk tujuan mengatasi masalah kekangan masa perjumpaan. Kedua-dua responden berpuashati dengan kualiti penyeliaan dan merujuk penyelia yang lain untuk mengatasi masalah kurang berpuashati dengan penguasaan kandungan ilmu. Kajian ini memberikan pengalaman penyeliaan secara langsung dan meningkatkan kepuasan kerja. Keywords: penyeliaan, penyelidikan kajian tindakan

PENGENALAN Penyeliaan merupakan salah satu daripada tugas yang perlu dilaksanakan oleh pensyarah di Institut Pendidikan Guru (IPG). Tugas penyeliaan Kajian Tindakan ini dilakukan terhadap pelajar-pelajar Program Ijazah Sarjana Muda Perguruan (PISMP) semester tujuh dan semester lapan. Tugas ini merupakan pengalaman pertama penyelidik kerana sebelum ini penyelidik belum pernah menyelia mana-mana pelajar yang menjalankan Kajian Tiandakan. Oleh yang demikian, penyelidik bimbang dengan proses penyeliaan yang bakal didukung. Penyelidik tidak pasti, kabur serta terkial-kial mengenai bahan yang perlu disediakan untuk menyelia pelajar. Tambahan pula pelajar yang diselia bukan daripada bidang yang sama dengan bidang kepakaran penyelidik. Pelajar yang diselia merupakan pelajar bidang pendidikan khas (masalah pembelajaran). Walau bagaimanapun terdapat satu kekuatan dalaman untuk menawarkan diri sebagai penyelia kerana perasaan ingin menimba pengalaman dan mencabar diri sendiri menjalankan Kajian Tindakan. Penyeliaan ini juga merupakan persediaan fizikal, mental dan psikologikal sebagai penyelia Kajian Tindakan dalam bidang kepakaran sendiri pada masa akan datang. Selain daripada itu penyelidik ingin membudayakan Kajian Tindakan serta ingin berkongsi pengalaman berkaitan penyeliaan Kajian Tindakan dengan guru pelatih.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

PENYATAAN MASALAH Beberapa masalah wujud dalam konteks penyeliaan ini. Namun fokus kajian ini memberi tumpuan kepada isu kecil sahaja iatu tiada pengalaman dan keinginan membudayakan Kajian Tindakan. Walaupun isu yang ingin dikaji ini kecil tetapi ia mempunyai kepentingan tersendiri. (Elliot, 1988) telah mengetengahkan pandangan beliau dengan menyatakan guru adalah sebagai penyelidik. Oleh yang demikian kajian ini dilakukan sebagai usaha meningkatkan kompetensi dan profesionalisme apabila tiba masanya penyelidik akan menyelia pelajar dalam bidang kepakaran sendiri dari aspek kandungan ilmu pengetahuan.

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN Objektif kajian ini ialah adalah untuk meningkatkan kemahiran penyeliaan Kajian Tindakan serta membudayakan Kajian Tindakan. Selain daripada itu kajian ini juga bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kepuasan kerja disamping meningkatkan kompetensi profesionalisme. Namun tujuan utama Kajian Tindakan ialah memperbaiki amalan sendiri.

METODOLOGI Kerangka Konseptual Kajian Kerangka konseptual kajian ini ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1. Rajah1: Model kajian penyeliaan kajian tindakan

Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah tinjauan awal untuk mengumpul data primer dengan menyediakan: a. Soalan temu bual mengenai refleksi persediaan guru pelatih sebelum penyeliaan b. Senarai semak keperluan penyeliaan Kajian Tindakan 1 (penulisan proposal) dan Kajian Tindakan 2 (penulisan laporan) c. Mengumpulkan maklumat berkaitan kandungan kursus yang dipelajari oleh guru pelatih dalam kuliah yang diikuti daripada penyelaras kursus Kajian Tindakan Kaedah yang digunakan untuk menilai keberkesanan tindakan intervensi ini ialah dengan cara soal selidik dan temu bual. Responden yang terlibat dalam kajian ini ialah dua orang guru pelatih PISMP dan tempoh masa yang digunakan untuk melengkapkan kajian ini ialah dua semester.

Definisi Penyeliaan Kajian Tindakan Penyeliaan Kajian Tindakan dalam kajian ini merujuk kepada bimbingan, panduan, tunjuk ajar dan nasihat yang diberikan kepada guru pra perkhidmatan yang sedang mengikuti pengajian di peingkat Ijazah Sarjana Muda Perguruan di Institut Pendidikan Guru. Namun demikian definisi kajian tindakan yang dikemukan oleh Jamil © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Ahmad (2001) dikemukakan. Beliau menyatakan kajian tindakan merupakan suatu kajian yang berbentuk inkuiri refleksi kendiri yang dilakukan oleh peserta dalam situasi sosial itu sendiri (pengamal/guru/pendidik) sebagai penyelidik melalui tindakan praktik (intervensi) mereka sendiri yang bertujuan untuk membaiki atau meningkatkan kualiti amalan masing-masing, disamping meningkatkan kefahaman mereka tentang amalan itu serta situasi di mana amalan itu dilakukan.

Fungsi Penyeliaan Fungsi penyeliaan yang utama ialah memberi bimbingan. Peranan penting penyelia yang lain ialah memberi tunjuk ajar termasuk mengarahkan pelajar kepada sumber yang relevan, mencungkil dan memperkembangkan bakat dan kebolehan pelajar, mengesan kekuatan dan kelamahan, membetulkan kesalahan pelajar dengan serta-merta dan memberi penghargaan kepada hasil kerja yang baik. (Mohd Zarawi, 2012) Selaras dengan perkembangan semasa, kini terdapat juga etika bagi penyeliaan yang dilakukan secara maya (virtual supervision) yang perlu dipatuhi. (Lakeman & Glasgow, 2009). Dalam kajian ini persetujuan guru pelatih yang terlibat telah diperolehi terlebih dahulu namun nama dan sekolah berkaitan tidak didedahkan. Persetujuan guru pelatih juga diperolehi untuk tujuan penerbitan kajian ini. Persetujuan ini bertujuan untuk melindungi privasi dan menghormati etika profesionalisme. Khairul Anwar (2014) terdapat empat komponen yang menjadi teras penyeliaan dan penilaian dalam mengukur kesediaan guru-guru pelatih dalam latihan mengajar (praktikum). Komponen-komponen tersebut ialah perancangan pengajaran, pelaksanaan pengajaran, amalan refleksi dan sahsiah/siakp guru pelatih. Dalam kajian ini amalan refleksi menjadi fungsi yang diberi perhatian sebelum, semasa dan selepas proses penyeliaan dilakukan. Oleh kerana kajian ini melibatkan dua orang guru pelatih pendidikan khas (masalah pembelajaran) maka kajian ini perlu dilakukan berdasarkan pandangan Hasnah, Mohd. Hanafi Mohd. Mokhtar dan Norani, 2010 iaitu guru pendidikan khas perlu diberi akses kepada latihan dalam perkhidmatan mengenainya kerana bidang pendidikan khas sentiasa berkembang dan pelbagai strategi terkini telah dibuktikan berkesan melalui kajian saintifik.

PROSEDUR MENJALANKAN KAJIAN TINDAKAN Kajian ini cuba mematuhi gelung kajian tindakan yang asas seperti yang dikemukakan dalam Rajah 2 iaitu mereflek, menjalankan tinjauan awal, merancang, melaksana dan menilai. Rajah2: Prosedur Menjalankan Kajian Tindakan

Kaedah Mengutip Data Pengumpulan data awal dilakukan dengan menganalisis masa perjumpaan dan dibandingkan dengan kekerapan perjumpaan. Kualiti masa perjumpaan dinilai berdasarkan respon pelajar terhadap maklumbalas yang diberikan. Masa perjumpaan yang dipersetujui ialah ialah dua minggu sekali perjumpaan. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Intervensi yang Digunakan Oleh kerana guru pelatih yang terlibat dalam kajian ini menghadapi masalah kekangan masa dan kualiti penyeliaan, penyelidik telah menggunakan kaedah emel untuk menyemak dan memberikan maklumbalas berkaitan penulisan proposal dan penulisan laporan kajian tindakan. Manakala bagi mengatasi masalah penyelidik kurang kepakaran dalam aspek pengetahuan kandungan ilmu pengetahuan dalam bidang pendidikan khas (masalah pembelajaran), kedua-dua orang guru pelatih ini telah dirujuk kepada pensyarah bidang berkenaan dengan persetujuan kedua-dua pihak.

INSTRUMEN KAJIAN Berikut ialah istrumen yang disediakan untuk guru pelatih yang diselia selepas mereka mengikuti penyeliaan. Instrumen ini ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 1. Jadual 1: Senarai Semak Penyeliaan

Bil

Item

1

Saya mempunyai kemudahan untuk mengakses internet

2

Penyelia menggunakan kaedah yang sesuai dengan keperluan semasa

3

Saya suka kaedah yang digunakan oleh penyelia untuk memberi respon terhadap hasil kerja saya

4

Saya berpuashati menggunakan emel sebagai medium perantara

5

Penyelia memberikan respon melalui emel dalam tempoh yang sesuai untuk setisap hasil kerja yang saya sediakan

6

Saya berpeluang mendapat bimbingan secara langsung bersamasama rakan guru pelatih yang lain

7

Saya rasa selesa menggunakan kaedah emel bersama penyelia

8

Penyelia menyediakan rujukan kepada pensyarah lain mengenai kandungan ilmu

9

Penyelia memberikan bimbingan teknikal yang relevan

10

Ya

Tidak

Saya bersetuju untuk menggunakan kaedah emel ini pada masa akan datang

Instrumen ini telah diberikan kepada kedua-dua guru pelatih selepas penyeliaan berakhir dengan beberapa soalan temubual sebagai triangulasi terhadap instrumen soalselidik.

DAPATAN KAJIAN Berdasarkan analisa yang dilakukan sepanjang menjalankan kajian ini beberapa dapatan akan dibincangkan berdasarkan Prosedur Menjalankan Kajian Tindakan (Rajah 2).

Mereflek Sebelum menjalankan kajian ini penyelidik telah dihubungi oleh penyelaras kursus Kajian Tindakan untuk pelajar semester tujuh PISMP. Beliau telah memohon kepakaran penyelidik untuk menyelia dua orang pelajar pendidikan khas (masalah pembelajara). Penyelidik diminta untuk memberi bimbingan dalam aspek penyediaan proposal kajian tindakan pada kedua-dua orang guru pelatih ini pada semester tujuh dan membimbing penulisan laporan kajian tindakan pada semester lapan. Refleksi yang dialami oleh penyelidik ialah tahap kesediaan untuk menyelia guru pelatih yang berbeza bidang pengajian. Penyelidik rasa terpanggil untuk menerima tanggungjawab ini atas dasar nilai kerjasama dan akuantabiliti kerja berpasukan. Penyelidik juga ingin memperbaiki amalan penyeliaan serta meningkatkan kompetensi penyeliaan.

Tinjauan Awal Gelung 1 dalam Rajah 2 merupakan masalah atau isu utama yang dihadapi oleh penyelidik sebelum, semasa dan selepas melakukan penyeliaan bersama-sama dengan dua orang guru pelatih yang diselia. Masalah tersebut © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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ialah kekangan masa dan kualiti pemyeliaan. Data ini dapat dibuktikan dengan kekerapan perjumpaan secara besemuka yang dijadualkan dua minggu sekali tidak dapat dipatuhi. Kualiti penyeliaan tidak dapat diberi perhatian kerana penyelidik kurang kepakaran dalam bidang ilmu pengetahuan pendidikan khas (masalah pembelajaran).

Merancang Penyelidik telah merancang untuk menjalankan intervensi dengan meminta pelajar menghantar draf proposal kajian mereka dalam bentuk emel. Walaubagaimanapun kemudahan akses kepada internet untuk kedua-dua orang guru pelatih ini telah dikenalpasti terlebih dahulu. Intervensi kedua ialah dengan merujuk pensyarah pakar dalam bidang pendidikan khas (masalah pembelajaran) serta mendapat persetujuan daripada keduadua pihak terlebih dahulu. Nonis dan Tan, 2011 juga telah menjalankan penyeliaan terhadap guru pelatih pendidikan khas yang sedang mengikuti praktikum dan mereka menjalankan penyeliaan secara bersemuka serta penyeliaan bertulis. Maka dalam kajian ini penyeliaan bertulis merujuk kepada hasil penulisan pelajar yang disemak menerusi emel.

Melaksana Penyelidik telah melaksanakan perancangan yang yang ditetapkan tetapi beberapa pengubahsuaian dilakukan. Pada awal perancangan kajian ini akan dilakukan secara kolaboratif bersama dua orang rakan pensyarah lain serta guru pelatih dibawah seliaan masing-masing. Namun demikian atas faktor kekangan tertentu kajian ini hanya melaporkan dapatan yang diperoleh dengan dua orang guru pelatih dibawah penyeliaan peyelidik sahaja. Antara kekangan utama ialah akses kepada kemudahan internet yang terhad.

Menilai Penilaian dilakukan dengan mengemukakan soalselidik iaitu instrumen kajian ini dan beberapa soalan temubual sebagai triangulasi terhadap dapatan kajian ini. Didapati kedua-dua pihak lebih selesa menggunakan kaedah emel untuk berinteraksi dalam proses penyeliaan disamping penyeliaan bersemuka. Penyeliaan bersemuka dilakukan dan diberi tumpuan semasa proses penyeliaan dimana kedua-dua guru pelatih perlu melakukan demontrasi terhadap Bahan Bantu Mengajar yang disediakan. Berdasarkan Prosedur Menjalankan Kajian Tindakan, penyelidk telah berjaya mengatasi masalah yang wujud dalam Gelung 1 dan bercadang untuk meneruskan kitaran kajian tindakan ke Gelung 2. Isu seterusnya yang akan diberi fokus kajian pada masa akan datang ialah penggunaan kemudahan atas talian yang lain seperti Skype, Whattsup, Facebook dan lain lain dimana penyeliaan secara bersemuka masih boleh dijalankan samada untuk menjawab soalselidik atau temubual.

Dapatan keseluruhan proses menjalankan kajian tindakan Kedua-dua orang guru pelatih telah memberikan respon yang baik untuk kesemua item kecuali item 9: Penyelia memberikan bimbingan teknikal yang relevan. Kedua-dua guru pelatih menandakan 'Tidak' untuk item berkenaan. Namun demikian semasa temubual kedua-dua guru pelatih bersetuju bahawa rujukan kepada pensyarah pakar dalam bidang pendidikan khas (masalah pembelajaran) telah membantu mereka melengkapkan praktikum dengan baik dan lebih berkeyakinan.

PERBINCANGAN DAN KESIMPULAN Berdasarkan pengalaman menjalankan kajian ini didapati penyeliaan yang berkesan memerlukan kesediaan psikoemosi dan kemahiran teknikal yang perlu dikuasai beserta minat yang mendalam. Daatan kajian ini sama seperti dapatan kajian yang dijalankan oleh Nurahimah Mohd Yusoff dan Rafisah Osman, 2010 yang menyatakan bahawa penyeliaan yang berkesan memerlukan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan kemahiran teknikal yang baik. Selain daripada itu penyeliaan yang baik dapat meningkatkan potensi dan kualiti para pelajar dalam menghasilkan kajian. Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Ilhaamie Abdul Ghani Azmi, 2005 juga membuktikan bahawa kepuasan kerja pensyarah meningkat serta mendorong kepada motivasi kerja yang lebih baik. Pada masa akan datang kajian ini akan diteruskan dengan mengambilkira beberapa kemudahan dalam talian yang lain seperti yang telah dilakukan oleh Sharma, Yusoff, Marohaini dan Suria, 2011 dimana mereka telah menjalankan penyeliaan di sekolah di tiga buah negara Asia iaitu Thailand, Malaysia dan India. Namun demikian beberapa aspek etika perlu diberi perhatian seperti menjaga hak privasi responden yang terlibat dengan kajian serta memelihara akhak guru. (Siti Salwa & Azlina, 2014) Kajian yang melibatkan penggunaan teknologi komunikasi dan maklumat telah lama dipraktikkan dan sudah pasti cabaran transformasi bidang pendidikan dapat dimanfaatkan dengan sebaiknya. Seperti pendapat © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Vallance (2007) kaedah untuk mendapatkan data kuantitatif dan kualitatif terhadap guru-guru pelatih boleh dilakukan dengan mengoptikumkan penggunaan kemudahan teknologi komunikasi dan maklumat. Walaubagaimanapun secara kesimpulannya kajian ini telah membantu penyelidik memahami teori dan amalan psikologi pendidikan ( Zambo, D. 2007) menerusi Kajian Tindakan.

RUJUKAN Elliot, J. (1988). Teachers as researchers: an implications for supervision and teacher education. Conference Papers at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. New Orleans, Los Angeles, 5-9 April, 1988, (1967). Hasnah Toran, Mohd. Hanafi Mohd. Yasin, Mohd Mokhtar. & Norani Salleh. (2010). Tahap Latihan , Pengetahuan dan Keyakinan Guru-guru Pendidikan Khas tentang Autisme. Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia, 35(1), 19– 26. Ilhaamie Abdul Ghani Azmi. (2005). Kepuasan kerja:kajian di kalangan pensyarah di akademi pengajian islam dan fakulti bahasa dan linguistik Universiti Malaya. Jurnal Syariah, 13(2), 112–124. Jamil Ahmad (2002). Kajian Tindakan dalam Pendidikan. KL: PTS Publications Khairul Anwar bin A Bakar. (2014). Tahap Kesediaan Guru Pelatih Institut Pendidikan Guru Dalam Latihan Mengajar.Tesis Sarjana Yang Tidak Diterbitkan. Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Lakeman, R., & Glasgow, C. (2009). Introducing peer-group clinical supervision : An action research project, 204–210. doi:10.1111/j.1447-0349.2009.00602.x Mohd Zarawi Mat nor. (2012). Pola Penyeliaan Praktikum Guru Bimbingan dan Kaunseling Sekolah Rendah. Tesis Doktor Falsafah Yang Tidak Diterbitkan. Universiti Malaya. Nonis, K. P. & T. S. Y. J. (2011). Beginner pre-service special education teachers’ learning experience during practicum. InternationalJjournal of Special Education, 26, 4–17. Nurahimah Mohd Yusoff & Rafisah Osman. (2010). Hubungan kualiti penyeliaan pengajaran dan pembelajaran di bilik darjah dengan efikasi guru, Asia Pacific Journal of Educators and Education, 25, 53–71. Sailesh Sharma, Marohaini Yusoff, Sathiamoorthy Kannan & Suria Bab (2011). Concerns of Teachers and Principals on Instructional Supervision in Three Asian Countries. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, September 2011, 1(3), 214–217. Siti Salwa Md Sawari & Azlina Mustaffa (2014). Guru bersahsiah mulia menurut pandangan Ibnu Sahnun: Analisa buku Adab al Mualimin. The Online Journal Of Islamic Education, 2(2), 1–10. Vallance, M. (2007). An Information and Communications technology (ICT)-enabled method for collecting and collating information abaout pre-service teachers' pedagogical beliefs regarding the integration of ICT. Research in Learning Technology,15 (1), 51-65. Zambo, D. (2007). The Fuel of Educational Psychology and the Fire of Action Research. Teaching Educational Psychology, 2(1),1-11.



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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

STRUCTURAL RELATIONS AMONG MATERNAL PARENTING STYLE, SELF-ESTEEM AND DEPRESSION IN ADOLESCENTS Rozumah Baharudin*, Nor Sheereen Zulkefly & Ho Meng Chuan

Abstract

*[email protected] Universiti Putra Malaysia The way parents interact with their child would influence the child’s psychological outcomes. Compared to fathers, mothers are often reported to interact more with their child and presumably have greater impact on the child. Using Structural Equation Modeling, this study aims to explore mothers’ parenting style and how it relates to self-esteem and depression of adolescents. A total of 705 school-going adolescents (mean age = 16.1 years) from the state of Johor completed a self-administered questionnaire measuring parenting style, self-esteem and depression. Results from the structural analysis suggested that maternal authoritative parenting style appear to have a larger influence on adolescents’ self-esteem compared to maternal authoritarian and permissive parenting style. Additionally, findings revealed that only authoritative parenting style had a significant and direct relationships with adolescent depression. On the other hand, authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were found to have indirect relationships to depression via self-esteem. However, authoritative parenting style had an even larger indirect relationship to depression compared to authoritarian and permissive parenting styles. As expected, self-esteem was found to have a significant and negative relationship with depression. Findings suggest that authoritative parenting style is significantly essential in fostering positive psychological outcomes. Programs aimed at promoting positive developmental and psychological outcomes in adolescents, should focus more on the parent-child relationship as family is an important foundation for adolescent development. Keywords: maternal parenting style, self-esteem, depression, adolescents, parent-child relationship

INTRODUCTION The developmental outcomes of adolescents begins within the family, and especially with parents-adolescents interactions. The way parents interact with their adolescents will determine how the adolescents turn-out to be (Belsky, 1984; Kerka, 2000). Early theorists such as Baumrind (1991) states that parenting a child is a complex activity that requires specific method that is performed individually or collectively by parents to influence children’s outcome. In her study, Baumrind (1991) studied two dimensions of interaction (i.e., responsiveness and demand) between parents and child. Based on her study, Baumrind determined three types of parenting styles: 1) authoritatrian style with rules and lower levels of acceptance, 2) authoritative style that combines control, support and logical interest, and 3) permissive style that consists of a lower level of control. Parents may possess to some degree all of these styles, but may protray a more dominant style in their interactions with their adolescents. Baumrind emphasizes that the style of parenting adopted by a parent have significant contribution to the development of a child and adolescent. The development of an adolescent includes multifaceted aspects and changes such as physical, mental, cognitive, behaviour and emotions. As adolescents develop, they experience changes as they attempt Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

to achieve certain expectations from the society during this developmental period. The progress of these changes during this period is constantly monitored by several indicators. These indicators serve as pointer for a positive or negative psychological development that is critical in predicting the adolescent’s future. Past research has documented that among the most common psychological health problems in adolescents are low self-esteem and depression (Orth, Robins, & Meier, 2009; Orth, Robins, & Roberts, 2008; Trzesniewski et al., 2006). Self-esteem refers to the overall evaluation of oneself, and the degree to which an individual believes he or she is successful, competent and worthy in their life (Rosenberg, 1965; Peixoto & Almeida, 2010). According to Rosenberg (1965), self-esteem is a crucial determinant of psychological aspect, which is particularly problematic during adolescence due to its inseparable relation with other aspects adolescents’ development. Another significant developmental outcome related to self-esteem that is included in this research is depression. Depression is a common internalizing problem among adolescents (Davis, 2005). It is a psychological syndrome that can affect an individual’s daily functioning by experiencing negative feelings. The syndrome includes depressed mood, feelings of guilt, worthlessness, suicidal thought, helplessness and hopelessness, as well as loss of appetite, sleep disturbances and psychomotor retardation (Labbate, Fava, Rosenbaum, & Arana, 2010). Reported prevalence of adolescents’ depression in Malaysia is at 10.3%, (Adlina et al., 2007; Ramli et al., 2008), and it is up to 20% and above in Western countries (Bansal, Goyal & Srivastava, 2009; Richardson & Katzenellenbogen, 2005; Ghandour et al., 2010). Thus, depression is not just a local concern, but universally as well. Given the importance of parenting, most research on parent-adolescent relationship and parenting have focused on parents collectively rather than individually. Traditionally, the suggested that role of fathers is to be the breadwinner of the family, whereas the role of mothers is to provide emotional support for the children. Contemporary studies (Feng, Shaw, Skuban & Lane, 2007; Gamble & Diaz, 2006; Ozgen, 2003) have shifted this view and mothers not only provide emotional support, they also serve as the socialization agents and primary communicators with adolescents in the family as they tend to give more attention to the adolescents’ development. Thus, in the present study, maternal parenting was given due attention in relation to adolescents’ developmental outcomes, particularly on self-esteem, and depression as mothers play the primary role of interacting with their child. Figure 1: The Hypothetical Model

A review of the literature revealed that maternal parenting styles played a significant role in the various aspects of adolescents’ developmental outcomes such as depression and self-esteem (Eisenberg et al., 2008; Yuan & Hamilton, 2006; Pineda, Cole & Bruce, 2007; Cheung & Chang, 2008; Tam, 2009). However, inconsistency and disparity in the literature regarding the influence of maternal parenting style on adolescents’ developmental outcomes was found between Western studies and Malaysia studies. It cannot be denied that Western studies and literature still contribute to the initial concept and idea about the adolescent’s depression (Beck, 1967; Helsel & Matson, 1984; Kovacs, 1985; Davis, 2005). Research indicated that literature and understanding about adolescents’ depression in Malaysia remains unclear due to lack of reliable assessment tools, evidence of longitudinal data and evidence of effective treatment data (Mukhtar & Oei, 2011; Khan et al., 2009). Moreover, © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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plethora of literature supported the idea that authoritarian parenting style discourages self-esteem among adolescents in most Western countries. On the other hand, several studies from collectivist parents such as Malaysia indicated authoritarian parenting styles does not necessarily reflect a negative parenting style and contribute negative impacts for adolescent developmental outcomes (such as self-esteem) (Dehyadegary, et al., 2012; Tay & Tam, 2011; Kordi & Baharudin, 2010; Keshavarz & Baharudin, 2009). Hence, the inconsistent findings from studies on the relationships between parenting styles and adolescent outcomes generated the following research question addressed in the present study: ‘Are there any significant relationships between perceived maternal parenting styles, self-esteem, and depression among adolescents?’. The model in Figure 1 proposes the direct and indirect relationships of perceived maternal parenting styles and self-esteem to depression of adolescents.

METHODOLOGY Using multi-stage cluster sampling, 705 adolescents (49.8% boys, 50.2% girls) were randomly recruited from selected schools in Johor Bahru and Batu Pahat, Johor. The mean age of the adolescents was 16.1 (SD.=1.06) years old. More than half (55.3%) of the adolescents were Chinese, while 34.3 % and 10.4% of the adolescents were Malays and Indians, respectively. Prior to data collection, permission was obtained from the respective authorities. Adolescents completed the self-administered questionnaires during class hours within approximately 60 minutes.

Measures Parenting Style The Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) was developed by Buri in 1991 to measure the different types of parenting style perceived by adolescents. PAQ consists of three distinct parenting styles, namely authoritarian, authoritative and permissive. Ten items were formulated for each type of parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian and permissive. The scoring of items were ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Scores were then summed up to standardized scores. Standardized scores were used to classify respondents into one of the parenting styles typologies. Higher scores in a particular typology will indicate a dominant style of parenting adopted by the parent as perceived by the adolescent

Self-esteem The Rosenberg Self-esteem scale (RSES) was developed by Rosenberg in 1965 to measure adolescents’ global feeling of self-worth and self-acceptance. This 10-item scale was measured using a 5-point Likert Scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). A total of five items (i.e,. items 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9) were reverse coded before summing up the total score. Higher scores will indicate a more positive self-esteem. The test-retest reliability of RSES ranged from .82 to .88 (Yaacob et al., 2009) with a Cronbach alpha of .80 in the Malaysian context (Jamil, 2006).

Depression The original Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck et al., 1961) was a 21-items self-reported instrument which intended to measure occurrence and degree of depression symptoms in adolescents. In this study, the 20item Beck Depression Inventory-Malay (BDI-M) translated and validated by Mukhtar and Oei (2008) was used to measure adolescents’ degree of depressive symptoms. Due to cultural and religious perspectives, as well as supported by some other non-Western studies, the one item from the original Beck Depression Inventory that measures sexual interest was dropped as it could be sensitive in the Asian culture (Mukhtar & Oei, 2008). Each of the remaining 20 items corresponds to a specific symptom of depression and it consists of four selfevaluative statements. The test-retest reliability of BDI-M was .80 (Yaacob et al., 2009) with Cronbach alpha ranged from .71 to .91 in the Malaysian context.

Data analytic strategy The hypothesized model (Figure 1) of the relationships between maternal parenting styles, self-esteem and depression in adolescents was tested using structural equation modeling (SEM). The analyses proceeded in multiple steps. Firstly, the parceling technique was utilized to construct multiple indicators of latent variables (i.e., maternal authoritative, maternal authoritarian, maternal permissive, self-esteem and depression). This technique involves creating multiple indicators of variables based on subset of items from the original scale (MacCallum & Austin, 2000). For example, instead of using the full 20 items single depression scale, 5 depression scales of two items each were created. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Secondly, the hypothesized model was evaluated using the Maximum Likelihood Estimation. Thirdly, the hypothsized model was estimated using several fit indices. Based on the recommendations of a number of authors, Non-significant χ² result at 0.05, RMSEA value close to .06, CFI values greater than 0.90 were indicators for a good model fit (Barrett, 2007; Bentler 1990; Hu and Bentler, 2000; Tucker and Lewis,1973). Next, the modification indices were examined and parameters were freed as appropriate. Finally, the fit indices of the modified model was evaluated.

RESULTS Descriptive Statistics and Correlations In the first stage of analysis, descriptive statistics and correlations between the major variables (i.e., maternal authoritative, maternal authoritarian, maternal permissive, self-esteem, and depression) of interest were examined. Means, standard deviations, reliability coefficients, and correlations are presented in Table 1. Results indicated that the correlations between the parenting style variables (i.e., authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive) and the outcome variables (i.e., self-esteem and depression), although significant, were ranged from weak to moderate. In particular, maternal authoritative parenting style had a moderate positive relationship with self-esteem and negative relationship with depression. However, the relationships between the other two parenting styles and the outcome variables were found to be quite small. Table 1: Correlations, Means, Standard Deviations

Variables

1

2

3

4

5

1.

Maternal Authoritative

.77

2.

Maternal Authoritarian

-.05

.76

3.

Maternal Permissive

-.10**

.16**

.63

4.

Self-esteem

.43**

-.18**

-.20**

.79

5.

Depression

-.34**

.15**

.16**

-.49**

.87

Mean

37.05

31.42

30.43

29.72

12.15

SDs

6.02

6.63

5.50

4.51

9.00

Note. Cronbach’s α presented on diagonals in italic. All correlations significant at p < 0.01.

Correlational analyses were also conducted on the parcelled variables retained in SEM. The correlational results between the perceived parenting styles parcelled variables were similar to those of the key variables in the study. In general, the parcelled items had signficant relations on the self-esteem and depression of adolescents. These correlational findings were consistent with past studies (Bynum & Kotchick, 2006; Yap, Schwartz, Byrne, Simmons, & Allen, 2010; Piko & Balazs, 2010) as adolescents with mothers who have authoritative pareting styles are less likely to develop depression in comparison to adolescenst with mothers who practices authoritarian or permissive parenting styles.

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) The structural model of the relationship between the maternal parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive) and the outcome measures (self-esteem and depression) was evaluated using SEM after items in the latent constructs (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, self-esteem, and depression) were parcelled. Table 2: Summary of Model Fit

Model

χ2

Df

p

CFI

GFI

RMSEA

Hypothesized

784

265

.000

.889

.915

.053

Modification 1

753.43

264

.000

.895

.919

.051

Modification 2

714.96

263

.000

.903

.922

.049

Note. CFI = Comparative Fit Index; GFI= Goodness-of-Fit Index; RMSEA = Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation

Figure 2 shows the study’s structural model with estimated standardized regression coefficients. The fit statistics indicated that the model achieved an adequate fit. The overall fit indices were χ2=784.00, df= 265, p <0.001; CFI = 0.889; GFI = 0.915; RMSEA = 0.053. Nevertheless, examination of the modification indices revealed that allowing a covariance between the error variance of permissive_1 and permissive_2 could improve model fit. As such a covariance was not considered to compromise the theoretical integrity of the study model, the © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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path was freed and the fit statistics for the resultant model (Modification 1) are presented in Table 2. Results revealed significat improvement in the model fit (Δ χ2=30.57, df=1, p<0.001), as reflected in the various fit indices. The modification indices of the revised model was re-examined. It was revealed that a path between the error variance of dep_4 and dep_5 could further improve the fit of the model. Again, as such a modifcation was not considered to compromise the underlying theory, the parameters were freed. The fit statistics of the revised model (Modification 2) are presented in Table 2. Results indicated a significant improvement in the model fit (Δ χ2=38.47, df=1, p<0.001). No further modifications to the model were considered to be necessary. Figure 2 presents the final model with standardized coefficients. All of the hypothesized path weights are in the appropriate direction and significant at the 0.05 level with exception of two paths (i.e., Maternal Authoritarian to Depression, and Maternal Permissive to Depression). Based on the squared multiple correlation coefficients, 35% of the variance in self-esteem, and 41% of the variance in depression are accounted for in the model. Examination of the model revealed that the three maternal parenting styles were significantly related to selfesteem. Maternal authoritative parenting style appears to have a larger yet moderate influence on adolescents’ self-esteem compared to maternal authoritarian and permissive parenting styles. Morever, only authoritative parenting style had a significant and direct relationship with adolescent depression. Both authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were found to have an indirect yet small effect (i.e. less than .10, respectively) on depression mediated through self-esteem. As expected, self-esteem was found to have a negative albeit moderate relationship with depression. Overall, it can be concluded that findings from the present study supported past research (Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter, & Keehn, 2007; Simons & Conger, 2007) in which authoritative parenting style tend to have a much more significant influence on adolescents’ development. Figure 2: Study Model

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION The main purpose of this study was to assess the relationships between maternal parenting styles, self-esteem and depression of adolescents. Overall, findings of the present study were consistent with past Western studies (Baumrind et al., 2010; Davidov & Grusec, 2006) that indicated authoritative parenting style as the most essential element in forstering positive developmental outcomes in adolescents such as self-esteem and depression. The present study found that adolescents who perceived their mothers as practicing authoritative © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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parenting style (i.e., constructive regulation, autonomy granting, and warm and supporting behaviors) have a more positive self-esteem compared to their peers who perceived their mothers as portraying authoritarian or permissive parenting style. Furthermore, the study revealed that adolescents who perceived their mothers as being authoritative reported less depressive symptoms compared to their counterparts with authoritarian or permissive mothers. The study also highlights the important role of self-esteem in the development of adolescent depression. As expected and consistent with past research (Goodman & Whitaker, 2002; Orth, Robins, & Meier, 2009; Orth, Robins, & Roberts, 2008), self-esteem was found to have a significant and negative relationship with depression. Adolescents with more positive self-esteem reported lower depression symptoms compared to their peers who were otherwise. Moreover, self-esteem was found to be a significant mediator between the maternal authoritarian and permissive parenting styles and adolescents’ depression. Although the indirect effects between the two parenting styles and depression was somewhat weak, this study supported past findings in which self-esteem is a crucial contributor to adolescents’ overall development adjustment. Findings from this study implies that any efforts to improve adolescents’ developmental outcomes such as increasing adolescents’ self-esteem and decreasing adolescents’ depression could possibly focus on the quality of the parent-adolescent relationship. Furthermore, findings from the present study will be beneficial to several parties such as parents, counselors, psychologists, educators and policy makers. Mothers who use active and initiated communication, are warm and engage less authority teaching pattern are seen beneficial for the development of the adolescent. Moreover, this information would create awareness among mothers by emphasizing two points, which are involvement and influence. This method helps to enhance their adolescent child’s self-esteem, and to reduce the development of depression. Besides, it is necessary to promote the alertness on adolescent’s depression. The consequences of depression are destructive and detrimental to the adolescents, who are viewed as a vital asset of a country. Hence, it is crucial to gain an understanding on depression and to prevent and solve the complications related to adolescent’s depression. In line with this, school authorities should formulate activities such as awareness campaigns, group counseling or community level competitions to offer adolescents some insights about depression and suggest strategies to cope with it. Some limitations of the study need to be mentioned. First, the the data were collected using a survey design. A longitudinal study would yield a more rigorous test of the hypotheses. Secondly, the study used a selfreported questionnaire. The maternal parenting style construct served as a perceived construct that may not reflect the mother’s actual parenting style. Thirdly, the sample for the study was selected in two districts of Johor only which limits generalizability. Thus, a more representative sample is recommended in future studies.

CONCLUSION This study concludes that maternal parenting styles is an important predictor to adolescents’ overall development, particularly in their psychological health. Adolescents with mothers practicising authoritative parenting styles would achieved more positive developmental outcomes such as having better self-esteem, and lower risk for developing depression. It is therefore important for mothers to continue fostering quality relationships with their off-spring that would subsequently encourage positive development.

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3514.95.3.695 Orth, U., Robins, R., & Meier, L. L. (2009). Disentangling the effects of low self-esteem and stressful life events on depression: Findings from three longitudinal studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 307–321. Ozgen, O. (2003). An analysis of child consumers in Turkey. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 27(5), 366-380. Peixoto, F., & Almeida, L. S. (2010). Self-concept, self-esteem and academic achievement: strategies for maintaining self-esteem in students experiencing academic failure. European Journal of Psychological Education, 25, 157-175. Piko, B., & Balazs, M. A. (2010). Control or involvement? Relationship between parenting style and adolescent depression. Psychiatria Hungaria, 25(6), 538-544. Pineda, A. Q., Cole, D. A., & Bruce, A. E. (2007). Mother-adolescent interactions and adolescent depressive symptoms: A sequential analysis. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 24(1), 5-19. Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385-401. Ramli, M., Adlina, S., Suthahar, A., M., Edariah, A. B., Soe, S. A., Mohd, A. F., Narimah, A. H., Nuraliza, A. S., Fauzi, I., & Karuthan C. (2007). Depression among secondary school students: A comparison between urban and rural populations in a Malaysian community. Hong Kong Journal of Psychiatry, 18(2), 55-61. Richardson, L. P., & Katzenellenbogen, R. (2005). Childhood and adolescent depression: The role of primary care providers in diagnosis and treatment. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care, 35(1), 6-24. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Simons, L. G., & Conger, R. D. (2007). Linking mother-father differences in parentin to a typology of family parenting styles and adolescent outcomes. Journal of Family Issues, 28(2), 212-241. Tam, V. C. W. (2009). A comparison of fathers’ and mothers’ contributions in the prediction of academic performance of school-age children in Hong Kong. International Journal of Psychology, 44(2), 147156. Tay, E. L., & Tam, C. L. (2011). Relationship between perceived parenting styles and coping capability among Malaysian secondary school students. 2011 International Conference on Social Science and Humanity, 5, 20-24. Trzesniewski, K. H., Donnellan, M. B., Moffitt, T. E., Robins, R. W., Poulton, R., & Caspi, A. (2006). Low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poor health, criminal behavior, and limited economic prospects. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 381-390. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.381 Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika , 38, 1-10. Yaacob, S. N., Juhari, R., Talib, M. A., & Uba, I. (2009). Loneliness, stress, self-esteem and depression among Malaysian adolescents. Jurnal Kemanusiaan, 14, 85-95. Yap, M. B. H., Schwartz, O. S., Byrne, M. L., Simmons, J. G., & Allen, N. B. (2010). Maternal positive and negative interaction behaviors and earlyadolescents’ depressive symptoms: Adolescent emotion regulation as a mediator. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20(4), 1014-1043. Yoo, C. S. M., & Miller, L. D. (2012). Culture and parenting: Psychological adjustment among Chinese Canadian adolescents. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 45(1), 34-52. Yuan, A. S. V., & Hamilton, H. A. (2006). Stepfather involvement and adolescent well-being: Do mothers and nonresidential fathers matter? Journal of Family, 27(9), 1191-1213. Zervides, S. & Knowles, A. (2007). Generational changes in parenting styles and the effect of culture. E-Journal of Applied Psychology, 3(1), 65-75.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

DATA QUALITY, SCALING ASSUMPTIONS AND RELIABILITY OF CROWD BEHAVIOUR SCALE Nurulhuda Ramli*, Noraida Abdul Ghani, Zulkarnain Ahmad Hatta, Intan Hashimah Mohd Hashim, Jasni Sulong *[email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia Nor Diana Mohd Mahudin & Shukran Abd Rahman International Islamic University Malaysia Zarina Mat Saad Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Hajj is an annual religious activity that involves a large gathering of people performing the same rituals at the same time within a confined space. Human behaviour in this mass gathering is an important issue of serious concern with life-threatening consequences due to extreme congestion. A new scale was developed as part of a study aims to understand observable crowd behaviour during this religious activity. Subscales of observable crowd behaviour included aggressive behaviour, coping behaviour, defensive behaviour, avoidance behaviour, protective behaviour, tolerant behaviour and hazardous behaviour. This article reports on the underlying assumptions of data quality and scaling assumptions under the traditional Likert scaling criteria, and the reliability of the scale. The subjects of the survey included 203 respondents during pre-Hajj training program at three different locations in the country. Methods of testing include item-level descriptive statistics, multitrait scaling/ multi-item correlation matrix and scale reliability. The results showed that one item each within subscales of aggressive, coping and tolerant behaviour do not meet the Likert scaling criteria. However, all subscales have acceptable level of reliability. The findings from this study can be used to further improve the scale. Keywords: scaling assumptions, Likert scales, reliability, crowd behaviour, religious mass gathering

INTRODUCTION Hajj is a mass crowd of which around 3 million people congregated and packed around the designated area and performed specific rituals as required in Islam. It is held in and around Mecca, in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. A huge number of pilgrims in a small area within a specific period of time presents a unique situation and challenges to Hajj authorities, policymakers, researchers, and pilgrims alike. Much of the existing work in Hajj crowd are limited to studies of technical and mechanical aspects of crowd management, such as pedestrian and crowd flow (AlGhadi & Mahmassani, 1991; Helbing, Johansson, & Al-Abideen, 2007; Zainuddin, 2009), medical care (Zeitz, Tan, Grief, Couns, & Zeitz, 2009; Hutton, Zeitz, Brown, & Arbon, 2011) or the use of technologies in predicting, controlling, and dispersing the large crowds (Curtis, Guy, Zafar, & Manocha, Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

2011; Khozium, Abuarafah & AbdRabou, 2012). While studies on crowd behaviour in large scale events are well captured in the literature, there is still a dearth of similar studies specifically on Hajj (AlGhadi & Mahmassani, 1991). Better understanding of crowd behaviour (for example in religious mass gathering) is important in managing the crowds to reduce unpredictable and hazardous situations. Ahmed, Arabi and Memish (2006) highlighted various risks related with ritual-based gatherings such as exposure to infectious disease, extreme heat, crowded accommodations and poor management of public places. Improper management of these risks may lead to erratic and unpredictable actions in crowd. As one big group of people that shared common identity and goals, and engage in activities with similar manners, the crowd disaster can be caused of individual or collective behaviours of pilgrims. In Hajj, pilgrims involve in a set of rituals that need to be performed at specific time and locations. Thus the understanding of crowd behaviour could improve the management and control of crowds (AlGhadi, 1996). Necessary efforts should be done to measure and predict crowd behaviour (Hutton et al., 2011), primarily in religious mass gathering such as Hajj and Umrah (AlGhadi, 1996). The understanding of the crowd behaviour or action of people in religious massed crowds is still dearth as there is a limited amount of empirical research in the literature focusing on this issue. This limited research leaves gaps in the knowledge base and methodology associated with these problems, and greater empirical investigations are needed to completely characterize and quantity of phenomenon. The current study, which is one of a series undertaken as part of an ongoing research project on Hajj, addresses this gap by examining the structure of crowd behaviour. Earlier studies in the series (Intan, Zulkarnain, Noraida, et. al., 2013; Jasni, Zulkarnain, Intan, et. al., 2013) have demonstrated the necessary components for conceptualising and measuring crowd behaviours of pilgrims during the mass gathering. In response to the findings, a set of questionnaire was devised with the intention of improving on the research tool. The questionnaire contains 34 questions (items) measuring pilgrims behaviour and scored using Likert’s method of summated ratings (Likert, 1932). In this method, score of multi-item scale is computed by summing the scores assigned for each item which is derived from a standardized set of response choices. It has been claimed by Edwards (1957) that the method of summated ratings in Likert scale is simple and able to have high reliability value. The scale score can be calculated once the assumptions of construction of summated rating scales have been confirmed. Test of these assumptions would determine the appropriateness of including an item in a particular scale and whether it is appropriate to sum item scores to estimate a scale score. Likert (1932) proposed several assumptions that must be tested: 1) items should be substantially linearly related to the total score computed from all other items in that scale, 2) items in each hypothesized grouping should contain approximately the same proportion of information about the construct being measured, 3) items correlates higher with the hypothesized scale than it correlates with other scale, and 4) items should have roughly equal variances so they contribute equally to the total scale score. In order to test three of these traditional Likert scaling assumptions, multitrait scaling analysis by Campbell and Fiske (1969) is used. The last assumption regarding equal variances criterion is not tested in the present study, as it involved different test, such as multiple range test. The main objective of the paper is to focus on the examining data quality, testing of the scaling assumptions using multitrait scaling and reliability of the scales in the questionnaire.

METHODS Instrument development The potentially relevant items to be included in the measurement were initially identified from literature review on crowd behaviour theories and information obtained from prior interviews with a few of Umrah performers to get as much information on their experiences related to large gathering religious activities (see Intan et. al., 2013; Jasni et. al., 2013). Item generation was followed by the evaluation of content validity. Content validity refers to the extent to which the instrument represents all facets of a given phenomenon or concept (Hersen, 2004). In order to establish the content validity of the instrument, the items were subjected to evaluation from expert panel drawn from the field of Psychology, Humanities, Social Work and Social Sciences. Necessary modifications were made with the feedback given by them. The questionnaire contains 34 questions in seven initial scale measuring respondent experiences of their observable behaviour in crowded religious activity. The scales used in measuring observable behaviour are Aggressive (12 items), Coping and Helping Others to Cope (5 items), Defensive (5 items), Avoidance (3 items), © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Protective (2 items), Tolerance (4 items) and Hazardous Acts (3 Items). The response scale was coded as 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = somewhat agree, 4 = agree and 5 = strongly agree. The content of the items and respective scale is presented in Table 1. Table 1 - Content of the observable behaviour in religious mass gathering survey

Label

Name

Scale: AGG (Aggresive) AGG4

Bulldozing others

AGG6

Ramming others

AGG5

Pushing others

AGG3

Shoving others

AGG12

Being rude

AGG2

Stepping over others

AGG7

Making noise

AGG10

Frightening others

AGG11

Being selfish

AGG1

Retaliate when pushed

FOL3

Cutting the queue

URG1

Rushing to complete the rituals

Scale: COP (Coping and helping others to cope) POST2

Educating others to be patient

POST4

Assisting others to perform rituals

COP1

Reciting zikir to calm uneasiness

COP2

Reciting zikir regardless of any situations

URG2

Ignoring the behaviours of others

Scale: DEF (Defensive) DEF3

Bracing dependents from being pushed

DEF4

Safeguarding self from being pushed

DEL2

Avoiding peak periods in performing rituals

DEL3

Taking own time in performing rituals

TIRED1

Resting when feeling tired after performing rituals

Scale: AVD (Avoidance) DEF1

Avoiding people with wheel chairs

DEF2

Avoiding contacts with the different genders

VIG1

Protecting oneself from losing wudu’

Scale: PRO (Protective) PRO1

Safeguarding own self

PRO2

Safeguarding dependents

Scale: TOL (Tolerance) AGG9

Reprimanding others

POST1

Reminding others

POST3

Respecting others

TOL1

Being considerate when moving in a crowd

Scale: HAZ (Hazardous acts) HAZ1

Stopping at inappropriate points

HAZ2

Disturbing others with objects such as wheelchair

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Label HAZ3

Name Walking against the flow

Data Analysis The testing of scaling assumptions on data starts with item-level descriptive statistics including missing data, means, standard deviations, and frequency of response choice. Next, the multitrait/ multi-item correlation is conducted to assess an item’s correlation with its own hypothesized sub-scale score and other scale score; and further evaluate the item internal consistency, equality of item-scale correlation, and item convergent and discriminant validity. Then the internal consistency (homogeneity) assesses whether items of a scale are measuring the same concept was measured using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. Finally, the correlations between scales scores are evaluated in relation to the reliability of the scales. In some scales the wording of particular items has been reversed to help prevent response bias. Data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 20 for Windows).

RESULTS This study was conducted during two days of pre-Hajj training (Premier Hajj Course), a special preparation programme for Malaysian pilgrims before they perform Hajj rituals in Mecca. This programme gathered large amount of pilgrims aims to expose the pilgrims with real situation during Hajj season in Mecca. As such the programme is designed to be consistent with Hajj practical activities such as Tawaf, Saie, Wuquf, Stoning and overnight at Mina. From sixteen locations of the pre-Hajj training programme conducted by Lembaga Tabung Haji Malaysia (LTHM) across Malaysia, three locations tons were chosen for the purpose of this study: Putrajaya, Pulau Pinang and Kelantan. A total of 203 respondents were involved, 86 from Putrajaya (42.4%), 60 from Pulau Pinang (29.6%) and 57 from Kelantan (28.1%). About 67.5% of the survey respondents are men and 28.6% are women, with most of them between the ages of 41-60 years old (58.1%). Majority of the respondents (80%) are the new pilgrims, only a few among them reported to have previous experience in Hajj. Details of the respondents’ characteristics are presented in Table 2. Table 2 - Demographic characteristics of the respondents

n

Percentage

Gender Male

137

67.5%

Female

58

28.6%

Less than 20 years old

2

1.0%

21-40 years old

46

22.7%

41-60 years old

118

58.1%

61-80 years old

25

12.3%

Yes

28

13.8%

No

162

79.8%

Age

Hajj experience

Item-Level Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistics of individual items are examined by looking at amount of missing data, items mean and standard deviation as well as frequency distribution of each response choice (see Table 3). Missing value analysis shows most of the items have less than 10% except for AGG10, PRO2, POST1 and HAZ1. A high percentage of missing data for a group of items may indicate problems with the wording of the response choices for those items or respondent did not understand how to complete the part of the questionnaire. Item means and standard deviation are also examined. Under traditional Likert scaling criteria, items mean and standard deviation should be roughly equivalent within a scale. The findings show that few items have different acceptable range of mean value compared to other items within same scale. For example: URG1, URG2 and AGG9. Items standard deviations in this study have standard deviation in range between 0.6 and © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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1.5, and around 1.0 (for five-choice response scales). The data quality further is confirmed by examining the frequency distribution of individual items to determine if all of the response choices are used or if not and if there are patterns across scales. If respondents do not use all of the response choices, this may indicate that there are problems with the translation of the response choices or the associated items. This finding indicated that a questionnaire in which all response choices were listed the same way from left to right for each question. Table 3 - Item descriptive statistics

Item

Response value frequency Missing (%)

Mean

SD

1

2

3

4

5

Scale: AGG (Aggresive) AGG4

6.8

1.3

0.6

147

36

4

2

1

AGG6

6.3

1.3

0.6

147

37

5

1

1

AGG5

6.8

1.3

0.6

148

36

2

3

1

AGG3

6.3

1.3

0.7

151

32

4

2

2

AGG12

8.6

1.3

0.6

148

31

7

0

1

AGG2

7.4

1.3

0.7

147

34

3

2

3

AGG7

6.3

1.4

0.7

136

46

6

1

2

AGG10

12.2

1.3

0.6

133

38

8

1

1

AGG11

9.7

1.5

0.8

118

54

9

1

3

AGG1

0.1

8

1.5

126

49

4

4

5

FOL3

6.8

2.3

1.3

72

55

18

28

17

URG1

9.1

4.3

0.9

1

14

14

50

107

Scale: COP (Coping and helping others to cope) POST2

8

3.8

1

6

9

48

72

53

POST4

6.3

4.2

0.8

0

4

27

80

80

COP1

6.8

4.5

0.8

2

3

17

54

114

COP2

6.8

4.4

0.8

1

3

22

52

112

URG2

9.7

2.1

1.1

66

70

20

23

6

DEF3

9.7

4.3

0.9

3

4

18

67

93

DEF4

8.6

4.3

0.9

2

8

21

67

89

DEL2

6.3

4.4

0.9

36

31

36

47

33

DEL3

9.7

3.5

1.3

21

25

32

60

47

TIRED1

8.6

4.1

0.8

2

4

32

86

63

DEF1

6.8

4.1

1.1

6

12

24

61

87

DEF2

6.3

4.4

0.9

3

5

17

60

106

VIG1

6.8

4.2

1

4

6

26

58

96

PRO1

6.3

4.1

1

5

7

33

62

84

PRO2

10.3

4.3

0.9

3

4

20

63

94

AGG9

9.1

2.4

1.2

51

51

50

26

8

POST1

11.5

3.3

1.2

22

16

59

51

34

POST3

8.6

4.4

0.7

1

1

13

72

100

Scale: DEF (Defensive)

Scale: AVD (Avoidance)

Scale: PRO (Protective)

Scale: TOL (Tolerance)

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Item

Response value frequency Missing (%)

TOL1

Mean

SD

1

2

3

4

5

8

4.4

0.8

3

4

10

78

93

HAZ1

11.5

1.9

0.9

73

80

17

8

4

HAZ2

7.4

1.5

0.8

125

50

6

8

0

HAZ3

8.6

1.5

0.8

123

51

6

6

1

Scale: HAZ (Hazardous acts)

Multitrait/Multi-Item Correlation Matrix The multitrait scaling analysis is used to examine the relationship of each item to its hypothesized scale, as well as with other scales. This analysis contains item-scale correlations as fundamental elements, which can be referred to as multitrait/ multi-item correlation matrix. Each row in the matrix contains correlations between one item and its scale score, i.e. hypothesized item groupings. While each column contains correlations between one scale and all items in the matrix, including those items hypothesized to be part of that scale and those items hypothesized to be part of other scales. The correlation between items and its hypothesized scale are corrected for overlap to prevent the inflation of correlation value. In this study, a simple technique of corrected item-scale correlation is used, i.e. correlations between the item being evaluated with all the scale items, excluding itself. This correlation matrix allows for testing traditional Likert scaling assumptions simultaneously: items are substantially linearly related to the total scale score (test of item internal consistency); items contain roughly the same proportion of information about the construct being measured (test of equality of item-scale correlations); and whether items are stronger measures of their hypothesized scale than of other scale (test of item convergent and discriminant validity).

Item internal consistency The first assumption under that an item should be substantially linearly related to the underlying concept being measured (test of item internal consistency) is tested by examining the correlation between an item and the scale score computed from all other items in that scale (item-scale correlation after correction for overlap). According to Hays, Hayashi, Carson and Ware (1988), item internal consistency criteria has been considered substantial and satisfactory if an item correlates 0.30 or more with its hypothesized scale (after correction for item-scale overlap). In the findings of item-scale correlations show item URG1, URG2 and POST3 did not correlates well in their hypothesized scale (see Table 4).

Equality of item-scale correlations In addition to demonstrating substantial correlations with their hypothesized scale, a second assumption underlying Likert’s simple scoring method is that items in a scale should contribute roughly equal proportions of information to the total scale score (e.g., from 0.40 to 0.70 across items in the same scale). The items in the scale support this assumption except for item URG1, URG2 and POST3 (see Table 4).

Item convergent and discriminant validity A multitrait scaling analysis is also used to assess item convergence and item discrimination across domains. Item convergence is supported if an item correlates substantially (≥0.30) with the domain total score that it is hypothesized to represent (after correction for item-scale over-lap) (Hays et al., 1988). Item discrimination is supported if the correlation between a given item and the total score that it is hypothesized scale is higher than its correlation with all other total scores. In the findings of item-scale correlations, it show that item URG1 and URG2 did not correlates well in their hypothesized scale, URG, thus these items convergent for their scale is not supported (see Table 4). Meanwhile item POST3 fails the item discriminant validity of the PRO scale since it has highest correlation value in COP scale (see Table 4). Item convergence and discrimination can help determine the scaling of items in a measure. An item was considered a “success” in the item discrimination analysis when the correlation between an item and its hypothesized scale was more than two standard errors (approximately a 95% confidence interval) higher than its correlation with other scales (Hays et al., 1988). Tests are summarized in four categories (see Table 5). Values of 1 and 2 indicate that an item has succeeded and value of -1 and -2 indicate that an item has failed the test of item discriminant validity. URG1, URG2 and POST3 which has failed the test of item discriminant validity © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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effects the scaling success of AGG COP and TOL (see Table 6). Table 4 - Pearson item-scale correlations corrected for overlap

Item

Pearson item-scale correlations AGG

COP

DEF

AVD

PRO

TOL

HAZ

Scale: AGG (Aggresive) AGG4

0.85*

-0.23

-0.22

-0.11

-0.10

-0.06

0.38

AGG6

0.85*

-0.25

-0.26

-0.16

-0.08

-0.06

0.41

AGG5

0.84*

-0.23

-0.21

-0.11

-0.03

-0.05

0.39

AGG3

0.85*

-0.22

-0.24

-0.15

-0.12

-0.12

0.31

AGG12

0.78*

-0.23

-0.27

-0.18

-0.10

-0.06

0.37

AGG2

0.83*

-0.25

-0.27

-0.14

-0.12

-0.19

0.32

AGG7

0.74*

-0.23

-0.20

-0.16

-0.03

0.00

0.43

AGG10

0.73*

-0.14

-0.18

-0.11

-0.06

0.04

0.32

AGG11

0.55*

-0.19

-0.10

-0.10

-0.07

0.03

0.34

AGG1

0.57*

-0.15

-0.11

-0.03

-0.11

-0.09

0.31

FOL3

0.38*

0.01

-0.16

-0.03

-0.12

-0.09

0.18

URG1

-0.17

0.17

0.17

0.25

0.28

0.16

-0.13

Scale: COP (Coping and helping others to cope) POST2

-0.14

0.33*

0.09

0.08

0.00

0.28

-0.08

POST4

-0.31

0.44*

0.30

0.16

0.13

0.33

-0.24

COP1

-0.28

0.53*

0.43

0.44

0.23

0.24

-0.23

COP2

-0.20

0.62*

0.29

0.30

0.19

0.14

-0.20

URG2

0.23

-0.08

-0.06

0.06

-0.05

-0.05

0.17

Scale: DEF (Defensive) DEF3

-0.12

0.31

0.61*

0.35

0.38

0.19

-0.15

DEF4

-0.17

0.33

0.51*

0.41

0.35

0.31

-0.18

DEL2

-0.07

0.11

0.37*

0.11

0.01

0.06

0.11

DEL3

-0.16

0.19

0.50*

0.14

0.13

0.07

0.00

TIRED1

-0.2

0.46

0.50*

0.34

0.14

0.14

-0.12

Scale: AVD (Avoidance) DEF1

-0.09

0.24

0.25

0.38*

0.19

0.05

-0.16

DEF2

-0.12

0.22

0.24

0.54*

0.20

0.13

-0.19

VIG1

-0.17

0.19

0.23

0.39*

0.26

0.09

-0.26

Scale: PRO (Protective) PRO1

-0.1

0.2

0.2

0.3

0.50*

0.1

-0.1

PRO2

-0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.50*

0.0

-0.1

Scale: TOL (Tolerance) AGG9

0.25

0.07

-0.02

0.03

0.02

0.33*

0.03

POST1

0.00

0.28

0.21

0.00

0.06

0.39*

-0.03

POST3

-0.36

0.40

0.23

0.24

0.11

0.35

-0.35

TOL1

-0.27

0.36

0.26

0.17

0.11

0.37*

-0.26

Scale: HAZ (Hazardous acts) HAZ1

0.23

-0.03

0.01

-0.18

-0.05

-0.06

0.42*

HAZ2

0.33

-0.15

-0.04

-0.07

-0.01

0.02

0.44*

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Item HAZ3

Pearson item-scale correlations AGG 0.37

COP -0.30

DEF -0.25

AVD -0.19

PRO -0.09

TOL -0.24

HAZ 0.58*

Note: *Item-scale correlation corrected for overlap (relevant item removed from its scale for correlation). Starred correlations also hypothesized to be highest in same row.

Table 5 - Item-level discriminant validity test

Item

AGG

COP

DEF

AVD

PRO

TOL

HAZ

Scale: AGG (Aggresive) AGG4

**

2

2

2

2

2

2

AGG6

**

2

2

2

2

2

2

AGG5

**

2

2

2

2

2

2

AGG3

**

2

2

2

2

2

2

AGG12

**

2

2

2

2

2

2

AGG2

**

2

2

2

2

2

2

AGG7

**

2

2

2

2

2

2

AGG10

**

2

2

2

2

2

2

AGG11

**

2

2

2

2

2

2

AGG1

**

2

2

2

2

2

2

FOL3

**

2

2

2

2

2

2

URG1

**

2

2

-2

-2

2

2

Scale: COP (Coping and helping others to cope) POST2

2

**

2

2

2

2

2

POST4

2

**

2

2

2

2

2

COP1

2

**

2

2

2

2

2

COP2

2

**

2

2

2

2

2

URG2

-1

**

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

Scale: DEF (Defensive) DEF3

2

2

**

2

2

2

2

DEF4

2

2

**

2

2

2

2

DEL2

2

2

**

2

2

2

2

DEL3

2

2

**

2

2

2

2

TIRED1

2

2

**

2

2

2

2

Scale: AVD (Avoidance) DEF1

2

2

2

**

2

2

2

DEF2

2

2

2

**

2

2

2

VIG1

2

2

2

**

2

2

2

Scale: PRO (Protective) PRO1

2

2

2

2

**

2

2

PRO2

2

2

2

2

**

2

2

Scale: TOL (Tolerance) AGG9

2

2

2

2

2

**

2

POST1

2

2

2

2

2

**

2

POST3

2

-2

2

2

2

**

2

TOL1

2

2

2

2

2

**

2

© ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Item

AGG

COP

DEF

AVD

PRO

TOL

HAZ

Scale: HAZ (Harzadous acts) HAZ1

2

2

2

2

2

2

**

HAZ2

2

2

2

2

2

2

**

HAZ3

2

2

2

2

2

2

**

Note: **Discriminant validity test not conducted. Cut-off point for significance is 2 standard errors. Levels of scaling success: 2=Item-scale correlation is significantly higher for hypothesized scale than for competing scale; 1=Item-scale correlation is higher for hypothesized scale than competing scale, but not significantly; -1=Item-scale correlation is lower for hypothesized scale than competing scale, but not significantly; and -2=Item-scale correlation is significantly lower for hypothesized scale than for competing scale.

Table 6 - Frequency and percentage of item-scale correlations at each level of scaling success

Scale

-2 n

-1 %

n

1 %

n

2

Success rate

%

n

%

n

%

AGG

-4

5.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

74

95.0

74

95.0

COP

0

0.0

-6

11.0

0

0.0

48

89.0

48

89.0

DEF

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

60

100.0

60

100.0

AVD

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

36

100.0

36

100.0

PRO

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

24

100.0

24

100.0

TOL

-2

4.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

46

96.0

46

96.0

HAZ

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

36

100.0

36

100.0

Note: Levels of scaling success: 2=Item-scale correlation is significantly higher for hypothesized scale than for competing scale; 1=Item-scale correlation is higher for hypothesized scale than competing scale, but not significantly; -1=Item-scale correlation is lower for hypothesized scale than competing scale, but not significantly; and -2=Item-scale correlation is significantly lower for hypothesized scale than for competing scale.

Reliability of Scale Reliability has been defined as the extent to which a scale, observation or any measurement procedure produces the same results or similar scores with repeated testing with the same group of respondents. In this study internal consistency (average inter-item correlations) and inter scale correlation is conducted as part of scale reliability analysis.

Internal consistency reliability In this study, the internal consistency reliability was measured using Cronbach’s alpha. According to Chakrapani (2004), Cronbach’s alpha value of greater than 0.5 is considered acceptable and value less than 0.5 is considered poor. As shown in Table 7, all scales have values of Cronbach’s alpha more than 0.5 represent sufficient internal consistencies.

Correlations between scales To evaluate how distinct each scale is from other scales in the same matrix, correlations among all scales are computed and compared with reliability estimates. A reliability coefficient can be thought of as a correlation between a scale and itself. To the extent that the correlation between two scales is less than their reliability coefficients, there is evidence of unique reliable variance measured by each scale (Guilford, 1954). Table 7 shows the correlation of among one scale to other scale is lower than correlation with itself shows that each scale measured the unique reliable variance. Table 7 - Reliability coefficients and inter scale correlations

Scale

AGG

COP

DEF

AVD

AGG

(0.87)

COP

0.01

(0.56)

DEF

-0.12

0.49

(0.71)

AVD

-0.10

0.25

0.28

(0.62)

PRO

0.00

0.12

0.26

0.28

PRO

TOL

HAZ

(0.63)

© ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Scale

AGG

COP

DEF

AVD

PRO

TOL

TOL

0.04

0.39

0.33

0.15

0.18

(0.56)

HAZ

0.42

-0.19

-0.04

-0.21

-0.03

-0.06

HAZ (0.66)

Note: Scale internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s alpha coefficient) is presented in the diagonal.

CONCLUSION The investigation of descriptive statistics of items shows that the items fulfil the criteria of traditional Likert scaling except for few items: URG1, URG2 and POST3 suffer the small missing value criteria and mean value is not roughly same within scale. Result from the multitrait/multi-item correlation also support that items fails the equality of item-scale correlations and item convergent and discriminant validity, thus affects the level of scaling success. The reliability test shows the scales have good internal consistency with unique variance. Overall, the new scale meets the standards for scaling criteria with acceptable level of validity and reliability. However it can be improved by considering the problematic items and infected scales for further use in understanding crowd behaviour.

REFERENCES Ahmed, Q. A., Arabi, Y. M., & Memish, Z. A. (2006). Health risks at the Hajj. The Lancet, 367(9515), 1008-1015. Al- Ghadi, S. A. H. (1996). A Review Study of Crowd Behavior and Movement. Journal of King Saud University, Engineering Sciences, 8(1), 77–108. AlGhadi, S. A. H., & Mahmassani, H. S. (1991). Simulation of Crowd Behavior and Movement Fundamental Relations and Application. Transportation Research Record, 1320, 260–268. Chakrapani, C. (2004). Statistics in market research. London: Arnold Publisher. Curtis, S., Guy, S. J., Zafar, B., & Manocha, D. (2011). Virtual Tawaf: A case study in simulating the behavior of dense, heterogeneous crowds. 2011 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Workshops (ICCV Workshops), 128–135. doi:10.1109/ICCVW.2011.6130234 Edwards, A. L. (1957). Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. Guilford, J. P. (1954). Psychometric Methods. New York: McGraw-Hill. Hays, R.D., Hayashi, T., Carson, S. & Ware, J.E. (1988). User’s guide for the Multitrait Analysis Program (MAP). Santa Monica: The Rand Corporation. Helbing, D., Johansson, A., & Al-Abideen, H. (2007). Dynamics of crowd disasters: An empirical study. Physical Review E, 75(4), 046109. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.75.046109 Hersen, M. (2004). Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment: Behavioral assessment. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. Hutton, A., Zeitz, K., Brown, S., & Arbon, P. (2011). Assessing the psychosocial elements of crowds at mass gatherings. Prehospital and disaster medicine, 26(6), 414–21. doi:10.1017/S1049023X12000155 Intan, H. M. Hashim, Zulkarnain, A. H., Noraida, A. G., Nor Diana, M., Shukran, A. R., Zarina, M. S., Jasni, S., Zhooriyati, S. M., Salahuddien, A., and Mohamad, A. S. 2013. The dynamics of emotion at crowded places during Umrah: A qualitative study. Proceedings of 5th National Seminar on Hajj Best Practices on Crowd & Health Issues. Pulau Pinang, Malaysia: Hajj Research Cluster. Jasni, S., Zulkarnain, A. H., Intan, H. M. Hashim, Noraida, A. G., Shukran, A. R., Zarina, M. S., and Nor Diana, M. 2013. Relationship between religious background, behaviours and emotions of mu’tamir during Umrah rituals. Proceedings of 5th National Seminar on Hajj Best Practices on Crowd & Health Issues. Pulau Pinang, Malaysia: Hajj Research Cluster. Khozium, M. O., Abuarafah, A. G., & AbdRabou, E. (2012). A Proposed Computer-Based System Architecture for Crowd Management of Pilgrims using Thermography. Life Science Journal, 9(2), 277–282. Retrieved from http://medcontent.metapress.com/index/A65RM03P4874243N.pdf Likert, R. (1932). A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Arch Psychol, 140, 5-55. Zainuddin, Z. (2009). Simulating the Circumambulation of the Ka’ aba using SimWalk. Euro. J. Scientific Res, 38(3), 454–464. Zeitz, K. M., Tan, H. M., Grief, M., Couns, P. C., & Zeitz, C. J. (2009). Crowd Behavior at Mass Gatherings : A Literature Review. Prehospital Disaster Medicine, 24(1), 32–38. Retrieved from http://pdm.medicine.wisc.edu

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SECTION IX

CRIME AND DELINQUENCY

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

TAHAP PENERIMAAN BANDUAN TERHADAP HUKUMAN MATI Abdul Aziz Abdul Razak, Jamaludin Mustaffa*, Nor Azniza Ishak & Mohd Hilmi Hamzah * [email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM)

Abstract Hukuman mati dikategorikan hukuman yang paling berat dalam Kanun Keseksaan. Walau bagaimanapun, jumlah penjenayah yang ditahan dan disabitkan hukuman tersebut semakin bertambah di negara kita. Penerimaan hukuman mati adalah berkait rapat dengan tahap emosi, sama ada positif atau negatif. Oleh itu, kajian terhadap kesan emosi ini secara tidak langsung mendatangkan impak kepada proses pelaksanaan hukuman dan pemerlakuan layanan ke atas banduan serta pengurusan keselamatan penjara. Kajian ini untuk mengenal pasti tahap penerimaan banduan terhadap hukuman mati dari aspek emosi, dan puncapunca yang mengganggu emosi diri banduan akhir yang boleh menggugat keselamatan diri dan organisasi penjara. Reka bentuk kajian menggunakan kaedah temu bual bersemuka dengan sampel dipilih secara rawak dalam kalangan banduan akhir. Maka jelaslah dari penganalisaan kajian ini, menunjukkan bahawa tahap penerimaan banduan akhir terhadap hukuman mati menunjukkan kebanyakan mereka redha dengan ketentuan Ilahi dan puncapunca yang mengganggu emosi mereka sehinggakan menyebabkan keselamatan diri dan organisasi penjara terancam disebabkan terlalu lama menunggu keputusan pengampunan. Penemuan dalam penyelidikan ini adalah satu fenomena yang benar-benar berlaku dalam penjara pada hari ini. Fenomena ini menggambarkan ada perkara-perkara tersembunyi dirungkaikan dalam mengetahui bagaimana sesuatu perkara tersebut berlaku. Perlakuan ini jelas menunjukkan penglibatan golongan bawahan yang sering menyumbang kepada permasalahan sosial di negara ini. Dapatan kajian ini menggambarkan keadaan sebenar diri banduan akhir terhadap emosi mereka apabila berada di penjara dan berstatus banduan akhir. Hal ini kerana penyelidikan mengenai banduan akhir di Malaysia kurang dilakukan dan dapatan ini serba sebanyak dapat memberi gambaran sebenar keadaan banduan akhir dalam menghadapi saat-saat kematian.

PENGENALAN Pengurusan layanan banduan yang efektif menggabungkan elemen keperluan fizikal dan spiritual banduan. Ia sukar ditentukan secara objektif. Di negara maju, walaupun penyediaan kemudahan fizikal penjara yang jauh lebih baik dari negara kita, kejadian rusuhan, pergaduhan berkumpulan, perlanggaran peraturan penjara, mogok lapar, pergaduhan yang melibatkan kematian masih juga berlaku. Ini bermakna, terdapat elemen psikologi yang perlu ditangani bagi mencapai objektif penahanan banduan di penjara. Berdasarkan kepada kajian luar negara sebelum ini, banduan akhir telah mengalami masalah elemen psikologi sehinggakan berlaku kekacauan akibat tekanan perasaan (Goleman, 1999). Umum mengetahui bahawa hukuman mati telah dilaksanakan begitu lama, tetapi jumlah jenayah berat dan ‘hardcore criminal’ penjenayah tegar semakin bertambah di negara kita (Jabatan Penjara Malaysia, 2010). Oleh Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

itu, kajian terhadap kesan emosi ini secara tidak langsung mendatangkan impak kepada proses pelaksanaan penahanan dan pemerlakuan layanan ke atas banduan serta pengurusan keselamatan persekitaran. Proses kerja yang lengkap dengan aktiviti-aktiviti yang dijalankan secara holistik dapat menentukan pencapaian pengurusan keselamatan dengan berkesan. Selain itu, perbincangan artikel ini adalah perlu memandangkan hukuman mati telah lama dipraktiskan di negara kita. Jumlah banduan seperti jadual 1 di bawah menunjukkan jumlah yang semakin bertambah. Ini telah menimbulkan persoalan sama ada pertambahan jumlah ini adalah kesan daripada tiadanya kesedaran terhadap penguatkuasaan undang-undang di negara kita. Statistik dibawah menunjukkan ‘trend’ kemasukan banduan reman yang ditahan atas kesalahan yang dijatuhkan hukuman mati bagi tempoh 10 tahun: Jadual 1: Statistik Banduan Reman Hukuman Mati Jabatan Penjara Malaysia Bagi Tahun 2000-2010

Tahun

Jumlah Kes

2000

166

2001

131

2002

113

2003

124

2004

150

2005

179

2006

192

2008

259

2009

439

2010

583

Sumber: Jabatan Penjara Malaysia, 2011

Jadual 1 jelas menunjukkan bahawa jumlah banduan yang dituduh dan dijatuhkan hukuman mati di Malaysia menunjukkan jumlah yang tinggi. Jabatan Penjara Malaysia bertanggungjawab untuk menguruskan pelaksanaan hukuman seperti diperintahkan oleh Mahkamah Tinggi. Dengan kenaikan jumlah banduan sabitan bagi hukuman mati, adalah perlu satu kajian terhadap tahap penerimaan hukuman mati yang dijatuhkan dan faktor mereka boleh terlibat dengan jenayah berat. Proses pelaksanaan hukuman yang lengkap mengambil tempoh masa yang panjang, banduan akhir perlu menjalani kehidupan sesama banduan yang lain, maka kajian terhadap emosi banduan juga perlu dibuat untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan emosi mereka terganggu gangguan sehingga mereka menjalani Perintah Pelaksanaan Hukuman (Order of Execution). Dalam pada itu juga, banduan akhir di penjara sering menimbulkan kekecohan dan ingin mendapatkan perhatian daripada pegawai penjara semasa mereka ditahan ataupun semasa mereka menunggu saat menjalani hukuman mati. Mereka diklasifikasikan sebagai banduan berisiko tinggi dan hendaklah diberi perhatian. Setiap pergerakan dan tindakan mereka diperhatikan oleh pegawai penjara yang bertugas. Kejadian memboloskan diri dari kawalan penjara, pergaduhan yang serius antara banduan, menyerang pegawai penjara, mencederakan serta membunuh diri, mogok lapar adalah kejadian-kejadian yang perlu ditangani dengan berkesan. Jadual 2 menunjukkan statistik kejadian luar biasa yang melibatkan banduan akhir. Jadual 2: Statistik Kejadian Luar Biasa Banduan Akhir 2005-2010

Kejadian

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Bunuh Diri

2

3

1

-

3

2

Pergaduhan Serius

5

3

7

4

3

5

Menyerang Pegawai Penjara

2

-

-

1

-

1

Pergaduhan Berkumpulan

3

5

6

3

4

4

Cubaan Memboloskan Diri

1

-

-

-

-

-

Penyeludupan Artikel Larangan

9

8

10

11

8

9

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Kejadian

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Cubaan Membunuh Diri

3

4

4

3

1

-

Mogok Lapar

2

-

2

3

5

2

Sumber: Jabatan Penjara 2011

Walaupun jumlah kejadian di atas tidak begitu besar berbanding dengan jumlah keseluruhan banduan akhir, akan tetapi kejadian ini akan memberi kesan kepada reputasi pengurusan kepenjaraan jika sekiranya perkara yang timbul tidak diatasi dengan berkesan (Ahmad Fauzi, 2004). Pihak luar seperti Suruhanjaya Hak Asasi Manusia (SUHAKAM) sentiasa peka terhadap perkembangan pengurusan banduan. Aduan sama ada dari keluarga banduan ataupun orang awam kepada SUHAKAM menandakan masyarakat memandang serius pelaksanaan fungsi Jabatan Penjara Malaysia yang mendukung misi “Kami Melindungi Masyarakat Dengan Menyediakan Penahanan Yang Selamat Dan Program Pemulihan Yang Efektif”. Penahanan yang selamat telah dijadikan sebagai Indikator Pencapaian Utama Prestasi (KPI) fungsi jabatan (Pelan Induk 2009–2020, 2009). Oleh itu, dengan adanya artikel ini, ia dapatlah memberi input kepada Jabatan Penjara Malaysia dan penjarapenjara yang lain juga bagi meningkatkan keberkesanan pengurusan banduan akhir berdasarkan alternatif cadangan yang sesuai untuk dilaksanakan. Secara umumnya, artikel ini bertujuan untuk membincangkan gaya hidup banduan akhir di Penjara Pokok Sena dengan melihat tahap penerimaan terhadap hukuman mati yang dikenakan, tindak balas perubahan emosi terhadap hukuman dan faktor persekitaran penjara yang menimbulkan gangguan emosi diri semasa menjalani kehidupan di blok penempatan khas. Walaupun peluang menjalani kehidupan di luar tembok di berada persimpangan atau agak tipis, akan tetapi banduan tidak boleh dibiarkan kecewa dan hanya menunggu saat-saat kematian. Gangguan emosi boleh membawa kepada tekanan, malah tekanan yang di luar batasan kawalan individu boleh menyebabkan tindakan yang membahayakan diri sendiri ataupun persekitarannya. Kehidupan perlu diteruskan sehingga mendapat Perintah Pelaksanaan. Pada saat-saat genting iaitu perjumpaan terakhir bersama ahli-ahli keluarga atau guru agama, banduan perlukan bimbingan bagi menghadapi kematian. Pemilikan status kategori banduan “banduan akhir” kadangkala seolah-olah memberi satu keistimewaan kepada banduan untuk menuntut (demand) kehendak-kehendak mereka yang perlu dipenuhi oleh warden penjara. Pada hakikatnya, mereka mengetahui ia tertakluk kepada peraturan. Jika sekiranya tidak berjaya, ketegangan emosi akan mula berlaku. Ketegangan emosi yang serius boleh mendedahkan pengurusan keselamatan penjara kepada krisis.

HUKUMAN MATI DI MALAYSIA (TEKNIK GANTUNG) Kaedah pelaksanaan hukuman mati di Malaysia menggunakan kaedah gantung yang melibatkan keskes seperti pengedaran dadah (berdasarkan kuantiti yang ditetapkan), membunuh dengan niat dan juga pemilikan senjata api (Azman & Mohd Al-Ikhsan, 2010). Menurut Abdul Azizi (2003), berdasarkan kepada sistem undang-undang di Malaysia, pelaksanaan hukuman mati akan dilaksanakan selepas individu yang didapati bersalah dibicarakan terlebih dahulu melalui beberapa peringkat iaitu: a. Mahkamah Tinggi b. Mahkamah Rayuan c. Mahkamah Persekutuan Menurutnya lagi, apabila ketiga-tiga peringkat mahkamah telah memutuskan tertuduh bersalah, maka tertuduh akan diberi peluang terakhir iaitu rayuan pengampunan kesalahan yang dilakukan dan hendaklah tertuduh mengemukakan kepada Yang Di Pertuan Agong atau Duli Yang Maha Mulia Sultan atau Yang Di Pertua Negeri, bergantung pada kesalahan dan tempat itu dilakukan. Apabila rayuan pengampunan ditolak oleh Yang Di Pertua Agong atau Duli Yang Maha Mulia Sultan atau Yang Di Pertua Negeri, maka keputusan yang telah diputuskan oleh mahkamah sebelum ini adalah muktamad dan pihak mahkamah memerintahkan supaya Jabatan Penjara menjalankan hukuman gantung sampai mati (Abdul Aziz, 2003). Menurut Ahmad Fauzi (2004), bagi individu yang dijatuhi hukuman gantung sampai mati oleh mahkamah di Malaysia, kebiasaannya mereka akan melalui proses dari segi aspek perundangan seperti memakan masa yang panjang. Sebagai contohnya di Penjara Pokok Sena, purata individu yang menjalani hukuman mati bermulanya di jatuh hukum oleh Mahkamah Tinggi adalah berbeza dan masa yang diambil untuk dijatuhkan hukuman bertahun-tahun di mana ada yang melibatkan antara 1 hingga 9 bulan dan ada juga mengambil masa sehingga 7 tahun lebih. Pengambilan masa ini disebabkan pelbagai proses perlu dilalui seperti proses perundangan tamat dan rayuan untuk meringankan hukuman telah ditolak oleh Lembaga Pengampunan, pihak penjara terlibat akan menunggu arahan untuk menjalankan hukuman. Apabila arahan melaksanakan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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hukuman dikeluarkan oleh mahkamah, pihak Jabatan Penjara akan mengendalikan urusan pelaksanaan hukuman gantung berasaskan 5 fasa tindakan (Ahmad Fauzi, 2004).

ULASAN KARYA Penerimaan Banduan terhadap Hukuman Mati dalam Aspek Emosi Anderson (2005) yang mengkaji keadaan ‘trauma’ yang dialami oleh banduan sepanjang menunggu proses hukuman mati mendapati bahawa keadaan ‘trauma’ sepanjang menunggu proses hukuman mati dijatuhkan kepada pesalah tidak hanya dirasai oleh banduan sahaja, tetapi keadaan ‘trauma’ turut dialami oleh individu selain banduan seperti ahli keluarga mangsa, ahli keluarga pesalah, wakil keadilan bagi pesalah, pesalah dan juga saksi. Kajian yang telah dilakukan ke atas banduan di penjara yang terletak di Amerika Syarikat ini mendapati bahawa penerimaan banduan terhadap hukuman mati yang akan dijatuhkan menunjukkan faktor yang negatif. Sebagai contoh, banduan yang dikaji menunjukkan gejala seperti tertekan, berkelakuan agresif dan gejala ingin membunuh diri. Ini menunjukkan emosi dan penerimaan yang dialami banduan adalah berunsur negatif. Dieter (2008) yang mengkaji tentang kaedah pelaksanaan hukuman mati dan kesan penggunaan kaedah tersebut ke atas hukuman mati di United States (US) telah mewujudkan kontroversi dalam sistem perundangan di US yang melibatkan unsur budaya dan bangsa yang ada di negara berkenaan. Dalam kajiannya mendapati bahawa, sesetengah mahkamah seperti di The Georgia Supreme Court, menyatakan hukuman mati menggunakan kaedah kerusi elektrik adalah sesuatu yang sangat kejam dan tidak berperikemanusiaan. Keadaan ini telah menyebabkan undang-undang di negara tersebut mengurangkan kaedah hukuman mati menggunakan kerusi elektrik kepada pesalah. Harrison dan Tamony (2010) pula telah mengkaji tentang fenomena hukuman mati, sindrom hukuman mati dan kesannya kepada kes-kes penting di United States. Kajian mendapati bahawa tahap penerimaan pesalah (banduan) terhadap hukuman mati adalah berunsur emosi yang negatif. Kajian mendapati, banduan lebih suka bersendiri dan mengurung diri mereka serta mengalami kegelisahan mental yang teruk sepanjang proses menunggu hukuman disabitkan. Seseorang pesalah yang berhadapan dengan hukuman mati juga mempunyai keadaan mental yang tidak stabil (Haney, 2009). Oleh itu, ini menunjukkan bahawa emosi yang negatif banyak membelenggu diri seseorang banduan ketika hampir menunggu hukuman disabitkan dengan kesalahan berat yang mereka lakukan.

Punca-Punca yang Mengganggu Emosi Diri Banduan Walters, Mann, Miller, Hemphill dan Chlumsky (1988) dalam kajian mereka mengenai gangguan emosi menyatakan bahawa kelaziman gangguan emosi yang serius terjadi dalam kalangan banduan yang lebih muda. Menurut mereka lagi banduan yang lebih muda cenderung untuk memenuhi kriteria yang menunjukkan gangguan afektif terutamanya keadaan emosi yang tidak stabil dan terganggu. Dapatan kajian turut membuktikan bahawa tahap Psikopatologi banduan menderita Skizofrenia adalah lebih tinggi. Schultz dan Schultz (2002) menyatakan setiap individu sentiasa membuat penilaian setiap perkara yang berlaku terhadap dirinya dan akan berkelakuan sejajar dengan konsep kendiri yang dimilikinya dengan pengalaman atau perasaan yang dialaminya bagi menentukan apakah bentuk tingkah laku yang akan dihasilkannya. Dalam pada itu juga, Schultz dan Schultz (1998) menyatakan punca yang mengganggu emosi diri disebabkan seseorang individu itu memiliki konsep kendiri yang rendah yang seterusnya akan meningkatkan elemenelemen negatif dalam diri seperti emosi menjadi negatif, putus asa, berkonflik dan lain-lain unsur tingkah laku negatif. Meltzer dan Huckabay (2004) dalam kajian mereka pula mendapati keadaan ketegangan moral mempunyai hubungan signifikan yang kuat dengan keletihan emosi di mana ianya akan mencetuskan kepada burnout dan seterusnya menjadi gangguan kepada emosi seseorang individu. Selain itu, hasil kajian mereka juga menunjukkan bahawa kebanyakan individu yang cetek pegangan agama didapati mempunyai skor purata yang tinggi dalam sub tema skala keletihan emosi berbanding individu yang mempunyai pegangan agama (Meltzer & Huckabay, 2004). Beberapa kajian berhubung dengan keberkesanan terapi agama dapat membendung ketegangan emosi, dengan syarat individu itu mempunyai pegangan agama dan sedar mereka adalah makhluk ciptaan Yang Maha Kuasa. Dalam konteks agama Islam, terdapat banyak kajian telah dilakukan bagi mengurangkan masalah tersebut. Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Nor Azah Abdul Aziz et al., (2008) terhadap 50 pelajar tahfiz menunjukkan tekanan darah berkurangan selepas melakukan solat fardhu berbanding dengan kadar tekanan

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darah sebelum melakukan ibadah solat fardhu. Kadar tekanan darah adalah pada tahap yang normal dan melambangkan keadaan yang tenang tanpa stress selepas menunaikan solat fardhu. Fakta ini bertepatan dengan sabda Nabi Muhammad S.A.W yang memerintahkan umatnya bersolat ketika menghadapi kemarahan dan telah terbukti bahawa solat memberikan kesan yang pantas terhadap sistem saraf dengan memberi ketenangan dan keseimbangan. Solat juga turut menjadi penawar kepada insomnia atau penyakit sukar tidur yang disebabkan oleh kegagalan sistem saraf. Menurut Fatimah Ibrahim, Wan Abu Bakar Wan Abas & Ng Siew Cheok (2008) ibadah solat yang dilaksanakan melibatkan pembacaan serta penghayatan ayat-ayat suci Al Quran serta doa-doa tertentu yang melibatkan pergerakkan-pergerakkan tertentu seperti berdiri betul, rukuk, duduk dan sujud. Pergerakan dan bacaan dalam solat ini membawa sesuatu kesan ketenangan kepada perasaan dan pemikiran mereka yang mendirikan solat. Menurut penyelidik ketenangan ini mungkin akibat perlakuan tokmakninah dalam solat. Kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa ibadat solat amat baik untuk mengekalkan tahap kestabilan mental dan emosi seseorang. Morgan dan Poray (2009) telah mengkaji tentang ‘trauma’ dan ketagihan yang membawa kepada gangguan emosi seseorang individu. Trauma terjadi akibat daripada pelbagai faktor seperti peperangan, bencana alam, kesakitan akibat ancaman dalam hidup, serangan fizikal atau seksual. Faktor-faktor ini salah satunya telah menjadi punca kepada gangguan emosi seseorang individu. Dalam aspek ini, kesakitan akibat ancaman daripada mana-mana sumber seperti hukuman (mati), telah menjadi punca pergolakan emosi seseorang banduan di penjara. Mereka juga menyatakan bahawa trauma yang berlaku turut membawa kepada perubahan tingkahlaku dan tindakan seseorang individu. Bagi menghadapi trauma agar tidak mendatangkan kemudaratan kepada orang lain, faktor persekitaran seperti peranan orang di sekeliling adalah penting dalam memainkan peranan untuk membantu menyelesaikan masalah trauma yang dihadapi oleh seseorang itu, sebagai contoh khidmat kaunseling. Stuewig, Tangney, Heigel, Harty dan McCloskey (2009) telah mengkaji tentang perasaan malu dan rasa bersalah yang menjadi fungsi kepada pembentukan emosi moral dan sifat agresif banduan. Kajian yang dilakukan menggunakan kaedah ‘path analysis’ ini membuktikan bahawa faktor malu dan rasa bersalah yang menebal dalam diri seseorang banduan telah menjadi faktor yang mempengaruhi dan membentuk emosi negatif banduan di penjara saat menghadapi hukuman. Emosi negatif yang ditunjukkan banduan akibat rasa malu dan bersalah ini adalah seperti bertindak agresif, tekanan, kerisauan dan berhadapan dengan masalah ‘posttraumatic stress disorder’.

METODOLOGI Reka bentuk kajian ini adalah berbentuk kualitatif yang menggunakan kaedah temu bual berstruktur. Sampel kajian adalah seramai 11 orang responden yang terdiri banduan akhir di Penjara Pokok Sena, Kedah. Cara pemilihan responden dibuat dengan menggunakan kaedah pensampelan rawak di mana sampel dipilih itu juga diyakini mempunyai ciri-ciri kewakilan (representativeness) yang terdapat pada populasi tersebut. Instrumen dalam kajian ini telah diadapatsikan daripada kajian-kajian lepas mengikut kesesuaian kajian yang mengambil kira pemboleh ubah tahap penerimaan banduan akhir terhadap hukuman mati dan punca-punca yang menggangu emosi banduan akhir. Pemprosesan data dilakukan dengan komputer menggunakan perisian Nvivo 10 bagi mencari jawapan yang menyeluruh berdasarkan kepada satu model holistik yang dibentuk bagi memaklumkan gambaran sebenar hasil dapatan kajian.

HASIL KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Tahap Penerimaan Banduan terhadap Hukuman Mati dari Aspek Emosi Hasil kajian menunjukkan kebanyakan responden iaitu sebanyak lima orang responden banduan akhir boleh menerima hukuman mati tersebut. Dari aspek emosi penerimaan mereka menunjukkan pada mulanya mereka sukar juga untuk terima kenyataan iaitu berperasaan seperti sedih, takut, kemurungan, terkedu dan pelbagai lagi tekanan dihadapi namun selepas sekian lama baru mereka dapat menerima hakikat tersebut. Kebanyakan mereka mengatakan mereka redha dengan ketentuan Ilahi dan bersedia menerima hukuman tersebut dengan hati terbuka. Perkara ini dibuktikan dengan petikan hasil temubual yang dijalankan terhadap banduan akhir yang mengatakan: “saya punya perasaan sebenarnya senang jer, saya bermain api, saya sanggup terima hukuman....saya takder...sedih takder tak puas hati pun takder. Saya terima hukuman saya.” (Responden 10)

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“saya redha tuan... bukan apa, cakap ikhlaslah tuan, saya duduk dekat luar, banyak selewenglah..kitaduit ada, cari perempuan lainlah walaupun saya pernah beristeri dua.. maklumlah laki-laki tuan kan.. lepas tu macam ganja, dadah ni saya tak hisap lah, minum mabuk lepas tu sembahyang pun boleh nak dikatakan kuranglah.. tapi bila duduk sini alhamdullilah saya dah boleh baca Quran. Sekurang-kurangnya kalau tuhan tu tak uji saya masuk ke sini, saya mati dekat luar dalam keadaan sesatlah. Sekurang-kuranya dekat sini saya dah tahu, saya dah habis andai kata esok kalau saya mati pun sekurang-kurangnya saya adalah bekalan tukan, sama ada Allah nak terima tak terima itu jer lah.” (Responden 12) Mula-mula perasaan memang masa itu tak boleh nak kata apalah. Tak boleh nak kata apa. Terkedu jugalah. Ingatkan turun blok ker apa semua, pecah seksyen. Tak boleh juga, tapi lama jugalah, lama juga nak terima hakikat. (Responden 1) Mula-mula takpe lagi, kita sudah tahulah mau buat ini, ada satu hari memang masuk punya..masa mula-mula dulu ada takutlah, apa? Macam..mau fikir banyaklah, mau keluar tak boleh. Banyak fikirlah. Sekarang ini saya takder takut hukuman. Kita memang ada buat bukan niaya punya. Kita memang buat. (Responden 9) Saya terima hakikat, saya terima.. tapi perasaan mula kita terkejutlah...memang saya tak nangis masa tu, memang saya dah terfikir memang nasiblah. Dulu saya tak pernah sembahyang, duduk dalam ini saya boleh sembahyang, boleh menggaji. Ada hikmah. (Responden 7) Selain itu terdapat sebanyak empat orang responden tidak boleh menerima hakikat dikenakan hukuman mati. Ini kerana kebanyakkan mereka mengatakan mereka dianiaya oleh rakan-rakan sendiri. Perasaan emosi mereka apabila memasuki penjara dan dijatuhkan hukuman mati berbaur sedih, takut, kemurungan, mengharap mereka boleh keluar dan sentiasa berfikir. Perkara ini dibuktikan dengan petikan hasil temubual dengan responden yang mengatakan: Perasaan sekarang tuan, lebih baik mati lagi ok..tapi saya tak boleh terima hakikat ini sebab saya jadi mangsakan. Sekarang banyak susahlah tak boleh cakap sama keluarga, bini dan anak semua. (Responden 8) Memang tak puas hatilah.. habis macam mana lah tuan, jadi mangsalah. Betul tak tuan? Kalau aku buat mari sampai sini aku puas hatilah, sebab aku lah memang terlibatlah, aku punya otak aku punya fikiran memang mahu buat. Puas, aku buat mari sampai sini aku puas hatilah, bolehlah aku boleh terimalah, tuhan bagi aku macam ni. Hukuman gantung ni memang takut punya tuan, kita sudah tahulah besok kita mau mati. Aku memang tak boleh terima lah tuan...semua habis.. bagi hukuman kurang pun aku boleh terima lah tuan. Tapi terus dapat ini macam hukuman, aiyooooo...saya pun tak boleh terima tuan. (Responden 6) Mesti ada..apalah? pressure mesti ada. Tekanan mesti ada, lagi sudah masuk ah. Binipun sudah cerai. Sekarang hukuman saya terima saya tak boleh terimalah..saya tak fahamlah tuan adil ker takder adil. Tak tahulah sekarang kita punya nyawa sudah kasi tuhan.. (Responden 2)

Hati banyak susahlah tuan, mahu ikutkan. Hati banyak tertekan. Tak boleh terimalah. Kadang-kadang fikir, kadang-kadang takde fikir. Fikirfikir pun saya tahu, mesti saya boleh keluar punya. Tapi betul tuan saya tak boleh terima hukuman ni. Stress tuan duduk sini..duduk sini tuan ah, tengok ah, makan, tapi sekarang ni sikit-sikit orang cakap banduan akhir buat kecoh. Banduan akhir buat hal lah, banyak kecohlah, tapi kita bukan minta tuan. Mesti ada punca, apa punca masalah. (Responden 13) Selain itu, dapatan juga menunjukkan sebanyak dua orang responden tidak tahu iaitu sama ada boleh terima hakikat atau tidak boleh terima hakikat. Ini menunjukkan keadaan emosi responden ini masih dibelenggu dan masih berfikir sama ada betul atau tidak mereka dikenakan hukuman tersebut dan mereka masih berharap boleh bebas. Perkara ini dibuktikan dengan petikan hasil temubual menunjukkan responden mengatakan: Tidak tahulah tuan... macam-macam emosi ada tapi tidak tahu macam mana.. baru-baru ni dia ada macam, kita berharaplah, macam kita boleh bebas jer kan. Duduk mengharap tak rasa tertekan sangatlah kita berharap boleh bebas kan. Lepas tu saya duduk dah sampai 4 tahun saya takder, takder tak berharaplah nak bebas ke apa kan. Saya tak tahulah tuan. (Responden 5) Saya hati takder buat, saya takder runsing. Lawyer sudah pasang, dia cakap insyaallah saya bebas. Sekarang punya hati tak tahulah. Hati saya sekarang Dia punya, Allah Taala kasi bebas saya terima...saya serah je dekat Dia. (Responden 15) Secara rumusannya menunjukkan tahap penerimaan banduan akhir terhadap hukuman mati menunjukkan penerimaan negatif yang tinggi di awal hukuman. Secara keseluruhannya mereka tidak boleh menerima hakikat mereka dijatuhkan hukuman mati. Ada yang berpendapat kesalahan tidak setimpal dengan hukuman yang diterima, di samping itu memang mereka mengaku melakukan kesalahan tersebut tetapi tidak menjangkakan sehingga dijatuhkan dihukum bunuh. Mereka mengharapkan hukuman seumur hidup atau yang mengatahui tarikh pembebasanya seperti 10 tahun atau 15 tahun. Hukuman mati adalah terlalu berat untuk diterima. Terdapat juga mereka kebanyakkannya mengatakan mereka bukanlah berkali-kali keluar masuk penjara kecuali Responden 10 yang telah 3 kali masuk penjara. Walaupun 3 kali masuk penjara, hukuman mati tetap tidak boleh diterima. Bagi mereka, kesalahan pertama tidak sepatutnya dijatuhkan hukuman mati. Sampel yang dipilih tidak dapat menerima hukuman mati menunjukan penerimaan negatif yang tinggi. Walaubagaimanapun, tahap penerimaan berubah kepada positif yang tinggi apabila mereka

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pada mulanya mereka boleh terima hakikat bahawa mereka menunggu kematian di tali gantung jika saluran rayuan dan pengampunan ditolak dan telah menemui jalan kegagalan. Ini menunjukkan keadaan yang ektrim dari penerimaan negatif yang tinggi kepada penerimaan positif yang tinggi. Mereka redha dengan ketentuan Illahi dan semuanya beragama dan menerima hakikat kehidupan selepas kematian. Dari segi emosi semasa mereka mengatahui keputusan hukuman tersebut merasa sedih, takut, kemurungan dan pelbagai lagi emosi yang memberi tekanan kepada mereka. Rajah 1 memerihalkan hasil dapatan bagi tahap penerimaan banduan akhir terhadap hukuman mati. Rajah 1 - Tahap Penerimaan Banduan Akhir Terhadap Hukuman Mati

Punca-punca Emosi Terganggu Secara umumnya semua emosi banduan akhir terganggu apabila mengenangkan jenis hukuman yang bakal diterima. Mereka merasa gerun untuk ke tali gantung. Berdasarkan kepada dapatan analisis menunjukkan punca-punca emosi mereka terganggu sehingga mengugat keselamatan kerana disebabkan terlalu lama duduk dalam penjara sehinggakan ada di antara mereka cuba membunuh diri. Bagi mereka baik mati daripada hidup. Terdapat 4 responden yang terlibat. “Yang paling takutnya saat orang mari ambil. Mari ambil pergi gantung. Habis gantungle...tapi bila, ini yang buat saya tertekan. Tunggu lama dah tapi tak tahu bila, macam banduan Perancis 15 tahun...mak dengan pak tak ada, adik beradik memang tak ambil pot dah.” (Responden 1)

“Menunggu tu. Tekanan, lebih baik dah betul-betul kita kalah kita pergi. Pegawai penjara pun tak benci dengan saya. Betul tak tuan? Hari-hari kita nak marah dengan pegawai dan cikgu rtak sedap hati. Lebih baik kita redha. Saya punya prinsip, saya bermain api saya terima. Orang bawah bilik saya dah pegi, saya cakap itu jalan yang terbaik. Saya bagi enam bulan aje lepas selesai semua, saya gantung” (Responden 10)

“Ayooyo tuan, ini gantung mesti takut punya, mati saya genaration sudah habis, ini tunggu rayuan court pun tak tahu bila mau pegi, macam itu Aziz tunggu banyak lama 4 tahun itu court mana pun tak ada. Habis dia pegi dulu sendiri jalan. Ini hati hari-hari mau fikir bila mau pegi court.” (Responden 6) “Ini macam lama-lama kasi duduk, lebih baik mati lagi senang, itu macam saya ada rasa. Ingat ini lama tunggu ada okay ke, tiba-tiba itu Agong tolak. Itu court kasi cepat, lawyer wang sudah kasi, tapi kadang-kadang ada fikir, sendiri pergi lagi bagus. Hati sudah lama tak seronok, tapi apa macam sudah jadi, nyawa sudah bagi sama Tuhan, ini nyawa Tuhan punya, sudah mahu ambil, kasi le apa mahu tunggu. Ini banyak pressure apa macam banyak mahu fikir, cerita sama kawan, sembahyang juga kasi senang, duduk diam-diam, tak mahu kacau, nanti hati lagi sakit.” (Responden 8) Dapatan juga menunjukkan selain daripada menunggu, emosi mereka juga terganggu kerana tidak berpuas hati dengan suasana atau keadaan persekitaran seperti layanan pegawai penjara, ada banduan yang mengganggu ketenteraman yang menyebabkan mereka ditarik keistimewaan oleh pihak penjara, penguatkusaan peraturan yang berubah-rubah, tidak menghiraukan perasaan orang lain, komunikasi yang menyakiti perasaan orang lain, suka bermuka-muka dengan warden penjara untuk menarik perhatian untuk menjadi champion, bunyi bising perbualan banduan-banduan dengan suara yang tinggi ataupun bunyibunyian persekitaran dan sebagainya sehingga memberi tekanan kepada mereka. Terdapat 7 responden yang terlibat. “Tuan ini sekarang kita ada rasa okay, ini peraturan kita boleh pafam. Boleh tengok itu tv, tapi nanti sekejap boleh nanti ini ada hal itu tv sudah kena tarik, apa macam, itu paper sikit punya hal sudah tarik, you buat hal pun tak guna, kita BA maa, kita mau duduk baik-baik.” (Responden 2)

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“Saya yang tak boleh terima banduan yang lebih-lebih, konon nak jadi macam Robin Hood, request macam-macam, dia tak tahu pegawai penjara rimas dengan dia, sekejap-sekejap complain, ada saja yang tak kena, ganggu oh tuan bila kita nak bertenang dalam bilik, telinga kita pasang, patut-patut le, warden ini bekerja.” (Responden 5) “Apa yang saya takut masa duduk jadi BA ini, saya takut sesat. Di luar ada sikit ilmu, tapi dah terjebak dah tak boleh lari dah tak amal lagi, kalau ada ustaz-ustaz yang daripada luar datang bimbing, ilmu tauhid, usuluddin ke. Kita belajar satu orang tak boleh mesti ada guru. Kita takut sesat, kadang amalan lebih-lebih, tapi tak ikut sunnah apa semua.” (Responden 7) “Kita sudah lama jadi BA maa. Kita tak takut. Kita ada hal itu penjara system. Kadang-kadang bikin kita ‘masuk air’. Itu tak boleh, ini tak boleh..ayooyo...banyak pening..ini barang kantin sekejap boleh beli, wang tak ada, awang ada tak boleh beli.” (Responden 9) “Yang merunsingkan fikiran saya cikgu-cikgu cakap saya kurang ajar, biadap, itu sebab saya kena tukar ke sini dari Kajang, saya hormat cikgu, cikgu jaga saya, tapi tak tahu tiba-tiba nama saya meletup. Ini yang saya tak faham. Saya tak buat apapun. Muka muka yang kurang ajar masih ada, muka Melayu yang kena. Ini tak adil tuan.” (Responden 12) “Saya sakit tuan, ini kaki sudah lama sakit, minta pegi klinik hari Rabu saja boleh jumpa, lain hari kena request. Ini sakit selalu kena itu macam ke. Mahu pakai tongkat, jalan banyak jauh. Mahu jumpa doktor tapi MA saja ada. Ubat bagi minyak sapu saja. Ini kes mesti mahu refer specialist . Nanti pegawai cakap saya ada banyak bikin hal. Tak boleh tahan le ini macam.” (Responden 13) “Saya cuba control ini marah, ini banduan Vijaya malam banyak bising, cakap sendiri, itu apa David Copperfield ada kacau dia cakap, malam kita mahu tidur, mahu sembahyang, tapi malam hari-hari bikin bising, mana boleh tahan tuan, angkat kasi pindah penjara. Boleh ke tuan, kasi Vijaya tukar sebelum apa-apa jadi sama dia.” (Responden 15) Namun kebanyakan responden walaupun emosi mereka terganggu mereka ramai di antara mereka memilih jalan bertaubat dan bagi meredakan emosi mereka daripada terganggu mereka lebih gemar beribadat kepada Tuhan. Menurut mereka dengan cara tersebut emosi mereka akan tenang dan tidak banyak berfikir bila mengingati Tuhan. Rajah 2 memerihalkan hasil dapatan bagi punca-punca emosi terganggu. Rajah 2 - Punca-Punca Emosi Terganggu

PERBINCANGAN Penerimaan Banduan terhadap Hukuman Mati dari Aspek Emosi Bagi aspek penerimaan banduan terhadap hukuman mati dari perspektif emosi, dapat dikatakan bahawa wujudnya penerimaan yang negatif di awal hukuman dijatuhkan ke atas responden di tahap yang tinggi dan semua mengharapkan sekurang-kurangnya hukuman mati di tali gantung itu tidak dikena tetapi boleh menerima hukuman selain dari hukuman mati. Hasil dapatan ini selari dengan dapatan yang dilakukan oleh Anderson (2005), Deiter (2008), Haney (2009) dan Harrison dan Tommy (2010) yang menyatakan tahap emosi banduan terhadap penerimaan hukuman pada peringkat awal akan mengalami tekanan emosi yang negatif. Walau bagaimanapun, penerimaan emosi negatif tersebut lama-kelamaan bertukar kepada penerimaan emosi yang positif dalam kalangan mereka yang berdepan dengan hukuman mati. Kebanyakan banduan akhir telah redha dan kuat untuk menerima hukuman yang sepatutnya mereka hadapi. Selain itu, perubahan yang berlaku ini sebenarnya dipengaruhi oleh dua dunia berlainan yang mempengaruhi faktor kehidupan responden kajian. Pertama, dunia dalaman responden dan kedua, dunia luaran responden. Menurut Mohamed Farook (2011) dunia luaran adalah dunia yang dilihat di luar kita dan yang berada di sekeliling kita. Manakala, dunia dalaman pula adalah dunia yang berada di dalam diri iaitu minda. Perbincangan hasil analisis yang digunakan dapat memberi penerangan dengan lebih terperinci tentang © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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tahap penerimaan banduan akhir terhadap hukuman mati dari aspek emosi dan berhubung kait dengan dapatan-dapatan kajian lalu. Secara keseluruhannya dapatan menunjukkan pada peringkat awal tahap penerimaan banduan terhadap hukuman yang dikenakan mengalami emosi yang terganggu dan akhirnya tahap tersebut menjadi emosi mereka lebih positif untuk menerima hakikat dengan kejadian di dunia ini. Penemuan penting dalam kajian ini adalah berkaitan tahap gangguan emosi banduan akhir pada peringkat awal di mana banduan akhir mengalami masalah kesukaran untuk menerima kenyataan sehinggakan emosi mereka menjadi sedih, takut, kemurungan, terkedu dan pelbagai lagi tekanan yang negatif yang dihadapi dan akhirnya perasaan emosi tersebut bertukar kepada dapat menerima hukuman tersebut dengan hati yang terbuka dan redha dengan ketentuan Ilahi. Penemuan lain juga menunjukkan ada juga dikalangan banduan akhir menyatakan dari awal kemasukan mereka sehingga ke hari ini mereka tidak dapat menerima hakikat dikenakan hukuman mati. Perasaan emosi mereka sentiasa berbaur sedih, takut, kemurungan, mengharap boleh keluar dan sentiasa berfikir. Ini kerana perasaan mereka tidak boleh menerima hakikat kerana mereka menafikan mereka terlibat dengan jenayah berat kerana dianiaya oleh orang sekeliling mereka. Begitu juga penemuan lain juga menunjukkan tidak tahu boleh menerima atau tidak dengan hukuman yang diberikan sehinggakan emosi diri mereka dibelenggu dengan masalah berfikiran menjadi kecelaruan sama ada betul atau tidak mereka menerima hukuman sebegitu.

Punca-Punca yang Mengganggu Emosi Diri Hasil dapatan kajian menunjukkan selari dengan dapatan daripada sarjana-sarjana sebelum ini di mana faktor persekitaran yang menjadi punca kepada gangguan emosi banduan akhir. Ia melibatkan beberapa perkara seperti duduk terlalu lama di dalam penjara, bising dan pelbagai yang boleh mengganggu kehidupan dalam kalangan banduan akhir. Menurut Cooper dan Berwick (2001), dapati beberapa punca tiga kategori banduan membunuh diri adalah tinggi antaranya kebimbangan, tekanan dan psikologi kesejahteraan kehidupan banduan. Dalam aspek psikologi kesejahteraan kehidupan menyatakan antaranya tinggal terlalu lama dalam penjara, suasana persekitaran yang bising, perasaan kehilangan maruah diri dan bersalah serta sukar menyesuaikan diri dengan suasana kehidupan dalam penjara. Dapatlah disimpulkan bahawa punca-punca ini menjadi kepada masalah banduan akhir sehinggakan menggugat kepada keselamatan diri dan organisasi penjara. Jadi pihak pengurusan penjara haruslah mencari alternatif bagi meredakan supaya kekacauan yang boleh menggugat keselamatan tidak mengganggu emosi diri banduan akhir.

KESIMPULAN Penemuan dalam penyelidikan ini adalah satu fenomena yang benar-benar berlaku dalam penjara pada hari ini. Fenomena ini menggambarkan ada perkara-perkara tersembunyi dirungkaikan dalam mengetahui bagaimana sesuatu perkara tersebut berlaku. Perlakuan ini jelas menunjukkan golongan bawahan yang sering melakukan kepada permasalahan sosial di negara ini. Maka jelaslah dari penganalisaan kajian ini, menunjukkan bahawa tahap penerimaan banduan akhir terhadap hukuman mati dan punca-punca yang mengganggu emosi mereka sehinggakan menyebabkan keselamatan diri dan organisasi penjara terancam. Dapatan kajian ini menggambarkan keadaan sebenar diri banduan akhir terhadap emosi mereka apabila berada di penjara dan berstatus banduan akhir. Hal ini kerana penyelidikan mengenai banduan akhir di Malaysia kurang dilakukan dan dapatan ini serba sebanyak dapat memberi gambaran sebenar keadaan banduan akhir dalam menghadapi saat-saat kematian.

RUJUKAN Abdul Aziz Hussin (2003). Hukuman mati di Malaysia. Journal of Malaysian Law, (4), 24-37. Ahmad Faudzi Awang (2004). Pengurusan banduan hukuman mati. Jabatan Penjara Malaysia. Atas talian http:// www.prison.gov.my. Anderson, A. K. (2005). Affective influences on the attentional dynamics supporting awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology,154, 258–281. Azman Mohd Noor & Mohd Al-Ikhsan Ghazali (2010). Penyalahgunaan dadah dan kewajaran peruntukan hukuman mati ke atas pengedar dadah di Malaysia: Satu analisis. Jurnal Fiqh, 7, 29-48. Dieter, R. (2008). The death penalty in Black and White: Who lives, who dies, who decides. Washington, DC: Death Penalty Information Center. Fatimah Ibrahim, Wan Abu Bakar Wan Abas & Ng Siew Cheok (2008). Solat: Kebaikan menurut perspektif sains. Universiti Malaya: Kuala Lumpur. Goleman, D. (1999). Working with Emotional Intelligence. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Harrison, K. & Tamony, A. (2010). Death Row Phenomenon, Death Row Syndrome and their Affect on Capital Cases in the US. Internet Journal of Criminology. Haney, C. (2009). The social psychology of isolation: Why solitary confinement is psychologically harmful. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Prison Service Journal, 181, 12-20. Jabatan Penjara Malaysia (2010). Sejarah hukuman mati. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Penjara Malaysia. Jabatan Penjara Malaysia (2011). Statistik banduan akhir jabatan penjara Malaysia bagi tahun 2000 - 2010. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Penjara Malaysia. Jabatan Penjara Malaysia (2011). Statistik pelaksanaan hukuman mati bagi tahun 2005 - 2010. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Penjara Malaysia. Meltzer, L. S., & Huckabay L. M. (2004). Critical care nurses’ perceptions of futile care and its effect on burnout. American Journal of Critical Care, 13, 202-208. Morgan, O. J. (2009). Thoughts on the interaction of trauma, addiction, spirituality. Journal of Addictions and Offender Counseling, 30(1), 5-15. Nor Azah Aziz, Syakirah Samsudin, Asmara Alias, Fadhlina Mohd. Razali, Zarima Mohd. Zakaria, Siti Ruhani Anuar (2008). The computerized simulation of the bodily movement and blood circulation system during the performance of obligatory prayers. Prosiding International Seminar on Islamic Science & Technology INSISTOR’08. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. 18-19 Mac 2008 Schultz, D. & Schultz, S. E. (2002). Psychology and work today. New Jersey : Pearson Education, Inc. Stuewig, J., Tangney, J.P., Mashek, D., Forkner, P., & Dearing, R.L. (2009). The moral emotions, alcohol dependence, and HIV risk behavior in an incarcerated sample. Substance Use and Misuse, 44, 449-471. Walters, Glenn D., Mann, Millard F., Miller, Melvin P., Hemphill, Leslie L., Chlumsky, Michael L. (1988). Emotional disorder among offenders: Inter- and intrasetting comparisons. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 15(4), 433-453.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

UNDERSTANDING RISK FACTORS OF AGGRESSION BEHAVIOR AMONG ILLEGAL STREET RACING (MAT REMPIT): A REVIEW CONCEPTS Zalmizy Hussin* *[email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract Research on risk factors of aggression behavior among illegal street racing has progressed to a point at which a unifying framework is needed. This article describes the risk factors that affecting participation among illegal street racing, or Malay called ‘Mat Rempit’ in aggression behavior. The term “risk factor” refers to any condition that may increase the likelihood of ‘Mat Rempit’ engage in aggressive behavior. This factor is dominated by the three dominant factors, namely individual, family, and peers. This article also explain Social Learning Theory by Akers and Sellers (2004) as a social behavioral approach to understand that phenomenon. Keywords: risk factors, aggression behavior, illegal street racing (Mat Rempit)

INTRODUCTION A ‘Mat Rempit’ is a Malaysian term for “an individual who participates in illegal street racing”, usually involving under bone motorcycles (colloquially known as Kapcai) or scooters. The word rempit actually taken from the English language, the ‘ramp-it’ 'which depicts riders squeeze the oil on the road (circuit) which eventually became the nickname for the group rempit (Rozmi Ismail, 2004). They are considered as illegal motorcycle riders often do dangerous stunts, likely involved in entertainment venues, engage in drug intake (Samsudin A. Rahim 1994 & Rozmi Ismail 2004). But, not all ‘Mat Rempit’ are involved in street racing; some of them perform crazy stunts for fun, such as the wheelie, superman (lying flat on the seat), wikang, and scorpion (standing on the seat with one leg during a wheelie). ‘Mat Rempit’ usually travel in groups and race in bustling city centres on weekend nights. In recent times, ‘Mat Rempit’ has been linked to gangsters, gang robbery, street fighting, assault, vandalism, theft and bullying. Most motorcycles used by the ‘Mat Rempit’ do not meet standard specifications, or have been modified extensively for greater speed, or just to make the exhaust noisier. Meanwhile, aggressive behaviour refers to any form of behavior against other individuals with anger that are harmful to other people (Bushman & Anderson (2002: 28) aimed to hurt others (physical or verbal) or damage to property (Baron & Bryne 2000, Azizi et al., 2005, Kenrick, Neuberg, & Cialdin 2007) used as a way to fight back with a very strong, fight, maim, attack, kill, or punish others (Hall & Lindzey, 1993). More Bandura (1973) considers that aggressive behavior is something that is learned rather than behavior that brought individuals since birth. This aggressive behavior learned from interaction with the social environment such as interaction with family, peers and the mass media through modelling. This article describes the risk factors that affecting participation of the illegal street racing, or Malay called ‘Mat Rempit’ in aggression behavior. The first part, I will review the dominant factors that may increase the likelihood of ‘Mat Rempit’ engage in aggressive behavior. Then, I will discuss with Social learning Theory (Akers and Sellers, 2004) focuses on the development of a theory which explains a specific phenomenon or behavior.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

RISK FACTORS OF AGGRESSION BEHAVIOR Research on youth violence has increased our understanding of factors that make some populations more vulnerable to victimization and perpetration. Risk factors increase the likelihood that a young person will become violent. However, risk factors are not direct causes of youth violence; instead, risk factors contribute to youth violence (Mercy et al. 2002; DHHS 2001).The term “risk factor” refers to any condition that may increase the likelihood of 'Mat Rempit' engage in aggressive behavior. This factor is dominated by the three dominant factors, namely individual, family, and peers.

Individual Internal risk factors described as individual, self, and mind or personality (Roy, 2000). It can be divided to the characteristics of the physical and psychological. In the meta-analysis of studies involving cognitive violence teen Hawkins et al. (2000) found cognitive physical, such as trauma and delivery to the hospital, low birth weight, low rate of heart breaks have positive correlation to engage in violent behavior. In other words, cognitive psychology, such as hyperactive, problems of concentration, anxiety, aggressive, enthusiastic, early involvement in the antisocial behavior, and beliefs and attitudes to win deviant shows a strong correlation, consistent with violent behavior for boys. Limited intelligence has also been associated with weakness in the problem-solving skills, social skills and at risk for aggressive behavior diffusible (Calhoun, Glaser, & Bartolomucci, 2001). Research shows teenage delinquency score IQ was about eight points lower than the general population, regardless of race, family size, or economic status (Flannery, 1997). Cognitive deficit, such as the level of abstract reasoning and moral low and inappropriate interpretation of the behavior of others found no correlation with aggressive behavior among teenagers (Kashani et al., 1999). As cognitive deficit, of course, also associated with less ability education. Past research found a clear relationship has been established between the presence of disability in education, failure to attend school, and criminal behavior of youth (Garfinkel, 1997). Researchers agree that the prevalence of disability such as higher level and behavioral disorders (EBD), hyperactivity deficit disorder course (ADHD), and the problem of learning disabilities (LD) is higher among teenagers than the general population (Gresham, Lane, Lambros, 2000; Kelly et al., 1997; O'Donnell, 2000). In fact, the percentage of youth that the inability of more pronounced represents in the juvenile justice system than in the case of disability in public schools is estimated to be of between 10 and 12 per cent up to 30 to 60 percent (Nelson et al. 1996). In addition, many researchers agree that early involvement in violent antisosial or predictors of a stable and strong violent behaviour on the day then (Arllen, Gable, & Hendrickson, 1994; Hawkins et al. 2000;. Laub & Lauritsen, 1998; Reilly, 1999; Walker, Stieber, Ramsey, & O'Neill, 1991). Early exposure to patterns of behaviour antisocial acts like a virus, lowering the immune system and make people susceptible to a variety of other illnesses or negative behaviour patterns (Sprague & Walker, 2000). Another individual factors associated with criminal behaviour and violent is the belief antisosial teenagers and open attitude. When teens are involved in his lak aggressively asked what factors explain the behavior, many of them allowed behavior with explained that their personal value system needed retaliation against individuals who act against them in some way (Furlong & Morrison, 2000). A common public attitudes is that misconduct is a moral deficit in the individual (Scott & Nelson, 1999). However, individuals do not grow separately, but as an integrated organisms is influenced by several factors in life including individuals, families, schools, communities, and peer group (Farmer, Quinn, Hussey, & Holahan, 2001). Therefore, the dynamic relationships that exist between individuals and all external and internal system expansion. Hanson & Carta (1995) suggests that the transaction risk factors occurred as interdependent between the child and its environment. Therefore, efforts to understand risk factors (individual) must include an external risk factors (family, school, community, and peers) that influence their appearance (Calhoun et al. 2001; Greenberg et al. 1999).

Family The development of aggressive behaviour ' Mat Rempit’ are very influenced by the nearest and most important environment, their families. According to Hoffman (1996), the family has set up a person's personality since young and continue to provide enormous influence behaviour, attitude and thought someone in young adults. Rohayati (2004) argues the failure of parents to educate their children will affect their future which causes them to get involved with social symptoms and have not been able to form themselves into useful people and visionary. According to Sabitha, & Mahmood Nazar Mohamed (1995), among the causes of social problems among the younger generation is due to the lack of religious education and appreciation among parents and teenagers. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Knowledge, application and practice of religion is weak among the parents didn't help to positive behaviour among street racer. A study conducted by Syarifah et al. (2010) found that adolescents who get positive guidance from family and have a high awareness of religion is able to cope with the challenges of a negative environment and indirectly able to prevent them from engaging in risky behavior. Previous studies in Malaysia and in the West have shown that a good relationship with the well-being of teenagers in terms of life satisfaction, self-concept, sexual behaviour, and academic achievement (Fatanah, 1997). According to Wardah & Arieff (2006), between family background who became teenage deviant behaviour factor difficile was due to low income parents and children growing up in a State of idle. Review of Noor Adiah (1998) & Norhayati (1994) also found social problems be related to family income. In Western countries, Mannes, et al. (2005) reported that the teenagers who come from low-income families are two-fold more likely to negative behavior than teenagers diffusible. According to Mahmood Nazar Muhammad (1993), aggressive behavior is also caused by conflict and stress psychological. They are involved with aggressive behaviour is also experiencing conflict in a family of their own. They also failed to see the family is an environment that is healthy and can provide happiness and a sense of fun. Lack of effective communication and love in the family also played a role in the formation of personality in ‘Mat Rempit’. Sigurdsson et al. (1996) & Sokol-Katz et al. (1997) also emphasize that the development of the personality negative and deviant behavior is the result of failure in family bonding. Parents also found much in the behavioural problems of children, which failed to demonstrate good behavior in front of their children, as well as ignoring the teachings of religion. The failure of parents in disciplining is also seen as one of the factors of aggressive behavior. Background the antisocial behavior is the effect of the lack of discipline, unsuitability or control inconsistent during children (Jacobvitz, et al. 1996). Most aggressive behavior illegal street racers also stems from a failure on the parenting style and family management (Jacobvitz, et al. 1996, Vuchinich, 1992). According to Hoffman (1994), the family has established a personality since childhood and continues to influence a great behavior, attitude and thinking in adulthood. The problems posed by illegal street racers are normally a continuation of the problems that arise when a child (Block, et al. 1988; Caspi, et al. 1995; Fergusson, et al. 1996; Fergusson, et al., 1996a; Moffitt, 1993). Parent and child have poor small effect size, but for teenagers in this category include inadequate supervision and monitoring the activities of young people and low parental involvement, in addition to inappropriate discipline (Elliott et al. 1985; Hawkins et al. 1998a; Patterson & Yoerger, 1997; Roitberg & Menard, 1995). Residential damage and abuse that parents have little effect. Other adverse family situation presents a risk factor, for example, several studies have found that family conflict is a risk factor for violence among male adolescents. While parents can and can influence the behavior of their teens, they did it largely indirect. Types of partners chosen by young people, for example, is related to the relationship they have with their parents (Elliott et al. 1989; Hill et al. 1999; Patterson & Yoerger, 1997).

Peers Peer group is all-important in adolescence. Teens with poor social relationships, which are not involved in conventional social activities and unpopular at school at high risk for becoming violent, such as youth with antisocial and delinquent peers. Both types of peer relationships often go together, because teens are rejected by or unpopular with conventional counterparts may find acceptance only in antisocial or delinquent peer group. Social isolation has no conventional counterparts or antisocial is not a risk factor for violence (Cairns & Cairns, 1991; Elliott & Menard, 1996; Fergusson & Lynskey, 1996; Patterson & Yoerger, 1997). Researchers are studying what causes teens to join an aggressive street gang has been found that the risk factors for gang membership is almost the same as for violence in general (Hill et al. 1999). The notion that's the gang acted as a Surrogate family For those who do not have a close relationship with Their own family is not borne out by recent data (Hill et al., 1999), but these gangs to strengthen young people a sense of belonging, independence from their parents, and their self-esteem. In addition, those who engage in aggressive behaviour was due to want of luxury, thus they often steal together with friends. At present, money is everything and the standard of living is on the rise. Therefore, researchers are of the opinion that parents cannot give wealth to their children. As such, they will steal with because the want to gain wealth easily without thinking about the consequences of that they do. Noraini (2000) explains the desire teens to enjoy had prompted them to do anything in order to obtain wealth, thus they will steal to get wealth easily. In addition, peer influence also propel ‘Mat Rempit’ in aggressive behaviour as a result of the recognition

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factor. They are willing to do anything so that they respected and recognized by friends that is a member of the group although it is sin. They tend to be with friends who have the same behavior. This will encourage them to form their own group and there are certain rules in their group. Thus, respondents are willing to do anything as long as they are accepted as a member of the group. Studies conducted by Asmak (2006), found that teens are influenced by friends who think the law is not important and they will form a group and certain rules. Each team member must comply with the regulations and from here triggered aggressive behavior such as extortion and so on. Review by Samsaadal & Abdullah (2006) also found that peer influence is also quite large because they will feel comfortable with their peers if they are recognized. Subsequently, the influence of peers also influence the ‘Mat Rempit’ engaging in aggressive behavior was due to factors of satisfaction with friends. They will feel fun and happy if they behave not polite with their friends. The satisfaction that they have earned with friends is something that pleases them because they are easy to accept the behavior of their peers. According to Fatimah (2006), anything that gives pleasure to them will be done as the herd mentality or attitude of their own choice. In fact, studies by Rozmi (2005) shows the main reason teens are involved in high risk activities is to find excitement without thinking long. In the meantime, their friends often invite teens to do the activities. Researchers are of the opinion, teenagers readily accept call from friends because they believe what their peers are correct and can have fun. In the study of Asmak (2006), peer influence teens involved in the misconduct is the highest percentage of 63.6%, studies show teenagers usually Asmak easier copying and influenced by peers.

DISCUSSION Social learning theories can be broadly understood as a social behavioral approach that emphasizes the “reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral and environmental determinants” of human behaviour (Bandura, 1977: vii). In the study of crime and criminality, social learning theory is generally applied and understood as it was conceptualized. Social learning theory is a general theory of crime and criminality and has been used in research to explain a diverse array of criminal behaviours. The theory as proposed by Akers and Sellers (2004): “the same learning process in a context of social structure, interaction, and situation produces both conforming and deviant behavior. The difference lies inthe direction … [of ] the balance of influences on the behavior” (Akers & Sellers, 2004: 85). The conceptualization of social learning theory embodies within it four fundamental premises that include differential association, definitions, differential reinforcement and imitation (Akers & Sellers, 2004). The following section will examine these premises as they relate to the more general social learning theory to understanding risk factors of aggression behavior among ‘Mat Rempit’.

Differential Association Differential association theory can be understood as comprising two important dimensions. The first dimension is behavioural-interactional and explains deviance as being produced through “direct association and interaction with others who engage in certain kinds of behavior; as well as … indirect association and identification with more distant reference groups” (Akers & Sellers, 2004: 85). The people orgroups with whom an individual is in social contact, either directly or indirectly, are seen as providing the social context under which each of the four premises of social learning theory functions. That is, within this social context, individuals are exposed to varying definitions of acceptable and unacceptable behaviours, as well as a variety of behavioural models that may differentially reinforce criminal and non-criminal behaviour. These models may also serve as a source for the imitating of behaviour. The people or groups with whom an individual associates are broken up into primary and secondary sources by social learning theorists. Primary associations include those with immediate family and friends. Secondary sources of social learning include a much wider range of people and would include, for example, teachers, neighbours etc. Each of these groups is thought to contribute to the attitudes and values an individual adopts, as well as to how that person behaves in various social contexts. It is generally understood, under the theory of differential association, that the timing, length, frequency and nature of the contact are important determinants of behaviour. That is, the greatest effect on a person’s behaviour occurs the earlier theassociation is made, the longer the duration of the association, the more frequently the association occurs, and the closer the association is (Akers & Sellers, 2004). From a social learning perspective, then, associations made early on with family would arguably play an important role in shaping © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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one’s behaviour.

Definitions Definitions, as they are to be understood under social learning theory, are an individual’s own values and attitudes about what is and is not acceptable behaviour . That is, “they are orientations, rationalizations, definitions of the situation, and other evaluative and moral attitudes that define the commission of an act as right or wrong, good or bad, desirable or undesirable, justified or unjustified” (Akers & Sellers, 2004: 86).These attitudes and values are learned and reinforced through the process of differential association. Social learning theory links attitudes and values to the influence of general and specific definitions. General definitions would include broad beliefs about conforming behaviour that is influenced principally through conventional norms, as well as religious and moral values (Akers & Sellers, 2004). These beliefs are thought generally to be those that do not support the commission of criminal or deviant acts. Specific definitions are seen as those that “orient a person to particular acts or a series of acts”(Akers & Sellers, 2004: 86). The main premise behind this notion of definitions is that the greater the number of definitions favourable to deviant or criminal behaviour, the greater the likelihood that an individual will take part in that type of conduct. Social learning theory also accounts for conforming behaviour to the extent that the greater the number of definitions favourable to conventionalnorms, the less likely an individual is to engage in deviant or criminal acts. It is conceivable within this understanding of social learning that an individual could adopt conforming attitudes and values about certain behaviours while at the same time develop attitudes and values that justify or excuse some types of non-conforming behaviours. In explaining criminal behaviour, definitions are seen as either approving of or neutralizing the behaviour. Definitions that are approving generally frame criminal behaviour in a positive light, whereas neutralizing definitions act as a means of justifying and/or excusing some or all forms of criminal conduct, Akers & Sellers (2004): “Cognitively, definitions favorable to deviance provide a mind-set that makes one more willing to commit the act when the opportunity occurs or is created. Behaviorally, they affect the commission of deviant behavior by acting as internal discriminative stimuli” (Akers & Silverman, 2004: 20). It is important to note that an individualwho has adopted approving or neutralizing definitions of deviant behaviour does not necessarily have to act on them. It is instead an interactional process whereby conventional norms may be weakly held, thereby providing little or no restraint against criminal behaviour, and definitions that are favourable to deviant conduct “facilitate law violation in the right set of circumstances” (Akers & Silverman, 2004: 21). Consequently, the context under which these behaviours take place is redefined in light ofthese approving and neutralizing definitions.

Differential Reinforcement Differential reinforcement can be broadly understood as the process by which individuals experience and anticipate the consequences of their behaviours. That is, a person’s actions are in part determined by what they perceive the consequences of their action or lack of action. According Akers and Sellers: “Whether individuals will refrain from or commit a crime at any given time (and whether they will continue or desist from doing it in the future) depends on the past, present, and anticipated future rewards and punishments for their actions” (Akers & Sellers, 2004: 87). Reinforcement of attitudes, beliefs, and values occurs through both differential association and imitation and can be either positive ornegative. Positive reinforcement occurs when actions are rewarded through positive reactions to the behaviour as well as through positive outcomes. Positive reinforcement can increase the likelihood of criminal behaviour through these rewards. Negative reinforcement, on the other hand, involves the removal of negative consequences or responses, and this may also increase the likelihood of taking certain actions. The degree to which differential reinforcement occurs is related to the degree, frequency andprobability of its occurrence. That is, reinforcement is most likely to happen and contribute to repetition of the behaviour when it occurs with greater value, occurs frequently as a consequence of the behaviour, and when the probability that the behaviourwill be reinforced is greater (Akers & Sellers, 2004: 87). Reinforcement can occur directly and indirectly. For example, direct reinforcement would be the result of the effects of drug or alcohol consumption, while indirect reinforcement would occur through, for example, anticipation of rewards valued in subgroups. This notion of indirect reinforcement is important for understanding the role of symbolic social rewards and punishments. However, the most important © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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reinforcements tend to be social (resulting from interactions with peer groups and family members).

Imitation Imitation, as its name implies, is the notion that individuals engage in behaviour that they have previously witnessed others doing. The extent to which behaviours are imitated is determined in large part by the “characteristics of the models, the behavior observed, and the observed consequences of the behavior” (Akers & Sellers, 2004: 88). The literature has indicated that witnessing the actions of others, in particular people that are close to us, can affect our participation in both conforming and non-conforming behaviours (Donnerstein & Linz, 1995). Imitation has also been found to be “more important in the initial acquisition and performance of novel behavior than in its maintenance or cessation of behavioral patterns once established” (Akers & Sellers, 2004: 89).

CONCLUSION From a social learning perspective, deviant and criminal conduct is learned and sustained via associations with family and peer networks. If one agrees that this is the source of such behaviour, then it follows that these behaviours could be modified “to the extent that one is able to manipulate those same processes or the environmental contingencies that impinge on them” (Akers & Sellers, 2004: 101). From this perspective, policymakers should focus on developing and implementing preventive and rehabilitative programs that use social learning variables to change behaviour in a positive direction. Examples of programs guided by sociallearning principles include mentoring, behavioural modification, delinquency prevention, peer counseling and gang interventions. The idea behind some of these types of programs is that providing positive experiences and role models for young people serves to expose them to conventional norms and values that might diminish future delinquent or criminal acts.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

ELEMEN DAN DIMENSI KELOMPOK DEVIAN DALAM TINGKAHLAKU JUVANA DI BANDARAYA GEORGETOWN, PULAU PINANG Rosly Abas, Jamaludin Mustaffa*, Kamarudin Ngah, Za’im Ahmad & Mohd Hilmi Hamzah *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Penglibatan kelompok juvana dalam tingkahlaku devian telah mencetuskan permasalahan sosial dalam masyarakat kita pada hari ini. Justeru itu, kajian ini untuk mengenal pasti elemen dan dimensi berkaitan tingkahlaku devian dalam kalangan remaja di Geogetown, Pulau Pinang. Sebanyak Sembilan orang responden telah menjadi sampel bagi tujuan untuk ditemubual di mana kaedah pensampelan rantaian atau bola salji digunakan yang dianggap relevan kerana melibatkan kes-kes sensitif. Berdasarkan kepada analisis Nvivo 10 menunjukkan terdapat sembilan elemen (merempit, menonton video lucah, seks bebas, merokok, melepak, pengedaran dadah, budaya punk, sindiket pelacuran dan meminum alkohol) tingkahlaku di kalangan juvana dalam kelompok devian. Manakala dimensi kelompok devian di kalangan juvana kerana pengaruh dari rakan sebaya, sikap ingin mencuba dan kurang mendapat perhatian ibu bapa yang menjerumuskan mereka dengan jenayah. Justeru itu, kajian ini diharapkan akan dapat membantu pihak-pihak yang berkaitan dalam usaha menangani masalah gejala tingkah laku devian di kalangan pelajar remaja, supaya generasi akan datang bebas dari masalah keruntuhan akhlak.

PENGENALAN Golongan remaja atau juvana merupakan kelompok penting ke arah pembangunan negara di masa depan. Mereka merupakan pelapis dan pemimpin untuk mencerna keberdayaan negara bagi mewujudkan Malaysia sebagai sebuah negara maju, moden, harmoni, toleransi, berintegriti dan mempunyai kewibawaan tamadun bangsa yang komprehensif. Oleh itu, adalah perlu generasi remaja atau juvana diberi perhatian dan bimbingan supaya mereka berada di landasan yang betul untuk mencapai harapan kejayaan. Senario umum dalam kalangan juvana sekarang ini melibatkan diri dengan tingkah laku devian telah mencetuskan kewujudan berkelompok. Pembentukan kelompok atau kumpulan berlaku kerana mereka menjadikan rakan sebaya atau persetujuan tindakan bersama sebagai alat perkongsian tindakan perbuatan-perbuatan devian. Isu mengenai tingkah laku devian dalam kalangan remaja pada masa kini semakin hari semakin membimbangkan. Ini kerana tingkah laku devian boleh diterjemahkan dalam kepelbagaian aspek un-natural behavior dan tidak membezakan faktor gender dalam kalangan juvana. Tingkah laku devian yang dinyatakan dalam kajian ini, berkaitan dengan kelakuan yang berlawanan dengan kehidupan komuniti dan tidak dapat diterima masyarakat kerana kelakuan yang dilakukan tidak bermoral (tingkah laku negatif ). Menurut Regoli & Hewitt (1991) tingkah laku devian bermaksud kepelbagaian tingkah laku yang negatif (yang telah menyimpang) yang tidak dapat diterima oleh komuniti. Antara tingkah laku devian yang melanggar normanorma kehidupan ialah seperti melawan guru, ponteng kelas dan sekolah, lari dari rumah, pergaulan bebas

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

lelaki dan perempuan, pelacuran, bersekedudukan, pengguguran dan pembuangan bayi, pengedaran dan penyalahgunaan dadah, minum minuman keras, gengsterisme, buli, pecah rumah, merompak, vandalisme dan sebagainya yang berkait dengan tingkah laku negatif (Regoli & Hewitt, 1991). Jadual 1: Statistik Salah Laku Jenayah Melibatkan Juvana Bagi Negeri Pulau Pinang

Tahun Kategori Jenayah

JAN – JUN 2012

Jumlah

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Bunuh

2

-

3

10

1

6

2

24

Rogol

5

33

23

23

27

50

9

170

Cabul Kehormatan

-

-

12

6

10

5

4

37

Samun Berkawan Dengan Senjata api

-

3

1

1

7

-

1

13

15

14

42

54

32

40

18

215

-

3

-

3

-

4

-

10

10

22

12

11

11

8

-

74

Pemerasan

-

-

4

7

20

4

1

36

Ugutan Jenayah

-

-

3

17

18

19

14

71

Merusuh

-

-

61

58

113

120

74

426

Mencederakan

13

28

15

29

54

22

10

171

Curi

69

94

79

95

92

102

45

576

Curi Motovan

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

Curi Motolori

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

2

Curi Motokar

-

1

2

15

-

1

-

19

158

155

119

183

142

197

98

1,052

2

3

6

14

19

-

1

45

11

32

45

40

72

55

32

287

286

389

427

566

619

633

Samun Berkawan Tanpa Senjata api Samun Bersenjatapi Samun Tanpa Senjata api

Curi Motosikal Curi Ragut Pecah Rumah Jumlah

309

3,229

Sumber : Jabatan Siasatan Jenayah Pulau Pinang (2012)

Penglibatan kelompok juvana dalam tingkah laku devian telah mencetuskan permasalahan sosial dalam masyarakat. Golongan juvana atau remaja merupakan golongan pemangkin ke arah pembangunan negara. Sekiranya kawalan dan tindakan menangani permasalahan ini tidak diberi penekanan ia akan menjadi barah kepada pembangunan modal insan di dalam masyarakat. Generasi pelapis akan menghadapi krisis sosial yang teruk dan sekali gus akan merencat pembinaan ketamadunan lestari dalam kalangan komuniti dan jati diri masyarakat Malaysia. Keruntuhan akhlak dalam kalangan remaja yang semakin membimbangkan dewasa kini menggusarkan masyarakat. Ini menyebabkan pelbagai pihak telah mencetuskan persoalan demi persoalan. Kesalahan dan kegagalan institusi pendidikan menjadi taruhan ke arah faktor penyebab tercetusnya masalah ini. Peranan ibu bapa dan keluarga turut diseret dalam merungkai masalah keruntuhan akhlak remaja yang semakin teruk. Peraturan dan disiplin telah dipelbagaikan oleh institusi pendidikan, tetapi kelakuan salah laku dalam kalangan pelajar masih berterusan malah semakin membimbangkan. Masalah yang dilihat begitu ketara adalah mengenai tingkah laku devian serta delinkuen dalam kalangan remaja sehingga membawa kepada perbuatan jenayah yang serius. Kesalahan jenayah yang melibatkan kes juvana tidak mengira di mana dan siapa mangsanya. Ini turut diakui berdasarkan kepada laporan daripada Jabatan Siasatan Jenayah yang membuktikan bahawa kes-kes berkenaan semakin bertambah dari hari ke hari di pelbagai kawasan, samada di bandar mahupun di luar bandar. Antaranya adalah, laporan daripada Jabatan Siasatan Jenayah PDRM Pulau Pinang pada tahun 2012, telah merekodkan peningkatan kes salah laku juvana di Pulau Pinang iaitu daripada tahun 2006 hinggalah tahun 2011 (Lihat Jadual 1). © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Berdasarkan kepada Jadual 1 menunjukkan negeri Pulau Pinang merupakan salah sebuah negeri yang mempunyai peratusan kadar jenayah dan masalah sosial yang semakin meningkat setiap tahun khususnya dalam kalangan remaja. Penekanan dalam mengatasi masalah ini amat ditekankan oleh kerajaan menerusi Pelan Transformasi Hala Tuju Negara berdasarkan kepada Bidang Keberhasilan Utama Negara (NKRA) yang sasarannya untuk mengurangkan masalah jenayah dan seterusnya menjadikannya sifar. Menurut Azizi, Jaafar, Shahrin dan Yusof (2005), jika penekanan tidak diberikan oleh pihak kerajaan, akan mewujudkan kebimbangan dalam kalangan ibu bapa terhadap anak-anak mereka yang bersekolah. Ini juga akan memberi impak negatif terhadap kredibiliti pihak sekolah yang merupakan agen kawalan sosial yang berperanan membentuk moral tingkah laku generasi remaja ini. Impak negatif terhadap kredibiliti pihak sekolah merujuk kepada hakisan medium pembentukan jasmani, emosi, rohani, intelektual dan sosial dalam kalangan pelajar-pelajar sekolah. Fungsi sekolah bukan sahaja menjadi platform pembangunan akademik, tetapi berperanan lebih komprehensif dalam membentuk disiplin, jati diri, toleransi, integrasi dan sebagainya sepertimana termaktub dalam Dasar Pendidikan Kebangsaan. Secara umumnya, penghayatan falsafah pendidikan kebangsaan mampu menterjemahkan peranan dan kredibiliti institusi sekolah. Oleh itu tingkah laku devian perlu dicegah dan dihalang agar tidak menular dalam kalangan pelajar-pelajar sekolah.

KONSEP TINGKAH LAKU DEVIAN Tingkah laku devian merupakan perlakuan yang menyimpang atau melencong yang menjurus kepada un-natural behavior. Menurut Rohana (1996) dan Zainuddin, Zuria dan Salleh (2008), tingkah laku devian bermaksud kelakuan seseorang yang telah melanggar peraturan masyarakat dan tidak memenuhi normanorma sosial dalam sesuatu komuniti. Albert (1966) mendefinisikan tingkah laku devian membawa erti perlakuan seseorang individu yang telah melanggar sistem sosial dalam komuniti. Lemert (1972) dan Mc Caghy (1985), menyatakan salah satu tingkah laku yang tidak diterima dalam sesebuah komuniti terhadap tingkah laku devian kerana ia telah melanggar kehidupan norma-norma masyarakat. Kebiasaannya tingkah laku devian akan dikaitkan dengan perlakuan yang delinkuen ataupun agresif yang dilakukan oleh seseorang individu yang berumur bawah 21 tahun tahap ke bawah (Robert, 1971). Menurut Pepler dan Craig (1988) dan Smith dan Thompson (1991), tingkah laku devian terbahagi kepada dua jenis iaitu verbal dan fizikal. Tingkah laku devian jenis verbal berbentuk seperti mengejek, sebarkan fitnah, panggilan nama yang tidak disukai dan gosip. Manakala tingkah laku devian jenis fizikal pula seperti ugutan terhadap fizikal, memukul, mencederakan, menendang, menolak, mengambil hak milik orang lain, membunuh dan merogol (Pepler & Craig, 1988; Smith & Thompson, 1991).

KONSEP KELOMPOK DEVIAN Kelompok devian boleh diklasifikasikan sebagai jenis kelompok asas. Menurut Chales Horton Cooley, kelompok asas ialah kelompok kecil dan informal iaitu ahli-ahli berinteraksi dalam cara yang personal, direct (secara langsung) dan intim. Beliau memperlihatkan kelompok seperti keluarga dan play group sebagai kelompok asas kerana kelompok-kelompok ini adalah bertanggungjawab membentuk personaliti seseorang individu. Kelompok-kelompok ini melibatkan interaksi (association) yang intim dan bersemuka serta diikat dengan komitmen dan perasaan emosi yang kuat dan kekal (Rohana, 1996).

ULASAN KARYA Elemen Tingkah laku Juvana dalam Kelompok Devian Kajian–kajian sebelum ini di negara-negara Barat dan di Malaysia mendapati aspek-aspek kepuasan hidup, tingkah laku, konsep kendiri dan pencapaian akademik yang membawa kesejahteraan hidup seseorang remaja dikaitkan dengan hubungan sesebuah keluarga yang baik dan harmoni (Fatanah, 1997). Manakala menurut Vuchinich (1992), kajian-kajian sebelum ini menunjukkan kebanyakan remaja yang bermasalah datangnya daripada latar belakang keluarga yang bermasalah. Oleh itu, permasalahan dan keharmonian dalam menentukan kesejahteraan dalam diri seseorang remaja bergantung pada institusi kekeluargaan. Pemantapan institusi kekeluargaan merupakan salah satu jalan penyelesaian dalam mengatasi masalah jenayah tingkah laku devian dalam kalangan remaja masa kini. Dalam buku bertajuk “The Adolescent Development, relationships and Culture” oleh Rice (1993) menjelaskan tentang nilai-nilai yang harus ada pada seseorang guru. Penulis buku ini menyatakan bahawa guru yang terbaik mempunyai ciri-ciri personaliti seperti memahami, kemesraan dalam menjalin hubungan dengan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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pelajar, rakan sekerja dan kebolehan dalam mengurus. Dari segi latar belakang profesional pula, mereka pandai menggunakan pelbagai alat dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran serta tahu kaedah yang dapat memotivasikan pelajar. Oleh itu, penggunaan pendekatan disiplin dan kaunseling adalah penting kepada guru dalam berhadapan dengan pelajar. Sokongan guru dikatakan penting terutamanya bagi pelajar perempuan untuk membantu membina keyakinan dan tekanan yang dihadapi. Sokongan guru ini juga penting kepada pelajar perempuan untuk meningkatkan motivasi dalam pencapaian berbanding lelaki. Kehadiran seseorang guru dapat mempengaruhi penyertaan penuh dari pelajar dalam kelas (Rice, 1993). Iran dan Saadah (2003), telah mengkaji tingkah laku remaja yang melepak di kafe siber. Dapatan menunjukkan purata masa melepak di kafe siber ialah 2.2 jam, perempuan lebih banyak melepak daripada lelaki (24.1 jam seminggu), umur antara 19-21 tahun lebih banyak yang melepak (8.3 jam sehari) dan remaja FELDA (Lembaga Kemajuan Tanah Persekutuan) paling ramai melepak (10.5 jam sehari). Aktiviti yang banyak dilakukan ialah melayari laman web artis dan dunia hiburan (27.5%), 20.6% chatting (sembang secara online) dan 14.7% bermain game (permainan). Sama seperti kajian-kajian lepas (Ahmad & Mustapa 1995; Iran 1995; Shamsudin & Iran 1993; Shamsudin & Iran 1994; Yahaya, 1995), remaja yang melepak terlibat dalam penagihan dadah, perjudian, menonton bahan lucah, minuman keras dan hubungan seks sebelum kahwin. Asmah & Zulekha (2004) menjalankan kajian terhadap salah laku remaja di dua buah sekolah menengah di Shah Alam dan Petaling Jaya, Selangor, terhadap 77 orang pelajar yang berumur di antara 15 hingga 17 tahun. Hasil kajiannya menunjukkan remaja yang ponteng sekolah adalah disebabkan keluarga yang materialistik, tidak mengambil berat keperluan anak, anak tiada kasih sayang sepenuhnya, pelajar tidak minat atau tiada motivasi ke sekolah. Mereka tidak sedar kepentingan ilmu, di samping mereka terpengaruh dengan keadaan persekitaran sekeliling seperti budaya melepak di pasar raya membeli belah, pusat hiburan dan juga pusat internet. Ia juga disebabkan suasana sekolah yang tidak sesuai dan tidak memberangsangkan misalnya masalah dengan rakan-rakan dan guru. Faktor penglibatan mereka dalam salah laku ialah disebabkan pengaruh kawan (63.6%), suka mencuba (48%), melepaskan tekanan (37.6%), pengaruh media (19.4%) dan untuk mendapatkan perhatian (19%). Zahir (2009) menyatakan ada beberapa kes gejala sosial yang melibatkan pelajar sekolah seperti memukul dan menendang guru, kes-kes buli samada di dalam ataupun luar kawasan sekolah. Mengikut beliau, tingkah laku songsang (devian) berkait dengan pelbagai sebab musabab samada berlaku di persekitaran sekolah atau persekitaran luar sekolah. Di antara statistik yang beliau paparkan pada tahun 2008, sebanyak 2,218 kes jenayah melibatkan 3,725 pelajar dan daripada jumlah itu, sebanyak 3,629 kes melibatkan pelajar yang berumur antara 13 dan 18 tahun. Jenayah yang paling banyak ialah curi motor diikuti mencuri secara rambang. Seramai 295 orang terlibat dari bulan Januari hingga Februari 2009, berbanding 233 orang pada tahun 2008. Jumlah ini adalah petanda kepada peningkatan kes-kes jenayah yang melibatkan pelajar sekolah. Pada tahun 2007, sebanyak 1,936 kes dengan 3,383 pelajar dan seramai 3,241 pelajar berumur di antara 13 dan 18 tahun. Kes-kes tangkapan ini dikaitkan dengan jenayah yang serius seperti pembunuhan, rogol dan pecah rumah. Kita sering juga digemparkan oleh berita-berita tentang gejala sosial negatif yang wujud dalam dalam pelajar sekolah, seperti tiada minat belajar, biadap terhadap guru, melanggar peraturan sekolah secara ‘habitual’, bergaduh, membuli (iaitu unsur ‘samseng’ atau ‘gengsterisme’), merokok, mencuri, ponteng sekolah, dan sebagainya. Tidak dinafikan masalah sosial ini berpunca daripada sistem kekeluargaan yang tidak berfungsi (dysfunctional). Tetapi oleh kerana banyak masa kanak-kanak dan remaja dihabiskan di sekolah, dari sudut ini pihak sekolah dianggap boleh dan berpeluang untuk merancang dan bertindak untuk memastikan hal-hal seumpama peristiwa sumbang dan salah laku dapat dihindarkan. Peranan pihak sekolah amatlah diharapkan oleh komuniti supaya mereka dapat membimbing pelajar-pelajar ke arah kesedaran sosial yang positif melalui latihan dan pendidikan. Malahan dalam setiap sekolah sedia dilantik guru disiplin, dan kaunselor untuk membimbing pelajar supaya berdisiplin dan dapat menangani masalah sosial yang mereka hadapi. Guruguru ini sebenarnya berperanan dalam mengawal berlakunya masalah disiplin dan gejala sosial di sekolah setakat yang mereka mampu (Khadijah, 2010). Berita-berita tentang gejala sosial negatif yang wujud dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah-seperti tiada minat belajar, biadap terhadap guru, melanggar peraturan sekolah secara habitual (biasa), bergaduh, membuli (iaitu unsur samseng atau gengsterisme), merokok, mencuri, ponteng sekolah, dan sebagainya, tentunya menggemparkan masyarakat. Gejala sosial negatif ini melibatkan peratusan pelajar yang rendah atau kecil bilangannya dalam setiap sekolah, tetapi jumlahnya agak memeranjatkan bila diambil jumlah besar bagi seluruh negara. Menurut Azlina (2010), kajian-kajian yang dilakukan oleh kebanyakan universiti tempatan secara umumnya menunjukkan terdapat kepelbagaian tema yang telah diterjemahkan yang dianggap penting dan menarik iaitu masalah disiplin dan salah laku pelajar sekolah, seks bebas dan sumbang muhrim, jenis-jenis gejala sosial dan kesannya, kecelaruan gender, pelaksanaan undang-undang jenayah rogol, jenayah juvana, gejala © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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buli, hidu gam, mat rempit, pelacuran, penagihan dadah, pornografi internet, pengabaian dan penganiayaan kanak-kanak.

Dimensi Kelompok Devian dalam Kalangan Juvana Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Smith dan Krohn (1995) mendapati remaja yang mempunyai hubungan ikatan kekeluargaan yang kukuh dan rapat daripada kedua ibu bapanya, tahap penglibatan kelakuan yang rendah berbanding hubungan positif antara kedua ibu bapanya dengan anak-anak akan membentuk satu pertalian saling memerlukan antara satu sama lain dan dapat meminimumkan jurang yang wujud dalam keluarga. Wan Su (2008) pula menyatakan, berdasarkan hasil kajian beliau dalam kalangan pelajar universiti menunjukkan terdapat hubungan signifikan di antara kemahiran sosial, kebimbangan, personaliti dan rakan sebaya dengan tingkah laku devian. Hasil kajian juga menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan di antara jantina dan bangsa dengan pengaruh tingkah laku devian. Manakala dari segi tahap akademik menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan dengan pengaruh tingkah laku devian. Kes-kes devian dalam kalangan juvana bukan sahaja dilakukan secara individu dan kumpulan tetapi juga trend perlakuan juga begitu pelbagai. Ia bukan sahaja melibatkan devian dalam harta benda tetapi juga perbuatan salah laku secara kekerasan dan mencederakan mangsa secara fizikal dan mental. Menurut Azlina (2010), Isu buli di sekolah, gengsterisme, ponteng sekolah, kehamilan luar nikah, mengugut semuanya berlaku dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah. Mereka nyata terdedah kepada pelbagai bentuk permasalahan seperti masalah akademik, kekeluargaan, kekurangan sokongan sosial yang turut memberi kesan kepada perkembangan yang sihat dalam kalangan pelajar yang masih bersekolah. Kesemua isu dan masalah yang wujud ini sudah semestinya memerlukan usaha bersama dalam menanganinya sebaik mungkin. Perbuatan buli dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah yang terdiri daripada kelompok juvana perlu di tangani segera.

METODOLOGI Reka bentuk kajian ini adalah berbentuk kualitatif yang menggunakan kaedah temu bual berstruktur . Sampel kajian adalah seramai 9 orang responden yang terdiri daripada remaja yang terlibat dengan masalah juvana di kawasan Geogetown, Pulau Pinang. Cara pemilihan responden dibuat dengan menggunakan kaedah pensampelan rantaian atau bola salji (Snowball Sampling) dalam mencari responden. Pendekatan menggunakan kaedah pensampelan rantaian ini kerana isu tingkah laku devian adalah satu isu yang sensitif, maka pengkaji turut menggunakan kaedah persampelan ini bagi mendapatkan responden yang diperlukan. Instrumen dalam kajian ini telah diadapatsikan daripada kajian-kajian lepas mengikut kesesuaian kajian yang mengambil kira pemboleh ubah elemen dan dimensi kelompok devian. Pemprosesan data dilakukan dengan komputer menggunakan perisian Nvivo 10 bagi mencari jawapan yang menyeluruh berdasarkan kepada satu model holistik yang dibentuk bagi memaklumkan gambaran sebenar hasil dapatan kajian.

HASIL KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Elemen Tingkah laku Juvana dalam Kelompok Devian Hasil dapatan Rajah 1 menunjukkan elemen tingkah laku yang dilakukan oleh kesemua responden mempunyai keintiman yang kuat dengan kelompok masing-masing. Malah, ahli-ahli dalam kelompok mereka mempunyai hubungan yang sangat intim dan saling memahami antara satu sama lain. Mereka begitu akrab dan berkongsi aktiviti-aktiviti yang dilakukan secara harmonis dan saling faham memahami. Aktiviti yang dijalankan berbentuk secara tidak langsung iaitu berlaku secara tidak dirancang dan aktiviti dilakukan secara terancang, iaitu membuat perancangan dari sudut masa seperti bila akan dilaksanakan, siapa yang perlu menyertai, bagaimana hendak dilaksanakan dan sebagainya. Aktiviti berbentuk perancangan akan lebih ramai penyertaan dan suasana lebih gamat. Hasil temu bual dengan responden telah memaparkan tingkah laku devian dalam kalangan kelompok yang disertai oleh golongan remaja. Untuk memberi penjelasan secara terperinci tentang pola pembentukan elemen tingkah laku dalam kalangan juvana dalam kelompok devian, pengkaji menggunakan pendekatan tree nodes yang terdapat dalam perisian Nvivo 10. Secara umumnya, analisis yang dijalankan menunjukkan terdapat sembilan elemen tingkah laku yang dilakukan oleh kelompok devian berdasarkan kepada hasil temu bual yang dijalankan. Sembilan elemen tingkah laku yang dilakukan oleh sembilan orang responden dalam kalangan juvana dalam kelompok devian adalah merempit, menonton video lucah, seks bebas, merokok, bersiar-siar (berpeleseran), pengedaran dadah, budaya Punk, sindiket pelacuran dan meminum alkohol. Hasil kajian ini dibincangkan dengan lebih lanjut mengenai elemen tingkah laku yang dilakukan oleh juvana dalam kelompok devian dengan satu persatu. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Hasil dapatan kajian menunjukkan kebanyakan tingkah laku seperti mat rempit sering dilakukan oleh kebanyakan responden. Responden daripada kelompok Punk dan Heavy Metal juga terlibat dengan aktiviti merempit. Kebanyakan mereka suka berlumba secara haram, membuat aksi lagak ngeri dan menghiburkan bagi menarik perhatian orang ramai. Selain itu tujuan mereka terlibat dengan aktiviti rempit kerana dapat melegakan emosi mereka. Hal ini kerana mereka merasa tekanan duduk di rumah dan apabila mereka keluar bagi menenangkan emosi mereka akan terlibat dengan merempit bagi menenangkan tekanan yang dihadapi sebelum ini. Hasil dapatan ini dibuktikan berdasarkan kepada hasil temu bual yang dilakukan seperti berikut; Aktiviti merempitlah. Sahaja nak membuat lagak dan aksi bagi menarik perhatian orang ramai (Responden 6) Bila saya tekanan dekat rumah, saya keluar rumah saya merempitlah barulah emosi dan jiwa tenang. Duduk dekat rumah serabut mak dan ayah selalu duduk bergaduh. Kadang-kadang depa ini sibuk je memanjang. Biasalah ambil tahu hal masing-masing semua (Responden 7)

Selain itu elemen tingkah laku yang dilakukan oleh kelompok devian ini adalah seks bebas, menonton video lucah dan sindiket pelacuran. Kebanyakan responden menyatakan mereka suka melakukan seks bebas kerana bosan duduk di rumah dan tekanan duduk di rumah sehingga menjadi bohsia. Kebiasaannya mereka suka melakukan seks dengan golongan yang mewah kerana ingin merasa kemewahan kehidupan dan juga dalam kalangan mat rempit. Sehinggakan mereka dijadikan pelacur oleh beberapa sindiket. Melalui aktiviti pelacuran mereka mampu memperolehi sumber kewangan yang mencukupi untuk bersosial. Hasil kajian ini dibuktikan berdasarkan kepada hasil temu bual seperti berikut; Masalah ini berpunca daripada boring duduk dekat rumah. Hinggakan saya mengikut kawan-kawan yang liar. Lama-kelamaan saya masuk kumpulan bohsia. Satu persatu kami lakukan. Seks bebas pun kami pernah lakukan. Biasanya dengan lelaki mat rempit dan berumur yang mewah (Responden 4) Terlibat dengan masalah ini berpunca daripada melepaklah. Lepas itu belajar hisap rokok dan bergaul dengan mat rempit. Akhir sekali terjebak dengan pelacuran. Jadi GROlah. Biasalah nak hidup mewah (Responden 2) Biasalah saya terpengaruh dengan rakan sebayalah. Mula-mula telibat macam-macam jugalah dilakukan hisap rokok, mengedar dadah, menjual video lucah. Menonton lucah itu biasalah. Biasanya kami duk tengok ramai-ramailah (Responden 3) Hasil kajian juga menunjukkan elemen tingkah laku dalam kalangan juvana kelompok devian yang dilakukan adalah seperti bersiar-siar (melepak), merokok, pengedaran dadah dan budaya Punk sehinggakan merosakkan akidah mereka. Keempat-empat tingkah laku ini berkait antara satu sama lain kerana responden menyatakan kebanyakan mereka bermula dengan bersiar-siar dengan melepak bersama kawan-kawan sehinggakan mereka ingin mencuba untuk merokok dan sehingga terlibat dengan dadah dan menjadi pengedar di samping terlibat dengan budaya barat seperti Punk. Hasil dapatan ini dibuktikan berdasarkan kepada temu bual berikut; Saya terlibat dengan dadah seperti pil ecstasy untuk dapat ketenangan. Biasalah kalau serabut benda itulah yang saya ambil. Selain itu saya terlibat dengan seks bebas dan budaya Punk. Dua-dua ni boleh tenangkan jiwa saya juga (Responden 5) Saya nie terlibat dengan budaya Punk pada mulanya. Ini ikut kawan-kawanlah. Hinggakan kami ada kumpulan sendiri. Biasalah bebaslah cara kami bergaul, minum arak, hisap rokok dan seks tu perkara biasa tu. Dari segi pemakaian kami lambang salib dan tatu itu biasalah (Responden 5)

Aktiviti saya melepak dengan ahli kumpulan sambil layan lagu-lagu heavy metal dengan gaya hidup ekstrem. Macam-macamlah saya dah mencuba (Responden 3) Gejala melepak dan merokok selepas waktu sekolah (Responden 8) Hisap dadah dan jual dadah untuk mewah hidup dan kerja yang mudah (Responden 9) Berdasarkan kepada hasil daripada kajian ini, dapatlah dibincangkan terdapat beberapa jenis tingkah laku bertentangan yang dilakukan oleh responden. Tingkah laku dalam kalangan responden tidak bersifat unipolar tetapi bersifat multipolar. Daripada un-natural behavior yang dilakukan oleh responden pertama yang terlibat dengan seks bebas, beliau juga terlibat sebagai pembonceng ketika merempit. Di samping itu beliau juga terlibat dengan aktiviti GRO sebagai penyumbang kepada sumber kewangan. Malah beliau juga mendapat sumber kewangan apabila dibayar sejumlah wang oleh Abang Tanjung kerana dijadikan tempat sebagai pemuas nafsu. Berdasarkan hasil temu bual yang dilakukan, menunjukkan majoriti kelompok devian melakukan aksi ‘mat rempit’ iaitu aksi suka berlumba secara haram, membuat lagak dan pelbagai aksi lucu untuk menarik perhatian orang ramai. Selain itu, aktiviti bebas dan bertingkah laku seperti bersiar-siar dan menonton filem lucah, seks bebas, berkeliaran serta melepak dengan meminum minuman coca-cola yang dicampur dengan panadol turut menjadi pilihan mereka. Dalam pada itu juga, ada di antara kelompok juvana © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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ini yang berada dalam kelompok devian semata-mata ingin mencari teman yang boleh diajak berkongsi masalah, mencari kesefahaman dan sehati sejiwa dalam menyelesaikan masalah. Rajah 4.1: Pola Elemen Tingkah Laku Devian

Senario Mat Rempit ini membuktikan sebagai satu kelompok devian yang berbentuk multipolar un-natural behavior. Tingkah laku devian kelompok rempit melibatkan seks bebas, dadah, berpeleseran, menonton video lucah, merokok, sindiket pelacuran, dan meminum minuman beralkohol. Ini menunjukkan, sekiranya kelompok rempit ini berkembang dan wujud pertambahan kumpulan-kumpulan rempit yang baru, maka kelompok juvana berada dalam keadaan tidak selamat. Ini kerana mereka mampu mempengaruhi juvana untuk terlibat dengan aktiviti mereka dengan berpaksikan keseronokan, kebebasan dan keegoan. Selain itu, sikap ponteng sekolah oleh kelompok juvana harus diberi perhatian yang serius. Walaupun masalah disiplin ini dianggap ringan, tetapi impaknya sangat besar. Hasil kajian menunjukkan, majoriti daripada juvana terlibat kelompok devian mempunyai kecenderungan kerap ponteng sekolah. Amalan perbuatan ini, seterunya menjadika mereka leka dan tidak berminat dengan dunia pelajaran dan persekolahan. Sekiranya ibu bapa tidak mengambil berat dan tidak member kasih saying yang sepatutnya, maka budaya ponteng sekolah ini boleh berlarutan. Keadaan ini sama seperti yang pernah dikaji oleh Asmah dan Zulekha (2004). Kajian yang dilakukan mereka mendapati remaja yang ponteng sekolah adalah disebabkan oleh faktor anak yang tidak mendapat kasih sayang sepenuhnya daripada keluarga dan ibu bapa yang tidak mengambil berat tentang anak mereka.

Dimensi Kelompok Devian Dalam Kalangan Juvana Dapatan kajian di Rajah 2 menunjukkan kebanyakan responden menyertai kelompok devian terdiri daripada orang luar. Kebanyakan responden yang ditemu bual menyatakan mereka menyertai kumpulan tersebut kerana masalah kurangnya mendapat perhatian ibu-bapa yang terlalu sibuk bekerja dan tidak menghiraukan aktiviti yang dilakukan oleh anak-anak seharian. Selain itu, pengaruh rakan sebaya dan perasaan ingin mencuba juga mempengaruhi responden untuk menyertai kumpulan tersebut. Aktiviti yang sering dilakukan oleh responden apabila bersama dengan kelompok devian adalah mereka kerap sekali minum dan mengambil panadol yang akan bercampur dengan coca-cola, meronda, berkeliaran, merempit, mengubahsuai kenderaan yang telah dicuri oleh mereka. Begitu juga untuk mencapai kepuasan mereka suka melakukan aktiviti seks dengan gadis sebanyak 50 orang gadis yang didapati daripada pelbagai agen pelacuran yang terdapat di Malaysia.

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Rajah 2: Dimesi Kelompok Devian

Dapatan daripada hasil analisis dapatlah dibincangkan bahawa penyertaan mereka dalam kumpulan devian ini adalah atas faktor kurang mendapat perhatian daripada ibu bapa yang sentiasa sibuk selain pengaruh dari rakan serta perasaan ingin mencuba dalam kalangan mereka. Keadaan ini selari dengan kajian yang dilakukan oleh Azlinda (2010) yang menyatakan bahawa faktor perbuatan salah laku adalah berpunca dari pendedahan yang tidak sihat atas faktor masalah keluarga dan kurang sokongan sosial. Atas faktor ini, Smith dan Krohn (1995) menyatakan kepentingan ikatan kekeluargaan yang rapat, kukuh dan kawalan daripada ibu bapa akan membantu membentuk perasaan saling memerlukan dan meminimakan jurang dalam keluarga yang seterusnya mampu menghindari anak-anak terlibat dengan perlakuan devian. Sikap ingin mencuba merupakan krisis identiti keremajaan dalam kalangan responden kajian. Merujuk kepada responden satu, responden dua dan responden keempat, pada peringkat awal mereka terjebak dalam seks adalah akibat dorongan teman lelaki kerana ingin membuktikan kesetiaan cinta kepada pasangan. Krisis identiti ini menjadikan mereka celaru daripada sudut psikologi ataupun fizikal. Dengan alasan ingin mencuba dan menganggap telah mampu membuat keputusan disebabkan fizikal yang telah dewasa, mereka menerima pujukan kekasih. Dimensi ini merungkai faktor keintiman dalam kelompok devian, iaitu mampu mempengaruhi dan mengubah psikologi ahli untuk tutut terlibat dalam perlakuan un-natural behavior. Mengikut Erikson (1968) pembentukan identiti adalah tugasan yang asas para remaja. Para remaja harus menbentuk imej diri yang sepadu sebagai individu yang unik. Sekiranya individu itu berjaya dididik untuk menanam kepercayaan terdapat diri dan orang lain, berautonomi dan berinisiatif, maka remaja berkemampuan menyelesaikan krisis identiti secara positif, merasa berkeyakinan diri dan berkemampuan. Sekiranya berlaku sebaliknya, yakni merasai was-was terhadap orang lain, malu, rasa bersalah dan inferior. Maka individu akan merasa keliru tentang identiti dan matlamatnya (Azizi & Gan,2010).

KESIMPULAN Secara keseluruhannya, bab ini telah membincangkan dengan lebih jelas mengenai hasil dapatan kajian. Melalui kajian ini dapatlah disimpulkan bahawa terdapat sembilan elemen (merempit, menonton video lucah, seks bebas, merokok, melepak, pengedaran dadah, budaya Punk, sindiket pelacuran dan meminum alkohol) tingkah laku dalam kalangan juvana dalam kelompok devian. Manakala dimensi kelompok devian dalam kalangan juvana kerana pengaruh dari rakan sebaya, sikap ingin mencuba dan kurang mendapat perhatian ibu bapa yang menjerumuskan mereka dengan jenayah. Berdasarkan kepada dapatan kajian ini, cadangan kajian turut diutarakan yang dianggap relevan dengan permasalahan tingkah laku devian dalam kalanganjuvana berdasarkan kepada penambaikan untuk kajian-kajian lanjutan. Justeru itu, kajian ini diharapkan akan dapat membantu pihak-pihak yang berkaitan dalam usaha menangani masalah gejala tingkah laku devian dalam kalangan pelajar remaja, supaya generasi akan datang bebas dari masalah keruntuhan akhlak. Seperti dibincangkan dalam bab-bab yang lepas, hasil kajian ini bukan sahaja menemui trend, pattern dan impak tingkah laku devian dalam kelompok juvana. Faktor perundangan dilihat sebagai elemen yang perlu diberi perhatian supaya impak kelompok juvana ini tidak mengganggu harmonis masyarakat. Ibu bapa, guruguru dan masyarakat seluruhnya perlu menolak budaya hidup devian yang merosakkan generasi muda yang

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menjadi pemangkin masa depan negara.

RUJUKAN Albert K, C. (1966). Deviance and control. Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs. Ahmad Nurulazam & Mustapa Kassim (1995). Lepak dalam kalangan pelajar-kajian di negeri Perak dan Pulau Pinang. Prosiding Seminar Kebangsaan Gejala Sosial. Sekolah Pembangunan Sosial, Universiti Utara Malaysia. Asmah Ali & Zulekha Yusof (2004). Salah laku sosial remaja kini: Cabaran dan penyelesaian. Kertas kerja dibentang pada Seminar Pembangunan Keluarga Kebangsaan 29 – 30 Mei 2004. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya. Azizi Yahaya, Shahrin Hashim, Yusof Boon & How Lee Chan (2007). Faktor–faktor yang mempengaruhi gejala ponteng dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah menengah johor. Fakulti Pendidikan. Skudai: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Azlina Abdullah (2010). Tema dan isu penyelidikan mengenai gejala sosial pada dekad pertama abad 21 di Malaysia. Akademika 78, 3-14. Fatanah Mohamed (1997). Kajian terhadap masalah peribadi pelajar-pelajar sekolah berasrama penuh dan tidak berasrama penuh di Pengkalan Chepa. Tesis Sarjana. Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Iran Herman. (1995). Tingkah laku lepak dalam kalangan remaja luar bandar. Kajang: True Times Sdn. Bhd. Iran Herman (1995). Tingkah laku lepak remaja luar bandar: Strategi menangani masalah. Dalam Prosiding Seminar Kebangsaan Gejala Sosial 1995, Sekolah Pembangunan Sosial, Universiti Utara Malaysia. Iran Herman & Saadah Yahya (2003). Lepak di kafe siber. Sintok: Universiti Utara Malaysia. Jabatan Siasatan Jenayah Pulau Pinang (2012). Statistik salah laku jenayah melibatkan juvana bagi negeri Pulau Pinang. Georgteown: Polis Diraja Malaysia Pulau Pinang. Khadijah Zon (2010). Penglibatan pekerja sosial di sekolah: Satu kemungkinan bagi menangani m a s a l a h sosial dalam kalangan pelajar. Pulau Pinang: Universiti Sains Malaysia. Lemert, E.M. (1972). Human Deviance: Social Problems and Social Control. Eaglewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice Hall. Mc Caghy, C.H. (1985). Deviant behaviour: Crime, conflict and interesting group. New York: Mav Publishing Co. Pepler, D.J. & Craig, W.M. (1988). Making a difference in bullying. Toronto: LaMarsh Centre for Research on Vioence and Conflict Resolution, York University. Rohana Yusof (1996). Perlakuan devian: Sebab berlaku dan kawalan sosial terhadapnya. Jurnal Kebajikan Masyarakat. 19, 23-37. Samsudin A. Rahim & Iran Herman (1993). Tingkah laku lepak dalam kalangan remaja:Kajian di Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur. Laporan Akhir Kajian. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Belia Dan Sukan Malaysia. Samsudin A. Rahim & Iran Herman (1994). Tingkah laku lepak dalam kalangan remaja:Kajian di Semenanjung Malaysia. Laporan Akhir Kajian. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Belia Dan Sukan Malaysia. Smith, C., & Krohn, M. D. (1995). Delinquency and family life among male adolescents: The role of ethnicity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 69-94. Smith, P.K. & Thompson, D. (1991). Practical Approaches to bullying. London: David Fulton. Vuchinich, S. (1992). Parenting, peers and the stability of antisocial behaviour in preadolescent boys. Developmental Psychology, 28, 510-521. Wan Su Haron (2008). Hubungan personaliti, kemahiran sosial, kebimbangan dan rakan sebaya d e n g a n tingkah laku devian dalam kalangan pelajar Universiti. Perlis: Universiti Malaysia Perlis. Zahir Zainudin (2009). Pendidikan Islam Sebagai Pemangkin Pembentukan Peribadi Pelajar. Berita Harian. Atas talian www.bharian.com.my. Zainuddin Abu, Zuria Mahmud dan Salleh Amat (2008). Pendekatan kaunseling menangani masalah kebebasan dalam kalangan pelajar Institut Pengajian Tinggi: dua kajian kes. Jurnal Pendidikan, 33: 107-123.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

FAKTOR TERAPEUTIK DALAM KAUNSELING KELOMPOK DAN KAITANNYA DENGAN PERKEMBANGAN DIRI Ruhani Mat Min* & Mohd Yusuf Abu Bakar *[email protected] Universiti Malaysia Terengganu

Abstract Kajian kualitatif ini bertujuan mengenalpasti faktor terapeutik dalam kaunseling kelompok yang mendorong perkembangan diri ahli. Perkembangan diri bermaksud perubahan yang dialami oleh ahli kesan daripada kaunseling kelompok yang dilaluinya. Seramai lima orang pelajar kaunseling telah melibatkan dalam kajian ini secara sukarela. Peserta kajian berkenaan telah melibatkan diri dalam sekurang-kurangnya sepuluh sesi kaunseling kelompok, yang juga merupakan sebahagian daripada aktiviti pembelajaran yang perlu diikuti oleh mereka. Data dikumpulkan melalui temubual dan penulisan diari. Temubual berkenaan adalah secara semi struktur, iaitu penyelidik menyediakan soalan sebagai panduan sebelum memulakan temubual. Walaupun begitu, temubual berkenaan tidak tertakluk semata-mata kepada soalan yang telah disediakan. Penulisan diari bertujuan untuk membantu peserta kajian menyatakan pandangan, pengalaman atau sebarang perkara yang berkaitan dengan kaunseling kelompok yang dilaluinya. Setiap peserta kajian akan melibatkan diri dalam tiga kali temubual dan tiga kali penulisan diari sepanjang tempoh pengumpulan data. Penulisan diari dilakukan selepas setiap kali temubual diadakan dan ianya mengikut kesesuaian masa setiap peserta kajian. Tempoh masa mengumpul data, temubual dan penulisan diari, selama lapan minggu. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa penerimaan tanpa syarat dan mematuhi kerahsiaan oleh fasilitator dan ahli kelompok merupakan faktor teraputik utama yang menyumbang kepada perkembangan diri ahli. Faktor teraputik yang lain adalah gaya kepimpinan serta penggunaan kemahiran dan pengetahuan kaunseling fasilitator, dan komitmen ahli kelompok. Kewujudan faktor-faktor teraputik berkenaan mendorong perkembangan diri iaitu keyakinan, celik akal, kelegaan dan rasa dihargai dalam kalangan ahli kelompok. Implikasinya, penerimaan tanpa syarat dan kerahsiaan perlu difahami dengan mendalam, seterusnya diamalkan oleh kaunselor atau fasilitator agar ahli kelompok dapat mengambil contoh yang ditunjukkan. Keywords: kaunseling kelompok, faktor terapeutik, perkembangan diri, kajian kualitatif, dan pelajar kaunseling

PENGENALAN Kaunseling kelompok merupakan proses perhubungan antara kaunselor dengan beberapa orang ahli kelompok. Perhubungan berkenaan membolehkan ahli kelompok yang menghadapi kesukaran menyelesaikannya isu-isu yang berkaitan peribadi, sosial ataupun kerjaya (Gladding, 1999). Ahli kelompok juga boleh menilai diri dan situasi dalam usaha menukar sikap dan tingkahlaku (Hansen, Warner & Smith, 1980). Kaunseling kelompok yang berkesan bergantung kepada banyak faktor, walau bagaimanapun, persediaan ketua kelompok atau fasilitator serta kebolehannya merancang dan mengendalikan kelompok amat penting Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

(Gladding, 1999). Kaunseling kelompok secara profesional didapati meninggalkan kesan positif terhadap perubahan jangka pendek dan jangka panjang (Zainudin, Zuria, dan Salleh, 2008). Berman & Zimper (1980) menyatakan bahawa perubahan interpersonal dalam kalangan ahli berlaku melalui pengalaman kaunseling kelompok yang melibatkan pertemuan lebih daripada 10 jam. Corey & Corey (2002) membincangkan beberapa faktor yang mendorong dinamik dalam kelompok, iaitu rasa diterima oleh kelompok, mengetahui perkara yang diharapkan kepada ahli kelompok, serta rasa selamat. Mengikut penulis, sekiranya faktor berkenaan tidak wujud dalam kelompok, kemungkinan ahli tidak bekerjasama, bersikap bermusuhan serta saling tidak memperduli antara satu sama lain. Yalom (1995) membincangkan kuasa terapeutik atau faktor penyembuh dalam kaunseling kelompok. Beliau mengatakan terdapat sebelas faktor yang perlu wujud bagi membolehkan kelompok berkenaan berkesan, diantaranya adalah, menaruh harapan, kesamaan, menyampaikan maklumat, mencontohi tingkahlaku positif daripada orang lain, kejelekitan antara ahli dan beberapa faktor lagi. Rogers (1961) menyatakan bahawa hubungan bersama orang lain membantu individu memahami dirinya, seterusnya menyumbangkan kepada keyakinan diri. Setiap manusia memerlukan perhatian positif iaitu keperluan untuk disayangi, disukai, dihormati, disanjung dan diterima oleh orang lain, termasuklah ahli keluarganya. Dalam kehidupan sebenar, manusia tidak sentiasa mendapat perhatian positif yang diperlukannya, malah mereka juga menerima perhatian negatif yang boleh menyebabkan berlakunya ketegangan dan tekanan dalam diri. Walaupun mengalami perhatian negatif, individu berupaya menguruskan ketegangan dan tekanan dalam diri, apabila pada masa yang sama beliau menerima perhatian positif. Perhatian positif yang dialami oleh individu menyumbangkan kepada pembentukkan konsep kendiri. Keperluan manusia adalah kasih sayang dan penerimaan. Keperluan kepada kasih sayang dan kemesraan ini adalah semulajadi. Sekiranya keperluan berkenaan tidak dapat dipenuhi, maka cara individu berkenaan melihat dirinya atau konsep kendirinya juga akan terganggu. Oleh itu, hubungan dengan orang lain termasuk ahli keluarga dan ahli masyarakat amat penting bagi membentuk perasaan kasih sayang dan kemesraan (Rogers, 1951). Maslow (1968) menyatakan bahawa setiap manusia mempunyai keperluan yang sedia ada dalam dirinya. Keperluan ini wujud dalam hirarki dan mempunyai keutamaan tertentu. Mengikut Hierarki Keperluan Maslow, hanya wujud satu keperluan pada sesuatu masa, dan keperluan berkenaan perlu dipenuhi sebelum wujudnya keperluan yang lain. Keperluan disayangi dan menyayangi serta mempunyai dan dipunyai adalah penting. Berupaya memenuhi keperluan berkenaan membantu mereka meningkat kepada keperluan seterusnya, iaitu rasa berkebolehan serta yakin dengan diri. Rumusannya, pengalaman kaunseling kelompok mempunyai kesan pada individu (Zainuddin et al., 2008). Individu memerlukan orang lain dalam mengembangkan potensi diri (Rogers, 1951). Kaunseling kelompok menyediakan peluang kepada ahli untuk merasai berkongsi pengalaman dengan orang lain (Corey & Corey, 2002). Persoalannnya, apakah pengalaman sebenarnya dilalui oleh ahli kelompok? Kajian ini ingin meneroka pengalaman sebenar yang dilalui oleh ahli kelompok yang berkaitan dengan perkembangan diri.

METODOLOGI Kajian ini berbentuk penyelidikan kualitatif. Kaedah kualitatif membolehkan pengalaman peserta kajian ditafsir dan dihuraikan dalam konteks persekitaran yang khusus (Denzin & Lincon, 2000). Dapatan kajian kualitatif umumnya didedahkan atau ditunjukkan dalam bahasa atau perkataan yang digunakan sehari-hari dan seringkali menggabungkan perkataan atau kata-kata peserta itu sendiri untuk menghuraikan peristiwa psikologikal, pengalaman atau fenomena (Patton, 2002). Seramai lima orang pelajar univiersiti terlibat dalam kajian ini. Kesemua peserta kajian yang dipilih ini mempunyai pengalaman sebagai ahli sekurang-kurangnya sepuluh pertemuan kaunseling kelompok dan yang paling penting, penglibatan mereka dalam kajiannya adalah secara sukarela. Data kajian kualitatif ini melibatkan temubual dan juga jurnal. Temubual merupakan interaksi bersemuka antara penemubual dan juga peserta kajian. Temubual yang dijalankan adalah temubual berstruktur. Temubual semi struktur membolehkan pengkaji mengajukan soalan temubual secara sistematik tetapi jawapan yang diberikan oleh peserta kajian tiada had dan tidak mempunyai struktur khas. Proses temubual dijalankan sebanyak tiga kali bagi setiap peserta kajian yang terlibat. Kebanyakan soalan yang ditanyakan adalah lebih berbentuk soalan terbuka yang membolehkan pengkaji untuk meneroka lebih jauh mengenai perkembangan diri peserta kajian. Peserta kajian juga diminta untuk menulis jurnal bagi setiap kali sesi perjumpaan mengikut tarikh yang telah ditetapkan. Penulisan jurnal oleh peserta kajian dapat membantu pengkaji dalam mendapatkan maklumat tambahan di samping sesi temubual yang dilakukan. Penulisan jurnal itu juga membolehkan maklumat

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tambahan daripada peserta kajian ini dapat diperincikan lagi tentang apa yang berlaku semasa sesi kelompok berlangsung mengikut perspektif mereka dan seterusnya merasai kesan proses kaunseling kelompok yang dilalui terhadap diri mereka.

DAPATAN Kajian ini menunjukkan beberapa tema yang menyumbang kepada perkembangan diri, penerimaan tanpa syarat, kerahsiaan, kemahiran ketua kelompok atau fasilitator, dan juga kemahiran kaunseling yang digunakan semasa sesi berlangsung serta juga komitmen ahli kelompok. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan beberapa kesan yang telah dinyatakan oleh peserta kajian iaitu dalam aspek kelegaan, keyakinan, rasa dihargai dan celik akal setelah melalui kaunseling kelompok.

Tema 1 : Penerimaan Tanpa Syarat Penerimaan tanpa syarat merupakan isu yang sangat dititikberatkan dalam kaunseling. Rasa diterima dalam kelompok akan mewujudkan rasa selesa. Penerimaan juga membolehkan ahli merasakan mereka mempunyai hak yang sama serta mempunyai peluang untuk turut serta dalam sesi kelompok. Menurut Mas (bukan nama sebenar), kaunseling itu sendiri bersifat menerima tanpa syarat, iaitu tanpa adanya sebarang penilaian terhadap individu. Hal ini membolehkan setiap ahli itu rasa diterima. Mas juga menyatakan bahawa penerimaan tanpa syarat itu dapat memberi kesan terhadap keyakinan dirinya. “.....Dalam sesi kelompok ni juga saya memang rasa diterima oleh ahli-ahli lain, saya rasa saya juga boleh menerima mereka lah walaupun ada dari sesetengah mereka saya tak kenal pun. Masing-masing dapat menerima di antara satu sama lain. Di situ saya lihat kekuatan dalam kelompok itu sendiri dalam memberi kesan dan keyakinan pada diri saya.....” “.....Saya rasakan saya dapat belajar sesuatu melalui sesi kelompok ni dimana jika kita nak diterima oleh orang lain, kita juga mestilah terlebih dahulu boleh menerima orang lain. Selepas tu saya rasa ahli-ahli perlu sama-sama dan saling menerima diantara satu sama lain.....” Peserta kajian seterusnya, Din (bukan nama sebenar) juga mempunyai pengalaman yang sama, iaitu kepentingan penerimaan tanpa syarat dalam kaunseling kelompok. “.....Saya rasa diterima dalam kelompok. Kelompok sangat membantu saya membuat perluahan atau perkongsian dalam sesi. Penerimaan ini memberi keyakinan pada diri saya untuk berkongsi pendapat terhadap isu ahli lain dan ahli lain pun membantu dalam perkongsian tentang isu yang saya alami.....” Berikut adalah merupakan pernyataan yang ditulis oleh Din dalam jurnalnya, “…..Penerimaan tanpa syarat membantu saya membuat perluahan dalam kelompok dengan selesa. Selain itu ia juga dapat memberikan keyakinan pada diri saya untuk berkongsi tentang sesuatu isu yang saya alami dan juga memberi respon kepada ahli lain. Melalui penerimaan tanpa syarat ini juga membuatkan saya bebas memberi pendapat dan cadangan pada ahli kelompok lain…..” Berbeza dengan Iza (bukan nama sebenar), penerimaan tanpa syarat itu berkaitan dengan sejauh mana penerimaan terhadap dirinnya terlebih dahulu. Berikut adalah merupakan perkongsian dalam jurnalnya, “.....Penerimaan tanpa syarat adalah apabila kita dapat menerima diri kita dengan seadanya. Menerima dalam setiap aspek, antaranya fizikal diri seseorang itu seperti tubuh badan, warna kulit dan sebagainya. Aspek dalaman pula adalah seperti kekuatan dan kelemahan diri. Aspek-aspek ini dapat diterima oleh seseorang dengan seadanya dan mengambil kelemahan itu sebagai suatu cabaran untuk melangkah kehadapan.....”

Tema 2: Kerahsiaan Dalam Sesi Kerahsiaan sangat penting supaya ahli dapat meluahkan perasaan, pemikiran dan maklumat dalam kelompok. Kepentingan kerahsiaan perlu dinyatakan semasa peringkat awal kaunseling kelompok. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa isu mengenai kerahsiaan memberi kesan terhadap perkembangan diri ahli. Kewujudan kerahsiaan boleh membantu seseorang ahli dalam suatu sesi kelompok untuk berkongsi tanpa sebarang keraguan dalam sesi tersebut. Iza menyatakan bahawa faktor kerahsiaan dalam setiap sesi kaunseling sangat penting dalam memelihara hak dan juga kerahsiaan setiap perkongsian ahli-ahli kelompok sepanjang sesi tersebut. “.....Tahap keyakinan makin bertambah la bila semakin lama bersama kelompok, ye la, mula-mula masih rasa kurang percaya, kurang yakin, kemudian bila lama kelamaan bila ahli kelompok berkongsi, ketua kelompok beri galakkan dan dorongan kepada ahli, menyebabkan saya menjadi lebih yakin sebabnya kaunselor beritahu tentang etika kerahsiaan yang perlu dijaga oleh setiap ahli.....” © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Kepentingan isu kerahsiaan dalam membina kepercayaan dan konsep kendiri ahli-ahli dalam kelompok ini turut diperkatakan dalam sesi temubual bersama Din (bukan nama sebenar). “…..Saya melihat sesuatu perkongsian dalam kalangan ahli kelompok ni bergantung kepada nilai kepercayaan diri mereka la. Kalau kepercayaan tinggi, maka komitmen ahli tersebut akan lebih la berbanding dengan ahli yang kurang sikit dari kepercayaan kepada kelompok tersebut. Sebabnya kelompok ni kan melibatkan ramai ahli, jadi ia akan memberi kesan pada kepercayaan mereka. Di sini la saya melihat kepentingan etika kerahsiaan dalam sesuatu sesi yang dijalankan…..”

Tema 3 : Kemahiran Ketua Kelompok Kaunseling kelompok memerlukan ketua yang bijak memimpin dalam memastikan kelancaran perjalanan sesi berkenaan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan kepentingan ketua kelompok dalam menentukan kejayaan bagi sesuatu sesi yang dijalankan. Mas merasakan bahawa peranan ketua kelompok sangat penting dalam kejayaan sesi. Ketua kelompok perlu peka terhadap setiap verbal dan non verbal ahli. “.....Ok, saya rasa sebagai ketua kelompok, dia lah yang dapat menentukan tahap keberkesanan kelompok samada berjaya atau tidak sesi yang dilakukan. Ketua perlu lebih memberikan perhatian dan tumpuan kepada tindakbalas terhadap apa jua pergerakan non verbal dan juga perubahan pada kata-kata ahli-ahli kelompok. Jika ada yang menangis contohnya, ketua harus memberikan tindakbalas bersesuaian la dengan ahli tersebut. Dalam hal ini, ahli akan merasakan dirinya akan rasa didekati difahami dan juga mendapat sokongan moral daripada ahli lain dan juga ketua itu sendiri. Sebabnya, ahli nampak la kelompok menyelami perasaan dirinya.....” “.....Jadi, dari situ saya rasa lebih terdorong untuk berkongsi la dengan kelompok, jadi saya rasa ketua kelompok ni harus lebih mesra la dengan ahli ataupun individu lain. Kalau saya gembira, ketua akan nampak sama-sama tersenyum, bergantung kepada perkongsian ahliahli la. Bagaimana intonasi suara kaunselor, seolah-olah, kaunselor menyelami isi hati ahli yang berkongsi la. Saya rasa dengan penggunaan kemahiran, gaya, dan juga intonasi suara ini akan dapat membantu ahli dalam meningkatkan keyakinan dalam diri ahli itu sendiri.....” Iza merasakan kemahiran empati sebagai suatu aspek yang penting dalam sesuatu sesi kaunseling. Melalui kemahiran ini beliau merasakan dirinya akan lebih difahami. “.....Pada sesi tersebut fasilitator membincangkan masalah tentang keluarga, dan saya sebenarnya susah nak berkongsi tentang keluarga, tapi entahla mungkin fasi tersebut banyak berempati, so saya banyak la berkongsi tentang diri saya, keluarga saya dalam kelompok berkenaan. Dalam sesi tu juga fasi tu ada bertanya apa yang awak boleh sumbangkan untuk keluarga awak, waktu tu saya benar-benar tersentuh selama saya membesar, saya belum pernah menyumbang apa-apa kepada keluarga, dan masa tu saya tanamkan dalam diri saya saya akan berusaha bersungguh-sungguh dan saya akan berjaya dan membantu mereka suatu hari nanti.....”

Tema 4 : Tanggungjawab Ahli Kelompok Ahli kelompok memainkan peranan penting dalam perjalanan sesi sesuatu kelompok. Menurut Mas peranan kedua-dua pihat amat penting dalam menentukan kejayaaan sesi kelompok. “......Bagi saya peranan kedua-dua belah pihak penting bagi mencapai matlamat sesi kelompok yang berjaya, bukan sekadar tugas ketua kelompok sahaja, malahan ahli-ahli dalam kelompok juga sangat berperanan dalam menentukan kejayaan sesi.....” Mas juga turut berkongsi bagaimana ahli-ahli dalam kelompok menjadi pendorong kepada perkongsiannya dalam kelompok. Komitmen ahli lain terhadap kelompok itu sendiri membuatkan dirinya juga terdorong untuk melibatkan diri bersama fasilitator dan juga ahli lain dalam kelompok tersebut. Berikut merupakan kenyataan Mas berkaitan peranan ahli lain dalam mendorong dirinya untuk turut bersama dengan kelompok, “.....Ok, antara faktor yang mendorong bagi saya dalam perkongsian bersama ahli kelompok ni, mungkin juga disebabkan penglibatan daripada semua yang terlibat dalam sesi itu sendiri, galakkan daripada ahli lain dan ketua kelompok menjadi faktor nak berkongsi. Sebabnya macam yang saya katakan pada awal tadi sesi kelompok ni bukan sahaja melibatkan isu yang dibincangkan malahan melibatkan penerokaan terhadap emosi ahli itu sendiri yang boleh menyebabkan insight atau celik akal kepada ahli itu sendiri.....” Iza pula mempunyai cara tersendiri sebagai salah seorang anggota dalam berhadapan rakan ahli yang agak pasif dan sukar untuk bersama dalam kelompok. “.....Bagi saya, jika saya salah seorang anggota dalam sesi tersebut saya akan membantu dengan mendengar perkongsiannya dan cuba memahami bagi dirinya mungkin ada sebab dia berdiam dan sukar berkongsi, dan pada sesi seterusnya dia akan lebih berani dan cenderung untuk berkongsi la......” Fadhil pula melihat kaunseling kelompok berkesan dalam meningkatkan kesan kepada peningkatan konsep kendiri dalam diri seseorang ahli. “......Ok,macam saya katakan tadi bila kita berada dalam kelompok ni ada sahaja perkongsian jadi kita akan lebih berkongsi dan memastikan saya dapat input-input yang berguna la daripada sesuatu perkongsian ahli lain. Ia kadangkala memberi saya suatu kekutan la pada diri © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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saya untuk saya menggunakan dalam hidup saya. Bertukar-tukar pandangan agar kita menjadi individu yang lebih baik pada masa akan datang.....” Melalui perkongsian Hafiz dalam jurnalnya, ia melihat tentang kepentingan rasa diterima dan penerimaan ahli lain. Ia sebagai suatu kekuatan dalam dalam kelompok tersebut. “.....Ok, selepas menjalani sesi kelompok saya rasa diri saya diterima, dimana saya dapat berkongsi, saya boleh bercerita. Dalam sesi kelompok ni juga saya memang rasa diterima oleh ahli-ahli lain, saya rasa saya juga boleh menerima mereka la walaupun ada dari sesetengah mereka saya tak kenal pun. Masing-masing dapat menerima diantara satu sama lain. Disitu saya lihat kekuatan dalam kelompok itu sendiri dalam memberi kesan dan keyakinan pada diri saya.....”

Tema 5: Kelegaan Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa kebanyakan peserta kajian yang menjalani sesi kaunseling kelompok memperolehi kesan semasa dan juga selepas menjalani sesi. Perasaan lebih positif merupakan antara perkongsian yang dapat dinyatakan oleh peserta melalui temubual dan juga jurnal yang ditulis. Hal ini dapat mengukuhkan lagi bahawa kaunseling kelompok mampu memberi kesan kepada individu yang terlibat. Menurut Fadhil melalui pengalamanya dalam sesi kaunseling kelompok, perasaan ketika pada peringkat permulaan sesi adalah sedikit gementar seolah-olah tidak begitu yakin untuk memberi komitmen bersama dengan ahli kelompok yang lain. “.....Perasaan tu pada mula-mula memang saya rasa macam gugup la seolah-olah tak yakin kepada kelompok untuk berkongsi.....” “.....Tapi bila dah lama kelamaan bila dah sampai tahap orang panggil kejelekitan la orang panggil kan dalam sesi tu, bila kita dah berkongsi, perasaan gembira tu lahir secara tiba-tiba atau semulajadi. Ye la, bila pada mula-mula benda yang kita tak terfikir untuk berkongsi kan, bercerita dan berasa macam kelegaan sekaligus secara tak langsung perasaan gembira tu ada la. Bila menjalani sesi kelompok dan berkongsi memang rasa gembira la.....” Menurut Iza pula, perkongsian dalam sesi kelompok membantu dalam proses mencari penyelesaiannya membuatkan dirinya lebih gembira, selesa dan juga lega melalui perkongsian dan juga reaksi daripada ahliahli dan juga fasilitator. “.....Selepas berkongsi tu, mungkin saya ada sesuatu masalah, kemudian saya dapat rasakan bahawa ahli-ahli lain banyak membantu la, sebab mungkin perkara yang saya kongsikan itu ada persamaan dengan ahli-ahli lain dalam kelompok. Mereka pun ada pengalaman dan mereka membantu saya la, dari situ saya rasa perasaan saya lebih gembira, selesa dan lega dengan keadaan tu, mungkin saya sendiri tak dapat cari penyelesaiannya, tapi dengan bantuan ahli lain mereka dapat membantu saya.....” Perasaan kelegaan turut dialami oleh Hafiz (bukan nama sebenar) ketika bersama-sama dalam kaunseling kelompok. Menurutnya perkongsian dalam sesi akan mewujudkan kelegaan kepada dirinya dan seterusnya dapat melupakan suatu perkara tersebut. “.....kemudian setelah saya berkongsi dalam kelompok, saya luahkan benda tu, jadi saya rasa kelegaan berlaku dalam diri saya. So, lepas tu saya macam dah tak hirau la masalah tu......”

Tema 6: Keyakinan Keyakinan merupakan aspek yang penting dalam pembentukan sahsiah dan peribadi seseorang individu. Keyakinan yang tinggi terhadap diri sendiri mampu berinteraksi dengan orang lain tanpa wujud sebarang tanpa keraguan dan sebagainya. Menurut Din melalui sesi kelompok yang dilaluinya, selepas berkongsi dan menyatakan perasaannya dalam sesi tersebut, beliau mendapat suatu kekuatan dalam dirinya di mana beliau rasa lebih berkeyakinan, dan juga berani untuk berhadapan dengan situasi sebenar. “......Setelah selesai sesi berkenaan, saya dapat rasa suatu kelegaan sangat bila saya dapat berkongsi dan juga saya dapat menyatakan perasaan saya kepada batu tu, dengan menggantikan batu sebagai orang yang kita nak sampaikan. Maknanya saya mencari kekuatan dengan meluahkan perkara tersebut kepada batu. Daripada situ, selepas sahaja meluahkan kepada batu, saya rasa lebih berkeyakinan, dan juga lebih berani untuk berhadapan dengan situasi sebenar.....” Din juga ada menyatakan wujudnya keyakinan melalui perkongsian dalam sesi kaunseling kelompok membuatkan dirinya turut berkeyakinan walaupun selepas sesi berakhir. “.....Dalam perkongsian saya dalam sesi kelompok, bila sahaja selepas sesi berkenaan saya akan rasa lega di samping saya akan lebih mendapat input-input yang berguna dalam diri saya. Saya rasa diri saya selepas kaunseling kelompok lebih berkeyakinan la sebab keyakinan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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diri saya semasa dalam kelompok membuatkan saya juga berkeyakinan selepas sesi tersebut. Perkongsian dalam sesi kelompok memberi peluang kepada diri saya bagi mendapat suatu kesedaran la sekaligus membina keyakinan hidup saya yang mendatang .....” Peserta kajian seterusnya, Fadhil pula turut mengalami pengalaman yang sama apabila melalui sesi kelompok. Menurut Fadhil, melalui perkongsian dalam sesi kaunseling kelompok ini membuatkan keyakinan dalam dirinya semakin meningkat. “.....Macam saya katakan tadi, bila kita berkongsi masalah atau perkara yang ingin kita kongsikan, secara tak langsung ia membantu meningkatkan keyakinan diri. Saya dapat rasakan peningkatan keyakinan saya selepas sesi kelompok.....” Bagi peserta kajian seterusnya Mas menyatakan keyakinan beliau lahir di sebabkan kerana penerimaan daripada ahli-ahli kelompok walaupun ada dalam kalangan ahli kelompok yang tidak mengenali antara satu dengan yang lain. Melalui penerimaan ini Mas melihat keyakinan dirinya semakin bertambah daan beliau turut rasa berpuas hati kerana kerana dapat membuat perkongsian tentang apa yang terpendam dalam dirinya. “.....selepas menjalani sesi kelompok saya rasa diri saya diterima, dimana saya dapat berkongsi, saya boleh bercerita. Dalam sesi kelompok ni juga saya memang rasa diterima oleh ahli-ahli lain, saya rasa saya juga boleh menerima mereka la walaupun ada dari sesetengah mereka saya tak kenal pun. Masing-masing dapat menerima diantara satu sama lain. Disitu saya lihat kekuatan dalam kelompok itu sendiri dalam memberi kesan dan keyakinan pada diri saya. Dari pandangan awal saya tengok macam sukar nak diterima, tapi bila dah menjalanai sesi barulah saya rasa diterima. Lepas tu baru saya rasa lebih puas hati, puas hati kerana boleh berkongsi dan dapat meluahkan apa yang terpendam di hati.....

Tema 7: Rasa Dihargai Penghargaan dan pujian dapat membangkitkan semangat individu bagi memajukan diri. Menurut Hafiz melihat perkongsian dalam sesi kaunseling kelompok akan menyebabkan ahli-ahli kelompok merasakan dihargai sekaligus bertindak sebagai pendorong kepada perkongsian bagi setiap ahli itu sendiri. “.....Saya rasa bila selesai sesi tu saya rasa tahap keyakinan saya makin bertambah la, bila diri saya rasa dihargai, saya rasa lega bila difahami, dan didengari. Masa saya berkongsi tu, ahli-ahli lain mendengar setiap apa yang saya cuba kongsikan, memang nampak la dari wajah ahli lain. Sebab tu saya rasa sangat dihargai dalam sesi kelompok.....” Perasaan yang sama turut dirasakan oleh peserta kajian seterusnya iaitu Din, “......Tak sama seperti kaunseling individu, kaunseling kelompok lebih menitikberatkan perkongsian daripada semua ahli. Dari situ la kita dapat lihat dan ahli akan perkembangan ahli rasa lebih di hargai. Contohnya bila kita bercakap dengan klien di sebelah kanan, secara tak langsung kita kena lihat juga klien di sebelah kiri kita. Selain tu, peranan ketua untuk melihat gerak tubuh klien, mimik muka klien serta setiap perubahan klien perlu di pastikan, bila ramai klien ni, perhatian tu penting kerana bagi seorang klien itu memerlukan perhatian daripada ketua kelompok supaya menghindarkan rasa disisihkan dan sebagainya.....”

Tema 8: Celik Akal Celik akal adalah satu langkah menuju perubahan. Melalui pembinaaan celik akal, klien dapat memahami gaya hidupnya dan sedar akan matlamatnya yang salah serta tingkah laku yang tidak bersesuaian. Menurut Iza, proses kaunseling kelompok yang dilaluinya mempositifkan pemikirannya dalam berhadapan dengan sesuatu perkara. “.....Saya juga pernah menjalani suatau sesi ni, dimana fasi ni ada menggunakan satu teknik dalam kelompok ni, saya pun secara tak sedar saya menitiskan air mata semasa kelompok tu. Saya kemudian tahu apa yang sepatutnya saya buat dan kadangkala saya tak sedar ianya suatu masalah bagi saya. Bila fasi tu ambil peranan dan buat satu teknik iaitu kerusi kosong masa tu, barulah saya sedar saya ada masalah. Saya rasa dari kelompok membuatkan saya dapat mempositifkan pemikiran dan diri saya kearah berfikir lebih positif tentang sesuatu perkara.....” Mas pula melihat bahawa perkongsian ahli dalam kaunseling kelompok itu sendiri akan dapat memberi suatu kesedaran dalam diri ahli lain sebagai suatu pembelajaran bagi dirinya. Berikut merupakan petikan daripada temubual bersama Mas : “.....Kadang-kadang saya tak tahu apa yang ada dalam diri saya, tapi melalui sesi kelompok saya sedar saya pun sama macam ni dulu. Dari situ kita dapat tahu apa yang kita pelu lakukan, perlu berubah atau sebagainya. Pengalaman ahli kelompok lain contohnya sebagai satu pembelajaran tentang kehidupan la bagi diri......”

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PERBINCANGAN Menerima tanpa syarat bermaksud penerimaan terhadap orang lain tanpa membuat penilaian atau sebarang tanggapan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa penerimaan tanpa syarat oleh ketua kelompok atau fasilitator dan ahli amat penting. Pengalaman diterima oleh fasilitator dan ahli kelompok mendorong peserta kajian untuk mengalami keselesaan berada dalam kelompok. Rasa selesa berada dalam kelompok menjadikan peserta kajian yakin dengan diriya. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa rasa diterima oleh kelompok member kekuatan kepada peserta kajian untuk berkongsi pengalamannya dalam kelompok berkenaan. Dapatan kajian ini menghuraikan perkara yang telah dinyatakan oleh Rogers (1951) mengenai keperluan untuk dihormati, disukai dan diterima oleh orang lain, seterusnya menyumbang kepada keyakinan diri. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa kerahsiaan merupakan salah satu daripada perkara penting dalam pengalaman ahli kelompok. Pengalaman peserta kajian menunjukkan bahawa kerahsiaan dibina secara perlahan-lahan. Peserta kajian juga sedar bahawa kerahsiaan dalam kelompok adalah melibatkan tanggungjawab ramai individu. Berkaitan dengan ini, Corey & Corey (2002) menyatakan bahawa kerahsiaan merupakan perkara utama dalam membentuk kelompok yang efektif. Implikasi daripada dapatan ini ialah ketua kelompok atau fasilitator perlu membina kerahsiaan dalam kalangan ahli. Juga, kerahsiaan bukannya boleh berlaku tanpa usaha oleh fasilitator. Dengan kata lain, kaunselor ataupun fasilitator bertanggungjawab bertanggungwab terhadap kerahsiaan. Namun begitu, terdapat pengecualian dalam kerahsiaan berkenaan. Kaunselor atau fasilitator perlu menghubungi pihak tertentu apabila klien cuba mencederakan dirinya atau orang lain. Menurut Corey & Corey (2002), kaunselor atau fasilitator yang membocorkan rahsia klien tanpa alasan yang tepat, akan merosakkan kepercayaan klien terhadap dirinya dan sekaligus merosakkan hubungan terapeutik yang dibina dalam kaunseling kelompok. Persekitaran kelompok yang selamat membolehkan ahlinya mendapat sokongan untuk berhadapan dengan emosi yang muncul, cabaran serta interaksi antara ahli (Corey & Corey, 2002). Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa kemahiran kepimpinan ketua kelompok atau fasilitator merupakan faktor penyumbang pengalaman ahli dalam kaunseling kelompok. Pengalaman peserta kajian menunjukkan bahawa kemahiran yang digunakan oleh fasilitator yang mendorong perkongsian mereka dalam kelompok. Kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa ketua kelompok memerlukan kemahiran mendengar yang tinggi kerana ini adalah kemahiran paling asas dan paling penting. Mendengar dengan berkesan memerlukan daya pendengaran dan penumpuan yang tinggi. Dalam konteks kaunseling, terdapat beberapa perkara yang perlu di dengar iaitu isi kandungan yang diperkatakan, perasaan yang dilahirkan melalui tingkahlaku tanpa lisan dan juga mendengar perasaan yang ingin dinyatakan. Kemahiran yang digunakan oleh ketua kelompok mempunyai kesan terhadap perkembangan kelompok berkenaan. Pengalaman peserta kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa empati yang ditunjukkan oleh fasilitator yang mendorongkan berkongsi dalam kelompok. Berkaitan dengan ini, Yalom & Leszcz (2005) menekankan kepada kepentingan peranan ketua kelompok dalam membentuk pengalaman terapeutik dalam kalangan ahli kelompok. Penulis berkenaan juga menyatakan bahawa perhubungan antara ketua kelompok dan ahlinya perlu dibina dan dikembangkan. Merujuk semula kepada dapatan kajian ini, perhubungan berkenaan dapat dibina dan dikembangkan melalui kemahiran yang digunakan oleh ketua kelompok atau fasilitator. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa tanggungjawab setiap ahli adalah sangat penting dan memberi kesan kepada pencapaian matlamat kelompok. Ahli-ahli juga akan bertindak dan juga mendorong kepada perkongsian dalam sesi kaunseling kelompok. Kaunseling kelompok membolehkan penyesuaian atau perkembangan pengalaman ahli-ahlinya yang membantu mereka berdaya tindak ke atas masalah penyesuaian yang dihadapi seharian. Kaunseling kelompok juga bertujuan untuk membantu ahli-ahli meningkatkan perkembangan diri. Penyesuaian dan perkembangan diri ahli-ahli kelompok boleh dilihat dalam modifikasi tingkah laku, kemahiran membentuk hubungan peribadi, isu seksualiti, nilai atau sikap atau membuat keputusan kerjaya. Disamping itu juga, kaunseling kelompok membolehkan ahli saling berinteraksi. Proses interaksi yang berlaku membolehkan individu memahami diri dan situasinya. Seterusnya, membolehkan pembentukan atau penjelasan matlamat dan nilai hidup individu itu hingga dia dapat menentukan tindakan yang sewajarnya demi masa depan. Berkaitan dengan ini, Gladding (1999) menyifatkan kaunseling kelompok yang bersifat pencegahan, perkembangan dan penyembuhan serta mempunyai kesan rawatan yang efektif. Kaunseling kelompok bukan sahaja mempunyai kuasa, perkembangan dan pencegahan tetapi juga berupaya meningkatkan sokongan berbentuk interpersonal dan penyelesaian masalah secara berkelompok. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan terdapat banyak kesan positif bagi pelajar yang menjalani sesi kaunseling kelompok. Kebanyakan daripada peserta kajian yang menjalani sesi kaunseling kelompok melihat bahawa terdapatnya kesan semasa dan juga selepas menjalani sesi. Perasaan kelegaan merupakan aspek yang seringkali diulang bagi setiap peserta kajian. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan perkongsian dalam kaunseling kelompok menyumbang kepada keyakinan, rasa dihargai, celik akal dalam diri ahli.

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KESIMPULAN Kaunseling kelompok menyediakan pengalaman pengalaman terapeutik kepada ahlinya. Pengalaman terapeutik berkenaan berkaitan dengan penerimaan tanpa syarat, kerahsiaan, kepimpinan ketua kelompok dan komitmen ahli. Pengalaman terapeutik berkenaan menyumbang kepada keyakinan diri, celik akal terhadap pengalaman yang dilalui, rasa dihargai serta kelegaan.

RUJUKAN Berman, J. & Zimper, D. (1980). Growth groups: Do the outcomes really last? Review of Educational Research, 50, 505-524. Corey, M. S. & Corey, G. (2002). Groups: Process & Practice (6th ed.). California: Brooks/Cole. Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). (Eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd edition). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Gladding, S. (1999). Group work: A Counseling Speciality (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Hansen, J., Warner, R. & Smith, E. J. (1980). Group Counseling: Theory and Practice. Chicago: Rand McNally McLeod, J. (2001). Qualitative Research Method in Counselling and Psychotherapy. London: Sage Publications. Maslow, A. (1968). Toward a Psychology of Being. London: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Rogers, C. (1951). Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications and Theory. London: Constable. Rogers, C. (1961). On Becoming a Person: A Therapist’s view of psychotherapy. London: Constable. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. (3nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Zainuddin Abu, Zuria Mahmud & Salleh Amat (2008). Pendekatan kaunseling, menangani masalah kebebasan dalam kalangan pelajar institusi tinggi: dua kajian kes. Jurnal Pendidikan, 33, 107-128. Yalom, I. D. (1995). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books. Yalom, I. D., & Leszcz, M. (2005). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy (5th ed.). New York: Basic Books.

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2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

SELF-HURT BEHAVIOURS AMONG ADOLESCENTS IN PENANG Guan Teik Ee* & See Ching Mey *[email protected] Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract Adolescence is a stage of life characterized by growth and exploration (Super, 1957). At this stage, despite rapid growth in the physical body, adolescents are emotionally vulnerable. Hall (1904), therefore, used the term “storm and stress” to describe the adolescence stage. In the ever changing and diverse society, adolescents need to handle challenges and problems of family, school, and friends. Emotional or mental pain could cause many side effects. One of the side effects is adolescents trying to hurt themselves when they cannot handle problems. Concern about young people engaging in self-hurt behaviour has prompted many researchers to carry out studies in the west. Malaysia as a developing country with a population of 29.6 million comprises about 40% adolescents (Department of Statistics, Malaysia, 2013). Even though Malaysia has a relatively young population as compared to the west, little of the aetiology of self-hurt has been researched. To date, the state of wellbeing of our adolescents is uncertain. This study is therefore carried out using an instrument named Self-Hurt Assessment to investigate whether the self-hurt problems exist among 602 school-going adolescents in 12 schools in the state of Penang, Malaysia. The results and the implications are discussed. Keywords: self-hurt behaviours, adolescents

INTRODUCTION For the purpose of this study, self-hurt behaviour is defined as an intentional performance of a harmful behaviour either by self or willingly allow others to alter or harm the body without conscious suicidal intent. The self-hurt behaviour that involved decorative, culture or religion purposes will not be included in this study. In the recent years, news of adolescents engaging in self-hurt is common. Many research suggested that the prevalence of self-hurt is higher among adolescents than adults (Hjelmeland and Grøholt, 2005). It is believed that the onset of puberty is associated with self-hurt (Cleaver, 2007). Self-hurt behaviour is reported to be prevalent in the west and in the developing countries. As in the case of Malaysia, counselling sessions for self-hurt have been recorded by some non-governmental organizations and schools among adolescents. For example, in 2009, the Agape Counselling Centre Malaysia (Penang Branch) had handled around 80 cases of self-hurt behaviour in the schools in Penang (Agape Counselling Centre Malaysia, Penang Branch, 2009). In June 2010, on the front page of Guang Ming Daily, a Chinese newspaper, reported students cutting their wrists to release tension in a Chinese Secondary School in Penang (Girls cutting wrists to release tension, 2010, June 27). There was about one or two cases of self-hurt every month in that particular school. The news was confirmed by the State Education Department and action was taken to help the students. In Malaysia, the subject of self-hurt is taboo, and self-hurt is still not an easy topic to discuss publicly.

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Adolescent’s self-hurt is very much under-studied and it constitutes a poorly understood phenomenon. Are the counselling records and news in the newspaper about self-hurt only isolated cases? Hence, the purpose of this study is to investigate whether self-hurt behaviour exists among Chinese adolescents in Penang. If yes, what are the types of self-hurt behaviour Chinese adolescents engaged in? With the information given, the government and school authority will know the extent to which the problem prevailed, and such information is of crucial importance to the counsellors too.

METHODOLOGY The instrument used in the study is the Self-Hurt Assessment. Self-Hurt Assessment is a self-report measure used to ask adolescents whether they had purposely engaged in the various types of self-hurt behaviour. Self-Hurt Assessment is a modified version of the Functional Assessment of Self-Mutilation by Lloyd, Kelly and Hope (1997). This study focuses on measuring the prevalence and types of self-hurt behaviour among Chinese adolescents in Penang. There are 16 types of self-hurt behaviour mentioned in the instrument where participants could check “yes” or “no.” If participants checked “yes” to any of the items, it means that he/she had committed that particular type of self-hurt behaviour. Participants need to endorse at least one type of the self-hurt behaviour to qualify them as those who self-hurt. From the responses of the participants, the researcher determined the “prevalence” (percentage) of self-hurt behaviour among Chinese adolescents. At the same time, the percentages of each type of self-hurt behaviour can be computed. Six hundred and two school-going adolescents aged 13-16 in 12 schools participated in this study. The schools and the samples were randomly selected on a blind draw basis.

RESULTS From the total of 602 participants, 342 (56.81%) committed self-hurt behaviour, of which 139 (23.09%) were males, and 203 (33.72%) were females. All the types of self-hurt behaviour listed were endorsed by the participants to some degree. The difference was on the frequency of the types of self-hurt behaviour engaged in by participants. Table 1.1 shows only 22.51% (77) of the participants endorsed a single type of self-hurt behaviour, and 77.49% of them (265) endorsed multiple types of self-hurt behaviour ranging from 2 to 16 types. Table 1.1 - Endorsement of Self-hurt Behaviour Based on Types of Self-hurt Behaviour

Frequency of endorsement for types of self-hurt behaviour

Number of participants who engaged in self-hurt behaviour

Percentage of participants who engaged in self-hurt behaviour

1

77

22.51%

2

6

1.75%

3

17

4.97%

4

19

5.56%

5

9

2.63%

6

10

2.93%

7

9

2.63%

8

7

2.05%

9

10

2.93%

10

4

1.17%

11

4

1.17%

12

1

0.29%

13

4

1.17%

14

13

3.80%

15

76

22.22%

16

76

22.22%

Total

342

100.00%

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Table 1.2 shows the ranking of the endorsement for each item. The three highest-endorsed items which involved five types of self-hurt behaviour were: (1) “used any sharp object to cut my skin” (69.01%, for Item 1), (2) the joint second highest endorsement, “used ruler to cut my hand or any part of my body” and “used eraser to erase my skin”(68.42% each, for Item 2 and Item 6), (3) the joint third highest endorsement, “scraped my skin” and “bit my nails” (66.37% each, for Item 5 and Item 15). Each item was calculated based on the sample size with self-hurt behaviour (n = 342). Table 1.2 - Endorsement of Self-hurt Behaviour Based on Frequencies and Percentages

Ranking

Participants who check “yes”

Percentage of endorsing participants

Item / Types of self-hurt behaviour

1

236

69.01

(1) Used any sharp object to cut my skin

2

234

68.42

2

234

3

Less serious

Serious

231 (97.88%)

5 (2.12%)

(2) Used ruler to cut my hand or any part of my body

234 (100%)

0 (0%)

68.42

(6) Used eraser to erase my skin

234 (100%)

0 (0%)

227

66.37

(5) Scraped my skin

227 (100%)

0 (0%)

3

227

66.37

(15) Bit my nails

224 (98.68%)

3 (1.32%)

4

222

64.91

(16) Scratched myself

222 (100%)

0 (0%)

5

216

63.16

(8) Pulled my hair out

216 (100%)

0 (0%)

6

211

61.70

(10) Picked at a wound

211 (100%)

0 (0%)

7

207

60.53

(12) Used wire or string to tie my neck or hand or any part of my body

207 (100%)

0 (0%)

8

189

55.26

(7) Hit myself on purpose

189 (100%)

0 (0%)

9

175

51.17

(13) Picked areas of my body

175 (100%)

0 (0%)

10

173

50.58

(11) Burned my skin, for example with cigarette, match or other hot object

173 (100%)

0 (0%)

11

171

50.00

(9) Bit myself, for example mouth or lip

171 (100%)

0 (0%)

12

169

49.42

(4) Gave myself a tattoo

169 (100%)

0 (0%)

13

168

49.12

(3) Used any sharp object to carve on my skin

166 (98.81%)

2 (1.19%)

14

157

157 (100%)

0 (0%)

45.91

(14) Inserted objects under my nails or skin

Self-hurt behaviour was considered less serious when there was no bleeding or minor bleeding, and did not involve medical treatment, whereas the serious type of self-hurt behaviour involved significant bleeding or was life-threatening, requiring medical treatment. As seen from Table 1.2, all the types of self-hurt behaviour were of a less serious nature except for three items, which needed medical treatment; namely Item 1 (“used any sharp object to cut my skin”), Item 15 (“bit my nails”), and Item 3 (“used any sharp object to carve on my skin”). Five participants (about 2.12%) claimed that they needed to have medical treatment for Item 1 (“used any sharp object to cut my skin;”) three participants (about 1.32%) needed to have medical treatment for Item 15 (“bit my nails;”) and two participants (about 1.19%) needed to have medical treatment for Item 3 (“used any sharp object to carve on my skin.”).

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION Table 1.1 shows that most of the participants had multiple types of self-hurt behaviour ranging from 2 to 16 types. This finding indicates that adolescents do not stick to one type of self-hurt behaviour every time they hurt themselves. They can use anything that is available at the time they perform self-hurt behaviour. This

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finding is concordant with studies such as that by Ougrin and Zundel (2010), and Tan (2010), who claimed that self-hurt adolescents often exhibit multiple types of self-hurt behaviour. Table 1.2 shows that cutting is the most common type of self-hurt behaviour, such as using a sharp object to cut the skin, and using a ruler to cut the hands or any part of the body. This is probably because these are the easily available objects used for self-hurt. Sharp objects and rulers can be found everywhere in the adolescents life. This finding is consistent with other findings that cutting is the most common type of self-hurt behaviour (Lloyd-Richardson, 2010; Villar, 2011). This study reveals that self-hurt prevalence rate among Chinese adolescents is about 56.81%. The statistic indicates that self-hurt behaviour is common among adolescents. This finding directly suggest the need of prevention strategies and counselling intervention for Chinese adolescents. The Ministry of Education, school authorities, teachers, counsellors and parents must be vigilant as regards to adolescents who may be at risk. The Ministry of Education needs to seriously review the curriculum in counsellors training programmes, so that counsellors are equipped with skills to handle self-hurt cases more confidentally. Responsibility for the identification of adolescents who self-hurt lies not only with the school counsellors but also with all staff of the school. School authorities and teachers should engage students to meet up with counsellor. Apart from that, involving parents in the counselling programmes in schools whenver possible is highly recommended so that parents could cooperate with the schools to combat adolescents’ problems. With respect to the current findings, parents need to alleviate the underlying situation by providing adolescents with their time, so that when their children face any problem, they know in whom they can confide. Parents need to provide enough interaction between the adolescent and family to offset the influence of the negative effect of society. It is imperative that parents have full control and management over the well-being of their children. Fortunately, the current study shows that most of the self-hurt behaviours performed were of a less serious nature. Even though most self-hurt behaviours are of less serious intensity, serious cases of self-hurt behaviour do exist, implying that early identification is important before the behaviour goes out of control.

CONCLUSION This study is a preliminary attempt to investigate the self-hurt behaviour among adolescents in Malaysia. Since self-hurt behaviour is a strong predictor of suicide attempt (Alfonso, 2007), it is important to look into adolescent self-hurt behaviour seriously so as to prevent escalation towards suicidal behaviour. Preventive action must be taken to help adolescents to develop healthy coping skills. It is timely to consider the issue seriously so that the problem can be treated and managed before it worsens.

REFERENCES Agape Counselling Centre Malaysia (Penang Branch) (2009). Counselling Record Book. Alfonso, M. L. (2007). The tip of the blade: Self-injury among early adolescents. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of South Florida. Cleaver, K. (2007). Adolescent nursing: Characteristics and trends of self-harming behavior in young people. British Journal of Nursing, 16(3), 148-152. Department of Statistics Malaysia (2012). Statistics Yearbook Malaysia 2012. Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Durriyah, S., Marianne M., Rajaa C., Umayya M., & Mohamad, A-T. (2009). The pattern of self-poisoning among Lebanese children and adolescents in two tertiary care centres in Lebanon. Acta Paediatrica, 98, 1044-1048. Girls cutting wrists to release tension (2010, June 27). Guang Ming Daily, pp. A1, A3. Hall, G.S. (1904). Adolescence: Its psychology and its relation to physiology, anthropology, sociology, sex, crime, religion, and education (Vols. 1 & II). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hjelmeland, H. & Grøholt, B. (2005). A comparative study of young and adult deliberate self-harm patient. Crisis, 26(2), 64-72. Lloyd-Richardson, E. E. (2010). Nonsuicidal self-injury in adolescents. The Prevention Researcher, 17(1), 3-7. Lloyd-Richardson, E. E., Kelly, M. L., & Hope, T. (1997). Self-mutilation in a community sample of adolescents: Descriptive characteristics, provisional prevalence rate. Poster session at the annual meeting of the Society of Behavioral Medicine, New Orleans, LA. Ougrin, D. & Zundel, T. (2010). Defining self-harm. In Ougrin, D., Zundel, T., & & Ng, A.V. (Eds.), Self-harm in young people: A therapeutic assessment manual. London: Hodder Arnold. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Super, D. E. (1957). The psychology of career. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Tan, A. (2010). Nonsuicidal self-injury in an adolescent population in Singapore. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Regent University. Villar, I. V. G. (2011). Non suicidal self-injurious behavior. Journal of Counseling, 4(1), 16-24.

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ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

FACTORS INFLUENCING INTERNET ADDICTION AMONG MALAYSIAN ADULTS Maslin Masrom* & Wan Normeza Wan Zakaria *[email protected] Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

Abstract The internet has brought many changes in our life and society. It provides positive and negative aspects to users, for example in terms of positive aspects; it allows the users to access and obtain information, and communication, commerce, research and entertainment. Meanwhile, for negative impacts the internet can create many problems when users are overly engrossed in using it and becoming addicted, this is called internet addiction. Internet addiction refers to an individual's inability to control his or her use of the internet, and may differs among others by age, gender, communication styles, and hours spent online. The major objective of this study is to examine factors influencing internet addiction among Malaysian adults. The specific objectives of this study are: (i) to identify factors of internet addiction; (ii) to identify computer and internet use among Malaysian adults; and (iii) to determine factors affecting the internet addiction among Malaysian adults. The internet Addiction Test (IAT) developed by Dr Kimberly Young in 1998 is used as an instrument to measure the internet addiction. The results of this study provide the information that can contribute to propose the prevention guideline or program of internet addiction for adults. Keywords: internet addiction, internet use, internet addiction test, adults, Malaysia

INTRODUCTION The internet has brought many changes in our life and society. Nowadays our lives are filled with diverse applications of computer network. The rapid growth of computer technology and prevalence of the internet use, people experience the advantages of computer network in various aspects. The internet is a network of networks that connect millions of the people around the world. It has been used as an alternate environment to access information, to communicate with friends, to work, to play games, and others. Internet also is a tool that has socio-economic,cultural and political dimensions in information society (Adalier, 2012). According to Keser, Esgi, Kocadag and Bulu (2013), healthy internet use means using internet for a legitimate purpose, for a reasonable time period, without any cognitive or behavioral issues. Nevertheless, individuals still face with problems and negatively affected by unhealthy internet use. Despite the positive effects of internet, there is growing literature on the negative effects of its excessive use (Thatcher and Goolam, 2005; Frangos and Frangos, 2009; Azher, Khan, Salim, Bilal, Hussain and Haseeb, 2014). Excessive use of the internet has lead to a phenomenon called internet addiction. Internet addiction is a term that denotes the harmful and uncontrolled use of internet (Mostafaei & Khalili, 2012). This term became a phenomenon that is represented with different name such as ‘net addiction’, ‘online addiction’, ‘internet addiction disorder’, ‘pathologic internet use’ and ‘cyber disorder’ (Eichenberg, 2011). The symptoms for internet addiction among others are not being able to set a limit for internet use, going on to use albeit its social or academic damages and feeling an intense anxiety in case of limiting the access to internet. American Society Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

of Addiction Medicine (2012) reported that there are different types of internet addiction namely, web surfer, pornography, chatting and video games characterized by dry eyes, headache, sleep disturbance, neglect of familyand problems with school or job. The term of ‘internet addiction’ was first suggested by Goldberg in 1995, meanwhile scientific discussions started with Young who is one of the pioneer scientists who brought the ‘internet addiction disorder’ concept in to daylight (Keser et al., 2013). Keser et al. (2013) determined four factors of internet addiction as a result of exploratory factor analysis, that is, social isolation, avoidance, difficulty to control and deprivation. Social isolation indicates increased desire to stay online and time spent on internet. Avoidance shows distancing from daily chores, academic work and other duties. Difficulty to control indicates excessive use ofinternet and experiencing problems as a result of not being able to stop the behavior. Deprivation indicates the feelings when individual could not be online, when there is a lack of internet service or in similarly internet free circumstances. For example, a person can get angry and behave hateful if she or he planned to be online but restricted to get online. The internet use has been increasing dramatically over the decade in Malaysia. According to Lim (2014), internet addiction has become a new threat to healthy living for Malaysians, depriving them of sleep and exercise. Past studies have indicated that internet addiction is more common to younger people or adults (King-Wa Fu, Paul and Paul, 2010; Wang and Fu, 2008). Thatcher, Wretschko and Fridjhon (2008) argued that a person’s overuse or abuse of the internet is a behavioural manifestation of other things that may be problematic in their lives. Regard to the amount of time spent online, Yang and Tung (2004) found that individuals who described themselves as internet addicts spent between 8.5 hours per week to 21.2 hours per week. The location for accessing the internet has many times been associated with the development of internet addiction (Young, 2004; Ceyhan, 2008; Siomos et al., 2008; Tsitsika et al., 2009). The present study was carried out to examine factors influencing Internet addiction among Malaysian adults, and the specific objectives are as follows: a. to identify factors of internet addiction. b. to identify computer and internet use among Malaysian adults. c. to determine factors affecting the internet addiction among Malaysian adults

METHODOLOGY The study is a quantitative research whereby the survey questionnaire is the main data collection method.

Sample Convenient sampling technique was used to draw the sample. A total of 114 Malaysian adults filled the self-reported questionnaires. There were 56.1% (n=64) male and 43.9% (n=50) female adults included in the sample.The age of sample ranged from 17 years to 45 years and above with the mean age of 30.5 and standard deviation of 1.334.

Instruments The following instruments were used in the study:

Internet addiction The internet addiction test (IAT) developed by Young (Young, 1998) was used to investigate internet addiction among Malaysian adults. The scale consists of twenty questions with a five-point Likert scale. It is scored on 5 point rating scale from 1 = ‘rare’ to 5 = ‘always’. The total score range is from 20 to 100. It is evaluated as: Scores 20 to 39 are considered normal or low level of the internet addiction, 40 to 69 is considered problematic, and 70 to 100 is considered as significantly problematic or high level of the internet addiction. The Cronbach’s alpha computed of this questionnaire was 0.843.

Computer and internet use Computer and internet use (CIU) of the adults were measured with five items: computer knowledge, computer application knowledge, computer access location, pay for internet subscription, internet experience, and hours of internet use daily.

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Procedure The sample (Malaysian adults) were briefed about the nature and the purpose of the study. They were assured about the confidentiality of the data. Instructions were given regarding to the questionnaires. Average time taken by students in filling questionnaire was 20 minutes. After the data collection, data was statistically analyzed using IBM SPSS statistics version 21. Data were analyzed with frequency count, percentage, factor analysis, correlation coefficient and multiple logistic regression.

RESULTS Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS statistics version 21. Following tables represent the results of the study. A summary of response rates to the internet addiction test or survey is shown in Table 1. From Table 1 we find that the seventh item of Young, “How often do you check your e-mail before something else that you need to do?” has the highest percentage (for Always).

Ofen

Always

How often do you find that you stay on-line longer than you intended?

-

3.5

6.1

27.2

43.9

19.3

How often you neglect household chores to spend more time on-line?

-

10.5

26.3

42.1

14.0

7.0

How often do you prefer the excitement of the internet to intimacy with your partner?

8.8

10.5

40.4

27.2

7.9

5.3

How often do you form new relationships with fellow on-line users?

3.5

28.1

25.4

14.9

24.6

3.5

How often do others in your life complain to you about the amount of time you spend on-line?

4.4

25.4

42.1

16.7

7.9

3.5

How often do your grades or school work or work suffer because of the amount of time you spend on-line?

15.8

24.6

33.3

15.8

8.8

1.8

How often do you check your e-mail before something else that you need to do?

-

21.1

17.5

14.0

22.8

24.6

How often does your job performance or productivity suffer because of the internet?

23.7

18.4

16.7

21.9

7.0

12.3

How often do you become defensive or secretive when anyone ask you what you do on-line?

-

31.6

32.5

20.2

8.8

7.0

How often do you block out disturbing thoughts about your life with soothing thoughts of the internet?

1.8

20.2

36.0

16.7

14.0

11.4

How often do you find yourself anticipating when you will go on-line again?

0.9

11.4

34.2

43.9

3.5

6.1

How often do you fear that life without the internet would be boring, empty, and joyless?

-

11.4

16.7

14.0

42.1

15.8

How often do you snap, yell, or act annoyed if someone bothers you while you are on-line again?

1.8

30.7

25.4

24.6

7.0

10.5

How often do you lose sleep due to late-night log-ins?

0.9

21.1

18.4

18.4

20.2

21.1

How often do you feel preoccupied with the internet when off-line, or fantasize about being on-line?

0.9

21.1

32.5

28.1

9.6

7.9

How often do you find youself saying “just a few more minutes” when on-line?

-

9.6

12.3

29.8

36.8

11.4

Item Statements / Questions

Rarely

Frequently

Occasionally

Does not apply

Table 1 - A summary of response rates to the internet addiction test

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Occasionally

Frequently

Ofen

1.8

17.5

27.2

28.9

15.8

8.8

How often do you try to hide how log you’ve been online?

0.9

16.7

21.1

23.7

28.1

9.6

How often do you choose to spend more time on-line over going out with others?

2.6

21.1

18.4

24.6

25.4

7.9

How often do you feel depressed, moody,or nervous when you are off-line, which goes away once you are back on-line?

0.9

36.8

32.5

15.8

5.3

8.8

Always

Rarely

Does not apply

How often do you try to cut down the amount of time you spend on-line and fail?

Item Statements / Questions

Note: The figures are in percentage (%)

Table 2 shows frequency and percentage of users or adults with respect to level of internet addiction. The results show that 69.3% (N=79) of adults are having problematic internet addiction, and are endangered to become severely addicted to internet ultimately. Meanwhile in present sample 11.4% (N=13) are indicated to be having severe addiction to internet. Table 2 - Frequency and percentage of adults with respect to level of internet addiction

Users / Adults

Frequencies (N)

Percentages 9%)

Normal

22

19.3

Problematic or high level of the internet addiction

79

69.3

Severely addicted

13

11.4

The Dimensions of Internet Addiction As a result of the factor analysis, items in the test are grouped under five dimensions or factors, and factor loadings for these items are provided in Table 3. Table 3 - Exploratory factor analysis results of the Internet Addiction Test

Factor 1: Avoidance Explained variance : % 16.502 Item No.

Item statements

Factor loadings / Item-Total Correlation

7

How often do you check your e-mail before something else that you need to do?

.835*

8

How often does your job performance or productivity suffer because of the internet?

.863*

10

How often do you block out disturbing thoughts about your life with soothing thoughts of the internet?

.662*

17

How often do you try to cut down the amount of time you spend on-line and fail?

.495*

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Factor 2: Social inactiveness Explained variance : % 14.696 Factor loadings / Item-Total Correlation

Item No.

Item statements

9

How often do you become defensive or secretive when anyone ask you what you do on-line?

.623*

13

How often do you snap, yell, or act annoyed if someone bothers you while you are on-line again?

.575*

14

How often do you lose sleep due to late-night log-ins?

.478*

15

How often do you feel preoccupied with the internet when off-line, or fantasize about being on-line?

.723*

18

How often do you try to hide how long you’ve been on-line?

.782*

19

How often do you choose to spend more time on-line over going out with others?

.660*

Factor 3: Difficulty to Control Explained variance : % 13.633 Item No.

Item statements

Factor loadings / Item-Total Correlation

4

How often do you form new relationships with fellow on-line users?

.541*

11

How often do you find yourself anticipating when you will go on-line again?

.457*

12

How often do you fear that life without the internet would be boring, empty, and joyless?

.813*

16

How often do you find youself saying “just a few more minutes” when on-line?

.740*

Factor 4: Deprivation Explained variance : % 10.244 Factor loadings / Item-Total Correlation

Item No.

Item statements

3

How often do you prefer the excitement of the internet to intimacy with your partner?

.654*

5

How often do others in your life complain to you about the amount of time you spend on-line?

.682*

6

How often do your grades or school work or work suffer because of the amount of time you spend on-line?

.692*

20

How often do you feel depressed, moody,or nervous when you are offline, which goes away once you are back on-line?

.461*

Factor 5: Excessive use Explained variance : % 7.311 Item No.

Item statements

Factor loadings / Item-Total Correlation

1

How often do you find that you stay on-line longer than you intended?

.830*

2

How often you neglect household chores to spend more time on-line?

.570*

*p < 0.001

Properties of the items in the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) are provided in Table 3. The correlation coefficients © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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between the items in the test and total item points of factors of each item range from and based on the factor analysis conducted. These coefficients were statistically significant at .01 level, and can be interpreted as the items in the IAT and the factors they belong to measure the same constructs. Correlations between the factors are presented in Table 4. Table 4 - Correlations between the factors in the Internet Addiction Test

Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

Factor 4

Factor 5

Factor 1 Factor 2

.358

Factor 3

.488

Factor 4

.451

.404

.437

Factor 5

.224

.227

.368

.378

As it can be seen in Table 4, correlations between the factors are .224 and .488. Since the correlations between the factors were at medium level it can be interpreted that each factor measures different dimensions of the construct.

Computer and Internet Use Among Malaysian Adults The patterns of computer and internet use are shown in Table 5. It is evident that 93.9% had knowledge of computers, and 92.1% had knowledge of computer applications. Most of the students in the sample accessed their computer from home (93%), followed by colleges or universities (48.2%) and finally at the workplace or office at which they worked (30.7%). The majority of adults did not pay for their own internet subscription (84.2%). Table 5 - Computer and internet use

Frequencies (N)

Percentages (%)

No

7

64

Yes

107

93.9

No

9

7.9

Yes

105

92.1

Home

106

93

Colleges / Universities

55

48.2

Internet cafe / Cyber cafe

18

15.8

Friend’s house

21

18.4

Workplace or office

35

30.7

No

96

84.2

Yes

18

15.8

1 year

1

0.9

2 years

-

-

3 years

2

1.8

4 years

1

0.9

5 years

4

3.5

106

93

Computer knowledge

Computer applications knowledge

Computer access location

Do you pay for your own internet subscription?

Internet experience

More than 5 years Hours of internet use daily (hrs)

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Frequencies (N)

Percentages (%)

x < 0.5

2

1.8

0.5 ≤ x < 1

4

3.5

1≤x<2

11

9.6

2≤x<3

28

24.6

3≤x<4

28

24.6

4≤x<5

41

36.0

Table 5 also showed that 93% had more than 5 years internet experience, and 36% of the respondents access the internet more than 4 hours daily. The table shows the tendencies of over-dependence on internet by the samples.

Factors affecting the internet addiction among Malaysian adults Multiple logistic regression with internet addiction as the dependent variable was conducted in order to determine the factors that affect the internet addiction among adults. Six independent categorical and ordinal variables have been assessed : gender, computer knowledge, computer applications knowledge, computer access location, internet experience and hours of internet daily use. The results are presented in Table 6. Table 6 - Multiple logistic regression with internet addiction as the dependent variable

Variables

Code

Odds Ratio

p-value

Odds ratio 95% Confidence Interval (CI)

.622

.455

.225

1.953

.412

.592

.016

10.536

4.243

.254

.354

50.836

8.708E6

.996

.000

-

Gender Var1

Male

Computer knowledge Var2

Yes

Computer applications knowledge Var3

Yes

Computer access location Var4

College / Universities

Var5

Internet cafe / Cyber cafe

.554

1.000

.000

-

Var6

Friends’ house

.570

1.000

.000

-

Var7

Workplace / Office

-

-

-

-

Internet experience Var8

2 years

-

-

-

-

Var9

3 years

1.038E-7

.977

.000

-

Var10

4 years

8.227E7

-

8.227E7

8.227E7

Var11

5 years

7.742E-8

.996

.000

-

Var12

More than 5 years

-

-

-

-

Hours of internet use daily (hrs) Var13

0.5 ≤ x < 1

1.297E-7

.998

.000

-

Var14

1≤ x <2

14.803

.046

1.045

209.674

Var15

2≤ x<3

.901

.900

.179

4.525

Var16

3≤ x<4

6.360

.025

1.267

31.945

Var17

4≤ x<5

2.281

.241

.574

9.060

Table 6 presented the odds ratio where variables of hours of internet use daily (i.e. 1 ≤ x < 2 and 3 ≤ x < 4) were significance predictors of internet addiction. It can be said that adults who used the internet for more hours during the day were more likely to become internet addicted. Other independent variables are found

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not significant predictors of internet addiction.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The finding of this study showed that 69.3% of adults are having problematic internet addiction. These adults are in great danger of becoming adverse and severe internet user, and which ultimately will affect them negatively both physically and mentally. The presence of 11.4% severely addicted internet user indicated the continuous increasing number of the adults reaching at the worst point of internet addiction, namely severe addiction. The study also showed that the key internet addiction for adults are avoidance, social inactiveness, difficulty to control, deprivation, and excessive use. This findings concurred with the past research such as Keser, Esgi, Kocadag, and Bulu (2013). Additionaly, we found 93% had more than 5 years internet experience, and 36% of the respondents access the internet more than 4 hours daily. The increased hours of daily internet use was significant predictor of internet addiction. The interpretation of these results should to be treated with caution. Data collected for this study represents a sample of 17 to 45 years old and above adults in Kuala Lumpur. Future studies could adults from other cities. Qualitative research using focus groups and in–depth interviews would provide deeper insights into adults’ internet usage and addiction. Furthermore, there is a need for seminars and campaigns in making adults and other people aware of the dangers of the internet including causes and effects of internet addiction and use of computers.

REFERENCES American Society of Addiction Medicine. (2012). The voice of addiction medicine. https://www.asam.org.com Adalier, A., and Balkan, E. (2012). The relationship between internet addiction and psychological symptoms. International Journal of Global Education, 1(2), 42-49. Azher, M., Khan, R.B., Salim, M., Bilal, M., Hussain, A., and Haseeb, M. (2014). The relationship between internet addiction and anxiety among students of University of Sarghoda. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4(1), 288- 293. Ceyhan, A.A. (2008). Predictors of problematic internet use on Turkish university students, Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 11, 363-366. Eichenberg, C. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.heise.de/ct/99/19/106/2011. Frangos, C.C. and Frangos, C.C. (2009). Internet dependence in college students from Greece. Eur. Psychiatry 24 (Suppl 1) : S419. Keser, H., Esgi, N., Kocadag, T., and Bulu, S. (2013). Validity and reliability study of the internet addiction test. Mcvlana International Journal of Education, 3(4), 207-222. King-Wa Fu, W.S.C.C., Paul W.C. Wong and Paul, S.F. Yip. (2010). Internet addiction: prevalence, discriminant validity and correlates among adolescents in Hong Kong. The British J. Psychiatry, 196, 486-492. Lim, A. L. (2014). ‘Internet addiction taking toll on health’. Retrieved from http://www.thestar.com.my/News/ Nation/2014/01/10/Internet-addiction/ Mostafaei, A. and Khalili, M. (2012). “The relationship between Internet addiction and mental health in male and female university students”, Annals of Biological Research, 3(9), 4362-4366. Siomos, K.E., Dafouli, E. D., Braimiotis, D. A., Mouzas, O.D., Angelopoulos, N. V. (2008). Internet addiction among Greek adolescent students, Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 11, 653-657. Thatcher, A. And Goolam, S. (2005). Defining the South African internet addict: prevalence and biographical profiling of problematic internet users in South Africa. S. Afr. J. Psychol. 35(4), 766-792. Thatcher, A., Wretschko, G., Fridjhon, P. (2008). Online flow experiences, problematic internet use and internet procrastinations. Computers in Human Behavior, 24, 2236-2254. Tsitsika, A., Critselis, E., Kormas, G., Filippopoulou, A., Tounissidou, D., Freskou, A., Spiliopoulou, T., Louizou, A., Konstantoulaki, E., Kafetzis, D. (2009). Internet use and misuse: a multivariate regression analysis of the predictive factors of internet use among Greek adolescents’, European Journal of Pediatrics, 168, 655-665. Wang, Y.L.W.J. and Fu, D.D. (2008). Epidemiological investigation on internet addiction among internet users in elementary and middle school students. Chin. Ment. Health. J., 22, 678-682. Yang, S. C. and Tung, C. J. (2004). Comparison of internet addicts and non-addcits in Taiwanese high school. Computers in Human Behavior, (23), 79-96. Young, K. S. (1998). Caught in the net: how to recognize the signs of internet addiction and a winning strategy for recovery. New York: John Wiley.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

CULTURAL INFLUENCE ON SUICIDAL BEHAVIOURS S. Annie Margaret*, Cheah Phaik Kin & Lee Wan Ying *[email protected] Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman

Abstract The suicide rate has increased all over the world in the last two decades. There have been thousands of research done, books published and many conferences have been held to understand suicidal behaviour’s. Since then many have claimed, that the suicidal behaviour has changed, and many have debated that there are many reasons behind the act of an individual to take his or her life. Durkheim was the first to argue that the causes of suicide were being found in social factors and not on individual personalities in his ground breaking book “Le Suicide” in 1897. Generally suicide is regarded as a wrong act or cowardly act. In the context of culture not all suicide is regarded as wrong in itself, and there seems to be many justifications why someone can opt to commit suicide. Therefore, this paper aims to study the variability of cultural influence on suicidal behaviour in Asia’s region excluding South East Asian. In addition, the author attempts to propose recommendations on suicide prevention based on cultural contexts. Keywords: Suicide, suicidal behaviours, culture

INTRODUCTION Researchers have been vigorously solving on why someone opts to end his or her life. Many tend to judge that a depressed person should “pull up their socks” and live or label their act as “bent out of shape”. For instance, former South Korean President Roh Moo-Hyun committed suicide in 2006. In his suicide note he wrote "I am in debt to too many people, too many people have suffered because of me. And I cannot imagine the suffering they will go through in the future. "Nothing is left in my life but to be a burden to others." "Don't be too sad. Aren't life and death, both a piece of nature? Don't be sorry. Don't blame anyone. It is fate." This was written right before he committed suicide. (CNN, 2009) Suicide is defined as “a death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce that result” (Durkheim, 1966). However, the story of suicide is probably as old as “all along”. Initially, suicide was not forbidden by cultural nor it was viewed as violating neither the spiritual nor legislation. Through the ages, suicide was seen as a just way to die if one was faced with an unendurable suffering either it physical or emotional. Greek philosopher, Socrates, was blamed of his wickedness and forced to take his own life by drinking hemlock. Meanwhile, the Greek leader Epicurus encouraged his followers to opt to attempt suicide when they realize that their lives no longer have contentment. Furthermore, Roman society accommodated trained experts who would perform assisted suicides when their clients desired to die. As a result of these, most early societies viewed suicide as a means of escaping from an agonizing survival or of releasing loved ones from the burden of accompanying the caring for the sick or ageing. At the conclusion, there were no sentences attached to such a death by the society. However, during the middle Ages, the act of suicide became immersed in shame and fear, remaining so for the next nine decades. When a person died by suicide, the body is not allowed for a proper burial, the custom of dishonoring the body of a suicide victim became common (Jacob Crouch Foundation, 2011). Despite of these social humiliations against suicide attempters, completer’s and survivors of suicide, yet it is truly tied Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

hand in hand to the culture of the particular society. According to (Li, & Karakowsky, 2001) culture is the sum of the total of the learned behavior, beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept by a group of people that are generally considered to be the tradition and are transferred from one generation to generation. In translating to this phenomenon, some anthropologists suggest that there is no universal "right way" of being human. "Right Way" is almost always "our way"; that "our way" in one society almost never corresponds to "our way" in any other society (Li, & Karakowsky, 2001). Hence, suicide occurs when one end one’s life in one’s own hands; nevertheless culture does strongly influence the decision (Wen-Chii, 2002) Thus, this research explores how cultures tend to influence the acts of suicide, in with a special focus on Asia’s region. Nevertheless, different cultural groups think, feel, and act differently. Information about the nature of cultural differences between societies, their roots, and their consequences should precede action on the prevention of suicidal act.

EMPIRICAL CASES Northern Asia (Russia) Since the 1860, during the imperial Russia, all 'intentional' suicides were denied Christian burial and expect from church compound. But during the nineteenth- century Vladimir Dal’ who was a linguist and ethnographer, opivat'sial opit'sia had the following key definitions: that was to drink excessively (pit' lishnee); to drink hard (p'ianstvovat'); to die from drink (umirat' ot opoiu, s perepoiu); and to poison oneself with poisonous [that is, alcoholic] drink (otravit'sia iadovitym poilom). An opoitsa was someone who has died from drink (opilsia vina, pomer s opoiu)(Morrissey, 2005).A connection also seems to have existed between drunkenness and suicide. However, in 1619, Patriarch Filaret ordered that certain individuals did not merit Christian burial, and he included those who had cut themselves, drowned, poisoned themselves, fallen from a swing, or in some other way brought about their own deaths, as well as those who drink themselves to death (vina obop'iutsia) (Morrissey, 2005). Hence, in this era Russia has reached second place in the world in suicide rates, behind only Lithuania. The Serbsky State Research Center for Social and Forensic Psychology data suggest that “in the years between 1990 and 2010 about 800,000 Russians killed themselves, which is close to a million – a whole city,” head of epidemiology and social problems of psychological health Boris Polozhy was quoted as saying by Interfax. This pattern was also due to repeated political and economic crises in the 1990s were the main causes of increased demand for alcohol at this time (Leon, David, Vladimir, & Shkolnikov,1998). Suicide and drinking to death were different - but similar - phenomena; and alcohol possessed a causal role in suicide (Morrissey, 2005). It is moreover noted, by Rossow (1996) and Skog (1993) that alcohol has been largely ignored in studies of suicide rates. Furthermore official statistics sometimes included an additional category for individuals who had died from drunkenness, a phenomenon called drunken-to-death, death on account of the wine cup, and death from drunkenness (opivshiesia, smert' za vinnoiu chasheiu, smert' ot p'ianstva).In general it is estimated that annually nearly 15 liters alcohol is consumed in Russia per person as in Nemtsov 2000 and Treml 1997 studies, compared to average rates of about 10 and 7 liters per person in the European Union and the United States, respectively in World Advertising Research Center studies on 2002 (as cited in Pridemore, 2006). Belarus’s 2003 studies and Razvodovsky’s 2001 studies concluded that heavy and binge drinking of vodka were responsible for the high suicide rates and the changes in rates over time in Belarus and Russia (as cited in Pridemore, 2006). Vodka represents about 75 percent of the alcohol consumed in the country, according to Nemtsov’s 2000 and Treml 1997, and survey data showed that about one-third of Russian males admitted to binge drinking vodka at least once per month (Bobak et al. 1999). Heavy episodic drinking and consumption of distilled spirits have been shown to be significantly related to suicide, according to Gruenewald, Ponicki and Mitchell 1995; Razvodovsky 2003 and other violent behavior (Norström 1998a, Pridemore 2002). Nemtsov’s (2003a:166) results led him to conclude “that the alcohol-suicide, relationship is nearly exclusively a male problem” in Russia. Nevertheless, William Alex Pridemore (2006) findings show that both male and female suicide rates were positive and significantly associated with heavy drinking (as cited in Deaths from alcohol poisoning in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic countries - the highest in the world (Stickley et al., 2006).

Southern Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, the British Indian Ocean Territory, Myanmar, Tibet Autonomous Region) Bangladesh The average rate of suicide in Bangladesh has been reported to be 39.6/100000 population/year. About 10%20% of emergency admission in the hospital in Bangladesh is attempted suicide (Rahman,1986).Girls aged 14 to 17 are more likely to commit suicide, and attempt suicide than boys. The Bangladesh Health and Injury Survey reported more than 2,200 children committed suicide in one year – or about six per day. Of those six, four were female. Bangladesh has one of the highest rates of child marriage in the world. More than two-thirds of adolescent girls are married (of those aged 10-19). Nearly two in five girls aged 15-17 are married, despite © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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18 being the legal age for marriage. (UNICEF, 2005) Women's Rights are almost non-existent in Bangladesh. And the number of women who are murdered, beaten, tortured, or raped is extremely high. And, sadly, many of the women who are attacked or raped die by suicide. Tragically, suicide is often taking place as a result of domestic violence, rape, torture, and abuse against women. (Caruso, n.d).A Dhaka-based human rights organization, Ain O Salish Kendra (ASK) says frequent sexual harassment, have lead women have to commit suicide. Further analyses have also shown that there were even cases where father’s also committed suicide fearing social insult after his daughter was harassed. On the other hand, it has been noted that in many cases, when the bride’s families fail to meet the demand of dowry, her husband or in-laws will abuse her verbally and physically to compel her family to pay. Thus, in (Kullgren, 2005) studies found that this will lead the women to feel shameless and depression which leads her attempted or committed suicide (As cited in Caruso, n.d.).

Butan The suicide rate of Bhutan is 16.2 per 100,000. This figure ranks the kingdom as the 20th-highest suicide rate in the world, and 6th highest in the Asia-Pacific region suicide rates in general are going up in Bhutan. According to Royal Bhutan Police (RBP), there were 57 suicide cases. In 2010 and 2011 it was 65, in 2012 it climbed to 88 and in 2013 till October the suicide numbers are already 83 and counting. The country's main newspaper, Kuensel, says that in some villages, committing suicide has almost become a norm despite the country's two main religions - Hinduism and Buddhism. Even though this religion believe that a person who commits suicide will not be reborn as a human being yet suicide is still accepted in Bhutan (Anonymous, 2013).

India Suicide has become something of a phenomenon in India, especially in the south, which now has one of the highest suicide rates in the world. According to National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB; Ministry of Home Affairs) there was a declining trend from 1999 to 2002 and a mixed trend during 2003-2006, followed by an increasing trend from 2006 to 2010. During 2009, the rate was 10.9 per 100,000 populations. This represented a 1.7% increase in suicides since 2008.In the most recent NCRB report the rate in 2010 rose to 11.4 per 100,000 population; an increase of 5.9% in the number of suicides. (Radhakrishnan, & Andrade, 2012) Traditionally, in the India suicidal act were originated from Sati. Sati (Su-thi , a.k.a. suttee) is the traditional Hindu practice of a widow sacrificing herself on her husband's funeral furnace. Sati" means a virtuous woman. Sati was prevalent among certain groups of the society in ancient India, who either took the vow or deemed it a great honor to die on the funeral furnaces of their husbands. The Agni Purana declares that the woman who commits ‘sahagamana’ goes to heaven. Maha-sati stones (hero-stones) were set up in memory of brave women who committed sati and are occasionally worshiped. Whereas, remarriage of widows in Indian history is cursed. In the modern times, there was one instance of a Sati reported in Rajasthan (late 1980s), and another in Madhya Pradesh (in year 2002) that caused a lot of controversy and social chaos (Kamat, 1997). During the year 2012, The pattern of suicides reported showed that ‘poisoning’, ‘drowning’ and ‘fire/self- immolation’ as a means adopted by suicide victims has decreased to 29.5%(from 32.3% in 2011), to 5.8 the well, etc. to more painful means such as self -inflicted injuries, hanging, shooting, etc. (Radhakrishnan, & Andrade, 2012) However, the Vedas permit suicide for religious reasons and consider that the best sacrifice was that of one's own life. Suicide by starvation, also known as ‘sallekhana’, was linked to the attainment of ‘moksha’ (liberation from the cycle of life and death), and it is still practiced to this day (Radhakrishnan, & Andrade, 2012).

Maldives Since 2008, there has been an increase in the number of rapes and other forms of violence against young girls in the Maldives. According to government statistics, 261 cases of child violence were reported in 2011, while 196 were reported in 2008. In like manner the number of cases of domestic violence, bullying and sexual harassment has also increased. Even though some of the incidents are reported to the police, but because of a lack of evidence, the rapists are still free. So many victims choose to attempt suicide, and go through a stretch of depression, as she has prepared to accept the fact that the culprits may never be brought to justice. Furthermore, Maldives is constitutionally a 100-percent Muslim country and it is a common belief that suicide is one of the religion’s biggest sins. According to medical officer at the Health Protection Agency, Dr Fathmath Nazla Rafeeq “it is difficult to ascertain specific reasons behind the suicides in the Maldives, as no studies have been so far conducted into understanding the prevalence of suicides or what causes it.” (Madhok, 2012).

Nepal According to Hughes, (2013), Nepal’s women will come across more domestic violence, high pregnancy rates, early marriage, and other hardships.At the same time; they are provoked by the cultural belief that women should not express themselves, rather that they should follow to a “culture of silence.” In these deeper ways, women are valued and treated, and how they perceived and valued themselves shape their way. All these © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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hardships manifest in depression, hopelessness, and a general apathy for continued life (Hughes, 2013).

Pakistan According to Naeem Mirza of the Lahore-based Art Foundation, a non-governmental organization (NGO) reports that out of 119 cases of domestic violence, 66 cases will be women committing suicide.Toxic substances, pesticides and drugs were the most common materials used by the suicide victims in Pakistan. This could be because Pakistan is an agricultural society, and drugs are freely available without prescription, therefore, these drugs and pesticides are commonly available in almost every household. A study of 262 female and 185 male suicidal inpatients in Mianwali, Pakistan found that Benzodiazepines were the most common drugs used for self-poisoning in both sexes, but women used Organophosphate insecticides more often than men did (Irin News, 2008).

Sri Lanka New official data show that Sri Lanka still has one of the highest suicide rates in the world, with almost 4,000 people killing themselves per year, or about 11 per day of the suicide rates in the world. (Amaranth, 2012). The northern districts of Jaffna and Vavuniya, which contain large proportions of Sri Lanka Tamils, the nation's principal ethnic minority, have been consistently among the districts with the highest suicide rates. In Straus and Straus (1953) and Wood (1961) studies characteristic of the comparatively high rates of suicide for the most part Sri Lanka Tamil districts show to the strictness of caste and kinship bonds, which most probably limit or prevent individual desires and goals. In the culture of the Sri Lanka Tamils, perhaps anger and aggressive urges hard to express in the external world, so this makes them to turn inward against themselves. The sociocultural dynamic forces behind the high suicide rates of Sri Lanka Tamils, however, await further research. (Robert & Barbara, 1985). Meanwhile, in searching for an explanation of the shocking rise in suicide rates, we must not overlook that the health professionals are concerned about the growing numbers of people who end their lives with poison. Yellow oleander (Thevetia peruviana; Apocynaceae) has been nurtured as a decorative tree because of its beautiful yellow flowers as per (Pearn 1989) studies (as cited in Robert, & Barbara,1985). This tree was a rare cause of accidental poisoning in Sri Lanka until in 1980 where two schoolgirls in the northern city of Jaffna committed suicide by eating oleander seeds. Their story was widely reported in local newspapers and appears to have encouraged others to follow their lead – the city’s hospital admitted 23 cases of on purpose, of yellow oleander poisoning in 1981, 46 in 1982, and 103 in 1983 (Saravanapavananthan & Ganeshamoorthy, 1988). The seeds of the yellow oleander tree, the yam of the gloriosa superba plant, agricultural chemicals and over-the-counter drugs were some of the poisons ingested by the 93,773 people treated in government hospitals in 2006, according to the National Poisons Information Centre (NPIC). The method has continued to gain popularity ever since and there are now probably several thousand cases each year across the north of the island (Irin news, 2009, March 12).

Afghanistan Nationwide studies showed that the huge majority of suicide cases in Afghanistan were among woman and young girls are suffering from physical abuse. According to the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA), Afghan women experience some of the highest rates of domestic violence in the world. According to UNAMA's mid-year report, cases of violence against women were higher in 2013 than in 2012. In addition to violence, Public Health officials cited, forced marriage are often between pre-adolescent girls and adult men, as well as widespread illiteracy as the main hardships facing female Afghans that contribute to the upsetting rates of suicide." Young girls aged 16-19 are most often the victims of suicide," said Suraya Dalil, Minister of the Public Health (Majidy, 2013).

Tibet Committing suicide is a last-resort measure in any society, but it’s seen as specifically life-threatening for Tibetan Buddhists. Many Tibetans believe those who take their own lives will not be reincarnated. That’s a ugly fate for religious devotees who seek to be reborn, again and again, in more liberal forms. (Liu, 2012) .For example, Lobsang Namgyal had been a monk at Kirti monastery in Ngaba. Lobsang Namgyal was known as an exceptional student at Kirti monastery who had been tipped to study for the highest qualification in Tibetan Buddhism, a Geshe degree. One of the Kirti monks said “He was regarded as a model for a new generation of students at Kirti,”.But sadly, Lobsang Namgyal who was in his mid-thirties set fire to himself at outside of the Public Security Bureau of Dzoege on February 3, 2013. The first self-immolation in Tibetan society in the modern era took place in exile in Delhi, India, on April 27, 1998, when Thubten Ngodrup set himself on fire, and later died. Since then, many cases self-immolations have occurred esp. with monks, former monks, nuns, men, women, and also self-immolated who were below 18 years old (Save Tibet Organization, 2014).

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Eastern Asia (People's Republic of China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Mongolia and Taiwan) China A report by health officials in Beijing found that China has one of the highest suicide rates in the world. More than a quarter of a million people a year are killing themselves - 685 a day and 3.5 million make unsuccessful attempts. Suicide is now the primary cause of death among Chinese aged 20 to 35. Besides, China is the only country where suicide rates among women outnumber that of men. Of the total number who end their lives each year, 58 per cent of them are women. (Suicide Statistics on Asians, 2007). Recent statistics show that more than 287,000 people commit suicide on the Chinese mainland. "It is also one of the few countries where rural suicides outnumber urban suicides," he said on World Suicide Prevention Day. Stress and depression cause 70 to 80 per cent of suicides in urban areas, where many of those afflicted jump off buildings, according to data released by the Beijing Suicide Research and Prevention Centre. Half of the suicides on the mainland are of women in rural areas, who commonly drink pesticide to end their lives. They may do so because of family disputes, low-educational levels and restricted social communication. More than 58 percent of suicides by females and 27 percent of attempts in rural areas used pesticides.(Jiao, n.d.).

Japan In 2009, Japan's suicide rate rose 2% to 32,845, equating to nearly 26 suicides per100,000 people and a prominent cause of death among men aged 20-44 and women aged 15-34 (Chambers, 2010).Seppuku, which is ritual disembowelment, is popular in Japan. Seppuku is synonymous with the more unrefined terms which is called, hara-kiri (Eugen, 2007).These well-known examples of cultural influences on suicide. Methods also have culturally determined motives (grief and shame, respectively) (Lester,1996). Traditionally in Japan, suicide has been the key of showing one’s virtuousness. Recovering their lost honour, and saving their face for a past wrongdoing. (Benedict, 1946) Focusing on the same issue of seppuku, (Russell,n.d.) suggests that the suicide of an elderly couple implicated in a bird flu scandal demonstrates a way of taking responsibility their failure. The chairman of a poultry company, failed to report the deaths of several thousand birds on a farm in Kyoto and thus it spread into other part of Japan. The couple’s suicide is to report the poultry deaths and an expression of regret for the harm that has been caused. Stephen Turnbull has referred to this type of seppuku as “Swiping the slate clean.” Sakotsu -sh I “wiped the Slate clean” by removing the shame or humiliation associated with their previous actions (Eugen, 2007). Suicide has been an honorable exit has a long history in Japan and is best known among the samurai. Interestingly, the adoration of suicide has become a part of Japanese culture which later gave an impact to their attitudes toward suicide. (Russell, n.d.)

North Korea North Korea is known to be the country with the lowest suicide rate in the world, despite the worst world economy, human rights violations, and highest number of defects in the world. It is because there is a mental pressure far stronger than suicide itself. The state defines that, "Every citizens of DPRK is a family member of 'Kim Il Sung People' and a child of 'Ocean-like Kim Jong Il comrade'." Because of this, every citizen is a member of this larger society; therefore, committing suicide is considered a betrayal, making the person as a traitor to the leader, the party, the nation, and the people. If someone in your family committed suicide, everyone in the family gets removed from North Korea's infamous 'implicated crime law'. This is a reason why North Korean citizen can end his/her poor life by starving/freezing/beaten to death, but not suicide. However, even with this kind of strict and unforgiving social pressure on suicide, some people kill themselves with much contempt for their government. Suicide may let the dead rest, but the rest of the family would be socially and politically out of favor for the rest of their lives, with no hope for success or career ( Anonymous. Hanguk Story, 2011).

South Korea The figure for South Korea equates to nearly 50 suicides a day and this shows a sharp increase from 2000 when the incidence of suicide was 13.6 people per 100 000. According to government data, suicide is the single largest cause of death among young Koreans, with 13 out of every 100 000 people aged between 15 and 24 committing suicide in 2010. Since the 1980s, South Korea’s suicide rates showed a steep increase, rising by an annual average of 5.01 percent. The South Korea’s suicide rate reached 24.7 people per 100,000, the number of suicide victims climbed to about 12,000 as of 2005. But in 1982, the nation’s suicide rate stood at mere 6.8 persons per 100,000.Even more worrying, suicides among the elderly are one of the world’s most rapidly happen among the aging societies. The suicide rate among Koreans aged 65 or older in 2009 was 72 people for every 100 000, up from an already alarming 42.2 in 2001 (Kyong, 2012). Before South Korea got rich, wired © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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and worried, its suicide rate was among the lowest in the industrialized world. But modernity has spawned inordinate levels of stress. People here work more, sleep less and spend more money per capita on cram schools than residents of the 29 other industrialized countries that belong to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Still, it remains a taboo here to admit to feeling overwhelmed by stress. The word "psychiatry" has such a negative connotation that many leading hospitals have created departments of "Neuro-psychiatry," in the hope that people perceive the care as medical treatment and not as a public admission of character failure (Harden, 2010).

Mongolia According to the latest WHO data published in April 2011 Suicide Deaths in Mongolia reached 351 or 2.89% of total deaths. The age adjusted Death Rate is 13.74 per 100,000 of population ranks Mongolia 36 in the world (Anonymous. Suicide in Mongolia, n.d).

Taiwan Suicide has been one of the top-10 causes of death in Taiwan for the past nine years. Over the past 10 years, the nation's suicide rate has increased from seven out of every 10,000 persons to 15.3 out of every 10,000 persons. While once the largest age bracket was those between 45 and 64, it's now those between 25 and 44. (Tzeng, 2002) For people between ages 15 and 24, suicide is the second leading cause of death. Last year, a reported 3,468 people took their own life, or one every two-and-a-half hours (Tzeng, 2002). Authorities point out, however, that suicide rates are thought to be underestimated by 20 percent to 25 percent among the elderly and 6 percent to 12 percent among other age groups, with many likely suicides wrongly reported as accidents or where the cause of death was listed as "unknown." Suicide is becoming more ritualized, a phenomenon where they feature to the exaggerated coverage of suicide in the media. Research shows that heavy reporting of a celebrity suicide can increase suicide rates by as much as 14 percent. After celebrity Leslie Cheung committed suicide in Hong Kong, that city's suicide rate rose 18 percent the following month (Momphard, 2005).

Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan) Kazakhstan Kazakhstan has the highest occurrence of suicides recorded among girls aged 15 to 19, and the second highest for boys. Official statistics show that 237 deaths of children and adolescents were recorded in 2011, and 260 the year before. There was a 23 per cent increase in the number of suicides among young people between 1999 and 2008. (Anonymous.Kazakhstan, 2012) According to the head of the country's education Mr.Raisa Sher there are several factors that lead high rates in suicides among young age people . Some of the reason is because of school bullying, loss of cultural values, falling standards of social behavior and exposure to violent images on television (Institute for War and Peace Reporting, Kazakstan: Concerns Over Adolescent Suicides, 2011).

Kyrgyzstan In Kyrgyzstan,it is a custom, in which single young men will choose a woman, kidnap her and force her into marrying them. Gazbubu Babayarova, founder of Kyz Korgon Institute, a non-governmental organization that campaigns to eliminate the tradition of bride kidnapping in Kyrgyzstan, said that research indicates that between 68 and 75 per cent of marriages in Kyrgyzstan take place with bride kidnapping. It is officially a criminal offense in Kyrgyzstan, and carries a maximum three-year prison term (King, 2011).In reality, however, few cases reach the courtroom, and those who are tried usually walk away after paying a small fine. Some 200 people took to the streets in Kyrgyzstan’s northern Issyk-Kul Province recently to protest against the custom of bride kidnapping. The protests come in the wake of the suicides of two 20 year-old students, Venera Kasymalieva and Nurzat Kalykova who were kidnapped earlier this year (King, 2011). Once the bride - kidnapping was characteristic mostly to rural areas, but it has become widespread everywhere, including the capital, Bishkek," says Gazbubu Babayarova, founder of the Keys Korgon Institute, a nongovernmental organization that campaigns to eliminate the tradition of bride-kidnapping in Kyrgyzstan. "Our researchers indicate that between 68 and 75 percent of marriages in Kyrgyzstan take place with bride kidnapping." (King, 2011)

Tajikistan According to non-governmental organizations struggling to protect the rights of women and children in Tajik society, the past nine months of 2012 registered more cases of domestic violence in comparison to the same © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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period of the previous year.Statistics show that in 2011 more than 200 women committed suicide in Tajikistan’s Northern regions alone. Out of them, in seventy cases, women killed themselves due to the domestic violence against them. Sociologists believe that the bill is not becoming a law simply because there is no demand for it in Tajik society at the moment. “It has become a tradition for men to beat their wives. Moreover, Uzbek and Tajik women closely stick to the belief that “a husband is half saint”. Hence, the majority women in Tajikstan tolerate cruelty from their husband, as they worry about the future of their children (Domestic violence is a reason many Tajik women are committing suicide, 2012).

Turkmenistan Suicide Deaths in Turkmenistan reached 719 or 1.90% of total deaths. The age adjusted Death Rate is 14.94 per 100,000 of population ranks. Suicide death in Turkmenistan rank 31 in the world (Anonymous .Suicide Turkmenistan, n.d).

Uzbekistan Suicide Deaths in Uzbekistan reached 1,551 or 0.98% of total deaths. The age adjusted Death Rate is 6.27 per 100,000 of population ranks. Suicide death in Uzbekistan rank 112 in the world (Anonymous .Suicide in Uzbekistan, n.d).

CONCLUSION It is estimated that suicides claim approximately 1 million lives worldwide every year, and 60 million people may be affected by suicide annually in Asia (Chen et al., 2011). Even though there were many studies on culture influencing suicidal behavior, yet studies similar studies among Asian countries are still at an infantile stage. Generally, suicide receives relatively less attention than it does in the West (Chen et al., 2011). Some researchers claim that suicide is a personal option and it is related to a psychotic condition or emotional frustration (Farberow, 1975). In the same manner, studies (Windfuhr, 2011) reveal that in Western countries, 90%–95% of suicide victims had mental illness. Despite that, in Asian countries, there are still large cultural differences in the suicidal behavior, methods used for committing suicide and the reasons for experiencing suicidal. Therefore, understanding lives of a ‘suicidal patients’ after their suicide attempts are important. This is because most their beliefs about suicide is based on cultural context and cultural values. The present study has several limitations; emphasize was only given to Northern Asia, Southern Asia, East Asia and Central Asia only. South East Asia was exempted from the study as sample size is too big to be analyzed. The role of religion in suicide is also neglected in this research. As some religion provides a clear ruling about suicide, especially like Islam and Christianity. Prevention programs should also be more effective and should focus on the influence of culture specific together hand on with and locally applicable experiences. Many developing countries in Asia also need an organized national suicide prevention plan (Chen et al., 2011). Furthermore, prevention programs should cater to the local needs of the community. Further studies should also focus on culture and its influence in South Asia and the influence of religion in suicidal behavior.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

KELEMAHAN DIRI RESIDIVIS MEMPENGARUHI MASALAH RESIDIVISME DI PENJARA Kamal Abdul Hamid, Ibrahim Samad & Jamaludin Mustafa* *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Masalah residivisme di penjara sering diperbahaskan kerana masalah ini memberi impak terhadap masalah lain seperti masalah kesesakan, peningkatan kos pengurusan, masalah penahanan dan layanan, masalah keberkesanan pelaksanaan program pemulihan dan pindaan undang-undang dan peraturan penjara. Masalah pelaksanaan program pemulihan berlaku kerana tidak semua residivis dapat melengkapi fasa-fasa program pemulihan yang ditetapkan kerana tempoh hukuman yang berbeza. Objektif penyelidikan ini ialah untuk mengkaji faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi berlakunya masalah residivisme di Penjara Malaysia. Penyelidikan ini menggunakan kaedah kuantitatif dengan dibantu kaedah kualitatif. Kaedah temubual dengan responden dan kakitangan Penjara Taiping dijalankan. Maklumat kualitatif digunakan bertujuan untuk menyokong data kuantitatif dalam penemuan penyelidikan. Instrumentasi penyelidikan yang digunakan ialah borang soal selidik yang dinamakan Inventori Kecenderongan Tingkah Laku Residivis (IKTR). Sebanyak 230 responden residivis dari Penjara Taiping telah dipilih secara rawak mudah sebagai sampel berasaskan tiga jenis kesalahan iaitu kes kesalahan jenayah kekerasan, kes jenayah kesalahan harta benda, dan kes kesalahan dadah. Kaedah analisis data secara deskriptif dan inferensi digunakan bagi melihat perkaitan sebab residivisme. Penghuraian secara frekuensi, korelasi kekerapan menjalani hukuman penjara dengan persepsi residivis. Soal selidik faktor diri residivis mempunyai17soalan. Pengukuran data dilakukan dengan menggunakan Skala Likert. Penganalisaan data dijalankan dengan menggunakan program Statistical Package for the Social Science atau SPSS versi 16.0. Tahap kebolehpercayaan berkaitan dengan faktor diri risidivis cronbach alpha ialah 0.88. Min bagi faktor diri adalah tinggi iaitu 3.67 dan nilai sisihan piawai 0.43. Hasil penyelidikan mendapati 82% responden bersetuju dan memberi persepsi positif terhadap pelaksanaan Pelan Pembangunan Insan (PPI). Sebanyak 67.8% bersetuju, 31.7% tidak pasti dan 0.5% tidak setuju yang mana faktor kelemahan diri residivis menjadi penyebab utama yang menyebabkan berlaku masalah residivisme selain daripada faktor keluarga, masyarakat dan persekitaran sosial. Selanjutnya cadangan dikemukan bagi meningkatkan keberkesanan program pemulihan dan tindakan menangani masalah residivisme di penjara. Keywords: residivisme, pemulihan, kesalahan, penjara

PENDAHULUAN Penjara merupakan institusi terakhir dalam proses Sistem Keadilan Jenayah. Selain memberi perkhidmatan perlindungan kepada masyarakat dan keselamatan kepada negara, penjara juga berperanan sebagai institusi koreksional berfungsi membentuk dan memulih tingkah laku banduan agar selaras dengan keperluan norma dan nilai-nilai masyarakat namun tidak semua banduan yang menjalani hukuman berjaya dipulihkan. Masalah residivisme di penjara juga sering diperbahaskan kerana masalah ini memberi impak Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

terhadap masalah kesesakan, peningkatan kos pengurusan keselamatan, penahanan dan layanan, masalah pelaksanaan program pemulihan, pindaan undang-undang dan peraturan-peraturan penjara. Fungsi penjara kini bukan lagi sebagai tempat menghukum tetapi lebih kepada tindakan memulih fizikal mental dan kerohanian banduan. Penulisan ini cuba membincaangkan secara ringkas faktor kelemahan diri residivis sendiri yang mempengaruhi masalah residivisme di Penjara Malaysia.

OBJEKTIF Secara umumnya, kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengkaji faktor diri residivis sendiri yang mempengaruhi berlakunya masalah residivisme di Penjara. Ini termasuk personaliti, sikap, penerimaan terhadap program pemulihan, kesedaran dan keinsafan semasa menjalani hukuman penjara. Secara khususnya objektif kajian ini mengenalpasti faktor jati diri residivis yang mempengaruhi masalah residivisme.

METODOLOGI Penyelidikan ini menggunakan kaedah kuantitatif dengan dibantu kaedah kualitatif. Kaedah temubual dengan responden residivis dan kakitangan. Penjara Taiping dipilih sebagai lokasi penelidikan. Maklumat kualitatif digunakan bertujuan untuk menyokong data kuantitatif dalam penemuan penyelidikan. Instrumentasi penyelidikan yang digunakan ialah borang soal selidik yang dinamakan Inventori Kecenderongan Tingkah Laku Residivis (IKTR). Sebanyak 230 responden residivis telah dipilih secara rawak mudah sebagai sampel berasaskan tiga jenis kesalahan iaitu kes kesalahan jenayah kekerasan 15 peratus (36 s), kes jenayah kesalahan harta benda sebanyak 35 peratus (85 s), dan kes kesalahan penagihan dan pengedaran dadah sebanyak 50 peratus (121s). Berdasarkan jadual Krejcie dan Morgan (1970) yang diambil dari Uma Sekaran. Kaedah analisis data secara deskriptif dan inferensi digunakan bagi melihat perkaitan sebab residivisme. Penghuraian secara frekuensi dan korelasi. Penganalisaan data dijalankan dengan menggunakan program Statistical Package for the Social Science atau SPSS versi 16.0. Kunci pengiraan skor mengikut teknik Skala Likert (1972) digunakan dalam penyelidikan ini.

KEPENTINGAN KAJIAN Hasil kajian ini penting bagi membantu pembuat dasar, pelaksanaan dasar, institusi dan organisasi, informasi akademia, ibubapa dan orang ramai memahami seterusnya menyumbang kepada pelaksanaan program rawatan dan pemulihan yang lebih konkrik. Ini kerana menurut Zulkifli (2009) fungsi penjara kini bukan lagi sebagai tempat menghukum tetapi lebih kepada tindakan memulih. Masyarakat meletakkan ekpektasi yang amatlah tinggi terhadap penjara. Masyarakat mengharapkan agar banduan yang menjalani hukuman penjara dapat dipulihkan tingkah laku mereka supaya menjadi insan yang berguna. Dapatan kajian akan dapat memberi penambahbaikan pelaksanaan program pemulihan melalui pendekatan yang lebih dinamik bersesuaian dengan keperluan semasa. Ini selaras dengan perkhidmatan teras jabatan “menahan dengan selamat dan memulih“. Langkah ini adalah sejajar dengan tanggungjawab dan dasar Bahagian Pemulihan untuk menyediakan program berteraskan pembentukan sikap positif, memberi kemahiran untuk berdikari dan memberi pengetahuan hidup bermasyarakat dengan moto ‘KASIH’ (Knowledge, Attitude, Skill, Intelligence and Humanity (2007). Oleh itu pelbagai program pemulihan fizikal, kerohanian, pembentukan sahsiah, kemahiran dan jati diri residivis dilaksanakan.

PENJELASAN KONSEP Dalam penulisan ini beberapa konsep akan diperjelaskan berkaitan dengan masalah residivisme di penjara.

Residivisme Pelbagai tafsiran diberi oleh krimonologis, pegawai koreksioanal dan pengkaji sains sosial berkaitan dengan residivisme. Konsep ini digunakan sebagai kayu ukur keberkesanan, kejayaan atau kegagalan pelaksanaan program pemulihan yang dilaksanakan. Aasas pengukuran, tempoh pembebasan dari penjara, kesalahan, tempoh ditangkap semula, pendakwaan dimahkamah, disaabitkan dan juga hukuman. Termasuk juga banduan mengikuti program kemasyakatan dan yang mengikuti program parol. Perkataan ‘Recidivism’ berasal dari perkataan Latin recidere bermaksud ‘fall back’. ‘Recidive + ism’ umumnya bermaksud pengulangan tingkah laku jenayah. Dalam konteks Keadilan Jenayah, residivisme boleh ditakrifkan sebagai tingkah laku berulang seseorang itu melakukan jenayah, menjalani © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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hukuman penjara di atas kesalahan yang dilakukan dan seterusnya melalui proses pemulihan. Menurut Kamus Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (1991) ‘recidivism’ bermaksud pengulang laku jenayah. Recidivist bermaksud orang yang pernah melakukan kesalahan jenayah berulang , melakukan perbuatan atau kesalahan yang sama setelah berhenti beberapa waktu. Menurut Hadi Zakaria (1998) daripada Universiti Malaya dalam penyelidikannya yang dijalankan berhubung residivisme di institusi penjara bersama Yayasan Pencegah Jenayah Malaysia mentakrifkan: “Residivisme merujuk kepada bilangan kesalahan ulangan yang boleh dilakukan seseorang yang pernah dihukum penjara kerana sesuatu kesalahan jenayah. Menjadi petunjuk utama bagi menentukan keberkesanan program pemulihan yang dijalankan di intitusi penjara dan institusi kurungan yang lain” Menurut laporan ‘The Audit Office of New South Wales (NSW) (2006), Di Australia, residivisme berlaku apabila seseorang itu disabitkan dengan kesalahan jenayah oleh mahkamah, pernah ditahan di penjara sebelumnya, atau diperentah menjalani khidmat komuniti. Pengukuran yang digunakan dalam tempoh 2 tahun. Pengukuran residivisme tidak diambil kira sekiranya selepas tempoh pembebasan yang dinyatakan, tidak disabitkan kesalahan oleh mahkamah dan ditahan semula semasa menjalani hukuman. Menurut Drabsch,T. (2006) di Australia, pengukuran kadar residivisme bergantung kepada bentuk pengukuran yang digunakan iaitu termasuk tempoh jangka masa yang ditentukan, tentang jenis kesalahan-kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh seseorang dan tangkapan semula oleh pihak polis atau dipenjarakan. Menurut Harry E dan Cllen dan E Simon (1992), menjelaskan Recidivisme ‘the repetition of criminal behavior: habitual criminality. In statical practice, a recidivism rate may be any of a number of possible counts of instances of arrest, conviction, correctional commitment, and correctional status changes, related to the number of repetions of these events within a given period of time’ Menurut Maltz (2001) residivisme biasanya diukur dalam masa perantaraan (time interval) antara dua peristiwa. Pertama, masa individu dibebaskan. Kedua, masa berlakunya residivisme atau perlakuan jenayah berulang. Masa individu dibebaskan termasuk masa pembebasan dari penjara atau tahanan, masa tamat menjalani penyeliaan perentah parol, rumah perantaraan (halfway house) atau program work-study. Residivisme berlaku bergantung kepada keadaan atau peristiwa yang berlaku semasa bebas. Biasanya residivisme diukur dalam tempoh 2 tahun atau 3 tahun selepas banduan dibebaskan.

Residivis Pada peringkat awal Bahagian Pemulihan Jabatan Penjara Malaysia (2004) Residivis bermaksud ‘Banduan yang dijatuhkan hukuman dan dimasukan semula ke penjara dalam tempoh tiga (2) tahun selepas pembebasan terakhir’. Namun bagitu dalam Matinpen Bil. 5/2008 penafsiran pengkategorian banduan residivis telah diubah semula berasaskan tempoh pembebasan iaitu: “Banduan yang dijatuhkan hukuman dan dimasukan semula ke penjara dalam tempoh tiga (3) tahun selepas pembebasan terakhir ” ( 2008) Dalam konteks ini banduan yang bebas dalam tempoh edah tiga tahun, terlibat kembali dengan kesalahan jenayah, dihukum penjara oleh mahkamah, termasuk dalam kategori residivis. Dalam konteks ini, residivis (recidivist) adalah banduan yang berulang kali melakukan kesalahan jenayah, disabitkan dengan kesalahan (convicted), dihukum penjara oleh mahkamah dan serusnya berulang kali pula menjalani hukuman penjara di mana-mana institusi penjara di Malaysia dalam tempoh 3 tahun diklasifikasikan sebagai residivis. Menurut Laporan Eksekutif Penyemakan Semula Pengiraan Statistik Residivis Jabatan Penjara Malaysia (2012) telah mendefinisikan bahawa asas penetapan Residivis ialah ‘banduan sabitan yang telah berjaya menjalani proses pemulihan dan di penjarakan semula dalam tempoh 3 tahun dari tarikh dibebaskan. Termasuk semua jenis kesalahan jenayah, Tamat Fasa II Program PPI atau tamat apa-apa program yang ditetapkan oleh jabatan’. Kecuali kesalahan Sek 12(2) Akta Dadah Berbahaya, (ADB), Seksyen 15(1) ADB, Akta Rawatan dan Pemulihan Dadah (APD) 1983, banduan yang masuk penjara lebih 6 kali dan banduan yang selesai menjalani hukuman pemenjaraan dan disabitkan semula atas kesalahan lain yang dilakukan sebelum tarikh pembebasan. Indikatorn ini tidak mengambil kira Tahanan Pusat Pemulihan Akhlak (APJ) yang melanggar syarat PCO dan Penghuni Sekolah Henry Gurney (AKK). Kadar residivis ini merupakan kayu ukur kejayaan tranformasi jabatan.

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Formula Pengiraan Residivis:-

R (t) P (t)

x 100 = KR

Di mana R ialah Jumlah Residivis, P ialah Jumlah Banduan di Bebaskan dalam tempoh 3 tahun (contoh: dari 1 Januari 2010 hingga 31 Disember 2012), (t) ialah pada masa (at time) dan KR ialah Kadar Residivis.

Residivis Tegar Residivis tegar bermaksud residivis yang sukar dipulihkan. Berulang kali melakukan kesalahan jenayah dan berulang kali menjalani hukuman penjara selepas tempoh 3 tahun dari tarikh pembebasan terakhir dari penjara. Residivis tegar sering kali menimbulkan masalah kepada pengurusan penjara serta bersikap agresif. Residivis ini boleh mengancam keselamatan dan menggugat ketenteraman penjara. Mereka cenderong melakukan kesalahan jenayah dan melakukan penyelewengan dan melanggar peraturanp-peraturan penjara. Merujuk Modul Residivis Tegar, yang dikeluarkan oleh Bahagian Rawatan dan Pemulihan, Penjara Malaysia, residivis tegar mempunyai kecenderungan untuk mempengaruhi banduan lain, sukar dipulihkan, degil, keras kepala, keras hati, kurang mematuhi perintah dan tidak mudah mengubah pendirian. Kaedah mengklasifikasikan residivis tegar ini ditempatkan di blok yang berasingan bertujuan untuk mengurangkan pengaruh ‘prisonization’.

Pemulihan Merujuk Kamus Dewan (1991) ‘Pemulihan’ asal dari perkataan ‘pulih’ bermakna kembali seperti biasa (keadaan semula) sembuh atau baik semula, menjadi baik. Dalam konteks penjara, pemulihan akhlak penghuni bermaksud melaksanakan program pemulihan ke atas banduan bagi memperbaiki keadaan fizikal, mental, kerohanian, membentuk akhlak berteraskan nilai-nilai murni masyarakat. Manakala dalam perspektif Islam perkara pokok yang perlu dipulihkan ialah iman, taqwa dan akhlak atau budi pekerti. Pemulihan melibatkan permulihan zahir dan batin manusia dalam hubungan manusia dengan manusia dan hubungan manusia dengan Allah. Al Quran menerangkan ‘dan bahawa sesungguhnya (Muhammad) mempunyai akhlak yang amat mulia’ (Al-Qalam:4).

HASIL KAJIAN Hasil analisis kajian berkaitan dengan persolan ini seperti yang tercatat dalam Jadual 1 dan Jadual 2 yang menunjukkan nilai skor daripada 17 pernyataan yang dikemukakan.

Kelemahan Diri Residivis Hasil kajian ini menunjukkan tahap kebolehpercayaan dalam ujian rintis berkaitan dengan pemboleh ubah faktor diri residivis, cronbach alpha ialah 0.88. Min bagi faktor diri residivis adalah tinggi iaitu 3.67 dan nilai sisihan piawai 0.43. Hasil analisis kajian menunjukkan kebanyakkan responden bersetuju bahawa faktor diri residivis sendiri mempengaruhi mereka terlibat dengan masalah residivisme berbanding dengan faktor persekitaran sosial, keluarga dan masyarakat. Merujuk Jadual 1, daripada 17 pernyataan yang terdapat dalam faktor diri residivis, hanya 2 pernyataan sahaja responden tidak setuju bahawa pernyataan tersebut menjadi punca kepada mereka terlibat dengan masalah residivisme iaitu pernyataan ‘Saya merasa kehidupan saya dipenjara lebih terjamin berbanding kehidupan saya di luar penjara’ yang memberi nilai skor 16 peratus sangat tidak setuju, 27 peratus tidak setuju , 22 peratus tidak pasti 24 peratus setuju dan 8 peratus sangat setuju. Manakala pernyataan ‘Saya banyak mempelajari perlakuan jenayah daripada kawan-kawan semasa menjalani hukuman penjara’ nilai skor 16 peratus sangat tidak setuju, 30 peratus tidak setuju, 21 peratus tidak pasti , 26 peratus setuju dan 6 peratus sangat setuju. Ini bermakna lebih 50 peratus responden tidak bersetuju bahawa mereka banyak mempelajari perlakuan jenayah daripada kawan-kawan semasa menjalani hukuman penjara. Perlakuan jenayah bukan sahaja boleh dipelajari di dalam penjara tetapi juga di luar penjara. Ini bermakna 15 pernyataan lain memberi sokongan kuat yang menyebabkan mereka melakukan jenayah berulang. Analisis kajian menunjukkan seramai 66 peratus setuju faktor kelemahan diri residivis menjadi penyebab © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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utama yang menyebabkan mereka berulang kali melakukan jenayah dan menjalani hukuman penjara. Sebanyak 20 peratus tidak pasti dan 13 peratus tidak setuju. Kelemahan jati diri residivis sendiri menghadapi tekanan hidup, kurang keinsafan, kurang kesungguhan dan keazaman untuk berubah dari kepompong penyelewengan menyebabkan mereka kembali melakukan jenayah atau menjadi penagih dadah semula. Hasil penyelidikan mendapati walaupun residivis nampak benar-benar insaf dan bertaubat tidak akan mengulangi lagi kegiatan jenayah semasa menjalani hukuman penjara tetapi satelah bebas mereka terlibat semula dengan kegiatan jenayah. Mereka mempunyai harga diri yang negatif. Residivis mempunyai jati diri yang rendah. Persepsi terhadap diri sendiri adalah negatif. Penemuan kajian ini mempunyai persamaan dengan kajian yang dijalankan oleh Fauziah, Bahaman, Mansor dan Mohamad (2008) ‘Faktor Menyumbang Kepada Penagihan Relaps Dalam Kalangan Penagih Dadah PUSPEN Di Semenanjung Malaysia. Menurut kajian yang dilakukan oleh Brady et al. (1995) terhadap 82 orang penagih dadah mendapati 60 peratus mempunyai harga diri yangt rendah. Faktor kurang keyakinan diri yang merupakan faktor utama yang menjadi penyumbang terbesar terhadap kecenderungan penagih relaps. Hasil kajian itu mendapati 58 peratus bersetuju bahawa residivis tidak mempunyai tahap keyakinan diiri yang mantap sehingga mendorong mereka terjebak semula dengan dadah dan kesalahan jenayah. Menurut Nur Hayati Muhamed (1995) semasa berucap di Kolokium Yayasan Mencegah Jenayah Malaysia menyatakan jika setiap penganut agama mengamalkan nilai-nilai murni dalam agama yang dianuti ia akan dapat mengelakkan diri mereka dari terlibat dalam kegiatan jenayah. Kekurangan atau tiada pengetahuan asas agama menyebabkan seseorang itu tiada panduan hidup. Mereka mudah terpengaruh dengan kegiatan penyelewengan yang bertentangan dengan peraturan dan undang- undang. Allah berfirman dalam Al Quran, Surah Israa’,ayat 72; Dan (sebaliknya) sesiapa yang berada di dunia ini (dalam keadaan) buta (mata hatinya) maka ia juga buta diakhirat dan lebih sesat lagi jalannya. Situasi inilah yang menyebabkan banduan berulang kali melakukan jenayah Menurut Gad dan Johnson (1980) mengatakan kesalahan berulang berlaku disebabkan oleh masalah gangguan psikologi dalam proses penyesuai emosi dalam peringkat umur terutama di peringkat javana. Jika seseorang itu masih belia kemungkinan untuk mengulangi perlakuan penyelewengan saperti menagih dadah dan melakukan jenayah adalah tinggi. Ini adalah kerana pada tahap umur ini seseorang itu mudah terpengaruh dengan rakan sebaya. Pengakuan respondan RA bahawa umurnya semakin tua, tenaganya semakin kurang dan tidak mahu lagi terlibat dengan apa-apa kegiatan jenayah membuktikan bahawa faktor umur juga mempengaruhi masalah residivisme. Pernyataan ‘saya merasa kehidupan saya di penjara lebih terjamin berbanding kehidupan saya di luar penjara’ didapati 19 peratus respondan sangat tidak setuju, 27 peratus tidak setuju, 22 peratus tidak pasti, 24 peratus setuju dan sebanyak 8 peratus respondan sangat setuju. Ini bermakna tahap pergantungan dan harapan hidup residivis di penjara agak tinggi. Berhubung dengan kenyataan samaada ‘benar-benar insaf selepas menjalani hukuman penjara yang lalu’ hasil kajian mendapati 14 peratus responden sangat setuju, 44 peratus setuju, 33 peratus tidak pasti, 6 peratus tidak setuju dan 4 peratus sangat tidak setuju. Penemuan penyelidikan ini menunjukkan bahawa hampir 60 peratus responden merasa insaf selepas mereka menjalani hukuman penjara. Ketidakpastian yang agak tinggi kerana kurang kepercayaan dan keyakinan terhadap diri sendiri. Mungkin residivis telah beberapa kali mencuba untuk mengubah keadaan hidup tetapi gagal. Sebanyak 55 peratus setuju dan 27 peratus sangat setuju untuk berbuat demikian. Sementara itu, bagi kenyataan ‘saya merasa keperluan asas di dalam penjara lebih teratur’. Sebanyak 49 peratus menyatakan setuju, 13 peratus sangat setuju, 13 peratus tidak pasti, 13 peratus tidak setuju dan 12 peratus sangat tidak setuju bahawa mereka merasa keperluan asas di dalam penjara lebih teratur berbanding keperluan tersebut di luar penjara. Kesimpulannya, ini bermakna hampir 62 peratus responden bersetuju bahawa kehidupan di penjara lebih terjamin dan teratur berbanding dengan kehidupan di luar penjara. Keperluan asas dan layanan yang diterima adalah baik. Situasi ini disokong dengan kenyataan yang diberikan oleh responden RA semasa ditemu bual menyatakan hidup dalam penjara tiada masalah, makan minum ada pada masa-masa yang ditetapkan. Bagitu juga dengan kenyataan yang diberikan oleh reponden RB merasakan hidup dalam penjara lebih selamat berbanding dengan dunia luar yang penuh dengan cemuhan dan prejudis walaupun di dalam penjara tiada kebebasan. Masuk penjara tak rugi. Bagi saya penjara ini bukan neraka, ini tempat kita belajar. Betul, apa-apa kita buat silap. Semua orang nak jadi baik, nak tukar perangai adi baik. Tapi kita tak boleh paksa orang jadi baik, kalau diri orang itu sendiri tidak mahu jadi baik...... Bagi saya duduk © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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mana penjara sama juga. Tiada masalah. (Temubual Respondan RA – J8) Jadual 1: Faktor Diri Residivis (n=230)

Faktor Diri Residivis

STS f

TS %

f

TP %

f

S %

f

SS %

f

%

Saya benar-benar insaf selepas menjalani hukuman penjara yang lalu.

8

4

14

6

75

33

102

44

31

14

Saya dapat mematuhi peraturan dan disiplin yang ditetapkan.

6

3

4

2

26

11

154

67

40

17

Saya merasa menyesal di atas penglibatan diri saya dengan kes jenayah yang lalu.

4

2

7

3

30

13

135

59

54

24

Sebelum bebas dari penjara bagi kesalahan yang lalu saya telah membuat perancangan masa depan secukupnya.

6

3

15

7

63

27

110

48

36

16

Saya merasa diri saya telah dipulihkan selepas menjalani hukuman.

2

1

10

4

95

41

92

40

31

14

Saya mengambil peluang yang terbaik semasa menjalani hukuman untuk mengikuti program pemulihan.

0

0

8

4

29

13

145

63

48

21

Saya mempunyai keazaman yang tinggi untuk mengubah tingkah laku saya.

0

0

6

3

34

15

127

55

63

27

Saya gagal mengawal diri daripada dipengaruhi oleh rakan sebaya semasa menjalani hukuman penjara pada masa lalu.

10

4

42

18

77

34

79

34

22

10

Selepas menjalani hukuman penjara yang lalu saya bertaubat dan tidak akan mengulangi lagi kegiatan jenayah.

2

1

10

4

82

36

104

45

32

14

Saya merasa malu dan rendah diri apabila dibebaskan dari penjara.

12

5

39

17

36

16

105

46

38

17

Saya gunakan sepenuhnya tempoh menjalani hukuman untuk membetul tingkah laku saya bagi membina kehidupan baru.

5

2

6

3

23

10

142

62

54

24

Saya merasa kehidupan saya dipenjara lebih terjamin berbanding kehidupan saya di luar penjara.

44

19

63

27

50

22

55

24

18

8

Saya banyak mempelajari perlakuan jenayah daripada kawan-kawan semasa menjalani hukuman penjara.

37

16

70

30

49

21

61

26

13

6

Saya merasa keperluan asas kehidupan saya di dalam penjara seperti makan minum lebih teratur.

29

12

30

13

30

13

112

49

29

13

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Faktor Diri Residivis

STS f

TS %

f

TP %

f

S %

f

SS %

f

%

Saya menyedari bahawa saya perlu lebih bertanggungjawab kepada keluarga yang saya tinggalkan.

1

1

4

2

13

6

119

52

93

40

Saya mampu membentuk jati diri yang unggul selepas mengikuti program pemulihan.

2

1

3

1

41

18

142

62

42

18

Saya merasa maruah diri saya tercemar apabila berulang kali menjalani hukuman penjara.

7

3

22

10

35

15

108

47

58

25

Petunjuk: STS=Sangat Tidak Setuju; TS=Tidak Setuju; TP=Tidak Pasti; S=Setuju; SS=Sangat Setuju;

Sementara itu, bagi kenyataan ‘saya merasa keperluan asas di dalam penjara lebih teratur’. Sebanyak 49 peratus menyatakan setuju, 13 peratus sangat setuju, 13 peratus tidak pasti, 13 peratus tidak setuju dan 12 peratus sangat tidak setuju bahawa mereka merasa keperluan asas di dalam penjara lebih teratur berbanding keperluan tersebut di luar penjara. Kesimpulannya, ini bermakna hampir 62 peratus responden bersetuju bahawa kehidupan di penjara lebih terjamin dan teratur berbanding dengan kehidupan di luar penjara. Keperluan asas dan layanan yang diterima adalah baik. Situasi ini disokong dengan kenyataan yang diberikan oleh responden RA semasa ditemu bual menyatakan hidup dalam penjara tiada masalah, makan minum ada pada masa-masa yang ditetapkan. Begitu juga dengan kenyataan yang diberikan oleh reponden RB merasakan hidup dalam penjara lebih selamat berbanding dengan dunia luar yang penuh dengan cemuhan dan prejudis walaupun di dalam penjara tiada kebebasan. Masuk penjara tak rugi. Bagi saya penjara ini bukan neraka, ini tempat kita belajar. Betul apa-apa kita buat silap. Semua orang nak jadi baik, nak tukar perangai jadi baik. Tapi kita tak boleh paksa orang jadi baik, kalau diri orang itu sendiri tidak mahu jadi baik...... Bagi saya duduk mana penjara sama juga. Tiada masalah.(Temubual Respondan RA – J8) Sebenarnya residivis merasa menyesal penglibatan mereka dalam kes-kes jenayah berulang yang dilakukan. Sebanyak 59 peratus setuju dan 24 peratus sangat setuju, mereka rasa menyesal keazaman yang tinggi untuk mengubah tingkah laku mereka. Perasaan insaf dan menyesal ini hanya menebal semasa residivis menjalani hukuman penjara sahaja. Keperitan hidup menjalani hukuman penjara tanpa kebebasan menjadi suatu tekanan dalam hidup mereka. Sebenarnya residivis tidak mempunyai jati diri yang kukuh. Mereka kurang mempunyai kekuatan fizikal, mental dan kekuatan kerohanian untuk mengawal diri daripada melakukan kesalahan apabila berhadapan dengan masalah hidup yang mencabar. Hasil kajian juga mendapati 47 peratus setuju, 25 peratus sangat setuju, 15 peratus tidak pasti dan 13 peratus tidak setuju bahawa maruah diri mereka tercemar kerana berulang kali menjalani hukuman penjara. Sebanyak 46 peratus setuju dan 17 peratus sangat setuju dan merasa malu dan rendah diri apabila dibebaskan dari penjara. Ini bermakna kesan melakukan kesalahan jenayah itu juga melibatkan maruah diri dan harga diri tercemar. Perasaan rendah diri, malu dan menyesal ini merupakan suatu hukuman akan akan terus dipikul selepas bebas. Tidak seratus peratus residivis beragama Islam bertaubat tetapi hanya 45 peratus setuju, 14 peratus sangat setuju dan 36 peratus tidak pasti tidak akan melakukan jenayah lagi. Keadaan ini menunjukan residivis kurang keinsafan, kesedaran, kepercayaan diri sendiri dan kehendak yang bersungguh-sungguh untuk melakukan kebaikkan dan menghindar diri daripada melakukan kemungkaran. Kenyataan merasa malu dan rendah diri apabila dibebaskan dari penjara mendapati 5 peratus responden sangat tidak setuju, 17 peratus tidak setuju, 16 peratus tidak pasti, 46 peratus setuju dan 17 peratus sangat setuju. Ini bermakna peratusan besar residivis merasa rendah diri dan malu apabila mereka dibebaskan dari penjara. Mungkin mereka malu dan rasa rendah diri kerana mereka bekas banduan. Kelemahan jati diri residivis sendiri menghadapi tekanan hidup, kurang keinsafan, kesungguhan dan keazaman untuk berubah dari kepompong penyelewengan rmenyebabkan mereka kembali melakukan jenayah atau penagihan dadah semula. Kenyataan yang diberikaan oleh kaunselor menyokong masalah ini. Tiada kesedaran diri dan tidak mahu berubah. Tiada jati diri yang kukuh. Mudah kecewa apabila menghadapi konflik atau cabaran.... © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Penyertaan dalam program pemulihan khususnya PPI adalah secara terpaksa bukan di atas kehendak diri sendiri. Mereka merasakan aktiviti yang dijalankan itu hanya untuk menghabiskan waktu yang terluang semasa mereka menjalan hukuman. Mereka bersikap tidak bersungguh-sungguh untuk berubah..... (Temubual Kakitangan ZZ- J 6 (iii) & (iv ) Walaupun residivis nampak benar-benar insaf dan bertaubat tidak akan mengulangi lagi kegiatan jenayah semasa menjalani hukuman penjara tetapi satelah bebas mereka terlibat semula dengan kegiatan jenayah, penagihan dadah dan penegedaran dadah. Akhirnya ditangkap dan menjalani semula hukuman penjara. Ini mungkin kerana lebih 32 peratus residivis merasakan kehidupan mereka di penjara lebih terjamin berbanding dengan kehidupan di luar penjara. Sebanyak 59 peratus merasa menyesal di atas penglibatan mereka dengan jenayah. Sebanyak 44 peratus bersetuju mereka insaf selepas menjalani hukuman penjara tetapi disebabkan pengaruh persekitaran sosial yang tidak dapat dikawal, tekanan persekitaran dan kelemahan diri mereka sendiri menyebabkan mereka mengulangi semula kegiatan jenayah. Oleh itu, kajian Foong Kin dan Navaratnam (1987) mendapati penagih dadah yang dipenjarakan serta penagih dadah yang ditahan polis, antara tahun 1985 hingga 1986, menagih dadah melalui pengaruh rakan sebaya untuk mencari keseronokan selaras dengan kajian ini. Kajian Navaratnam, Foong Kin dan Kulalmoli (1992) menunjukkan bekas pelatih menagih semula disebabkan rakan. Mereka tidak mempunyai daya ketahanan diri yang kukuh. Hasil kajian menyokong dan mempunyai persamaan dengan hasil kajian yang dijalankan oleh Bahagian Rawatan dan Pemulihan Penjara Malaysia (2008) bahawa konflik dalaman menyumbang kepada faktor residivisme. Mereka mempunyai sahsiah diri yang lemah dari aspek fizikal, mental dan spritual.

RUMUSAN Berdasarkan perbincangan di atas dapat dirumuskan masalah residivisme berlaku disebabkan:a. Kelemahan jati diri residivis sendiri menghadapi tekanan hidup bersama keluarga, masyarakat, dan persekitaran sosial menyebabkan mereka kembali melakukan jenayah atau penagihan dadah semula. Mereka kurang tahap keinsafan dan keazaman. Tidak bersungguh-sunguh untuk keluar dari kepompong penyelewengan dan kemaksiatan. Terutama bagi residivis tegar. b. Didapati sesetengah residivis nampak benar-benar insaf dan bertaubat tidak akan mengulangi lagi kegiatan jenayah semasa menjalani hukuman penjara tetapi satelah bebas mereka terlibat semula dengan kegiatan jenayah. Bertaubat bukan dengan sepenuh hati yang benar-benar penuh keinsafan. Pintu hati masih terbuka melakukan jenayah berulang apabila menghadapi tekanan dan cabaran. Residivis mempunyai harga diri yang negatif, jati diri yang rendah, persepsi terhadap diri sendiri adalah negatif. c. Kurang keyakinan dan kepercayaan diri untuk bertindak bagi menghadapi cabaran dan perubahan juga menjadi penyumbang terbesar terhadap kecenderungan residivisme di penjara. d. Berdasarkan kenyataan yang diberikan oleh reponden RA – J8 sesetengah residivis merasakan hidup dalam penjara lebih selamat berbanding dengan dunia luar yang penuh dengan cemuhan dan prejudis walaupun di dalam penjara tiada kebebasan. Seolah-olah penjara merupakan rumah kedua.

PENUTUP Maka berdasarkan hasil dan penemuan penyelidikan yan dibincangkan, residivisme tetap merupakan isu penting dalam skop pemulihan di penjara. Ianya merupakan pengukuran penting dalam menentukan pencapaian dan keberkesanan program pemulihan di Penjara Malaysia. Walaupun masalah residivisme merupakan sesuatu pencapaian yang subjektif namun perkara ini tetap menjadi cabaran dalam bidang koreksional. Residivisme adalah isu global. Fungsi utama penjara dalam aspek menahan, mengawal, melayan dan memulih akan terus menjadi cabaran. Kelemahan diri residivis sendiri untuk mengubah keadaan hidup pasti sekali mempengaruhi berlakunya masalah residivisme selain daripada faktor keluarga, masyarakat dan persekitaran sosial. Pembangunan jati diri yang kukuh dengan penuh keimanan dan ketakwaan kapada Allah, persekiraran sosial yang selamat, bebas dari perlakuan jenayah sudah tentu menjadi harapan rakyat dan negara untuk menjadikan bekas banduan sebagai warganegara yang berguna..

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SECTION X

WELL-BEING AT WORK

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PENGARUH KERJA GILIRAN KE ATAS EMOSI, FIZIKAL DAN MENTAL DALAM KALANGAN PEGAWAI PENJARA Adinaraina A/L Subramaniam, Jamaludin Mustaffa*, Kamal Ab Hamid & Mohd Hilmi Hamzah *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji pengaruh kerja giliran ke atas emosi, fizikal dan mental dalam kalangan pegawai penjara di Penjara Pokok Sena, Kedah. Mereka merupakan kakitangan yang bertugas giliran pagi, malam, petang dan giliran tetap.Selain itu, kajian ini juga adalah untuk mengenalpasti tahap pengaruh kerja giliran dari sudut emosi, fizikal dan mental yang dihadapi pegawai penjara yang terpaksa bekerja giliran bagi menrungkai pemasalah kajian ini.. Instrumen yang digunakan dalam menjalankan kajian ini adalah melalui tinjauan menggunakan borang soal selidik untuk mendapatkan maklumat yang mengandungi item-item yang mengukur aspek emosi, fizikal, mental dan psikologi seperti diperlukan berdasarkan pembolehubah yang dikaji. Data yang diperolehi dianalisis dengan menggunakan ujian t,statistik deskriptif dan statistik inferensi. Data yang dikumpul dianalisis dengan menggunakan program perisian SPSS Versi 16.0 (Statistical Packages for Social Sciences). Seramai 300 pegawai penjara kumpulan Penjara Pokok sena telah dipilih sebagai subjek kajian. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa jadual kerja giliran mempunyai kesan sederhana ke atas fizikal namun terdapat kesan tinggi ke atas emosi dan mental pegawai penjara berdasarkan pengalaman mereka. Hasil kajian juga memperlihatkan terdapat pengaruh kerja giliran dalam kalangan pegawai penjara berbanding giliran kerja tetap. Kesemua penemuan di atas membawa implikasi bahawa jenis masa kerja yang diamalkan berserta beberapa faktor kerja dan bukan kerja boleh mempengaruhi emosi, fikizal dan mental pegawai penjara.Perbincangan dan kesimpulan kajian turut dikemukakan.

PENGENALAN Pekerja adalah aset terpenting dalam sesebuah organisasi, jika barisan pekerja yang dimiliki mempunyai komitmen, dedikasi dan displin yang tinggi ia merupakan penentu kepada kejayaan dan kecemerlangan sesebuah organisasai itu. Seterusnya modal insan ini harus diletakan di tempat yang betul supaya potensi diri dapat dibangunkan selaras dengan keperluan organisasi. Memilih kerjaya sebagai pegawai penjara adalah agak beberbeza dengan bidang pekerjaan yang lain kerana bekerja dalam pengendalian aspek keselamatan dan pemulihan memerlukan pekerja berhadapan dengan waktu kerja secara giliran bagi memastikan perihal keselamatan terutamanya terjamin. Jabatan Penjara Malaysia merupakan salah satu jabatan yang dipertanggungjawabkan dalam mengendalikan aspek keselamatan iaitu pengurusan banduan kerana jabatan ini merupakan pelaksana hukuman dalam sistem keadilan jenayah di Malaysia. Tuntutan peranan jabatan telah menyebabkan Jabatan Penjara Malaysia mengamalkan sistem kerja secara giliran ke atas kakitangannya bagi memastikan kelancaran dan fungsi jabatan dapat dilaksanakan dengan sebaik mungkin. Kepentingan sistem kerja giliran juga dinyatakan oleh Tamagawaa, Lobbb dan Boothc (2007) sebagai faktor mewujudkan toleransi dalam kalangan pekerja. Dalam masa yang sama faktor keperluan psikologi juga

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

digariskan sebagai aspek penting yang perlu diambil kira apabila sistem kerja giliran diaplikasikan oleh organisasi. Hal ini turut dinyatakan oleh Demoerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner dan Schaufeli (2000) bahawa kerja giliran boleh mengganggu mental individu sehingga membuatkan pekerja akan membuat kesalahan dan mengalami masalah kesihatan. Namun beberapa kajian gagal menunjukkan hal yang sama. Kajian Norzihan, Ferlis dan Beddu (2008) menunjukkan sistem giliran kerja bukan punca kepada masalah psikologi pekerja tersebut. Justeru itu, Park (2007) menyarankan agar lebih banyak lagi kajian antara pengaruh sistem giliran dan aspek psikologi dilakukan. Menurut Park (2007) masih agak kurang kajian yang dijalankan ke atas pengaruh sistem giliran terhadap aspek psikologi dijalankan. Dalam masa yang sama juga, krisis-krisis yang mungkin timbul dalam kalangan pekerja juga memungkinkan akan mewujudkan “theme” seperti “Self-linking”, “Aid-seeking” dan “self-esteem dependency” (Han Toch, 1975). Justeru itu, adalah penting dalam kajian ini untuk mengenal pasti sejauh mana perasaan dan pemikiran seseorang pekerja, dari aspek keperluan, pengharapan, penerimaan dan penghargaan terhadap diri mereka semasa bekerja sepertimana yang digariskan oleh Kurt Lewin (1972) yang berpendapat bahawa setiap manusia mempunyai perasaan, tingkah laku dan pemikiran sendiri adalah penting untuk menitikberatkan aspek penyesuaian diri dari sudut kognitif, efektif, emosi dan tingkah laku dengan persekitaran kerja yang berubah untuk mendapatkan keseimbangan psikologi yang diharapkan (Kurt Lewin, 1972). Hal ini turut disokong oleh Maslow (1954), yang menyatakan setiap manusia mempunyai keperluan untuk hidup. Memenuhi keperluan adalah penting untuk bersaing, berkembang dan terus hidup. Di samping itu, pekerja merupakan manusia biasa dan mereka mempunyai keperluan, memiliki impian dan menaruh harapan untuk mendapatkan sesuatu. Menurut ahli psikologi Cooke dan Odom (1992), orang yang melakukan kesalahan mungkin disebabkan dia kekurangan sesuatu. Oleh itu, kemungkinan dia cuba memenuhi kehendaknya dengan cara yang salah. Sebagai contoh pekerja yang ponteng kerja berkemungkinan disebabkan atau berpunca daripada kerja giliran yang tidak sesuai dengan dirinya. Manakala, Lewin (1972), pula menyatakan bahawa kepuasan terhadap keperluan manusia dan kehidupan adalah keupayaan untuk mendapat keseimbangan antara perhubungan dengan ancaman persekitaran. Ini bermaksud jika seorang pekerja mendapat sokongan, kasih sayang dan pemahaman dari majikan atau keluarga, maka dia dapat mengurangkan tekanan hidupnya dan mengelakkannya daripada kecederaan fizikal, mental dan emosi. Walaupun negara mengalamai perubahan pesat dalam pelbagai bidang teknologi moden dan canggih yang digunakan di sesebuah organisasi, namum konsep kepuasan kerja serta produktiviti pekerja tetap menjadi tumpuan dalam memastikan peranan sesebuah organisasi sentiasa releven seiring keperluan semasa. Terdapat rugutan kalangan pegawai penjara berkaitan sistem kerja giliran telah menyebabkan meraka gagal menjalankan tugas dengan baik kerana menghadapi pelbagai kesan akibat bertugas pada waktu yang berbeza termasuk bertugas pada waktu malam. Sehubungan itu, artikel ini akan melihat dari tiga aspek utama pengaruh kerja giliran iaitu fizikal, emosi dan mental. Permasalahan ini amat perlu dikaji bagi memperjelaskan sebab berlakunya fenomena prestasi kerja yang rendah, ponteng kerja, cuai ketika menjalankan tugas dan penglibatan dalam pengambilan bahan terlarang dikalangan pegawai penjara. Kajian ini perlu bagi merungkai sama ada kesan kerja giliran mempengaruhi fonomena prestasi kerja rendah pegawai penjara atau sebaliknya.

Kesan Kerja Giliran Terhadap Emosi Park (2007) yang mengkaji tentang tekanan kerja dan prestasi kerja mendapati bahawa pekerja yang bekerja secara sistem giliran lebih banyak mengalami ketegangan kerja berbanding dengan pekerja yang bekerja bukan secara sistem giliran iaitu sebanyak 29 peratus dan 22 peratus. Menurut Park (2007) mereka yang bekerja secara giliran mempunyai tahap yang tinggi dalam desakan psikologi dan emosi dan kurangnya kawalan dalam pekerjaan yang mereka lakukan. Pekerja ini juga menerima kerja mereka kerana desakan fizikal dan ini mengurangkan kepuasan mereka untuk bekerja (Park, 2007). Aspek ini juga akan dikenalpasti dalam kajian ini untuk melihat sejauh manakah pengaruh kerja giliran dari sudut emosi kalangan pegawai penjara yang terlibat secara langsung dalam pusingan kerja giliran. Meltzer dan Huckabay (2004) mengkaji 60 jururawat di Unit Rawatan Rapi, Unit Rawatan Koronari dan Unit Rawatan Rapi Neurologikal yang bekerja sepenuh masa memperlihatkan bahawa situasi ketegangan moral mempunyai hubungan kuat dengan keletihan emosi yang mana mencetuskan kepada burnout. Di samping itu, kajian mereka menunjukkan bahawa jururawat yang kurang mempunyai pegangan agama dilihat mempunyai skor yang tinggi dalam subskala keletihan emosi berbanding dengan mereka yang mempunyai pegangan agama. Dari segi umur pula dilihat tiada perbezaan antara jururawat yang berumur 18-30 tahun dengan jururawat yang berumur 46-60 tahun. Walau bagaimanapun, dilihat dari segi min menunjukkan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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bahawa jururawat yang berumur 18-30 tahun mempunyai depersonalisasi yang tinggi berbanding dengan mereka yang berumur 46-60 tahun. Kajian mereka juga mendapati bahawa jururawat yang selalu mempunyai giliran kerja di Unit Rawatan Rapi yang lain mempunyai depersonalisasi yang tinggi berbanding dengan mereka yang hanya bekerja di satu Unit Rawatan Rapi sahaja. Rafii, Oskouie dan Nikravesh (2004) mengkaji jururawat di Tehran yang mana kesan terhadap burnout akibat kerja secara giliran ini perlu dipandang serius kerana ia menyebabkan kepada penghindaran emosional, kualiti yang rendah dan memberikan kesan negatif kepada interpersonal, intrapersonal dan pencapaian sesebuah organisasi. Aspek ini juga akan dikenalpasti dalam kajian ini untuk melihat sejauh manakah pengaruh kerja giliran dari sudut emosi memberikan tindakan balas dalam tingkahlaku mereka.. Aiken, Clarke, Sloane, Sochalski dan Silber (2001) telah membuat kajian yang mana seramai 43 peratus jururawat pembedahan melaporkan burnout yang tinggi akibat sistem bekerja secara giliran menyebabkan mereka meninggalkan pekerjaan dalam tempoh 12 bulan, berbanding dengan hanya 11 peratus sahaja yang meninggalkan pekerjaan mereka tanpa burnout. Aspek ini juga akan dikenalpasti dalam kajian ini untuk melihat sejauh manakah pengaruh kerja giliran dari sudut emosi kalangan pegawai penjara yang terlibat secara langsung dalam pusingan kerja giliran mampu menyebabkan mereka terlalai dalam menjalankan tugas. Banyon dan Blackburn (1978) telah menjalankan kajian ke atas pekerja-pekerja bawahan di kilang memproses makanan. Hasil kajian menunjukan bahawa pekerja-pekerja mengahadapi kesan psikologi akibat membuat kerja yang berulang dan tidak mengikut jadual atau giliran kerja dan selalunya pekerja-pekerja ini mengahdapi keresahan dan gangguan mental dan emosi.

Kesan Kerja Giliran Terhadap Fizikal Tamagawaa, Lobbb dan Boothc (2007) telah mengkaji faktor toleransi dalam kalangan pegawai polis semasa bekerja secara sistem giliran. Kajian yang dilakukan ke atas 89 pegawai polis di Aukland mendapati sistem giliran yang diamalkan menyebabkan kebanyakan pegawai polis mengalami masalah kekurangan tidur yang tinggi. Kajian Tamagawaa dan rakan-rakan (2007) juga menyatakan bahawa faktor kekurangan tidur yang diakibatkan daripada kerja bergilir-gilir menyebabkan berlakunya bebanan kerja yang banyak ke atas pegawai polis bertugas. Tambahan pula faktor tidur yang tidak menentu menyebabkan kurangnya produktiviti mereka sebagai pegawai polis semasa bertugas. Aspek ini juga akan dikenalpasti dalam kajian ini untuk melihat sejauh manakah pengaruh kerja giliran dari sudut fizikal kalangan pegawai penjara yang terlibat secara langsung dalam pusingan kerja giliran. Park (2007) yang mengkaji tentang tekanan kerja dan prestasi kerja mendapati bahawa pekerja yang bekerja secara sistem giliran lebih bersifat pasif dalam situasi kerja mereka (psycho-social work condition) dan memerlukan mereka berusaha secara gigih (physical factor) dalam kerja yang mereka lakukan. Park (2007) juga menyatakan bahawa pekerja mengikut giliran tidak mempunyai kepuasan kerja dan mengalami tekanan kerja yang tinggi. Choobineh, Rajaeefard dan Neghab (2006) telah mengkaji tentang masalah yang berkaitan dengan sistem giliran kerja dalam kalangan pekerja kesihatan di Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Iran. Kajian yang dijalankan ke atas 432 orang responden yang dipilih secara rawak mendapati bahawa masalah tidur yang terganggu, lebih banyak dihadapi oleh pekerja yang bekerja secara waktu giliran berbanding pekerja yang bekerja secara harian tanpa waktu kerja sistem giliran. Semasa meninjau sikap para pekerja jenis masa kerja, Wedderburn (1978) mendapati peratusan pekerja yang mempunyai sikap negatif terhadap kerja giliran adalah tinggi sekali. Dua sebab utama yang dibenarkan oleh mereka ialah kerja giliran membawa masalah makan apabila tidak cukup tidur dan mengganggu mental. Dari kajian Finn (1981) di dapati 43% daripada 150 sampel kajian giliran mengalami masalah untuk mengatasi masalah untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut. Aspek ini juga akan dikenalpasti dalam kajian ini untuk melihat sejauh manakah pengaruh kerja giliran dari sudut fizikal kalangan pegawai penjara yang terlibat secara langsung dalam pusingan kerja giliran mampu menyebabkan mereka cuai dalam menjalankan tugas.

Kesan Kerja Giliran Terhadap Mental Hubungan sosial telah dibuktikan perlu untuk melengkapkan kebaikan, kesinambungan dan pertumbuhan manusia. Menurut Saskatchewan Labour (2007), hubungan sosial adalah salah satu faktor yang jelas yang secara tidak langsung memberi kesan kepada sistem hubungan dan interaksi sosial para pekerja seperti dalam sistem kerja giliran, variasi kerja giliran, peranan sosial pekerja dan sebagainya. Mungkin dalam pada itu, sebahagian sistem kerja giliran akan memberi kesan kepada peranan hubungan sosial akibat gangguan

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mental, dan budaya persekitaran seperti kesihatan, tidur dan interaksi sosial (Saskatchewan Labour, 2007). Aspek ini juga akan dikenalpasti dalam kajian ini untuk melihat sejauh manakah pengaruh kerja giliran dari sudut mental kalangan pegawai penjara yang terlibat secara langsung dalam pusingan kerja giliran mampu menyebabkan mereka menghadapi masalah untuk bersosial dengan sempurna. Choobineh, Rajaeefard dan Neghab (2006) telah mengkaji tentang masalah yang berkaitan dengan sistem giliran kerja dalam kalangan pekerja kesihatan di Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Iran. Kajian yang dijalankan ke atas 432 orang responden yang dipilih secara rawak mendapati bahawa masalah sosial dalam kalangan pekerja dan masalah yang bersifat subjektif lebih banyak terdapat dan dihadapi oleh pekerja yang bekerja secara waktu giliran berbanding pekerja yang bekerja secara harian tanpa waktu kerja sistem giliran. Choobineh dan rakan-rakan (2006) turut menyatakan bahawa masalah sosial dan masalah bersifat subjektif menyebabkan pekerja turut mengalami ketidakpuasan dalam pekerjaan yang mereka lakukan. Rohani (1991), dalam kajiannya melihat hubungan di antara pengurusan organisasi dengan kecenderungan untuk berhenti kerja di kalangan 78 orang operator pengeluaran di sebuah kilang Mikroelektrik. Suasana organisasi dalam kajian ini diukur melalui alat WES. (Work Enviroment Scale). Kgan Ser Kee (1985), telah melakukan kajian untuk melihat hubungan faktor suasana kerja di organisasi yang dipersepsikan dengan kepuasan kerja dan prestai kerja dalam dua organisasi yang berbeza daripada segi struktur dan konteknya. Subjek terdiri daripada 66 pekerja perkeranian, di mana 20 orang merupakan pekerja bank dan 46 orang pekerja terdiri daripada pendaftar institusi pengajian tinggi. Keputusan kajian Kgan (1985), menunjukkan bahawa wujud perbezaan persepsi terhadap suasana organisasi antara pekerja dalam bank dan pekerja dalam pejabat pendaftaran institusi pengajian tinggi. Di samping itu, keputusan juga menunjukkan bahawa tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara suasana kerja dalam organisasi dengan prestasi kerja dengan kepuasan kerja dalam kedua-dua institusi tersebut. Walau bagaimanapun terdapat perbezaan persepsi pekerja terhadap polisi, struktur dan konteks organisasi tersebut.

METODOLOGI Kaedah kajian adalah berbentuk kuantitatif dan kaedah pengumpulan data yang digunakan ialah kaedah tinjauan (borang soal selidik). Sampel kajian adalah seramai 300 orang responden yang terdiri daripada pegawai penjara Pokok Sena, Kedah. Cara pemilihan responden dibuat dengan menggunakan kaedah persampelan rawak ringkas atau Simple Random Sampling. Instrumen dalam kajian ini telah diadapatsikan daripada kajian-kajian lepas mengikut kesesuaian kajian yang mengambil kira pemboleh ubah emosi, fizikal dan mental. Pemprosesan data dilakukan dengan komputer menggunakan perisian Statistical Package for Social Science atau SPSS versi 19.0 untuk mencari jawapan deskriptif (kekerapan dan peratusan) bagi melihat setiap pemboleh ubah yang dikaji dan inferensi (t-test dan korelasi) untuk melihat perbezaan kesan kerja giliran di samping korelasi digunakan untuk melihat perhubungan antara emosi, fizikal dan mental dengan kerja giliran.

HASIL KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Tahap Emosi, Fizikal Dan Mental Pegawai Penjara Meneliti kepada gagasan emosi yang diukur melalui 18 item dengan skor 1 hingga 5, menunjukkan bahawa tahap emosi berdasarkan pandangan pegawai penjara yang bertugas adalah sebanyak 216 orang atau (72 peratus) responden memberikan skor jawapan yang tinggi dan 84 orang atau (28 peratus) responden memberikan skor yang sederhana. Secara keseluruhan, tahap Emosi ini adalah ditahap tinggi. Lihat Jadual 1. Jadual 1: Tahap Emosi

Emosi Rendah

Bilangan

Peratus

0

0

84

28.0

Tinggi

216

72.0

Jumlah

300

100.0

Sederhana

Gagasan bagi aspek fizikal pula sebanyak 211 orang atau (70.3 peratus) responden memberikan skor yang sederhana dan 89 orang atau (29.7 peratus) responden memberikan skor tinggi. Ia juga diukur mengikut skala yang sama iaitu skala 1 hingga 5 dan mempunyai 15 item. Secara keseluruhan, tahap fizikal pegawai penjara © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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ini adalah ditahap sederhana. Lihat Jadual 2. Jadual 2: Tahap Fizikal

Fizikal

Bilangan

Rendah

Peratus

0

0

211

70.3

Tinggi

89

29.7

Jumlah

300

100.0

Sederhana

Gagasan bagi aspek mental yang juga diukur melalui skala 1 hingga 5 mempunyai 12 item. Sebanyak 194 orang atau (64.7 peratus) responden memberikan skor yang tinggi dan sebanyak 106 orang atau (35.3 peratus) responden memberikan skor sederhana. Secara keseluruhan, tahap mental adalah ditahap tinggi. Lihat Jadual 3. Jadual 3: Tahap Mental

Mental Rendah

Bilangan

Peratus

0

0

96

34.3

Tinggi

184

65.7

Jumlah

300

100.0

Sederhana

Berdasarkan daripada dapatan kajian dapatlah dibincangkan bahawa terdapat kesan jadual kerja giliran dan tempoh masa kerja ke atas masalah emosi, fizikal dan mental pegawai penjara. Justeru keputusan sedemikian berlaku merupakan sesuatu yang diduga. Adalah diandaikan bahawa kerja putaran akan menghadapi lebih masalah emosi, fizikal dan mental jika dibandingkan dengan kerja tetap. Berdasarkan kepada analisis kajian yang dilakukan ke atas pegawai penjara yang bekerja mengikut kaedah sistem giliran, menunjukkan majoriti pegawai penjara memiliki tahap emosi yang tinggi terhadap kerja secara giliran yang mereka lakukan. Keadaan seperti ini turut diakui oleh Park (2007) yang memberi pendapat bahawa individu yang bekerja secara giliran mempunyai tahap emosi yang tinggi serta kurangnya kawalan dalam pekerjaan yang mereka lakukan. Menurut Park (2007) juga, keadaan seperti ini akan menyebabkan pekerja ini turut menerima kerja mereka hanya disebabkan atas desakan fizikal dan ini mengurangkan kepuasan mereka untuk bekerja (Park, 2007). Oleh itu, dapat dikatakan bahawa, tahap emosi yang tinggi ini secara tidak langsung akan mengganggu konsentrasi kerja pegawai penjara yang bertugas di penjara. Manakala dari aspek fizikal pula iaitu dari segi tidur yang mencukupi dalam kalangan pegawai penjara, hasil dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa pegawai penjara memiliki tahap kecerdasan fizikal (tidur) yang sederhana. Ini bermakna masalah gangguan tidur mahupun kekurangan masa tidur berada pada tahap yang sederhana dan ini membuktikan kesan kerja secara bergilir-gilir tidak sepenuhnya membawa impak yang negatif kepada waktu tidur pegawai penjara. Dalam masa yang sama juga, ini menunjukkan bahawa masalah tidur yang kurang dapat diatasi dan ditangani dengan baik oleh pegawai penjara yang bertugas. Walau bagaimanapun, tahap fizikal yang mengambilkira faktor tidur, perlu diperbaiki dari masa ke masa supaya setiap pegawai mempunyai masa yang benar-benar mencukupi untuk merehatkan badan dan mental mereka dari sebarang pekerjaan. Perkara ini adalah penting kerana menurut Tamagawaa dan rakan-rakan (2007), faktor kekurangan tidur yang diakibatkan daripada kerja bergilir-gilir akan menyebabkan berlakunya bebanan kerja yang banyak ke atas pegawai polis bertugas. Tambahan pula faktor tidur yang tidak menentu menyebabkan kurangnya produktiviti mereka sebagai pegawai polis semasa bertugas. Di samping itu juga, didapati tahap mental pegawai penjara yang bertugas berada pada tahap tinggi. Ini adalah selari dengan kajian Wedderburn (1978) yang menyatakan bahawa peratusan pekerja yang mempunyai sikap negatif terhadap kerja giliran adalah tinggi sekali dan kerja giliran juga membawa kepada gangguan mental. Tambahan pula, menurut perunding psikiatri Gleneagles Kuala Lumpur, Dr Nor Hamidah Mohd Salleh (2012) menyatakan bahawa tekanan mental adalah perkara biasa yang dialami setiap individu. Walau bagaimanapun, setiap orang perlu bijak mengendalikan tekanan mental tersebut supaya ianya tidak membayangi hidup dan menjejaskan kehidupan seharian. Hal ini disebabkan jika tekanan mental tidak diatasi secara berterusannya boleh menyebabkan berlakunya kemurungan. Oleh itu, setiap individu perlu meningkatkan ketahanan diri dan kemahiran dalam berdepan tekanan mental ini.

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Perbezaan Antara Bertugas Giliran dengan Tidak Bertugas Giliran Dari Sudut Emosi, Fizikal dan Mental Berdasarkan Jadual 4, menunjukkan wujud perbezaan dari segi emosi di kalangan pegawai penjara dengan sistem kerja apabila nilai t menunjukkan 2.809, p < 0.05. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa emosi antara bertugas giliran dan tidak bertugas giliran dalam kalangan kakitangan penjara adalah berbeza. Ini menunjukkan mereka yang bertugas giliran mengalami emosi yang lebih terganggu berbanding mereka yang tidak bertugas giliran. Justeru itu, Hipotesis 1 yang dibentuk adalah tidak ditolak. Dapatlah disimpulkan bahawa emosi am antara bertugas giliran dan tidak bertugas giliran dalam kalangan kakitangan penjara adalah berbeza. Ini menunjukkan mereka yang bertugas giliran mengalami emosi am yang lebih terganggu berbanding mereka yang tidak bertugas giliran. Situasi sistem kerja giliran putaran kadangkala telah akan memberikan reaksi yang mendatangkan masalah serta pelanggaran disiplin oleh pegawai yang terlibat hasil dari gangguan emosi yang dialami. Keputusan ini juga telah disokong oleh penyelidik sebelum ini. Park (2007) yang mengkaji tentang tekanan kerja dan prestasi kerja mendapati bahawa pekerja yang bekerja secara sistem giliran lebih banyak mengalami ketegangan kerja berbanding dengan pekerja yang bekerja bukan secara sistem giliran iaitu sebanyak 29 peratus dan 22 peratus. Menurut Park (2007) mereka yang bekerja secara giliran mempunyai tahap yang tinggi dalam desakan psikologi dan emosi dan kurangnya kawalan dalam pekerjaan yang mereka lakukan. Pekerja ini juga menerima kerja mereka kerana desakan fizikal dan ini mengurangkan kepuasan mereka untuk bekerja (Park, 2007). Jadual 4: Perbezaan antara pegawai yang bertugas giliran dengan pegawai yang tidak bertugas giliran dari sudut emosi

Pembolehubah Emosi

Sistem Kerja Tidak Bertugas Giliran Bertugas Giliran

N

Min

50

3.4385

250

3.5587

Ujian-t 2.809

Sig. .002

Berdasarkan Jadual 5, menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan dari segi fizikal di kalangan pegawai penjara dengan sistem kerja apabila nilai t menunjukkan 2.482, p > 0.05. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa fizikal antara bertugas giliran dan tidak bertugas giliran dalam kalangan kakitangan penjara adalah tidak berbeza Ini menunjukkan mereka yang bertugas giliran dan tidak bertugas giliran mempunyai persamaan dari segi fizikal. Justeru itu, Hipotesis 2 yang dibentuk adalah ditolak. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa fizikal antara bertugas giliran dan tidak bertugas giliran dalam kalangan kakitangan penjara adalah tidak berbeza Ini menunjukkan mereka yang bertugas giliran dan tidak bertugas giliran mempunyai persamaan dari segi fizikal. Namun keputusan di atas telah berlaku percanggahan dengan kajian-kajian sebelum ini. Tamagawaa, Lob dan Boothc (2007) telah mengkaji faktor toleransi dalam kalangan pegawai polis semasa bekerja secara sistem giliran. Kajian yang dilakukan ke atas 89 pegawai polis di Aukland mendapati sistem giliran yang diamalkan menyebabkan kebanyakan pegawai polis mengalami masalah kekurangan tidur yang tinggi. Kajian Tamagawaa dan rakan-rakan (2007) juga menyatakan bahawa faktor kekurangan tidur yang diakibatkan daripada kerja bergilir-gilir menyebabkan berlakunya bebanan kerja yang banyak ke atas pegawai polis bertugas. Tambahan pula faktor tidur yang tidak menentu menyebabkan kurangnya produktiviti mereka sebagai pegawai polis semasa bertugas. Semasa meninjau sikap para pekerja jenis masa kerja, Wedderburn (1978) mendapati peratusan pekerja yang mempunyai sikap negatif terhadap kerja giliran adalah tinggi sekali. Dua sebab utama yang dibenarkan oleh mereka ialah kerja giliran membawa masalah makan apabila tidak cukup tidur dan mengganggu mental. Dari kajian Finn (1981) di dapati 43% daripada 150 sampel kajian giliran mengalami masalah untuk mengatasi masalah untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut. Walau bagaimana pun, keputusan ini terhasil apabila corak dan amalan pegawai penjara yang terlatih telah mampu menerima hakikat semula jadi kerjaya sebagai pegawai penjara harus menerima situasi kerja giliran. Tahap disiplin dan semangat kerja di kalangan pegawai penjara telah menunjukkan perbezaan keputusan berbanding bidang kerjaya yang lain. Jadual 5: Perbezaan antara pegawai yang bertugas giliran dengan pegawai yang tidak bertugas giliran dari sudut fizikal

Pembolehubah Fizikal

Sistem Kerja Tidak Bertugas Giliran Bertugas Giliran

N

Min

50

2.9921

250

2.8071

Ujian-t 2.482

Sig. .750

Berdasarkan Jadual 6, menunjukkan wujud perbezaan dari segi mental di kalangan pegawai penjara dengan sistem kerja apabila nilai t menunjukkan 1.802, p < 0.05. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa mental antara bertugas giliran dan tidak bertugas giliran dalam kalangan kakitangan penjara adalah berbeza. Ini menunjukkan mereka yang bertugas giliran mengalami mental yang lebih terganggu berbanding mereka yang tidak bertugas giliran. Justeru itu, Hipotesis 3 yang dibentuk adalah gagal ditolak. Ini menunjukkan mereka yang bertugas

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giliran mengalami mental yang lebih terganggu berbanding mereka yang tidak bertugas giliran. Keputusan ini dapat dirumuskan bahawa terdapat perbezaan kesan mental bagi pegawai yang bertugas tidak giliran dengan pegawai yang bertugas giliran. Kesan ini wujud disebabkan rutin perjalanan kehidupan yang sentiasa bertukar-tukar mengikut giliran tugas yang telah ditetapkan. Jadual 6 - Perbezaan antara pegawai yang bertugas giliran dengan pegawai yang tidak bertugas giliran dari sudut mental

Pembolehubah Fizikal

Sistem Kerja

N

Tidak Bertugas Giliran Bertugas Giliran

Min

50

3.4286

250

3.5251

Ujian-t 1.802

Sig. .000

Hubungan antara Pengaruh Kerja Giliran dengan Kesejahteraan Psikologi (Fizikal, Emosi dan Mental) Berdasarkan kepada Jadual 7, hasil kajian menunjukkan tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara pengaruh kerja giliran dengan kesejahteraan psikologi dari aspek fizikal apabila nilai korelasi menunjukkan r=.049. Ini bermakna hipotesis di atas yang dibentuk dalam kajian ini ditolak. Ini bermakna pengaruh kerja giliran dalam kalangan kakitangan penjara terlibat tidak mempengaruhi atau membawa perubahan kepada fizikal mereka. Jadual 7 - Korelasi Antara Pengaruh Kerja Giliran Dengan kesejahteraan Psikologi Dari Aspek Fizikal

Pembolehubah Bebas Pengaruh Kerja Giliran

Pembolehubah Bersandar Kesejahteraan Psikologi: Fizikal .49

Hasil kajian menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara pengaruh kerja giliran dengan kesejahteraan psikologi dari aspek emosi apabila nilai korelasi menunjukkan r=.605. Ini bermakna hipotesis di atas yang dibentuk dalam kajian ini diterima. Ini bermakna semakin meningkat pengaruh kerja giliran dilakukan oleh kakitangan penjara terlibat semakin terganggu emosi mereka menjadi tidak stabil. Lihat Jadual 8. Jadual 8 - Korelasi Antara Pengaruh Kerja Giliran Dengan kesejahteraan Psikologi Dari Aspek Emosi

Pembolehubah Bebas Pengaruh Kerja Giliran

Pembolehubah Bersandar Kesejahteraan Psikologi: Emosi .605**

Hasil kajian menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara pengaruh kerja giliran dengan kesejahteraan psikologi dari aspek mental apabila nilai korelasi menunjukkan r=.479. Ini bermakna hipotesis di atas yang dibentuk dalam kajian ini diterima. Ini bermakna semakin meningkatnya kakitangan penjara bekerja giliran semakin menganggu mental mereka. Lihat Jadual 9. Jadual 9: Korelasi Antara Pengaruh Kerja Giliran Dengan kesejahteraan Psikologi Dari Aspek Mental

Pembolehubah Bebas Pengaruh Kerja Giliran

Pembolehubah Bersandar Kesejahteraan Psikologi: Mental .479**

Berdasarkan kepada hasil dapatan kajian menunjukkan tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara pengaruh kerja giliran dengan kesejahteraan psikologi dari aspek fizikal, namun terdapat hubungan yang signifikan dari aspek mental dan emosi dalam kalangan pegawai penjara. Ini bermakna pengaruh kerja giliran dalam kalangan kakitangan penjara terlibat tidak mempengaruhi atau membawa perubahan kepada fizikal mereka. Namun, hasil kajian menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara pengaruh kerja giliran dari aspek emosi. Ini bermakna semakin meningkat pengaruh kerja giliran dilakukan oleh kakitangan penjara terlibat semakin terganggu emosi mereka menjadi tidak stabil. Begitu juga hasil kajian menunjukkan terdapat © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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hubungan yang signifikan antara pengaruh kerja giliran dengan kesejahteraan psikologi dari aspek mental. Ini bermakna semakin meningkatnya kakitangan penjara bekerja giliran semakin menganggu mental mereka. Selain itu hasil kajian terdahulu juga banyak menyentuh persoalan yang berkaitan korelasi antara pengaruh kerja giliran dengan kesejahteraan psikologi hubungan sosial telah dibuktikan perlu untuk melengkapkan kebaikan, kesinambungan dan pertumbuhan manusia. Menurut Saskatchewan Labour (2007), hubungan sosial adalah salah satu faktor yang jelas yang secara tidak langsung memberi kesan kepada sistem hubungan dan interaksi sosial para pekerja seperti dalam sistem kerja giliran, variasi kerja giliran, peranan sosial pekerja dan sebagainya. Mungkin dalam pada itu, sebahagian sistem kerja giliran akan memberi kesan kepada peranan hubungan sosial, dan budaya persekitaran seperti kesihatan, tidur dan interaksi sosial (Saskatchewan Labour, 2007).

KESIMPULAN Secara kesimpulannya, penyelidikan ini dijalankan untuk mengkaji pengaruh kerja giliran ke atas emosi, fizikal dan mental dalam kalangan pegawai penjara. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa jadual kerja giliran mempunyai kesan sedarhana ke atas fizikal namun terdapat kesan tinggi ke atas emosi dan mental dalam kalangan pegawai di mana pengalaman mereka dari ketiga-tiga jenis masalah adalah serupa. Kajian juga memperlihatkan terdapat pengaruh mengikut jadual kerja giliran dengan jadual kerja tetap. Kesemua penemuan di atas membawa implikasi bahawa jenis masa kerja yang diamalkan berserta beberapa faktor kerja dan bukan kerja boleh mempengaruhi emosi,fizikal dan mental pegawai penjara. Ini bermakna perhatian harus diberikan oleh pihak pengurusan organisasi kepada faktor-faktor ini dalam menentukan pengagihan pekerja mengikut giliran kerja serta langkah-langkah wajar perlu diambil bagi mengurangkan pengarah kerja giliran dalam kalangan pegawai penjara.

RUJUKAN Adam, J. D. (1981). Health, Stress and the manager’s life style. Group and Organization Studies, 6, 291- 301. Adams, J. & Yoder, J. D. (1985). Effective Leadership for Women and Men. New Jersey: Abex Publishing Corporation. Aiken, L. H., Clarke, S. P., Sloane, D. M., Sochalski, J., & Silber, J. H. (2002). Hospital Nurse staffing and patient mortality, nurse burnout, and job dissatisfaction. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288(16), 1987-1993. Ana Della Rocca & Marion Kostanski. (2001). Burnot and job satisfaction among victorian secondary school teachers: A comparative look at contract and permanent employment. Melbourne Journal, 39, 5-15. Andrew M. Colman (2009). A Dictionary Of Psychology (3 ed). Barling, J. (1990). Employment, stress and family. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Boshoff, C. & Arnolds, C. (1995). Some antecendents of employee commitment and their influence on job perfomance. South African Journal of Business Management, 26,125-144. Caldwell, D.F., Chatman, J.A. & O’Reilly, C.A. (1990). Building Organizational commitment: A multi-firm study. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 73 (3), 436-442. Colquhoun W.P & Reteimfrens J. (Ed) 1980. Studies of shiftwork London: Taylor and francies. Deborah, S. (1993). Working shift. Spring (Vol. 5, No. 1) Article No. 2 Finn, P. (1981). Effects of Shiftwork on Lives of Employees. Monthly Labor Review, 31-35 Fontana, D. (1984). Psychology for teachers. London: Macmillan Press. Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper. Meltzer, L. S., & Huckabay L. M. (2004). Critical care nurses’ perceptions of futile care and its effect on burnout. American Journal of Critical Care, 13, 202-208. Norzihan Ayub, Ferlis Bahari & Beddu Salam Baco (2008). Burnout dan komitmen terhadap organisasi di kalangan jururawat hospital. Jurnal Kemanusiaan, 12. Mott, P.E., Mann, F. C., McLoughlin, G., & Warwick, D. P. (1965). Shift Work: The social, psychological, and physical consequences. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Rafii, F., Oskouie, F., & Nikravesh, M. (2004). Factors involved in nurses’ response to burnout: A grounded theory study. BMC Nursing, 3, 6-16. Solvoeyand mayer J.D .(1990). Emotional Interligence ke atas kepuasan kerja dan komitmen kepada organisasi. Jabatan Psikologi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bangi. Szalai, A. & Andrews, F.M (1980). The Qualiy of life: Comparative studies. USA: Sage Studies in International Sociology Tamagawa et.al (2007) Riken Dynamic Forum Japan. Van Sell, M., Brief, A. P., & Schuler, R. S. (1981). Role conflict and role ambiguity:Integration of the literature and © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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directions for future research. Human Relations, 34, 43–71 Wedderburn, A.A.I (1978). Some suggestion for increasing the usefulness of psycological and sosiological studies of shift work. Ergonomics, 21(10), 827-833 Zimbardo,P.G. (1992). Psychology and life (3th ed). Stanford University: Harper Collins Publisher.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING OF CIVIL SERVANT RETIREES IN SUKAREGANG, GARUT Eneng Nurlaili Wangi* & Citra Meitawatie *[email protected] Universitas Islam Bandung

Abstract Retirement is the state when people donot work anymore due to the finished working terms (Indonesian dictionary, 2008). Many people regard retirement as a stressful period and terrifying event (Zarit in Santrock, 1999). Yet, it is different with the retirees in Sukagerang Garut, where 43% of retirees run a business as a positive activity to spend their leisure time and is regarded as a livelihood, although financial-insufficiency, daily activities change, and social relation change are found in the period. By doing so, the retirees can accept their current status, feel comfortable with the retirement period, manage good relationship with their old friends,have purpose of life, know themselves deeper, and arrange a satisfying life. Those things are retirement evaluation toward individuals and their life affecting psychological welfare, which according to Ryff is called Psychological Well Being.This research aims at investigating how Psychological Well Being of the retired civil servants in SukagerangGarut is. The descriptive qualitative method was employed in this research with nine retirees as the participants. The measuring instrument used in this research was the questionnaire adapted from Psychological Well Being Scale (PWBS) proposed by Carol D. Ryff. The research found that six participants got the highest score for six dimensions, one participant got four high dimensions (positive relationship with others, autonomy, environmental mastery and purpose of life), one participant got four high dimensions (self-acceptance, positive relationship with others, purpose of life, and self-growth, and one participant got two high dimensions (autonomy and purpose of life). Keywords: psychological well-being, retirement

INTRODUCTION Working is the media to fulfill the needs of human being both physically and psychologically. The physical needs of human being are clothing, foods, and housing, while the psychological needs of human being are having achievements, having authority and the other needs confirming their existence. When people enter a particular age, they will stop working or they will retire and enter the resting period. It is strongly connected with undang-undang pensiun kepegawaian pasal 3 ayat 2 PP no. 32 tahun 1979 (the regulations of retirement and worker relations article 3 verse 2 PP no. 32 year 179) regarding the dismissal of civil services on age limitation of 56 year old, which was changed into PP No. 65 year 2008. Retirement is the state when people do not work anymore due to the finished working terms (Indonesian dictionary, 2008). People working every day will enter the resting period, where they do not do the working activities usually done. The working quality, working skills, strength and agility of people decrease as they grow old. Not all people can accept retirement period. The uncertainty of facing the retirement period generally causes Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

the worry of failure in fulfilling particular needs. When the retirement period comes, most people do not feel the retirement period comfortable compared to the previous period. Old people feel their retirement funding cannot cover their daily needto live within their expectation and plan (Hurlock 1996: 418). The research findings of Holmes &Rahe (in Calhoun and Acocella, 1990) stated that retirement is ranked 10 as the moments causing depression in an individual’s life. Bosse (in Nordhus et al, 1998) also stated that data prove that retirement can be a stressor. About 30% retirees stated that retirement period is a stressful situation. In addition, some research consistently reports that between 30%-33% retirees stated negative feeling toward retirement. According to Zarit (in Santrock, 1999) “people entering retirement period consider retirement as losing role, social status and authority. Therefore, many people consider retirement as the period causing stress and a terrifying moment”. Generally, when people enter the retirement period, they imagine the worsening condition, such as losing status and respect, less income, losing facility and convenience, segregation from the previous society, and feeling old. It is different with the retirement in SukaregangGarut, where 43% of the civil servants retirees plan and choose to run a business inSukaregang as a positive activity to spend the leisure time when they have retired and as a livelihood or additional income. Hence they do not feel the retirement period as a stressful period or a terrifying moment. Sukagerang, Garut is a home industry area having a promising prospect and optimizing vacant area as a business place. According to the interview to five retirees in Sukagerang, Garut, when they have retired, they experience a change in terms of finance, daily activities, and social relationship. When they worked, they were used to wearing a uniform every day and being bound by working time. However, when they have retired and they deal with their customers, they do not need to wear uniform and they are not bounded by working time. Social change is also experienced by them. When they worked, they only made social relationship with their colleagues. Yet, when they have retired, they make a social relationship with various level of society. The changes existed in the retirement period do not make the retirees feel retirement as a terrifying thing. It is because they have positive activities in the form of running a business making them accepting their current status as a retiree albeit their working dismissal. The retirees can optimize their leisure time, they do not think of negative things regarding retirement and get additional income. They know their potencies, which one of them is in terms of entrepreneurship, therefore when they have retired,they open a business in Sukagerang area. They feel comfortable with their current condition (retirement). Because when they have retired, they can spend much time at home, they are not bound to the activities, they get additional income from running the business. Besides, running a business can be taken not only as the leisure activity, but also the livelihood in the retirement period. They can also manage their relationship with the other retirees in Sukagerang, although they have the same activities by exchanging information regarding things related to their business and supporting each other. They stated that albeit their status as a retiree, they want to manage good relationship with their previous colleague. Sometimes they visit each other to keep the relationship good. Some of the life purposes of the retireesar opening a business as a positive activity to spend the leisure time, not thinking of negative things regarding retirement, and having additional income for daily necessities. Besides, they want to reach a ‘proportional condition’, which they defined as being helpful to other people, enjoying the rest of the ages with positive activities, and having more time to pray with much of leisure time they own. They do not depend on other people although their income decreases when they have retired. Hence, they can get activities fulfilling their leisure time and on the same time get additional income for their daily life. Those things are enjoyed by the retirees. They do not regard that the business activities as burdens, therefore they feel comfortable with the activities and do not worry about their current status as a retiree. The retirees have the other external activities aside from running a business. They join an organization, do aerobics, do jogging, and become the committees of any event held nearby. The external activities conducted do not hinder their business activity. They can manage the time for external activities and running a business. Those activities make them comfortable with their retirement period. Although individuals experience many changes when they have retired, each individual has different comprehension toward changes in their retirement period.Some individuals regard the change in retirement © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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period as something positive, while other individuals regard the change in their retirement period negatively. These positive and negative perceptions are related to the individual evaluation toward himself and his life, which can influence their psychological welfare, which is called psychological well-being. Based on the phenomena written above, various changes faced in the retirement period can be the motivation for them to undergo and evaluate their own life properly. Theevaluation mentioned is psychological wellbeing which according to Ryff is a state when individuals can accept what their strengths and weaknesses are, have positive relationship with others, manage their emotion, develop their self-potency continuously, adapt to their environment, and have purposes in their life. Psychological well-being is considered objective because the well-being of individuals are measured based on to what extent they fulfill the determined well-being dimensions, built based on the concepts proposed by Carold D. Ryff, the conceptualizer of this psychological well-being theory: The six Psychological Well-Being Dimensions in the theory proposed by Ryff are: a. Self-acceptance (characterized as individuals having positive attitude towardthemselves, knowing and accepting all aspects in their life). b. Positive relationship with others (having a warm relationship with others, caring about the welfare of other people, andbeing able to show empathy). c. Autonomy (indicated by individuals having a freedom in being what they want and having self-control). d. Environmental mastery (characterized as an individual having good mastery in controlling environment and external activities, being capable of choosing and creating situation as they want to). e. Life purpose (indicated by individuals having a purpose of life and being capable of giving values to their life). f. Personal development (characterized by individuals having a perception that they keep developing and making changes).

METHODOLOGY This research employed descriptive qualitative research method. According to Nizar (1988) descriptive research is a method which can be used to analyze the status of a group of society, a subject, a set of condition in a thinking system, or issues in the current time, aimed at making descriptions, pictures or systematic illustrations which are factual, and accurate, regarding facts, characteristics, and relationships of the analyzed phenomena. The measuring instrument for Psychological Well-Being was the adaptation of Psychological Well-Being Scale proposed Carol D. Ryff (1989). This research used nine retirees who were the retirees of civil servant and the retiree with one year of retirement period as the research samples.

RESULTS From the questionnaires, it is found that six subjects have a high psychological well-being while the three other subjects have low dimensions in the seventh, eight, and ninth subjects. Table 4.2 - Score distribution ofPsychological Well Being Subjects in each Dimension

Category

Score

Category

Score

Category

1/M /57

37

High

27

High

33

High

30

High

33

High

29

High

2/M /57

32

High

30

High

31

High

27

High

30

High

29

High

3/M /57

38

High

37

High

38

High

34

High

38

High

36

High

4/M /57

35

High

34

High

33

High

31

High

36

High

29

High

5/ M /57

39

High

37

High

36

High

31

High

38

High

34

High

6 / F /57

39

High

37

High

38

High

33

High

36

High

37

High

7/ F /57

24

Low

30

High

27

High

27

High

27

High

22

Low

© ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

Score

Score

SelfDevelopment

Category

Life Purposes

Score

Environmental Mastery

Category

Autonomy

Score

Subject (Sex and age)

Positive Relationship with Others

Category

Self Acceptance

641

Category

Score

Category

Score

Category

8/ F /57

29

High

27

High

24

Low

23

Low

26

High

26

High

9/M /57

23

Low

23

Low

28

High

21

Low

28

High

23

Low

Low

22%

11%

11%

22%

0%

22%

High

78%

89%

89%

78%

100%

78%

Total

Score

Score

SelfDevelopment

Category

Life Purposes

Score

Environmental Mastery

Category

Autonomy

Score

Subject (Sex and age)

Positive Relationship with Others

Category

Self Acceptance

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION The results of the questionnaires found that six subjects have high psychological well-being. In the other words, they can accept their current status as a retiree and feel more comfortable with their retirement period because they have positive activities which is running a business, managing good relationship with their old friends by visiting each other, being capable of determining what they want to do, being independent by having their own business giving them additional income, joining some external activities, optimizing their leisure times by running a business, not thinking of negative things regarding retirement and having additional income for their daily needs. On the other hand, the three other subjects got some low dimensions. The seventh participant had low self-acceptance, high positive relationship with others, high autonomy, high environmental mastery, high life purpose and low self-development. Those things indicated that the seventh subject still manages the relationship with his friends, having a life purpose by working with what he had planned which is running a business, being capable of arranging a satisfying life by joining other activities aside from running a business. However, he was still unconfident in undergoing his life as a retiree. The eighth subject has high self-acceptance, high positive relationship with others, low autonomy, low environmental mastery, high life purpose and high self-development. It can be concluded that the eighth subject accepted and felt comfortable with his status as a retiree, was capable of managing good relationship with his friends, having a life purpose. However, in taking decisions, he is still dependent to other people and was incapable of arranging his satisfying life regarding the surroundings. The ninth subject had low self-acceptance, low positive relationship with others, high autonomy, low environmental mastery, high life purpose, and low self-development. The ninth subject has not accepted his status as a retiree, being incapable of managing good relationship with others, being incapable of arranging his satisfying life, and being unconfident to run a business. However, the retiree had made some plans in his retirement period and he was sure that the plans would work and succeed. One of the plans was opening a business in Sukaregang, Garut. According to the research findings and conducted discussions, there are some proposed suggestions: a. The retirees having high PWB are expected to keep six dimensions of Psychological Well-Being properly and be the role models for the other retirees having low PWB. b. The government of Garut can provide a training for the retirees having low dimensions, such as selfacceptance and self-development training in undergoing retirement period. The training can explain how to jot down the strengths, weaknesses and potency possessed by the retirees, therefore they can do selfdevelopment. The autonomy and environmental mastery dimensions were also low. These dimensions were where the retirees arranged their satisfying life by running a business or the other activities based on their potency which can be maximized when they are retired. The dimension of good relationship with others was also low, then it is suggested that the retirees having low score in this dimensions join community group work or any activities conducted nearby in order to make they are close with others and have more socialization with neighbors. Those things should be conducted in order to make the civil servant retirees in Sukagerang, Garut ready to face retirement period by knowing their potencies, developing those potencies, and arranging a satisfying life by having a business. Then, it is expected that the retirees will not feel that they are useless and they will join the activities conducted nearby. c. The government of Garut can also make the retirees having high psychological well-being as the role models for the civil workers who are about to be retired. It will be shown that retirees can accept their © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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current status although many changes occurred, know their strengths and weaknesses and develop their potencies, have wide knowledge, open to new experiences, have a direction and purpose of life during the retirement period, and managing good relationship with the surroundings.

CONCLUSIONS According to the data calculation and discussion, it can be concluded that: a. Based on the analysis, six participants have high psychological well-being especially self-acceptance, good relationship with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, positive relationship with others, life purpose and high self-development. The retirees generally feel comfortable with their current condition because they have positive activity which is opening a business. That activity makes them independent, enables them to manage good relationship with their previous colleagues and other retirees, and arranges their satisfying life. b. Based on the analysis, the other three subjects have low PWB dimensions, which are subject A with low self-acceptance and self-development dimensions. Hence, it can be concluded that subject A has not accepted his current status as a retiree, has not known their potency and is unconfident to run his business. Subject B has low autonomy and environmental mastery dimensions. Hence, it can be concluded that subject B has not arranged his satisfying life, therefore he is still dependent to others. The last subject having low dimension is subject C with low self-acceptance, positive relationship with others, and selfdevelopment dimensions. Hence subject C is incapable of managing good relationship with other retirees having the same positive activities. This subject also has not accepted his status as a retiree and has not known about his potency. Therefore he is unconfident to run a business.

REFERENCES Abbott, R.A., et all. (2009). An Evaluation of The Precision of Measurement of Ryff’s Psychological Well Being Scales in a Population Sample.(357-373). Angraeni, T., &Cahyanti, I. Y. (2012). Perbedaaan Psychological Well Being Pada Penderita Diabetes Tipe 2 Usia Dewasa Madya Ditinjau dari Strategi Coping. Jurnal Psikologi Klinis dan Kesehatan Mental, 1(2), 86-93. Arikunto, S. (2009).Manajemen Penelitian. Jakarta : PT. Rineka Cipta. Ermayanti, S., & Abdullah, S. M. (2007).Hubungan Antara Persepsi Terhadap Dukungan Sosial Dengan Penyesuaian Diri Pada Masa Pensiun. Jurnal Psikologi. Hakim, S. N. (2007).Perencanaan dan Persiapan Menghadapi Masa Pensiun. Jurnal Psikologi, 10(1), 96-109. Hurlock, E. B. (1996). Psikologi Perkembangan: suatu pendekatan sepanjang rentang kehidupan, Edisi 5. Jakarta :Erlangga. Mufida, A. (2008). Hubungan antara work-family conflict dengan psychological well being pada ibu yang bekerja. Jakarta. Nazir, M. (1999). Metodologi Penelitian. Jakarta: Ghalia Indonesia. Noor, H. (2009). Psikometri: Aplikasi dalam Penyusunan Instrumen Pengukuran Perilaku. Bandung : FakultasPsikologiUnisba. Ryff, D.C. & Corey L.M.K. (1995) The Structure of Psychological Well Being Revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719-727. The American Psychologycal Association, Inc. Ryff, D.C. (1989). Happiness Is Everything, or is it? Explorations on The Meaning Of Psychological WellBeing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069-1081. The American Psychologycal Association, Inc. Santrock, J. W. (1999). Life – Span Development.Seventh Edition.USA : McGraw. Sudjana, Prof. DR, M.A., M.Sc. (2005). Metoda Statistika. Bandung :Tarsito Sugiyono. (2013). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif Kualitatif dan R&D. Bandung : Alfabeta. Tim Penyusun Kamus. (2008). Kamus BesarBahasa Indonesia. Edisi Keempat. Jakarta :Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Utami, N. D. (2012). Gambaran Psychological Well Being Pada Individu Lanjut Usia yang Tinggal di Panti Werdha. E-Journal Psikologi. Purnamawati, N. D. (2007). Gambaran Psychological Well Being Pegawai Negeri Sipil Pria yang Pensiun di Usia Dewasa Madya. Jakarta : Skripsi Psikologi Universitas Indonesia. Wardana, F. C. (2013). Tersenyum Sebelum Pensiun & Tertawa Setelah Pensiun. Jakarta : PT. Elex Media Komputindo.

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ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT : THE LINK OF BURNOUT AND WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT Suzalina Mohamad Shuhaimi* & Najib Ahmad Marzuki *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract The focus on the quality improvement of public services demands the employees’ high commitment towards the organization. This paper examines the link on the dimensions of organizational commitment (affective, continuance and normative) with burnout (exhaustion, professional efficacy and cynicism), and work-family conflict (work interfering with family (WIF) and family interfering with work (FIW)). A total of 220 administrative and professional group’s of Kuala Lumpur City Hall (KLCH) were involved in the survey. Data was analysed using Pearson Correlation to examine the relationship between variables. The analysis revealed that; (1) there was a relationship between exhaustion, professional efficacy, cynicism, WIF and FIW with affective commitment; (2) there was a relationship between FIW with continuance commitment and; (3) there was a relationship between professional efficacy and cynicism with normative commitment. Recommendation and areas for future research are also discussed. Keywords: organizational commitment, burnout, work-family conflict

INTRODUCTION The need to stay sustainable and competitive in the challenging global environment is a must in the new era of the combative world. The changes have moved the Malaysian Government to focus on the improvement of the civil services’ in terms of quality and quantity. In order to form efficient delivery services, the organization should ensure that the workers are committed to the organization’s goals as it could reduce the cost of supervising and turnover (Gibson, Ivancevich, Donnelly & Konopaske, 2006) while the absence of commitment could affect the organization’s effectiveness (WeiBo, Kaur & Jun, 2010; Angle & Perry, 1981). The importance of organizational commitment has been essentially investigated since it is a study on the fundamental concepts, in understanding human behaviours (Klein, Molloy & Cooper (2009). Thus, previous researches on organizational commitment include role conflict, role ambiguity and turnover intention (Addae, Parboteeah & Velinor, 2008); intrinsic motivation (Choong, Wong & Lau, 2011); organizational climate and communication climate (Razali, 1999); perception of politics and negligent behavior (Gadot & Kapun, 2005) and communication satisfaction (Varona, 1996). Similar researches on organizational commitment also take into account job satisfaction (Lahai, Rahim, Mazanah & Tumiran, 2004; Norshidah, Nor Shahriza & Ramlah, 2010); profession commitment (Nik Mustasim & Mohd Hizam; 2002) and burnout (Najihah, Norsyamina, Mizan & Jeniwaty, 2011). Besides that, organizational commitment also convers Human Resources Management Practices on decentralization, participation, social interaction, training/development and career mobility (Smeenk, Eisinga, Teelken & Doorewaard, 2006); and level of autonomy, working hours, social involvement and personal importance (Smeenk et al., 2006). Kuala Lumpur City Hall (KLCH), which is responsible in administrating the capital of Malaysia to the fullest in Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

the year 2020, has committed through its strategic planning in bringing the municipality to a world-class city by creating a variety of programs. To achieve this target, in the year 2011, KLCH has allocated a total of a RM 2.007 billions with RM 1.273 billion allocations for operational and RM 734 million for development (Ahmad Fuad, 2010). The amount allocated is also for meeting the expectations of the citizens and clients of KLCH. Thus, KLCH has to ensure that the workforces are committed and are competent to deliver in line with the programs planned. However, it is alarming to note that the current situation to deliver services could put pressure and lead to fatigue, where the consequences of too much work or frequent frustration at work may cause a syndrome of physical and emotional exhaustion, which is also known as burnout (Ishak, 2004). As KLCH is a close service organization, symptoms of burnout could occur as supported in Wood and Killion (2001), where a study conducted among the Health Officer had found that they faced a high risk of burnout due to the continuing pressure and demand on the job. While Jackson, Turner and Brief (1987) showed that lawyers in public service that provides legal services, had experienced burnout, and were less committed to their organization. This in turn resulted in their unwillingness to put extra effort in achieving goals. Besides burnout, the most common conflict occurs between employees in the workplace is the work-family conflict where the employees have to balance between work and family demands. According to Aamodt (2010), organizations have to make an effort to assist their employees’ life/work issues, or they will have to deal with fewer products and absenteeism. A study by Siegel, Post, Fishman, Brockner and Garden (2005), shows that the effect of work-life conflict was highly significant; when the organizational commitment was higher, the work-life conflict is at the lowest. Even though there are studies that measure the relationships between burnout, work-family conflict and organizational commitment, it is important to explore more on different areas, which could influence organizational commitment (Madsen, John & Miller, 2005; Addae, Parboteeah & Velinor, 2008; Siegel, Post, Fishman, Brockner and Garden, 2005; Steward, Bing, Gruys & Helford, 2007; Keong & Sheehan, 2011; Zhang & Liu, 2011; Roche & Haar, 2010; Jackson, Turner & Brief, 1987; Schaufeli & Greenglass, 2001; Jawahar, Stone & Kisamore, 2007; Zhang & Liu, 2011; Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999; Neubert & Wu, 2009). Thus, this study measures the relationship and effect between burnout, work-family conflict and organizational commitment. It also focused on the intrinsic motivation of basic needs satisfaction influence on the organization’s commitment.

Research Questions Based on the derived problem statement, the issues and questions that arise are as follows: a. If working individuals are likely to face burnout but survive the ordeal, to what extend is the relationships between burnout (exhaustion, professional efficacy and cynicism) and organizational commitment (affective, continuance and normative)? b. If work-family conflict is part of working individuals life, to what extend is the relationships between work-family conflict (work interfering with family (WIF) and family interfering with work (FIW)) and organizational commitment (affective, continuance and normative)?

Research Objectives The following objectives will guide this study: a. To identify the relationship between burnout (exhaustion, professional efficacy and cynicism) and organizational commitment (affective, continuance and normative). b. To identify the relationship between work-family conflict (WIF and FIW) and organizational commitment (affective, continuance and normative).

LITERATURE REVIEW Burnout and organizational commitment Previous studies have shown that burnout has a significant relationship towards the employees’ organizational commitment. Burnout study has been conducted on human services counselors employed in a citysponsored (public sector agency) and the findings has proven that emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and personal accomplishment have a significant relationship with organizational commitment with an overall low commitment to the organization (Wright, 2004). A study by Gemlik, Sisman and Sigri (2010) on health © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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sector staff found that there were significantly correlated between emotional exhaustion and affective and normative commitment. The study also showed that the decrease in personal accomplishment causes an increase in continuance commitment. Those who worked for long periods in the same organizations may lose their self-trust, which subsequently bring the feeling to increase the continuance commitment level and stay in the same organization to maintain the status quo. A study by Najihah, Norsyamina, Mizan and Jeniwaty (2011), found that individuals who have a high degree of commitment to their organizations experience greater amount of stress than those who are less committed. Secondly, it states that only affective commitment has the negative relationship with job burnout. Therefore, the following is the first hyposthesis:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): There will be a significant relationship between burnout (exhaustion, professional efficacy and cynicism) and organizational commitment (affective, continuance and normative).

Work-family Conflict and Organizational Commitment Previous research has shown that the relationship of work-life conflict was highly significant with organizational commitment, where organizational commitment is high when work-life conflict is low, as shown in the study by Siegel, Post, Fishman, Brockner and Garden (2005). A study by Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch and Topolnytsky (2002) has also shown that affective commitment is correlated negatively with both stress and work-family conflict. In contrast, continuance commitment correlates positively with stress and work-family conflict, which indicates that it is possible to have, a sense of being trapped in an organization, and both are stressful for employees as well as a source of conflict at home. The impact of work-family role conflict on organizational commitment, (Akintayo, 2010), revealed that there was a significant, but a negative contribution of work-family role conflict of organizational commitment of the respondents. The finding implies that significant relationships exist between work-family role conflict and organizational commitment, and it shows the relevance of work-family role conflict as capable of fostering organizational commitment among the workforce. Work-family role conflict was the strongest determinant of organizational commitment, since it is capable of having a negative effect on workers’ effectiveness in the workplace. From the literature review, the second hypothesis is:

Hypothesis 2 (H2): There will be a significant relationship between work-family conflict (WIF and FIW) and organizational commitment (affective, continuance and normative) .

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The conceptual framework of the study indicates the relationship between the variables used. Burnout and work-family conflict are the independent variables. The analysis was conducted based on the framework in order to demonstrate the relaltionship of burnout and work family conflict on organizational commitment that functions as the dependent variable. Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between the independent and dependent variables of the study. Figure1 : Research framework between burnout, work-family conflict and organizational commitment

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METHODOLOGY Research Design Research design in this study was a cross-sectional study that emphasizes on the time dimension of the research only. The main instrument of data collection was through questionnaires. Independent variables that were used in the study are burnout and work-family conflict while the dependent variable was the organizational commitment. Data collected was analyzed using inferential analysis. Pearson correlations was used to analyze the degree of relationship between the variables specified.

Population and research sample The population of this study comprises of administrative and professional officers who serve KLCH. To date, there are 480 officers currently serving in various departments in KLCH. The base for determining the population will be from a list of available positions from the Human Resource Department of KLCH. Based on this list, the sample selection method used was the stratified random sampling which could dissected the population by departments and field duties. The selection process began with the random selection of the sample distribution of several sub-samples or strata based on the important features examined in this study. The determination of sample size selection was referred to Krejcie and Morgan Table and based on the table, 214 samples were used for the purpose of this study.

Instruments and Tools Research data by questionnaires collected comprises of five sections, which are Section A (demographic), Section B (Burnout), Section C (work-family conflict) and Section D (organizational commitment). Section A questionnaire covers the demographic aspects such as gender, age, education level, tenure and field duties of the respondents. This section includes questions about marital status, number of children, spouse information and household income of the respondents. Section B of the questionnaire assesses the respondents’ burnout level. The instrument used was from Maslach Burnout Index-General Survey (MBI_GS) (Maslach, Jackson, Leiter, Schaufeli & Schwab, 1986) which was developed by Maslach and Jackson. It consists of 16 items forming three subscales. There are 5 items to measure the exhaustion, 6 items to measure the professional efficacy, and 5 items to measure the cynicism. The scales of the items were scored on a seven-point scale ranging from (0) never to (6) every day. Section C of the questionnaire measures the work-family conflict using instruments of Work-Family Conflict (Carlson, Karmac & Williams, 2000). The scale consists of 18 items, which measures the two directions of workfamily conflict, i.e. work interfering with family (WIF) and family interfering with work (FIW). Thus, there will be nine items for each directions. Nine items measures WIF while nine items measures FIW. The scales was on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agrees. The total score for each direction is averaged to produce a mean score of the conflict. Higher mean score means higher conflict in WIF or FIW. Section D of the questionnaire measures organizational commitment through Organizational Commitment Scale (Meyer & Allen, 1991). This 18 item Likert scale consists of three dimensions of organizational commitment, that will reflect the psychological state of the employees to assess affective, normative and continuance commitment. The seven-point scale’s response categories ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree. Four items are worded negatively requires reverse scoring before computing scale scores. Higher scores are associated with a greater degree of organizational commitment to the company for which they are working.

RESULTS The Pearson Correlation analysis was conducted to answer research objective and 2 which is to identify the relationship between each dimensions of burnout, work-family conflict and organizational commitment. The results as in Table 1 shows a significantly but weak correlation between all three dimensions of burnout with affective commitment and professional efficacy and cynicism with normative commitment. The correlation between affective and exhaustion is negatively correlated (r=-.187, p<0.01), a positive correlation between affective and professional efficacy (r=.207, p<0.01) and negatively correlated between affective and cynicism © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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(r=-.331, p<0.01). Whereas the correlation is positive between normative and professional efficacy (r=.191, p<0.01) and negative correlation between normative and cynicism (r=-196, p<0.01). All these correlations are sigificant at p<0.01. Table 1 : Correlation and Descriptive Statistics of the Burnout and Organizational Commitment

Mean

Standard Deviation

1

Exhaustion

2.77

1.41

1

Professional Efficacy

4.53

0.84

.053

1

Cynicism

2.22

1.28

.538

-.092

1

Affective

5.06

1.04

-.187**

.207**

-.331**

1

Continuance

4.59

1.05

.082

-.005

.041

.242**

1

Normative

4.59

0.98

-.050

.191**

-.196**

.352**

.269**

Variables

2

3

4

5

6

1

** significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed)

Table 2 has shown that the correlation strength between work family conflict and organizational commitment was very weak with the significant correlation coefficient at p<0.01. The correlation between affective and WIF was negatively correlated (r-.189, p<0.01), and a negative correlations between affective and FIW (r=-.214, p<0.01). However, the correlation was positive between continuance commitment and FIW (r=.175, p<0.01). There were no significant correlation between normative commitment neither with WIF nor FIW. Table 2 : Correlation and Descriptive Statistics of Work-Family Conflict and Organizational Commitment

Mean

Standard Deviation

1

WIF

3.52

1.21

1

FIW

3.12

1.1

.789**

Affective

5.06

1.04

-.189** -.214**

Continuance

4.59

1.05

.079

.175**

.242**

1

Normative

4.59

0.98

-.043

-.009

.352**

.269**

Variables

2

3

4

5

1 1 1

** significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed)

DISCUSSION In conclusion, the focus of this study is to investigate the relationship on the dimensions of organizational commitment (affective, continuance and normative) with burnout (exhaustion, professional efficacy and cynicism) and work-family conflict (WIF and FIW). The result has indicated that there was a significant relationships between exhaustion, professional efficacy, cynicism, WIF and FIW with affective commitment, FIW with continuance commitment while professional efficacy and cynicism with normative commitment. The results have supported the findings from previous research that there was a link between burnout and organizational commitment (Jackson, Turner & Brief, 1987; Cropanzano & Byrne, 2000; Norzihan, Ferlis & Beddu, 2008; and Najihah, Norsyamina, Mizan & Jeniwaty, 2011) and work-family conflict and organizational commitment (Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch and Topolnysky, 2002; and Akintayo, 2010). The results indicated that the civil servant in this study were discovered to be emotionally attached to the organization regardless of neither having burnout, nor work family conflict at the workplace. It was found to be in line with the findings in Najihah, Norsyamina, Mizan & Jeniwaty (2011) where Malaysia employees were focused and deleberated more on the affective factors. However, it only applies to affective commitment as it was found that FIW was the only variable in this study that linked to the continuance commitment. The results explained the extent to which an employee believes to remain with the organization due to the time, expense and effort that was put into it or the difficulty in finding another job (Aamodt, 2010). The cost has qualify the employees to compromise their work with the family activities and responsibilities. The results in this study has discovered that for normative commitment, only professional efficacy and cynicism of burnout were linked to the commitment. This explained the responsibility to remain in the organization as professional efficacy of burnout specifically assesses continued effectiveness (Maslach, Jackson, Leiter, Schaufeli & Schwab, 1986) was part of a receipt of benefit to their achievement at work. Whereas although © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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cynicism indicated indifference towards work, it does link to the sense of obligation in remaining in the organization though there was an indicator of burnout occurs. Several limitations exist in the present study which warrant review. First, this study is limited as it merely examines in certain areas. The first limitation of the study is in the category of samples as it purely focuses on the administrative and professional groups of KLCH. The findings cannot be generalized to other groups in KLCH, the private sectors or the setting of other government agencies, which do not deal with public service delivery. This study is also limited to the questions given only and does not allow to explore the respondents’ opinion in different aspects and point of time. This study also does not investigate the cause of burnout and work-family conflict which could compromised the factor and consequences of organizational commitment. For future research, more studies is needed to investigate further on other potential factor that could give valuable understanding on the affect of organizational commitment. It is encouraged to further extent the research respondents to other work groups such as the support groups or to the private based company as it could give different views since they have different work task and work environment. Furthermore, it is encouraged to incorporate a qualitative data in the research as it could give more constructive point and understanding on the subjects from different views.

CONCLUSION Organizational commitment is an important driving force among employees, as it will show in their productivity. The commitment in an organization is essential, as it indicates the employee’s psychological attachment to the organization. It also perceives the values of integrating individual and organization goals in their own personal terms (Gibson, Ivancevich, Donnelly & Konopaske, 2006). Besides organizational commitment, an employee is also subjected to endure stress at the workplace and conflict in balancing between work and family. Thus, this study was focused to measure the relationship between burnout and work-family conflict with organizational commitment.

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ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

ROLE OF HUMAN RELATIONS IN TRAINING ORGANIZATIONS Ramezan Jahanian [email protected] Islamic Azad University, Iran

Abstract Human is created social that have to leave and communicate. These communications are wide spread. Children education and family management required to intimate relationship. For working in the factories, Schools or hospitals, we need to communicate whit managements and co workers. Reflex ion and language are two man advantage that cause to create idea, culture and civilization, that we can translate these, just with communication. Just man can pray with organized process and to self creator with communicative language like prayer and orison and say self needs to him. Working and in new organization open the new horizon for man. Although the huge developments in different areas, Man are also the major pieces of organization as organizations success for making their objects depends on how they think about man and how apply this forces. with creation of man relationship, was clarified that classical theories know man important just of economical and the workers like machines that must use them as a mechanical energy for developing of production level, they don’t have any important and effective in working out put developing and organization production level, but we can derive with are effective on man’s organizational behavior and effect in redacting or increasing of output and production by man relationship. Man interesting and participating in objects determination, reinforce their plans and moral and commute to implement the best participatory management is objective management. Human behavior causes based on developments and political, social and cultural transitions and the basic theory about human behavior is that must confirm mental and social behavior of person or work group. Studies about human relationship proved that organization are concluding social and emotional aspect, except of economical aspects. Hath urn’s experiences showed that respect to man as human and attention to informal organization is as important as formal organization and physical – economical work condition for efficiency. Keywords: human relations, training organizations

INTRODUCTION Training headman must believe to other character value and respect to their needs or rational emotional, they must know that work and life are mixed together and satisfaction of work causes life satisfaction in large value. Human relationship in vast concept, conclude all the people communication, conflictions, comradeship attempts and group relations. Human relationship relate to beliefs, ideas, behaviors that cause individual conflictions and or life and work situations ( Parhizgar,2004).

IMPORTANCE AND NECESSITY OF HUMAN Significance of human relations Root and significance of human relations are attention to anther and self dependent person , never reach to object , the successful managers in human relations know that their Victory

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

is related to others victory. Human relations follow three objects: cooperation, production and reaching to job satisfactions. Unit of human relations is the person but, human relations confining is on the group, individual relations with group has been seen as no persons singly. Human relations speak about relation or relations between two or several persons. It is symbol of human existence or worth and it is phenomenon of social behavior of human group that use its shape or types as human distinguishing with existents (Mirkamali, 2004). Human relation is making unique and individual collate with work as this unique provide their simulation tools and causes to work friendly, economical, with mental and social satisfactions (Sarmad, 2008). Sarmad try to lay in her definition, mental satisfaction as a tool for reaching to organization object and definition of organization economical aspect. In her idea, human relation studies human behavior in organization environment till promote working results of organization.

DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN RELATIONS The main human relations in communicate with training organizations managers (Grifith, 2002). a. Motivation: psychological, sociology, cultural and economical factors in forming of individual and group behavior in training organization. b. Conception: coworker remora or manager of her / him role or others role and mutual relations in office and problems is resulted of confliction among conceptions -Relation: For training work, you should communication and exchange of meanings and information. for effective relation you should have ability of the main skills. c. Strength structure: All the social organizations have been kept by a kind of unique and active strength. Knowledge about this area, help the managers that have understanded truly the reaulator mechanism of organization behavior. d. Authority: expression of strength lawfully is our authority. Regardless simplicity in this concept in management orbit, understanding of complexity result of its combination and behavioral affects provide the problems for them. e. Mentality: mentality is manager success value for creation of human relation well in office. Mentality doesn’t mention to alive mental state, but it is representative obligation and depending on a group object and try to create it. f. Decision making: All managers’ activities or proceedings depend on valid and correct decision. Indecision area, all the knowledge and skills that were mentioned above help us. Also manager must know about decision area in this subject. g. Leadership: the manager of training organization have leadership role, and thus, she / he should know about it’s results and implicit meaning. Leadership is a group process and efficient – effective leader in group has wills of each manager. Above topics are the main core of knowledge that managers of training organization can understand human relations in office according to this. (Francis, 2004). The result of studies in this area Beginning of human relations movement is know with doing Hathorn’s studies Researchers about causes of production during study, found if we put the increasing of effect production, change the workers social situation, moral and mental satisfaction level development and create new patterns in social operation of group, we achieve them (Alagheband, 2003). Discovering of "social factors significance is the most important Hathorn ’s studies results . This results causes to change the study center from physical – psychological variables to social variables. Hathorn’s studies are the main source and motivation of other studies in human relations area. These studies are bridge that connects theories of human relations academy to primary studies about scientific management action (Paul Herrsy, 2003). The most important of Hathorn’s studies results are : a. Working of each worker wasn’t determinate with her / his physical strength, but it’ s determinative factor is social "capacity " . b. Non economical rewards effect on motivation and wellbeing. c. Organization based on proficiency isn’t essentially the most effective from of work division. d. Workers work together against management system, normal’s and rewards as a group member not as a individual member. e. Non informal leadership and it’s role in group normal’s determination have a special significance ( Garaei mogadam, Amanollah 2002). © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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BRANCHES OF HUMAN RELATIONS Branches of human relations has been presented to the following by Boltton Robert (2003) a. Traditional braches of human relations this branch made by altoun Mao with seeing human behavior in organization, the study object was identification of behavior root. In this effort, was confirmed inner factors of organization and don’t attention to environmental factors. The main points in this academy are: • sepration of formal organization from informal . • Main affect of informal relations and organization on behavior. • Affect of group on motivation value, moral and efficiency level. b. Social branch of human relations this branch that was expressed by varner , attended to social problems and social classes , varner in " social system of new factory " (1947) , analyzed affect organizational non human factors on human understanding and behavior, and environment and invironmental factors situation – the result of this study that published by varners clientele are : • Affect of social class, religion, phylum and familiar on the study of organizational behavior. • Role of laboring unions on organization to workers behavior. c. The branch of mutual inter commnunional-relational or co operational in human relations. This branch was presented by wait, Humans, chapel et al. This theory confirm to observation and measurement of operational an actual behavior persons in organization that is called as "intercommunion or actions. " In Homanz opinion, there are three factors in every organization : a. Actions: they are a persons works . b. Mutual actions: they are the behaviors that make between the persons and groups. c. Emotional states or heartbeat: they are trends between the persons and group.

ROLE OF HUMAN RELATIONS IN TRAINING ORGANIZATION Sarmad (2008) believes that the most important roles of human relations in educational organizations included the following items: a. Recognition of individual feature Role and goal of human relations of character recognition are needs, motivation moral – emotional features of organization persons . Because every above factors have much affect on human behavior and relations with others , than human relations science try to predict operational solutions for eliminating negative aspects and positive aspect reinforcement these features as they will be effective in human relations . b. Recognition of action and reaction: Second role and goal of human relations is mainly recognition of behavioral differences and conflictions in manager employees and customer relations and finding an operational solution between them. When a training organization can reach to its objects that there is a joint objects and behavioral coordination among them. For reaching this, we must reduce all the differences and conflictions highest possible levels and increase condolence and coordination between persons and groups. c. Find the solution for attracting cooperation: The goal of human relations is finding the operational process of cooperation attraction among the managerment, employee and beneficiary persons through creation of motivation and joint objects. The manager human relation not only should create a coordination between persons and organization group, but it should provide resistance of this coordination with creation of motivation and joint object d. Find the operational process of persuasion and punishment: All organization is finding the operational process for persuasion and punishment of employee. Manager must attend to behavior and operation of organization persons and causes to more motivation with suitable encouragement or maybe with right punishments and on time. e. Creation of suitable atmosphere: The most important objects of human relation is finding the operational process for creation of suitable © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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human atmosphere, healthy friendship confidence , mutual relations among the all employee . f.

Moral reinforcement of person's satisfaction: Human relations object is moral reinforcement and attain to employee satisfaction. Good morale and satisfaction is like a inner energy in organization employee. in the organization that there isn’t strong morale for persons , then there isn’t necessary emery for doing work. In this atmosphere boring, languor, lack of trending and despondence is a curtain for organization objects. Human relations management is responsible for developing the persons morale till they have necessary energy for eorking and activating.

g. Satisfaction and answer to relational needs: Covering person's rational needs in every organization is object of human relations management and coordinating and assimilating of persons, group and organization needs is object of behavior and relations in the organization and relations in the organization. Human relations management try to provide necessary conditions for covering persons and group needs to employee also achieve more motivation and satisfaction and organization objects. h. General communication: One of the main object for human relations management is getting the superior persons cooperation and other person that are effective in organization there are different persons that they have prevalence for solving the problems in organization, then communicating with these persons is necessity of management. Effective communication with people and customer is form success conditions. i.

Study, survey finding the management process and suitable leadership in organization. There are many times that managers know behavior or type of the subaltern and coworker actions as a reason of their failure and they don’t attention to their behavior. Although manager success depends on how the employee work , but mostly fiascos is for unsuitable behavior of management. human relations management try to get better and effective ways with studying continuously in behavior and management process or organization leadership and also elimination of available problems and inabilities.

HUMAN RELATIONS INDICES Jahanian (2014) Human Relations Indices are:Understanding the needs and talents,Understanding individual differencesPinpointing the problem, Recognition and respect to the personality of othersPositive view about others, Perceiving the situation of the individual,Ability to establish relations,Listening as a way for proper judgment and evaluation of others: Listening is a way of psychological discharge,Expressing emotions and feelings,Selection of suitable style and behavior,Finding positive points in others,Self control,Providing psychological health: Suitable organizational atmosphere,Knowing one’s self and others.

CONCLUSION Marking decision, planning, organization, motivation, control, evaluation and leadership won’t be effective without communication. Only with relation can get to information rapidly and cooperation with others for adaptation or confliction with external unfair factors. Because of this behavioral sciences and infidel relations have a specially place. The base philosophic of human relations theory is on this idea that should revive human sanctity and dignity in work place, organization objects revise for employee welfare, use the group cooperation in decision marking and management, give the latitude and invention to persons and they have motivational and satisfactory job . It is art of management and leadership that provide condition to get the persons to self objects. Human communication is the main duty for management and she / he must create these relations then develop it that it will cause to motivation for developing situation and persons satisfaction for getting to organization objects. Human relations management, not only attend to behavior and person relations an atmosphere in organization that fructify friendly plants, trust and security.

REFERENCES Alageband, A. (2003). Theoretical roots and management principles of training. (3rd ed). Tehran: Ravan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Publishing. Bulte, R. (2003). Human relations psychology (humanity skills). Translated by Sohrabi, Hamidreza. Tehran: Rosht Publishing. Jahanian, R. (2014). Human relations indices in organization and management. Management and Administrative Sciences Review, 3(3), 378-388. Feransis, B. (2004). Human relations. Translated by Sarvari, M. Tehran: Ebad Publishing. Garaie Mogada, A. (2002). Training management. (3rd ed). Tehran:Abjad Publishing. Gerifith, D.E. (2002). Human relations in training management. Translated by Bakshi, Kodadad. (2nd ed). Tehran: Mahya Publishing. Mimir, Kamali, S.M. (2004). Behavior and relations in management organization. (2nd ed). Tehran: Yastaroun Publishing. Paphizgar, K. (2004). Human relations in management. (5th ed). Tehran: Bastan Publishing. Paul, H.K.B. (2003). Organizational behavior management. Translated by Alageband, A. (2nd ed). Tehran: Amir Kabir Publishing. Sarmad, G. (2008). Human relations in training organizations. (5th ed). Tehran: Samt Publishing.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

A REVIEW OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND EMPLOYEE RETENTION: EVIDENCE FROM THE LITERATURE Mahmoud Kamal Abouraia* & Benjamin Balbuena Aguenza *[email protected] Ibn Rushd College for Management Sciences Ahmad Puad Mat Som Universiti Sains Malaysia

Abstract In a contemporary work environment, organizations have to anticipate a variety of elements such as an economic system, globalization, and technological innovation which can significantly affect the business circumstances. In order to face a diversity of challenges, organizations are motivated to acquire key competencies and maintain their competitive advantage. This need makes essential to an organization’s capability to develop certain factors through its human resources. The quality of employees and the organizational culture play a major role in this process because employees’ knowledge and experiences are considered fundamental to stay financially solvent and competitive. Researchers and business scholars recognized that retaining of higher potential employees is an enormous challenge for organization particularly during times of substantial turnover rates. They presume that dropping talented workers can become economic burden for organizations. In many occasions, even employed employees are sometimes disappointed with the effects of business functionality which could cause them to voluntarily terminate employment. Due to these reasons, this paper showcases the key factors that influence employee retention and attempts to understand the effect of organizational culture on employee retention. Employee retention is a significant variable which recapitulates all human resource practices. In order to ensure high employee morale and assess employee expectation, various techniques are being employed. In this paper, it argues the ingredient factors that are critical in influencing employee retention are employee communication, job satisfaction, management and work-life balance. Therefore, organizations should create appropriate cultural techniques for employees to learn the alterations necessary for the organizational culture to further improve a healthy and robust retention rate. Keywords: employee retention, job satisfaction, organizational culture

INTRODUCTION In the fast-paced, knowledge-driven and remarkably connected world, innovative concepts and developments many businesses changed considerably and continues to do so. Organizations are desperate for new and innovative methods for cultivating performance with narrow inclusion of cost. Uninterrupted changing of interpersonal improvements place pressure to organizations and underline their condition to sustain their competitive edge (Burke & Ng, 2006), at least in part by means of preserving the abilities with their employees. In lieu of this, researchers and business scholars believe that the achievement of an organization is extremely

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

determined by its human capital. Although there are numerous other variables that engage in a strategic function, an organization should have efficient workers in order to stay economically solvent and competitive (Nasir & Sabir, 2012). Possessing and retaining high prospective employees is a tremendous obstacle for the management. In this particular circumstance, if an employer is incapable to fulfill their employees’ necessities as well as the workers are dissatisfied with the outcomes of organizational performance, turnover may possibly daunt. High attrition does not merely encompass clear effect with existing performance but also improves the costly employment and training (Chatterjee, 2009). In depth, employee turnover impinges on employee perseverance unpleasantly. Likewise, organizations are in a position to lose environment along with the active employees therefore decreases attractive to the plausible applicants. Across this particular framework, the cost of employee turnover with references to human resource approach will probably be the laborious costs of work productivity losses. Replacement costs oftentimes beyond the earnings of an individual, and could perhaps consist of lost customers and organizations and shattered morale. A lot of empirical studies acknowledged that capabilities of employees are considered the most strategically essential resources among the organization. It comprises of the knowledge in employees’ learning ability that typically are unable to transform towards the method of explicit knowledge and will only be retained from the organization provided that the staff member is certainly doing the job at hand. Consequently, each maneuver linked to an employee can be a scarcity of imperative knowledge. It is yet another critical economic aspect in which it is quite expensive to provide training for new employee simply because replacement of the ones who appear elsewhere (Emami et al., 2012). The purpose of this article is to explore the dynamics of organizational culture and how organizational culture can be measured. Since organizational culture appears to have an effect on the retention of employees in organization, the goal of this study is to investigate the relationship between organizational culture and employee retention in organization from the existing literatures available.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Organizational culture is definitely the distinct selection of values and norms which are distributed by employee and groups within an organization. This is basically the imperative of each and every organization to comprehend its unique dynamic culture, so that executives can take advantage of the observations produced by the cultural standpoint to wield better control over their organizations. In a contemporary work environment, an excellent organization’s culture cannot be set up. It could be guided and influenced through the strategies, trainings, abilities, and techniques which can be strengthened and instigated. The only way to revolutionize the culture is to modify the way staff members execute on a daily basis. These implementation processes were substantiated in comprehensive academic studies which recognized that organizational culture is considerable in employee performance and productivity (Uddin et al., 2013) and employee retention. Furthermore, director or administrator who has to increase the organizational efficiency should certainly analyze the organizational culture. Within the framework of literature, this has been extensively postulated to become one of the primary theoretical levers essential for being familiar with organizations. It is thought that shared knowledge of this mediating variable can improve organizational transformation, good picture of the organizations from the clients’ view and method execution, and impact employee attitudes and behaviors (Mushtaq et al., 2013). In order to achieve profitability, many organizations have now turned to exploring the sociological aspect of the business. Success is the ideal indication to distinguish regardless of whether the organization is performing things correct or otherwise not. Culture is a component that is certainly not perceptible, however it performs an essential function to the prosperity of an organization. It is fundamentally seasoned from a few places: (i) the beliefs and values, and suppositions on founder of the organization; (ii) the training activities of group members for their organizational growth; and (iii) new beliefs, values, and suppositions introduced by new members and leaders. In fact, these shared philosophies, articulated values, beliefs, and behaviors contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of an organization. In general, organizational culture is the ‘glue’ that guides behavior and design organizational decision-making (Haberberg & Rieple, 2008), and the lack of this glue will bring about devastating consequences around the organization. Organizational culture is strengthened by surface artifacts, shared values and underlying assumptions as can be viewed in Figure 1. Just like a pyramid, merely a modest percentage of organization’s culture is in fact noticeable. It describes as the artifacts of culture which includes the visible products of the group, such as the architecture of its physical environment, language, technology and products, artistic creations, style, myths and stories, values, and rituals and ceremonies reminding individuals what an organization represents (Schein, 2010). Lying just under the surface lining would be the core values provided by individuals within the organization. This is certainly supported by initiatives to evaluate behavior and corrective actions when © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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behaviors of some employees turn out to be undesirable towards the organization (Heskett, 2011). It is usually discussed as “the way performs things around here” and “what moves and what doesn’t”. In the quite deepest measure of culture would be the underlying assumptions. These assumptions commence as values but as time passes become very well ingrained which they become given-organization values in regards to the way things are. Myriad variables modify the creation and evolution of organizational culture, including the existence or deficiency of competitors, financial situations, and nature of the business and employee foundation (Dickson et al., 2004). It is distinctly not the same as an organization’s objective or by reviewing the purposeful techniques, which equally integrate an aspect of awareness (Haberberg & Rieple, 2008). In management communities, an organization’s culture consists of qualities that provide a certain environment or sense to manage the external and internal areas of success and survival. It is usually considered something which could be used to change employees; Kaplan and Norton (2004) realize that shaping the culture is undoubtedly an often mentioned in many research. Equally as often, culture is seen as the humanizing component of corporate business, which helps to ascertain requirements among employee as well as the organization, the employee works for, foster trust, assist in interaction, and build organizational responsibility. Considering that employee performs a significant function in this particular approach, their discontentment can lead to terrible outcomes for the organization. It is actually no used getting excellent employees when they are just as likely to abandon, and there is little application possessing employees retained within the organization if they tend not to interact with the organization and exactly what it does (Markos & Sridevi, 2010). In addition, the current workforce is accountable for the distribution of organizational culture and thus this unsatisfied employee will pass on just the adverse elements of the organization to novice employee. This can result in demotivation from the new recruits and therefore produce low morale. Alternatively, reduced morale of the employee contributes to low employee retention. Figure 1. The Distinct Levels of Organizational Culture

Source: Schein, E. H. (2010). Organizational Culture and Leadership

Woodard’s analysis (2008) suggests that organizations are considering new approaches to contend for expertise, entice it, and secure the same. In this way, they are shifting far from finest techniques and searching at what is useful for the culture in their organization. To have an organization in becoming the best choice in the management industry, it should be in a position to support the best talent available. Previously, the organizations generally resorted to economic motivators to preserve employees however in a rapid diffusion of technological innovation, when salaries are the same with the competitors, or at managerial levels in which shell out is not any more the sole identifying aspect, other variables require a better preference. In this particular document, it argues the substance variables which are crucial in impacting employee retention are employee communication, job satisfaction, management and work-life balance. Consequently, organizations ought to generate suitable societal procedures for employees to understand the adjustments necessary for the organizational culture to boost a healthy and robust retention rate. These variables bring about the reputation of employees’ initiatives, causing them to be really feeling that they are an element of the overall picture.

MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHIES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE TO EMPLOYEE RETENTION As cited earlier, motivational resources which include remuneration and rewards are some of the issues which could possibly persuade employees to remain. More often, problems about social interaction, organizational © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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culture and chances for career development and training, in addition to individual and professional expansion, are rapidly becoming the prime factors behind staff members departing in most levels of the organization. Intrinsic motivations could be far better within the long term rather than economic benefits (Zwilling, 2012). Employee retention, as a result, is actually concerning the culture and having the appropriate procedures for the organization to obtain the development and achievement from the organization’s objectives and goals. This belief was reinforced from the investigation performed by Career Systems International in 2005, by which they detailed that high manifestation of retention strategy is connected to worker’s positive behaviors causing employee to keep within the organization for that optimum time frame (Riley, 2009). Furthermore, no matter what the approach implemented, an organization must ensure that the actions align with the mission, vision, culture, objectives and values of the organization, as well as being realistic measures to meet employees’ demands and requirements. Broadly, many studies claim that there are several factors that determine an organization’s ability to attract and retain employees.

Employee communications Employee communication is an essential aspect of the corporate management process. This factor transformed swiftly as new social media marketing instruments which develop and influence the workplace, as the organization’s culture increased the pursuits of the retention approach for employees. Distributing information and eradicating barriers enforced by variations in area or divisions within the organization through technological innovation can build employee communication (Ghafoor et al., 2012). It is among the most powerful indications of employee empowerment within an organization. Despite the fact employees are frequently bombarded by having an avalanche of information, they continue to participate in upward interaction within a provided work situation and undertaking a well-mannered mindset towards the individuals at all times. In a connection to marketing group, employee is the conduit to customers as well as to the outside community. If business objectives and messages in the organizations are evidently recognized, employee can serve as valuable ambassadors (Miles & Mangold, 2005). Within the framework of management style, employee communication is needed when working with individual in various areas of career. It is a significant device in building relationships in more subtle ways. For example, getting responses and maintaining genuine communications would be the hallmarks of employee retention technique. Top management and managers attain those desired goals by means of regular meetings and survey that may shed light on why employees think about leaving. Through interviews with disaffected employees, organizations could work to give further attention to the needs, difficulties and grievances of employees including with the rewards system (Nyamekye, 2012). By taking a chance to pay attention organizations develop and create a culture of commitment that minimizes the potential risk of turnover. However, one of the primary sources of work environment anxiety is an absence of information particularly during times of change. It is often assumed that selections created at the top management are being conveyed down from the ranks. As a result, innovator or director must guarantee to provide excellent and precise details of information in a timely manner that contributes to productivity and employee retention (Guo & Sanchez, 2005).

Job satisfaction Job satisfaction is recurrently investigated area of interest in work and organizational literature simply because of its great importance to employee’s pleasurable mental and emotional condition along with the employment. It could be a representation associated with an employee’s behavior which leads to desirable effects and it is generally analyzed in levels of perceptions by using several constructs or classifications (Schmidt, 2007). Additionally, this could be a sophisticated and multifaceted principle that includes both intrinsic and extrinsic variables. Intrinsic variables are produced from internally job-related rewards including recognition, achievement, advancement, and accountability whilst extrinsic variables originate from externally environment-related rewards such as financial settlement, business procedures and methods, excellent of relationship with the supervisors, and working situations. Each of these attributes is based on organizational culture and it has considerable influence on worker’s job satisfaction. It can also be an effective forecaster of motives or conclusions of staff members to depart an employment. Beyond the exploration of studies and literature, job satisfaction might determine in numerous quantities and can be screened from different viewpoints using multiple ideas or procedures. As an illustration, employee retention is often a challenge for hearts and minds. The quality of organizational culture affects this argument, because frustration with supervisor is among the most commonly cited reasons for quitting a job. Companies that concentrate exclusively on motivations and rewards approaches can neglect the great image when working relationships turn undesirable. For workers captured within a limited economic climate, fewer alternatives are available to eliminate these complications. Still, executives who fail to take their

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organization’s internal temperature risk losing their high potential workforce once the economy recovers. However, employees should also ‘be happy in their work, given the amount of time they have to devote to it throughout their working lives’ (Nguyen et al., 2003).

Management Bagraim et al. (2007) outline management as the procedure of working with and through others to accomplish organizational goals within an effective and ethical approach. Executives engage in a tremendous part in impacting the employee’s commitment level and retention. There are numerous retention techniques which improve the possibility that the employee will continue to be dedicated in an organization as time passes. Management practices possess an immediate influence on employee turnover. These elements would be the most significant: arranging off-duty schedule to perform the assigned work, limited training time, unreasonable pay amount and inadequate employee interaction. Literatures recommend these measurements should be infused in place and aligned for the organization to attain international standard of excellence in employee’s determination level and retention. In analysis performed by Master Works Inc, Farren (2008) reviews that among the variables affecting an employee’s choice to depart an organization was whether the manager designed a trusting partnership together with the employee. The study discovered that managers who respected and valued employees’ proficiency, paid attention to their ambitions, guaranteed challenging work, appreciated the standard of work life and offered possibilities for understanding, had dedicated and active employees. During these events of business scandals, having a manager with sincerity and respect has become more valuable than before. An excellent manager will stimulate the staff members to be effective and encourage employees to remain with the organization.

Work-life balance In the present way of living, round the clock each day will not be sufficient to deal with work and private activities. Work-life balance has turned into a predominant matter at work environment particularly in the culture packed with contradicting commitments and responsibilities. Assisting an excellent work-life balance is amongst the retention variables often mentioned from the literature (Anderson et al., 2012). The disagreement involving work and career on one side and exclusive individual lifestyle on the other is presently providing sizeable dimensions within our modern community. Numerous organizations unveiled direct telecommunication link, training and development programs, or even platform applications to guarantee these individual variances tend not to denigrate the quality and productivity of employee’s work. Also, it comes with an increasing demand for more resilient forms of work, which would favorably change the decrease in work-family conflict and employee fulfillment as a whole. Work-life balance guidelines support staff members to minimize the influence of work on family daily life and to decrease the level of stress. In the organizations, these policies often indicate better employee’s loyalty and commitment, contributing to decrease turnover and higher attraction rates. For example, Greenslopes Private Hospital in Australia, an accolade winner in 2005, discovered that investing in greater work and family initiatives resulted to a 5.5% decrease in staff personnel turnover and a 23% reduction in worker’s payment costs. In addition, St. George Bank in Australia, a winner in 2007, documented reduced employee turnover from 18% in 2001 to 15% in 2006 and improved staff satisfaction from 48% of employees in 2002 to 73% in 2006 as a few of the beneficial results of presenting work-life balance initiatives (Queensland Government, 2012). Research suggests that policies aimed at improving the work-life balance are successful if they are implemented in a supportive context that truly allows employees to make meaningful and useful choices. Lockwood (2003) also demonstrates that forward-thinking human resource professionals searching for revolutionary methods to augment their organization’s competitive edge available in the marketplace might discover that work-life balance difficulties provide a conflict resolution process to accommodate all deviances.

CORE DIMENSIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE TO EMPLOYEE RETENTION In relation to the above mentioned management philosophies, various aspects exist that could be utilized to a particular organization and the necessity of these variables may also differ within the organization. It is explained that organizational culture has a distinct qualities that may manifest through four dimensions, namely power, role, achievement and support (Harrison, 1993). Power dimension describes an organization use resources to either satisfy or frustrate the needs of others, and, by so doing, they control behaviors of others. Organizations with this culture use observation and resistance to reach higher level of productivity and competitiveness (Ahmadi et al., 2012). A role dimension describes that structures and systems give protection to subordinates and stability to the organization. The duties and rewards of employees’ roles are clearly © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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defined. This is usually defined in writing as a job description. People in these organizations perform specific functions in order to receive defined rewards and, both the individual and the organization, are expected to keep to their parts of the bargain. The main values of a role dimension are order, dependability, rationality, and consistency and, at best, this type of organization provides stability, justice, and efficient performance. People are protected in their jobs and need to spend less time looking out for themselves, and can devote more energy to their work. The third dimension that has been identified was achievement dimension. It is known as the “aligned” organization because it lines people up behind a common vision or purpose. This type of organization uses the mission to attract and release the personal energy of its employees in the pursuit of common goals. There is an inner commitment within these achievement dimensions of individuals. A typical type of achievement dimension would be an intensive care unit in a hospital or voluntary community organization. Lastly, the issue of support dimension which describes an organizational climate that is based on mutual trust between the individual and the organization (Manetje & Martins, 2009). A support dimension exists solely for the individuals who comprise it, and may be represented diagrammatically as a cluster in which no individual dominates. Each type of cultures are proud and strong and have the ability to move quickly, and it help leaders to be more charismatic and influential (Mehta & Krishnan, 2004). It is interesting to note from the previous research that organizational culture can measured through various questionnaire instruments. These approaches have the advantage of being broad to provide a comprehensive understanding of organizations’ culture by an array of qualitative, self-report survey instruments (Jung et al., 2007) or cross validate data (Yauch & Steudel, 2003). It was concluded that the instruments were among the most established, namely the organizational culture index, culture gap survey, organizational beliefs questionnaire, and corporate culture survey. Moreover, other approaches have been considered which include the competing values framework (Cameron & Quinn, 2006), organizational culture profile, hofstede’s six dimensional measure of organizational culture, and organizational culture inventory. Today, some of these approaches are well established research tools and have been applied in a wide range of culture research. The researchers agree that any organization that is serious about understanding, and perhaps modifying, its culture should undertake such an analysis. Also, organizations need a standard way of defining and measuring culture. More specifically, the need to identify the ways in which cultures differ, and need to be able to measure how much of a particular culture characteristic an organization has (Meyer & Topolnytsky, 2000). Of all dimension models mentioned above, the competing values framework (CVF) is one of the most influential and extensively used models in the area of organizational culture research. Compared with other models and scales, the CVF and its matched scale Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) have better validity and reliability in the context of organization, and are very convenient for practical operations (Yu & Wu, 2009), both current and preferred situations. One may certainly argue that it is insufficient to measure organizational culture values by only two or three dimensions. But CVF does not attempt to explore the panorama of organizational culture. Rather, it looks at the value dimensions related to effectiveness. Moreover, this model can integrate most organizational culture dimensions proposed in the literature. The main aim in this context is helping organizations to exercise CVF in retaining key talented employees. Nevertheless, the emotional attachment of employees to organizations depends on the degree of leadership and apparently their organizational culture (Ritchie, 2004). Therefore, creating a cultural environment in which employees are truly engaged in their work and by their organizations is imperative (Parker & Wright, 2002). Organizations that have continuous policies will likely see an improvement in employee commitment. Moreover, stronger commitment leads to increased employee retention, decreased turnover, and stronger employee morale.

CONCLUSION A primary issue for any organization is its capability to implement retention management for the right individual. Specific components are necessary in influencing employees’ decision to either depart or remain in an organization. However, the significance of other variables should not be inexactitude when contriving a retention policy. Organization must provide with numerous approaches to boost employee retention including: layout a fascinating employee value proposition; establish a complete incentive method which contains more than compensation; give positive standpoint on employee overall performance on regular basis; apply mobility applications with regards to work-life balance; create a culture of engagement, improve and develop management techniques to be effective, since it engages employees while driving better functions simultaneously. The literature forecasts four key motives, these were: employee communication, job satisfaction, management and work-life balance. The terms of reference symbolize a holistic solution for decreasing turnover in organization. This research has revealed some excellent theoretical developments and triggered new research questions. While researchers have made significant progress in understanding why employees leave and how the decision-making process unfolds, there is much yet to be learned. Since © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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the process occurs over time and involves constructs at multiple levels, the methodological and technological advances may aid our efforts in further disentangling the complexity of this research domain.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors would like to extend their appreciation to the University Sains Malaysia for awarding a research grant no. 1001/PTS/822098 that makes this study and paper possible.

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Nasir, S. B., & Sabir, H. M. (2012). The effect of organization culture and job climate on employee retention in Pakistan. Elixir Human Resource Management, 42, 6097-6105. Nguyen, A.N., Taylor, J. and Bradley, S. (2003). Relative pay and job satisfaction: Some new evidence, Working Paper 045, Department of Economics, Lancaster University Management School, available at: http:// www.lums.lancs.ac.uk/publications/viewpdf/ 000187/ Nyamekye, F. (2012). Impact of motivation on employee retention: A case study of standard chartered bank Ghana limited (Master’s thesis, Institute Of Distance Learning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology). Retrieved from http://dspace. knust.edu.gh:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/4889/1/ FAUSTINA%20NYAMEKYE.pdf Parker, O. & Wright, L. (2002). Pay and Employee Commitment: The Missing Link. Ivey Business Journal. Pp. 70. Richard Ivey school of Business. Queensland Government (2012). Work-life balance strategy. http://www.justice.qld.gov.au/fair-and-safework/industrial-relations/work-family-and-lifestyle/work-life-balance-strategy. Riley, J. (2009). Economy No Deterrent; You a Retention Plan, http://www.bcaaz.com/2009/ 10/01/economyno-deterrent-to-employee-job-searches-youd-better-have-a-retention-plan-ready/,October 1. Ritchie, B. W. (2004). Chaos, crises and disasters: A strategic approach to crisis management in the tourism industry. Tourism Management, 25 (6), 669-683. Schein, E. H. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership, 4th ed., Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. Schmidt, S. W. (2007). The relationship between satisfaction with workplace training and overall job satisfaction. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 18 (4), 481-498. Uddin, M. J., Luva, R. H., & Hossian, S. M. (2013). Impact of organizational culture on employee performance and productivity: A case study of telecommunication sector in Bangladesh. International Journal of Business and Management, 8(2), 63-77. Yauch, C. A., & Steudel, H. J. (2003). Complementary use of qualitative and quantitative cultural assessment methods. Organizational Research Methods, 6 (4), 465-481. Yu, T. & Wu, N. (2009). A Review of Study on the Competing Values Framework. International Journal of Business and Management, 4 (7), 37-42. Zwilling, M. (2012). 8 Ways Leaders Can Motivate Employees Beyond Money. Retrieved from http://blog. startupprofessionals.com/2012/01/8-ways-leaders-can-motivate-employees. html, January 11.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

THE CULTURAL EFFECT ON EMOTION AND EMOTIONAL REGULATION IN HUMAN SERVICE ORGANISATIONS: A CASE STUDY ON CHILD AND FAMILY WORKERS Habibie Ibrahim*, Sally Johnson & Philip Gilligan *[email protected] Universiti Malaysia Sabah

Abstract The present research aimed to investigate the use of emotions and emotional regulation in child and family practice in a Malaysian context. The interrelationship between emotion and emotional regulation and cultural context were explored. The overall research strategy was ethnographic. The researchers used a mixture of methods including individual interviews, participant observation, and a questionnaire. The research was conducted in three locations in Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur, Petaling and Kota Kinabalu. Participants consisted of child protectors and rehabilitation officers from the Malaysia Welfare Department and medical social workers in hospitals. This paper presents an analysis of individual interviews in the three locations. A total of twenty-five interviews were conducted (twelve male, thirteen female; age range 29-51). Data were analysed using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The research findings show that societal and professional cultures have influenced how child social workers express and regulate their emotions when dealing with clients. Keywords: emotion, emotional regulation, cultural effect, child and family workers, human service organisations

INTRODUCTION Emotions and emotional regulation are prominent in the workplace (Mann, 1999). Social workers in child and family services are reported as facing difficulties especially in terms of challenging behaviours, abusive and demanding clients (Coffey, Dugdill & Tattersall, 2004). Therefore, the effective regulation of emotion in self and others is seen as an important skill for workers who need to build relationships with clients (Howe, 2008). The term ‘emotion regulations’ is defined as deliberate or automatic changes in any aspect of emotional responses, including eliciting situations, attention, appraisals, subjective experiences, behaviour or physiology. Meanwhile, the term ‘response-focused emotion regulations’ is defined as emotion regulation strategies, which are mainly directed at emotional responses after emotions have been generated. An example of such a process is the act of denying an emotional experience. On the other hand, antecedent-focused emotion regulation strategies are mainly directed at aspects that occur early in the emotional process (Mauss, Bunge & Gross, 2007). These regulatory strategies take place in response to situational cues, where socio-cultural contexts matter so much in automatic emotion regulations. According to Mauss, Bunge and Gross (2007), socio-cultural contexts provide norms about appropriate responses, which are activated in response to emotional cues. In Western countries, the people stress positive aspects of emotions and generally encourage emotional experiences and expressions (Markus & Kitayama, 1991).

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

This paper aimed to investigate the use of emotions and emotional regulation in child and family practice in a Malaysian context. The interrelationship between emotion, emotional regulation and cultural context were explored further.

METHODOLOGY The overall research strategy was ethnographic. The researchers used a mixture of methods including individual interviews, participant observation, and a questionnaire. The research was conducted in three locations in Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur, Petaling and Kota Kinabalu. Participants consisted of child protectors and child rehabilitation officers from the Malaysia Welfare Department and medical social workers in hospitals. This paper presents an analysis of individual interviews in the three locations. A total of twenty-five interviews were conducted (twelve male, thirteen female; age range 29-51). Data were analysed using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

RESULTS There is one theme have been identified concerning the cultural effects on emotion and emotional regulation in the setting of child and family social work namely managing/regulating negative emotions. Under the theme of managing/regulating negative emotions, there are two subthemes: (i) Respect others – societal culture and, (ii) Encouragement of positive attitude in dealing with clients – professional culture. During the interview sessions and series of observation, the Malaysian child social workers revealed frequent emotional states, which they had experienced when dealing with clients, interacting with colleagues and the top management in the workplace. Types of emotions, as well as forms of emotional expressions and regulation will be discussed below. The participants reported that they had experienced a variety of emotional states, such as sadness, resentment, anger, dissatisfaction, love, gratification and others, during their professional practice encounters. With regard to emotional expressions, during the interview sessions, most of the participants disclosed and shared (talked about) their emotional experiences, both positive and negative emotional experiences. The participants reported that they always felt various kinds of emotions when dealing with clients, interacting with colleagues, and working under the organisational management. Moreover, during the series of observation, the researchers also noticed that the participants expressed their emotional states both verbally and nonverbally. For example, their tone of voice was low and they spoke slowly when talking about sad things or events. Besides, they also wrinkled their eyebrows and dropped their upper eyelids. Moreover, they looked directly into the researcher’s eyes and sometimes nodded their head. Nevertheless, how they expressed their emotions depended on certain situations and contexts. Furthermore, during the interview sessions, the participants seemingly preferred to disclose their experiences involving negative emotions as compared to positive emotions. These negative emotions, such as sadness, resentment and anger, were said to have been experienced in all contexts, namely, when handling clients’ cases, working with colleagues and interacting with their superiors at the top level of management. For example, the participant below said: “I felt sad and pity for the baby. Her pregnancy was already 5 months old but she [her client] aborted her baby.” (Medical Social Worker 7, female, aged 37)

In terms of feeling resentful, one of the participants reported: “Sometimes, they [his clients – the unmarried pregnant teenagers] don’t want to tell us. They would rather hide their problems. So, there is emotion. Of course, we feel resentful! We want to help them here, but they don’t want to talk to us. If they don’t talk, it will take longer time to settle their problems!” (Medical Social Worker 5, male, aged 42) Meanwhile, the feelings of anger and dissatisfaction towards the superiors who failed to play their role as the leader were also expressed by the participants. One of the participants said: “How could she/he think that way?! There are many candidates who are more eligible for that post! So I’m dissatisfied!” (Child Protector 3, female, aged 40)

Managing negative emotions The participants reported their experiences of some negative emotions (i.e. Sadness, infuriation and anger) during professional practice. The emotion was said to arise from the clients’ attitudes and behaviours. However, the participants reported that they did not show their negative emotions whilst carrying out their © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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tasks. Participants’ statements included: “My client, a child aged 12 years old, claimed that she was a victim of sexual abuse. She claimed that her stepfather raped her. I am not saying that I don’t believe her [her client], but after I met her mother and the stepfather, I realised that she lied. During the sessions, I didn’t show my anger. I felt infuriated. (Probation Officer 1, female, aged 30) “I tried not to be bias to the mother even if she claimed that I was bias! She claimed that I had received an amount of money from her husband. Of course, I felt angry inside. But, I just let her be. I let her express everything she thought about me. Of course, the anger was there but I could control my feelings at that particular time.” (Child Protector 1, female, aged 35) The participants reported that working experiences could teach them to be competent in regulating their emotions, as well as in handling cases. In addition, such feelings were said to eventually decrease as time passes by and when they are occupied with heavier workloads. The participants reported: “It is true. Maybe at that time I was new and had no exposure to the situations [sad cases]. I was easily saddened in my early career.” Medical Social Worker 7, female, aged 37)

“Previously, when I first started my career here, it took me longer time to manage my emotions. My first case really affected me [a child’s neglect case]. I felt sad even when I was at home. I just kept on thinking of that child (her child client). However, due to workload and being busy with new cases, the sadness faded away.” (Probation Officer 10, female, aged 34) “We felt sad, yes, we felt it. But people say that men must be strong, so that’s why we will show them we won’t cry ... there are no tears. But the female show their sadness easily. We can see tears in their eyes. But because of professionalism, they [female] should also try not to show their tears. They should control their emotions, for example, they should stop for a while, or give an excuse to leave the client for a while.” (Probation Officer 3, male, aged 32)

The participants reported that the emotion of sadness was felt in the early stage of their career. However, they agreed that being too emotional, such as being extremely sad over certain cases, is not wise and useful to be displayed in the workplace. Hence, the participants reported on using emotional regulations in order to handle emotional circumstances. Moreover, sharing their feelings by talking to friends, colleagues and partners also helped them regulate their emotions. One participant reported: “We just share among us! I mean, among the colleagues in this section. They understand because they also face the same issues (laughed). They [his colleagues] know, they know.” (Probation Officer 5, male, aged 45) Other participants also reported: “I don’t want to express them [anger and dissatisfaction] because I don’t want to prolong the situation. I do share my feelings with my close friends who have the same background with me, I mean, we come from the same place [same state]. It helps me to control my feelings, and my emotions will be regulated.” (Child Protector 3, female, aged 40) “If we want to share our anger, as for me, myself, I prefer to talk to my husband. He is the only one who I can share with. I mean, I need someone who I could trust and I need to express it so that I can feel better.” (Child Protector 2, female, aged 33) Furthermore, among the Muslim participants of this study, performing prayers to Allah s.w.t. was also perceived as a way for them to regulate their own and others’ internal distress. The participants reported that they could relieve their internal distress, such as depression, sadness and suppressed anger, by performing prayers and asking for Allah’s help. One of the participants said: “I always pray” (Probation Officer 2, female, aged 35) While another participant reported: “I used to plan a programme for the uncontrolled children. I purposely planned it at night from 9 pm till 5 am. When fajr came, we performed the fajr prayer together. I tackled their emotions by praying together and asking for Allah’s mercy and forgiveness. They [clients] cried and regretted what they had done”. (Child Protector 8, male, aged 39)

Respect others – societal culture The participants reported that they hide their negative emotions towards clients and/or leaders due to their moral duty to respect others. The participants said: “This is what we call the way of our life. Actually, we care about others’ feeling. It is our value in life. It is value in society. We care about clients’ feeling. This is because we were taught since we were little to respect others.” (Child Protector 2, male, aged 35) © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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“I don’t show him [the head of unit]. I don’t tell him. I mean, I don’t express my dissatisfaction towards him. To me, it’s like I just want to show my respect to him as he is my leader. I need to learn from him. What he says, what he shows to us, I just take it as I want to know and take it as a learning process. Even though, sometimes, actually, we can feel that he is wrong … errr … or unethical, of course it’s a pressure. But if I think that I could not stand anymore ... just avoid him .. errr… take our time.” (Medical Social Worker 4, male, aged 32) “I had an experience, where at that time, I worked in another district. I actually couldn’t follow this person [her head of department]. I don’t mean that I didn’t respect him, but it was difficult for me to follow his commands. My first impression was I couldn’t believe this person! He’s not honest! I tried to act professionally, but sometimes, I lost my words! In trying to respect him, I used nice words just because I didn’t want to make him uncomfortable with me, and I also wanted to show my respect to his position.” (Probation Officer 1, female, aged 35) In addition, the workers would avoid expressing their emotions to other parties (i.e. clients, leaders) due to professional purposes and to maintain harmony. The participants said: “ ... for professional practice with clients, I would minimise my negative emotions so that I could restrain myself from expressing them [negative emotions]” (Medical Social Worker 1, female, aged 43) “ ... because we care about our relationships. We know them [his clients]. They always come and meet us. So, it’s hard for us to express our negative emotions” (Child Protector 1, male, aged 35)

Encouragement of positive attitude in dealing with clients/colleagues/management – professional culture Tolerance of others’ emotion was perceived as a good practice in the profession and seen to be adopted as a part of the professional culture. “We have been advised by our seniors that it is useless if we argue or not use toleration with our clients even if we disagree with them. This is because they [clients] are the public who may not understand our tasks. So, as government servants, we need to think positively and ensure our clients understand our tasks so that at the end, we can achieve our expectations.” (Probation Officer 2, male, aged 29) Emotions can be used in acquiring one’s confidence at the workplace. The use of emotions is also dependant on situations and cases. Another participant, who is also the head of children rehabilitation institution, perceived emotions as beneficial to be used in gaining support and confidence for programmes that one wants to conduct. He has been working as a probation officer for more than 20 years and has been holding the post of a leader in this institution for the past five years. “With regard to any decisions related to the management or administration after I’ve made references to my staff and people who are in the top level, at the final stage, I need to make the decision myself. I use emotions, but the right emotions ... I mean the emotions in my relationship with my staff. The challenging decision is when it is related to policies. For example, if I want to create a new programme or activity for the children in this institution, I need to think of how far it will benefit the children, man power, and financial matter. All these things will make us think a lot before we make a decision because it involves the government money. I don’t want to carry out a programme where our children will have no interest in it. It will waste our money. So, we would feel doubtful. So, that’s why I need to share it with my colleagues, my staff. I need their support. So, I use emotions and emotional intelligence, but this depends on situations and cases.” (Probation Officer 4, male, aged 47)

It is likely that expressing anger (or dissatisfaction) and resentment openly s considered inappropriate as this will threaten working relationship and interpersonal harmony between clients and workers, or staff and leader. It seems like they prefer to avoid emotional expressions during their professional encounters.

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION Research findings seem to show that Malaysian social workers frequently talked about expressing negative emotions. This may be due to some possibilities which relate to the contexts of social work, such as working with vulnerable, poor and problematic people. Howe (2008) states that working with people who are under stress is one of the basics in social work practice. Thus, the expression of negative emotions among the workers is seemingly relevant in its context, purpose and cause. The emotion of sadness was felt when relating to someone’s fate, such as the client’s fate. Meanwhile, the feeling of resentment was reported when the clients did not cooperate with them during assessment processes. Another negative emotion, i.e. anger, was also reported when someone failed to play his or her role. The research findings seem to show that emotion (i.e. negative emotions) arise because of the work itself, the social relationships held at work, and how a person feels about himself or herself due to work, social and professional relationships. In the traditional trend that opposes the reason to passion and used to draw a rigid distinction between reason and passion in the workplace, the emotions which fall out of the cognitive aspects © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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of work would have been the only accepted one. However, the research findings seem to show that emotions are ubiquitous in the workplace and have an important part to play (see also Hess, 2003). The findings also seem to show that emotions are caused by the interaction with other people. In this case, this refers to the interaction between workers and their clients, as well as the leaders. The child social workers reported that the occurrence of emotions is related to their interaction with people who are connected to them in the workplace. Furthermore, emotional experiences could help the participants to be efficient in their tasks, particularly positive emotions (e.g. emotional labour). In addition, the child social workers in this study also perceived that emotions at work are linked to image and self-image emotions. An important class of emotions is those that monitor the goals of image and self-image which includes gratification (Poggi & Germani, 2003). The present research findings have a relevant effect on how the Malaysian child social workers see themselves, and it was shown that their emotions at work are also linked to their self-image. Image and self-image emotion (e.g. religious and gratefulness) seem to guide the child social workers in how to express and regulate their emotions. The negative emotion were suppessed when dealing with clients because the workers tended to perceive negative emotions as a form of weakness. This may be related to collectivist orientation of the East generally, and Malaysian cultures particularly. The cultures in Malaysian societies and organisations may reflect their suppression of negative emotions in the workplace, for instance, to maintain group harmony or organisational procedures in practice. As mentioned by Averill, Koo Chon & Woong Hahn (2001), the Eastern societies tend to emphasise group harmony over individual interest or more proper speaking, whereby the group’s welfare is seen as inseparable from that of the individuals. By contrast, the Western societies, at least over the past several centuries, emphasise the rights of the individuals, even at the expense of the group. The interaction between social workers and their clients in human service organisations demands the concept of emotional labour (see Ozmete, 2011), in which the workers are required to control their emotions to conform social and professional norms. The findings of this research show that societal and professional cultures have influenced how child social workers express and regulate their emotions when dealing with clients. This study supports the view that cultural factors can influence the outcomes of emotion suppression (Butler & Gross, 2009). For example, the workers in this study who suppressed their emotions remained interpersonally responsive. In addition, the participants perceived that regulating their emotions is important in helping them to finish their work. Thus, emotional labour is important and vital part in facilitating and regulating the expression of emotions in the workplace (Hochschild, 1983).

CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION How the child social workers managed their emotional experiences was related to how they regulated their emotions. There were many ways on how the Malaysian social workers could regulate their emotions. Thinking positively, showing understanding, acting and talking calmly, leaving the situation for a while, talking to someone who they trusted, and performing prayers were among the ways that could help these child workers regulate the negative emotions. The Malaysian social workers showed their emotional competency by regulating the negative emotions in a positive way. They understood the emotions which they experienced; however, due to professional and social rules (i.e. showing respect to people who were in the high ranks), they had to suppress their emotions. In general, sharing the experience with someone who also faces the same emotional experience, or who has the same personal background (e.g. place of origin), or who understands and is trustworthy (i.e. a close friend or a partner) is perceived as the right way of regulating one’s emotions, particularly the feeling of anger. The present research gives an implication in which the concept of emotional labor related to interactions between social workers and their clients in human service organisations. Thus, the construction and regulation of emotion at work are important and need to be emphasised. This can be offered through modules during their studies in universities such as human growth and development, Social Work Practice I: Individual and Family as well as fitness for practice and professional development.

REFERENCES Averill, J. R., Koo Chon, K. and Woong Hahn, D. (2001). “Emotions and Creativity, East and West”. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 4(3), 165-183 Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006). Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. Butler, E.A. and Gross, J.J. (2009). “Emotion and Emotion Regulation: Integrating Individual and Social Levels of Analysis”, Emotion Review, 1(1), 86-87. Coffey, M., Dugdill, L., and Tattersall, A. 2004. “Stress in Social Services: Mental Well-Being, Constraints and Job Satisfaction”, British Journal of Social Work, 34(5), 735-746. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Hess, U. (2003). “Emotions at Work”. Burgundy Report. Center for Interuniversity Research and Analysis on Organizations. Hochschild, A.R. (1983). The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling. Berkeley: University of California Press. Howe, D. (2008). The Emotionally Intelligent Social Workers. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Ozmete, E. (2011). “Social Work as an Emotional Labor: Management of Emotions in Social Work Profession” [online] Available at: [Accessed 27 May 2014] Mann, S. (1999). “Emotion at Work: To What Extent are We Expressing, Suppressing, or Faking It?” European Journal of work and organizational psychology, 8(3), 347-369. Ozmete, E. 2011. “Social Work as an Emotional Labor: Management of Emotions in Social Work Profession” [online] Available at: [Accessed 27 May 2014] Markus, H. R. and Kitayama, S. (1991). “Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion and Motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253. Mauss, I. B., Bunge, S. A. and Gross, J. J. (2007). “Automatic emotion regulation”. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1, 146-167. Poggi, I. and Germani, M. (2003). “Emotions at Work”. Rome. In: S.Bagnara, A.Rizzo, S.Pozzi, F.Rizzo and L.Save., eds. Proceeding 8th International Conference on Human Aspects of Advanced Manufacturing: Agility and Hybrid Automation, 461-468.

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CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY: AN ANALYSIS OF CURRENT PRACTICES IN THE HOTEL INDUSTRY Fazreena Mansor* & Ismail Baba *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract The fame of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is undeniable and many concerned hotels have already performed CSR practices. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to analyze and identify the current CSR practices by the worldwide hotels and specifically investigate the status and trend of CSR in the hotel industry. This is a concept paper and the methodology used is a secondary data based on in-depth literature review in order to determine how hotels integrate CSR in their core businesses. The analysis is done based on previous conducted study from relevant journals, articles and books. The findings reveal that the main inhibitors were existing confusion over the meaning of CSR and lack of understanding of the CSR concept .The results show a predominance of environmental concerns rather than social impact. Findings require an urgent need for clear conceptualization and genuine directions for CSR involvement by the hotels industry. Keywords: corporate social responsibility, hotels, CSR practices

INTRODUCTION The rise of sustainability wave has precipitated the decision for business in 21st century to behave decently by answering the clarion call to adopt more serious corporate social responsibility (CSR). “What gets measured gets managed” has added immense pressures for all industries, as both domestic and international companies are becoming conversant with CSR practices. In the aftermath of the corporate catastrophes, stakeholders are now demanding the business to operate in socially responsible fashion and they perceived to be always attention-getting. Therefore, a tremendous surge of CSR has become more familiar for business institutions worldwide since the concept also acquired a new reverberation in the global economy (Jamali & Mirshak, 2007).

CSR IN GENERAL CSR is widely accepted as a concept with major issue in the CSR discussion. Among the hot debate is the lack of an agreed normative key to underpin CSR practices (Scherer & Palazzo, 2007) and this issue has been associated with the absence of commonly-agreed definition of CSR (Oyeke, 2009). Even though CSR is a term without strict definition it is still prevalent in use albeit with the proliferation of myriads overlapping and competing concepts such as ‘corporate responsibility’ or ‘business responsibility’, ‘corporate citizenship’ or ‘global business citizenship’, ‘corporate community engagement’, ‘community relations’, ‘corporate stewardship’ and ‘social responsibility’ (see for example, Werther & Chandler, 2006 : 6). Since CSR is a notoriously complex term to describe, these complementary concepts are all vying to become universally accepted and agreed-upon definition in the field (Carroll & Shabana, 2010). Discussions upon the employed alternative terms, however, have reached an impasse since they create symptomatic of discomfort with the CSR term. CSR itself is an Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

imperfect terminology, but by adding additional terms to existing muddy discussions can cause prolonged vagueness. (Coles, Fenclova, & Dinan, 2013). In fact, these concepts are highly correlated to another because they highlight similar underlying keys and themes such as values, balance and accountability (Schwartz & Carroll, 2008). As a consequence, these concepts can be tacit congruent but not identical ideas. The term of CSR as a global trend has grown exponentially and witnessed resurgence in recent years. Indeed, various activities from recycling, working with surrounding communities and tackling environmental concerns are now considered under the umbrella of CSR. Despite of being widely used term, the concept is still an embryonic and has not been uniformly coined, with prolonged disparities in definition. At its broadest, CSR is about the way business strikes a balance between economic, social and environmental obligations and on the other hand meets expectation of wide array of stakeholders. More specifically, the Commission of the European Communities (2001) interprets CSR as “a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis”. However, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) explains CSR as the business commitment to contribute to sustainable economic development, employees, their families, the local community and society as a whole in order to improve their livelihood (WBCSD, 1999). The last well known definition of CSR is defined by WBCSD (2000) as a continuing effort by business to behave ethically sound and contribute to economic growth while improving the quality of the well-being. It is clearly that though CSR term has no universally accepted definition, the proposed definitions are basically boiled down to the same elements namely profit, planet and people.

CSR PRACTICES AND HOTEL INDUSTRY CSR at global level As far as its volume and value are concerned, sustainability wave has gained so much importance in social and environmental consciousness by the worldwide concerned hotels since most of them have now made concerted efforts in making good headway in CSR (Tsai, Hsu, Chen, Lin, & Chen, 2010). Hyatt Hotel, for instance, is a globally renowned hospitality industry that integrates CSR into all aspects of their activities. Socially responsible business practices and serious commitment on their surrounding communities have been pivotal to Hyatt’s culture since they engaged critically with their internal and external stakeholders. The hotel has recently initiated a new corporate philanthropy program “Ready to Thrive” which devoted in upgrading lives of communities and creating economic sense in a way (Koo, 2013). Thus, many hotels have incorporated CSR as part of their strategic tools and marketing strategy. Take, for example, Marriott International practice strategic CSR through a program called “Pathway to Independence” by cultivating needed talent and providing extraordinary job professions. The result mutually benefits both, the hotel and societies, whereby the program substantially decreased Marriott’s turnover in a way that CSR enables tangible business benefits (Heslin & Ochoa, 2008 ; Porter & Kramer, 2006).

CSR in different regional context Behind the emergence trends and growing number of hotels to behave in a more sustainable way, hotel industries are still in their initial phase of CSR development. Indeed, a survey undertaken by PricewaterhouseCoopers (2006) into 14 of Europe leading hotel chains shows that even though some progress has been made, hotel sector is still lag behind other European industries in responding to corporate responsibility challenges. Font, Walmsley, Cogotti, McCombes and Häusler (2012) in their study to examine ten international hotel groups with a strong presence in Europe indicates that the focus on CSR issue was predominantly inward- looking. Hotel is more interested on CSR impacts on the organization itself rather than on its audiences. There was a strong emphasize on environmental impact which has been presented in most policies, however a focus on socio-economic issues of the hotel was totally limited. Another crucial study is in the European context on the top three of most popular hotel in Croatia has also witnessed similar pattern of CSR practices. The findings are quite disappointing because CSR practices have not been widely accepted while social consciousness is still lacking among the surveyed hotels (Golja & Nižić, 2010). Nevertheless, the fact remains that rapid expansion of CSR has provided avenues for economic growth for many countries, regions and social groups. Besides, social responsibility practice has become a main concern for both large corporations and small medium enterprises as they are competing to be seen as socially vibrant entities. Unlike large multinational hotel chains, some smaller hotel groups still struggle with the proposed ideology and belief CSR is only applicable for large businesses with adequate resources. It is in tandem with a study done by Maccarrone (2009) confirms that size of the company, budget and international dimension turned out to be relevant factors supporting CSR achievement. For instance, in most West African region, like Nigeria, small medium sized hotels can act as a vital platform for CSR to flourish since high proportion © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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of room revenue is generated by them. However, according to study undertaken by Efiong, Usang, Inyang and Effiong (2013), exploring CSR engagement of the hotel industry in Nigeria found that there was a low level of CSR sensibility among the smaller hotel groups. Unsurprisingly, the level of CSR involvement is still heavily weighted towards environmental concerns with little acceptance of social impacts. At this instance, the area of CSR involvement in Nigeria is still at its infancy stage in fact smaller hotel groups should viewed CSR comprehensively in order to be on par with the superior companies. CSR activities in many ways have numerous benefits for hotels in terms of creating a positive reputation, generate competitive advantage, enhanced workers’ motivation, increasing sensitivity for social needs and to some extent provide significant economic benefits. Thailand, a country in the continent of Asia, for example, perceives CSR as a “change agent” particularly in addressing complex social and environmental issues. However, in some circumstances, international chain hotels in Thailand are focusing on strengthening their reputations and revenues in the first place with the aim of getting certificate and recognition from publics. Conversely, local hotels may only focus on costs and long term sustainability due to their resource deficiency (Khunon & Muangasame, 2013). The repercussion from that will cause local and smaller hotel groups to only deliver what they have promised as their CSR involvement is based on sufficiency economy approach. With such claims, a recent study in Kho Samui Island reveals that most of the visible hotels (4 and 5 star hotels) are concerned with CSR practices while environmental sector is the most preferred dimension after all (Wuncharoen, 2013). In this context, the more hotels regard CSR programs as a rational investment and as part of their core business and strategies, the more sustainable CSR activities will be. And it seems, as far as social needs are concerned, the more the merrier.

CSR in Malaysia Malaysia, being one of a well developed tourism hub in the South East Asian region had also demonstrated a growing sensibility of social responsibility in recent times. The increasing number of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the Malaysia Trade Unions Congress (MTUC), Consumers Association of Penang (CAP), the Federation of Malaysia Consumers Associations (FOMCA), Malaysian Nature Society and World Wide Fund (WWF) Malaysia trigger extremely in the wake of social and environmental awareness in Malaysia. Even the Government of Malaysia has been discussing about CSR as a boardroom agenda for several years along with the establishment of Prime Minister’s CSR awards and National Tourism policy to encourage greater degree of CSR implementation amongst the hotel sector. Despite of running the industry within permissible social and environmental constraints, the extent to which Malaysian is doing CSR is still in its rudimentary stage (Nejati & Amran, 2009). Currently in the context of Malaysian scenario, most of CSR practices do not directly meet the expectations of local communities although some multinational companies posses good CSR reputation (Amran & Devi, 2008). CSR initiative is more on occasional gesture since many businesses will express their magnanimity by providing donations to the poverty-stricken, elderly as well as orphanages during the holiday season. These activities are normally will be held in the large five star hotels with the existence of the media to grant them publicity (Amran, Zain, Sulaiman, Sarker & Ooi, 2013). And according to Ramasamy and Ting (2004), smaller companies in Malaysia have been experienced financial and organizational constraints which curtail myriad CSR activities and appeared to be lacking in their commitment with regards to CSR. Consequently, many companies will conduct charitable activities as a means in upgrading their public relations (PR) practices and likely to select the programs that have most direct impact on their performance. Indeed, business cultures in Malaysia probably have mistaken CSR as solely corporate philanthropy when in fact the better world is not created through only charitable deeds or sympathy. Too much open and clear philanthropic giving will lead to the public skepticism to conclude a business’s intention is not genuine and hence swept away all the intended goodwill (Blackburn, 2010). At this point, Malaysian organizations including the hotel sector regard CSR to be more on sporadic motion and on the other hand such practices are always motivated by public relations and underlying financial motives. In fact, CSR seems to be benefiting more on organizations than society does. It is obviously to notice many companies are only practicing certain facets of CSR and apparently the most prevalent approach of sustainable practices are donations, sponsorship and providing educational support whereas in reality there are explicitly a plethora of other CSR issues that need to be addressed (Lu & Castka, 2009). Nonetheless, most of CSR practices in Malaysia that have been identified in academic hospitality literature placed more importance on environmental aspect as are evidenced in the study of Siti-Nabiha, George, Wahid, Amran, Abustan and Mahadi (2011), Kasim and Scarlat (2007) and Kasim (2009). As been discussed earlier on, environmental concerns have also received an increase of attention at regional level. The ultimate reason behind such trend is because environment had the strongest predictive power for consumer to value the corporate efforts for CSR. Hotels subsequently emphasize more on this factor as part of their

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CSR implementation and eventually will elevate its brand image (Kucukusta, Mak, & Chan, 2013). It implies the hotel largely avoid instantaneously anything that do not add value to the business particularly on its performance. Ironically, hotel relies more on society for its ubiquitous presence and growth than many other sub-sectors of the tourism industry. This symbolic connection is essential in the success of business because social demands are considered to give certain authenticity and prestige. Therefore, since CSR is a win-win situation the focus on the impact of hotel’s activities should be on a wider basis to include social consideration as being indispensable for CSR development and credibility.

CONCLUSION A generic conclusion is that CSR terms are no longer idiosyncratic for the hoteliers worldwide especially in both discussed regional and national context but the practice is still more often seen as an ad hoc approach and something nice-to-do add on. Apparently, hotels are practicing CSR in their own way without understanding the notion as to what CSR actually is. Such practices do not align with the CSR conceptions and many hotels remain confused about the true meaning of CSR and its ideology. It is a sign of immaturity of the CSR implementation where the key inhibitor is narrow view of the definition itself. Irrespective of what these countries have practically achieved from sustainable practices, hotels are still at the beginning of their journey in preparing themselves to meet the global challenges and sustainable tourism market. Henceforth, it is vital for hoteliers to comprehend every components of CSR to ensure that they developed them comprehensively and genuinely. While CSR is not a new fashion in today’s parlance, it is not clearly evident on to what extent hotels have contributed towards ecological and societal issues. The study predominantly looks into CSR initiatives whether the hotels are well-informed of to what CSR is and its connection with business responsibility. It is believed that involvement of serious CSR by hoteliers has significantly contributed to sustainable development as it stresses on the balanced integration of economic, societal and environmental growth, thus, for that to happen, a more genuine approach of CSR should be developed and promoted by the hotels industry.

REFERENCES Amran, A., & Devi, S. S. (2008). The impact of government and foreign affiliate influence on corporate social reporting: The case of Malaysia. Managerial Auditing Journal, 23(4), 386–404. doi:10.1108/02686900810864327 Amran, A., Zain, M.M., Sulaiman, M., Sarker, T., & Ooi, S.K. (2013). Empowering society for better corporate social responsibility (CSR): the case of Malaysia. Kajian Malaysia, 31(1), 57-78. Available at: http://web.usm. my/km/31(1)2013/KM%2031(1)%20ART%204%20(57-78).pdf (11 November, 2013) Blackburn, W. R. (2007). The Sustainability Handbook: The Complete Management Guide to Achieving Social, Economic and Environmental Responsibility. Washington, DC: Environmental Law Institute. Carroll, A. B., & Shabana, K. M. (2010). The Business Case for Corporate Social Responsibility: A Review of Concepts, Research and Practice. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12(1), 85–105. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00275.x Coles, T., Fenclova, E., & Dinan, C. (2013). Tourism and corporate social responsibility: A critical review and research agenda. Tourism Management Perspectives, 6, 122–141. doi:10.1016/j.tmp.2013.02.001 Efiong, E. J., Usang, O., Inyang, I. O., & Effiong, C. (2013). Corporate Social Responsibility in Small and Medium Scale Enterprises in Nigeria: An Example from the Hotel Industry. International Journal of Business and Management, 8(14), 119–126. doi:10.5539/ijbm.v8n14p119 Font, X., Walmsley, A., Cogotti, S., McCombes, L., & Häusler, N. (2012). Corporate social responsibility: The disclosure–performance gap. Tourism Management, 33(6), 1544–1553. doi:10.1016/j. tourman.2012.02.012 Golja, T., & Nižić, M.K. (2010). Corporate social responsibility in tourism- the most popular tourism destinations in Croatia: Comparative analysis. Journal of Cotemporary Management Issue, 15(2), 107-121. Retrieved from http://www.efst.hr/management/Vol15No2-2010/6-Golja%20-%20Krstinic%20Nizic%20 finalno.pdf (25 January, 2014) Heslin, P. A., & Ochoa, J. D. (2008). Understanding and developing strategic corporate social responsibility. Organizational Dynamics, 37(2), 125–144. doi:10.1016/j.orgdyn.2008.02.002 Jamali, D., & Mirshak, R. (2007). Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Theory and Practice in a Developing Country Context. Journal of Business Ethics, 72(3), 243–262. doi:10.1007/s10551-006-9168-4 Kasim, A., & Scarlat, C. (2007). Business Environmental Responsibility in the Hospitality Industry. Management Journal, 2(1), 5-23. Available at: http://www.fm-kp.si/zalozba/ISSN/1854-4231/2_091-093.pdf (11 November, 2013) Kasim, A. (2009). Managerial attitudes towards environmental management among small and medium hotels © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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in Kuala Lumpur. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(6), 709-725. doi: 10.1080/09669580902928468 Koo, M-H. (2013, August 15). CSR in the hospitality industry: Hyatt’s ‘Ready to Thrive’ education initiative. Leadership. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/meehyoekoo/2013/08/15/csr-in-thehospitality-industry-hyatts-ready-to-thrive-education-initiative/ (25 January, 2014) Khunon, S., & Muangasame, K. (2013). The Differences between Local and International Chain Hotels in CSR Management: Empirical Findings from a Case Study in Thailand. Asian Social Science, 9(5), 209–225. doi:10.5539/ass.v9n5p209 Kucukusta, D., Mak, A., & Chan, X. (2013). Corporate social responsibility practices in four and five-star hotels: Perspectives from Hong Kong visitors. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 34, 19–30. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2013.01.010 Lu, J. Y., & Castka, P. (2009). Corporate social responsibility in Malaysia-Experts ’ Views and Perspectives. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 16(3), 146–154. doi: 10.1002/csr.184 Maccarrone, P. (2009). Factors influencing the attitude towards corporate social responsibility: some empirical evidence from Italy. Corporate Governance, 9(2), 103–119. doi:10.1108/14720700910946569 Nejati, M., & Amran, A. (2009). Corporate social responsibility and SMEs: exploratory study on motivations from a Malaysian perspective. Business Strategy Series, 10(5), 259–265. doi:10.1108/17515630910989150 Oyeke, A. (2009). Theorising Corporate Social Responsibility as an Essentially Contested Concept: Is a Definition Necessary? Journal of Business Ethics, 89(4), 613-627. doi: 10.1007/s10551-008-0021-9 Ramasamy B., & Ting, H.W. (2004). A Comparative Analysis of Corporate Social Responsibility Awareness: Malaysian and Singaporean firms. Journal of Corporate Citizenship, Spring2004 (13), 109-123. Retrieved from Business Source Complete Database. Scherer, A.G., & Palazzo, G. (2007). Towards a political conception of corporate responsibility: Business and society seen from a Habermasian perspective. Academy of Management Review, 32(4), 1096-1120. doi: 10.5465/AMR.2007.26585837 Schwartz, M., & Carroll, A.B. (2008). Integrating and unifying competing and complimentary frameworks: the search for a common core in the business and society field. Business and Society, 47(2), 148-186. doi: 10.1177/0007650306297942 Siti-Nabiha, A.K., George, R.A., Wahid, N.A., Amran, A., Abustan, I., & Mahadi, R. (2011). A field survey of environmental initiaytives at selected resorts in Malaysia. World Applied Sciences Journal, 12, 56-63. Available at: http://www.idosi.org/wasj/wasj12(T&H)11/8.pdf (18 December, 2013) Tsai, W.-H., Hsu, J.-L., Chen, C.-H., Lin, W.-R., & Chen, S.-P. (2010). An integrated approach for selecting corporate social responsibility programs and costs evaluation in the international tourist hotel. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(3), 385–396. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2009.12.001 Werther, W. B. Jr. & Chandler, D. (2006). Strategic corporate social responsibility: Stakeholder in a global environment. London: Sage Publications. World Business Council for Sustainable Development. (2000). Corporate social responsibility: making good business sense. Geneva, Switzerland: WBCSD Publications. Wuncharoen, C. (2013). The relationship between corporate social responsibility and firm performance from the hotel industry of Kho Samui Island, Thailand. Proceedings of 3rd Global Accounting, Finance and Economics Conference. Rydges Melbourne, Australia, 5-7 May. Retrieved from http:// www.wbiworldconpro.com/uploads/melbourne-conference-2013/accounting/1367471032_123Chutima.pdf (20 December, 2013)

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SECTION XI

SOCIOLOGY AND WELL-BEING

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PENGLIBATAN PELAJAR UNIVERSITI TERHADAP AKTIVITI SOSIAL DALAM KOMUNITI PADA WAKTU SENGGANG: KAJIAN PERBANDINGAN DI MALAYSIA DAN CHINA Suzanah Jumat, Andi Muhammad Yusuf Andi Maddukelleng*, Muhamad Roslan Omar, Mohd Mahzan Awang& Anuar Ahmad *[email protected] Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Abstract Kajian ini bertujuan melihat tahap kekerapan penglibatan pelajar universiti terhadap aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti pada waktu senggang dengan membuat perbandingan antara pelajar Malaysia dengan China. Di samping itu, kajian ini juga melihat kepada faktor yang menjadi penyumbang kepada aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti pelajar. Kajian dijalankan dengan menggunakan kaedah kuantitatif iaitu pengumpulan data menggunakan satu set soal selidik yang melibatkan maklumat demografi, tahap kekerapan penglibatan dan faktor penglibatan pelajar dalam aktiviti. Seramai 80 orang pelajar yang terlibat dalam kajian ini yang melibatkan 40 orang pelajar dari Malaysia dan 40 orang dari China. Data yang diperoleh dianalisis berdasarkan penghuraian peratusan dan min dengan menggunakan perisian “Stastistical Packages For The Social Sciences” (SPSS) versi 21. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan antara trend pelajar Malaysia berbanding pelajar China dari aspek yang dikaji iaitu tahap kekerapan dalam item menyertai aktiviti yang dikaji menunjukkan hampir keseluruhannya mencatatkan pada tahap kadang-kadang atau satu kali sebulan (kadang-kadang) kecuali pada aktiviti sukan dan rekreasi yang berada pada tahap kerap dengan 40% dan 45%.Sementara itu, pelajar China lebih tertumpu kepada aktiviti sukan dengan tahap kekerapan lebih empat kali sebulan 47.5%. Dari segi faktor penglibatan menunjukkan peratusan pelajar Malaysia lebih tinggi dengan 71.5% berbanding China 66%. Walaupun terdapat perbezaan tetapi ianya bukanlah perbezaan yang ketara yang ditunjukkan oleh sampel kedua-dua negara. Ini berkemungkinan di pengaruhi oleh dasar kerajaan, gaya hidup serta persaingan yang wujud dalam kalangan populasi di kedua-dua negara. Justeru itu, pihak pentadbiran kerajaan dan universiti haruslah lebih peka di dalam menyediakan aktiviti-aktiviti sampingan mahasiswa di dalam mengisi masa senggang mereka. Perancangan yang rapi mampu memberi kesan yang positif kepada mahasiswa serta menarik minat mereka untuk melaksanakan aktiviti tersebut. Keywords: pelajar universiti, aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti, waktu senggang

PENGENALAN Penglibatan pelajar universiti dalam aktiviti sosial komuniti pada waktu senggang banyak mendatangkan manfaat. Sementara itu, universiti pula merupakan medium terbaik yang mendedahkan pelajar kepada kemahiran insaniah yang berbeza dari institusi lain. Aspek berkomunikasi dan juga budaya bekerja berpasukan di semai dalam kalangan rakan pelbagai etnik dan bangsa misalnya menganjurkan acara sambutan perayaan, program mobiliti pelajar dan khidmat masyarakat dengan rakan sebaya, pensyarah dan anggota masyarakat. Persoalannya mengapa mahasiswa agak keberatan memainkan peranan memberi sumbangan sewaktu dan tindak balas yang baik dalam aktiviti bersifat kemasyarakatan dan kebajikan? Adakah istilah pengurusan senggang dalam kalangan mahasiswa kurang difahami konsepnya? Walaupun aktiviti komuniti dalam masa senggang menjanjikan pengalaman , pembangunan keperibadian dan kebolehpasaran yang baik, namun Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

penglibatan pelajar IPT masih kurang memberangsangkan. Sehubungan itu satu pendekatan perlu dijalankan dalam usaha mengubah persepsi pelajar terhadap penyertaan aktiviti kemasyarakatan di dalam komuniti.

PERNYATAAN MASALAH Walau bagaimanapun penyertaan pelajar dalam aktiviti bersifat aktiviti sukan agak kurang memberangsangkan. Ini disokong oleh Fu, Chong dan Ng (2004) mendapati tahap kecerdasan fizikal dalam kalangan masyarakat China lebih rendah dengan masyarakat Canada, USA dan Jepun. Ini di sokong oleh Fu, Chung dan Louise (1998) mendapati lebih 80 % golongan belia hanya bersenam hanya sekali seminggu. Lindner dan Speak (1950 mengatakan 50 % pelajar tidak gemar bersenam. Ini disebabkan oleh 3 faktor iaitu budaya dan persaingan dalam pelajaran menyebabkan pelajar China lebih fokus pada pelajaran. Kedua adalah kerana kesesakan persekitaran tempat tinggal menyebabkan pelajar kurang bermotivasi untuk bersenam dan kekurangan kemahiran bersukan menyebabkan mereka memilih untuk tidak bersukan. Aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti mempunyai potensi untuk berperanan sebagai agen perubahan dan pembangunan jati diri di kalangan pelajar universiti. Potensi ini akan menjadi kenyataan apabila pelajar berkeupayaan menjana potensi yang ada melalui saluran yang disediakan oleh pihak universiti mahupun pihak-pihak luar. Melanjutkan pelajaran di peringkat universiti merupakan idaman semua pelajar sejak di bangku sekolah. Selain menjadi “tiket” untuk mendapat pekerjaan yang baik, universiti juga adalah tempat untuk melatih sifat kepemimpinan dan keterampilan diri manusia terpelajar atau mahasiswa sebagai pemimpin yang akan berbakti kepada masyarakat dan negara apabila tamat pengajian. Menurut Che Mohd Amil (1991), menyatakan di negara kita kesedaran terhadap betapa pentingnya menyediakan pelajar universiti supaya mempunyai sikap bertanggungjawab telah lama wujud dan direalisasikan dengan usaha-usaha di pelbagai peringkat khususnya dalam aktiviti sosial komuniti. Sama ada di peringkat sekolah, institusi pengajian tinggi dan di kalangan pelajar-pelajar mahupun masyarakat. Usaha memupuk sikap ini telah dilakukan melalui penganjuran di peringkat universiti, masyarakat dan pihak kerajaan. Malangnya ramai pelajar yang terpengaruh dengan pendapat yang menyatakan bahawa penyertaan dalam kegiatan aktiviti sosial tidak mendatangkan apa-apa faedah dan hanya membazirkan masa dan wang ringgit. Justeru itu, tidak hairanlah sekiranya hanya sebilangan kecil sahaja pelajar yang bergiat cergas dalam kegiatan aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti ini berbanding dengan bilangan sebenar pelajar sesebuah universiti. Merujuk Mashitah (1994) pula, terdapat juga pelajar yang terlibat dalam kegiatan kokurikulum berkecenderungan aktif dalam sukan tetapi tidak berminat dalam kegiatan lain seperti unit beruniform atau persatuan akademik dan begitu sebaiknya. Berdasarkan maklumat di atas, kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti penglibatan pelajar universiti Malaysia dan China dalam aktiviti sosial komuniti pada waktu senggang. Penekanan terhadap kekerapan penglibatan dan faktor keterlibatan di kalangan pelajar universiti Malaysia dan China terhadap aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti di kedua-dua negara.

SOROTAN KARYA Sejarah perkembangan organisasi belia pada awalnya bermula sejak zaman pentadbiran kolonial British. Beberapa konsep dan model organisasi belia yang sudah bertapak kukuh di Eropah dan Britain sama ada bercorak keagamaan, kebajikan, pengembaraan dibawa masuk dan berkembang sehingga ke hari ini. Data terdahulu pada tahun 1980 terdapat 19 persatuan belia berdaftar sama ada terlibat dalam kesatuan keagamaan, sukarelawan ataupun kebajikan (Rujuk Jadual 1.1). Jadual 1.1: Persatuan Belia Kebangsaan Malaysia Tahun 1980

Bil

Pertubuhan

Anggaran ahli

1

Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia ( ABIM )

40,000

2

Briged Putera Malaysia

1,467

3

Briged Puteri Malaysia

1,200

4

Gabungan Persatuan Pelajar Melayu Semenanjung (GPMS)

5

Gerakan Belia 4B

6

Gerakan Belia Bersatu Malaysia

58,059

7

Majlis Belia Kristian

55,048

73,450 200,000

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Bil

Pertubuhan

Anggaran ahli

8

Majlis Belia FELDA Wilayah Selatan

19,409

9

Majlis Belia Hindu

25,310

10

Persatuan Belia Buddha

36,000

11

Persatuan Belia Buddhist

6,000

12

Persatuan Belia Kebangsaan Sabah

57,000

13

Persatuan Kebangsaan Pelajar – pelajar Islam Malaysia (PKPIM)

30,625

14

Persatuan Kelab- Kelab Belia Malaysia

15

Persatuan Pandu Puteri

46,500

16

Persatuan Belia Metodis

6,200

17

Persatuan Pengakap Malaysia

81,776

18

Persatuan Belia Sarawak (SABERKAS)

68,243

19

Persatuan St. John Ambulans

22,700

189,000

Sumber: Sekretariat Belia Malaysia dan Bah. Belia Kementerian Kebudayaan belia dan Sukan Malaysia, (1980)

Jadual 1.2 : Penggunaan Waktu Senggang Untuk Aktiviti Sukarelawan

Penglibatan

Peratusan (%)

Ya

18.2

Tidak

81.8

Sumber : Institusi Penyelidikan Pembangunan Belia Malaysia, 2011

Pasca selepas Perang Dunia Kedua menyaksikan lebih banyak pertubuhan, bersifat ke Melayuan dibentuk antaranya GPMS (1948), (PKPIM) yang menggabungkan sebahagian besar golongan pendidik, pelajar maktab, dan siswazah. Era 1950-an hingga 60-an menyaksikan evolusi dalam corak berpersatuan iaitu pertubuhan belia telah mula keluar dari kampus. Misalnya Briget Putera (1959), Briget Puteri (1960) Young Malaysia Movement (1960), belia 4B (1965) dan Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (1971). Kepesatan aktiviti berpersatuan mula mendapat perhatian ketika itu sehingga membawa kepada penubuhan Jabatan Belia (1964 ) sebagai sokongan kerajaan. Data terkini mendapati sehingga Mei 2011 sebanyak 7,052 persatuan belia telah direkodkan oleh pejabat Pendaftaran Pertubuhan Belia (PPPB). Johor menunjukkan jumlah persatuan belia tertinggi dengan 1,739 persatuan berbanding negeri lain. Beralih kepada perkembangan penyertaan komuniti sosial di China memperlihatkan pergerakan belia di China bermula seawal abad ke -20 melalui penglibatan golongan akademik universiti serta siswazah yang mendapat pendidikan barat seperti Dr Sun Yet San, dan Mao Tse Tung. Kedua tokoh ini memainkan peranan penting dalam sosiopolitik masyarakatnya dan kecenderungan ke arah Parti Comintern. Dalam era Great Cultural Revolution 1965-1967 bagi memulihkan kecemerlangan dan keunggulan ideologi Komunis China, golongan belia yang paling aktif dalam usaha memastikan kelangsungan ideologi dalam masyarakat. Jelasnya di China , aktiviti kesukarelawan merupakan sektor yang tidak berasaskan keuntungan tetapi mempunyai matlamat sosial yang iaitu mengembeling tenaga belia untuk menghidupkan fahaman komunis. Selepas bermulanya era Komunis di China, tidak terdapat banyak maklumat yang dapat diperolehi berkaitan penyertaan belia khususnya pelajar universiti dalam bidang kerja komuniti sosial. Dunia nya seakan hilang dari pandangan, sesuai dengan dasar tertutup (isolasi) yang seolah – olah menyimpan seribu cerita di dalamnya dari tatapan umum. Namun dasar ini menampakkan perubahan menjelang 1997 dan sekali gus China perlahan – lahan mula keluar dan mulai muncul sebagai salah satu pemacu kuasa ekonomi yang mengagumkan dewasa ini dengan potensi yang dimilikinya. Keterbukaan China dilihat positif dalam aktiviti bersifat sejagat melalui penganjuran Sukan Olimpik 2008 di Beijing. Perkembangan aktiviti kesukarelawanan semasa penganjuran temasya Sukan Olimpik 2008 yang berlangsung selama 40 hari di 8 daerah pusat bandar Beijing dengan memperlihatkan penyertaan 1.12 juta orang mendaftar menjadi sukarelawan berumur 20 tahun, dan kebanyakan dari pelajar universiti. Pemohon yang berdaftar untuk menjadi sukarelawan bagi kedua-dua temasya sukan tersebut datangnya dari pelbagai tempat. Antaranya, pemohon dari Beijing berjumlah 772 ribu orang, pemohon dari provinsi yang lain di China seramai 292 ribu orang, dari Hong Kong 7 ribu orang, dari Macau 2 ribu; dari Taiwan 3 ribu; orang China dan perantau Cina di seberang laut 28 ribu orang; dan warga asing 22 ribu orang. Kebanyakan pemohon terdiri daripada orang muda, dan hampir 50% daripada mereka mempunyai pengalaman yang berkhidmat sebagai © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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sukarelawan. Sebanyak 97.87% pemohon umurnya belum mencapai 35 tahun, dan 79.9% berkelulusan dari universiti. Ini ada kaitannya dengan semangat kekitaan yang tersemat jiwa pelajar dan belia yang di perolehi di awal berkembangnya fahaman Komunis ( telah disentuh di awal perbincangan). Penyelidikan tentang kepentingan penyertaan pelajar universiti masa senggang terhadap aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti agak kurang diberi perhatian berbanding di negara maju yang menyedari tentang keperluannya membentuk kemahiran insaniah yang unggul. Lian Yoke Peng (1989), dalam kajiannya tentang faktor yang mempengaruhi penglibatan mahasiswa di Kamsis Aminuddin Baki, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) dalam aktiviti kokurikulum dan kesukanan anjuran universiti mendapati faktor pengaruh keluarga, rakan sebaya, sikap, masalah peribadi dan cara pengurusan aktiviti turut menyumbang permasalahan ini. Pelajar yang terlibat dalam bersukan juga menunjukkan sikap yang positif berbanding pelajar yang tidak terlibat dalam aktiviti kokurikulum. Ini disokong oleh Lim Chin Hin (1990) menambah kemudahan bersukan, dan alam sekitar juga memberi kesan terhadap penglibatan pelajar. Hasil penyelidikannya terhadap 200 orang pelajar mendapati sikap positif pelajar terhadap program sukan juga dipengaruhi oleh jantina. Melalui keterlibatan dalam aktiviti sosial dapat membina sifat kepimpinan yang cekap dan berkesan di kalangan pelajar universiti. Merujuk (Gribben, 1972) pemimpin adalah individu yang berwibawa, berketerampilan, berdaya tahan dan berkarisma. Proses membentuk dan melahirkan pemimpin yang terbaik memerlukan masa yang panjang. Pemimpin yang hebat sekarang ini tidak dilahirkan sebagai pemimpin secara semula jadi, sebaliknya dibentuk melalui proses pembentukan daya kepimpinan yang berterusan sejak zaman persekolahan (Azizah, 1991). Kepentingan penglibatan pelajar universiti dalam kegiatan sukan rekreasi juga dilihat dapat memperbaiki kualiti produktiviti dan sosial di China. Menurut Cheng (1998) dalam kajiannya perbandingan penyertaan pelajar di universiti dengan menggunakan Model Penyertaan Sukan Rekreasi, yang penglibatan pelajar 1979 yang menjadi sample dalam kalangan pelajar Taiwan, China, Korea, U.S. Jepun dan Iran. Kajian ini melihat 3 petunjuk utama penyertaan pelajar iaitu apakah sukan rekreasi yang disertai, faktor pendorong penglibatan dan sikap mereka terhadap aktiviti. Hasil kajian yang diperoleh melalui data pelajar dari negara China mendapati adanya hubungan yang signifikan antara umur pelajar terhadap pengaruh melibatkan diri dalam sukan dan memahami faedah menyertai sukan rekreasi. Pelajar dari negara China dilihat bersenam 4-5 kali seminggu berbanding 5 pelajar dari negara lain. Sukan rekreasi yang disukai oleh pelajar dari China adalah bola keranjang, badminton dan ping-pong dan faktor galakkan ibu bapa adalah penyebab penglibatan sukan rekreasi dalam kalangan pelajar dari negara ini.

DEFINISI OPERASIONAL Tahap Penglibatan Pelajar universiti Menurut Pring dan Noe (2002) penglibatan bermaksud: “all en-compassing label to describes the various mechanisms that individuals or group may use to communicate their views on a public issue”. Pelajar universiti yang dikategorikan sebagai belia dikaitkan dengan aktiviti bersosial, menjalin persahabatan, dan hidup saling bantu membantu dalam pelbagai aspek. Menurut Daniel Levinson (1978) teori perkembangan kitaran hidup belia seseorang individu yang memasuki awal dewasa (15-28 tahun), belia mulai mencari identiti diri dari aspek pendidikan, pemilihan kerjaya, perkahwinan, perhubungan nilai dan gaya hidup, pada usia pertengahan dewasa ( 29-39 tahun) peluang bagi individu membina struktur hidup yang lebih memuaskan pada era yang seterusnya. Peringkat ini dikatakan sebagai settle down bagi individu kerana komitmen lebih tinggi terhadap kerjaya dan keluarga diberikan perhatian. Bagi memahami sikap personaliti pelajar di universiti teori perkembangan pelajar boleh digunakan bagi menjelaskan perkembangan mereka sepanjang belajar di universiti.

Teori Perkembangan Pelajar Institusi Pengajian Tinggi Pembangunan modal insan yang menyeluruh menuntut IPT memberi tumpuan pada kecemerlangan akademik dan sahsiah pelajar. Persekitaran yang kondusif merangsang minat pelajar untuk menghasilkan output yang bermutu. Teori perkembangan pelajar banyak di adaptasi daripada Teori Chickering dan Reisser (1993). Teori ini menerangkan perkembangan pelajar sebagai satu siri perubahan kualitatif dalam pemikiran , tingkah laku, emosi dan hubungan orang lain dengan diri sendiri menghasilkan pembentukan identiti yang merupakan kunci pada perkembangan pelajar. Terdapat 7 vektor utama yang akan dilalui oleh pelajar dalam usaha membentuk identiti dan kematangan diri semasa mengikuti pengajian di institut pendidikan tinggi :

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a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

Meningkatkan kompetensi Mengurus emosi Membentuk autonomi diri Membentuk identiti Membentuk hala tuju Membentuk integriti Mengurus hubungan interpersonal yang matang

Setiap vektor mewakili cabaran yang unik dalam usaha membentuk identiti yang mantap. Ini kerana setiap vektor ada kekuatan dan hala tuju yang jelas. Pengalaman yang di dapati melalui vektor ini akan membantu pembentukan identiti pelajar. Penekanan tahun pertama di universiti adalah tempoh pembangunan diri pelajar. Sekiranya pelajar dapat mengurus emosi, membentuk autonomi dan berjaya mewujudkan rasa hormat-menghormati maka pengalaman memberi kesan pada kerjaya dan perhubungan mereka pada masa hadapan. Ini disokong oleh Gordon (2007) menyatakan pengalaman di universiti mempunyai hubung kait dengan corak kehidupan dan pembentukan identiti pelajar.

Aktiviti Sosial dalam Komuniti Almond, (1997) telah membuat kajian dan menyatakan bahawa aktiviti kokurikulum dan aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti telah memberi banyak peluang kepada pelajar. Dengan melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti seumpama ini sudah pasti wujud interaksi sosial antara mereka atau dengan komuniti setempat. Dengan wujudnya interaksi akan memantapkan lagi kemahiran interpersonal diri seseorang pelajar. Oleh itu, amatlah wajar pengurusan universiti telah mewajibkan pelajar mereka untuk terlibat dengan aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti. UKM salah sebuah IPTA di negara ini yang telah menawarkan 8 kredit untuk aktiviti pelajar dan ada antara universiti menawarkan pada kadar 2 hingga 6 kredit untuk aktiviti pelajar. Ini telah menampakkan betapa seriusnya sesebuah IPT untuk membolehkan pelajarnya terlibat dengan pelbagai aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti.

Senggang Masa senggang bermaksud masa lapang dan masa luang bagi remaja yang memerlukan cara bagi menggunakannya. Masa senggang biasanya ada pada hujung minggu atau waktu cuti atau masa-masa tertentu yang lain. Masa senggang selalu menyebabkan remaja hilang fokus dan menyebabkan salah guna masa berlaku. Masa senggang kalau digunakan dengan baik amat bermanfaat dalam menimba ilmu pengetahuan menerusi ulang kaji, mendapat maklumat baru menerusi pembacaan, perbincangan, melayari internet dan juga menonton. Dengan penggunaan masa senggang yang berkesan sudah pasti ianya mendatangkan pelbagai faedah. Antara faedah masa senggang yang boleh dikategorikan kepada faedah psikologi, faedah kepada alam sekitar, faedah psikologi, dan juga faedah sosial. M.J. Leitner & S.F. Leitner (2012) masa senggang ditakrifkan sebagai masa percuma atau unobligated yang tidak melibatkan kerja atau melaksanakan fungsi kehidupan yang lain. Realitinya adalah bahawa masa lapang sebenarnya boleh digunakan untuk tujuan sama ada positif atau negatif. Manakala menurut Edginton dan Chen pula (2008), masa senggang memberi peluang optimum untuk mencari pengalaman baru, mendapatkan pengetahuan, kemahiran, sikap dan nilai-nilai. Ia adalah masa untuk mencipta semula, menumpukan semula, memperbaharui, dan menukar atau diubah terhadap penerokaan diri individu. Hal ini adalah penting agar setiap individu sentiasa mendapatkan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan sikap bagi membolehkan jenis transformasi positif diperlukan untuk menghadapi cabaran dunia masa hadapan yang sentiasa berubahrubah. Menurut Geoffrey Godbey (1985) masa senggang berhenti dari bekerja atau belajar, waktu bebas, waktu untuk diri sendiri, waktu untuk melakukan apa yang disukai dan masa untuk berehat. Masa senggang merupakan sebahagian dari masa dalam kehidupan setiap manusia. Mereka mempunyai hak untuk menggunakan masa tersebut dengan pelbagai cara mengikut keinginan sendiri. Sementara menurut Kelly & Freysinger (2000) masa senggang tidak mempunyai konsep spesifik dan boleh ditakrifkan pelbagai perspektif iaitu waktu lapang sebagai masa aktiviti, pemikiran, kualiti tindakan dan dimensi kehidupan. Terdapat pengkaji mendefinisikan masa senggang berkaitan dengan hidup dalam kebebasan relatif dari kuasa-kuasa luar kompulsif budaya seseorang dan persekitaran fizikal supaya dapat bertindak dari menarik minat terhadap sesuatu secara peribadi agar menyenangkan, berfaedah, dan menyediakan asas (N.P Gist & S. F. Fava, 1964). Selain itu, masa senggang juga merujuk kepada masa percuma, percuma iaitu dari keperluan untuk mengambil berat tentang penyelenggaraan (David E. Gray, 1971). Secara keseluruhannya masa senggang bermaksud masa lapang dan masa luang bagi seseorang yang memerlukan cara bagi menggunakannya. Masa senggang biasanya ada pada hujung minggu atau waktu cuti atau masa-masa tertentu yang lain. Kadang kala masa senggang boleh menyebabkan seseorang individu © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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hilang fokus. Masa senggang kalau digunakan dengan baik amat bermanfaat dalam memberikan nilai tambah kepada seseorang individu. Di dalam konteks penulisan ini masa senggang akan dihubungkaitkan dengan pelajar universiti khususnya dalam melihat penyertaan pelajar universiti ( belia ) dalam aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti.

Faktor Penglibatan Pelajar Universiti Azemi (2004) dalam kajiannya menunjukkan motif penglibatan pelajar dalam kegiatan kokurikulum sukan mengikut urutan kepentingan ialah meningkatkan kemahiran, keseronokan kecergasan, dan pengiktirafan. Manakala Lim Chin Hin (1990), Nixon dan Frey (1996) membuktikan bahawa faktor-faktor yang menggalakkan penglibatan dalam aktiviti sukan di universiti dipengaruhi oleh sikap pelajar. Vogler dan Schwartz (1993) pula menambah bersukan membolehkan penyertaan yang meluas dari pelbagai golongan serta peringkat anggota komuniti tanpa mengira usia, jantina atau melalui perkongsian minat dan komitmen.

METODOLOGI Reka Bentuk Kajian Reka bentuk kajian ini menggunakan borang soal selidik untuk mengumpul data melibatkan seramai 80 orang pelajar IPT mewakili 40 di UKM ( Malaysia ) yang diambil dalam minggu bulan November sementara data di China melibatkan 40 orang di universiti Sun Yet Sen (Guangzhou) dipilih secara rawak pada 12-16 Disember 2013. Menurut Glassow (2005) penggunaan borang soal selidik memudahkan responden untuk menjawab dan penyelidik untuk menganalisis data. Skala Likert digunakan bagi memudahkan responden memilih jawapan berdasarkan pilihan yang telah diberikan n 1 = Amat Tidak Setuju, 2 = Tidak Setuju, 3 = Sederhana Setuju, 4 = Setuju dan 5 = Amat Setuju. Borang soal selidik dibahagikan kepada 3 bahagian. Bahagian A mengandungi lima soalan bertujuan mengumpul maklumat demografi responden iaitu jantina, umur, bangsa, negara asal dan media sosial yang kerap digunakan. Maklumat ini penting sebagai asas membentuk konstruk demografi kajian. Manakala bahagian B bertujuan mendapatkan maklumat tentang penglibatan belia dalam aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti pada waktu senggang di kedua–dua negara. Bahagian C pula mengandungi adalah berkaitan faktor penglibatan belia dalam aktiviti sosial komuniti.

DAPATAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Demografi Responden Jadual 1.6 memperlihatkan status demografi responden yang telah dikumpulkan dari negara Malaysia dan China. Jumlah responden bagi kedua-dua negara iaitu 40 orang responden Malaysia dan 40 orang responden China. Responden lelaki dari Malaysia berjumlah 19 orang (48%) dan Perempuan 21 (53%) manakala responden lelaki dari China pula berjumlah 23 orang (57.5%) dan Perempuan 17 Orang (42.5%). Dari segi umur majoriti responden di Malaysia dan China menunjukkan mereka yang berumur di antara 1825 tahun berjumlah 21 dan 37 orang mewakili 53% dan 92.5% daripada jumlah responden di kedua-dua negara. Manakala mereka yang berumur 26-30 tahun seramai 7 dan 2 orang dengan 18% dan 5%, mereka yang mewakili 25% dan 2.5% atau 10 dan 1 responden adalah yang berumur 31-35 tahun dan yang berumur 36 tahun ke atas di Malaysia sebanyak 2 orang dengan 5% manakala di China tiada responden. Daripada kajian menunjukkan bahawa mereka yang mewakili 53 responden berumur 18-25 tahun adalah mereka yang belajar di peringkat prasiswazah bagi responden dari Malaysia. Manakala responden dari Negara China yang berumur antara 18-25 tahun adalah terdiri daripada pelajar di peringkat ijazah pertama dan sarjana. Dari segi pecahan mengikut etnik dan bangsa menunjukkan bangsa Melayu paling dominasi dengan jumlah 27 responden (68%), etnik Bumiputera Sabah dan Sarawak seramai 8 responden (20%), bangsa Cina seramai 3 responden (8%) dan bangsa India 2 responden (5%). Pecahan data ini tidak menunjukkan komposisi sebenar etnik/ bangsa pelajar universiti di Malaysia. Responden dari Negara China lebih dikenali dengan bangsa China dan tidak menunjukkan komposisi etnik mereka. Dari segi persatuan dan kelab sosial komuniti yang di sertai. Data pada jadual 10.1 Menunjukkan majoriti pelajar memilih kelab sukan dan rekreasi dengan 58% atau 23 responden, sukarelawan 15% dengan 6 responden, rukun tetangga dan persatuan belia masing-masing dengan 10% atau 4 responden, Rela 5% dengan 2 responden dan lain-lain 3% dengan 1 responden. Data ini menunjukkan aktiviti pelajar universiti lebih bersifat santai melalui aktiviti rekreasi yang dapat menyeronokkan serta menyegarkan badan dan melapangkan fikiran. Manakala responden dari China menunjukkan sebaliknya 42.5% responden terlibat dengan aktiviti persatuan belia dan diikuti dengan aktiviti sukarelawan 35%, kelab sukan dan rekreasi 20% © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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dan rukun tetangga 2.5%. Secara keseluruhan penyertaan pelajar universiti di Malaysia bertumpu kepada kelab sukan dan rekreasi, manakala di China lebih bertumpu kepada persatuan belia. Jadual 1.6 : Demografi Responden di Malaysia dan China

Malaysia

Maklumat Responden Jantina Umur

N

Persatuan / Kelab Komuniti Sosial yang Disertai

%

N

%

Lelaki

19

48

23

57.5

Perempuan

21

53

17

42.5

18-25 tahun

21

53

37

92.5

26-30 tahun

7

18

2

5.0

31-35 tahun

10

25

1

2.5

2

5

-

-

27

68

-

-

Cina

3

8

40

100.0

India

2

5

-

-

Bumiputera Sabah/Sarawak

8

20

-

-

Rukun tetangga

4

10

1

2.5

Sukarelawan

6

15

14

35.0

Rela

2

5

-

-

Persatuan belia

4

10

17

42.5

23

58

8

20.0

1

3

-

-

36 tahun ke atas Etnik / Bangsa

China

Melayu

Kelab sukan & rekreasi Lain-lain N, Malaysia = 40; N, China=40; Sumber : Kerja Lapangan 2013

Tahap Kekerapan Penglibatan Pelajar Malaysia dan China Terhadap Aktiviti Sosial Dalam Komuniti Pada Waktu Senggang Jadual 1.7 : Peratusan Tahap Kekerapan Penglibatan Pelajar Malaysia dan China Terhadap Aktiviti Sosial Dalam Komuniti Pada Waktu Senggang

Tahap Kekerapan AktivitiAktiviti Penglibatan Pelajar Universiti Dalam Aktiviti Komuniti Sosial Pada Waktu Senggang

Tahap Kekerapan

1

Aktiviti di pusat ibadat

Kadang-Kadang

55.0

Tidak Pernah

82.3

2

Gotong-royong

Kadang-Kadang

72.5

Tidak Pernah

45.0

3

Sukan

Kerap

40.0

Sangat Kerap

47.5

4

Rekreasi

Kerap

45.0

Kerap

45.0

5

Rukun tetangga / Kejiranan

Kadang-Kadang

52.5

Kadang-Kadang

40.0

6

Persatuan Belia

Kadang-Kadang

47.5

Kadang-Kadang

35.0

7

Sambutan perayaan

Kadang-Kadang

55.0

Kadang-Kadang

60.0

8

Kenduri

Kadang-Kadang

57.5

Kadang-Kadang

47.5

9

Kematian

Kadang-Kadang

65.0

Tidak Pernah

52.5

10

Bencana alam

Kadang-Kadang

50.0

Tidak Pernah

60.0

Bil

Malaysia

China

%

Tahap Kekerapan

%

1. Tidak Pernah ; 2. Kadang-kadang (1 kali sebulan), 3.Kerap (2-3 kali sebulan) ; 4. Sangat Kerap (lebih 4 kali sebulan) ; Sumber : Kerja Lapangan 2013

Jadual 1.7 menunjukkan tahap kekerapan penglibatan pelajar universiti dalam aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti pada waktu senggang di Malaysia dan China. Tahap kekerapan yang ditunjukkan dalam jadual ini menunjukkan hampir keseluruhannya mencatatkan pada tahap kadang-kadang atau satu kali sebulan (kadang-kadang) kecuali pada aktiviti sukan dan rekreasi yang berada pada tahap kerap dengan 40% dan 45%. Manakala di China © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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untuk aktiviti sukan dan rekreasi berada pada tahap sangat kerap 47.5% dan kerap 45% iaitu kekerapan dua hingga tiga kali sebulan dan lebih sempat kali sebulan. Ini menunjukkan trend bersukan di China lebih tinggi berbanding di Malaysia tapi aktiviti rekreasi berada pada tahap yang sama. Dari segi aktiviti di pusat ibadah menunjukkan di Malaysia lebih baik dengan 55% untuk satu kali sebulan, manakala di China menunjukkan 82.5% tidak pernah melakukan aktiviti di pusat ibadah. Aktiviti gotong-royong di Malaysia menunjukkan pada tahap lebih baik 72.5% dengan satu kali sebulan berbanding di China tidak pernah terlibat dengan 45%. Tahap kekerapan kadang-kadang di Malaysia ditunjukkan pada aktiviti kematian dengan peratusan yang paling tinggi iaitu 65% seterusnya diikuti dengan kenduri 57.5%, sambutan perayaan 55%, rukun tetangga atau kejiranan 52.5%, bencana alam 50% dan peratusan yang paling rendah pada tahap kadang-kadang adalah persatuan belia 47.5%. manakala di China aktiviti yang berada pada tahap kekerapan kadang-kadang yang paling tinggi peratusannya ialah sambutan perayaan 60%, seterusnya kenduri 47.5%, rukun tetangga atau kejiranan 40% dan persatuan belia 35% berada paling rendah pada kategorinya. Di China aktiviti yang tidak pernah mereka terlibat ada empat iaitu gotong-royong 45%, kematian 52.5%, bencana alam 60%, dan yang paling tinggi adalah aktiviti di pusat ibadah 82.5%. Ini semua di pengaruhi oleh dasar negara China yang lebih terkenal dengan negara sosialisme (komunisme) yang mana tidak boleh mengamalkan kebebasan beragama dan tidak percaya pada konsep ketuhanan. Menurut Azimi Hamzah, Turiman Suandi, Ezhar Taman dan Khairuddin Idris (2002) perlunya untuk memastikan keberkesanan program belia perlu di rancang mengikut umur berikut ( 15-23 tahun, 24-30 tahun, dan 31-40 tahun) kerana kematangan dan keperluan mereka berbeza–beza ini dapat diperhatikan melalui data yang ditunjukkan responden dari negara China terdiri dari golongan muda berumur di antara 18-25 tahun mereka lebih kepada aktiviti sukan dan rekreasi berbanding responden dari Malaysia menyatakan semua aktiviti pada tahap min sederhana rendah antara 2.08 hingga 2.83 kecuali aktiviti bencana alam sahaja pada nilai min rendah 1.73. Oleh itu, setiap badan persatuan, dapat merancang aktiviti yang sesuai dengan minat pelajar pada usia mereka agar dapat menarik minat mereka untuk terus terlibat dengan aktiviti yang berfaedah untuk diri, keluarga dan masyarakat.

Faktor Penglibatan Aktiviti Sosial Dalam Komuniti di kalangan Pelajar Malaysia dan China Jadual 1.8 : Min dan Peratusan Faktor Penglibatan Aktiviti Sosial Dalam Komuniti di kalangan Pelajar Malaysia dan China

Bil

Saya terlibat dalam aktiviti komuniti kerana :

Malaysia

China

Min

%

Min

%

1

Keluarga

3.70

60.0

3.23

50.0

2

Meningkatkan potensi diri

4.15

87.5

4.15

90.0

3

Mencari Pengalaman

4.33

97.5

4.28

90.0

4

Mendapatkan pengaruh

3.35

50.0

3.85

60.0

5

Minat

3.95

82.5

4.15

80.0

6

Menjana pendapatan

2.98

32.5

2.98

20.0

7

Menghilangkan stress

3.73

70.0

3.83

70.0

8

Menambah kenalan / rakan

4.13

85.0

4.30

90.0

9

Mengisi masa lapang

4.00

85.0

3.33

50.0

10

Pengaruh Rakan

3.58

62.5

3.68

60.0

Min Keseluruhan

3.79

71.5

3.78

66.0

Skala : 1. Sangat Tidak Setuju; 2. Tidak Setuju; 3. Tidak Pasti; 4. Setuju, 5 Sangat Setuju; Sumber : Kerja Lapangan 2013

Jadual 1.8 menunjukkan min dan peratusan faktor penglibatan aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti di kalangan pelajar Malaysia dan China. Majoriti pelajar Malaysia bersetuju faktor penglibatan mereka adalah untuk mencari pengalaman 97.5%, meningkatkan potensi diri 87.5%, menambah kenalan rakan dan mengisi masa lapang iaitu 85%. Trend pelajar China pula menunjukkan data yang sama iaitu mencari pengalaman 90%, meningkatkan potensi diri 90% dan menambah kenalan rakan 90%.

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Dari segi faktor menjana pendapatan menunjukkan di tahap peratus yang paling rendah di antara kedua-dua negara iaitu pelajar Malaysia 32.5% dan pelajar China 20%. Hal ini, menunjukkan penglibatan pelajar dalam aktiviti sosial komuniti ini bukanlah berorientasikan menjana pendapatan semata-mata namun lebih kepada mencari pengalaman. Data kedua-dua negara jelas menunjukkan faktor penglibatan pelajar dalam aktiviti sosial komuniti d agak seimbang dalam semua item yang dinilai. Kajian ini selari dengan kajian yang jalankan oleh E Pei Sze (2007) mendapati rakan sebaya merupakan faktor yang mempengaruhi penglibatan pelajar dalam aktiviti. Kebanyakan pelajar cenderung mengikuti rakan sebaya dalam menyertai sebarang aktiviti. Melalui penggunaan masa senggang dan penglibatan pelajar dalam sesuatu aktiviti memberikan kesan kepada pelajar itu sendiri dan universiti amnya. Hal ini, bertepatan kajian Kuh et. Al (2006) berkaitan penglibatan pelajar dalam akademik dan aktiviti sosial membawa kepada kejayaan pelajar dan merupakan petunjuk kepada kualiti sesebuah institusi pengajian tinggi. Gonyea (2006) juga menambah pelajar yang cekap mengurus masa dan tenaga untuk menyeimbangkan aktiviti pendidikan dan kokurikulum selalunya mencapai kematangan sosial dan akademik.

RUMUSAN DAN KESIMPULAN Kajian ini menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan yang ketara penyertaan pelajar universiti dalam aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti masa senggang di kedua – dua negara. Jenis aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti bagi Malaysia adalah Rekreasi dan Sukan sementara aktiviti yang kurang disertai ialah persatuan Rela. Manakala di China sukan adalah aktiviti yang paling kerap disertai dan diikuti dengan rekreasi yang diminati oleh pelajar. Di China penglibatan pelajar dalam aktiviti sukan dan rekreasi sememangnya jelas seperti mana yang di tonjolkan dalam budaya masyarakatnya yang lebih mementingkan gaya hidup sihat. Pengaruh sukan di China dapat dilihat sebagai salah satu kuasa besar sukan sama ada di peringkat asia dan dunia dalam banyak acara yang mereka sertai, ini dapat dilihat semasa berlangsungnya sukan olimpik Beijing 2008 dan dalam beberapa kejohanan di peringkat dunia seperti sukan badminton, renang, ping -pong dan gimnastik. Melihat dari aspek tahap kekerapan penglibatan pelajar universiti di China dalam aktiviti sukan dan rekreasi lebih tinggi berbanding pelajar di Malaysia. Ini, menunjukkan pelajar di China mengamalkan gaya hidup sihat dengan bersenam dan aktiviti berekreasi pada masa lapang. Tahap kekerapan aktiviti sukan dan rekreasi di kalangan pelajar di Malaysia pula adalah lebih rendah berbanding dengan pelajar di China kerana masih bukan menjadi aktiviti utama di masa senggang di kalangan pelajar. Faktor utama penglibatan pelajar Malaysia dalam aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti adalah disebabkan untuk mencari pengalaman berbanding pelajar di China lebih kepada menambahkan kenalan dan rakan. Hal ini, menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan faktor utama keterlibatan di kalangan pelajar Malaysia dan China. Faktor menjana pendapatan juga menunjukkan bukan faktor utama bagi pelajar di kedua-dua negara kerana menunjukkan peratusan paling rendah berbanding faktor lain. Ketidakterlibatan pelajar universiti di Malaysia dalam aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti ianya disebabkan oleh kekangan masa. Hal ini kerana untuk menyertai sesuatu aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti mereka perlu memperuntukkan banyak masa dan tenaga serta terlalu sibuk dengan tugasan kuliah di universiti. Selain itu, jika ada kelapangan masa sekali pun mereka lebih suka pulang ke kampung untuk bersama keluarga. Berbanding pelajar di China ketidakterlibatan mereka disebabkan oleh aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti di negara mereka kurang menarik. Ini berkemungkinan berdasarkan jangkaan terhadap sesuatu aktiviti yang dianjurkan adalah tinggi. Kesan terhadap penglibatan pelajar universiti di Malaysia dalam aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti menunjukkan mereka dapat menambahkan ramai kenalan berbanding di China untuk meningkatkan kemahiran berkomunikasi. Aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti pada waktu senggang di kedua-dua negara menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan dari aspek tahap kekerapan penglibatan, faktor penglibatan dalam aktiviti sosial dalam komuniti. Perbezaan budaya, gaya hidup, dasar kerajaan dan bilangan penduduk memainkan peranan penting terhadap perbezaan keterlibatan pelajar di kedua-dua negara dalam aktiviti komuniti sosial di masa senggang. Sehubungan itu ,diharap melalui kajian ini, dapat mengubah persepsi bahawa masa senggang hanyalah masa kosong yang tidak perlu dirancang. Senggang yang diurus dengan baik bagi meningkatkan kecemerlangan dan pencapaian diri mahasiswa. Perancangan dasar negara dan pihak universiti haruslah prihatin menyediakan aktiviti berkualiti dalam mengisi masa senggang mahasiswa. Perancangan yang rapi mampu memberi kesan yang positif kepada mahasiswa serta menarik minat golongan ini di dalam aktiviti yang di rancang dan seterusnya menjayakan aspirasi negara ke arah meningkatkan kualiti hidup dari aspek kesihatan

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ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

MEMUPUK SEMANGAT SUKARELAWAN PELAJAR MELALUI AKTIVITI FORUM DALAM PROSES PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN BAGI KURSUS ZT1062 PEMBANGUNAN DIRI DI UKM SERTA KAITANNYA DENGAN MINAT Wan Zulkifli Wan Hassan*, Jamsari Alias, Nazri Muslim, Mohamad Taha & Aminuddin Basir @ Ahmad *[email protected] Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Abstract Ketidakupayaan pelajar mengaplikasikan konsep yang telah dipelajari dalam bentuk perkataan sendiri secara ilmiah dan intelektual serta kurang minat terhadap pembelajaran mata pelajaran itu menyebabkan pelajar kurang berketerampilan dalam pembinaan personaliti mereka. Ini merupakan satu cabaran kepada pensyarah supaya mereka tidak hanya menyampaikan bahan pengajaran melalui kuliah atau perbincangan di tutoran dengan kaedah yang konvensional, tetapi perlu menggunakan pelbagai kaedah pengajaran untuk menggerakkan minda pelajar dan merangsangkan pelajar untuk menimba ilmu. Sebagai satu usaha untuk mempelbagaikan kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran, kajian telah dilakukan bagi memperbaiki kekurangan kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran dengan menganjurkan forum untuk memupuk semangat sukarelawan pelajar dalam aktiviti forum supaya mereka mendapati konsep-konsep yang telah dipelajari adalah relevan dengan kehidupan seharian mereka dan seterusnya merangsang minat pelajar untuk terus menimba ilmu tentang pembangunan diri dan diaplikasikan di luar bilik kuliah. Forum itu disusuli dengan satu kajian tindakan. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk meneliti semangat sukarelawan pelajar terhadap forum sebagai satu alternatif pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi kursus Pembangunan Diri. Sampel kajian ini melibatkan 80 pelajar daripada pelbagai jurusan seperti pengajian Islam, teknologi maklumat, sains teknologi, ekonomi dan perniagaan sesi 2012/2013 yang terlibat secara langsung dalam aktiviti forum. Sampel dibahagi kepada dua kumpulan utama iaitu kumpulan yang menjadi ahli panel dan kumpulan yang menjadi pendengar. Kumpulan penel akan menulis laporan mengenai pengalaman sebanyak dua tahap dari mula menyediakan bahan hinggalah terlibat dengan forum dan perbahasan. Kumpulan pendengar akan dinilai dari segi minat dalam penglibatan mereka terhadap aktiviti forum dan perbincangan semasa forum dan perbahasan dijalankan. Keberkesanan strategi ini adalah berdasarkan analisis terhadap laporan pelajar mengenai forum dan perbahasan yang diadakan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan forum telah mendapat respon yang positif di kalangan pelajar. Pendekatan forum telah meningkatkan kemahiran pelajar untuk mengaitkan permasalahan semasa dalam menerangkan sesuatu fakta yang telah dipelajari dan menggalakkan semangat sukarela di kalangan pelajar untuk menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah, serta meningkatkan kemahiran berinteraksi dan membina keyakinan diri pelajar. Dengan ini mereka dapat mengasah kemahiran insaniah mereka dan mampu menyelesaikan masalah-masalah dan isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan kemanusiaan. Keywords: sukarelawan, forum, ZT1062, pembangunan diri, UKM, minat

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

PENGENALAN Pengajaran pensyarah boleh dikatakan berkesan apabila pelajar-pelajar yang berada di bawah bimbingannya menunjukkan minat dan telah belajar sesuatu daripada apa yang telah diutarakan oleh pensyarah berkenaan. Manakala pembelajaran pula berlaku apabila wujud sesuatu perubahan terhadap tingkah laku pelajar setelah mereka mengalami proses pengajaran. Dalam memperkatakan tentang pembelajaran kursus Pembangunan Diri, matlamat pembelajaran tercapai apabila pelajar bukan sahaja untuk memastikan pelajar mengingati isi kandungan yang telah disampaikan, bahkan mereka juga perlu berupaya menghuraikan konsep-konsep yang dipelajari dalam bentuk perkataan sendiri secara ilmiah dan intelektual. Dengan ini mereka dapat memupuk semnagat sukarelawan dan mengasah kemahiran insaniah mereka serta mampu menyelesaikan masalah-masalah dan isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan kemanusiaan. Tambahan pula kursus ini melatih pelajar mengaplikasikan empat kemahiran insaniah iaitu (1) komunikasi yang berkesan dalam pelbagai situasi, (2) kemahiran pemikiran kritikal, penyelesaian masalah dan pendekatan saintifik, (3) kemahiran kepimpinan dan kerja berpasukan, dan (4) kemahiran pengurusan maklumat dan pembelajaran sepanjang hayat. Pengaplikasian empat kemahiran boleh dilaksanakan mengggunakan pendekatan forum yang dilakukan secara berkumpulan. Pelajar dikehendaki mengaplikasikan ke empatempat kemahiran insaniah tersebut secara praktikal bagi mengukuhkan dan memantapkan elemen-elemen kemahiran insaniah tersebut dalam diri mereka. Keperluan aspek praktikal ini akan melahirkan pelajar yang holistik yang dapat menyumbang secara sukarela kepada masyarakat dan organisasi (Pusat Pengajian Umum. 2011). Namun kadang-kadang usaha para pensyarah untuk memupuk minat pelajar terhadap pembelajaran kursus Pembangunan Diri akan menemui jalan buntu kerana antara tanggapan pelajar yang salah terhadap kursus ini adalah kerana kursus ini adalah kursus sampingan fakulti dan memerlukan kemahiran insaniah yang tinggi untuk diaplikasikan dalam dunia yang nyata. Ini kadang-kadang boleh menyebabkan minat pelajar UKM dalam kursus ini masih belum dapat mencapai tahap yang dihasratkan oleh pihak universiti. Masalah ini barangkali mempunyai kaitan rapat dengan metodologi pengajaran yang dipakai. Ini merupakan suatu cabaran kepada pensyarah supaya mereka tidak hanya menyampaikan bahan pengajaran melalui kuliah atau perbincangan di tutorial dengan kaedah yang konvensional iaitu hanya bergantung kepada syarahan yang dikemukakan oleh pensyarah tanpa melibatkan perbincangan secara aktif dengan pelajar. Justeru timbul persoalan, Adakah kaedah forum membantu meningkatkan minat pelajar terhadap pembelajaran kursus Pembangunan Diri? Adakah kaedah forum membantu pelajar dalam pembelajaran kursus Pembangunan Diri? Adakah forum mampu memupuk semangat sukarelawan dalam kalangan mereka? Sebagai langkah intervensi, kajian ini mengemukakan suatu cadangan agar pendekatan pengajaran berpusatkan pelajar yang menggalakkan penglibatan pelajar secara sukarela perlu diadakan. Dengan ini, ia dapat memotivasikan pelajar agar mereka berminat untuk belajar dan menggalakkan pelajar menimba ilmu dan menerima cabaran untuk terus membina kemahiran mereka serta semnagat sukarelawan mereka. Antara method pengajaran yang diperkenalkan oleh pensyarah adalah melalui pendekatan kaedah dan aktiviti forum. Melalui pendekatan dan aktiviti ini adalah diharapkan pelajar menyedari bahawa pembelajaran kursus Pembangunan Diri bukan sekadar memahami teori atau menghafal dan mengingati konsep sematamata tetapi mereka perlu mengaitkan apa yang dipelajari dengan pelaksanaan dalam kehidupan mereka khsusunya memupuk semangat sukarelawan supaya pembelajaran Pembangunan Diri menjadi realistik dan menarik minat mereka. Berdasarkan latar belakang ini, kajian tindakan ini dijalankan untuk memupuk semangat sukarelawan pelajar melalui aktiviti forum dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi kursus ZT1062 Pembangunan Diri di UKM serta kaitannya dengan minat mereka. Kajian tindakan ini juga bertujuan untuk merintis alternatif yang lebih sesuai untuk memupuk minat pembelajaran Pembangunan Diri dalam kalangan pelajar UKM dan membetulkan persepsi yang salah terhadap pembelajaran Pembangunan Diri.

METODOLOGI Kajian ini memberi penekanan kepada keberkesanan stategi pembelajaran yang berpusatkan pelajar iaitu forum. Teknik forum merupakan salah satu aktiviti lisan yang sesuai, di mana pelajar akan berkongsi pengetahuan dan pengalaman secara langsung untuk meningkatkan kemahiran menyampaikan idea dan fikiran dengan jelas, objektif, kreatif dan rasional. Untuk menjayakan aktiviti ini, tajuk forum yang dipilih haruslah mudah, menarik dan mencabar selaras dengan kemahiran, pencapaian serta peringkat umur pelajar. Persediaan yang rapi perlu dibuat sama ada sebelum, semasa dan selepas aktiviti. Dalam melaksanakan teknik © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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forum yang merupakan satu sesi perbincangan yang melibatkan beberapa ahli panel untuk mencanai fikiran dan mengemukakan pendapat tentang sesuatu tajuk dan ia dijalankan secara formal. Sampel kajian ini melibatkan sebuah kelas yang mempunyai jumlah pelajar sekitar 73 orang yang melibatkan tiga set kursus. Sampel dibahagi kepada dua kumpulan utama iaitu kumpulan yang menjadi ahli panel dan kumpulan yang menjadi pendengar. Kumpulan penel akan menulis laporan mengenai pengalaman sebanyak dua tahap dari mula menyediakan bahan hinggalah terlibat dengan forum. Kumpulan pendengar akan dinilai dari segi minat dan penghayatan mereka terhadap isi forum semasa forum berlangsung. Keberkesanan strategi ini adalah berdasarkan analisis terhadap laporan pelajar terhadap aktiviti forum. Mereka diminta agar mengisi borang yang disediakan sebaik sahaja setiap kali aktiviti selesai. Bagi kumpulan ahli panel dan kumpulan pendengar, borang ini mempunyai tiga bahagian: a. Bahagian A: Bahagian ini mengandungi maklumat mengenai latar belakang responden iaitu jantina, bangsa, umur dan fakulti. b. Bahagian B: Bahagian ini mengandungi 26 soalan berkaitan respons pendengar terhadap forum. Pelajar perlu menjawab soalan-soalan dalam bentuk mengemukakan laporan dan pandangan mereka terhadap kaedah forum dan kaitannya dengan minat mereka. c. Bahagian C: Bahagian ini hanya mengandung 6 soalan temu bual bagi mendapatkan respon serta cadangan daripada pelajar. Data yang dipungut dianalisis dan dikodkan secara kualitatif dengan menggunakan teknik analisis tekstual (content analysis) terhadap laporan yang dijawab oleh pelajar. Ini membolehkan pengkaji memahami dengan lebih mendalam terhadap isu yang dikaji. Terdapat 5 peringkat yang terlibat: a. Peringkat 1: Tentukan unit analisis iaitu unit analisis menggunakan perkataan/ayat/perenggan tertentu dan ia ditentukan berdasarkan kepada persoalan kajian. b. Peringkat kedua: Memecahkan transkrip kepada unit analisis. c. Peringkat 3: Membina kategori. d. Peringkat 4: Menandakan unit analisis kepada kategori (pengekodan) iaitu setiap unit maklumat akan dikelaskan mengikut kategori yang telah ditetapkan. Setiap unit maklumat dalam satu kategori tidak boleh bertindih dengan kategori yang lain. Analisis juga dilakukan dengan menentukan teori/hipotesis daripada data yang dikumpul (grounded theory). Begitu juga mencari maklumat yang tersirat di dalam teks (discourse analysis), analisis ke atas petunjuk seperti perkataan, bahasa badan dan sebagainya (semiotic) dan pemahaman ke atas perspektif/pandangan dan pengalaman seseorang individu atau pelajar (interpretative phenomenological experience).

REFLEKSI MASALAH KAJIAN Kursus Pembangunan Diri antara kursus umum universiti yang ditawarkan kepada pelajar di UKM. Di samping penggunaan kaedah penyampaian kuliah secara konvensional yang lebih kepada berpusatkan pensyarah, ia juga perlu diberi penekanan kepada kaedah yang dilihat berpusatkan pelajar. Ini kerana dengan jumlah pelajar yang besar merentasi fakulti, program dan jabatan serta jumlah kumpulan yang besar, kadang-kadang boleh membantut proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang berkesan (Zarina Muhammad.2007). Mengikut pemerhatian yang lepas, antara permasalahan yang dihadapi ialah terdapat sebahagian pelajar yang masih lemah dalam penguasaan kemahiran asas dalam isu-isu diperbincangkan. Mereka kurang mahir dalam mengembangkan idea dengan menggunakan perkataan sendiri. Kecenderungan pelajar dalam subjek Pembangunan Diri bergantung kepada tajuk-tajuk yang tertentu sahaja. Mereka kurang mendapat motivasi dari pensyarah dalam mempelajari Pembangunan Diri. Tambahan pula antara faktor mereka kurang berminat terhadap kursus Pembangunan Diri adalah disebabkan waktu kuliah yang kurang sesuai. Ditambah pula masalah saiz pelajar yang besar semasa kuliah, kaedah pengajaran yang menggunakan kaedah kuliah atau syarahan mungkin kurang menarik minat mereka serta kurangnya penglibatan pelajar dalam interaksi bilik kuliah. Walau bagaimanapun, kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang berpusatkan pelajar kadang kala akan berhadapan dengan kesulitan disebabkan jumlah pelajar yang ramai dan perlu menggunakan suatu kaedah tambahan. Justeru kajian ini akan melihat adakah kaedah forum dapat membantu meningkatkan minat pelajar terhadap pembelajaran kursus Pembangunan Diri. Tujuan pendekatan forum ini diketengahkan agar pelajar mendapat pendedahan dan diberi peluang untuk mentafsirkan dan mengaitkan permasalahan semasa dengan teori© ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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teori pembangunan diri yang telah dipelajari dalam kehidupan mereka. Selain itu, diharap pendekatan forum dapat menanam sikap persaingan yang sihat dalam kalangan pelajar untuk menimba ilmu dan mengembangkan minat dan sikap ingin tahu terhadap fenomena kehidupan mereka.

SOROTAN KARYA BERKAITAN Dr Ragbir Kaur (2006) mendefinisikan pengajaran sebagai satu proses di mana kegiatan-kegiatan disusun untuk membawa perubahan tingkah laku pada diri pelajar dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Ia juga mengetengahkan cara-cara bagaimana pengajar/pensyarah mengendalikan sesuatu aktiviti pembelajaran secara sistematik dan bukan dengan cara cuba jaya (Ragbir Kaur, 2006). Ini kerana pengajaran adalah usaha yang dilakukan oleh pengajar/pensyarah untuk membantu para pelajar mendapat atau mampu mengubah kemahiran, pengetahuan, sikap, penghargaan atau persepsi mereka (Ragbir Kaur, 2006). Strategi Pemusatan Pengajar/Pensyarah merupakan strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang telah lama diamalkan di dalam bilik darjah/kuliah. Dalam strategi ini, pengajar/pensyarah menguasai dan mengawal segala aktiviti pembelajaran. Kaedah ini hanya tertumpu kepada penyampaian fakta-fakta kerana pembelajaran pelajar banyak berbentuk mengingat dan menghafal. Justeru pelajar kurang berupaya membuat interpretasi. Akibatnya pelajar-pelajar menjadi kurang kreatif dan berinisiatif (Ragbir Kaur, 2006). Oleh demikian, pengajaran pensyarah hendaklah mempunyai cirri-ciri kreatif, inovatif dan proaktif supaya proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang berlangsung boleh menarik minat pelajar dan menjadikan mereka lebih efektif dan efisien. Antara strategi yang perlu diketengahkan adalah forum. Strategi ini adalah berasaskan kepada pemusatan pelajar dan tugasan kerana pelajar digalakkan melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti-aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang dirancang oleh pengajar/pensyarah dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Jika tugasan yang diberikan dan dirancang oleh pengajar/pensyarah menarik, ia akan dapat menarik minat dan meningkatkan penglibatan murid-murid dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran (Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum, 1997). Teknik forum merupakan salah satu aktiviti lisan yang dianggap efektif. Ini kerana ia melibatkan pelajar berkongsi pengetahuan dan pengalaman secara langsung bagi meningkatkan kemahiran menyampaikan idea dan fikiran dengan jelas, kreatif dan rasional. Kaedah ini juga pelajar mampu memantapkan pemahaman dan penerokaan ilmu pengetahuan di samping membolehkan mereka mengasah bakat dan menonjolkan kepetahan berbahasa. Perbincangan tentang sesuatu isu memberi peluang kepada pelajar untuk berinteraksi di antara satu sama lain serta berkongsi maklumat terhadap sesuatu topik atau masalah dalam pembangunan diri dan personaliti dengan tujuan mencapai sesuatu penyelesaian. Walau bagaimanapun, kaedah forum hanya melibatkan beberapa orang pelajar. Ini menyebabkan pelajar lain hanya mendengar dan sebagai pemerhati kerana tidak melibatkan secara aktif dalam kaedah tersebut (Hazri Jamil, et. al. 2004). Kaedah forum boleh menggalakkan lagi suasana pembelajaran secara koperatif. Ini kerana menurut Salvin (1991) pembelajaran koperatif adalah satu kaedah yang memerlukan pelajar bekerjasama untuk belajar dan bertanggungjawab ke atas pembelajaran rakan-rakan sepasukan mereka selain daripada pembelajaran mereka sendiri. Pelajar perlu melibatkan diri secara aktif dalam sesi perbincangan bagi menjayakan aktiviti forum. Di samping itu, mereka dilatih dengan akauntabiliti diri dan bertanggungjawab sesama ahli kumpulan serta dapat memupuk kemahiran dan interaksi sosial (Raghir Kaur, 2006).

HASIL KAJIAN Kajian ini hanya terbatas kepada kumpulan sasaran iaitu 73 pelajar yang mengikuti Kursus ZZZT1062 Pembangunan Diri II yang menuntut di UKM semester 2 sesi 2012-2013. Data yang diperoleh adalah berdasarkan laporan responden dalam borang soalan yang disediakan dan dijadikan sebagai bahan teks kajian. Ia terdiri dari kalangan lelaki sebanyak 34 orang dan pelajar perempuan sebanyak 39 orang. Hampir kesemuanya berbangsa Melayu dan seorang sahaja dari kalangan warga Indonesia. Responden terdiri dari tiga fakulti iaitu Fakulti Islam seramai 63 orang atau 86.3%, diikuti Fakulti Ekonomi dan Perniagaan seramai 7 orang pelajar atau 9.58% dan selebihnya dari Fakulti Sains dan Teknologi iaitu hanya 3 orang atau 4.12%.

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Dari 73 orang, majoriti dalam kalangan mereka iaitu 40 orang pelajar atau 54.8% belum pernah terlibat dengan aktiviti forum sebelum melangkah ke UKM. Seramai 25 responden atau 34.25% sahaja yang pernah terlibat dengan aktiviti forum. Manakala selebihnya iaitu 8 orang responden atau 10.95% menjawab kurang pasti sama ada mereka pernah terlibat atau belum. Kajian ini cuba melihat sama ada kaedah forum berkesan dalam pembelajaran Pembangunan Diri ataupun tidak dan kaitannya dengan minat pelajar. Hasil kajian mendapati, majoriti responden iaitu 49 orang atau 67.12% setuju forum sesuai dilaksanakan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Ini kerana menurut mereka dengan kaedah pengajaran yang sama iaitu syarahan dan tayangan power point sahaja boleh menyebabkan pelajar rasa jemu dan bosan. Justeru dengan pelbagai pendekatan pengajaran menjadikan suasana pengajaran dan pembelajaran lebih menarik dan memupuk minat pelajar serta tidak membosankan seperti tayangan video, gambar-gambar, jenaka, cerita dan sebagainya. Memandangkan waktu kuliah bagi Kursus Pembangunan Diri diadakan di sebelah petang, sewajarnya pensyarah menggunakan pelbagai kaedah tersebut, pelajar dapat didedahkan dengan cabaran-cabaran dengan aktiviti-aktiviti yang disertai oleh pelajar. Namun terdapat segelintir responden iaitu 7 orang atau 9.5% yang mengatakan forum kurang sesuai dilaksanakan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Sementara 17 orang atau 23.38% mengatakan kurang pasti adakah kaedah tersebut sesuai ataupun tidak. Hal ini berlaku kerana kemungkinan sebahagian pelajar berminat dengan satu kaedah pengajaran seperti kuliah yang disampaikan oleh pensyarah kerana ia akan mudah difahami dan diketahui dengan cara yang mendalam berbanding dengan menggunakan kaedah forum oleh pelajar kerana boleh menimbulkan kekeliruan terhadap tajuk-tajuk yang dibincangkan. Walau bagaimanapun majoriti pelajar memberi respon yang positif bahawa kursus PD banyak membantu dalam mengendalikan forum yang dianjurkan. Ini kerana kajian mendapati seramai 56 orang atau 76.72% responden mengatakan kursus PD banyak membantu mereka dalam mengendalikan forum. Sementara hanya 6 orang atau 8.2% sahaja yang kurang setuju bahawa kursus PD dapat membantu mereka dalam mengendalikan kuliah. Manakala 11 orang atau 15.08% memberi jawapan tidak pasti. Apa yang menarik, majoriti pelajar menunjukkan kesungguhan dan semangat sukarelawan yang sangat tinggi sebelum mereka mengadakan forum dalam kelas. Ini kerana seramai 56 orang atau 76.7% yang bersetuju bahawa mereka mampu menyusun strategi bagi memperoleh data dan maklumat untuk dibentangkan di dalam forum. Manakala 10 orang atau 13.7% yang menjawab tidak pasti dan hanya 7 orang atau 9.6% sahaja yang tidak setuju dengan pernyataan tersebut. Ini menggambarkan kebanyakan dari kalangan mereka telah membuat persiapan yang cukup sebelum mereka terlibat dalam aktiviti forum. Bahkan majoriti responden iaitu seramai 50 orang atau 68.5% menunjukkan pendapat tidak setuju terhadap alasan yang mengatakan bahawa forum tidak sesuai dipraktikkan ke atas pelajar baru. Hanya 3 orang atau 4.1% sahaja. Sementara 20 orang atau 27.4% yang memberi jawapan tidak pasti. Kajian juga mendapati bahawa forum mampu mengembangkan domain kognitif yang tinggi pelajar dan dapat meningkatkan keupayaan pelajar untuk menyelesaikan masalah. Menurut majoriti responden iaitu seramai 63 orang atau 86.3% bersetuju mengatakan bahawa forum dapat meningkatkan keupayaan pelajar untuk menyelesaikan masalah. Hanya 2 orang atau 2.73% sahaja yang menunjukkan tidak setuju dan selebihnya seramai 8 orang atau 10.97% yang tidak pasti atas pernyataan di atas. Bagi mendapat gambaran secara lebih jelas, lihat Jadual 1 di bawah: Jadual 1. Forum Meningkatkan Keupayaan Menyelesaikan Masalah

Bil

Perkara

1

Setuju

2 3 Jumlah

Jumlah

Peratus

63

86.30

Tidak pasti

8

10.97

Tidak setuju

2

2.73

73

100.00

Justeru itulah majoriti daripada mereka iaitu seramai 53 orang atau 72.6% berpendapat perbahasan dalam forum tersebut dianggap tidak membosankan dan tidak membazir masa. Bagi mereka forum boleh memperkembangkan lagi kreativiti pelajar, meningkatkan kemahiran dalam menyelesaikan masalah dan mampu mengolah isu-isu semasa dengan berkesan. Namun begitu, 5 orang atau 6.84% responden sahaja yang mengatakan forum dilihat boleh menyebabkan mereka merasa bosan dan membazir masa. Selebihnya, 15 orang atau 20.56% daripada responden kurang pasti dengan pernyataan tersebut. Selain itu, kesesuaian topik-topik yang dipilih oleh setiap kumpulan dan dibincangkan dalam forum juga dapat menggalakkan pembelajaran PD secara mendalam. Berdasarkan analisis, sebanyak 57 orang atau

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78.08% daripada responden bersetuju mengatakan topik-topik yang dipilih mereka dalam forum mampu membangunkan semangat kesukarelaan dan kerjasama yang tinggi dalam kalangan mereka.. Ini kerana topik yang dibincangkan dalam forum dan perbahasan mempunyai kesesuaian dengan tajuk-tajuk kursus. Hanya 7 orang atau 9.58% daripada responden sahaja yang menyatakan kurang setuju dengan pernyataan di atas kerana bagi mereka kemungkinan topik yang dibincangkan adalah kurang sesuai dengan apa yang dibincangkan dalam PD. Manakala responden yang lain iaitu 9 orang 12.34% yang menjawab tidak pasti terhadap pernyataan di atas. Selain daripada membangunkan kemahiran insan dan pembelajaran PD secara mendalam, forum juga dapat memperkembangkan kemahiran berkomunikasi antara pelajar. Ini jelas ditunjukkan bahawa hampir keseluruhan responden iaitu 72 orang atau 98% daripada responden yang bersetuju mengatakan forum dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran PD boleh memperkembangkan kemahiran berkomunikasi antara pelajar. Ini kerana, kebanyakan mereka yang mengambil bahagian dalam aktiviti forum dan perbahasan telah membuat persediaan sama ada dari sudut bahan-bahannya dan mental mereka. Bukan itu sahaja, forum juga dijadikan medan oleh mereka untuk mempamerkan kemahiran komunikasi bukan lisan. Ini kerana seramai 48 responden atau 65.75% yang bersetuju mengatakan bahawa forum dapat membantu mereka mempamerkan kebolehan mereka dalam komunikasi bukan lisan. Walau bagaimanapun, terdapat sebanyak 11 orang atau 15.06% daripada responden yang membuat pendirian bahawa forum kurang membantu mereka mempamerkan kebolehan mereka dalam komunikasi bukan lisan. Wujud juga dalam kalangan responden iaitu sebanyak 14 orang atau 19.19% yang menunjukkan sikap tidak pasti dengan pernyataan ini. Bagi mendapat gambaran secara lebih jelas, lihat Jadual 2 di bawah: Jadual 2. Forum Boleh Mempamerkan Komunikasi Bukan Lisan

Bil

Perkara

Jumlah

Peratus

1

Setuju

48

65.75

2

Tidak Setuju

11

15.06

3

Tidak Pasti

14

19.19

73

100.00

Jumlah

Apa yang menarik, ramai dalam kalangan responden menunjukkan sikap yang positif terhadap kaedah forum dan keberkesanannya berbanding kaedah pengajaran secara kuliah. Ini kerana hasil kajian yang mendapati 40 orang atau 54.79% daripada responden bersetuju mengatakan kaedah pengajaran berdasarkan teknik forum yang disertai oleh pelajar lebih berkesan berbanding kuliah yang disampaikan oleh pensyarah. Kemungkinan mereka bertanggapan bahawa pengajaran dan pembelajaran secara kuliah hanya melibatkan satu hala dan kurang menarik sehingga menyebabkan terdapat pelajar kurang memberi perhatian kepada topik yang diajar serta menyebabkan pelajar tertidur. Bagi mereka teknik forum, pelajar lebih memahami tentang sesuatu topik dengan lebih jelas kerana komunikasi dua hala di samping teknik tersebut menyebabkan mereka saling bantumembantu antara satu sama lain. Selain itu, pendekatan ini juga memberi peluang kepada pelajar interaksi antara ahli panel dan pendengar. Sementara 25 orang atau 34.25% daripada responden kurang pasti dengan pernyataan di atas. Kemungkinan bagi mereka idea dan maklumat yang diutarakan oleh mereka dalam forum kadang-kadang kurang memberi suatu gambaran yang menyeluruh dan sewajarnya diberi penerangan oleh pensyarah kerana ia kurang sesuai dengan tahap pengetahuan seseorang pelajar. Selebihnya, 8 orang atau 10.96% daripada responden yang menganggap kuliah yang disampaikan oleh pensyarah lebih menarik berbanding teknik forum. Kemungkinan antara sebab mengapakan mereka mengatakan demikian adalah penjelasan yang dikemukakan oleh pensyarah lebih mendalam kupasan terhadap setiap isu yang dibangkitkan. Tutur kata dan cara penyampaian pensyarah juga lebih teratur dan mudah difahami kerana setiap isi yang dihuraikan dan diterangkan yang disertai dengan contoh-contoh berdasarkan ilmu pensyarah yang meluas dan pengetahuan yang lebih mendalam terhadap setiap topik yang dibincangkan. Tambahan pula forum yang dikendalikan oleh pelajar kadang-kadang kurang memberi kefahaman kepada pelajar-pelajar lain berbanding pensyarah disebabkan oleh cara penyampaian pelajar kurang memberi kesan kepada pendengar yang lain. Huraian di atas boleh dilihat dengan lebih lanjut seperti Jadual 3. Selain menggambarkan keberkesanan kaedah pengajaran, kajian juga mengenal pasti kaitannya dengan minat pelajar. Hasil kajian juga menunjukkan majoriti responden iaitu 49 orang atau 67.12% daripada responden bersetuju bahawa forum dapat menimbulkan minat terhadap pembelajaran PD dalam kalangan mereka. Bagi © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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mereka pembelajaran kursus PD bukan sekadar memahami teori atau menghafal dan mengingati konsep semata-mata tetapi perlu dipraktikkan dalam kehidupan mereka. Jadual 3. Kaedah Forum Kurang Menarik Berbanding Pembentangan Pensyarah

Bil

Perkara

1

Setuju

2 3

Jumlah

Peratus

8

10.96

Tidak Setuju

40

54.79

Tidak Pasti

25

34.25

73

100.00

Jumlah

Namun begitu, terdapat segelintir pelajar iaitu hanya 3 orang atau 4.12% sahaja daripada responden mengatakan forum tidak dapat menimbulkan minat terhadap pembelajaran PD dalam kalangan mereka. Antara alasan mereka adalah, untuk melaksanakan aktiviti forum, ia memerlukan format tertentu sehingga terdapat dari kalangan mereka yang kurang mengetahui cara untuk mengendalikan forum tersebut. Walau bagaimanapun terdapat sebahagian responden iaitu seramai 21 orang atau 28.76% responden memberi jawapan tidak pasti terhadap pernyataan di atas. Bagi mereka, timbul rasa minat adalah berdasarkan kepada persembahan yang ditunjukkan oleh ahli panel. Jika ahli panel tidak menunjukkan persembahan yang baik, ia akan menyebabkan aktiviti forum tersebut kurang menarik. Huraian di atas boleh dilihat dengan lebih lanjut seperti Jadual 4 di bawah Jadual 4. Forum Dapat Menimbulkan Minat Pelajar

Bil

Perkara

1

Setuju

2

Tidak Setuju

3

Tidak Pasti

Jumlah

Jumlah

Peratus

49

67.12

2

4.12

21

28.76

73

100.00

Bagi mengukuhkan lagi dapatan di atas, kajian mendapati kebanyakan pelajar iaitu 62 orang atau 84.94% daripada responden bersetuju mengatakan bahawa forum mampu mengembangkan lagi kemahiran dalam pengurusan maklumat secara mendalam dan pembelajaran sepanjang hayat. Ini kerana, forum bukan sahaja dapat membina keyakinan mereka bahkan ia berupaya mendapatkan maklumat dan mengolahnya dengan lebih berkesan. Manakala seramai 4 orang atau 5.5% daripada responden sahaja yang mengatakan tidak bersetuju forum mampu mengembangkan kemahiran dalam pengurusan maklumat dan pembelajaran sepanjang hayat. Alasan mereka adalah teknik forum dan perbahasan, kurang membantu pelajar mempamerkan kebolehan mereka serta mengembangkan kemahiran mereka dalam pengurusan maklumat dan pembelajaran sepanjang hayat kerana sesetengah pelajar kurang bersedia sehingga menyebabkan forum yang dikendalikan oleh mereka kurang tersusun dan tertumpu pada teks sahaja. Di samping itu juga, terdapat sesetengah ahli panel kurang mahir dalam membincangkan sesuatu isu menyebabkan pelajar merasa bosan dan mengantuk. Manakala selebihnya, 7 orang atau 9.56% daripada responden menyatakan kurang pasti terhadap pernyataan di atas. Huraian di atas boleh dilihat dengan lebih lanjut seperti Jadual 5 di bawah: Jadual 5. Kaedah Forum Boleh Mengembangkan Kemahiran Dalam Pengurusan Maklumat dan Pembelajaran Sepanjang Hayat

Bil

Perkara

1

Setuju

2 3 Jumlah

Jumlah

Peratus

62

84.94

Tidak Setuju

4

5.50

Tidak Pasti

7

9.56

73

100.00

Forum bukan sahaja mampu mengembangkan kemahiran pengurusan maklumat dan pembelajaran sepanjang hayat, bahkan ia juga menggalakkan pelajar agar berfikiran secara kritis dan mampu mengenal pasti serta mensintesiskan permasalahan secara terperinci. Hal ini boleh dilihat berdasarkan jawapan yang dikemukakan oleh responden apabila majoriti dari kalangan mereka iaitu 59 orang atau 80.82% yang mengatakan setuju © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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bahawa forum dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran mampu menggalakkan pelajar berfikiran secara kritis dan mampu mengenal pasti serta mensintesiskan permasalahan secara terperinci. Hanya 4 responden atau 5.47% sahaja mengatakan tidak setuju terhadap pernyataan di atas. Manakala 10 orang atau 13.71% yang menjawab tidak pasti. Berdasarkan analisis juga, forum memberi peluang kepada pelajar untuk membina sifat kepimpinan dalam diri mereka dan memupuk semangat kesukalerawan dalam kalangan mereka. Ini kerana terdapat 83.56% daripada responden bersetuju menyatakan bahawa perbincangan forum memberi peluang kepada pelajar untuk membina sifat kepimpinan dalam diri mereka dan memupuk semangat kesukalerawan dalam kalangan mereka. Hanya 4.1% daripada responden yang tidak bersetuju dengan penyataan ini. Selebihnya iaitu 12.34% yang berpendirian kurang pasti terhadap pernyataan tersebut. Jadual 6. Kaedah Forum Boleh Membina Sifat Kepimpinan Dalam Diri Mereka Dan Memupuk Semangat Kesukalerawan

Bil

Perkara

1

Setuju

2 3 Jumlah

Jumlah

Peratus

61

83.56

Tidak Setuju

3

4.4

Tidak Pasti

9

12.34

73

100.00

Sementara itu hampir kesemua responden iaitu 94.52% mengatakan setuju bahawa forum dapat membantu mengeratkan hubungan sesama rakan dengan adanya kerja berpasukan. Hanya 5.48% sahaja daripada responden yang tidak bersetuju dengan penyataan ini.

RUMUSAN Kaedah pengajaran forum banyak memberi kesan yang positif kepada pelajar serta boleh menanamkan minat pelajar dan memberi pembelajaran secara mendalam. Ia juga mampu meningkatkan keupayaan pelajar dalam menyelesaikan masalah dan menggalakkan komunikasi yang membina di kalangan pelajar serta berjaya memupuk semangat sukarelawan dalam kalangan mereka. Walau bagaimanapun, faktor-faktor kelemahan dari sudut kemahiran, pengalaman dan pengetahuan dalam kalangan pelajar yang membuat persembahan dalam forum menyebabkan minat pendengar atau pelajar berkurangan sehingga keberkesanannya kurang menyerlah jika hendak dibandingkan dengan persembahan daripada pensyarah. Dalam masa yang sama, pensyarah perlu mengambil pelbagai inisiatif terhadap kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran agar pelajar tidak merasa bosan dan kurang berminat dengan kursus PD. Justeru, teknik forum tidak seharusnya diadakan dalam waktu kuliah sahaja tetapi ia boleh dilakukan secara ringkas dalam waktu-waktu lain. Ini boleh membantu pelajar untuk mempertingkatkan kemahiran mereka dalam komunikasi, pemikiran kritis, penyelesaian masalah, kepimpinan, kerja berpasukan, pengurusan maklumat dan pembelajaran sepanjang hayat. Pelajar beranggapan bahawa pendekatan forum dalam kursus PD merupakan kaedah yang menyeronokkan kerana mereka berpeluang untuk berbincang antara satu sama lain dan bertukar-tukar idea dengan dibimbing oleh pensyarah. Forum juga boleh dilakukan dengan menggunakan teknologi maklumat seperti dalam i-Folio dan seumpamanya. Pendekatan ini juga boleh memupuk mereka ke arah melahirkan insan yang lebih berketerampilan dan cemerlang dalam kerjaya.

CADANGAN Berdasarkan penemuan analisis kajian, beberapa cadangan telah dibuat bagi memperbaiki kekurangan yang ada dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran Kursus ZZZT1062 Pembangunan Diri di UKM agar keberkesanan kaedah forum dan perbahasan dapat meningkatkan lagi semangat kesukarelawan serta lebih menarik lagi minat pelajar:

Persediaan Pelajar Yang Mencukupi Salah satu sebab pelajar menganggap forum kurang berkesan dan menarik adalah kerana pelajar kurang bersedia untuk membuat suatu persembahan yang menarik dan meyakinkan. Justeru pensyarah perlu mewujudkan suasana pembelajaran secara kolaboratif dan koperatif terlebih dahulu dalam kelas tutorial agar mereka dapat berbincang antara satu sama lain, mengemukakan idea dan bertukar-tukar pendapat. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Perbincangan tersebut mampu membantu mereka membuat persembahan yang baik dalam forum yang akan diadakan. Ini kerana menurut Saemah (2009) dengan pendekatan seumpama itu mereka dapat belajar bekerja dengan pelbagai individu dan mempunyai banyak peluang untuk membuat refleksi tentang pelbagai respon yang timbul. Mereka juga berpeluang menambah perbincangan dengan pelbagai isu berkaitan tamadun dari perspektif yang berbeza

Forum dan Perbahasan Mini Dalam Tutorial Dan Laman Web Teknik forum tidak seharusnya diadakan dalam waktu kuliah sahaja tetapi ia boleh dilakukan secara ringkas dalam waktu tutorial. Ini boleh membantu pelajar untuk memupuk semangat kesukarelawan dalam kalangan mereka dan mempertingkatkan kemahiran mereka dalam forum dan perbahasan. Di samping itu, dengan mengadakan forum mini, pelajar akan beranggapan bahawa pendekatan tersebut merupakan kaedah yang menyeronokkan kerana mereka berpeluang untuk berbincang antara satu sama lain dan bertukar-tukar idea dengan dibimbing oleh pensyarah. Bahkan forum juga boleh dilakukan dengan menggunakan teknologi maklumat seperti dalam i-FOLIO dan seumpamanya. Ini kerana menurut Supyan (2009) forum antara pelajar tidak terhad kepada ruang fizikal dan ruang masa disebabkan adanya kemudahan teknologi maklumat melalui komputer, internet dan telefon bimbit. Pensyarah boleh mengemukakan soalan-soalan yang berkaitan dengan isu-isu berkaitan pembinaan personaliti yang akan dibincangkan. Pelajar juga boleh mengemukakan pertanyaan atau persoalan mengenai pembangunan diri pada bila-bila masa.

Mewujudkan Pembelajaran Secara Kontekstual Pertandingan forum dan perbahasan yang dianjurkan perlu dipertingkatkan agar minat pelajar terhadap pembelajaran pembinaan personaliti seseorang atau secara khususnya semnagat kesukarelawan dapat dipupuk. Ini kerana mereka bukan sahaja mempelajari ilmu pembangunan diri secara teori tetapi mereka juga perlu menghayati kesesuaian pembelajaran ilmu pembangunan diri dengan kehidupan mereka. Justeru dicadangkan pensyarah dan mereka yang terlibat agar memperkasakan modul Pembangunan Diri untuk menggalakkan pembelajaran kontekstual dan mampu menyesuaikan bahan bacaan yang diajar dengan kehidupan mereka.

PENUTUP Generalisasi dapatan kajian ini adalah berdasarkan respon 73 sampel pelajar yang mengambil bahagian dalam aktiviti forum. Oleh itu kajian yang lebih menyeluruh perlu dijalankan melibatkan sampel yang lebih ramai dan bilangan soalan selidik juga perlu ditambah bagi mendapatkan gambaran yang lebih tepat serta lebih ramai lagi yang terlibat dalam aktiviti yang menggambarkan kerjasama dan kesukarekawan.

RUJUKAN Hazri Jamil, et. Al. (2004). Pengantar Kaedah Mengajar Mata Pelajaran Ilmu Kemanusiaan, Shah Alam: Karisma Publications. Ragbir Kaur. (2006). Panduan Ulangkaji Ilmu Pendidikan Untuk Kursus Perguruan Lepasan Ijazah (KPLI), Subang Jaya: Kumpulan Budiman Sdn. Bhd. Saemah Rahman. (2009). Pembelajaran Kolaboratif dan Koperatif, Panduan Amalan Pengajaran & Pembelajaran Berkesan, Bangi: Pusat Pembangunan Akademik, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Samri Sainuddin dan Ishak Haron (2004), Pengalaman Mengajar TITAS di UPSI, Prosiding Bengkel Kebangsaan Ketiga, Pengajaran TITAS di IPTA 2004 anjuran Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris. Slavin, R.E. (1991). An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development. London: Heineman Supyan Hussin. (2009). Pengendalian Forum Atas Talian, Panduan Amalan Pengajaran & Pembelajaran Berkesan, Bangi: Pusat Pembangunan Akademik, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum. (1997). Aplikasi Teori Kecerdasan Pelbagai dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran, Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. Zarina Muhammad. (2007). Pelaksanaan Kaeadah Student Centered Learning (SCL) dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Kurusus Tamadun Islam, Tamadun Asia & Kenegaraan Malaysia di Universiti Putera Malaysia, Jurnal Pengajian Umum, 8, UKM: Pusat Pengajian Umum.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PERUBAHAN KADAR FERTILITI DAN MORTALITI PENDUDUK PELBAGAI ETNIK DI MALAYSIA (20002010) Nurhayati Ibrahim, Nurhidayah Rosle, Mohd Mahzan Awang, Faridah Mydin Kutty & Abdul Razaq Ahmad [email protected] Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Abstrak Data fertiliti dan mortaliti merupakan pembolehubah demografi penting dalam melihat pertumbuhan penduduk sesebuah negara. Di Malaysia kajian keatas unjuran pertumbuhan penduduk memberikan kesan signifikan ke atas pembangunan ekonomi dan sosial. Mengikut Malthus “kematian, penyakit dan peperangan akan membawa kepada kestabilan sesebuah populasi manusia secara semulajadi”. Justeru analisis dalam kajian ini bertujuan melihat kadar fertiliti dan mortaliti penduduk di Malaysia sepanjang tempoh 10 tahun bermula tahun 2000 hingga 2010. Secara terperinci kajian ini adalah untuk melihat trend fertiliti dan mortaliti daripada aspek jantina, etnik, kumpulan umur dan status sosioekonomi penduduk. Kajian ini juga akan mengupas faktor kadar fertiliti dan mortaliti berlaku penurunan dan peningkatan serta perbezaan antara kadar kedua-dua pemboleh ubah ini. Kajian ini menggunakan analisis secara “Time series” iaitu dengan membuat penelitian terhadap kadar kelahiran dan kematian kasar terhadap sumber daripada Jabatan Perangkaan Negara. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan berlaku peningkatan populasi yang ketara bagi kategori umur bawah 14 tahun pada tahun 2000 hingga 2002. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa kadar kelahiran lebih tinggi berbanding kadar kematiann. Walaubagaimanapun data menunjukkan mortaliti dalam kalanga bayi lebih tinggi berbanding dengan kanak-kanak dan orang dewasa. Jangka hayat masyarakat cina di malaysia menunjukkan peningkatan yang lebih berbanding etnik lain. Dari segi gender jangka hayat penduduk wanita di Malaysia lebih tinggi berbanding lelaki. Berdasarkan data-data sekunder ini, kualiti hidup rakyat malaysia turut dibincangkan dalam artikel ini. Secara keseluruhan, artikal ini mengetengahkan aspek penting dalam pengajian kependudukan dan kesejahteraan rakyat termasuk saiz, struktur dan arah (projection) penduduk negara pada masa akan datang. Keywords: fertiliti, mortaliti, ekonomi, sosial, etnik

PENGENALAN Malaysia merupakan sebuah negara yang terdiri daripada pelbagai kaum dan berbilang agama. Kaum Melayu merupakan etnik terbesar di Malaysia dan diikuti oleh kaum-kaum lain seperti Cina, India dan lain-lain. Sejak lebih daripada lima dekad yang lalu, komposisi penduduk Malaysia yang terdiri daripada pelbagai etnik ini telah berubah baik daripada segi kadar kelahiran, kadar kematian, penghijrahan, struktur umur dan jantina. Situasi ini dipengaruhi oleh pembangunan dan perubahan sosioekonomi yang berlaku di Malaysia sejak kebelakangan ini dan ia telah meninggalkan impak ke atas profil demografi penduduk khususnya dalam aspek fertiliti, mortaliti dan migrasi. Perubahan profil demografi penduduk dijangka akan terus berlaku tatkala

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

negara Malaysia terus berusaha bagi mencapai status negara maju menjelang tahun 2020. Perbandingan antara jangka masa di atas menunjukkan bahawa kadar pertumbuhan sekarang ini adalah lebih tinggi sedikit dari kadar pertumbuhan bagi 1970 - 1980. Ini adalah disebabkan oleh kadar kesuburan yang lebih tinggi dalam tahun lima puluhan dan enam puluhan dan bertambahnya jumlah wanita-wanita muda yang mencapai umur perkahwinan. Berdasarkan kajian Lim Chong Yah 1967, dalam sejarah pertumbuhan penduduk Semenanjung Malaysia, unsur fertiliti dan mortaliti memainkan peranan penting selepas perang dunia kedua . Kesan ini juga dirasai oleh negara jiran dengan meningkatnya kemasukan migran untuk mencari pekerjaan telah menyumbang kepada kadar pertumbuhan penduduk di negara ini. Menurut kajian ( Jackson,1961;Vlieland,1932 dan Nathan,1922 ) Pertumbuhan penduduk Negara sebelum ini lebih banyak dipengaruhi oleh faktor migrasi ( Hairi Abdullah, 1989).

FAKTOR-FAKTOR MEMPENGARUHI PERUBAHAN FERTILITI SERTA MORTALITI PENDUDUK Pengaruh Pendidikan Formal Pendidikan memainkan peranan penting ke atas kehidupan seseorang manusia. Selain menjadi salah satu saluran untuk mencapai mobiliti sosial secara menegak, pendidikan juga berperanan mengubah cara manusia berfikir dan menguruskan diri dan alam sekelilingnya, termasuk berkaitan hidup berkeluarga. Dalam konteks ini, pendidikan dilihat berkaitan rapat dengan amalan melewatkan perkahwinan dan mengawal bilangan kelahiran. Tindakan untuk melanjutkan pelajaran ke peringkat lebih tinggi menyebabkan ramai daripada kalangan wanita dan juga lelaki telah menangguhkan urusan perkahwinan atau mendirikan rumahtangga ke usia yang lebih lewat. Tindakan sedemikian telah menyebabkan baki usia reproduktif seseorang wanita telah berkurangan, lantaran membawa kepada pengurangan jumlah anak yang mampu dilahirkan wanita berkenaan apabila mendirikan rumah tangga kelak. Menurut Weeks, J R. (2002) berdasarkan data bancian dari sumber-sumber kesihatan di Amerika Syarikat pada tahun 1991 jelas menunjukkan bahawa semakin tinggi pendidikan seorang wanita itu maka semakin kurang bilangan anak yang dipunyainya. Pengalaman di Malaysia menunjukkan terdapat seolah-olah wujud korelasi secara negatif antara pendidikan dengan kelahiran anak. Di Semenanjung Malaysia, peratus peningkatan wanita dalam pendidikan formal adalah sebanyak 69.4% berbanding penduduk lelaki yakni 63.8%. Di Sabah, peratus peningkatannya adalah lebih tinggi lagi dengan masing-masing lelaki dan wanita mencatatkan peningkatan sehingga 117.6 peratus dan 147.2 peratus dalam tempoh 24 tahun ini. Bagi Sarawak pula, trend peningkatan yang sama turut diperhatikan dengan peningkatan peratus penduduk lelaki berpendidikan formal adalah sebanyak 55.8 peratus, manakala wanita pula di sekitar 72.8 peratus. Secara keseluruhan, trend peningkatan peratusan wanita dalam berpendidikan formal yang tinggi di ketigatiga wilayah tersebut telah memberi impak tertentu ke atas tingkat fertiliti di negara ini. Peningkatan peluang menimba pengetahuan dan kemahiran ke tahap lebih tinggi di kalangan wanita telah menyebabkan ramai berpeluang menceburi bidang-bidang pekerjaan yang lebih luas, lantas telah menangguhkan perkahwinan masing-masing ke usia lebih lewat. Tindakan sedemikian telah membawa kepada berkurangnya penduduk melahirkan anak pada usia lebih muda berbanding beberapa dekad sebelum ini. Hakikatnya, perubahan yang berlaku ke atas institusi keluarga ini juga telah membawa kepada perubahan dalam cara pasangan menguruskan perlakuan reproduktif mereka.

Pengaruh Kos Sara Hidup dan Amalan Merancang Keluarga Malaysia merupakan sebuah negara yang pesat membangun. Ini berlaku sejak kemerdekaan pada tahun 1957, yang mana ia telah mengalami pelbagai perubahan yang baik dalam bidang politik, mahupun dalam bidang sosial dan ekonomi. Kesemua perubahan yang berlaku ini, semestinya membawa kesan-kesan terhadap perkembangan ekonomi dan sara hidup di Malaysia. Tambahan lagi, kemajuan Malaysia dapat juga di lihat dari segi teknologi baru yang mana dapat menyaingi negara lain. Walau bagaimanapun, Malaysia tidak tertinggal dengan menghadapi masalah dari pelbagai aspek dan aspek yang sering menjadi isu adalah seperti kos sara hidup, yang mana dapat di lihat kos sara hidup semakin meningkat dari semasa ke semasa. Hal ini banyak memberi kesan kepada masyarakat di mana kebanyakan masyarakat terpaksa bekerja lebih masa bagi menampung perbelanjaan harian mereka (Kosmo Online, 25 Jun 2008). Berdasarkan kajian oleh LPPKN (2004), secara keseluruhannya peratusan wanita yang mempraktikkan amalan merancang keluarga di negara ini agak tinggi. Kajian juga mendapati wanita di Sarawak mencatatkan peratusan agak tinggi dalam mengamalkan perancangan keluarga mengikut kaedah moden seperti penggunaan pil dan tubaligasi. Sementara, di Semenanjung Malaysia pula, penggunaan pil (26.9%), kondom (14.3%) dan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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tubaligasi (12.6%) merupakan tiga kaedah moden yang paling banyak digunakan. Bagi kaedah bukan moden, cara waktu selamat adalah popular di Semenanjung Malaysia (17.9%) berbanding di Sabah (14.5%) dan Sarawak (11.7%). Pengaruh pendedahan wanita kepada pendidikan dan penglibatan mereka dalam pekerjaan dikenalpasti telah meningkatkan lagi pendedahan mereka kepada program-program perancangan keluarga tersebut, dan sekaligus membantu ke arah penurunan fertiliti di peringkat unit isi rumah.

Pengaruh Kesihatan dan Amalan Gaya Hidup Sihat Dalam aspek penjagaan kesihatan, terdapat beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhinya seperti kurang tahap pengetahuan dan kesedaran tentang kesihatan, kekangan masa, kurang menitikberatkan pengambilan makanan sihat, masa pemakanan yang tidak konsisten, rehat dan tidur kurang sistematik serta prinsipprinsip penjagaan kesihatan yang disarankan dalam Islam tidak diamalkan. Dari segi penjagaan pemakanan, faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhinya ialah pemilihan makanan yang tidak berlandaskan tuntutan agama, pengabaian dalam aspek kebersihan dan kehalalan makanan, suka mengambil makanan secara berlebihan, kurang tahap pengetahuan dan kesedaran serta sikap sambil lewa dalam memilih makanan. Tahap kesihatan merupakan faktor penting dan masyarakat harus memberi keutamaan dalam penjagaan kesihatan yang boleh membantu kesejahteraan dan keseimbangan sesebuah komuniti. Komuniti yang sihat sepenuhnya akan menghasilkan sebuah negara yang produktif serta melahirkan individu yang berada dalam keadaan tenang secara fizikal, psikologi dan mental. Hanya dengan keadaan seperti ini komuniti akan berada dalam harmoni, tenang dan bergerak ke arah yang lebih baik pada masa akan datang. Malahan, penyesuaian kesihatan keluarga memainkan peranan penting dalam membantu kepada kesejahteraan komuniti. Komuniti yang sejahtera adalah lahir daripada keluarga yang sihat dan makmur. Kebergantungan dua aspek ini sangat mempengaruhi keadaan keseluruhan alam sekitar termasuklah keharmonian sesebuah negara. Namun, kesihatan keluarga secara khasnya melibatkan urusan keluarga yang bebas daripada perceraian, gejala sosial, dan bebas mencari nafkah yang halal. Setiap keluarga yang sihat sudah pasti akan melalui perkara-perkara tersebut sehingga mencapai sebuah keluarga yang sejahtera. Kesejahteraan keluarga banyak bergantung kepada lokus kawalan kesihatan. Elemen ini merujuk dalam diri manusia yang bertindak sebagai kebolehan individu untuk mengawal kesihatan diri berasaskan kepada lokus kesihatan dalaman dan luaran (Makzan, 1992). Lokus kawalan kesihatan dalaman ialah pengawalan dari segi pemakanan, kebersihan diri,penggunaan rawatan dan lain-lain. Manakala, lokus kawalan kesihatan luaran merujuk kepada faktor nasib, takdir, doa, kuasa ghaib, bala, dan melanggar pantang larang (Makzan, 1992). Justeru, elemen kekeluargaan dan komuniti yang sihat wajar diambil kira untuk perkembangan sesebuah negara. Kekayaan, kemasyhuran, gelaran dan pangkat tidak akan menjadi nikmat yang indah dan bermakna dalam hidup jika sentiasa diselubungi dengan sakit (Mat Saad, 2008). Keperluan fizikal merujuk kepada makan, minum, rehat, seks, perlindungan, alam sekitar yang bersih dan riadah, manakala keperluan spiritual ialah akidah yang benar dan amal ibadat yang tulus ikhlas kepad Pencipta (Mat Saad, 2008). Tuntutan sebegini mempengaruhi kesihatan sesebuah komuniti yang bermula dari individu dan keluarga. Tumpuan ini berasaskan kepada psikologi individu yang perlu diteliti dan difahami sepenuhnya dalam usaha membawa kesejahteraaan kepada mereka (Ma’Rof & Asnarulkhadi, 2006). Lahey (2000) (dlm Ma’Rof & Asnarulkhadi, 2006) menyatakan bahawa psikologi komuniti bertanggungjawab untuk mengoptimumkan kesejahteraan individu dan masyarakat melalui campur tangan inovatif dan kreatif ahli-ahli komuniti tertentu dengan disiplin-disiplin lain yang berkaitan (sosiologi, ekonomi dan politik). Tegasnya, kesejahteraan komuniti melihat kepada individu sebagai makhluk biologi yang mempengaruhi pemikiran dan tingkah laku. Mereka adalah unik dan mempunyai persamaan serta perbezaan sehingga boleh difahami dari segi budaya, identiti etnik, dan juga gender (Ma’Rof & Asnarulkhadi, 2006). Hakikatnya, komuniti itu bertunjang kepada individu dan keluarga yang sihat secara fitrahnya. Manusia tidak boleh bersendirian dalam memenuhi kehendak mereka sama ada dari segi psikologi ataupun fizikal. Dari segi konsep gaya hidup sihat terdapat pelbagai kempen yang telah diwujudkan untuk memastikan masyrakat tidak mengabaikan kesihatan dalam kehidupan. Kempen gaya hidup sihat merupakan suatu kempen aspirasi kerajaan bagi melahirkan masyarakat yang sihat, cergas, sejahtera dan bebas dari penyakit yang disebabkan oleh gaya hidup sedentari. Sasaran utama kempen ini ialah semua golongan rakyat Malaysia terutamanya remaja dan pelajar institusi pengajian tinggi (IPT). Empat komponen utama yang menjadi teras konsep gaya hidup sihat ini ialah: (1) peningkatan pengetahuan dan amalan pemakanan; (2) peningkatan pengetahuan dan amalan menangani stres; (3) peningkatan pengetahuan dan amalan anti-merokok; dan (4) peningkatan pengetahuan dan amalan sukan dan rekreasi. Walaubagaimanapun, keberkesanan kempen ini dalam mempertingkatkan tahap kesihatan di kalangan rakyat Malaysia boleh diragui.ini kerana kurangnya penyelidikan khusus untuk menilai keberkesanan kempen © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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ini selain peningkatan bilangan pesakit hipokinteik membuktikan bahawa keberkesanan kempen ini boleh diragui (Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia, 2004; Penang Cancer Registry, 2000). Tambahan pula, terdapat bukti kajian luar negara yang mendapati bahawa walaupun pengetahuan penduduk dunia terhadap gaya hidup sihat semakin meningkat, namun ia tidak diamalkan sepenuhnya dalam hidup seharian lantas mengundang pelbagai risiko penyakit (Farooqi, Nagra, Edgar, & Khunti, 2000). Namun masih ramai pelajar yang tidak mengaplikasikan pengetahuan tersebut dalam amalan seharian mereka. Douglas dan Douglas (1984) menjalankan kajian terhadap 943 orang atlet universiti di Connecticut dan mendapati bahawa wanita mempunyai pengetahuan pemakanan yang lebih baik berbanding lelaki. Namun begitu, lelaki mempunyai amalan pemakanan yang lebih baik berbanding wanita. Kajian Thatcher dan Rhea (2003) pula mendapati bahawa media massa, keluarga dan rakan sebaya merupakan pengaruh utama terhdap stail pemakanan pelajar. Males dan Kerr (1996) melalui kajian tahap stres mendapati bahawa individu yang mempunyai jawatan atau tahap akademik yang tinggi memiliki tahap stres yang tinggi berbanding individu berpendidikan rendah. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa ramai responden tidak mempunyai pengetahuan menangani stres dengan baik. Nasution (2000) pula menegaskan bahawa stres yang berpanjangan akan mengganggu pola hidup individu sehingga kesihatan mereka mungkin terganggu. Selain kesan negatif terhadap kesihatan, stres juga telah mendatangkan pelbagai kesan negatif terhadap kemerosotan prestasi altet sukan (Davies, 1989; Kerr & Leith, 1993; Kerr & Svebak, 1994; Kerr & Van-Schaik, 1995) Kajian yang dijalankan oleh Aldinger, Dawood, Hanson, Lee dan Rinaldi (1999) mendapati bahawa tahap pengetahuan bahaya merokok yang tinggi dikalangan pelajar kolej tidak dapat menghentikan amalan merokok mereka. Wechler, Rigotti, Gleduill, Hoyt, dan Lee (1998) pula melaporkan terdapat peningkatan sebanyak 28 peratus dikalangan bilangan pelajar kolej yang merokok dari tahun 1993 – 1997. Beliau juga mendapati bahawa lebih sepertiga pelajar baru kolej-kolej tersebut mempunyai tabiat merokok. Mourey dan McGinnis (2003) menjalankan kajian terhadap kempen Wheeling Walks Health Education and Media Campaign yang bertujuan untuk menggalakkan masyarakat sekitar menggiatkan diri secara aktif dalam aktiviti sukan dan rekreasi khusus untuk penjagaan kesihatan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa lebih 90 peratus masyarakat melibatkan diri dalam program ini, malangnya hanya 14 peratus sahaja yang memprakitkkannya dalam hidup seharian. Ini menyebabkan populasi penduduk menjadi semakin berkurangan kerana masyarakat tidak menjaga kesihatan dan kurang memahami konsep gaya hidup sihat itu sendiri. Sikap penduduk yang lewa menyebabkan kesihatan diabaikan. Faktor yang menyebabkan masyarakat mengabaikan gaya hidup sihat seperti terlalu mementingkan pekerjaan tanpa mengambil masa bersama keluarga misalnya untuk beriadah dan megamalkan pemakanan yang sihat.

TEORI MALTHUS : PRINSIP-PRINSIP POPULASI MATHUS Pada abad yang ke-18, seorang ahli ekonomi Inggeris bernama Thomas Malthus menghasilkan penulisan tentang prinsip kependudukan. Bagi menjamin kelangsungan populasi penduduk di dunia, Malthus menyenaraikan dua hukum biologi iaitu i) Makanan merupakan keperluan asas manusia untuk terus hidup dan ii) Keperluan kepada hubungan intim antara jantina adalah fitrah. Berdasarkan dua hukum tersebut, Malthus mengemukakan teori bahawa satu ancaman besar yang bakal dihadapi oleh manusia ialah kekurangan makanan. Hal ini kerana menurut beliau, setiap 25 tahun, populasi manusia akan meningkat sebanyak dua kali ganda. Namun, dunia tidak dapat menampung pertumbuhan populasi penduduk kerana sumber makanan yang terjejas dan penyakit. Bagi menghadapi dan mengatasi ancaman ini, mengikut Malthus, manusia harus dapat mengawal kadar pertambahan populasi manusia. Justeru, Malthus telah mencetuskan dua jenis kawalan pertambahan bilangan manusia, iaitu: a. Kawalan pencegahan (preventive check) b. Kawalan positif (positive check) Dalam konteks populasi di Malaysia, jumlah penduduk pada akhirnya tidak penting sekiranya negara ditadbir dengan baik dan sistem ekonomi dapat menampung keperluan rakyat. Dalam masa 57 tahun semenjak merdeka telah berlaku peningkatan 23.7 juta penduduk. Sehingga tahun 2014, penduduk di Malaysia dianggarkan sebanyak 30,075,276 orang dan daalam masa 61 hari, Malaysia mencatatkan pertambahan 101,599 orang dengan 23,761 kematian. Ini bermakna secara purata 1,600 rakyat Malaysia lahir dan 389 mati setiap hari (Berita Harian, Mac 2014). Teori malthus ini tidak boleh digunakan pada zaman kini, ini kerana pada zaman kini terdapat pelbagai teknologi terkini yang dapat mempercepatkan produksi makanan. Malahan pertambahan penduduk tidak mengurangkan makanan. Malahan tenaga manusia telah ditambahbaik dengan penggunaan alat –alat

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teknologi untuk menghasilkan makanan. Semakin ramai penduduk semakin banyak penyediaan makanan yang dapat dihasilkan. Isu pembatasan penduduk tidak menjadi topik dalam zaman kini. Ini disokong oleh karl Marx yang menyatakan bilangan penduduk yang ramai menyebabkan penyediaan makanan semakin bertambah kerana adanya tenaga kerja yang ramai. Oleh yang demikian manusia mampu menguruskan tanah untuk menghasilkan tanaman supaya penyediaan makanan dapat diteruskan untuk menampung kos sara hidup. Kesimpulannya populasi manusia tidak menjejaskan atau mengurangkan penyediaan makanan malahan menghasilkan lebih banyak makanan dengan tenaga-tenaga kerja yang ramai. Dengan ramainya penduduk, pelbagai idea-idea yang rasional dapat diketengahkan untuk memajukan sesebuah negara tersebut.

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN a. Melihat kadar fertiliti dan mortaliti penduduk di Malaysia sepanjang tempoh 10 tahun bermula tahun 2000 hingga 2010 daripada aspek jantina, etnik, kumpulan umur b. Membincangkan faktor berlakunya penurunan dan peningkatan kadar fertiliti dan mortaliti serta perbezaan antara kadar kedua-dua pemboleh ubah ini.

METODOLOGI Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah analisis siri masa. Secara spesifiknya, pemboleh ubah dalam bentuk total yang dipilih untuk dianalisis seperti jantina, etnik dan kumpulan umur. Data siri masa ini meliputi tempoh 20002010 iaitu selama 10 tahun. Sumber data sekunder utama diperolehi melalui Jabatan Perangkaan Negara.

TREND PERUBAHAN DAN PERTUMBUHAN PENDUDUK MALAYSIA Perubahan Populasi Penduduk di Malaysia Mengikut Kumpulan Umur di Malaysia Fenomena dan corak pertumbuhan semula jadi populasi penduduk di Malaysia adalah berbeza mengikut kumpulan umur. Rajah 1 menunjukkan populasi penduduk di Malaysia yang terbahagi kepada tiga kumpulan. Secara keseluruhan, maklumat dari jadual ini jelas menunjukkan berlaku peningkatan daripada segi populasi bagi ketiga-tiga kumpulan umur di Malaysia dalam tempoh berkenaan. Namun, kumpulan 0-14 tahun hanya mengalami peningkatan populasi dari tahun 2000 ke 2002 sahaja kemudian menurun secara mendatar dari tahun 2002 ke 2010. Rajah 1: Populasi Penduduk di Malaysia Mengikut Kumpulan Umur di Malaysia 2000-2010

Berdasarkan hasil kajian lepas, kumpulan 0-14 tahun menunjukkan kemerosotan fertiliti sejak 15 tahun yang lalu. Nisbah ini dijangkakan akan mengalami penurunan sehingga 2020 dan selepasnya pada kadar kemerosotan 0.8 peratus dalam tempoh lima tahun (Abdul Majid Salleh,1983). Kumpulan 15-64 tahun merupakan golongan remaja dan dewasa yang paling produktif dari segi ekonomi. Oleh yang demikian, perancangan kepada kumpulan umur ini harus diberi perhatian, terutama dari aspek pendidikan dan peluangpeluang kerjaya. Dengan satu perancangan strategik, maka pastinya kumpulan ini mempunyai keperkasaan dalam membantu kerajaan ke arah satu matlamat menjadi sebuah negara maju melalui tenaga kerja yang

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berkualiti dan mengembangkan ekonomi negara. Sementara itu, peratus penduduk warga emas yang kian meningkat juga perlu diberi perhatian dalam perancangan pembangunan. Nisbah penduduk warga emas di Malaysia telah meningkat dengan kadar yang sekata. Peningkatan penduduk tua disumbangkan terutamanya oleh penurunan kadar kelahiran dan mortaliti, wujud penambahbaikan dalam kemudahan kesihatan dan peningkatan kawalan penyakit berjangkit. Hasilnya, peratus warga emas di Malaysia meningkat daripada 5.7% pada tahun 1990 kepada 6.3% pada tahun 2000. Bagi tahun 2020, jumlah warga emas di negara ini dijangka meningkat kepada 3 juta iaitu kira-kira 10.0% daripada anggaran 32 juta penduduk (Norazam, 2000).

Jangka Hayat Penduduk di Malaysia Mengikut Etnik dan Jantina Rajah 2 menunjukkan jangka hayat penduduk di Malaysia secara umum mengikut jantina dan ia menunjukkan berlaku peningkatan jangka hayat yang jelas bagi kedua-dua jantina, lelaki dan perempuan. Merujuk Rajah 2, secara puratanya di Malaysia, jangka hayat untuk lelaki meningkat daripada 70 tahun (2000) kepada 71.9 (2010), sementara untuk perempuan daripada 74.7 tahun (2000) kepada 76.6 (2010). Rajah 2: Jangka hayat penduduk di Malaysia secara umum mengikut jantina pada tahun 2000-2010

Jangka hayat penduduk dijangka akan meningkat ekoran peningkatan tahap kesihatan khususnya di negaranegara maju. Purata jangka hayat bagi lelaki kini ialah 72.3 tahun, manakala wanita 76.9 tahun. Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat Malaysia (JKMM) menjangka menjelang 2020, jangka hayat bagi lelaki adalah 75.4 tahun dan wanita 80.4 tahun (Buletin Perangkaan Sosial, 2007). Secara lebih khusus, merujuk kepada rajah 3, rajah 4, dan rajah 5 menunjukkan jangka hayat penduduk untuk tiga kumpulan utama di Malaysia iaitu Bumiputera, Cina, dan India. Rajah 3: Jangka Hayat Penduduk Bumiputera di Malaysia 2000-2010

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Rajah 4: Jangka Hayat Penduduk Cina di Malaysia 2000-2010

Rajah 5: Jangka Hayat Penduduk India di Malaysia 2000-2010

Berdasarkan kepada Rajah 3, Rajah 4 dan Rajah 5 di atas, perbezaan jangka hayat bagi keempat-empat kumpulan etnik iaitu Bumiputera, Cina dan India dapat dilihat secara jelas antara lelaki dan perempuan. Pada kebiasaannya wanita hidup lebih lama daripada lelaki dan kesannya penduduk tua didominasi oleh kaum perempuan (Abdul Majid Salleh, 2007). Merujuk rajah di atas, kumpulan Bumiputera, Cina dan India mempunyai peningkatan jangka hayat yang sekata.

Kadar Kelahiran dan Kematian di Malaysia Rajah 6 menunjukkan kadar kelahiran di Malaysia adalah lebih tinggi daripada kadar kematian. Kadar kelahiran menunjukkan berlaku penurunan daripada 23.4% (2000) kepada 17.2% (2010). Namun, Kadar kematian menunjukkan tiada perubahan yang ketara iaitu 4.5%(2000) kepada 4.6%(2010). Penurunan kadar kelahiran berlaku disebabkan peningkatan peratusan penduduk bujang di Malaysia. Salah satu sebab mengapa seseorang individu itu memilih untuk membujang ialah jangka masa persekolahan yang lebih panjang berbanding generasi sebelumnya. Tambahan pula, sesetengah individu lebih mementingkan pekerjaan dan oleh itu keinginan untuk berkahwin semakin pudar. Lamanna,M dan Riedmann,A (2006) merumuskan bahawa kesan peningkatan peluang melanjutkan pendidikan dan keterlibatan wanita dalam pasaran pekerjaan menyebabkan ramai telah menangguhkan perkahwinan ke usia lebih lewat dengan tempoh membujang telah dipanjangkan. Jelas di sini, melambatkan kelahiran anak merendahkan kadar pertumbuhan penduduk. Isu lambat berkahwin dan kemerosotan fertiliti disumbangkan oleh faktor-faktor seperti tahap pendidikan penduduk yang lebih tinggi, peningkatan dalam penglibatan wanita ke dalam tenaga kerja, peningkatan kadar urbanisasi, dan pembaikan dalam taraf hidup.

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Rajah 6 :Kadar Kelahiran dan Kematian di Malaysia 2000-2010

Kadar Mortaliti Mengikut Kumpulan Umur di Malaysia Rajah 7 pula menunjukkan kadar mortaliti mengikut kumpulan bayi baru lahir, bayi, kanak-kanak dan ibu bersalin. Merujuk rajah pada tahun 2010, kadar mortaliti bayi adalah paling tinggi(6.7%) diikuti oleh bayi baru lahir(4.3%), kanak-kanak (0.4%) dan ibu bersalin(0.3%). Rajah 7: Kadar Mortaliti Mengikut Kumpulan Umur 2000-2010

Kadar mortaliti bayi melibatkan kematian bayi berumur kurang daripada 1 tahun bagi setiap 1,000 kelahiran. Manakala kumpulan bayi baru lahir melibatkan bayi berumur 0 hingga 14 hari. Kadar mortaliti bayi dan bayi baru lahir menunjukkan purata yang tinggi dan ini amat merisaukan. Hal ini mungkin berlaku disebabkan penjagaan yang tidak baik oleh ibu bapa. Kebanyakan ibu masa kini sibuk bekerja. Hal ini menyebabkan mereka tidak mempunyai masa untuk menyediakan susu badan kepada bayi. Kebanyakan ibu lebih memilih untuk memberi susu formula atau susu badan yang dicampur dengan susu formula kepada bayi mereka. Justeru, ini mengundang masalah kesihatan pada bayi dan kadar mortaliti bayi meningkat.

CADANGAN KAJIAN Pendidikan formal mempengaruhi gaya hidup masyarakat terutama dari aspek jantina. Pada zaman kini, wanita kebanyakannya memilih untuk bekerja dan ini menyebabkan kadar kelahiran semakin menurun. Oleh yang demikian, pihak kerajaan dan lain-lain perlu memberi peluang terhadap wanita untuk bekerja dan pada masa yang sama menyumbang kepada kadar fertiliti. Hal ini dengan memberi insetif yang lebih dan memberi pertimbangan dalam pengambilan cuti yang lebih panjang untuk waktu bersama keluarga. Dari segi pengaruh gaya hidup sihat adalah gaya hidup yang memberikan keutamaan kepada amalan hidup yang aktif, mengekalkan kesihatan dan mencegah daripada berlakunya sebarang gejala penyakit. Bukanlah menjadi satu kemustahilan bagi seseorang itu menikmati kesihatan yang berpanjangan dan mengalami kehidupan yang © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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selesa. Gaya hidup sihat perlu diamalkan oleh setiap orang tanpa halangan usia, latar belakang kehidupan, perkauman, agama mahupun status kehidupan mereka. Oleh itu, kedua-dua faktor ini penting dalam pertambahan penduduk,untuk meningkatkan ekonomi supaya lebih ramai lagi tenaga kerja dapat dilahirkan. Selain itu,, masyarakat perlu peka dalam menjaga kesihatan dan memahami konsep gaya hidup sihat. Masyarakat juga perlu melakukan perubahan dalam hidup mereka. Bagi mengurangkan tekanan masyarakat perlu meluangkan masa untuk diri sendiri, keluarga dan rakan-rakan. Umum menyedari bahawa kesihatan amat mempengaruhi pertumbuhan penduduk, oleh itu diharapkan lebih banyak lagi kempen-kempen kesihatan yang akan dijalankan, dan penduduk perlu banyak membaca berkenaan dengan gaya hidup yang sihat. Tambahan lagi, penduduk perlu mempunyai kesedaran dalam menyayangi diri sendiri. Kematian mungkin boleh dielakkan sekiranya manusia mampu mengubahnya. Melihat kepada kemalangan yang semakin meningkat terutamanya pada musim perayaan penduduk tidak peka dan mengambil lewa tentang keselamatan diri. Misalnya tidak mematuhi undang –undang jalanraya yang ditetapkan.

RUJUKAN Abdul Majid Mat Salleh. (1983). “Effect of Socioeconomic Changes and Family Planning on Fertility in Peninsular Malaysia,” Ph.D economics dissertation, University of Hawaii. Davies, D. (1989).Psychological factors in competitive sport . London: Burguess. Douglas, P. D., & Douglas, J. G. (1984). Nutrition knowledge and food practices of high schoolathletes.Journal of the Nutrition Education, 84, 120 – 125. Farooqi, A., Nagra, D., Edgar, T., & Khunti, K. (2000). Attitudes to lifestyle risk factors forcoronary heart disease amongst South Asians in Leicester: A focus group study. Healthand Medical Complete, 17(4), 293 297. Hairi Abdullah. (1989). Penduduk Semenanjung Malaysia : Struktur, Proses Dan Masalah. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Bangi. Penang Cancer Registry. (2003). Penang Cancer Registry report: 1994 - 1998 (No. 6). Penang:Penang Cancer Registry. Reader, E. G., Carter, A., & Crawford, A. (1998). Smoking,knowledge, attitudes and behaviours: Lamanna,M & Riedmann,A . (2006). Marriage and Families : Making Choices In A Diverse Society. Thomson Wadsworth. USA.Lim Chong Yah 1967 Lembaga Penduduk dan Pembangunan Keluarga Negara. (2004). Kajian Penduduk dan Keluarga Malaysia, 2004. Ma’Rof & Asnarulkhadi, (2006). Hubungan latar Belakang Terpilih dengan Kesejahteraan Subjektif Dikalangan Orang tua di Malaysia. Kertas Dibentangkan di Seminar Psikologi Pebangunan Komuniti. ISM-UKM. Kuala Lumpur. Mohd Makzan Musa (1992) Psikologi kesihatan: Satu pengenalan. Jurnal Kebajikan Masyarakat 15(2), 30-39 Mat Saad Abd. Rahman (2008) Isu-isu dalam masyarakat Islam Malaysia. iBook Publication Sdn Bhd., Rawang Mourey, R. L., & McGinnis, J. M. (2003). Making the case for active living communities. American Journal of Public Health, 93(9), 1386 - 1389. Nasution, S. (2000) Metode Research (Penelitian Ilmiah), Bumi Aksara, Jakarta. Thatcher, W., & Rhea, D. (2003). Influences of body image and disordered eating amongsecondary school students.American Journal of Health Education, 34(6), 343 – 350. Wechsler, H., Rigotti, N. A., Gledhill-Hoyt, J., & Lee, H. (1998). Increased levels of cigarette use among college students: A cause for national concern. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 289, 1673– 1678 Weeks, John R. 2002. Population : An Introduction to Concepts and Issues, Edisi ke 8.Belmont, CA: Wodssworth.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PENGANGGURAN DALAM KALANGAN SISWAZAH DI MALAYSIA: ANALISIS TREND 2000-2010 Andi Muhammad Yusuf Andi Maddukelleng*, Suzanah Jumat, Mohd Mahzan Awang & Faridah Mydin Kutty *[email protected] Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Abstract Kajian ini bertujuan menganalisis pengangguran dalam kalangan siswazah di Malaysia sepanjang tempoh 10 tahun bermula tahun 2000 hingga 2010. Dasar kerajaan bagi mengurangkan pengangguran dalam kalangan siswazah merupakan agenda utama negara ke arah berpendidikan tinggi selaras matlamat Malaysia sebagai hub pendidikan serantau. Isu pengangguran merupakan masalah yang perlu ditangani oleh negara bagi memastikan kesejahteraan hidup golongan siswazah selepas bergraduasi mendapat pekerjaan di sektor kerajaan mahupun swasta. Kajian ini melibatkan siswazah di Malaysia dengan menggunakan data siri masa melalui Laporan Perangkaan Tenaga Buruh Siswazah 2011 dan Jabatan Statisitik Negara. Analisis trend dalam kajian ini merangkumi empat aspek pembolehubah pengangguran dalam kalangan siswazah iaitu jantina, etnik, kumpulan umur, bandar dan luar bandar. Pada tahun 2000 hingga 2010 menunjukkan pengangguran dalam kalangan perempuan lebih tinggi berbanding lelaki. Manakala dari aspek etnik, Bumiputera menunjukkan pengganguran lebih tinggi berbanding etnik Cina di tempat kedua, India ketiga diikuti etnik lain-lain. Peranan kerajaan, swasta dan Institusi Pengajian Tinggi perlulah seiring dalam melahirkan siswazah yang kompeten mengikut kehendak pasaran industri agar isu pengangguran dapat ditangani bersama secara kolektif bagi mencapai hasrat dan dasar kerajaan. Keywords: pengangguran, siswazah, trend, isu dan penyelesaian

PENGENALAN Fenomena pengangguran di Malaysia berpunca daripada lambakan buruh yang berkelulusan ijazah. Hal ini merupakan petunjuk bagi krisis pendidikan tinggi, iaitu fenomena peningkatan yang mendadak dalam bilangan kemasukan pelajar di IPT, dan berlakunya masalah kesukaran menyertai pasaran pekerjaan selepas tamat pengajian. Malaysia juga menghadapi krisis yang sama apabila wujudnya galakan kerajaan meningkatkan bilangan rakyat yang berpendidikan tinggi pada masa akan datang. Isu pengangguran adalah berhubungan secara langsung dengan perkembangan ekonomi negara. Tekanan ekonomi telah mengakibatkan peluang pekerjaan yang ditawarkan menjadi terhad kerana kurangkan sumber untuk menjalankan aktiviti ekonomi secara produktif. Sejarah pengangguran dapat dilihat secara relatif apabila berlakunya krisis ekonomi. Kemelesetan ekonomi di pertengahan tahun 1970an, hingga akhir 1980an dan awal tahun 1990an menyaksikan pemberhentian ribuan pekerja. Pengurangan pekerja akan mengakibatkan ramai yang kehilangan kerja dan sekaligus akan meningkatkan kadar pengangguran. Menurut Employment Outlook 1996, di Finland, pada awal tahun 1990an telah mengakibatkan kadar pengangguran meningkat dari 3.4 peratus kepada 18.9 peratus di antara tahun 1990 hingga 1993. Krisis ekonomi dunia yang bermula di Amerika Syarikat dan Eropah 2008 mula di rasakan di Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

negara ini menjelang pertengahan dan akhir tahun 2009. Perkembangan ekonomi Amerika Syarikat menjadi kayu pengukur ekonomi dunia jika ekonominya meleset maka merundum jugalah ekonomi dunia. Di Amerika Syarikat kadar pengangguran tahun 2009 adalah sebanyak 7.2 peratus (Statistik Biro Guna Tenaga Amerika Syarikat) manakala kadar pengangguran di Malaysia pula pada suku kedua 2009 adalah 3.6 peratus (Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia 2009). Saban tahun IPT di Malaysia mengeluarkan ratusan ribu siswazah yang akan menceburi alam pekerjaan. Isu pengangguran merupakan cabaran yang perlu di hadapi oleh graduan akibat kegagalan mendapat pekerjaan yang sesuai selepas tamat belajar. Kebanyakan graduan yang dilahirkan mempunyai kecemerlangan dari segi akademik namun realitinya pencapaian akademik yang cemerlang tidak menjanjikan peluang pekerjaan dengan cepat. Faktor majikan yang terlalu tegas dalam pemilihan pekerja adalah di antara sebab berlakunya pengangguran. Hal ini berlaku kerana setiap majikan yang amat mementingkan kaedah meningkatkan produktiviti dan kualiti bagi syarikat akan secara tidak langsung telah meletakkan syarat ketat dalam pemilihan pekerja. Menurut kajian yang dilakukan oleh Pusat Pembangunan Akademik (CADE) UPM mendapati isu berkaitan dengan Kemahiran Insaniah berada di tangga ke sepuluh semasa sesi temuduga berbanding isu pencapaian akademik (Mohamad Shatar dan Azali Mohamad, 2008). Ini menunjukkan kepentingan pembentukan Kemahiran Insaniah dalam kalangan pelajar. Jika dilihat dalam industri pekerjaan pula, majikan pasca moden lebih gemar memilih pekerja pelbagai kemahiran (multi-skilled), mempunyai ciri kepimpinan, berpengetahuan dalam bidang celik teknologi maklumat, serta kreatif dalam melakukan tugas. Justeru itu, pembangunan graduan yang memenuhi kehendak pasaran harus lebih menyeluruh dan seiring dengan perkembangan teknologi agar kompeten bersaing di pasaran pekerjaan.

PENGANGGURAN, ISU DAN PERMASALAHAN DI MALAYSIA Daya Saing Kerjaya dan Sosio Demografi Masyarakat Malaysia Masalah pengangguran dalam kalangan siswazah bukanlah merupakan isu baru di Malaysia. Malah masalah turut bersifat global kerana turut di rasai di negara - negara maju. Pengangguran berkaitan dengan lebihan penawaran buruh di pasaran. Keadaan ini biasanya kesan daripada aktiviti ekonomi tidak berkembang dan tidak mampu menyediakan peluang pekerjaan yang mencukupi untuk penduduk. Menurut Rubenson & Schuetze (2000), di negara perindustrian terdapat polisi pembangunan sumber manusia yang bermatlamat melibatkan keseluruhan asas pengetahuan industri untuk meningkatkan kemahiran yang dikenali dengan konsep “ kemahiran kebolehpasaran”. Misalnya polisi pembangunan sumber manusia Kanada menerapkan konsep ‘Kemahiran Kebolehpasaran’ di kalangan graduan (McLaughlin 1992). Gallangher (1999) menambah rumusan keperluan sumber manusia yang mempunyai kemahiran sebagai ‘Set Kemahiran - asas/keperluan, teknikal, pengurusan, dan kepimpinan’ yang merupakan asas paling kritikal untuk membangunkan pengetahuan di kalangan graduan. Menurut laporan kajian pengesanan graduan UKM 2006 mendapati faktor pihak majikan terlalu mementingkan pengalaman kerja dan kemahiran yang mana kriteria tersebut tidak dapat dipenuhi oleh graduan yang baru sahaja tamat pengajian, sikap graduan itu sendiri yang terlalu memilih pekerjaan, kerja yang ditawarkan tidak sesuai, tanggungjawab terhadap keluarga, dan kurang keyakinan diri untuk memasuki dunia pekerjaan menyebabkan isu pengangguran siswazah tidak mempunyai penyelesaian. Sementara itu, umur merupakan salah satu indikator sosio demografi di Malaysia. Menurut tafsiran Indikator Pasaran Buruh (2000) Umur bekerja merujuk kepada mereka yang berumur 15 hingga 64 tahun (dalam tahun genap pada hari jadi terakhir) semasa minggu rujukan, sama ada berada di dalam tenaga buruh atau di luar tenaga buruh. Namun mengikut konteks penulisan ini merujuk pada umur seseorang siswazah menamatkan pengajian di universiti. Menurut DeCenzo (1997) menjelaskan terdapat lima peringkat pembinaan kerjaya yang diukur melalui dua dimensi iaitu umur dan prestasi ialah: a. Peringkat pertama - exploration (0 hingga 24 tahun)melibatkan perancangan ke arah kerjaya dalam kehidupan seseorang. Pada tahap ini individu masih dalam proses pencarian kerjaya yang ingin diceburi. b. Peringkat kedua - establishment (25 hingga 34 tahun) iaitu individu telah mempunyai suatu pekerjaan yang stabil dan merasa keserasiannya. Pada tahap ini matlamat kerjaya mereka ditentukan. c. Peringkat ketiga - mid career (35 hingga 49 tahun) individu menghadapi cabaran kehidupan peribadi serta kerjayanya. Tahap ini berperanan membentuk hala tuju kerjaya untuk jangka masa yang panjang. d. Peringkat keempat - late career (50 hingga 69 tahun) iaitu keadaan yang lebih tenang dan matang dalam kerjaya seseorang. Prestasi kerja yang stabil dan menurunkan kemahiran kepada pekerja-pekerja di bawah seliaan. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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e. Peringkat kelima - decline (70 tahun dan ke atas). Pada peringkat ini individu terpaksa berundur daripada kerjaya dan berasa sukar menerima hakikat yang kerjaya mereka sudah hampir ke penghujungnya.

Kebolehpasaran Graduan Mendapat pekerjaan selepas menamatkan pengajian merupakan fokus utama siswazah. Namun kesukaran mendapatkan peluang pekerjaan yang sesuai dengan kelulusan merupakan cabaran terbesar yang perlu di lalui seorang siswazah yang baru mencebur alam pekerjaan. Sikap majikan yang terlalu memilih dan kekurangan soft skill menyebabkan siswazah aliran kemanusiaan sukar mendapat pekerjaan berbanding siswazah aliran sains teknikal. Ini dibuktikan melalui laporan Rangka Rancangan Jangka Panjang Ketiga (RRJP3 2001-2010) menunjukkan permintaan untuk pekerja ICT terdiri daripada jurutera perkakasan, jurutera perisian,juruanalisis sistem, pengaturcara komputer dan kakitangan sokongan teknikal telah meningkat daripada 88,160 pada tahun 1998 kepada 108,200 orang pada tahun 2000. Permintaan tinggi ini adalah rentetan pengaplikasian dan penyebaran ICT yang meluas dalam semua sektor orang pada tahun 2010 dengan kadar pertumbuhan tahunan purata 2001-2010 sebanyak 11%. Kajian-kajian terdahulu turut menunjukkan wujud masalah kekurangantenaga kerja ICT yang terlatih dan berpengetahuan dalam sektor awam (MAMPU 2000) dan dalam syarikat-syarikat MSC (Rahmah & Mohd Nasir 2000; CNN.com 2000; Nur Atiqah et al. 2003). Menurut Multimedia Development Corporation (MDC), Malaysia memerlukan sekitar 108,000 pengaturcara serta pekerja sokongan lain pada tahun 2005 sedangkan bekalan yang ada hanyalah sekitar 104,000 orang (Anon 2000). Bagi memastikan negara mempunyai sumber manusia mahir yang mencukupi, adalah mustahak menjadikan pembelajaran sebagai amalan sepanjang hayat selaras dengan perkembangan ICT (Anon 2002). Kenyataan ini pernah diakui oleh bekas Menteri Sumber Manusia, Datuk Dr Fong Chan Onn yang menyatakan semua ranking antarabangsa menunjukkan kekurangan pekerja mahir di negara ini sebagai kelemahan utama (Anon 2005). Zafir & Noor Azuan (2000) menjelaskan masalah dalam pengambilan dan pemilihan pekerja menyebabkan firma berhati-hati dalam proses pemilihan pekerja, khususnya di peringkat pengurusan. Justeru, penekanan kualiti pekerja dengan menetapkan beberapa kriteria dalam pemilihan pekerja diberi perhatian. Menurut Ivancevich dan Lee (2002), pemilihan merupakan proses organisasi memilih calon yang memenuhi kriteria termasuklah pendidikan formal, pengalaman bekerja, ciri-ciri fizikal, personaliti yang ditetapkan bagi sesuatu jawatan. Kajian Usherwood et al. (2000) terhadap pengambilan pekerja profesional IT di UK mendapati majikan berhadapan kesukaran yang lebih tinggi dalam pengambilan pekerja profesional IT yang berpengalaman berbanding mereka yang berkemahiran dan mempunyai personaliti yang berkualiti. Dalam usaha melengkapkan diri sebagai siswazah yang bersedia menempuh alam pekerjaan, kemahiran generik atau soft skills amat penting dikuasai terlebih dahulu. Menurut Zainudin Hassan et al. (2005), cadangan kemahiran generik yang diperlukan oleh seorang pekerja dalam persaingan ekonomi berasaskan pengetahuan(k-ekonomi) adalah: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

Kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah dan kemahiran berfikiran kritikal Kemahiran berfikir kreatif Kemahiran mengawal maklumat Kemahiran berhubung atau berkomunikasi Kemahiran kerja berkumpulan Kemahiran aplikasi teknologi Kemahiran belajar autonomi Kemahiran memahami pertembungan budaya

Kemahiran inilah yang memainkan peranan penting dalam usaha mendapatkan pekerjaan dalam kalangan siswazah sama ada di dalam organisasi besar, sederhana atau kecil (Stewart & Knowles 2000). Menurut model Kearns (2001), kemahiran generik pada individu boleh dikelaskan kepada empat kumpulan iaitu kesediaan bekerja dan sifat bekerja individu, pengetahuan dalam keusahawanan, kreatif dan inovatif, mempunyai kemahiran interpersonal dan berfikir, serta ada kemahuan untuk belajar. Menurut Raybould dan Sheedy (2005), penekanan terhadap aspek kemahiran yang diperlukan oleh majikan bergantung kepada jenis pekerjaan yang akan dijalankan di dalam organisasi. Berdasarkan penelitian mereka terhadap syarikat kecil dan sederhana di United Kingdom, mendapati antara kemahiran yang diberi penekanan adalah kemahiran komunikasi dan pengurusan, kerja berpasukan, pengetahuan, mempunyai idea dan keupayaan untuk belajar. Keputusan akademik yang baik juga memberi kesan ke atas faktor kebolehpasaran pekerjaan. Menurut Ishak Yussof, Rahmah Ismail & Robiah Sidin (2008), semakin banyak kemahiran dan pengetahuan yang graduan ada, maka semakin tinggilah peluang mereka untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan, khususnya di syarikat-syarikat yang mantap. Menurut Rohany (2003), taraf dan pencapaian akademik individu juga salah satu kriteria yang mempercepatkan proses membuat pemilihan dalam memperoleh kerjaya. Robert (1982), berpendapat pencapaian akademik pelajar oleh gaya pembelajaran yang diamalkan dan memberi impak kepada pencapaian © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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akademik yang baik. Mecros (2000) pula menyatakan bahawa kemahiran berbahasa Inggeris dan bahasa lain yang digunakan di peringkat antarabangsa. Ini sejajar kajian IPPTN (2003) mendapati faktor graduan gagal memperolehi pekerjaan kerana kurang kemahiran berbahasa Bahasa Inggeris iaitu sebanyak (84.6 %).

Etnisiti, Mobiliti dan Pekerjaan Menurut definisi Tenaga Buruh dan Perangkaan Sosial (2014) kumpulan etnik dikategorikan dalam kalangan warganegara Malaysia setelah mengasingkan bukan warganegara Malaysia. Pengelasan tersebut adalah seperti Bumiputera, Melayu, Bumiputera Lain, Cina, India, Lain-lain dan Bukan Warganegara Malaysia Fenomena migrasi di antara penduduk luar bandar ke bandar adalah lumrah kerana di bandar lebih mudah mencari peluang pekerjaan berbanding di luar bandar yang berteraskan kegiatan pertanian. Keadaan ini di perjelaskan melalui Hukum Migrasi yang terdapat di dalam teori Ravenstein (1889). Beliau menyarankan faktor berlakunya migrasi luar bandar ke bandar adalah berlandaskan motif ekonomi iaitu untuk memperbaiki taraf hidup dalam aspek metarial. Saranan beliau merumuskan bahawa: • • • • •

Masyarakat bandar kurang berhijrah berbanding masyarakat desa Lebih ramai wanita bermigrasi dalam jarak yang hampir Berlaku penggantian penduduk iaitu kawasan desa yang ditinggalkan akan digantikan oleh penduduk pedalaman Bandar bertumbuh pesat dan sesak dipenuhi penduduk dari desa Kemajuan teknologi dan perindustrian akan menambah kadar migrasi

Namun senario berbeza di perjelaskan oleh Tadaro (1994) terhadap penelitian terhadap migrasi di Eropah Barat dan Amerika Utara. Akibat perkembangan industri bandar membawa pembukaan peluang pekerjaan baru yang juga membawa masuk peluang pelaburan dari aspek teknologi di desa mengurangkan kebergantungan kepada tenaga manusia. Ini memperlihatkan kaedah pemindahan tenaga dari desa ke bandar berlaku secara sistematik. Keadaan ini berbeza dengan negara Dunia ketiga yang mengamalkan ekonomi dualistik kewujudan sektor kapitalis di bandar dengan sektor sara diri di luar bandar. Migrasi penduduk luar bandar adalah bermatlamatkan membangunkan bandar baru. Walau bagaimanapun kegagalan bandar- bandar baru di negara Dunia Ketiga menyerapkan penduduk yang bermigrasi ini mewujudkan masalah baru seperti pengangguran , gelandangan, kemiskinan, kesesakan bandar dan sebagainya. Ini menyebabkan ketidakseimbangan wujud jurang yang lebar di antara penduduk kaya dengan yang miskin kerana kos sara hidup lebih tinggi berlaku di bandar. Razali Agus (2000) dalam kajiannya Keselesaan bermukim di Flat : Kajian Kes Persepsi Masyarakat terhadap Rumah Susun Sukaramai di Medan Indonesia telah membuat perbandingan bahawa keadaan masyarakat luar bandar yang berhijrah ke bandar bagi mendapatkan pekerjaan juga menghadapi masalah dari aspek perumahan. Sewa rumah dan kos hidup yang mahal mengakibatkan kemiskinan dalam bandar muncul. Ini kerana golongan penghijrah tidak mampu hidup selesa kerana terpaksa tinggal di pangsapuri yang sempit, dengan kemudahan terhad dan dikelilingi pelbagai ragam masyarakat. Keadaan ini akhirnya meningkatkan masalah sosial dan kemiskinan yang berleluasa dalam bandar. Masa depan yang tidak menentu di bandar – bandar utama di Malaysia telah mendorong penghijrahan penduduk ke negara sekitar asia seperti Singapura , Australia dan Brunei. Ini mewujudkan permasalahan baru kerana melibatkan pengaliran keluar tenaga mahir ke luar negara bagi memperoleh pekerjaan. Dua masalah utama berkaitan pekerja di Malaysia ialah kekurangan pekerja berkemahiran dan berpengetahuan serta penghijrahan pekerja tempatan berkemahiran ke negara jiran. Mohd. Haflah (2002) menyatakan dalam tempoh 15 tahun lepas, terdapat sekurang-kurangnya 50,000 ahli profesional dan teknikal Malaysia yang telah berhijrah ke Singapura, Australia, New Zealand, AS, Kanada dan Eropah. Malah menurutnya terdapat antara 500 hingga 1,000 rakyat Malaysia (kebanyakannya bukan Melayu) bekerja untuk syarikat-syarikat hightech di Silicon Valley, AS pada tahun 2002 dan kira-kira 51% daripada pekerja ICT asing di Singapura adalah rakyat Malaysia.

PENGANGGURAN DARI ASPEK TEORI MODAL PEMBANGUNAN INSAN Konsep Modal Insan Modal insan merupakan ciri-ciri yang dimiliki oleh pekerja dan merupakan satu usaha ke arah meningkatkan produktiviti mereka. Pemupukan modal insan yang produktif adalah melalui pelaburan dalam aspek pendidikan, latihan sebelum bekerja, latihan semasa bekerja, kesihatan, penghijrahan dan usaha mencari maklumat yang dapat meningkatkan taraf hidup seseorang. Terdapat 5 aspek yang mencirikan modal insan iaitu: © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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a. Modal insan tidak boleh di urus niaga kerana sifatnya dalam bentuk pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang menjadi hak milik individu di atas keupayaan diri b. Setiap individu adalah berbeza potensinya dalam membangunkan modal insan c. Modal insan dapat dilihat dari aspek kualiti dan kuantiti. Seseorang individu dari sebuah universiti yang sama mungkin mempunyai kualiti dan kuantiti yang berbeza berdasarkan keupayaan dirinya d. Modal insan boleh bersifat khusus atau umum iaitu boleh digunakan secara khusus untuk seorang individu sahaja atau boleh diguna secara bersama e. Modal insan dipengaruhi oleh persekitaran dan ikatan sosial Modal insan dihasilkan dengan bergantung kepada proses pendidikan dan latihan bagi membangunkan potensinya. Di barat terdapat tokoh pelopor yang melihat kepentingan manusia sebagai modal dalam memajukan ekonomi negara. Tokoh falsafah ekonomi, Adam Smith (1723-1790) telah memasukkan semua penduduk yang mempunyai kemampuan berguna serta bermanfaat kepada negara sebagai sebahagian daripada modal. Ini disokong oleh Irving Fisher (1867-1947) terhadap teori Adam Smith ini. Sementara itu, H. von Thunen (1783-1859) menjelaskan kegagalan mengaplikasikan konsep modal kepada manusia sama seperti kerosakan dalam peperangan (pernicious in wars). Menurutnya jika modal ini tidak urus dengan baik maka ia akan bermasalah. Alfred Marshall (1842-1924) pula meletakkan pelaburan kepada manusia sebagai modal yang paling bernilai. Hal ini menerangkan peranan dalam penguasaan ilmu amat penting dalam pembangunan modal insan, sehingga menimbulkan istilah ilmu pengetahuan adalah enjin pengeluaran yang paling berkuasa (knowledge is our most powerful engine of production). Negara pengeluar minyak seperti Arab pernah melalui era kemelesetan akibat ketidak tentuan harga komoditi minyak. Rentetan itu, Jepun adalah di antara negara yang menjadi tumpuan kerana walaupun tidak memiliki sumber asli yang banyak namun berjaya sebagai negara yang bukan sahaja maju dari aspek teknologi namun berjaya meletakkan keutamaan dengan menyediakan tempat pendidikan dan latihan dalam negara untuk setiap warganya. Ilmu, inovasi dan teknologi telah menjadi sumber baru ekonomi berasaskan pengetahuan yang menjadi pemangkin pertumbuhan ekonomi menggantikan modal material. Program pembangunan modal insan yang lengkap dan menepati matlamat akan pulangan adalah merangkumi pendidikan, dasar kependudukan dan kesihatan. Kadar pertumbuhan penduduk yang pesat dan tidak diurus dengan baik akan menimbulkan masalah pengangguran siswazah selepas tamat pengajian. Ini kerana ketiadaan kemahiran insaniah dan hanya bersandarkan kelulusan yang dimiliki oleh siswazah tidak menjamin kebolehdapatan peluang pekerjaan.

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN Objektif kajian penyelidik adalah seperti di bawah: a. Melihat trend pengangguran di kalangan siswazah Malaysia dari tahun 2000 hingga 2010 b. Mengenal pasti trend pengangguran dari aspek pembolehubah jantina, etnik, kumpulan umur dan lokasi (bandar/luar bandar)

METODOLOGI Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah analisis siri masa. Secara spesifiknya, pemboleh ubah dalam bentuk total yang dipilih untuk dianalisis seperti jantina, etnik, kumpulan umur, bandar dan luar bandar. Data siri masa ini meliputi tempoh 2000-2010 iaitu selama 10 tahun. Sumber data sekunder utama diperolehi melalui Perangkaan Tenaga Buruh Siswazah 2011 dan Indikator Demografi Malaysia 2013 terbitan Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia.

TREND PENGANGGURAN SISWAZAH DI MALAYSIA Pengangguran Siswazah Perempuan Lebih Tinggi Daripada Lelaki Rajah 1 menunjukkan Bilangan Siswazah Menganggur Mengikut Jantina pada tahun 2000 hingga 2010. Sepanjang tempoh 10 tahun menunjukkan peningkatan sebanyak 99.39% siswazah menganggur iaitu 32 800 orang pada tahun 2000 kepada 65 500 orang pada tahun 2010. Siswazah dalam kalangan lelaki dan perempuan menunjukkan trend peningkatan bilangan pengangguran iaitu masing-masing 92.67% dan 105.61% sepanjang tempoh 10 tahun. Pada tahun 2010 telah menunjukkan siswazah perempuan yang menganggur lebih tinggi iaitu 36,600 orang berbanding siswazah lelaki 28,900 orang dengan perbezaan sebanyak 26.64%. Jurang perbezaan antara lelaki dan perempuan menunjukkan peningkatan sepanjang © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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tempoh 10 tahun dimana pada tahun 2000 hanya 18.67% perbezaan, iaitu pada tahun 2000 siswazah lelaki menganggur hanya 15,000 berbanding perempuan lebih tinggi iaitu 17,800 ribu orang. Namun begitu pada tahun 2005 didapati siswazah lelaki yang menganggur lebih tinggi iaitu 33,400 orang berbanding siswazah perempuan hanya 29,600 orang dengan perbezaan yang amat sedikit iaitu 12.84%. Secara keseluruhannya trend pengangguran dikalangan siswazah perempuan lebih tinggi sepanjang tempoh 10 tahun. Rajah 1 - Bilangan Siswazah Menganggur Mengikut Jantina Pada Tahun 2000 - 2010

Gerakan pendaftaran secara besar-besaran di seluruh negara oleh Majlis Tindakan Ekonomi Negara (MTEN) dengan kerjasama Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia, Kementerian Sumber Manusia dan Kementerian Pelajaran dari 24 September hingga 7 Oktober 2005, mendapati terdapat 59,250 siswazah yang masih menganggur, bekerja sementara atau bekerja dalam sektor yang tidak setara dengan kelayakan yang diperolehi. Daripada jumlah tersebut, seramai 24,608 orang atau 41.4% tidak mempunyai sebarang pekerjaan, manakala 36,642 atau 58.5% bekerja secara tidak tetap atau menyandang jawatan yang tidak setara dengan tahap kelulusan. Rata-rata mereka memperoleh pendapatan kurang daripada RM1,000 sebulan. Kajian tersebut telah mengenalpasti tiga faktor utama yang menjejaskan peluang siswazah mendapat pekerjaan. Faktor-faktor tersebut adalah tiadanya pengalaman bekerja (49.7%), kelemahan berbahasa Inggeris (33.3%) dan bidang pengajian yang tidak sesuai diikuti ketika di universiti (32.2%). Kajian ini juga menunjukkan seramai 57,072 orang atau 96.4% daripada mereka adalah bumiputera dan 71.1% daripada mereka adalah wanita. Menurut (Wood & Lindorff 2001) yang bersandarkan teori peranan-sosial, wanita dikaitkan dengan keyakinan dan tingkah laku seperti mengambil berat, peka terhadap aspek interpersonal dan beremosi, manakala lelaki pula memiliki ciri-ciri agentic iaitu bercita-cita, tegas, berupaya mengawal emosi dan berdikari. Ini mungkin dapat menerangkan tentang tahap kemahiran pelajar lelaki yang lebih dominan terhadap aspek kepimpinan, pemikiran strategik, mahir aspek kewangan dan mampu bertindak secara kreatif terhadap masalah yang lebih tinggi. Weiten (2002) turut mencadangkan aspek keupayaan kognitif, yang mendapati kaum perempuan cenderung memperlihatkan kemahiran komunikasi yang baik berbanding kaum lelaki, yang berkelebihan dalam keupayaan matematik dan visual-reruang.

Peningkatan Pengangguran Bumiputera di Malaysia Rajah 2 menunjukkan bilangan siswazah menganggur mengikut etnik pada tahun 2000 - 2010. Siswazah bumiputera dan etnik India menunjukkan peningkatan bilangan pengganguran sepanjang tempoh 10 tahun iaitu sebanyak 26.67% bagi bumiputera dan 6.90% bagi etnik India. Etnik cina menunjukkan penurunan sepanjang tempoh 10 tahun iaitu sebanyak 43.17% dimana pada tahun 2000 bilangan etnik cina yang menganggur berjumlah 36,600 berbanding tahun 2010 hanya berjumlah 20,800 orang. Menurut laporan Majlis Tindakan Ekonomi Negara (MTEN 2011) siswazah kaum cina mengalami tempoh pengangguran yang lebih pendek berbanding kaum lain. Etnik lain-lain menunjukkan tiada perubahan dengan kekal sebanyak 700 orang. Secara keseluruhan pada tahun 2010 menunjukkan siswazah dalam kalangan bumiputera yang menganggur adalah tertinggi berbanding etnik cina ditempat kedua, India ditempat ketiga manakala etnik © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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lain-lain. Menurut Faridah Karim et al. (2003) dalam kajiannya terhadap kerjaya pelajar kearah pembinaan keupayaan Melayu dalam konteks globalisasi dalam kalangan pekerja di syarikat-syarikat swasta di Lembah Klang mendapati lebih ramai pekerja melayu bekerja dalam organisasi tempatan, sementara yang bukan Melayu dalam syarikat multinasional. Ini disokong dengan kajian Institut Penyelidikan Pendidikan Tinggi Negara (IPPTN) 2005 terhadap perlakuan mencari kerja (job seeking behaviour) antara mereka yang bekerja dan tidak bekerja mendapati 70.8% responden berbangsa Melayu mencari pekerjaan di sektor awam berbanding 46% bangsa Cina dan 38.1% bangsa India. Senario ini menunjukkan bahawa kaum Melayu masih belum dapat menyesuaikan diri dengan perubahan ekonomi yang mana peluang pekerjaan lebih banyak ditawarkan di sektor swasta berbanding sektor awam. Rajah 2 - Bilangan Siswazah Menganggur Mengikut Etnik Pada Tahun 2000 - 2010

Usha Malini Maniam & Liong Choong Yeun (2007) telah menyatakan bahawa kumpulan etnik yang terdiri daripada lain- lain bangsa (yang terdiri dari kaum Murut dan Iban) lebih yakin tentang tahap keupayaan mereka dalam kemahiran untuk bekerja secara berpasukan, bekerja tanpa penyeliaan, berfikir secara kritis dan pemikiran strategik. Manakala pelajar-pelajar berbangsa India didapati menilai tahap keupayaan mereka lebih tinggi dalam kemahiran untuk berkomunikasi secara berkesan dalam bahasa Inggeris dan kemahiran bertulis berbanding kumpulan etnik lain.

Pengangguran Siswazah Kumpulan Umur 20 Hingga 24 Tahun Rajah 3 memperlihatkan Bilangan Siswazah Menganggur Mengikut Kumpulan Umur Pada Tahun 2000 – 2010. Terdapat lima (5) kumpulan umur siswazah dikategorikan dalam melihat trend pengangguran siswazah di Malaysia sepanjang tempoh 10 tahun. Majoriti siswazah yang berumur dalam lingkungan 20 hingga 24 tahun menunjukkan kumpulan umur yang menganggur tertinggi berbanding kumpulan umur yang lain. Sepanjang tempoh 10 tahun kumpulan umur siswazah berumur 20 hingga 24 tahun ini menunjukkan peningkatan sebanyak 67.98% dari tahun 2000 iaitu berjumlah 20,300 orang. Kumpulan siswazah yang berumur 25 hingga 29 tahun pula merupakan kumpulan kedua tertinggi yang menganggur sepanjang 10 tahun dari tahun 2010. Kumpulan umur 25 hingga 29 tahun menunjukkan peningkatan sebanyak 180.77% dari tahun 2000 iaitu 7,800 orang berbanding pada tahun 2010 sebanyak 21,900 orang. Kumpulan umur 30 hingga 34 tahun merupakan ketiga tertinggi diikuti 35 tahun ke atas dan terakhir 20 tahun ke bawah. Ketiga-tiga kumpulan umur ini menunjukkan peningkatan sepanjang 10 tahun iaitu 20 tahun ke bawah sebanyak 33.33%, 30 hingga 34 tahun sebanyak 455.55% dan 35 tahun ke atas sebanyak 20%. Secara keseluruhannya kumpulan umur 20 hingga 24 tahun menunjukkan kumpulan yang tertinggi sepanjang tempoh 10 tahun. Namun begitu peningkatan paling tinggi adalah dalam kalangan kumpulan siswazah berumur 30 hingga 34 tahun iaitu sebanyak 455.55% berbanding kumpulan umur yang lain.

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Rajah 3 - Bilangan Siswazah Menganggur Mengikut Kumpulan Umur Pada Tahun 2000 - 2010

Pengangguran Siswazah Bandar Rajah 4 menunjukkan bilangan siswazah menganggur mengikut bandar dan luar bandar pada tahun 2000 – 2010. Pada tahun 2010 menunjukkan siswazah menganggur di bandar berjumlah 47,300 orang berbanding tahun 2000 berjumlah 23,400 orang. Siswazah di Bandar menunjukkan peningkatan pengangguran sebanyak 102.14% iaitu lebih tinggi berbanding siswazah luar bandar meningkat sebanyak 93.62% dari tahun 2000. Secara keseluruhannya majoriti siswazah yang menganggur di bandar menunjukkan tertinggi sepanjang 10 tahun dari tahun 2000 hingga 2010 berbanding siswazah yang menganggur di luar bandar. Rajah 4 - Bilangan Siswazah Menganggur Mengikut Bandar dan Luar Bandar Pada Tahun 2000 – 2010

Trend ini mempunyai perkaitan dengan fenomena migrasi di antara penduduk luar bandar ke bandar. Hal ini kerana di bandar lebih mudah mencari peluang pekerjaan berbanding di luar bandar yang berteraskan kegiatan pertanian merujuk Hukum Migrasi oleh Ravenstein 1889. Merujuk (Ravenstein 1889) juga menyarankan faktor berlakunya migrasi luar bandar ke bandar adalah berlandaskan motif ekonomi iaitu untuk memperbaiki taraf hidup dalam aspek metarial. Merujuk (Lee, 1966) juga menyatakan ketidakpastian dan risiko yang bakal di hadapi merupakan faktor hambatan untuk migrasi. Sehubungan itu siswazah yang telah menamatkan pengajian lebih tertumpu untuk tinggal di Bandar. Oleh yang demikian wujudnya persaingan mendapatkan peluang pekerjaan dalam kalangsan siswazah di bandar dan kekosongan peluang pekerjaan tidak dapat memenuhi graduan siswazah yang keluar dari universiti setiap tahun. Selain itu juga, kebanyakkan universiti © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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tempatan sama ada awam atau swasta telah di bina di kawasan bandar. Siswazah yang telah menamatkan pengajian lebih tertumpu tinggal di bandar selepas tamat pengajian. Hal ini menyebabkan berlakunya lambakan siswazah di bandar kerana ingin mencari dan mendapatkan pekerjaan.

RUMUSAN Pengangguran siswazah 2000-2010 di Malaysia menunjukkan pelbagai trend mengikut jantina, umur, etnik dan lokasi. Siswazah perempuan menunjukkan pengangguran lebih tinggi berbanding lelaki, kumpulan umur 20 hingga 24 tahun pula mereka adalah di antara kumpulan umur siswazah yang menganggur lebih tinggi berbanding kumpulan umur lain dan siswazah bumiputera yang menganggur lebih tinggi dari etnik lain sepanjang 10 tahun dari tahun 2000. Di samping itu, pengangguran siswazah di bandar juga didapati lebih tinggi berbanding luar bandar. Secara keseluruhannya, keempat-empat pembolehubah yang dilihat menggambarkan trend pengangguran yang agak membimbangkan kepada negara dalam mencapai negara maju 2020. Peranan kerajaan, pihak swasta dan Institusi Pengajian Tinggi perlulah seiring dalam melahirkan siswazah yang kompeten mengikut kehendak pasaran industri agar isu pengangguran dapat ditangani bersama secara kolektif bagi mencapai hasrat dan dasar kerajaan.

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Mclaughlin, M. (1992). Employability Skills Profile: what are employers looking for?. Report No. 81-92 E. Ottawa : Conference Board of Canada. Mohd Razali Agus & Fashbir Noor Sidin. (2000). Pembangunan dan dinamika masyarakat Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur : Utusan Pub. & Distributor. Nur Atiqah Abdullah, Ahmad Khairy Ahmad Domil & Nik Mutasim Hj. Nik Abd. Rahman . (2006). Permintaan Firma Terhadap Industri Tenaga KerjaTeknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi di Malaysia. Jurnal Teknologi Maklumat & Multimedia, 3, 71-87. MAMPU. (2000). Ringkasan penemuan awal Kajian Keperluan Sumber Tenaga Manusia Bagi Menyokong Aplikasi dan Pengembangan IT Sektor Awam. www.mampu.gov.my. [25 Mei 2002]. Mohd Fauzi Hamat dan Mohd Khairul Naim Che Nordin. (2012). Tinjauan Kepentingan Pembangunan Modal Insan Di Malaysia : Jurnal Al-Tamaddun,7(1), 75-89 Nur Atiqah Abdullah, Norsiah Aminuddin & Ishak Yussof. (2003). Strategi dan masalah pengambilan pekerja profesional IT dalam syarikat MSC: Kajian ke atas sektor Software Development – Business Application. Prosiding Seminar Kebangsaan: 141-153. Norain Mat Lazim & Nooriah Yusof. (2012). Universiti, Pembangunan Modal Insan Dan Penumpuan Ruang Komuniti Berpendidikan Tinggi Di Malaysia: Suatu Ulasan Kritis: Jurnal Sains Sosial dan Kemanusiaan, 7(2), 308-327. Saodah Wok, Shukran Abdul Rahman dan Hariyati Shahrima Abdul Majid. (2008). ''Profiling the first-degree graduates’ employability: A longitudinal analysis''. Dalam Munir Shuib, Sarjit Kaur dan Rozinah Jamaludin (Ed.). Governance and Leadership in Higher Education. Pulau Pinang: Institut Penyelidikan Pengajian Tinggi Negara. Rancangan Malaysia Kelapan. 2001-2005. UPE, Jabatan Perdana Menteri, Malaysia. Stewart, J. & Knowles, V. (2000). Graduate recruitment and selection: implications for HE, graduates and small business recruiters. Career Development International, 5(2), 65-80. Suzyanty Mohd Shokory, Wan Salmuni Wan Mustaffa, & Norsamsinar Samsudin. (2005). Kepuasan kerja kakitangan akademik: Satu perbandingan Jantina. Kertas Kerja Bagi Pembentangan Persidangan Psikologi Malaysia 2005. OECD. (1993). From higher education to employment: synthesis report. Paris: OECD. Rahmah, I. (2010). Gender Wage Differentials in the Malaysian Services Sectors. African Journal of Business Management. 5(19) (2011). 7781-7789. Dari http://www.academicjournals.org/AJBM. Rancangan Jangka Panjang Ketiga 2001-2010. UPE, Jabatan Perdana Menteri. Raybould, J. & Sheedy, V. (2005). Are graduates equipped with the right skills in the employability stakes. Industrial and Commercial Training, 37(5), 259-263. Rempel J.K., Holmes, J.G. & Zanna, M.P. (1985). Trust in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Sosial Psychology, 55, 112-130. Rubenson, K. & Schuetze, H.G. (2000). Transition to the Knowledge Society: Policies and strategies for individual participation and learning. Vancouver: Institute for European Studies, University Of british Columbia. Dlm. Canadian Public Policy – Analyse De Politiques, XXVIII, 2, 2002. Usha Malini Maniam & Liong Choong Yeun. (2007). Students’ Perceptions on Employment Attributes and Their Implications on University Education. Sains Malaysiana 36(2), 213-223 Usherwood, Bob et al. (2000). Recruitment and retention in the public library – a baseline study. Library Management, 21(2), 62–80. Utusan Malaysia. (2011). Enggan Berjauhan Punca Penganggur Gagal Dapat Kerja. 20 Februari 2011. Weiten, W. (2002). Psychology: Themes and variation. Ed. ke-5. Thomson Learning. Wood, G.J. & Lindorff, M. (2001). Sex differences in explanation for career progress. Women In Management Review, 16(4):152-162. Zafir, K.M.M. & Noor Azuan Hashim. (2000). Amalan pengambilan dan pemilihan pekerja ke arah organisasi berdaya saing. Prosiding Seminar Pengurusan Alaf Baru. Jilid I: 11-33. http://www.businessdictionary. com/definition/rightsizing.html # ixzz2x4No66lr. Kertas Kerja Graduan & Isu Pengangguran. Dato Seri Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Abu Shah.Naib Canselor UiTM (tidak diterbitkan) Kertas pemikiran ini dibentangkan pada Persidangan Pertama TNC(A)/Dekan/Pengarah Fakulti/Pusat IPTA yang diadakan di Universiti Putra Malaysia pada 21 & 22 Julai 2004. (tidak diterbitkan)

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

TREN GUNA TENAGA BURUH MENGIKUT SEKTOR PEKERJAAN DAN TAHAP PENDIDIKAN DARI TAHUN 2001 HINGGA 2012 Ngo Jian Yee*, Muhamad Roslan Omar, Mohd Mahzan Awang, Faridah Mydin Kutty & Abdul Razaq Ahmad *[email protected] Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Abstrak Indeks Kemakmuran Legatum menyenaraikan lapan sub-indeks yang merangkumi 89 pemboleh ubah untuk pengukuran kemakmuran Negara. Aspek ekonomi termasuk pemboleh ubah guna tenaga dan aspek tahap pendidikan kekal sebagai penyumbang utama kepada kemakmuran sesebuah negara bersama dengan sub-indeks pentadbiran, kesihatan, keselamatan, kebebasan peribadi, modal sosial dan peluang keusahawanan. Kertas ini menumpu kepada menganalisis tren guna tenaga mengikut sektor pekerjaan dan tahap pendidikan di Malaysia sepanjang tempoh dua belas tahun bermula tahun 2001 hingga 2012. Selain daripada situasi keseluruhan Malaysia, guna tenaga mengikut sektor pekerjaan dan tahap pendidikan mengikut pecahan negeri juga diberi perhatian. Kaedah analisis siri masa (time series analysis) berdasarkan data sekunder yang diperoleh daripada Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia merupakan kaedah utama yang digunakan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan guna tenaga buruh bertambah pada kadar purata 2.2 peratus setahun. Sektor perkhidmatan terus merupakan bahagian terbesar daripada jumlah guna tenaga buruh sejak tahun 2004 hingga tahun 2012 dan mengalami pertumbuhan guna tenaga buruh purata 4.2 peratus setahun. Sektor yang paling banyak mengalami penurunan dalam peratusan penggunaan tenaga buruh ialah sektor pekerja mahir pertanian, perhutanan dan perikanan. Guna tenaga di Negeri Selangor jauh lebih tinggi berbanding dengan negeri-negeri lain, diikuti oleh Johor dan Sabah. Analisis juga menunjukkan bahawa berlaku pertambahan mendadak dalam bilangan tenaga kerja yang berpendidikan tinggi bagi tempoh 12 tahun. Melalui analisis terperinci terhadap taburan guna tenaga dan tahap pendidikan tenaga buruh, kami akan dapat mengetahui situasi sebenar struktur ekonomi Malaysia yang boleh dijadikan sebagai satu rujukan penting untuk menilai keberkesanan dasar pembangunan Negara dalam usaha meningkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat sebagaimana yang dihasratkan oleh kerajaan Malaysia. Keywords: guna tenaga, tahap pendidikan, sektor pekerjaan, kemakmuran negara

PENGENALAN Apa itu kesejahteraan? Kesejahteraan merupakan satu keadaan yang sangat diidamkan oleh segenap umat manusia. Tetapi terdapat terlalu banyak definisi tentang kesejahteraan dan setakat ini masih tidak mempunyai pemahaman muktamad tentang pengertian kesejarteraan. Walau bagaimanapun, dalam dunia moden sekarang, tidak dapat dinafikan aspek pendapatan merupakan salah satu faktor utama yang mempenaruhi kesejahteraan hidup setiap individu. Satu penilaian global tentang kekayaan dan kesejahteraan hidup rakyat

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

di 142 buah negara berasaskan penilaian terhadap faktor-faktor kekayaan, pertumbuhan ekonomi dan kualiti hidup telah dibangunkan oleh Legatum Institut sejak tahun 2007. Hasil daripada penilaian ini, satu Indeks kemakmuran Legatum akan dikemukakan. Indeks ini telah menyenaraikan lapan aspek utama sebagai faktor utama yang memberi kesan kepada kesejahteraan hidup termasuk aspek ekonomi yang mengambil kira pemboleh ubah guna tenaga dan pendapatan serta aspek tahap pendidikan. Sumber utama pendapatan isi rumah adalah daripada pekerjaan (KS. Jomo & CH. Wee, 2014). Kebanyakan keluarga di Malaysia bergantung kepada dapatan daripada pekerjaan sebagai sumber pendapatan keluarga untuk menanggung segala perbelanjaan keluarga dan mencapai keselesaan hidup. Pendapatan yang mencukupi merupakan faktor yang penting dalam mencapai kualiti hidup yang tinggi dan sekali gus meningkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat. Maka, adalah penting sesebuah masyarakat dapat memastikan terdapat peluang pekerjaan yang mencukupi bagi menampung keperluan populasinya terhadap pekerjaan. Dasar pembangunan ekonomi negara telah memberi kesan kepada corak guna tenaga di Malaysia. Pada tahun 1960-an hingga awal tahun 1970-an, sektor petanian merupakan sektor utama dalam penawaran peluang pekerjaan. Apabila negara memperkenalkan perindustrian berintensifkan buruh bagi menggantikan pertanian sebagai pemacu pertumbuhan ekonomi negara, proses perindustrian dan urbanisasi yang berlaku telah mengubah corak guna tanaga secara beransur-ansur kepada sektor perkilangan dan pembinaan. Banyak peluang pekerjaan yang telah diwujudkan dalam sektor perkilangan bagi mengimbangi kemerosotan kadar pertumbuhan guna tenaga di sektor pertanian. Selain daripada pendapatan, pendidikan juga dianggap sebagai agen perubahan dan peningkatan kualiti hidup yang boleh membawa kepada kesejahteraan hidup individu dan keluarga. Ross dan Wu (1996) melaporkan impak yang paling besar yang membawa kepada perolehan, pengekalan dan perubahan kualiti kehidupan adalah melalui pendidikan yang diterima oleh sesebuah masyarakat. Ross dan Wu (1996) menjelaskan melalui pendidikan yang diterima boleh menjelaskan keupayaan seseorang individu dalam mengurus hidup yang berkualiti melalui faktor ekonomi dan sosial. Jika prestasi pendidikan yang rendah diterima oleh sesebuah masyarakat ianya sudah pasti memberi kesan negatif kepada masa depan negara memandangkan tahap pendidikan yang tinggi berkait rapat dengan kadar pertumbuhan ekonomi. Pertumbuhan ekonomi memerlukan tenaga buruh yang berkemahiran tinggi agar ia selari dengan perkembangan global. Ini kerana produktiviti buruh merupakan penentu bagi kebolehsaingan negara dalam pasaran global. Secara umumnya, produktiviti buruh di Malaysia menunjukkan peningkatan dari 1.8 peratus pada tempoh 1995-2000 kepada 2.8 peratus pada tempoh 2000-2005. Namun begitu, ianya masih berada pada tahap yang rendah jika dibandingkan dengan produktiviti buruh di negara China, Korea dan Singapura. Manakala, jika dibandingkan dengan negara serantau lain seperti Filipina, Vietnam, Thailand dan Indonesia, Malaysia berada masih berada kedudukan lebih tinggi dalam pencapaian produktiviti buruh. (Labour and Social Trends in ASEAN, 2007). Produktiviti buruh yang berupaya memenuhi kehendak pasaran merupakan strategik pertumbuhan ekonomi yang merupakan pelaburan modal manusia menerusi pendidikan dan latihan yang diterima. Oleh itu, dasardasar yang berkaitan dengan pembangunan modal insan adalah perlu untuk meningkatkan produktiviti dalam sektor-sektor yang mempunyai potensi. Kajian yang dijalankan di Slovenia, di mana firma yang terlibat dalam eksport akan membawa kepada tahap produktiviti yang tinggi dan firma tersebut akan kekal produktif dan berdaya saing dalam pasaran (Loecker 2007). Selain itu, pelaburan langsung asing (FDI) memberikan kesan yang positif kepada pertumbuhan produktiviti melalui teknologi dan kemahiran pengurusan. Manakala, firma-firma tempatan yang menjalankan R&D berupaya meningkatkan tahap produktiviti (Lee 2011). Oleh itu, Kelayakan pendidikan yang tinggi bagi menyokong pembangunan pengetahuan dan inovasi, tahap kemahiran yang tinggi dalam bidang teknikal dan profesional, serta paras produktiviti yang tinggi adalah antara ciri utama modal insan dan tenaga kerja negara berpendapatan tinggi.

Kependudukan dan tenaga buruh Jumlah populasi Malaysia mengalami peningkatan pada kadar purata 1.9 peratus setahun daripada 24.0 juta kepada 29.5 juta dari tahun 2001 hingga 2012. Pendudukan yang berumur di bawah umur 15 tahun mengalami sedikit penurun dari 8.1 juta kepada 7.8 juta pada jangka masa yang sama. Manakala penduduk yang berumur 15 tahun hingga 65 tahun meningkat daripada 15.0 juta pada tahun 2001 kepada 20.1 juta pada tahun 2012. Oleh yang demikian, peratusan penduduk kumpulan umur 0-14 tahun daripada jumlah pendudukan berkurang daripada 33.6 peratus pada tahun 2001 kepada 26.4 peratus pada tahun 2012, sebaliknya peratusan rakyat kumpulan umur 15-65 tahun bertambah kepada 68.3 peratus pada tahun 2012 daripada 62.3 peratus pada tahun 2001. Pada masa yang sama, peratusan kumpulan umur 65 tahun ke atas juga meningkat dari 4.1 peratus pada tahun 2001 kepada 5.3 pada tahun 2012. Ini mencerminkan kadar © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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kesuburan keseluruhan rakyat Malaysia semakin berkurang dalam tempoh 12 tahun daripada tahun 2001 hingga 2012. Struktur umur penduduk Malaysia telah berubah ekoran daripada perubahan kadar kesuburan ini. Pertubuhan demografi ini memberi kesan ketara kepada ekonomi Malaysia. Ini bermakna Malaysia perlu mengwujudkan lebih peluang pekerjaan serta penyediaan kemudahan pendidikan dan latihan yang lebih banyak untuk menampung keperluan yang wujud ekoran daripada pertumbuhan penduduk dalam kumpulan umur bekerja. Ini dibuktikan oleh data jabatan perangkaan Malaysia yang menunjukkan jumlah keseluruhan tenaga buruh di Malaysia bertambah daripada 9.7 juta pada tahun 2001 kepada 13.1 juta pada tahun 2012. Peratusan guna tenaga pula telah mencatatkan penurunan sebanyak 2.7 peratus daripada 65.4 peratus pada tahun kepada 62.7 peratus pada tahun 2010, dengan kadar penganguran mencapai 3.4 peratus pada tahun 2010 daripada 3.1 peratus daripada tahun 2000. Memandangkan jumlah bilangan penduduk dalam lingkungan umur sesuai bekerja, tenaga buruh semakin meningkat dan terus meningkat, peratusan tenaga buruh berbanding dengan peratusan penduduk diluar tenaga buruh, iaitu penduduk yang berumur bawah daripada 15 tahun dan lebih daripada 65 tahun, menjadi semakin besar dan terus membesar. Keadaan ini membawa kepada nisbah tanggungan bagi setiap 100 orang tenaga buruh menjadi semakin kecil. Ini merupakan faktor penyumbang yang positif kepada keadaan ekonomi yang sihat. Masyarakat Malaysia juga mengalami pengalihan pendudukan yang sangat ketara daripada kawasan luar bandar ke kawasan bandar. Walaupun proses urbanisasi telah bermula sejak kemerdekaan lagi, penambahan populasi bandar menjadi lebih ketara sejak tahun 1980-an kerana perkembangan sektor industri yang pesat di kawasan bandar. Statistik menunjukkan, semasa mencapai kemerdekaan, populasi kawasan luar Bandar mencapai 91 peratus berbanding dengan populasi bandar hanya 19 peratus. Angka ini telah berubah menjadi 29 peratus populasi luar bandar dan 71 peratus populasi bandar pada tahun 2010. Kadar urbanisasi bagi seluruh Malaysia pada tahun 1980 adalah 34.2 peratus, kemudian meningkat kepada 51.1 peratus pada tahun 1991, 61.8 peratus pada tahun 2000 dan 71 peratus pada tahun 2010 (KS. Jomo & CH. Wee, 2014).

Pembangunan ekonomi dan pekerjaan Dalam menghadapi ledakan permintaan terhadap pekerjaan, Malaysia telah meningkatkan perbelanjaan awam, melaksanakan dasar fiskal yang mengembang supaya kekayaan negara akan digunakan semula dalam pengeluaran dan penggunaan (consumption), untuk mencapai keseimbangan antara penawaran dan permintaan dan menggalakkan pertumbuhan ekonomi. Dengan memperluaskan perbelanjaan kerajaan, termasuk penggunaan awam dan pelaburan awam, permintaan agregat akan semakin meningkat, sekali gus mencipta pelbagai peluang pekerjaan dan menggalakkan kestabilan dan pertumbuhan ekonomi. Untuk merangsang permintaan terhadap pelaburan sosial, kerajaan mengambil langkah meningkatkan perbelanjaan awam termasuk projek-projek pembangunan dan lain-lain perbelanjaan, melaksanakan defisit bajet bagi merangsang aktiviti ekonomi negara, supaya dapat mencapai guna tenaga penuh. Tidak dapat dinafikan bahawa pembangunan ekonomi Malaysia pasca-kolonial yang secara umumnya menunjukkan prestasi yang memberangsangkan, sebahagian besar merupakan hasil daripada campur tangan kerajaan yang sesuai dalam ekonomi negara, bukannya pergantungan sepenuhnya kepada kuasa pasaran bebas (Jomo, K.S. & Wee, C.H. 2014). Perbelanjaan kerajaan dikatakan merupakan satu elemen penting dalam perlaksanaan perancangan pembangunan ekonomi negara (Rabiatul Adawiyah et al. 2013). Pelan Pembangunan Negara jangka masa panjang dan peruntukan belanjawan setiap tahun membayangkan usaha kerajaan bagi meningkatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi dan pembangunan negara di samping memastikan kekayaan negara diagihkan kepada seluruh rakyat dengan adil. Ini boleh dibuktikan dengan jumlah perbelanjaan kerajaan yang semakin meningkat setiap tahun. Pada tahun 2010, jumlah perbelanjaan kerajaan adalah sebanyak RM204.4 bilion berbanding dengan tahun 2000 hanya sebanyak RM84.4 bilion. Norain et al. (2010) menyatakan bermula pada tahun 1980-an, tindakan kerajaan membangunkan sektor perindustrian serta mengamalkan Dasar Pandang Ke Timur telah membawa kepada pertumbuhan ekonomi yang pesat. Kenyataan ini dibuktikan oleh kajian Jomo dan Wee (2014) yang menyatakan strategi perbelanjaan awam yang mengembang diteruskan selepas Tun Dr. Mahathir menjadi Perdana Menteri pada pertengahan tahun 1981. Walau bagaimanapun, perkembangan perbelanjaan awan menjadi perlahan pada pertengahan tahun1982 kerana kemelesetan ekonomi global tetapi kerajaan melabur modal yang banyak ke dalam sector industri berat kerana tidak dapat menarik minat pelabur asing. Selain daripada itu, Jomo dan Wee (2014) turut membahagikan pertumbuhan ekonomi Malaysia kepada beberapa peringkat iaitu zaman Perikatan (1957-1969), dekad pertama Dasar Ekonomi Baru (1970-1980), peringkat perindustrian berat, Dasar Pandang Timur dan sector perkhidmatan (1981-1985), peringkat penswastaan (1986-1997), peringkat pengurusan krisis (1997-2003) dan peringkat selepas Mahathir (2003-kini) dan melaporkan bahawa melainkan pada © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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zaman Perikatan dimana ekonomi masih banyak dipengaruhi oleh kuasa koloni telah mengamalkan ekonomi kebebasan pasaran, sejarah pertumbuhan ekonomi Malaysia telah menyaksikan kerajaan Malaysia banyak mencampur tangan dalam ekonomi Negara bagi memastikan meningkatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi. Pembangunan ekonomi berterusan terutamanya perkembangan sektor perindustrian telah mengiatkan lagi berkembangannya urusniaga antara pelbagai industri. Perkembangan aktiviti perniagaan ini telah menyebabkan permintaan terhadap perkhidmatan perhubungan, logistik, kewangan dan pentadbiran turut berkembang dengan cepat. Peningkatan pendapatan per kapita dan urbanisasi yang berlaku ekoran daripada pembangunan ekonomi negara juga membawa kepada peningkatan taraf hidup seluruh masyarakat secara keseluruhan seterusnya membawa kepada peningkatan dalam permintaan kepada pelbagai perkhidmatan pengguna (Jomo, K.S. & Wee, C.H. 2014) seperti kesihatan, keselamatan, riadah, kemudahan infrastruktur, pelancong, pengangkutan dan banyak lagi. Rentetan daripada itu, sektor perkhidmatan dan penjualan akan membangun sebagai satu industri penting dalam ekonomi negara (Zairon 1996). Dalam Rangka Rancangan Jangka Panjang Kedua, sektor perkhidmatan akan diperkukuhkan dan dipermodenkan untuk dijadikan sebagai sokongan kepada perkembangan aktiviti perindustrian dan pembinaan. Menurut Nur Azura et.al (2012), sektor perkhidmatan telah muncul sebagai sektor yang mendominasi dalam sumbangan GDP negara berbanding dengan sektor-sektor lain. Pada tahun 2000 peratus sumbangan sektor perkhidmatan terhadap GDP negara mencapai 45.2 peratus. Kajian yang sama, Index Malmquist telah digunakan sebagai pengukur dan mendapati industri perkhidmatan di Malaysia semakin meningkat terutamanya bagi tingkat produktivitinya. Keputusan ini selari dengan keputusan kajian Zairon (1996) yang menyatakan sektor ketiga iaitu sektor perkhidmatan telah memainkan peranan yang penting dalam meningkatkan kegiatan ekonomi negara dalam tiga dekad yang lepas. Walau bagaimanapun, kajian Jomo, K.S. & Wee, C.H. (2014) mendedahkan kepada pembaca bahawa dasar buruh negara yang mengenakan banyak sekatan kepada pembentukan dan perkembangan kesatuan sekerja telah mengurangkan kuasa rundingan pekerja sektor perkhidmatan juga merupakan salah satu faktor penyumbang kepada pertumbuhan produktiviti sektor ini. Selain daripada itu, satu lagi peranan sektor perkhidmatan iaitu sebagai penyerap penganguran semasa pertumbuhan ekonomi perlahan tidak banyak ditunjukkan dalam data rasmi kerana ia biasanya berlaku pada sektor tidak formal yang tidak diamnbil kira dalam perangkaan rasmi (Jomo, K.S. & Wee, C.H. 2014).

Guna tenaga buruh mengikut tahap pendidikan Selain untuk merangsang kapasiti pengeluaran, perbelanjaan awam yang besar juga dilaburkan kepada pendidikan, kemajuan teknologi, penyediaan infrastruktur serta penyelidikan dan pembangunan (R&D). Melalui kelayakan pendidikan yang tinggi seterusnya dapat menyokong pembangunan pengetahuan dan inovasi, tahap kemahiran yang tinggi dalam bidang teknikal dan profesional, serta paras produktiviti yang tinggi, kerajaan berharap dapat menghasilkan modal insan yang mempunyai daya saing yang kuat terutamanya dalam dunia globalisasi ini. Jika kita gagal menyediakan suatu persekitaran yang kondusif dan menyediakan peluang peningkatan kendiri yang mencukupi pasti akan memberikan kesan yang kurang baik serta lebih meruncing dalam persaingan global yang sengit memandangkan modal insan berkualiti akan tertarik ke negara yang menyediakan peluang paling baik. Jika Malaysia gagal menanganinya maka sudah pasti terdapat jurang yang luas untuk Malaysia mencapai modal insan bertaraf dunia dan risiko untuk ketinggalan semakin bertambah. Ini di burukkan lagi apabila pada masa kini, hanya 23 peratus sahaja daripada jumlah tenaga kerja di Malaysia mempunyai pendidikan tertiary berbanding dengan kadar purata bagi negara Pertubuhan Kerjasama Ekonomi dan Pembangunan (OECD), iaitu hampir 28 peratus dan mencecah 35 peratus di Singapura dan Finland. Anker & Hein (1986) berhujah bahawa sekurang-kurangnya pendidikan peringkat menengah diperlukan untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan “berkolar-putih”. Individu dengan tahap pendidikan yang tinggi cenderung untuk hidup dalam pendapatan isi rumah yang tinggi kerana taraf pendidikan memberi kesan langsung ke atas pendapatan, di samping kecenderungan untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan yang baik dan terjamin (Hanushek dan Kimko, 2000). Manakala Individu yang rendah tahap pendidikannya cenderung untuk berhadapan dengan masalah ekonomi (Imazeki dan Reschovsky, 2003) selain lemah dalam pendidikan akan mendorong individu untuk hidup dalam kemiskinan (Preston dan Elo, 1996). Bagi menggelakkan Malaysia daripada terus ditinggalkan maka pelaburan yang besar dalam pendidikan lepasan menengah dan tertiari telah digerakkan. di mana pada masa kini, Malaysia telah menubuhkan 20 universiti awam dan 26 universiti swasta serta 405 institusi latihan kemahiran awam dan 584 institusi latihan kemahiran swasta. Selain itu, pendidikan teknikal dan latihan vokasional turut diberikan perhatian dengan cara mengarus perdanakan dan memperluas akses kepada pendidikan teknikal dan latihan vokasional yang berkualiti seterusnya dapat meningkatkan kompetensi siswazah sebagai persediaan untuk memasuki pasaran pekerjaan. ini berikutan kadar purata enrolment pelajar yang memasuki aliran teknikal dan vokasional di peringkat menengah atas bagi negara OECD adalah 44 peratus, berbanding hanya 10 peratus di Malaysia. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Perubahan ini perlu di gerakan segera seperti mana yang telah di lakukan di Jerman. Di mana sistem pendidikan Jerman telah memperlihatkan 60 peratus - 70 peratus daripada 1.6 juta pelajar memasuki sekolah Vokasional dan sistem ini telah berjaya apabila kadar pengangguran siswazah dapat dikurangkan kepada 3 peratus. Oleh sebab itu pendidikan sangat penting dalam konteks kesejahteraan ekonomi kerana ia boleh memimpin individu ke arah pemperolehan pendapatan tidak-terhad (Marx, 1964, 1971), melalui keterlibatan dalam kepelbagaian tugas, tidak bersifat rutin, serta mempunyai peluang untuk melanjutkan pelajaran dan perkembangan ilmu (Wooding dan Levenstein, 1999). Sifat kerja seumpama ini boleh mengurangkan perasaan ketegangan individu seterusnya para pekerja dapat mengawal proses buruh. Ini dapat dilihat apabila Individu yang mempunyai taraf pendidikan yang tinggi dan status tugas yang sesuai dengan pendidikannya berpeluang melibatkan diri sebagai penentu arah, kawalan, dan perancang kerja (Coleman, 1990). Rajah 1.1 Keperluan Malaysia Untuk Merapatkan Jurang Perbezaan Bagi Mencapai Ciri Modal Insan Bertaraf Dunia.

SUMBER: Unit Perancang Ekonomi

Kajian yang telah dijalankan oleh Rahmah Ismail (2009) melihat kesan modal insan yang berperanan menentukan produktiviti buruh terhadap hasil yang dikeluarkan (output) dengan melihat kadar pertumbuhan output daripada produktiviti buruh yang sedia ada, manakala Palazuelos dan Fernandez (2009) yang telah membuat kajian di negara-negara Eropah terhadap pertumbuhan produktiviti buruh telah mendapati bahawa kelembapan pertumbuhan produktiviti di negara tersebut dikaitkan dengan kelemahan dalam permintaan domestik, yang mana ia dipengaruhi oleh penggunaan teknologi baru, tahap pendidikan buruh serta institusi yang berperanan menentukan tahap perkembangan produktiviti buruh.

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk: a. Mengenalpasti tren guna tenaga mengikut sektor pekerjaan di Malaysia sepanjang tempoh dua belas tahun bermula tahun 2001 hingga 2012, dan b. Mengenalpasti tren guna tenaga mengikut tahap pendidikan di Malaysia sepanjang tempoh dua belas tahun bermula tahun 2001 hingga 2012.

METODOLOGI Dalam kajian ini, data sekunder daripada Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia telah digunakan untuk membuat analisis. Data yang diperoleh merupakan koleksi pemerhatian yang diperolehi melalui pengukuran berulang dari masa ke masa. Bilangan guna tenaga dan tahap pendidikan tertinggi pekerjaan telah secara konsisten diukur pada sela masa satu tahun sekali dari 2001 hingga 2012. Ini menjadikan data yang diperoleh merupakan satu set data siri masa. Maka, kaedah analisis siri masa telah digunakan untuk memperoleh pemahaman © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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terhadap pasaran guna tenaga di Malaysia.

DAPATAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bilangan guna tenaga buruh Malaysia meningkat secara konsisten dari 9357 ribu pada tahun 2001 ke 12723.2 ribu pada tahun 2012. Ini juga bermaksud sebanyak 3366.2 ribu peluang pekerjaan telah diwujudkan dalam tempoh 12 tahun tersebut. Rajah 1.2 - Tren Guna Tenaga Buruh Tahun 2001-2012

Rajah 1.3 - Peratus Penduduk Bekerja Mengikut Sektor Perkerjaan, 2001-2012

Negeri Selangor (tidak termasuk wilayah persekutuan Kuala Lumpur) merupakan negeri yang paling banyak membekalkan peluang pekerjaan iaitu sebanyak 2762.4 ribu pekerjaan pada tahun 2012. Angka ini hampir dua kali ganda lebih daripada negeri Sabah yang duduk di tempat kedua dengan membekalkan 1494.5 ribu pekerjaan. Negeri Johor mempunyai bilangan guna tenaga yang hampir sama dengan Sabah iaitu 1476.4 ribu pekerja, kemudian diikuti oleh Sarawak dengan 1133 ribu pekerja. Jumlah guna tenaga buruh dalam empat © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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negeri tersebut telah merangkumi 54 peratus daripada guna tenaga seluruh Malaysia. Walau bagaimanapun, jika dilihat daripada komposisi sektor pekerjaan, sebahagian besar guna tenaga negeri Sabah dan Sarawak wujud dalam sektor pekerjaan pertanian, operator dan pekerja asas, iaitu masing-masing dengan 46 peratus dan 43 peratus. Ini menyebabkan kedua-dua negeri ini masih belum tersenarai sebagai negeri yang kaya dalam Malaysia walaupun mempunyai bilangan guna tenaga yang tinggi, selain faktor bahawa kedua-dua negeri ini merupakan negeri yang luas dan mempunyai banyak kawasan pedalaman. Negeri yang mencatatkan paling kurang bilangan guna tenaga ialah negeri Perlis dengan 87 ribu diikuti dengan Melaka dan Terengganu masing-masing dengan 355.3 ribu dan 389 ribu. Ini menunjukkan kegiatan ekonomi dalam tiga negeri ini masih lagi belum dapat bersaing dengan negeri lain. Rajah 1.4 Perbandingan Peratusan Guna Tenaga Mengikut Sektor Pekerjaan Antara Tahun 2001 Dengan 2012

Data yang diperolehi mengelaskan sektor pekerjaan mengikut klasifikasi "Piawaian Pengelasan Pekerjaan, Malaysia (MASCO) 1998". Sembilan sektor pekerjaan yang disenaraikan merupakan 1. Penggubal undangundang, pegawai kanan dan pengurus, 2. Profesional, 3. Juruteknik dan profesional bersekutu, 4. Pekerja perkeranian, 5. Pekerja perkhidmatan dan pekerja kedai dan jurujual, 6. Pekerja mahir pertanian dan perikanan, 7. Pekerja pertukangan dan yang berkaitan, 8. Operator loji dan mesin serta pemasang, dan 9. Pekerjaan asas. Dalam piawaian ini, jenis-jenis pekerjaan yang terlibat dalam industri perkhidmatan terbahagi dalam tiga kelas iaitu sektor professional, sektor juru teknik dan professional bersekutu dan sektor perkhidmatan dan jualan. Industri perkhidmatan yang melibatkan tiga sektor yang tersebut ini menunjukkan peningkatan bilangan guna tenaga yang paling ketara dengan peningkatan yang berterusan dari 30.7 peratus kepada 40.5 peratus daripada jumlah guna tenaga seluruh negara bagi tahun 2001 hingga 2012. Jumalah bilangan guna tenaga buruh yang terlibat dalam tiga sektor ini mencapai 5156.3 ribu pada tahun 2012 berbanding dengan hanya 2874.4 ribu pada tahun 2001, iaitu penambahan bilangan guna tenaga sebanyak 1.8 kali ganda. Industri perkhidmatan termasuk sektor perkhidmatan awam seperti kesihatan, pendidikan, keselamatan dan sebagainya dengan menawarkan guna tenaga sebanyak 40.5 peratus daripada jumlah guna tenaga pada tahun 2012 telah berkembang dengan pesat dan menjadi salah satu penyumbang utama kepada ekonomi Malaysia. Dapatan ini selari dengan dapatan Jomo, K.S. & Wee, C.H. (2014) yang menunjukkan industri perkhidmatan telah menyumbangkan 50.4 peratus daripada pengeluaran kasar dalam negara pada tahun 2012. Sektor yang menunjukkan penurunan guna tenaga adalah sektor pertanian dan sektor operator dan pemasangan dengan masing-masing pada kadar 13.5 peratus dan 15.8 peratus pada tahun 2001 manakala 9.2 peratus dan 12.2 peratus pada tahun 2012. Kesemua negeri di Malaysia menunjukkan peratusan guna tenaga yang tinggi dalam sektor perkhidmatan dan jualan. Selain daripada sektor ini, corak guna tenaga negeri-negeri yang mengalami kadar urbanisasi yang lebih tinggi iaitu Johor, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Selangor, Perak dan Pulau Pinang cenderung kepada sektor operator dan pemasangan. Sabah, Sarawak, Terengganu, Perlis, Pahang, Kelantan dan Kedah pula merupakan negeri-negeri yang mempunyai peratus guna tenaga dalam sektor pertanian, perikanan dan perhutaan yang © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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melebihan purata guna tenaga dalam sektor ini di seluruh Malaysia dengan negeri Kelantan paling tinggi mencapai 20.9 peratus diikuti dengan Sarawak dengan 20.3 peratus. Negeri yang kurang kadar perbandaran ini juga cenderung menawarkan lebih banyak kerja dalam sektor pertukangan berbanding dengan negeri mencapai kadar perbandaran yang lebih tinggi. Perbezaan corak guna tenaga ini turut memberi kesan kepada kadar kemiskinan di negeri-negeri tersebut. Pada tahun 2009, negeri-negeri yang mencapai kadar perbandaran yang tinggi (selain daripada Perak) mempunyai kadar kemiskinan antara 0.5 hingga 1.3 peratus, manakala negeri-negeri lain mempunyai kadar kemiskinan yang lebih tinggi iaitu antara 2.1 hingga 6.0 peratus (Economic Planning Unit). Sabah mencatatkan kadar kemiskinan yang jauh lebih tinggi berbanding dengan negeri lain iaitu dengan 19.2 peratus. Kajian selanjutnya harus dijalankan untuk mengenal pasti faktor yang menyebabkan Sabah mempunyai kadar kemiskinan yang tinggi sedangkan dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan Sabah merupakan salah satu negeri yang mampunyai bilangan guna tenaga yang paling tinggi. Jadual 1.1 Kadar Kemiskinan Malaysia, 1999-2009 (%)

Negeri

1999

2004

2009

Johor

3.2

2.0

1.3

Melaka

2.9

1.8

0.5

Negeri Sembilan

4.1

1.4

0.7

Perak

6.9

4.9

3.5

Pulau Pinang

0.7

0.3

1.2

Selangor

1.9

1.0

0.7

Kedah

14.2

7.0

5.3

Kelantan

15.2

10.6

4.8

9.8

4.0

2.1

Pahang

13.6

6.3

6.0

Sabah

23.4

23.0

19.2

Sarawak

10.9

7.5

5.3

Terengganu

22.7

15.4

4.0

8.5

5.7

3.8

Negeri lebih maju

Negeri kurang maju

Perlis

Malaysia Sumber: Unit Perancang Ekonomi

Penurunan berterusan guna tenaga dalam sektor pertanian, perikanan dan perlombongan serta sektor operator mesin dan logi, dan peningkatan berterusan guna tenaga sektor perkhidmatan dan jualan menunjukkan ekonomi Malaysia sedang mengalami satu perubahan dari segi struktur. Keadaan ini selari dengan dapatan literatur yang menyatakan sektor perkhidmatan akan berkembangan maju selepas sektor kedua sebagai penyokong kepada perkembangan sektor perindustrian dan pembinaan. Lebih penting lagi, pertumbuhan sektor perkhidmatan boleh menguatkan ekonomi negara dengan membekalkan keperluan dalaman yang stabil dan mengurangkan kebergantungan ekonomi kepada perubahan pasaran antarabangsa. Fungsi sektor perkhidmatan ini amat penting kerana prestasi ekonomi Malaysia mudah terpengaruh dengan keadaan ekonomi global walaupun dalam jangka masa berlainan, ekonomi Malaysia terdedah kepada faktor global yang lain. Pada awalnya faktor harga komoditi amat berpengaruh, kemudiannya berubah kepada permintaan terhadap barangan pengeluaran (Jomo, K.S. & Wee, C.H. 2014). Krisis kewangan pada tahun 19971998 dan tahun 2008-2009 pula menunjukkan bahawa ekonomi negara kita amat dipengaruhi oleh pengaliran modal antarabangsa. Maka, dengan perkembangnya sektor perkhidmatan, kita boleh mengurangkan kebergantungan ekonomi negara kepada pasaran global sebaliknya meningkatkan pemberat keperluan domestik dalam memacukan pertumbuhan ekonomi. Peratusan penduduk bekerja mengikut pencapaian pendidikan di Malaysia dari tahun 2001 sehingga 2012 di paparkan dalam bentuk graf Palang. Guna tenaga dari segi pendidikan tertinggi menunjukkan peratusan guna tenaga yang memperoleh pendidikan menengah adalah amat tinggi pada tahun 2001 dengan 54.9 peratus, diikuti pendidikan rendah 24.5 peratus, pendidikan tertiari 15.4 peratus dan tiada pendidikan rasmi 5.2 peratus. Manakala pada tahun 2012 tahap pendidikan menengah masih mendahului dengan 55.7 peratus, pendidikan tertiari 24.3 peratus, pendidikan rendah 17.0 peratus dan tiada pendidikan rasmi 3.0 peratus. Di sini menunjukkan pendidikan rendah dan tiada pendidikan rasmi telah menunjukkan penyusutan manakala © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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pendidikan tertiari telah menampakkan peningkatan yang amat ketara daripada 15.4 peratus pada tahun 2001 kepada 24.3 peratus bagi tahun 2012. Oleh itu, boleh dikatakan guna tenaga Malaysia dari segi pendidikan tertinggi telah menunjukkan perkembangan yang positif seiring dengan matlamat menjadi sebuah negara berpendapatan tinggi menjelang tahun 2020. Rajah 1.5 - Peratusan Penduduk Bekerja Mengikut Pencapaian Pendidikan, 2001-2012

Analisis bersilang menunjukkan peratusan guna tenaga yang mempunyai kelulusan pendidikan peringkat tertiari paling banyak, iaitu negeri Selangor dengan 35.7 peratus, juga mempunyai peratusan guna tenaga yang paling banyak dalam sektor pengurus, sektor profesional dan sektor juruteknik dan profesional bersekutu dengan jumlahnya 39.7 peratus. Negeri Pulau Pinang yang mempunyai 27 peratus guna tenaga kelulusan pendidikan tertiari juga menunjukkan prestasi yang menggalakan dengan jumlah 29.1 peratus dalam tiga sektor pekerjaan yang sama. Manakala untuk negeri yang mempunyai pekerja dengan kelulusan pendidikan tertiari yang sikit iaitu Sabah dan Sarawak masing-masing dengan 15 peratus dan 18.3 peratus hanya mampu mencapai 14.4 peratus dan 17.7 peratus dalam tiga sektor yang disebut diatas. Fenomena di sesetengah negeri agak berbeza. Di negeri Kelantan sebanyak 22 peratus pekerjanya mencapai pendidikan tertiari tetapi hanya mampunyai 15 peratus guna tenaga dalam sektor pengurus, profesional dan professional bersekutu. Sebaliknya negeri Johor yang hanya mempunyai 19 peratus pendidikan tertiari mampu mencapai 22.5 peratus guna tenaga dalam tiga sektor tersebut yang sama. Daripada pemerhatian terhadap tren sepanjang 12 tahun, walaupun peningkatan peratusan kelulusan pendidikan tertiari adalah jelas bagi kesemua 13 negeri, tetapi peningkat peratusan guna tenaga dalam sektor pengurus, profesional dan profesional bersekutu adalah tidak jelas. Maka, kajian ini tidak dapat menyimpulkan bahawa peningkatan kelulusan pendidikan pasti akan membawa kepada pekerjaan yang lebih baik. Ini mungkin kerana masih terdapat faktor lain selain daripada tahap pendidikan yang mempengaruhi jenis pekerjaan seseorang yang tidak dikaji dalam kajian ini. Kajian lanjutan harus dijalankan dengan data primari untuk mengetahui hal ini dengan lebih mendalam. Peratus tenaga buruh yang mempunyai pendidikan menengah adalah amat tinggi berbanding dengan kategori-kategori lain dan tidak banyak berubah untuk tempoh 12 tahun yang dikaji mingkin boleh dijelaskan dengan dasar pendidikan wajib sehingga tingkatan lima iaitu peringkat Sijil Peperiksaan Malaysia (SPM) yang dilaksanakan oleh kerajaan Malaysia. Dianggarkan seramai 100,000 pelajar Malaysia memasuki pasaran pekerjaan sebaik sahaja menamatkan 11 tahun persekolahan, iaitu dengan memiliki kelayakan SPM. Kumpulan pelajar ini sebenarnya mempunyai peluang yang lebih cerah jika diberikan peluang lebih awal kepada kemahiran teknikal seterusnya meningkatkan kemahiran mereka dalam bidang teknikal. Ini kerana, pada merekalah tenaga buruh yang digunakan bagi memenuhi pasaran buruh semasa. Namun jika mereka tidak dibekalkan dengan kemahiran yang sepatutnya maka sudah pasti pasaran buruh yang dihasilkan tidak mampu memenuhi kehendak pasaran dengan tenaga kerja mahir. Oleh itu, peningkatan kemahiran secara radikal perlu di laksanakan bagi meningkatkan kebolehpasaran dengan memberi tumpuan kepada keperluan strategik. Oleh itu, dalam Rancangan Malaysia Kesepuluh (RM10) telah menggariskan sepuluh idea utama iaitu:

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a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.

Ekonomi dipacu oleh faktor dalam negeri di samping mengambil kira persekitaran luar negara. Memanfaatkan kepelbagaian etnik untuk mencapai kejayaan di arena antarabangsa. Transformasi ke arah negara berpendapatan tinggi menerusi pengkhususan. Menjayakan pertumbuhan yang diterajui oleh produktiviti dan inovasi. Memupuk, menarik dan mengekalkan modal insan cemerlang. Memastikan peluang sama rata dan melindungi golongan yang mudah terjejas. Pertumbuhan bertumpu, pembangunan inklusif. Menyokong perkongsian pintar dan berkesan. Menghargai khazanah alam sekitar. Kerajaan umpama syarikat yang berdaya saing.

untuk dilaksanakan dengan bersungguh-sungguh dan berterusan bagi membolehkan Malaysia mengatasi cabaran yang sedang dihadapi dan mencapai status negara maju dan ekonomi berpendapatan tinggi menjelang tahun 2020. Ini kerana tiada formula yang khusus untuk pertumbuhan ekonomi mampan sebagaimana yang berlaku pada Malaysia setelah mencapai status negara berpendapatan sederhana pertumbuhan negara menjadi perlahan. Apabila upah meningkat, daya saing industri berintensif buruh akan terhakis. Dalam hal ini, peningkatan kemahiran yang meliputi seluruh spektrum guna tenaga perlu diutamakan untuk menyokong peralihan kepada industri yang berintensifkan pengetahuan. Sehubungan itu, penekan pentingnya dasar ekonomi negara berpendapatan sederhana diselaraskan dengan keperluan ekonomi yang kian berubah (Growth Report, 2008). Perubahan ini memerlukan Malaysia beralih dengan cara menggunakan modal insan sebagai sumber terpenting kepada ekonomi yang berintensif pengetahuan dan diterajui inovasi. Walau bagaimanapun, modal insan yang digerakkan sebagai pemacu ekonomi perlu dikawal aliran keluar modal insan yang berbakat seperti mana yang dialami sekarang selain menggalakkan kemasukan guna tenaga mahir. Di samping itu, penggunaan guna tenaga mahir perlu di seimbangkan dengan pertumbuhan produktiviti pekerja agar ia selari dengan tuntutan semasa. Namun, apa yang berlaku pertumbuhan produktiviti pekerja di Malaysia juga semakin ketinggalan dan paras produktiviti jauh lebih rendah berbanding negara yang berpendapatan tinggi di Asia bagi tahun 2009. Setelah Transformasi ekonomi digerakkan melalui RM10 perbezaan pencapaian produktiviti buruh bagi Malaysia dan negara-negara tersebut dilihat semakin berkurang dan menampakkan jurang yang semakin mengecil. Ini kerana, modal insan yang dihasilkan pendidikan tertiari berupaya menangani perbezaan yang wujud serta dapat membekalkan tenaga kerja mahir seterusnya mampu menggerakkan pertumbuhan ekonomi tempatan. Di mana bidang pendidikan yang termasuk dalam salah satu sektor perkhidmatan dan jualan telah menampakkan peningkatan dekad ini, yang dengan sendirinya mampu menjadi ejen pembangunan. Bidang ini telah menyumbang kira-kira RM27 bilion atau 4 peratus daripada Pendapatan Negara Kasar (PNK) Malaysia, iaitu sebanyak RM23 bilion adalah daripada perkhidmatan pembiayaan pendidikan oleh kerajaan. tertumpu kepada pengukuhan sektor perkhidmatan pendidikan swasta dengan mempertingkatkan penggunaan dan pelaburan swasta, di samping memperluaskan eksport pendidikan (RM10). Bidang pendidikan akan menjadi sebuah perniagaan besar yang mampu memberi impak ketara kepada PNK, tersebar luas dan mampan, sambil meningkatkan standard dan meluaskan akses kepada pendidikan. Maka dengan itu, barulah Malaysia mampu untuk membangunkan modal insan berbakat bagi sebuah negara maju.

KESIMPULAN Daripada dapatan dan perbincangan, boleh disimpulkan bahawa Malaysia sedang mengalami perubahan pada struktur ekonomi jika dilihat dari guna tenaga buruh mengikut sektor. Kepentingan industri perkhidmatan menjadi semakin kepada ekonomi negara dalam abad ke-21 ini. Sumbangan industri perkhidmatan kepada prestasi GDP negara semakin besar dan terus meningkat. Ini adalah satu tren yang perlu diberi perhatian secukupnya oleh rakyat Malaysia terutamanya bagi mereka yang bakal memasuki pasaran tenaga buruh kerana perkembangan ini turut bermaksud peluang kini terbuka luas dalam bidang perkhidmatan. Justeru itu, rakyat negara ini harus melengkapkan diri dengan ilmu dan kemahiran yang sesuai dengan keperluan pasaran tenaga buruh supaya dapat meningkatkan produktiviti dan daya saing. Pendidikan merupakan satu faktor yang memberi kesan kepada peningkatan produktiviti dan daya saing. Walaupun kerajaan telah menetapkan dasar pembangunan modal insan yang memberi penekanan kepada pendidikan, tetapi jelas pendidikan di Malaysia, terutamanya pendidikan tinggi masih mempunyai ruang yang begitu luas untuk berkembang. Walau bagaimanapun, pengecutan sektor pertanian dan perikanan dalam pasaran tenaga buruh mencerminkan keupayaan Malaysia untuk meningkatkan keluaran makanan mungkin akan semakin menurun. Keadaan ini pasti akan menjejaskan keselamatan makanan Malaysia kerana dengan penambahan populasi dan penurunan keupayaan keluaran makanan, Malaysia akan semakin bergantung kepada luar negara untuk memenuhi keperluan makanan dalam negeri. Dari segi peluang, bidang pertanian juga menjadi © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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satu bidang yang berpotensi bagi orang yang mengenali kepentingan dan nilai strategiknya terhadap keselamatan negara.

RUJUKAN Anker, R. & Hein, C. (pnyt.). (1986). Sex inequalities in urban employment in the third world. Coleman, J.S. 1990. Equality and Achievement in education. Westview Press. Hampshire: Macmillan Academic and Professional Ltd. Hanushek, E.A. dan Kimko, D.D. (2000). Schooling, labor-force quality, and the growth of nations. American Economic Review, 90(5), 1184-1208. Imazeki, J. dan Reschovsky, A. (2003). Financing adequate education in Rural Settings. Journal of Education Finance, 29 Fall, 137-156. International Labour Office. (1974). International Labour Conference, 60th Session 1975. Report Vlll. Equality of opportunity and treatment for women workers. Geneva:ILO. Jomo, K.S. dan Wee, C.H. (2014). Malaysia @ 50: Economic Development, Distribution, Disparities. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information And Research Development Centre. Lee, C. (2011). Trade, productivity and innovation: Firm-level evidence from Malaysian manufacturing. Journal of Asian Economics, 22, 284-294. Loecker, J. D. (2007). Do exports generate higher productivity? Evidence from Slovenia. Journal of International Economics, 73, 69-98. Malaysia. (2013). Growth Report 2008. Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia 2013-2025. Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. Marx, K. (1964). Early writings. NY: McGraw-Hill Marx, K. (1971). Alienation: Marx’s conception of man in capitalist society. NY: Cambridge University Norain Mod Asri, Md. Zyadi Md. Tahir dan Wook Endut. (2010). Komposisi perbelanjaan kerajaan dan pertumbuhan ekonomi: kajian empirikal di Malaysia. Jurnal Kemanusiaan (15): 23-45. Nur Azura Sanusi, Ea Kerian, Laina. dan Nuruzaini Hasbollah. (2012). Laluan Pertumbuhan Sektor Perkhidmatan Malaysia. Prosoding PERKEM, 7(1), 348 - 354. Preston, S.H. dan Elo, I.T. (1996). Survival after age 80: letter to the editor. New England Journal of Medicine, 334 (8), 537. Rabiatul Adawiyah Mohd Dzubaidi, Rahmah Ismail dan Tamat Sarmidi. (2013). Peranan Perbelanjaan Kerajaan Terhadap Pembangunan Manusia dan Pertumbuhan Ekonomi. Prosiding PERKEM, 7(2), 872-879. Ross, C. dan Wu, C.L. (1996). Education, age, and the cumulative advantage in health. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 37, 104-120. Wooding, J. dan Levenstein, C. (1999). The Point of Production: Work Environment in Advanced Industrial Societies. NY: Guilford Publications.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PENGALAMAN PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN KERJA SUKARELA MELALUI KURSUS PEMBANGUNAN DIRI 11 PELAJAR UKM Nazri Muslim* *[email protected] Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Abstract Mulai sesi 2010/2012, struktur pengajian umum di UKM telah dirombak dengan memantapkan kepada pengaplikasian kemahiran insaniah. Untuk itu, kursus Pembangunan Diri telah diperkenalkan dan dibahagikan kepada dua iaitu Pembangunan Diri I dan Pembangunan Diri II. Pembangunan Diri 1 bertujuan mendedahkan kepada pelajar teori kemahiran insaniah yang meliputi Kemahiran Sosial dan kebertanggungjawaban, Kemahiran Kreatif dan Inovatif, Kemahiran Pengurusan dan Keusahawanan, Kemahiran Kepimpinan dan Kerja Berpasukan, Kemahiran Pemikiran Kritikal, Penyelesaian Masalah dan Pendekatan Saintifik, Kemahiran Nilai, Sikap. Etika dan Profesionalisme, Kemahiran Pengurusan Maklumat dan Pembelajaran Sepanjang Hayat dan Kemahiran Komunikasi. Manakala kursus Pembangunan Diri II menekankan kepada pengaplikasian kemahiran insaniah menerusi projek atau aktiviti atau program yang dianjurkan oleh pelajar. Justeru, kertas ini akan membincangkan pengalaman pelajar UKM yang mengikuti kursus ini menjalankan projek kerja sukarela seperti pembersihan pantai, membasuh telekung di surau-surau, sukarelawan zoo dan sebagainya. Hasil projek menunjukkan pelajar memperoleh dan meningkatkan kemahiran insaniah melalui projek kerja sukarela yang dianjurkan oleh pelajar di Zoo Negara. Keywords: pembangunan diri, kemahiran insaniah, zoo, UKM, pelajar

PENGENALAN Dalam era persaingan global, universiti bukan sahaja perlu melahirkan graduan yang mempunyai kecekapan teknikal malah perhatian juga perlu diberikan kepada komponen pendidikan umum untuk membangunkan pelajar secara holistik. Pendidikan umum melibatkan pemupukan kemahiran, peluasan ilmu pengetahuan dan sikap yang boleh membantu graduan menjalani hidup dengan berkesan di peringkat individu, organisasi dan juga di peringkat global. Malangnya di kebanyakan negara sedang membangun termasuk Malaysia, keperluan ke atas tenaga manusia bagi memenuhi keperluan industri yang sedang membangun dengan pesat telah memberi kesan kepada perkembangan ke atas pengajian umum. Sistem pendidikan dewasa ini lebih memberi tumpuan ke atas pendidikan berbentuk teknikal dan vokasional kerana infrastruktur, sistem kewangan yang kukuh dan juga sistem penjagaan kesihatan yang moden memerlukan jurutera, akauntan dan kakitangan yang terlatih dalam perubatan moden. Jadi tidak menghairankan kenapa institusi pengajian tinggi pada hari ini lebih menjurus kepada “pengkhususan” bagi menghasilkan graduan yang dianggap “job ready” sehinggakan ramai pelajar, dan ibu bapa berpandangan bahawa kursus-kursus pendidikan umum adalah tidak penting dan membebankan. Dalam kalangan akademik sendiri, ramai yang menganggap pendidikan umum mempunyai status yang rendah. Fakulti juga tidak begitu mementingkan komponen pengajian umum dan membiarkan pelajar memilih kursus secara “fragmented” tanpa perancangan yang bermakna. Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Akibat dari sikap dan amalan tersebut, pasaran kerja dipenuhi oleh graduan universiti yang tidak dapat memenuhi keperluan majikan. Dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh Lazerson, Wagener & Shumanis (2000) menunjukkan hanya 1/3 daripada 1400 institusi pengajian tinggi di USA yang menilai pelajar mereka mengenai “higher-order learning skills, affective development or profesional development”. Jadi tidaklah menghairankan bila Oblinger & Verville (1998) menulis bahawa ramai majikan yang melaporkan bahawa graduan dewasa ini lemah dalam beberapa kemahiran seperti menulis, komunikasi lisan, kerja berpasukan dan pembelajaran sepanjang hayat. Kenyataan ini juga disokong oleh Association of American Colleges and Universities (2008) yang mengatakan majikan mencari graduan yang mempunyai keupayaan atau kemahiran yang tinggi dalam menyelesaikan masalah, kerja berpasukan, komunikasi dan kepimpinan. Di Malaysia juga, umum berpendapat kegagalan siswazah mendapat pekerjaan adalah disebabkan mereka tidak memiliki soft skill atau kemahiran insaniah yang diperlukan majikan. Kajian Haslinda, Muhammad Nubli dan Zarina (2005) mendapati kebolehpasaran setiap graduan dinilai dalam pelbagai aspek dan pihak majikan cenderung mencari bakal pekerja yang memiliki pelbagai kemahiran tanpa perlu memberi latihan dalam perkhidmatan. Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Pusat Pembangunan Akademik (CADE) UPM mendapati isuisu berkaitan dengan kemahiran insaniah berada di tangga ke sepuluh semasa sesi temu duga dijalankan berbanding dengan isu berkaitan akademik yang berada di tangga ke lapan belas (Mohamad Shatar dan Azali Mohamad, 2008). Ini menunjukkan bahawa perkara-perkara yang berkaitan dengan pembentukan kemahiran insaniah pelajar perlu diberi perhatian yang serius terutama di peringkat Institut Pengajian Tinggi di negara kita.

KONSEP PENGAJIAN UMUM Pendidikan liberal adalah pendidikan yang menggalakkan semangat pencarian ilmu (spirit of inquiry) secara bebas tanpa kekangan tajuk yang dilabelkan sebagai relevan atau atas keperluan vokasional. Pendidikan umum pula adalah satu komponen di bawah pendidikan liberal. Ianya juga adalah pendidikan untuk membolehkan manusia menjalani kehidupan yang lebih bermakna. Subjek yang di pelajari, kemahiran yang dikuasai dan juga habit minda yang dipupuk dan diperoleh dalam proses yang dilalui sebagai seorang pelajar akan membentuk hidup mereka di masa depan yakni selepas menamatkan pengajian di universiti (Report of the Task Force on General Education Harvard University, 2007). Pendidikan di peringkat universiti mempunyai banyak dimensi seperti persatuan, penglibatan dengan seni dan budaya, sukan dan kehidupan di kolej. Semua ini menyumbang kepada pembangunan intelektual, pemupukan etika dan pembangunan diri pelajar. Pengalaman akademik pula adalah tunjang atau paksi kepada semua pengalaman tersebut. Kebiasaannya pengajian di peringkat universiti mengandungi tiga komponen utama iaitu pengkhususan, elektif dan pendidikan umum. Pengkhususan membolehkan pelajar belajar secara mendalam tentang disiplin yang mahu diikuti. Subjek elektif pula membolehkan mereka meneroka bidang di luar subjek yang menjadi fokus di samping meluaskan ilmu pengetahuan. Sementara itu, subjek di bawah pengajian umum pula, berperanan menyambungkan apa yang dipelajari di universiti dengan dunia luar. Pendidikan umum juga membuatkan pelajar lebih memahami dan menghargai dunia yang kompleks dan peranan mereka di dalam dunia tersebut. Di Pusat Pengajian Umum, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Pendidikan Umum didefinisikan sebagai pendidikan prasiswazah yang bertujuan membekalkan pelajar dengan ilmu persediaan untuk hidup dalam masyarakat moden. Ilmu tersebut meliputi kefahaman tentang nilai-nilai mulia, sejarah dan tanggungjawab dalam masyarakat; kemahiran tentang analisis kuantitatif dan teknik berkomunikasi; penghayatan ciri-ciri kesenian dan kebudayaan, dan kemampuan menggunakan masa senggang secara produktif. Di UKM, antara 15 hingga 20 peratus kredit yang perlu diambil oleh pelajar-pelajar di sepanjang pengajian mereka adalah terdiri dari kursus-kursus yang boleh dikategorikan sebagai kursus-kursus pendidikan umum. Kursus-kursus ini ditawarkan oleh fakulti dan juga Pusat Pengajian Umum (PPU) dan juga beberapa pusat lain. Kursus-kursus di PPU dibahagikan kepada kursus U1 iaitu kursus wajib universiti, kursus U2 yang memberi penekanan kepada perolehan kemahiran, kursus U3 yang membuka laluan kepada peluasan ilmu dan kursus U4 yang menekankan penguasaan bahasa Inggeris dan Melayu. Walaupun di peringkat universiti kepentingan pendidikan umum tercermin melalui jumlah kredit yang diperuntukkan tetapi dari segi amalannya rata-rata masyarakat kampus melihat kursus-kursus pendidikan umum sebagai sesuatu yang perlu diambil sebagai memenuhi syarat sahaja. Pihak fakulti sering menggalakkan pelajar-pelajarnya “menghabiskan” kursus-kursus pendidikan umum secepat mungkin untuk memberi tumpuan pada kursus-kursus teras. Malah ada pihak yang menyarankan supaya jumlah kredit yang diperuntukkan kepada pengajian umum terus dikurangkan. Mengapa perkara ini berlaku walaupun

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kelemahan pelajar dalam perkara-perkara yang dicakupi oleh pendidikan umum terus dicanangkan?

PENSTRUKTURAN PENGAJIAN UMUM Penstrukturan kursus-kursus Pusat Pengajian Umum adalah bagi memenuhi hasrat pihak-pihak berkepentingan supaya universiti melahirkan graduan berpengetahuan dan memiliki kemahiran-kemahiran insaniah yang sesuai dengan keperluan Model Baru Ekonomi. Penstrukturan kursus-kursus Pusat Pengajian Umum juga adalah bagi memenuhi tuntutan pasaran yang memerlukan gunatenaga yang mempunyai kemahiran-kemahiran berikut: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

Kemahiran Sosial dan Kebertanggungjawaban Kemahiran Komunikasi Kemahiran Pengurusan Maklumat dan Pembelajaran Sepanjang Hayat Kemahiran Membina Nilai, Sikap, Etika dan Profesionalisme Pemikiran Kritikal, Penyelesaian Masalah dan Pendekatan Saintifik Kepimpinan dan Kerja Berpasukan Kemahiran Pengurusan dan Keusahawanan Kemahiran Kreatif dan Inovatif

Penstrukturan kursus-kursus Pusat Pengajian Umum memenuhi saranan Pelan Strategik Pengajian Tinggi Negara melalui aspirasi negara dan falsafah pendidikan perkara 1.02: Selaras dengan teras kedua Misi Nasional, negara perlu melahirkan modal insan yang memiliki minda kelas pertama untuk menghadapi cabaran pembangunan ekonomi yang berlandaskan ilmu pengetahuan dan inovasi. Modal insan yang dibangunkan perlu mempunyai keupayaan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan ciri-ciri peribadi yang unggul. Bersesuaian dengan matlamat pembangunan modal insan yang dihasratkan, Pelan Strategik Pengajian Tinggi Negara digubal dengan visi untuk mentransformasikan pengajian tinggi dalam konteks menjadikan Malaysia sebagai hab kecemerlangan pengajian tinggi antarabangsa. Transformasi ini merupakan peletakan asas ke arah kegemilangan dan kelestarian pengajian tinggi melangkaui tahun 2020. Penstrukturan pengajian umum juga diharap dapat memenuhi tuntutan UKM sebagai sebuah universiti penyelidikan dengan menyediakan sumber manusia yang mempunyai kemahiran insaniah yang diperlukan oleh industri pekerjaan. Ini seterusnya mampu membina modal insan yang berupaya menggunakan kemahiran insaniah bagi menghadapi cabaran-cabaran dalam masyarakat termasuk dalam menjana pekerjaan sendiri dan membuka peluang pekerjaan kepada masyarakat. Konsep penstrukturan PPU pada kali ini berfokus kepada: a. Pengukuhan dan pemantapan penerapan elemen-elemen kemahiran insaniah dalam kursus-kursus pengajian umum. b. Melahirkan pelajar yang holistik yang dapat menyumbang kepada masyarakat dan organisasi. c. Memupuk ikhlak pelajar yang sentiasa bersifat ikhlas, jujur dan bertanggujawab dalam kehidupan. d. Melahirkan pelajar yang berakhlak, beretika, kreatif, inovatif, toleran dan berfikiran waras dari persepktif multidisiplin dan rentas budaya dalam isu-isu kontemporari.

KURSUS PEMBANGUNAN DIRI Kursus ini melatih pelajar mengaplikasikan empat kemahiran insaniah iaitu (1) komunikasi yang berkesan dalam pelbagai situasi, (2) kemahiran pemikiran kritikal, penyelesaian masalah dan pendekatan saintifik, (3) kemahiran kepimpinan dan kerja berpasukan, dan (4) kemahiran pengurusan maklumat dan pembelajaran sepanjang hayat. Pengaplikasian empat kemahiran ini akan dilaksanakan mengggunakan mod kontrak pembelajaran berasaskan projek, aktiviti dan khidmat yang dilakukan secara berkumpulan. Pelajar dikehendaki mengaplikasikan ke empat-empat kemahiran insaniah tersebut secara praktikal bagi mengukuhkan dan memantapkan elemen-elemen kemahiran insaniah tersebut dalam diri mereka. Keperluan aspek praktikal ini akan melahirkan pelajar yang holistik yang dapat menyumbang kepada masyarakat dan organisasi. Kursus ini diambil oleh pelajar setelah mereka mengikuti dan lulus Kursus ZZZT1052 Pembangunan Diri Bahagian I. Hasil Kursus Pembangunan Diri II ialah: • •

Pelajar berupaya mengaplikasikan kemahiran berkomunikasi dengan berkesan dalam pelbagai situasi Pelajar berupaya mengaplikasikan kemahiran berfikir secara kritis dan dapat menyelesaikan masalah menggunakan pendekatan saintifik

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•

Pelajar berkebolehan mengaplikasikan kemahiran kepimpinan dalam memimpin diri sendiri dan orang lain serta mampu bekerja secara berpasukan. Pelajar berkebolehan mengaplikasikan kemahiran pengurusan maklumat dan menjadikan proses pembelajaran sepanjang hayat sebagai cara pembelajaran mereka.

•

Perancangan kuliah berdasarkan 14 minggu pengajaran seperti jadual di bawah: Minggu

Topik

1

Kaedah Pelaksanaan Projek Persetujuan antara Penyelia dan Pelajar

2

Kaedah Pelaksanaan Projek

3

Kajian Lapangan &Laporan kemajuan 2

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Kajian Lapangan & Laporan kemajuan 3

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Kajian Lapangan & Laporan kemajuan 4

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Kajian Lapangan & Laporan kemajuan 5

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Kajian Lapangan & Laporan kemajuan 6

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Kajian Lapangan & Laporan kemajuan 7

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Kajian Lapangan & Laporan kemajuan 8

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Kajian Lapangan & Laporan kemajuan 9

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Kajian Lapangan & Laporan kemajuan 10

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Kajian Lapangan & Laporan kemajuan 11

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Rumusan bersama pelajar

14

Penilaian bersama pensyarah

Untuk mencapai hasil pembelajaran kursus, penilaian kursus adalah seperti jadual di bawah: Komponen Penilaian

Peratusan

Kemahiran Berkomunikasi

25%

Kemahiran Pengurusan Maklumat & Pengajaran Sepanjang Hayat

25%

Kemahiran Pemikiran Kritikal, Penyelesaian Masalah & Pendekatan Saintifik

25%

Kemahiran Kepimpinan & Kerja Berpasukan

25%

Jumlah

100%

SOROTAN LITERATUR: AKTIVITI SUKARELAWAN DAN ZOOLOGI Bidang sains zoologi merupakan salah satu cabang dari disiplin biologi. Zoologi adalah bidang sains yang merangkumi struktur, fungsi, tingkah laku serta perkembangan evolusi haiwan. Kajian perpustakaan ini memberikan rumusan ringkas mengaitkan pengalaman dan pengetahuan sains pelajar mengenai zoologi ketika mereka menjadi sukarelawan zoo. Sorotan perpustakaan ini dijadikan sebagai bahan sokongan akademik kepada kajian kes yang melibatkan pelajar tahun satu menjalani khidmat sukarelawan di zoo. Segala aktiviti sukarelawan pelajar adalah berkaitan dengan service learning projek sebuah kursus wajib universiti yang sedang mereka ikuti. Pelopor terkemuka dalam bidang pengajaran dan pembelajaran Dewey (1944) menekankan kepentingan berinteraksi dan bekerja bersama masyarakat sebagai peluang meningkatkan pengalaman pembelajaran sebenar dalam membina jati diri dan sahsiah seorang pelajar. Pandangan ini mendasari banyak kajian-kajian lain yang membuktikan kelebihan mengintegrasikan service learning atau aktiviti berunsurkan khidmat masyarakat dalam kursus-kursus akademik. Inovasi pengajaran dan pembelajaran ini telah membuahkan hasil pembelajaran yang amat positif. Sebagai contoh, satu kajian yang dijalankan di Amerika Syarikat oleh Asrin et al (2000) mendapati pengajaran dan pembelajaran berkonsepkan service learning memberikan impak positif kepada pencapaian akademik, © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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tanggungjawab sivik dan pelbagai kemahiran sosial para pelajar. Dalam pembelajaran berkonsepkan service learning, aktiviti berbentuk refleksi menjadi sangat penting kerana ia merupakan rekod catatan peribadi pelajar mengenai perubahan atau peningkatan pemikiran, emosi dan tingkah laku mereka semasa menjalani aktiviti service learning tersebut. Sesuai dengan tren pengajaran dan pembelajaran (p & p) terkini, p & p dalam dunia sains juga sudah lebih terarah kepada pembelajaran secara lapangan atau ‘turun padang’. Sehubungan dengan itu, lawatan ke zoo menurut banyak kajian boleh mengaitkan sains dan kehidupan secara langsung, menjadikan pembelajaran para pelajar lebih bermakna, dan kondusif (Lind, 1995). Sementara itu, Johnson (2003) pula menegaskan bahawa aktiviti berkaitan dengan projek kuliah seperti bekerja sebagai sukarelawan di zoo merupakan salah satu cara terbaik untuk memberikan peluang kepada pelajar mempelajari tentang kehidupan alam haiwan dan pada waktu yang sama memberi ruang kepada mereka mempraktikkan pelbagai kemahiran sosial. Namun tidak dinafikan, dalam menyediakan para sukarelawan bekerja menguruskan pelbagai jenis haiwan di zoo, latihan untuk para sukarelawan perlu disediakan. Setaraf dengan kualiti pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang tinggi dan bermakna, menyediakan model atau kid sukarelawan juga adalah agak mencabar dan bersifat kompleks. Ini adalah kerana para sukarelawan di zoo perlu didedahkan terlebih dahulu dengan pelbagai ilmu dan kemahiran berkaitan seperti teknik mengendalikan haiwan, ilmu tentang protokal kecemasan, pendedahan keseluruhan aspek keselamatan dan banyak lagi. Faktor kewangan juga menjadi isu besar kerana latihan sukarelawan yang terbaik memerlukan kos pengurusan yang tinggi. Kajian Bailey dan Bailey (2001) menerangkan bahawa terdapat pelbagai kemahiran penting yang perlu diberi keutamaan apabila dikaitkan dengan pengendalian dan latihan bekerja dengan haiwan liar. Bailey dan Bailey (2001) menegaskan bahawa kebanyakan haiwan liar mempunyai sikap ‘zero tolerance’ kepada ‘ketidakcekapan’ dalam pengendalian kerja bersama binatang. Para sukarelawan bila terlibat dalam aktiviti membuat demonstrasi menggunakan burung helang sebagai contoh, sangat memerlukan kemahiran kecekapan membaca emosi haiwan dan kepantasan bertindak. Aktiviti demonstrasi menggunakan burung helang sangat jauh berbeza berbanding dengan aktiviti demonstrasi dengan binatang jinak. Sehubungan dengan itu, para sukarelawan di kalangan pelajar apabila bekerja di zoo perlu peka dan jelas tentang bagaimana mereka perlu bersedia untuk berinteraksi dan bertindak pantas dengan haiwan liar. Bagi kebanyakan orang awam, lawatan ke zoo pula adalah semata-mata lawatan atau peluang menghabiskan masa bersama-sama keluarga dan rakan-rakan. Suasana bersantai-santai seperti ini boleh mempengaruhi cara minda berfikir terutama tentang pembelajaran - mungkin motivasi untuk belajar tentang kehidupan liar bukanlah isu yang paling diutamakan ketika membuat lawatan ke zoo. Namun demikian, corak pemikiran seperti ini sudah mula berubah secara beransur-ansur daripada pemikiran konsep lama iaitu zoo sebagai ‘animal exhibition’ ke konsep terkini iaitu zoo sebagai tempat ‘conservation education’ (AZA, 2008). Persatuan Zoo dan Aquarium (AZA, 2008) mencatatkan pertambahan mendadak iaitu hampir 600 juta orang di seluruh dunia telah membuat lawatan ke zoo. Pertambahan minat orang ramai ke zoo secara tidak langsung, membuka ruang kepada pelawat zoo supaya didedahkan kepada ruang pembelajaran mengenai pemuliharaan binatang liar. Di samping itu, pendedahan aktiviti sukarelawan secara intensif perlu dibuat oleh pihak zoo. Pihak zoo juga perlu sentiasa bersikap proaktif dalam melakarkan jenis-jenis program latihan atau inisiatif pembelajaran demi menarik minat dan motivasi para pelawat zoo dan sukarelawan yang datang dari pelbagai latar belakang. Summers (2004) merangka dua kriteria penting dalam pembelajaran sains ketika membuat lawatan ke zoo. Kriteria yang dikenal pasti adalah seperti berikut: • •

Tenaga pengajar perlu terlebih dahulu menyediakan soalan-soalan penting dan berkaitan bagi membantu para pelajar fokus kepada elemen pembelajaran interaktif di zoo. Pelajar pula perlu diberikan tugasan seperti membuat pemerhatian, merekod, membuat inkuari dan sebagainya disamping melakukan pemerhatian dan pembelajaran yang berstruktur.

Menyokong kepada saranan Summers (2004), kajian Trainin et al (2005) menyatakan bahawa segala aktiviti semasa lawatan di zoo termasuk pemerhatian, penjagaan haiwan, merekod, menemubual dan lain-lain adalah untuk memupuk motivasi dan menanamkan minat lebih dalam pembelajaran mengenai dunia haiwan. Davidson et al (2010) mengingatkan kepentingan tujuan utama lawatan ke zoo adalah dengan sentiasa mengaitkannya dengan kurikulum pelajaran. Untuk bekerja secara berkumpulan, kajian Davidson et el (2010) juga menegaskan bahawa amatlah penting pelajar diberi ruang untuk memilih rakan sepasukan kerana strategi ini akan menggalakkan semangat pasukan yang jitu di samping memudahkan interaksi sosial di kalangan ahli kumpulan itu sendiri.

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HASIL KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Bahagian ini membincangkan dan menghuraikan hasil kajian dari penelitian refleksi yang direkodkan oleh pelajar setelah mereka menjalani aktiviti khidmat masyarakat di Zoo Negara Malaysia. Data berbentuk kualitatif diambil dari pembentangan lisan pelajar dan dibandingkan dengan hasil penulisan laporan kumpulan para pelajar. Seramai 20 pelajar UKM terlibat dalam projek kerja sukarela di Zoo Negara Malaysia. Mereka bergerak dalam tiga kumpulan dan setiap kumpulan dianggotai oleh sepuluh ahli. Kesemua pelajar yang menyertai projek kerja sukarela di zoo ini adalah pelajar tahun satu dari Fakulti Ekonomi dan Pengurusan dan Fakulti Undang-Undang. Idea dan hasrat untuk membuat projek berbentuk khidmat masyarakat di zoo adalah idea pelajar sendiri. Konsep menggunakan idea pelajar sendiri adalah bertepatan dengan falsafah pengajaran dan pembelajaran berpusatkan pelajar di mana pelajar sendiri mengemukakan dan melaksanakan projek berdasarkan minat dan motivasi mereka. Mereka memilih untuk menjalani khidmat masyarakat berkaitan dengan haiwan kerana mereka melihat projek ini sebagai satu ruang untuk keluar berinteraksi dengan alam sekeliling disamping mereka berpeluang untuk mendalami ilmu berkaitan zoologi. Strategi ini adalah bertepatan dengan saranan dari kajian Davidson et al (2010) agar pelajar diberi ‘kuasa’ untuk memilih ahli mereka dan menggunakan idea sendiri untuk melakukan projek khidmat masyarakat. Hasil dari pengumpulan maklumat kualitatif dari pembentangan lisan, refleksi dan laporan penulisan pelajar, didapati pelajar UKM sangat terkesan dengan pengalaman mereka berinteraksi dengan haiwan di zoo. Projek khidmat masyarakat yang dilakukan mereka melalui projek kerja sukarela telah menjadikan kumpulan pelajar UKM lebih peka dan terbuka minda mengenai kepentingan kehadiran haiwan dalam ekosistem kehidupan manusia. Aktiviti ini berkesan meningkatkan kemahiran insaniah Kemahiran Sosial dan Kebertanggungjawaban, Kemahiran Pengurusan dan Keusahawanan, Kemahiran Kepimpinan dan Kerja Berpasukan, Kemahiran Pemikiran Kritikal, Penyelesaian Masalah dan Pendekatan Saintifik, Kemahiran Nilai, Sikap. Etika dan Profesionalisme dan Kemahiran Komunikasi. Di samping kemahiran insaniah pelajar meningkat, pada masa yang sama juga berlaku peningkatan pengetahuan sains pelajar ini dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian penting iaitu a)pengetahuan sains berkaitan dengan emosi dan perasaan dan b) pengetahuan sains berkaitan dengan tingkah laku dan tabiat. Jadual 1- Pengetahuan Sains mengenai Haiwan Liar – Emosi

Pengetahuan Sains: Emosi dan Perasaan

•

Memberi kesedaran kepentingan utk memelihara haiwan liarmemberi penjagaan rapi/memberi perhatian/memupuk sifat kasih sayang

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Memupuk semangat kerjasama-memastikan kebersihan tempat tinggal/pemakanan dijaga dgn sistematik

•

Pengalaman membersih kawasan kehidupan liar-dpt mendekatkan utk memahami perasaan takut, cemas, gembira ketika mengendalikan haiwan2

•

Belajar bersabar dlm menjalankan tugasan pembersihan yg perlukan kekuatan mental/fizikal supaya ketakutan/kepayahan dpt diatasi

•

Menerapkan rasa tanggungjawab terhadap amanah/menerima tugasan dgn hati terbuka

Jadual 2 - Pengetahuan Sains mengenai Haiwan Liar: Tingkah laku

Pengetahuan Sains: Tabiat dan Tingkah Laku

•

Binatang menjadi ‘ganas’ apabila mereka lapar-jadual memberi makan penting

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Perlukan teknik tertentu untuk mengelak cedera kerana haiwan ganas apabila lapar

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Pihak zoo memberi khidmat rawatan kepada binatang

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Pelbagai jenis haiwan, pelbagai ragam

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Pengurusan haiwan liar dengan cara betul

Dapatan dari refleksi pelajar secara keseluruhannya menunjukkan pelajar merasakan pengalaman melakukan kerja sukarela projek di zoo memberikan impak yang positif kepada pengetahuan sains mereka. Kebanyakan pelajar melihat peranan zoo sebagai pusat kesedaran atau pusat penyelidikan mengenai ‘animal conservation’ © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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dan zoo hanya bukan sekadar berperanan sebagai ‘animal exhibition center’. Aktiviti ini mendedahkan pelajar kepada kemahiran inasaniah iaitu Kemahiran Sosial dan kebertanggungjawaban dan Kemahiran Nilai, Sikap. Etika dan Profesionalisme. Dari pembentangan lisan, pelajar mengakui bahawa dengan adanya ilmu dan kajian terkini mengenai alam haiwan boleh membantu mengawal kepupusan atau ‘kehilangan’ haiwan liar dari mukabumi. Ini menunjukkan pendedahan melalui projek kerja sukarela ini, pengetahuan sains pelajar sebanyak sedikit telah membantu pelajar berfikir secara matang tentang kepentingan kehadiran haiwan-haiwan ini sebagai sebahagian dari ekosistem kehidupan manusia. Keberadaan haiwan-haiwan di dunia sebenarnya adalah untuk memberikan keseimbangan kehidupan manusia. Aktiviti ini mendedahkan kepada pelajar Kemahiran Kepimpinan dan Kerja Berpasukan dan Kemahiran Komunikasi Pelajar dalam projek kerja sukarela ini berjaya mengaitkan pemerhatian mereka dengan kepelbagaian ragam dan tabiat binatang. Seperti manusia, haiwan juga mempunyai tabiat dan tingkah laku mereka yang tersendiri. Ada haiwan yang bersifat pemalu, ada yang suka mendekati manusia, ada haiwan yang suka bersendirian dan ada haiwan yang bergerak dalam kumpulan masing-masing. Namun kesemua haiwan di zoo akan menunjukkan sikap yang agresif jika mereka lapar. Justru itu, mematuhi jadual pemakanan mereka adalah penting. aktiviti ini mendedahkan pelajar kepada kemahiran Kemahiran Sosial dan kebertanggungjawaban. Antara aktiviti yang pelajar lakukan dalam khidmat masyarakat di zoo adalah kerja-kerja pembersihan kandang-kandang binatang. Ada juga kumpulan yang dipertanggungjawabkan untuk memberi makan kepada binatang. Ini adalah pengalaman yang paling baru bagi kesemua pelajar Melayu yang terlibat. Pengalaman membersihkan kandang-kandang binatang ini memberikan dimensi emosi kepada pelajar. Mereka mengaitkan kepentingan kebersihan tempat tinggal binatang dengan penjagaan kesihatan haiwan. Pembersihan dan penjagaan kandang ini adalah untuk mengelakkan penyakit berjangkit di kalangan haiwan-haiwan tersebut. Hidup di tempat terkurung seperti kandang-kandang ini membataskan pergerakan semulajadi haiwan berbeza. Segala pergerakan terbatas ini membuatkan segala kehidupan haiwan ini agak bergantung kepada manusia justru itu, tanggungjawab perlu dilaksanakan sebaik mungkin. Terdapat pelbagai pengajaran yang para pelajar dapati selepas membuat kerja-kerja khidmat masyarakat di zoo. Pelajar merasai membuat kerja-kerja kotor dan menjijikkan tapi segala kerja-kerja pembersihan ini berjaya menanamkan nilai-nilai murni seperti sikap sabar dan mengawal rasa jijik dan tidak selesa terhadap bau-bau yang tidak menyenangkan. Para sukarelawan pelajar belajar untuk keluar dari zon selesa mereka dan berani mencabar diri mereka membuat kerja-kerja yang terpaksa bergelumbang dengan najis dan kotoran. Aktiviti ini mendedahkan kepada pelajar mengenai Kemahiran Sosial dan kebertanggungjawaban, Kemahiran Kepimpinan dan Kerja Berpasukan, Kemahiran Pemikiran Kritikal, Penyelesaian Masalah dan Pendekatan Saintifik, Kemahiran Nilai, Sikap. Etika dan Profesionalisme dan Kemahiran Komunikasi Seperti manusia, haiwan juga mempunyai tingkah laku yang pelbagai. Melalui refleksi pelajar mereka mendapati setiap haiwan-haiwan ini adalah unik dan mempunyai perangai dan ragam yang tertentu. Pengamatan pelajar menunjukkan mereka memahami sebahagian dari bidang zoologi iaitu mengenalpasti tingkah-laku haiwan walaupun tidak secara mendalam. Sebagai contoh, seorang pelajar mendedahkan bahawa semasa beliau mengendalikan demonstrasi seekor burung helang untuk pelawat zoo, beliau terperanjat dengan tingkahlaku burung tersebut yang pada mulanya menunjukkan sifat jinak bertukar menjadi agak aggresif apabila tidak diberikan makanan (ganjaran) dengan cepat selepas ia selesai dengan demonstrasi tersebut. Berbeza dengan sifat burung helang tadi, kumpulan pelajar mendapati binatang seperti zirafah adalah haiwan yang mudah mesra dan tidak takut dengan manusia. Zirafah digambarkan sebagai haiwan liar yang agak ‘lembut’ dan ‘manja’ suka dibelai-belai. Manakala haiwan seperti tapir digambarkan sebagai haiwan yang pemalu dan suka bersendirian. Tapir menandakan sempadan ‘tempatnya’ dengan air kencingnya. Sungguhpun saiz tapir agak besar, ia akan melarikan diri dengan cepat apabila terasa terancam. Tapir adalah haiwan liar yang suka mandi justru itu ia sentiasa tinggal di kawasan yang berdekatan dengan air. Pengalaman mereka ini menunjukkan mereka dapat mengaplikasikan kemahiran Kemahiran Pemikiran Kritikal, Penyelesaian Masalah dan Pendekatan Saintifik, Kemahiran Nilai, Sikap. Etika dan Profesionalisme dan Kemahiran Pengurusan Maklumat dan Pembelajaran Sepanjang.

KESIMPULAN Kertas kerja ini mengikuti pengalaman pelajar Melayu berinteraksi dengan alam haiwan melalui kerja sukarela mereka dan mendapati pelajar-pelajar ini menunjukkan peningkatan dalam kemahiran insaniah mereka seperti Kemahiran Sosial dan kebertanggungjawaban, Kemahiran Kreatif dan Inovatif, Kemahiran Pengurusan dan Keusahawanan, Kemahiran Kepimpinan dan Kerja Berpasukan, Kemahiran Pemikiran Kritikal, Penyelesaian

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Masalah dan Pendekatan Saintifik, Kemahiran Nilai, Sikap. Etika dan Profesionalisme, Kemahiran Pengurusan Maklumat dan Pembelajaran Sepanjang Hayat dan Kemahiran Komunikasi. Melalui pendedahan pengalaman khidmat masyarakat di zoo ini, pelajar dapat meneliti tabiat dan tingkah laku binatang. Mereka mendapati haiwan liar juga mempunyai emosi seperti manusia dan mereka peka dengan perubahan emosi haiwan liar ini. Seperti manusia, haiwan liar juga memerlukan ‘tempat kediaman’ yang selesa dan bersih dan ini menjadi tanggungjawab manusia untuk memastikan ini. Di samping itu, kajian ini merakamkan pengalaman pelajar UKM dalam mengolah pengetahuan sains mereka tentang kepentingan kehadiran haiwan dalam ekosistem kehidupan manusia.

RUJUKAN AZA. (2008). The accreditation standards and related policies. http://www.aza.orf/accreditation/documents/ accredstandpol.pdf. Retrieved April 2, 2013. Bailey, M. B. and Bailey, R. (2001). Trans-Species Training Classes: Discrimination Class Information and Manuals. Hot Springs, Arkansas: Eclectic Science Productions. Davidson, S. K., Passmore, C., and Anderson, D. (2010). Learning on zoo trips: The interaction of the agendas and practices of students, teachers and zoo educators. Science Education, 94(1), 122-142 Haines, Sarah. (2011). Pre-service ‘edzoocation’: Strengthening teacher education with civic engagement and community partnerships. Journal for Civic Commitment. 2-17. Hancocks, D. (2001). A Different Nature: The Papradoxical World of Zoos and their Uncertain Future. Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. Lai, Ching-San. (2012). A study of informal science learning at Taipei Zoo. The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, 8(2), 91-97 Summers, S. (2004). Museums as resources for science teachers. Science Scope, 27(9), 28-29. Trainin, G., Wilson, K., Wickless, M., and Brooks, D. (2005). Extraordinary animals and expository writing: Zoo in the classroom. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 14(3), 299-304 Tygielski, Susanne. (2005). Barriers to Live Animal Handling Training for Zoo Volunteers. Unpublished Thesis. Doctor of Education. Faculty of Teaching and Teacher Education Department. University of Arizona.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

STUDENT POLITICAL INVOLVEMENT IN THE 13TH MALAYSIAN GENERAL ELECTION : A CASE STUDY AMONG STUDENTS OF PUBLIV UNIVERSITY IN KLANG VALLEY Nur Afzan Ab Khalid* & Shaharuddin Badaruddin *[email protected] Universiti Teknologi Mara(UITM)

Abstract Student and politic, this topic has been much debated for some time and there are many different views and thoughts on whether student should be allowed to take part in politics or not.Student political involvement is related with Student Movement. Student Movement has played a crucial role in many major social and political transformations. The purpose of this study is to analyze the student political involvement in the 13th Malaysian General Election. The development of student activism in Malaysia political landscape after the amendment of Universities and College Universities Act 1971.In addition, the researcher goal is to identify the factors contributing to student involvement in politics and general election.And how student political involvement gives impact to the social development in Malaysia. Moreover, how these involvement of students can affect the political future and social issues in the short term and long-term perspectives. Keywords: student, political involvement, The 13th Malaysian General Election, student movement, public university

INTRODUCTION Aristotle once described the study of politics as the “Master Science.”1 He stated that politic is studying the interactions of human beings within the confines of political life encompassed the study of practically everything. Politic covers all aspect of life the political, economic, and cultural. According to Buhlmann et. al (2008), democracy is that the people have the right to determine who govern them. Three fundamental principles highlighted by Buhlmann are freedom, equality, and control.Word democracy is “a system of government by which political sovereignty is retained by the people and exercised directly by the citizens2. Based on the definition, Democracy is inclusive and accessible and from the people to the people. Democracy simply cannot work without mass political involvement or participation.(Larry 2008). The word democracy derives from the two Greeks words ;demos ( The People) and Kratos ( To Rule). ( Steven L. Taylor 2012). Webster’s Dictionary defines democracy as ‘ a government by the people either directly or through elected representatives rule by the ruled’. Basically , democracies mean political powers in the hands of the people.There are many forms of political involvement or participation such as voting in election,campaign &

1)  30-Second Politics by Steve L. Taylor 2) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/democracy Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

election activities, seeking information about political knowledge, protest , civil disobedience and violence. (Process of American Democracy). Student political involvement and democracy are related with Student Movement. Student Movement has played a crucial role in many major social and political transformations. Beside that student movement around the part of world has been part of various movements to promote democracy and human rights3. According to the article ‘The Philippine Student Movement’ written by Maricris Valte, the student movement is one radical movement that has perhaps captured the imagination of most youth activist. The most characterized by the highest degree of commitment, idealism, and identification with the less privileged classes. Examples where youth and students had played a significant role in effecting social transformation , Nikolai Bukhavin of the Russian Bolshevik Party and Fidel Castro of Cuba where student and youth leader at the time when they got involved in the great social upheavals that changed the course of their respective countries. History of student movement around the world started at the University California at Berkeley in 1964 where the student defended their rights to participate in politics and in particular, to protest against the Vietnam War and few years later The Berkeley Model was copied at Berlin University and it birth of student revolutionaries.4 Other historical event such as The Korean War in 1950, The French Revolution of 1968 , Japan Student Movement and The Philippine Student Movement . All these are the rise of international student movement. Political involvement is used to refer to both political participation and political Engagement. According to Astin's Theory of Student Involvement (1984), that defines involvement as, "the investment of physical and psychological energy." Both political participation (physical energy) and political engagement (psychological energy) are possible outcomes of the student experience. Diemer (2012) referred to political participation as an ‘engagement’ with traditional mechanism in the political system, such as voting in elections and joining political organization. Katherine (2008) political involvement can take the form of electoral and campaign behaviors, political voice activities and attentiveness to current issues and political view. Today, students more interested in political issues and some of them actively participation in politics and refer to Young (2004), students are more positive attitudes about politics than in the past. Politically engaged youth are likely to continue political participation as adults ( Flanagan 2009, P Latzar 2002,Wattenberg (2008) .Based on studies by Flanagan (2009 ) and Wattenberg (2008) increasing political engagement among college students may lay the groundwork for increase in the size of the pool of active adult citizens and may shape future trends in American political participation. Students involvement in politic shown that the students nowadays are more aware of democracy and human rights. Students in the higher learning institution are a group of educated youth.As a group of educated youth their poltical involvement will play important role to change the Malaysia’s political scenarios. Hence , this study is to analyze the student political involvement in 13th General Election. The development of student activism in Malaysia political landscape after the amendment of Universities and College Universities Act 1971. In addition, the researcher goal is to identify the factors contributing to student involvement in politics and general election. And how student political involvement gives impact to the social development in Malaysia. Moreover, how these involvement of students can affect the political future and social issues in the short term and long-term perspectives.

THE HISTORY OF STUDENT MOVEMENT/ ACTIVISIM IN MALAYSIA The student movement in Malaysia has it beginning in early 1930, teacher trainees from the Sultan Idris training College recognized the Kesatuan Melayu Muda or KMM (Young Malay Union) which opposed British Colonialism and desired independence.5 Thus, university student were actively involved in the struggle for independence. In 1949 University Malaya (UM) students formed the first club-Socialist Club and in that year also UM students and journalist joined the anti –colonial movement. And around began 1967 is regarded as the transition year for the student movement. As students began to raise vital issues relating to the lives of the people. Example in the historic Telok Gong landless squatter struggle, both the University of Malays Students Union (UMSU) and the University of Malaya Malay Language Society (PBMUM) were directly involved.6 The Telok Gong struggle began as a struggle by poor landless peasants to obtain land. Other important issue raised in 1969 The University Malaya Student Union (UMSU) held public rallies before election. Democracy, justice, freedom, better economic policy and national educational policy 3) www.freemalaysiatoday/category/opinion/2012/10/04/power_of_student_activism 4) www.freemalaysiatoday/category/opinion/2012/10/04/power_of_student_activism 5)  Information Taken From ‘The Student Movement in Malaysia 1967-1974’ By Hassan Karim 6)  Information Taken From ‘The Student Movement in Malaysia 1967-1974’ By Hassan Karim

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were demanded in their manifesto. UMSU at that time led by Anwar Ibrahim played important role to make Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman step down and UMSU president detained. Historical event of student movement in Malaysia in year 1971 where a massive demonstration of 200 students was held outside campus to protest against the implementation of the University Act. Student protested within campus in 1971-1973.Due to the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Union in 1968 was met with widespread international opposition. In 1973, the student of the University of Malaya joined the protest outside the Soviet Embassy in Kuala Lumpur. It was first demonstration by the students outside the campus and it became historic event. The events outside the country contributed to increasing political awareness amongst student . Other international issues, example the revolt of French students against De Ganlle. The event had a big impact on students all over the world.1971, the oppression of Muslims in Pattani was championed as was the Palestinian issues in 1976. We can conclude events outside the country contributed to increasing political awareness amongst student. However, existence of University and University College Acts (AUKU OR UCCA) was first implement in 1971 to control and weaken student organization, thus controlling student movement and the growth of political elite. In 1975, a new amendment on the University College Act was introduced and all student organization dissolved. Under Section 15 of the UUCA 1971, university students are not allowed to form an alliance, supports, empathize with, or oppose any political party, labor union or any organization or group without prior permission from the university vice – chancellor. After 20 years on 17th Sepetember 1998, Malaysia Youth & Student Democratic Movement ( DEMA) was formed . It consists of a group of students from various universities who were responsible for presenting the effects of globalization on the youth and student movement in Malaysia – DEMA. The arrest of Anwar Ibrahim led to a new wave of student movement. The opposition fervor spilled over onto local campuses as “antiestablishment” students took control of their student representative councils from 1999 to 2004- The Star However after 40 years, on Oct 31 2011, the Court of Appeal set aside the decision of the High Court, declaring that Section 15 (5) of the UCCA as unconstitutional as it violated Article 10 of the Federal Constitution. The government amends of Section 15 of the Universities and University Colleges Act (UCCA) 1971, to allow students aged 21 and above to be involved in politics.

THE 13TH MALAYSIAN GENERAL ELECTION Malaysia’s 13th General Election was held on 5th May 2013. According to recent statistic , in the 13th Malaysian General Election 30% of the 13.3 million registered voters were young voters.Also according to Election Commission , there are 450,000 people turning 21 each year. In 2013 the Election Commision has registerd 2.4 million new voters.From the statistic it showed increased trend of youth participation in election process. After the government amends of the Section 15 of the Universites and University College Act (UCCA) 1971 , to allow students aged 21 and above to be involved in politics. So this study is important to analyze the trend of student political involvement in the 13th Malaysian General Election and to identify factor contributing to it and to answer the emergence of student activist among student of public universities in Malaysia. (http:// hornbillunleashed .wordpress.com/2013)

METHODOLOGY This study will uses cross- sectional survey of the respondent in order to to answer a research questions. Sources of data such as primary data ( questionanires and interview) and secondary data. Questionnaires will personally self- adminitered and using interval scale- five point likert scale.For the interview both structured and unstructured such as opened ended questions, has a list of questions to be asked to the respondents and will be conducted face to face. Interview with student activist.Sample size is 500.Sampling technique will uses purposive sampling to obtain info from specific targets groups.This target group is refer to students in the public university in Klang Valley, 21 years old and above and eligible / potential voters.Public University in Klang Valley such as Universiti Teknologi Mara (UITM), Universiti Malaya (UM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) , Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) , Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia (UIA) and Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM).

SIGNIFICANT OF STUDY This study hope to provide a deeper understanding of student political involvement in 13th Malaysian General Election and what is a key factor that contributing to the student political involvement in current © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Malaysia political scenerio and in election process. Not only that it will analysis of the significance of recent trends towards increased participation in politics.

CONCLUSION Young people are the future of democracy. As a youth and a future leader student political involvement play important role to the country. Students as political actors and play their own roles and idealism in political transformation. This because politics cover all aspect of politics, economic and social. Looking at the development of student activism in the country from 1930 until now and it has changed the country political climate. Example issue of student activist Adam Adli has been suspended from university for three semesters because of his offence, pulling down a picture of Prime Minister during a student protest march in 2011. Other issue four student of University Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) are charged under AUKU for observing the Hulu Selangor by –election. These issues got attention from both government and society. After the Court of Appeal set aside the decision of the High Court, declaring that Section 15 (5) of the UCCA as unconstitutional as it violated Article 10 of the Federal Constitution. The government amends of Section 15 of the Universities and University Colleges Act (UCCA) 1971, to allow students aged 21 and above to be involved in politics. However, some restriction still imposed to ensure university and college as intellectual institution not influenced by any political ideologies. In the context of Malaysia scenario these student activists have emerged in the last few years. Student activist such as Adam Adli, Safwan Anang, (K. S) Bawani and other student activists participate or event mount protest to speak up against various issues.There are radical and vocal to raise the national awareness. On December 17, 2012 about 100 undergraduates marched to UMNO’s headquarters. Up to 17 were arrested, and several were beaten. 7 Refer to the article by Anthony Kuhn ‘ In Malaysia , Student Challenges Limits on Politics’ his mention about Adam Adli is one of these student activist , and is becoming a prominent political figure as he fights to abolish a 40-year-old law that bars students from participating in politics. Adam as student activist slams the act as an attempt to stifle free speech and impose conformity on students. Other issues raised after the amenment of UCCA and the 13th Malaysian General Election such as student activist have continued to be arrested and brought to court for joining in rallies and protest for electoral reform. Two student activists in July 2013 have been charged with breaching The Peaceful Assembly Act (PAA) in relation to PR’s final “ Black 505” rallies to protest election results. Student and politics is still an assertion subject to debate. So this research hope to provide answer to recent scenerio of Malaysia’s political landscape. This because youth or students nowadays what we called as ‘ Gen Y’ are more independent, critical thinking, vocal, radical sometimes and has their own idealism and as future leader to the country. History also proved that student movement as a crucial role in many major social and political transformations. According to Analyst Ibrahim Suffian of the Merdeka Center said that there is every chance that today’s activist could be the main political stage in 10 years.(What Drives These Young Malay Political Activists, 2013).

REFERENCES Anthony Kuhn. (2012). In Malaysia Student Challenges Limits on Politics. www.npr.org/2012/01/19/145399842/ in-malaysia-student-challenges-limits-on politics by Anthony Kuhn Astin , A. (1984). Student Involvement : A Developmental Theory of Higher Education Journal of College Student Development (cited) Buhlmann et al. (2008).Hertie School of Governance Working Papers,No.22, April 2008. Diemer, M. A. (2012). Fostering marginalized youths’ political participation: Longitudinal roles of parental political socialization and youth sociopolitical development. American Journal of Community Psychology, Epub ahead of print, doi: 10.1007/s10464-012-9495-9 Flanagan, C. (2009). Young people’s civic engagement and political development. In A. Furlong (Ed.), Handbook of youth and young adulthood: New perspectives and agendas (293–300). New York, NY: Routledge PDF Retrieved Hassan Karim. The Student Movement in Malaysia 1967- 1974- Article online Katherine R. Bryant Wilso. (2008): A Case study of College Student Political Involvement. PDF Retrived 7)  Malaysia Freedom in the World 2012 (www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2012/malaysia)

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Larry Berman Bruce Allen Murphy. (2008). Second Edition. Approaching Democracy Portfolio Edition Malaysia Freedom in the World 2012. www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2012/malaysia Mohd Farhan Darwis. (2013). What Drives These Young Malays Political Activist. June 28. Najib Razak. (2012). Transformasi Politik. Institut Terjemahan & Buku Malaysia. New Straits Times website on 25 Nov 2011 http://idealis-mahasiswa.tripod.com/artikel-harian/jan2002/11jan02.html www.freemalaysiatoday/category/opinion/2012/10/04/power_of_student_activism/ Steven L. Taylor. (2013). 30- Second Politics. UK Icon Books Ltd. Maricris Valte-The Philipine Student Movement Wattenberg, M. P. (2008). Is voting for young people? New York, NY: Pearson Longman Young, J. (2004, January 30). Students' political awareness hits highest level in a decade. Chronicle o fHigher Education, A30-A32 Youth, Politics & Election in Malaysia. (November 16, 2013) http://hornbillunleashed.wordpress.com/2013) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/democracy

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

FACTORS INFLUENCING UNDERGRADUATE STUDENS’ INTENTION TO USE MOBILE APPLICATION AT UITM KAMPUS BANDARAYA MELAKA Norlela Mahat*, Wan Hasmat Wan Hasan, Ummi Kalsum Hassian, Mohd Sufian Ab Kadir & Afzan Nor Talib *[email protected] University Teknologi MARA (Melaka)

Abstract Nowadays, the usage of mobile application at Malaysia is increasing every year. Mobile applications widely use in several areas such as business, education, entertainment, services and others. It has several applications available in desktops or other electronic devices. Growth of technology especially in mobile application brings big changes and challenges for consumers. This research will find out the reasons behinds the trend of downloading mobile applications derived from advertising, campaign and social network. The factors will be influence the intention consuming of mobile application among students such as ability or usefulness of services, performance of an application and enjoyment using the services. The students said that, the smarter and more entertainment will definitely drive them to craze for a certain mobile app. The finding also indicates that the students frequent use of the mobile application also depend on the usefulness of the applications. Several recommendations have been proposed to enhance the development and implementation of mobile app among students more ethical in future. Keywords: mobile application, intention, usefulness, ease of use,enjoyment

INTRODUCTION Mobile application or mobile app is application software that operates on mobile device like smartphone or tablet. The mobile apps usually have the same function as what available on PCs, only the version has limited function (Techopedia, n.d). The apps can be purchased from the online store like iOS app store, Google Play, Blackberry World and Windows Phone Store. Sager (2012) stated that mobile apps initially appeared on the first smart phone created by IBM. The apps offered include email, calculator, calendar, clock, game and predictive text. The apps then move on to the next stage when the first iPhone is installed with apps like Maps and Weather. A year later, Apple introduces the App Store for iPhone and the action followed by Google who launched Android Market on2008. At that time, HTC Dream became the first phone that use Android platform (Neolane, 2012). Recently, an event that was held on September 2013 called those who interested in developing mobile apps to join the Malaysian Developers’ Day competition. The main purpose of the event was to found out the local talent on that area and then to compete with other developers across the world (News Straits Times, 2013). In Malaysia itself, the statistics released by Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (2012) shows that people mostly download about 10 to 20 apps and some of them even downloaded about 100 apps. Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

The apps that common to the users are mostly related to short messaging system (SMS), instant messaging and free Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP). The report also stated that people are promptly to check out their mobile apps weekly. The growth of technology brings big changes in term of capabilities between the classic mobile phones and also the Smartphone’s (Tariq Rahim & Muhammad Sarwar 2013). From the phone that mainly use for call and text messaging, it now transform into device with wide screen and features like applications and video camera (Persaud & Azhar, 2011). Figure 1.1: The most downloaded apps according to platform

Source: The state of mobile apps, 2010

The problem of mobile apps it can cause addiction to user as a study previously done found that 83 percent has addicted to TV and movie apps and mostly women shown that they would rather not watching TV for a year rather than leave that apps alone (Planger, 2011); Brian & Hasting (2005); Griffiths, (2013). Kotenko (2011) found that nowadays there is tendency towards smartphone addiction where most of them will look for their phones first after waking up from sleep. The things that they do at that time are checking e-mail and obviously Facebook. In viewing the use of mobile apps among students, a study done by Tasir, Linggu and Harun (2011) shows students of private institution mostly use mobile application for social purpose and not education. The internet charges to use mobile apps to contact with friends were cheaper than using fixed line was one of the reasons that led to the scenario.

LITERATURE REVIEW Mobile internet The conventional wired internet has clearly make the process of searching information is easy. However, because of its limitation in term of time and places, mobile internet has been introduced so that users have mobility to go online in anytime and anywhere. Few conditions have to fulfil in order to make mobile internet is a success. The conditions are mobile devices for mobile network, contents or information and technological support like speed, communication quality and security (Cheong & Park, 2005). Generally, mobile internet is the combination of mobile communications and the internet which enable access to internet via wireless connections. It also specifically a mobile data service connected via mobile communication network (Lee, Choi, Kim & Hong, 2007). There are three characteristics of mobile internet from the perspective of user, environment and system (Chae & Kim, 2003). User’s perspective means the mobile internet provide more privacy as people are reluctant to share their phones with others. The environment of mobile internet means the mobility that it offers as it allows users to access to the internet without time and places constraints. System of mobile internet at the current time however shows that it is less productive than conventional internet due to lack in processing capabilities (Chae & Kim, 2003). The origins of mobile internet first started in Japan and Korea and later on to Europe. It begins when the young Japanese and entertainment gave the idea to the creation of micro-payment system. This idea then leads to © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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the creation of mobile internet- compatible phones with colour display, polyphonic tones, cameras, and Java programs. (Funk, 2004). In Malaysia, the rates of people using internet all the time throughout smartphones reach 68.8 per cent. From the percentage, 27.9 per cent access internet through 3G connection than Wi-Fi, 26 per cent use Wi-Fi more, 24.7 per cent connect to internet all the time using Wi-Fi and the rest choose only 3G (Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission, 2012). The internet is provided by telecommunication companies like Celcom, Digi and Maxis (Mohd Mothar et al, 2013).

Mobile apps Application according to Chou, Chiu and Ho (n.d.) is software which can either run on the Internet, computers, mobile devices or other electronic devices. Meanwhile, Yang (2013) defined mobile apps as software applications that developed according to operating system of devices like smartphones or tablets. The functions of the apps have narrowing towards providing internet on the devices, to provide information regarding to location, to track devices or anything that can be located using internet services and to give entertainment to users (Goi and Ng, 2011). According to Murphy (2011), the market of mobile apps becomes more competitive as the developers not only coming from the mobile operators but also outside developers whom taking opportunity about the rising popularity of new operating system like Android. Apps can be paid or free (Gordon, 2013). The paid one usually comes without advertising whereas the free one is with ads. The paid one not only removes the ads but there also some additional features that user can get from $0.99 to $1.99. Even though there is increasing free apps available on the apps store, it does not mean that there is no demand on paid apps. People usually paid for an app because they want to eliminate the ads and at the same time to get as many content that available.

Types of mobile apps There are three types of mobile application which are native apps, web-based apps and hybrid apps. According to Budiu (2013), native apps can be downloaded from online application store like Google Playstore . Native apps have the capability to access the software like calendar and pictures gallery and hardware like camera and GPS available on the smartphone. Due to the apps are directly installed on the device, the apps can work offline without requiring any internet connection. Mobile web apps are a bit different from native apps where it requires internet connection and only working through online. The apps are still design for smartphones and tablets but this time it does not specific for any platforms. These apps are much simple and universally accessible to all devices. In other words, mobile web apps are actually websites that can only open through devices’ browser. Here, users need to types the address of the apps first before they can use the apps (Budiu, 2013). The third types of mobile apps are hybrid apps which is actually the combination between web apps and native apps. It is an app that can be installed to the devices but to use the service will require internet connection (Campbell, 2013). Among of the examples of hybrid apps are the Facebook apps. Facebook apps can be installed in smartphones and tablet like what the native apps do (Muwahed, 2012). Other than that, apps also divided into few categories which are games and entertainment like Angry Birds, social networks like Facebook, utilities like clocks and maps, discovery like Flixster and brands like Nike (Gupta, 2013).

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE ADOPTION OF MOBILE APPS The popularity of mobile apps has led to the research on what kind of factors that influences users to adopt mobile apps. Often, the study on the adoption of new technology or information system use the theory of acceptance model that developed by Davis et al (Mimoun, Bailey & Sassi, 2013). This model suggests behavioural intention can influence the usage rate of information system. Behavioural intentions at the same are affected by perceived usefulness and attitudes toward information system. Attitudes then influenced by perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use (Mimoun, Bailey and Sassi, 2013). Due to understand a new factor that can influence to the intention to use mobile application, the factor of Perceived Enjoyment is added as user is considered to need enjoyment in every time (Sung & Yun, n.d.).

Perceived usefulness Hsu, Tai and Wang (2013) also stated that whenever users have to pay to use an app, perceived usefulness © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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and perceived playfulness become the main variable to determine whether they should use the app or not. Perceived usefulness is defined as the ability of the mobile application or service to simplify job or make things easier from users’ point of view (Zheng, Li and Jiang, 2012). Usefulness of an app is very important as it will attract users to use the same apps repeatedly. Users normally know if the apps are useful enough or not since they tend to make some research or search information about the apps and decide either the characteristics of the apps fulfill their needs (Zheng, Li and Jiang, 2012). It also been stated that perceived usefulness of the apps are actually the main concern of users rather than price or entertainment. This statement also supported by research done by Che Wel et al. (2012) that found perceived usefulness and perceived expressiveness are significant factors in using mobile apps among Malaysian.

Perceived enjoyment Chou, Chiu and Ho (n.d) defined perceived enjoyment as the degree to which users believe the apps bring amusement to them. Haugstvedt (2012) stated perceived enjoyment as the feel of delight when using the computer system. According to, enjoyment and attitude relate to each other. The enjoyment felt will lead to the attitudinal outcomes like happiness, pleasure and satisfaction (Alley & Gardiner. N.d.). Mohd Suki and Mohd Suki (2011) stated that people will feel more encourage doing the same activity twice if it brings enjoyment to them. The more enjoyable the products are, the more useful the apps that they assume (Sung & Yun, n.d). Kranz (2012) stated that when technology brings excitement to user, all the mental effort required to use the service will disappeared from their mind. Astrid et al. (2008) explained why young people love the mobile communication as it is seem fun to be able to connect with peers and enjoy this kind of communication. This probably can answer why Malaysian sent more than 10 billion SMS in 2006 and became the second highest for mobile acceptance in South East Asia ( Che Wel et al, 2012). The statement is true as a study done by MTV (Spongler, 2011) stated that about 75 percent of users agreed that mobile apps should be fun or bring entertainment to them. When user has lost interest on the apps, they would easily abandon or delete it from phone. Hong et al (2006) stated that perceived enjoyment is the main reason for the adoption of mobile data services in the area of communication, information and entertainment. Nysveen et al. (2005) find that enjoyment has a significant impact on people’s intention to use those services, with a stronger influence for female users than for male users.

Perceived ease of use Ease of use refers to the amount of effort needed to deal with certain system (Davis, 1898). Effort refers to physical or mental energy needed to work out activity (The free dictionary, n.d.). Not much effort therefore may increase the performance but the absence of it gives the contrary effect through frustration. This surely avoids people to use the apps (Rao & Troshani, 2007). Ease of use of the apps refer to how simple to use it and not actually challenging to user ( Rao & Troshani, 2007). Perceived ease of use depends on the individual perception about how much effort taken to learn and use technology. The perception may relate to how familiar the user is with technology literacy. Technology literacy is defined as the extent to which people is familiar with and able to us technology (Standard for technological Literacy, 2007). Rao and Troshani (2007) also stated that usability characteristics and guidelines may also define the meaning of ease of use. Usability criteria under People At the Centre of Mobile Application Development (PACMAD) model are effectiveness, efficiency, satisfaction, learnability, memorability, errors, and cognitive load (Harrison, Flood & Duce, 2013). Effectiveness refers to how well user uses the app to finish the task while efficiency refers to time taken to complete a task. Satisfaction refers to the degree of relaxation and pleasurable feel by using the software (Harrison, Flood & Duce, 2013). Learnability refers to the time taken for user to understand the application wisely. Memorability is defined as how user remembers to use the app without the need to learn it again. Errors refer to the probability of user complete the task without any mistakes. Cognitive load is defined as the level of mental usability needed to handle the application (Harrison, Flood &

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Duce, 2013). This is mean by where while using mobile apps, user is more flexible and can do other activities at the same time like walking. To use the app while walking may influence both activities like slowing down the time taken to complete a task. Therefore, cognitive load is also calculated in term of usability (Harrison, Flood & Duce, 2013. Gefen and Straub (2000) said that perceived ease of use depend on the purpose of the technology being used. If the apps are used for task oriented purpose like online purchasing, ease of use is unlikely to be important. Ease of use is more significant when the apps are used for task that is crucial like gathering information. Kranz (2012) in his study also stated that anything that related to productivity and utility will likely to have strong influence on the mobile service.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Source: Adapted from Sung, J., & Yun, Y. (n.d.).Toward a more robust usability concept with perceived enjoyment in the context of mobile multimedia service.International Journal of Human Computer Interaction, 1.

HYPOTHESIS Hypothesis 1 H0: There is no significant relationship between perceived usefulness with the intention to use mobile application. H1: There is significant relationship between perceived usefulness with the intention to use mobile application.

Hypothesis 2 H0: There is no significant relationship between perceived ease of use with the intention to use mobile application H1 There is significant relationship between perceived ease of use with the intention to use mobile application

Hypothesis 3 H0: There is no significant relationship between perceived enjoyment with the intention to use mobile application. H1: There is significant relationship between perceived enjoyment with the intention to use mobile application.

METHODOLOGY A phenomenological quantitative approach was used in this research to identify the factors that influence to the adoption of mobile apps. This study focuses to the undergraduate students of UiTM Kampus Bandaraya Melaka The population of this research consists of the students of Universiti Teknologi MARA Kampus Bandaraya © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Melaka that is located in Jalan Hang Tuah. The total population of students here provided by the Universiti Kampus Bandaraya is 4583 and categorized into four faculties. It includes Faculty of Accountancy, Faculty of Art and Design, Faculty of Administrative Science and Faculty of Business Management. Based on Roscoe’s rule of thumb (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010), the appropriate sample sizes should be larger than between 30 to 500. He also stated that 30 respondents should be chosen if the population is divided into subgroup. Therefore, the sample size in this study consists of four subgroups and within each group, 30 respondents was chosen and made the total sample size was 120.

Data Collection Method Data is collected by using primary and secondary data. Primary data source is the questionnaires that were distributed meanwhile secondary data includes from paper-based sources and electronic-based sources.

Questionnaires Design Questions from previous research has been used and altered so that it can fit with the main purpose of this study. The variables in the theoretical framework were used to determine the questions needed. The questionnaires consist of Section A, B, C, D and E. Section A is to collect data on the profiles of respondents. Section B refers to dependent variable which is the intentions to use. Section C placed the questions for the first variable which is perceived usefulness. Section D is about the second variable that is perceived ease of use. The last section is about the third variable which is perceived enjoyment.

RESULTS Reliability test Reliability is important to ensure the consistency of the measuring instrument to measure the intended purpose of research (Sekaran, 2003). To ensure reliability, Cronbach’s Alpha is used to show the consistency of the measurement. According to previous standard by Babbie, the range of Alpha value from 0.70 to 0.89 is consider high, 0.30 to 0.69 is moderate and 0.00 to 0.30 is low (Mokhtar et al. , 2011). However, Zikmund (2005) provide a better rule of thumb which stated that Cronbach’s Alpha with less than 0.5 is considered as poor, 0.5 to 0.6 is average, 0.6 to 0.7 is good while 0.7 to 1.0 is very good. Table 4.1: Range value of Cronbach’s Alpha for all variables

Variables

Cronbach’s Alpha

No. of Item

Analysis of Result

Perceived usefulness

0.908

7

Very Good

Perceived ease of use

0.732

5

Very Good

Perceived enjoyment

0.952

5

Very Good

Intention to use

0.830

6

Very Good

Based on table 4.2, it is perceived that that the items in all variables are reliable as a measuring tool for this topic. It can be seen that the Cronbach’s Alpha for all variables are very good because the values are higher than 0.7. Perceived Usefulness has Cronbach’s Alpha 0.908, Perceived Ease of Use has 0.732, Perceived Enjoyment has 0.952 and Intention to Use has 0. 830.

Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics include frequencies, central tendency and dispersion. Frequencies are how many times the phenomena of one category occurs (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010). Frequencies present in term of percentage and cumulative percentage. It can also appear as bar charts, histograms or pie charts to identify the pattern of data. It describes the most frequently occurring phenomenon in the data.

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Gender Table 4.2: Percentages and frequency of respondent by gender

Gender

Frequency

Percent

Male

48

40.0

Female

72

60.0

120

100.0

Total

By referring to Table 4.2, the number of respondents who answered the questionnaires was mostly females which encompass 60 percent or 72 persons compared to men who accounted 40 percent or 48 respondents. This mean, majority of the result are obtained from the eye of the female and it could less to gender bias in certain part of the answer.

Faculty Table 4.3: Percentages and frequency of respondent by faculty

Faculty

Frequency

Percent

Accountancy

30

25.0

Art & Design

30

25.0

Administrative Science

30

25.0

Business Management

30

25.0

120

100.0

Total

Table 4.3 shows the frequency and percentage by faculty. The questionnaires were distributed evenly to all faculties which mean the respondents in each faculty were the same. Each faculty had 30 persons selected as respondents. The total of respondents are 120 with four faculties involved included Faculty of Accountancy, Faculty of Art and Design, Faculty of Administrative Science and Faculty of Business Administration.

Ownership of smartphone Table 4.4: Percentage and frequency of respondent by ownership of smartphone

Ownership Yes

Frequency

Percent

120

100.0

Table 4.4 shows a total of respondents who own smartphones. Since the whole respondents answered the questionnaires possessed smartphone, the survey can be considered as valid as it reached the right person to point out the best variable that influence the intention to use mobile application.

Number of mobile application downloaded Table 4.5: Percentages and frequency of respondent by number of mobile application downloaded

Number of Apps Downloaded

Frequency

Percent

0-10

38

31.7

10-20

46

38.3

>20

36

30.0

Total

120

100.0

Table 4.5 explains about the percentages and frequency of respondent by number of mobile application downloaded. It is found that those students mostly downloaded about 10 to 20 mobile applications in their smartphones that generated 38.3 percent. By difference of 8 persons, 38 persons chose to download only 10 and below of mobile application that made up 31.7 percent. This is slightly higher than those who chose to download more than 20 mobile applications which are 36 persons. As a whole, there are not many differences between those who downloaded more and those who downloaded less as the percentages are still goes around 30 percent. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Preferred mobile apps Table 4.6: Percentages and frequency of respondent by preferred mobile apps

Preference Social Media & Entertainment Shopping Utilities Travel Gaming Productivity

Frequency

Percent

Yes

66

55

No

54

45

Yes

30

25

No

90

75

Yes

24

20

No

96

80

Yes

11

9.2

No

109

90.8

Yes

13

10.8

No

107

89.2

Yes

37

30.8

No

83

69.2

Yes

6

5

No

114

95

The last table, Table 4.6 list out the type of mobile application that students preferred. Students can choose more than 1 option for this question. The data shows that Social and Shopping applications tied up to receive the highest popularity which equal to 66 respondents or 55 percent. The second most votes belong to Gaming apps that gained 30.8 percent attention from respondents. Travel and utilities both almost have the same votes with 13 and 11 respondents chose them. The less chosen is Productivity apps which only deserve 6 votes or 5.0 percent. It can be concluded that Social apps and Shopping apps are the most important apps due to majority votes and Productivity apps are not helping much for students.

Correlation This study was conducted by examining the relationship between two variables by using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient is a measure of the correlation between two variables by giving a value between +1 and -1 inclusive. Table 4.8 show how to interpret the relationship between variables.

Perceived Usefulness Table 4.7: Correlations and coefficient of Perceived Usefulness

Intention to Use

Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

Perceived Usefulness

Pearson correlation

Intention to Use

Perceived Usefulness

1

.408**

.

.000

120

120

.408**

1

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

N

120

Analysis

Weak relationship

120

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.8 shows that there is significant relationship between Perceived Usefulness and Intention to use mobile application as p value is less than 0.01 (p=0.00). Both of these variables have positive relationship due to its positive value. However, based on Table 4.8, Perceived Usefulness and Intention to Use have weak relationship due to r value is 0.408. Therefore, H1 is accepted since there is relationship between Perceived Usefulness with the Intention to Use mobile application.

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Perceived Ease of Use Table 4.8: Correlations and coefficient of Perceived Ease of Use

Intention to Use

Intention to Use

Perceived Usefulness

1

.110

.

.233

N

120

120

Pearson correlation

.110

1

Sig. (2-tailed)

.233

N

120

Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

Perceived Ease of Use

Analysis

No relationship

120

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.8 shows that the correlation and coefficient of Perceived Ease of Use toward Intention to use mobile application has no significant relationship as the p value is more than 0.01 (p=0.110). Therefore, Perceived Ease of Use has no impact toward dependent variable. Therefore, H0 is accepted since there is no relationship between Perceived Ease of Use with the intention to use mobile application

Perceived Enjoyment Table 4.9: Correlations and coefficient of Perceived Enjoyment

Intention to Use

Intention to Use

Perceived Usefulness

1

.397**

Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

N Perceived Enjoyment

Analysis

Pearson correlation

120

120

.397**

1

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

N

120

Weak relationship

120

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.9 shows that there is significant relationship between Perceived Enjoyment and Intention to use mobile application as p value is at 0.000 (p<0.01). This positive relationship between independent variable and dependent variable also has weak relationship, same as the correlation between Perceived Usefulness with Intention to Use, due to its r =0.397 which considered weak.Therefore, H1 is accepted since there is relationship between Perceived Ease of Use with the intention to use mobile application

Regression Regression analysis is used to determine if independent variables affect the dependent variables. The adjusted R square shows how much the variance in the dependent variable is explained by variance in the independent variables. R-square shows how much the variation in the independent variables measure the variation in the dependent variable. Standard error of estimate stated the dispersion of the dependent variables estimates according to its mean. Standard error is considered high if it is more than 10 percent (Gupta 2000). The coefficient table shows the significance values, t-test and beta (B) of independent variables. Table 4.10: Model summary

Model 1

R .497a

R Square .247

Adjusted R Square .227

Std. Error of the Estimate .53288

The table above shows the R square is 0.247 or 24.7 percent. This means that only 24.7 percent of the variation of the independent variables explains the variation in the dependent variable. This shows that there are other variables that not included in the model that can explain more the variation in the dependent variable. The adjusted R square shows that 22.7 percent of variance of independent variables explains the variance of the dependent variable. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Table 4.11: Coefficients

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients B

Std. Error

(Constant)

1.361

.421

Usefulness

.324

.092

Ease of use

.091

Enjoyment

.248

Standardized Coefficients

t

Sig.

Analysis

Beta 3.229

.002

.307

3.533

.001

Significant

.074

.100

1.235

.220

Insignificant

.077

.278

3.200

.002

significant

a. Dependent Variable: intention to use

Table 4.11 shows that the variable Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Enjoyment are significant due to their p-value are less than 0.01. P-value for Perceived Usefulness is 0.001 and Perceived Enjoyment is 0.002. For Perceived Ease of Use, since the p-value is above the general rule of significance value which amounted to 0.220, this independent variable has no impact towards dependent variable.

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION, SUGGESTION AND CONCLUSION This study is done based on the previous theoretical framework to study the factors influencing students’ intention to use mobile application. The factors involve in this research include Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use and Perceived Enjoyment. The research questions and objectives stated previously to conduct this research now can be answered based on the results obtained. The first research question is aim to find out if the three variables have influence towards factors influencing students to use mobile apps. Based on the correlation coefficient and regression analysis, only variables of Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Enjoyment have influence to the topic of this research while Perceived Ease of Use was proven to not have any relation. To answer the second research question to know which factor influence the most to the intention to use mobile apps, the results showed that Perceived Usefulness is the variable that gives impact the most to the factors influencing students’ intention to use mobile apps. This is due to its correlation value that is the highest among the three variables. As Zheng, Li and Jiang (2012) stated in their research, people prefer Perceived Usefulness as the most important factor above price and entertainment that lead to the frequent use of the same app. The third variable, Perceived enjoyment is also influencing the students’ intention to use mobile apps even though it is not important as Perceived Usefulness. This finding is similar to what the research done by MTV found about perceived enjoyment. They said that the smarter and the more entertainment will definitely drive people to craze for a certain mobile app. As the finding obtained shows that perceived usefulness is significant to the intention to use mobile apps but apparently has weak relationship, there is certain way to make sure students use mobile application because of its functionality. Zaidatun, Linggu and Harun (2011) stated that social influence is important to persuade students to use mobile applications as a medium of education. They said that mobile application can help the learning process to be boring less if the lecturers use it too. Mobile apps can act as a convenient method to ask lecturers about certain subjects if not during lecture time. The students think they can get closer with their lecturer too if this suggestion turns into reality. It is indirectly means lecturers play a role in influencing students’ intention to use mobile apps, only in this matter mobile apps are used for education. Switzer and Switzer (2013) suggested that faculty should create Facebook page for their students. Here, they are encouraged to write any stories or information so they can practice their writing skills. Furthermore, this page acts as medium of communication so students can widen their contacts. Finding shows that Perceived Ease of Use has no influence to the intention to use mobile applications. However, according to Mtega, Bernard, Msungu and Sanare (2012), students actually face problems when they want to search for information through their mobile phone. Some of it includes the file is unable to read or failed to download. Besides that, applications designed with advanced graphics and video clip is very expensive for learning purpose. Therefore, it is recommended for university to create an app for its students in lower cost so that it can encourage students to use more mobile app for education purpose. Perceived Enjoyment even though has weak influence however still important to influence students’ intention to use mobile applications. Liu, Liu and Yu (2008) suggested that the limitation to use mobile apps for learning © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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system should be replaced with materials that are more interactive and attractive. This should be done so the students’ attention will remain for a long time.

REFERENCES ____________ (2012). Hand Phone users survey 2012. Malaysia: Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission. ____________ (2013). Mobile Apps:What consumers really need and want. Astrid, D., Arami, M., & Meyer, D. (2008). The role of perceived enjoyment and social norm in the adoption of technology with network externalities. European Journal of Information Systems, 4-11. Budiu, R. (2013). Mobile: Native Apps, Web Apps, and Hybrid Apps. Retrieved from NN Group: http://www. nngroup.com/articles/mobile-native-apps/ Chae, M., & Kim, J. (2003). What's so different about the mobile internet? Communications of the ACM , 46 (12), 240-247. Che Wel, C. A., Syed, S. A., Omar, N., & Mohd Noor, S. (2012). Students intention to use mobile chatting services in Malaysia. 128-132. Effort. (2000). Retrieved from The Free Dictionary: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/effort Gefen, D., & Straub, D. (2000). The relative use of perceived ease of use in IS adoption: A study of e-commerce adoption. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 1(8), 1-28. Gordon, M. E. (2013, July 18). The History of App Pricing, And Why Most Apps Are Free. Retrieved from Flurry: http://blog.flurry.com/bid/99013/The-History-of-App-Pricing-And-Why-Most-Apps-Are-Free Gupta, S. (2013, March). For Mobile Devices, Think Apps, Not Ads. Retrieved from http://www.goodsamhosp. org/assets/physicanportal/articles/050813_P_Jensen_FYI.pdf Hong, S. H., & Tam, K. (2006). Understanding the adoption of multipurpose information appliances: The case of mobile data services. Information Systems Research, 17(2), 162-179. Kotenko, J. (2013, Ovtober 28). Suddenly facebook friends with a lot of giraffes. Here's why? Retrieved from Digital Trend: http://www.digitaltrends.com/social-media/facebook-news-feed-probably-full-giraffeprofile-pics-heres/ Liu, Y., Liu, J., & Yu, S. (2008). A case study on mobile learning implementation in basic education. 2008 International Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering. 5, pp. 593-597. Washington, DC, USA: IEEE Computer Society. Mimoun, M. B., Bailey, A. A., & Sassi, H. (2013). Understanding mobile internet adoption by Tunisian consumers: extending the technology acceptance model. AMA Winter Educators' Conference Proceedings, 24, p. 394. Mohd Mothar, N., Abu Hassan, M., Haji Hassan, M., & Osman, M. (2013). The importance of smartphone's usage among Malaysian undergraduates. Journal Of Humanities And Social Science, 4(3), 112-118. Mokhtar, S., Rahman, S., Nor, H., Mokhtar, S., Md Yusof, N., & Idris, R. (2011). Selection and review of measurement item of students' learning environment. International Conference on managaement, (58-67). Mtega, W. P., Bernard, R., Msungu, A. C., & Sanare, R. (2012). Using mobile phones for teaching and learning purposes in higher learning institutions: the case of Sokoine University of Agriculture in Tanzania. 5th UbuntuNet Alliance, (118-129). Tanzania. Muwahed, O. (2012). Native, Web or Hybrid Mobile Nysveen, H., Pedersen, P., & Thorbjornsen, H. (2005). Explaining intention to use mobile chat services: Moderating effects of gender. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 22(5), 247-256. Open University malaysia launches mobile app. (2013, October 3). Retrieved from Marketing Magazine: http:// www.marketingmagazine.com.my/index.php/more/contact-us Persaud, A., & Azhar, I. (2012). Innovative mobile marketing via smartphones. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 30 (4), 418 - 443. Rao, S., & Troshani, I. (2007). A conceptual framework and propositions for the acceptance of mobile services. Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research , 2(2), 61-73. Sager, I. (2012, June 29). Before IPhone and Android Came Simon, the First Smartphone. Retrieved 12 11, 2013, from Businessweek: http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-06-29/before-iphone-andandroid-came-simon-the-first-smartphone Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research methods for business: A skill building approach (5th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Splanger, T. (2011, June 7). MTV Survey: 66% Of Mobile TV And Movie Apps Checked Daily. Retrieved from Benton Foundation: http://benton.org/node/76317 Sung, J., & Yun, Y. Toward a more robust usability concept with perceived enjoyment in the context of mobile multimedia service. International Journal of Human Computer Interaction, 1(2), 12-32. Switzer, J. S., & Switzer, R. V. (2013). The myth of the tech-savvy student:The role of media educators in a web 2.0 world. Journal of Media Education, 4(4). © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Tasir, Z., Linggu, J., & Harun, J. (2011). Penggunaan alat rangkaian sosial di kalangan pelajar di sebuah IPTS di Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia. Jurnal Teknologi Pendidikan Malaysia, 1(1), 31-47. The Age of Apps: Evolution of the Mobile Application [Infographic]. (2012). Retrieved 12 11, 2013, from Neolane: http://blog.neolane.com/mobile-marketing-2/mobile-application/ The state of mobile apps. (2010, January 6). Retrieved 12 11, 2013, from Nielsen: http://www.nielsen.com/us/ en/newswire/2010/the-state-of-mobile-apps.html Zeng, H., Li, Y., & Jiang, D. (2012). Empirical study and model of user’s acceptance for mobile commerce in China. IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, 9(6), 278-283. Zikmund, W. G. (2000). Business Research Methods (6th ed.). United States of America: Dryden Press.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

TREN PENYALAHGUNAAN DADAH DALAM KALANGAN MAHASISWA/I (2008- 2013) Nor Azlah Mohd. Jaafar*, Narinjit Singh, Mohd Mahzan Awang, Faridah Mydin & Abdul Razaq Ahmad *[email protected] Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Abstrak Dalam usaha mencapai status negara maju, kerajaan Malaysia telah merancang dan melaksanakan pembangunan modal insan kelas pertama dalam beberapa siri Rancangan Malaysia. Salah satu mekanisme utama untuk membangunkan sumber manusia adalah memperkasakan pendidikan tinggi. Rakyat digesa dan digalakkan untuk menyambung pendidikan bagi merealisasikan impian tersebut. Namun, hasrat tersebut telah dicemari oleh beberapa kes tidak bermoral yang melibatkan mahasiswa. Paling membimbangkan adalah penglibatan mahasiswa dalam penyalahgunaan dadah. Justeru, kajian ini bertujuan untuk melihat trend penyalahgunaan dadah dalam kalangan mahasiswa bermula dari tahun 2004 hingga 2013. Kajian ini menggunakan data sekunder yang diperoleh daripada agensi kerajaan seperti Agensi Anti Dadah Kebangsaan. Data dianalisis menggunakan kaedah siri masa dan silang data. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan terdapat 362 kes penagihan dadah dalam kalangan mahasiswa pada tahun 2010. Ia merupakan jumlah kes penagihan yang paling tinggi dalam tempoh satu dekad. Dapatan kajian juga mendapati bahawa majoriti penyalahgunaan dadah bermula ketika mahasiswa berumur antara 19 hingga 24 tahun. Analisis lanjut terhadap data sekunder tersebut mendapati bahawa pengaruh kawan adalah sebab utama penyalahgunaan dadah dalam kalangan mahasiswa. Masalah gejala sosial ini mencemark/an martabat bangsa malah mempengaruhi faktor pulangan kepada pembangunan negara. Usaha melahirkan bakal pemimpin negara yang mempunyai modal insan akan tergugat jika mahasiswa terus hanyut dengan masalah akhlak. Implikasi ke atas proses pemerkasaan modal insan turut dibincangkan dalam artikel ini. Keywords: penyalahgunaan dadah, mahasiswa, modal insan, gejala sosial

PENGENALAN Penyalahgunaan dadah adalah masalah sosial yang paling rumit yang sedang dihadapi oleh negara. Penglibatan masyarakat dengan dadah tidak mengenal usia dan ia melibatkan semua golongan sama ada miskin, kaya, profesional, buruh kakitangan awam mahupun pelajar-pelajar disekolah atau di institusi pengajian tinggi. Masalah ini telah mula diperkatakan sejak tahun 70-an lagi. Tidak dapat dinafikan dadah merupakan satu ancaman baik kepada masyarakat, individu, keluarga dan negara. Permasalahan dadah menjadi ketara sejak tahun 1880-an. Peningkatan jumlah anak muda terutamanya pelajar-pelajar sekolah dan institusi pengajian tinggi yang rosak akibat dadah memang menakutkan sehingga kerajaan mengisytiharkan dadah sebagai ancaman kepada keselamatan negara. Menurut Agensi Anti Dadah Kebangsaan, (2003) statistik pada tahun 1998-2003 terdapat seramai 255,725 penagih dadah dimana merangkumi 1.02% jumlah penduduk Malaysia. Manakala purata pertambahan penagih baru pada Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

tahun 1999-2003 seramai 17,174 setahun. Jika berterusan dengan kadar sama jumlah penagih dijangka adalah 461,000 pada tahun 2015 (sedangkan pada tahun inilah diistiharkan tahun Malaysia bebas dadah). Jika dianalisis profil penagih pula, pada tahun1999-2003 seramai 72%-76% penagih adalah di kalangan belia. Masalah dadah yang berterusan sudah tentu boleh memudaratkan negara dalam jangka masa panjang terutamanya golongan belia. Pepatah Melayu ada mengatakan, Pemuda Harapan Bangsa, Pemudi Tiang Negara. Justeru, seandainya pemuda dan pemudi negara hanyut dalam masalah berkaitan dadah, harapan untuk melahirkan pemimpin negara yang baik akan terjejas.

PENYALAHGUNAAN DADAH DI MALAYSIA Dadah bukanlah perkara baru dalam kehidupan seharian manusia kerana pengunaannya telah dikesan sejak beradab-abad yang lalu meskipun tarikh sebenar tidak dapat diketahui. Mengikut sumber sejarah, dadah dikaitkan dengan alam fantasi oleh masyarakat zaman dahulu kala yang menganggapnya sebagai pembalut kederitaan dan sumber keseronokan mahupun sumber menambahkan tenaga apabila melakukan kerja-kerja harian. Penagihan candu di kalangan buruh Cina menyebabkan kemasukan bahan berbahaya itu menjadi tidak terkawal di Tanah Melayu sehingga memaksa kerajaan Inggeris mengawal kemasukan dan penjualan candu pada tahun 1910. Serentak itu, kedai-kedai menjual candu dan rumah menghisap candu yang dikenali sebagai Opium Dens telah dilesen dan didaftarkan. Selepas perang dunia kedua, kerajaan Inggeris terpaksa mengharamkan sama sekali penjualan dan pengedaran candu kerana ia mula menjadi masalah serius di kalangan penduduk Tanah Melayu. Akibatnya, mulalah berlaku aktiviti penyeludupan candu sehingga memaksa Akta Dadah Berbahaya diwujudkan pada tahun 1952. Mengikut akta ini, sesiapa yang memiliki dan menghisap candu adalah menjadi satu kesalahan dan Hakim Mahkamah Candu berkuasa menjatuhkan hukuman. Sehingga hari ini, dadah telah menjadi satu ancaman besar kepada negara. Penyalahgunaan dadah semakin menular di negara kita hari demi hari yang melibatkan pelbagai lapis masyarakat. Menurut Ibrahim (1997), penagihan dadah bukan saja golongan berpendapatan rendah, bahkan telah merebak kepada golongan yang lebih mewah dan merentasi umur dan jantina. Ini menunjukkan bahawa setiap individu berpotensi terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan dadah tanpa mengira kedudukan umur ataupun jantina. Mengikut laporan Kedudukan Masalah Dadah dan Kemajuan Tindakan Anti Dadah (1985), perbuatan penyalahgunaan dadah dikalangan pelajar-pelajar sekolah diketahui bermula di awal tahun 1970an. Manakala menurut Program Pengawalan Dadah Antarabangsa Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu (UNDCP), menyenaraikan Malaysia terletak ditempat kelima dirantau Asia Tenggara mempunyai penagih dadah paling ramai.

PENYALAHGUNAAN DADAH, ISU DAN PERMASALAHAN DI MALAYSIA Penyalahgunaan Dadah Dadah secara umumnya adalah sejenis bahan yang digunakan untuk tujuan perubatan. Namun, apabila adanya kemudahan teknologi moden dan permasalahan sosial yang tinggi di kalangan masyarakat dunia umumnya dan Malaysia khususnya maka dadah telah disalahguna untuk tujuan kononnya sebagai penghibur, penyelesai masalah, meningkatkan ketahanan sama ada fizikal atau mental, keberanian dan sebagainya lagi. Apa yang jelas, penyalahgunaaan dadah tersebut sebenarnya telah merosakkan sistem badan dan juga menjejaskan maruah diri, keluarga dan negara. Menurut Agensi Anti Dadah Kebangsaan (1998), dadah merupakan bahan psikoaktif yang mempunyai ciri-ciri berikut; membawa kesan buruk kepada sistem saraf pusat, digunakan untuk tujuan perubatan, diperolehi secara haram, membawa pergantungan fizikal serta psikologi dan memberi kesan buruk kepada kesihatan dan fungsi sosial. Penagih dadah menggunakan dadah kerana pelbagai sebab. Namun demikian mereka tidak dapat meninggalkannya kerana satu sebab utama iaitu untuk mengelakkan daripada sindrom putus dadah (withdrawal syndrome). Melalui pengambilan dadah jenis heroin, sindrom putus dadah akan dialami dalam jangkamasa 4-6 jam sahaja selepas pengambilan dos terakhir. Penagih akan mengalami gejala seperti ciritbirit, sakit perut, rasa sejuk berpeluh, perasaan gelisah dan takut. Semua gejala ini dapat dihapuskan dengan pengambilan semula heroin pada dos yang semakin meningkat. Dadah terbahagi kepada beberapa jenis, diantaranya dari sumber tumbuh-tumbuhan seperti kanabis, ganja, heroin dan morfin. Selain itu terdapat juga dadah sintetik iaitu ATS (Amphetamine Type Stimulants) di mana semakin hari semakin popular digunakan. Dadah ini kebanyakannya dalam bentuk pil dan dikenali dengan Pil Ecstasy dan juga Pil Kuda. Dadah jenis ini lebih memudaratkan kerana boleh menyebabkan penagih menjadi © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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semakin ganas dan mengalami kerosakan otak yang teruk. Kebanyakan dadah ini datangnya dari Eropah dan menjadikan Malaysia sebagai transit untuk pengedaran ke negara-negara seperti Amerika Selatan, Australia, Thailand dan juga Hong-Kong. (Agensi Anti Dadah Kebangsaan,1999).

Punca-punca Penyalahgunaan dan Pengambilan Dadah dalam Mahasiswa Menurut kajian Agensi Anti Dadah Kebangsaan (1998), terdapat beberapa sebab mengapa remaja penagih mengambil dadah. Di antaranya ialah pengaruh rakan sebaya. Secara ringkasnya, seseorang itu kebiasaanya cenderung untuk terpengaruh dengan sikap, tingkahlaku, dan perangai rakan yang sentiasa didampinginya. Jika kawannya baik, baiklah dia dan jika kawannya nakal, akan nakallah dia. (Hairunnaja, 2003). Selain itu, perasaan ingin tahu dan secara tidak sengaja mencetuskan punca remaja terlibat dengan ketagihan dadah. Menurut Noraini Ahmad (1996), perasaan ingin tahu kebanyakannya berlaku dikalangan remaja kerana para remaja terdedah kepada krisis identiti sepanjang proses perkembangan remaja sebelum mencapai peringkat dewasa. Di samping itu, situasi sebegini juga boleh mendorong pelajar mengalami tekanan jiwa yang kronik seandainya mereka gagal menyesuaikan diri di alam remaja. Natijahnya, ia boleh menyumbang kepada sebab-sebab seseorang individu atau remaja terlibat dengan dadah. Masalah keluarga juga menjadi penyumbang kepada keterlibatan individu dengan dadah. Menurut Hairunnaja (2003), diantara isu-isu keluarga yang boleh menyumbang kepada permasalahan remaja ialah status sosioekonomi keluarga yang rendah, ibubapa yang terlalu sibuk dengan kerja masing-masing, rumah tangga yang tidak kukuh, sikap ibubapa yang terlalu memanjakkan anak-anak, ibubapa yang bersikap pilih kasih terhadap anak-anak. Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa ibubapa harus sentiasa mengawasi anak-anak mereka supaya tidak terlibat dengan masalah-masalah sosial seperti penyalahgunaan dadah kerana masalah seperti ini akan merosakkan masa depan kanak-kanak atau remaja tersebut.

Teori Pembangunan Modal Insan dan Penyalahgunaan Dadah Generasi belia memainkan peranan yang penting sebagai aset pembangunan modal insan negara. Oleh itu, dalam suasana semasa, jika sesebuah masyarakat berhasrat untuk maju dan terus membangun, golongan belia perlu dibina dan didik menghayati nilai cemerlang masyarakat yang bertamadun. Sesungguhnya, tanggungjawab besar belia pada hari ini adalah untuk menjana pembangunan bangsa, negara dan agama. Pada masa kini, golongan belia menghadapi cabaran yang amat hebat. Penyalahgunaan dadah yang semakin meningkat dalam kalangan belia merupakan salah satu masalah yang sangat digeruni. Hal ini kerana akibat daripada penyalahgunaan dadah akan timbul juga masalah-masalah lain seperti amalan seks bebas, ketagihan merokok, berjudi, meminum arak dan lain-lain lagi. Oleh itu, amalan pencegahan dan pemulihan dadah adalah sangat penting bagi belia. Pendidikan tentang pencegahan dan penyebaran maklumat mengenai dadah juga dapat mengurangkan belia kita untuk terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan dadah. Usaha yang bersepadu ini perlu diambil untuk menangani penagihan dan pengedaran dadah yang telah merebak masuk ke Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (IPT). Sehubungan itu, program kesederan termasuk kempen seperti Belia Benci Dadah perlu dipergiatkan lagi. Antara program lain bagi membendung penyalahgunaan dadah ialah program Sayangi Hidup Elak Dadah Selamanya (SHIELDS) dan program Tomorrow’s Leader. Pelaksanaan Program Sayangi Hidup Elak Dadah Selamanya adalah untuk meningkatkan kesedaran dan mengupayakan ketahanan diri murid di peringkat sekolah menegah kerana murid dalam lingkungan umur 13 hingga 18 tahun dikenalpasti berisiko dalam penyalahgunaan dadah. Sementara matlamat program Tomorrow’s Leaders adalah untuk memastikkan murid dan warga institusi pengajian tinggi mempunyai pengetahuan, kesedaran dan kemahiran mengenai gaya hidup sihat tanpa dadar agar mewujudkan Mahasiswa Bebas Dadah 2015. Itulah antara beberapa peranan yang dapat dimainkan oleh institusi yang berkaitan dan beberapa program yang dirancang agar apa yang disusunatur dapat memberi manfaat yang berguna kepada generasi akan datang.

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN Objektif kajian ini adalah seperti berikut: a. Mengkaji tren penyalahgunaan dadah dalam kalangan mahasiswa sepanjang tahun 2008 hingga 2013. b. Mengkaji tren penyalahgunaan dadah dalam kalangan mahasiswa dari aspek tahap akademik. c. Menjelaskan kaitan antara tren penyalahgunaan dadah dalam kalangan mahasiswa dengan pembangunan modal insan. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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METODOLOGI Kajian ini merupakan kajian berbentuk tinjauan dengan reka bentuk keratan-lintang (cross-sectional survey) berdasarkan data sekunder. Data diperolehi daripada Laporan Agensi Antidadah Kebangsaan 2013. Analisis siri masa dikaji daripada tahun 2008 hingga 2013 dengan perbandingan tahap akademik mahasiswa.

DAPATAN KAJIAN Kajian ini mendapati setiap tahun terdapat mahasiswa yang terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan dadah sepanjang 2008 hingga 2013 (Jadual 1). Jadual 1 - Kes Penagihan Dadah Mahasiswa/i Mengikut Tahap Akademik Tahun 2008-2013

Tahap Akademik

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Diploma

125

60

312

136

88

93

Ijazah

14

19

50

19

21

16

Berdasarkan Jadual 1, didapati bahawa pada tahun 2010 mencatatkan bilangan penagih yang tertinggi iaitu 362 orang mahasiswa. Manakala pada tahun 2009 mencatatkan bilangan penagih yang terendah iaitu 79 orang mahasiswa. Ini adalah bilangan terendah dalam tempoh 6 tahun, diantara 2008 hingga 2013. Dapatan analisis daripada jadual silang bagi siri tahun dan tahap pendidikan juga ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 1. Didapati bahawa kebanyakan bilangan penagih dadah berada pada tahap pendidikan diploma iaitu seramai 814 orang mahasiswa berbanding seramai 139 orang mahasiswa berada pada tahap pendidikan ijazah sepanjang tempoh 2008 hingga 2013. Dapatan ini juga menunjukkan satu keadaan yang sungguh membimbangkan dimana bilangan penagih dadah di kalangan mahasiswa pada tahun 2012 dan 2013 masih tinggi dan tidak berubah. Berdasarkan dapatan ini boleh dirumuskan bahawa jumlah kes penagihan dadah yang melibatkan mahasiswa masih berterusan setiap tahun. Adalah tidak mustahil perkara ini akan berterusan pada masa akan datang. Adakah kita mahu melihat angka bilangan penagih dadah di kalangan mahasiswa meningkat pada tahun 2014? Semestinya tidak, maka apakah usaha yang perlu difikirkan dan dilaksanakan oleh pihak universiti khususnya dan pihak terbabit amnya dalam membendung gejala tidak sihat ini.

RUMUSAN Berbagai visi dan misi di rancang dalam merealisasikan berbagai bidang pembangunan negara yang amat memerlukan usaha mahasiswa bagi menjayakan program yang bakal dilaksanakan . Sektor tenaga kerja terutamanya bidang profesional bakal dipenuhi oleh graduan lulusan universiti. Sekiranya mahasiswa yang pernah terjebak dengan penyalahgunaan dadah mendapat peluang pekerjaan pada masa akan datang, masalah akhlak ini juga mungkin berlarutan sehingga menjejaskan imej dan reputasi pihak yang terlibat. Tenaga kerja yang dilahirkan oleh pihak universiti seharusnya merupakan modal insan yang dapat menyumbang kepada pembangunan sosial dan kemajuan ekonomi negara. Perkara ini perlu dipandang serius dan diambil tindakan yang sewajarnya bagi mencapai tujuan dan halatuju pembangunan negara. Diharapkan dapatan ini dapat memberi kesan yang sewajarnya dan diambil perhatian serta tindakan oleh pihak universiti dalam menangani masalah penagihan dadah di kalangan mahasiswa. Tingkahlaku dan jatidiri mahasiswa perlu dimantapkan dengan strategi yang terbaik agar mahasiswa merasa selesa tanpa ada tekanan sosial daripada keadaan sekeliling. Lebih banyak program perlu dijalankan di kampus bagi mendekati dan memenuhi masa mahasiswa. Bagi melaksanakan program pendedahan penyalahgunaan dadah ini usahasama boleh dijalankan dengan pihak ibubapa, pensyarah dan pihak berwajib. Pihak yang berkenaan seperti pensyarah, penggubal pengajaran dan pembelajaran perlu memberi penekanan terhadap penyalahgunaan dadah dengan lebih mendalam.. Ianya haruslah bersesuaian bagi memperlengkapkan diri mahasiswa dengan ilmu yang secukupnya dalam melahirkan modal insan dan pemimpin masa hadapan.

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RUJUKAN Abdullah Al Hadi & Iran Herman. Penagihan Dadah Mengikut Kaum: Diri, Keluarga dan Persekitaran. Kuala Lumpur: Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia. Abdul Ghafar Taib. (1992). Dadah Pembunuh. Kuala Lumpur: Delmu (M) Sdn. Bhd. Abdul Alim Abdul Rahman. (1994). Pengantar Psikologi Bilazim. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Agensi Antidadah Kebangsaan. (2013). Laman Web Statistik Penyalahgunaan Dadah http://www.adk.gov.my/ utama.html Akers, R.L. (1992). Drugs, Alcohol and Society: Sosial Structure, Process and Policy. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company Betmort. Dennis,C.D. (1989). Relapse Prevention: Treatment Alternatives and Counseling Aids. Tab Books Inc, Blue Ridge Summit, PA. Hawkins, J.D. & Catalano, R.F. (1985). Aftercare in Drug Abuse Treatment. The International Journal of the Addictions,20(689), 917-945. Hairunnaja Najmudin. (2003). Memahami dan Membimbing Remaja Nakal. Kuala Lumpur PTS Publications. Mohd Majid, K. (2000). Kaedah Penyelidikan Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasadan Pustaka. Syed Amin Husaini. (1995). Hidupku Sejernih Embun: Tanpa Dadah, Tanpa Arak & Tanpa Rokok. Kuala Lumpur: Institut Perkembangan Minda. The News Strait Times, (2006). Treatment works for drug addiction. 4 Jun. Utusan Malaysia. (2013). 23 Julai. Utusan Malaysia. (2014). 4 March. Utusan Malaysia, (2006). Ujian dadah di sekolah. 3 April. Wills, T.A., Resco, J.A.,Ainette, M.G. & Mendoza, D. (2004). Role of Parent Support and Peer Support in Adolescent Substance Use: A Test of Mediated Effects. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18, 122-134. William, B.H., & Ralph, B.M. (1999). Drug education practise : result of an observational study. Health Education Research : February 1999, 14, 1 ; Health and Medical Complete. pg. 85-97.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

KESEJAHTERAAN RAKYAT MALAYSIA BERDASARKAN LEGATUM PROSPERITY INDEX Asyraf Radzwan*, Nur Hadi Ibrahim, Mohd Mahzan Awang & Faridah Mydin Kutty *[email protected] Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Abstract Kajian ini bertujuan untuk melihat secara terperinci tentang indeks kesejahteraan rakyat Malaysia dari tahun 2010 sehingga 2013 dari perspektif antarabangsa iaitu berdasarkan Legatum Prosperity Index. Legatum Prosperity Index merupakan sebuah organisasi bebas yang berpejabat di London, United Kingdom. Legatum Prosperity Index meletakkan lapan elemen dalam penilaian kesejahteraan rakyat iaitu modal sosial, kebebasan individu, keselamatan, kesihatan, pendidikan, tadbir urus, keusahawanan dan ekonomi. Analisis ini memfokuskan kepada kedudukan Malaysia dalam tangga antarabangsa. Kajian mendapati Malaysia berada di tangga ke 44 daripada 142 negara pada tahun 2013. Analisis ini juga menunjukkan bahawa ekonomi Malaysia bertambah baik apabila ia berada pada tangga ke lapan pada tahun 2013 berbanding tangga ke 17 pada tahun 2011. Walau bagaimanapun aspek keselamatan semakin membimbangkan apabila kedudukan negara terhadap aspek keselamatan telah menjunam dari tahun 2011 (tangga ke 53) ke tangga 64 pada tahun 2013. Sedikit peningkatan pada kualiti pendidikan apabila Malaysia berada di tangga ke 34 pada tahun 2013 berbanding tangga ke 35 pada tahun 2011. Elemen- elemen lain dalam indeks ini dibincangkan secara terperinci dalam artikel ini. Kedudukan dalam Asia Pasifik menunjukkan bahawa Malaysia berada di tangga ke 8 mengatasi Thailand (tangga ke-11), Filipina (tangga ke-16) dan Indonesia (tangga ke-17). Secara keseluruhannya, kajian ini mendapati bahawa Malaysia mempunyai potensi untuk mencapai kesejahteraan negara maju. Walau bagaimanapun, aspek seperti keselamatan, pendidikan, tadbir urus, kesihatan, kebebasan individu, modal sosial, dan keusahawanan perlu diberi perhatian. Keywords: keselamatan rakyat, ekonomi, pendidikan, rantau Asia Pasifik, tangga

PENGENALAN Kesejahteraan merangkumi pelbagai aspek kehidupan manusia seperti modal sosial, kebebasan individu, keselamatan, kesihatan, pendidikan, tadbir urus, keusahawanan dan ekonomi. Malaysia terus memberi penekanan kepada pendekatan holistik dalam pembangunan dengan meletakkan keutamaan kepada kesejahteraan rakyat dalam proses perancangan dan pencapaian perkhidmatan. Pendekatan ini adalah selaras dengan slogan “Rakyat Didahulukan Pencapaian Diutamakan”. Oleh itu, mengukur kemajuan adalah penting dalam menilai kemajuan kita. Seiring dengan matlamat mencapai wawasan 2020, kerajaan berhasrat untuk meningkatkan taraf hidup rakyat dan masyarakat berpendapatan rendah. Salah satu cabang perkara yang diusahakan rakyat adalah meningkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat. Peningkatan taraf hidup rakyat ini adalah salah satu agenda yang tersenarai dalam Program Transformasi Kerajaan dan terkandung dalam enam Bidang Keberhasilan Utama Negara (NKRA). Kebanyakan negara maju menjadikan isu kesejahteraan rakyat sebagai salah satu agenda Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

dalam pembangunan Malaysia.( Novel et.al., 2011). Menurut laporan kesejahteraan rakyat (2013) Di dalam isu ini, Indeks Kesejahteraan Rakyat Malaysia (IKRM) merupakan salah satu gambaran yang dapat memberi penjelasan kepada tahap kesejahteraan rakyat Malaysia yang meliputi aspek ekonomi dan sosial. IKRM akan dijadikan tanda aras penting dalam penggubalan dasar dan program negara maju berpendapatan tinggi yang inklusif dan mampan. Dalam tempoh 2000-2012, IKRM mencatat 25.4 mata yang menunjukkan peningkatan tahap kesejahteraan rakyat. Peningkatan ini disumbangkan oleh pelaksanaan pelbagai dasar dan strategi pembangunan oleh Kerajaan dalam menambah baik kualiti kehidupan dan tahap kesejahteraan rakyat. Dalam tempoh tersebut, sub-komposit kesejahteraan rakyat ekonomi meningkat sebanyak 33.3 mata iaitu pada kadar pertumbuhan 2.3 peratus setahun. Sub-komposit kesejahteraan sosial pula meningkat sebanyak 21.0 mata iaitu pada kadar purata 1.6 peratus setahun. Komponen pengangkutan dan perumahan mencatat peningkatan tertinggi iaitu sebanyak 36.9 mata. Komponen keluarga mencatat peningkatan terendah iaitu sebanyak 4.6 mata.

DEFINISI DAN PETUNJUK KESEJAHTERAAN HIDUP Konsep kesejahteraan hidup ini melibatkan perubahan dalam masyarakat dan sistem sosial daripada keadaaan yang dianggap tidak memuaskan kepada keadaan yang lebih baik, Jadi ia merangkumi bukan sahaja pembangunan ekonomi, tetapi meliputi juga aspek- aspek yang telah ditetapkan di dalam Legatum Prosperity Index. Menurut Azizah et al. (2013) konsep kesejahteraan hidup merujuk kepada satu proses dinamik yang memberikan nilai kepada manusia tentang bagaimana kehidupan mereka berkembang sama ada secara baik atau sebaliknya. Meskipun ia mempunyai dimensi yang pelbagai namun secara tradisinya ia diukur melalui petunjuk ekonomi iaitu tingkat pendapatan. Hal ini disokong oleh Junaidi et al. (2012) yang mana beliau menyatakan bahawa maksud kesejahteraan rakyat itu adalah sebagai darjah di mana keperluan dan kehendak populasi itu dipenuhi. Ia mencerminkan kualiti hidup yang dinikmati oleh individu atau kumpulan. Kualiti hidup pula dalam erti kata lain adalah merupakan pernyataan terhadap kesejahteraan sosial seperti mana penerimaan mereka atau seperti yang dikenal pasti melalui indikator- indikator tertentu yang boleh diperhatikan seperti mana yang telah ditetapkan. Selain itu, kajian yang dijalankan oleh Hayati dan Nurasyikin, (2011) mendapati bahawa kesejahteraan rakyat merangkumi kemajuan diri, gaya hidup yang sihat, akses dan kebebasan memperoleh pengetahuan serta taraf kehidupan yang melebihi keperluan asas individu dan memenuhi keperluan psikologi untuk mencapai tahap kesejahteraan sosial yang setanding dengan aspirasi negara. Walau bagaimanapun, di dalam konteks Indeks Kesejahteraan Rakyat Malaysia (IKRM), kesejahteraan merujuk kepada pelbagai manfaat yang diperoleh dan dinikmati secara langsung atau tidak langsung serta menyumbang kepada kepuasan individu, keluarga dan masyarakat. Manfaat ini meliputi aspek sosial, alam sekitar dan ekonomi adalah hasil dari pelaksanaan sosio- ekonomi.

OBEJKTIF KAJIAN a. Mengenalpasti tahap kesejahteraan hidup rakyat Malaysia berdasarkan Legatum Prosperity Index 2013 b. Mengkaji indikator- indikator yang dilaporkan oleh Legatum Prosperity Index 2013 dalam mempengaruhi tahap kesejahteraan hidup rakyat di sesebuah negara. c. Menjelaskan suatu kefahaman menyeluruh terhadap indeks yang telah dibangunkan. ini akan dapat membantu memudahkan lagi penjelasan terhadap pencapaian yang sedang dan telah dilakukan oleh kerajaan dalam membangunkan dan meningkatkan lagi kesejahteraan di Malaysia.

METODOLOGI Kajian ini menggunakan data sekunder iaitu berdasarkan data dan laporan yang di buat oleh Legatum Institute di yang berpangkalan di London. Analisis yang dibuat adalah bermula pada tahun 2010 sehingga 2013 bagi setiap bidang dan indikator yang diberikan sama ada dalam bentuk kedudukan dan jumlah sebenar. Laporan yang dibuat ini juga menggunakan beberapa kaedah seperti soal selidik, temu ramah bersemuka dan temu ramah atas talian.

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DAPATAN KAJIAN Berdasarkan laporan Legatum Prosperity Index 2013 yang disediakan oleh Legatum Institute ke atas indeks kesejahteraan 142 buah Negara di Dunia termasuk Malaysia. Di dapati Malaysia menduduki di tangga ke-44 di dunia dan tempat ke-8 di Asia Pasifik. Ianya adalah berdasarkan 8 faktor atau bidang utama yang berkaitan dengan kesejahteraan iaitu ekonomi, keusahawanan, pentadbiran, pendidikan, kesihatan, keselamatan, kebebasan individu dan modal sosial di sesebuah Negara tersebut. Oleh kerana ianya laporan antarabangsa, maka ianya amat berguna dan membantu bagi memberi gambaran terhadap kesejahteraan dan kemakmuran sesebuah Negara dari persepsi luar yang tidak mempunyai kepentingan tertentu. Jika ianya diteliti dengan lebih mendalam, setiap indikator bidang-bidang yang dinyatakan di dalam laporan ini tidak mempunyai banyak perbezaan berbanding laporan Indeks Kesejahteraan Rakyat Malaysia (IKRM) yang disediakan oleh, Unit Perancang Ekonomi , Jabatan Perdana Menteri.

Ekonomi Tahun 2013 merupakan tahun yang memperlihatkan peningkatan ekonomi Malaysia di dunia. Ianya banyak dipenngaruhi oleh pertumbuhan Keluaran Dalam Negeri Kasar (KDNK) sebanyak 6.3 peratus setahun bagi tempoh 1970 hingga 2012. Mengikut laporan, Malaysia menduduki kedudukan ke-8 negara di dunia dalam peningkatan ekonomi berbanding di tempat ke-15 dan ke-17 bagi tahun 2012 dan 2011. Ini secara langsung menunjukkan keutuhan dan keteguhan ekonomi Malaysia berbanding negara-negara maju lain termasuk Amerika Syarikat dan Britain. Sedikit sebanyak ianya menghasilkan kemakmuran kepada Negara walaupun terdapat Negara yang mempunyai tahap kesejahteraan yang rendah tetapi berpendapatan tinggi. Malaysia mencapai 37.4 peratus Kadar Keluaran Dalam Negara Kasar (KDNK) pada tahun 2013 dan ianya menunjukkan peningkatan yang ketara berbanding 2012. Peningkatan ini sebahagiannya disebabkan komitmen kerajaan yang berterusan dalam menyediakan sumber yang mencukupi kepada sector sosial demi faedah rakyat. Dari segi inflasi, Malaysia mencatat kadar inflasi yang terendah di Asia, Amerika Syarikat dan United Kingdom iaitu 1.7. Dari segi kadar pengangguran tenaga buruh, Negara telah mencatat penurunan dari 3.7 peratus 2012 kepada 3.4 peratus bagi tahun 2013. 76 peratus Rakyat Malaysia secara keseluruhannya berpuas hati dengan kadar sara hidup walaupun terpaksa mengalami kadar kenaikan kos dalam perbelanjaan purata.

China

France

UK

Hong Kong

Indonesia

Japan

Korea Selatan

Malaysia

Singapore

US

Indikator

Thailand

Jadual 4.1 Indikator bidang ekonomi beberapa negara

Gross domestic savings (% of GDP)

11.1

34.1

49.2

37.4

31.5

19

37.1

26.1

12.1

17.6

52.5

Unemployment rate (% of labour force)

8.9

0.7

2.9

3.4

3.4

4.5

6.6

3.4

7.8

9.3

4.1

Hi-tech exports (kedudukan)

25

21

3

4

12

26

50

34

19

15

11

Kadar Inflasi (kedudukan)

28

53

79

18

29

1

76

73

45

24

40

5-year GDP per capita growth rate (%)

0.3

2.4

2.6

2.5

3

0.1

4.5

2.9

0.4

0

10

Do you have access to adequate food and shelter? (% yes)

80.8

89.1

99.3

88.9

78.6

94.2

71

90.4

93.9

91.2

88.8

Satisfied with living standards? (% yes)

72.4

83.6

79.9

76.2

75.1

73.7

64.4

79.8

81.5

83.4

74.5

Kadar Eksport Negara juga mencatat 43.4 peratus dari pengeluaran teknologi tinggi dan ianya lebih tinggi dari negara Asia lain seperti Jepun, Korea Selatan dan Taiwan. Dalam sektor perbankan 90.9 peratus penduduk di Malaysia mempercayai perbankan di Malaysia di sokong dengan keteguhan ekonomi kewangan Negara. Namun begitu peratusan tenaga buruh yang bekerja agak rendah berbanding negara-negara lain seperti Thailand dan Indonesia dengan hanya mencatat 58.6 peratus. Walau bagaimanapun ianya tidak terlalu menjejaskan dari segi guna tenaga buruh dan pengangguran di Malaysia. Secara jangkaan, Malaysia dijangka akan mengalami kenaikan 2.4 peratus bagi tahun 2014 dan ianya merupakan satu petunjuk yang baik kepada © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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kerajaan untuk memastikan ekonomi Malaysia kekal utuh. Jadual 4.1 menunjukkan beberapa indikator yang di laporkan oleh Legatum Prosperity Index 2013.

Keusahawanan Bidang keusahawanan dan peluang industri tidak kurang pentingnya dalam melihat kesejahteraan sesebuah negara. Berdasarkan Legatum Institute, bidang keusahawanan ini dinilai berdasarkan bagaimana sesebuah masyarakat mempunyai pemikiran keusahawanan, inovatif dan bijak mencari peluang di samping peluangpeluang perniagaan yang disediakan oleh kerajaan. Bagi tahun 2013, Malaysia menduduki di kedudukan ke-45 di dunia jatuh satu anak tangga dari tahun 2012 iaitu ke-44 dari 142 buah Negara dalam bidang keusahawanan. Walaupun begitu kedudukan ini masih lagi baik berbanding 142 buah Negara lain. Berdasarkan soal selidik yang telah dilakukan kepada rakyat Malaysia, 69 peratus rakyat merasakan Malaysia adalah tempat yang bagus dan sesuai untuk memulakan perniagaan dan ianya lebih baik dari Korea Selatan, Jepun dan Thailand. Ianya mungkin disokong dengan bantuan dan kemudahan yang disalurkan oleh kerajaan dan agensi-agensi di bawahnya bagi seseorang memulakan perniagaan. Indeks Kesejahteraan Legatum 2013 juga turut meletakkan bilangan rakyat Malaysia yang kemudahan telefon mudah alih dalam laporan ini dan Malaysia mencatat peratusan 140.9 peratus bagi setiap 100 orang penduduk. Ianya menunjukkan rakyat Malaysia mempunyai penggunaan telekomunikasi yang baik dalam melakukan satu perniagaan dan keusahawanan bagi mewujudkan jaringan dan hubungan. Selain itu ianya berdasarkan kesedaran rakyat terhadap ICT, kuasa beli dan kemajuan teknologi ICT menjadi faktor utama peningkatan penggunaan telefon mudah alih. Jadual 4.2 di bawah menunjukkan beberapa indikator berkaitan keusahawanan melibatkan beberapa negara terpilih sebagai perbandingan.

US

Thailand

Singapore

Malaysia

Korea Selatan

japan

Indonesia

Hong Kong

UK

France

China

Jadual 4.2 Indikator bidang keusahawanan

Mobile phones (per 100 people)

98.2

120.3

153.4

140.9

110.4

109.4

115.2

227.9

130.8

98.1

81.3

Business start-up costs (kedudukan)

11

38

6

60

58

41

74

16

7

8

18

Mobile phones per household (% yes whose household has a mobile)

91.4

95

98.6

93.4

92.9

88.1

79.1

95.9

86

85.9

95.5

Good place for entrepreneurs to start a business? (% yes)

69.1

61.3

90.5

69

39.8

38.9

81.1

76.2

67.3

76.1

71.6

Indikator

Tadbir Urus Kerajaan Ketelusan, akauntabiliti, integriti dan penglibatan rakyat merupakan aspek utama tadbir urus yang baik dan penting untuk pertumbuhan dan kemakmuran Negara. Ianya menunjukkan bagaimana kerajaan sesebuah negara berfungsi dan memberi kemudahan yang secukupnya kepada rakyat. Jika pentadbiran kerajaan tidak melaksanakan dengan baik pasti ianya menyebabkan kepercayaan rakyat berkurangan. Berdasarkan laporan 2013 ini menunjukkan Malaysia menduduki tangga ke-34 berbanding ke-35 di dunia pada tahun 2012 dan 2011. Jika dibandingkan negara lain dalam tadbir urus kerajaan, Malaysia masih baik berbanding beberapa negara seperti Thailand, Indonesia dan China. Beberapa indikator yang dilihat berdasarkan kerajaan Malaysia, rakyat masih mempercayai kerajaan pemerintah sekarang masih memerintah dengan baik dengan 83.2 peratus jauh lebih baik dari negara seperti Amerika Syarikat, Korea Selatan dan Great Britain. Kepercayaan ini dikukuhkan dengan kejayaan parti pemerintah mengekalkan kuasa sejak kemerdekaan 1957 lagi. Manakala 91.8 peratus penduduk juga merasakan institusi kehakiman sangat baik dan boleh dipercayai ketelusannya berbanding negara-negara lain. Selain itu indikator kepercayaan kepada institusi ketenteraan juga dimasukkan dalam bidang tadbir urus ini dan 91.8 peratus penduduk menganggap ketenteraan di Malaysia amat baik. Ianya hasil penambahbaikan yang telah dilakukan oleh Kementerian Pertahanan dalam meningkatkan kekuatan pertahanan negara dan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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menjaga sempadan dengan baik. Salah satu indikator yang sering diberi tumpuan ialah bagaimana pandangan rakyat terhadap sistem pilihanraya yang dijalankan di sesebuah negara. Indikator ini akan menjadikan penentu besar dan sejauh mana pelaksanaan pilihanraya sesebuah negara itu berkesan dan diterima oleh rakyat. Walau bagaimanapun 75.8 peratus penduduk di Malaysia mengatakan ianya boleh dipercayai berbanding Negara-negara maju yang lain. Namun begitu ianya masih boleh dipertingkatkan lagi oleh Suruhanjaya Pilihanraya pada setiap kali pilihan raya umum dan kecil dari tahun ke tahun. Malaysia masih berada di kedudukan yang baik dari semua negara maju dan Asia kecuali Singapura yang kita sedia maklum sememangnya melaksanakan pilihanraya dengan baik. Jadual 4.3 di bawah merupakan indikator yang berada di bawah bidang Ekonomi di beberapa buah negara terpilih.

US

Thailand

Singapore

Malaysia

Korea Selatan

Japan

Indonesia

Hong Kong

UK

France

China

Jadual 4.3 Indikator bidang tadbir urus

Government stability (no of years)

202

0

46

3

23

59

12

14

131

42

62

Are the businesses and government corrupt? (% yes)

68.9

86.7

9

70.6

79.6

59.5

84.7

34.2

38.1

51

50.9

Do you have confidence in the judicial system? (% yes)

48.3

80.1

90.8

80

23.4

66.5

55.8

80.9

63.2

53.8

77.1

Do you have confidence in the honesty of elections? (% yes)

42.5

52

82.6

75.8

37

57.8

61.3

49.8

69.3

65.7

59

Do you have confidence in the military? (% yes)

90

89.3

91.7

91.8

57.1

85.6

90.2

72.7

88

83.6

80.3

Do you have confidence in the national government? (% yes)

35.4

73.4

85.3

83.2

24.8

18.2

75.7

52.2

43.3

47.4

73.6

Satisfied with efforts to preserve environment? (% yes)

59.4

77.4

89.8

74.6

35.4

44.4

58.6

38.7

72.4

54.7

76.9

Indikator

Pendidikan Salah satu bidang yang diberi keutamaan dan tidak kurang pentingnya ialah bidang pendidikan. Pendidikan adalah satu proses pengajaran ilmu pengetahuan terhadap kanak-kanak, remaja, dewasa atau kumpulan tertentu. Secara tidak langsung pendidikan membantu membina modal insan serta menambah baik taraf kehidupan rakyat di sesebuah negara. Sejauh mana pendidikan sesebuah negara itu dilihat baik adalah dengan melihat sejauh mana pelaksanaan sistem pendidikan itu dilaksanakan. Berdasarkan kedudukan dunia, Malaysia semakin tahun mencapai peningkatan kualiti sistem pendidikan dengan memperbaiki kedudukan dari tangga ke-45 dan ke-46 pada tahun 2011 dan 2012 kepada kedudukan ke 40 pada tahun 2013. Ianya di dokong dengan wujudnya Pelan Pembangunan Malaysia 2013-2025 dengan merombak semua sistem sedia ada kepada sistem yang lebih komprehensif. Terdapat beberapa indikator yang menarik dalam laporan Legatum ini iaitu berdasarkan soal selidik yang ditanya iaitu adakah rakyat Malaysia mempunyai peluang untuk menjalani pendidikan dan hasilnya 96.5 peratus rakyat bersetuju terhadap penyataan tersebut seterusnya meletakkan Malaysia di Kedudukan pertama bagi indikator tersebut. Selain itu, Malaysia juga turut memperoleh peratusan yang tinggi daripada responden terhadap persoalan mengenai kepercayaan rakyat terhadap sistem pendidikan yang dilaksanakan dan memperoleh 94 peratus. Sekali gus meletakkan Malaysia sebagai sebuah negara yang sangat mengutamakan pendidikan ke atas rakyatnya. Selain itu nisbah pelajar dengan guru di Malaysia agak baik dengan nisbah 13 pelajar bersamaan dengan 1 guru dan meletakkan Malaysia lebih baik berbanding nisbah negara-negara lain yang dilihat mempunyai sistem © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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pendidikan yang baik seperti Amerika Syarikat, Jepun dan Korea Selatan. Ianya selaras dengan hasrat kerajaan bagi melahirkan guru yang mencukupi dan berkualiti di dalam pelan pembangunan yang dicadangkan. Satu lagi indikator yang dilihat dalam laporan ini ialah jumlah tahun secara purata rakyat Malaysia memasuki pendidikan menengah dan pendidikan tinggi. Secara puratanya masa yang di ambil untuk tamat pengajian menengah iaitu selama 3.6 tahun dan 0.4 tahun bagi pengajian tinggi. Bagi kedua-dua indikator ini Malaysia berada di tahap sederhana dan masih boleh diperbaiki terutama sekali dari segi pelaksanaan sistem peperiksaan yang dilihat agak memberi tekanan kepada pelajar. Walau bagaimanapun kadar penyertaan di peringkat tertiary meningkat hasil Akta Institusi Pengajian Tinggi Swasta 1996 yang meliberisasikan sektor pendidikan tinggi. Ianya seterusnya menggalakkan penubuhan lebih banyak institusi pendidikan tinggi serta dana pinjaman melalui Perbadanan Tabung Pengajian Tinggi Negara. Jadual 4.4 di bawah menunjukkan beberapa indikator yang terdapat di dalam bidang pendidikan seperti yang dilaporkan oleh Legatum Prosperity Index 2013.

US

Thailand

Singapore

Malaysia

Korea Selatan

Japan

Indonesia

Hong Kong

UK

France

China

Jadual 4.4 Indikator bidang pendidikan

Pupil to teacher ratio

13.6

16

17.4

12.7

20.9

17.8

15.9

14.8

17.5

17.5

16.8

Net primary enrolment rate (% enrollment of prim sch aged children)

94.6

89.7

100

95.9

98.6

100

95.8

92.3

99.5

98.5

99.8

Gross tertiary enrolment rate (% of total enrolled/ ter.sch.aged)

94.8

46.4

72

42.3

103.1

59.7

24.9

60.4

59.7

57.7

26.8

Do children have the opportunity to learn and grow every day? (% yes)

80.7

88.9

94

96.5

71.5

89.2

80.8

94

89.1

84.9

93.1

Are you satisfied with the educational system or the schools ? (% yes)

67.9

91.4

90.7

94

60.6

64.7

85.3

51

86.5

76.1

65.5

Indikator

Kesihatan Satu lagi bidang yang sangat diberi penekanan ialah kesihatan. Kesihatan rakyat adalah penting dalam mencapai objektif pembangunan ekonomi dan sosial Negara. Bagaimana kemudahan kesihatan yang disediakan dan sejauh mana kadar kesihatan penduduk di sesebuah negara di jadikan pengukur kepada kesejahteraan rakyat. Malaysia diletakkan di tangga ke-53 bagi tahun 2013 berbanding di kedudukan ke-44 di dunia bagi tahun 2012 merosot dari tahun sebelumnya. Kemerosotan ini mungkin disebabkan penularan penyakit-penyakit berjangkit dan bagaimana langkah-langkah yang diambil oleh kerajaan untuk memastikan pencegahan dari wabak dan penyakit merebak. Selain itu, penurunan ini mungkin disebabkan oleh penyakit tidak berjangkit yang tinggi disebabkan gaya hidup dan diet tidak sihat serta pengambilan tembakau. Salah satu indikator yang menarik dalam bidang kesihatan ini adalah bagaimana kualiti air yang terdapat di Malaysia di mana hanya 77.7 peratus sahaja rakyat yang merasakan kualiti air adalah baik. Malah peratusan Indonesia dan Thailand lebih tinggi dari Malaysia. Sedikit sebanyak ianya akan melihat bagaimana cara pengurusan air dilakukan dan sejauh mana keberkesanannya. Salah satu indikator yang agak rendah ialah jumlah kematian disebabkan wabak yang menyaksikan jumlah yang tinggi berbanding negara asia lain seperti Jepun, China dan Singapura. Indikator kesihatan seterusnya ialah sejauh mana kebimbangan dan kerisauan rakyat di sesebuah Negara terhadap kesihatan dan kualiti hidup mereka di mana mencatat 26.5 peratus responden dan ianya lebih baik dari kedudukan Amerika Syarikat dan Korea Selatan. Selain itu kos perbelanjaan individu di Malaysia secara purata ialah sebanyak 558 USD lebih murah dari Singapura dan Jepun tetapi lebih mahal dari Thailand dan Indonesia. Kadar jumlah katil bagi setiap 1000 orang juga agak rendah iaitu hanya 1.8 katil bagi 1000 penduduk sahaja berbanding Brunei dan Singapura mencatat. Namun begitu secara keseluruhannya 83.5 peratus penduduk di Malaysia berpuas hati dengan tahap kesihatan mereka dan kesihatan persekitaran secara

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keseluruhannya. Walau bagaimanapun dalam tempoh 5 tahun, Malaysia tetap menunjukkan kecekapan dan keberkesanan system kesihatan dalam menyediakan peningkatan akses dan perkhidmatan penjagaan kesihatan yang berkualiti. Jadual 4.5 di bawah menunjukkan beberapa indikator yang dilaporkan berdasarkan bidang kesihatan beberapa buah negara terpilih.

China

France

UK

Hong Kong

Indonesia

japan

Korea Selatan

Malaysia

Singapore

US

Indikator

Thailand

Jadual 4.5 Indikator bidang Kesihatan

Rate of immunisation against infectious disease (% of children ages 1223 months)

90

98

95

95

99

94

89

99

90

89

99

Life expectancy

78.6

74.1

81.9

74.3

80.9

82.6

69.3

83.4

80.8

81.7

73.5

Health expenditure per person (Int. Dollars PPP)

8607.9

353.3

2187

558.6

2180.7

3174

126.9

1755.7

3321.7

4085.5

432.3

Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births)

6.4

10.6

2

5.6

4.1

2.4

24.8

2.9

4.4

3.4

12.6

Health-adjusted life expectancy (years)

70

62

73

64

71

76

60

73

72

73

66

Hospital beds (per 1,000 people)

3

2.1

2.7

1.8

10.3

13.6

0.6

4.4

3

6.6

3.8

Satisfied with personal health? (% yes)

89.5

86.6

89.6

83.4

70

83.3

72.1

67.9

88.6

91.2

77.7

Did you feel wellrested yesterday? (% yes)

67.7

82.1

63.1

79.3

74.2

85.3

84.7

79.8

70.5

58.7

80.7

Satisfied with the quality of water? (% yes)

88.2

80.2

95.4

77.7

82

88

81.3

77.2

93.4

82.1

77.7

Kebebasan Individu Kebebasan Individu seseorang penduduk di sesebuah negara merupakan satu perkara yang agak subjektif. Tetapi ianya sangat mempengaruhi kesejahteraan dan keharmonian seseorang individu di negara tersebut . Berdasarkan laporan Indeks ini mendapati Malaysia menduduki di tangga yang ke-110 berbanding 142 negara yang dilaporkan. Walaupun kelihatan sangat rendah dan lemah, Malaysia masih baik berbanding negara China dan Thailand yang agak mengawal kebebasan individu rakyat. Jika dilihat kepada indikator yang diberikan, salah satunya merupakan soal selidik mengenai kesesuaian negara menjadi tempat kediaman bagi etnik minority dan hasilnya mendapat 67.2 peratus sahaja. Peratusan ini lebih baik dari Thailand, Jepun dan China yang memperoleh peratusan yang lebih sedikit. Walau pun terdapat perbezaan dari segi bumiputera dan bukan bumiputera, namun sebenarnya sistem yang dilaksanakan masih baik dan mampu mewujudkan kesejahteraan kepada etnik minoriti di negara kita. Sudah banyak persamaan dan kesamarataan di berikan bagi bumiputera dan bukan bumiputera. Satu lagi indikator yang dibuat ialah berdasarkan kebebasan memilih individu dan rakyat dalam memilih siapa pemimpin yang sepatutnya dipilih. 84.8 peratus mengatakan mereka memilih siapa sahaja tanpa kawalan, batasan dan sekatan yang dikenakan oleh kerajaan dan pihak berkuasa. Walau bagaimana pun kebebasan individu di negara Malaysia masih dikawal oleh kerajaan terutama sekali kepada isu-isu sensitif seperti perkauman, agama, hak sama rata dan lain-lain lagi. Ianya perlu bagi memastikan kesejahteraan penduduk © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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berbilang kaum di Malaysia sentiasa dalam keadaan yang harmoni.

Keselamatan Bidang keselamatan kebiasaannya merupakan sesuatu yang sangat signifikan kepada Kesejahteraan sesebuah negara di Dunia. Negara yang tidak selamat sudah tentu dikatakan tidak sejahtera dan tidak aman. Secara keseluruhannya Malaysia menduduki di tangga yang 64 iaitu di tahap yang sederhana berbanding negara-negara lain di dunia dan kedudukan ini tidak banyak berubah dari tahun-tahun sebelumnya. Walau pun begitu Malaysia masih menduduki kedudukan lebih baik dari Thailand dan Indonesia. Sesungguhnya pelbagai langkah telah diambil oleh kerajaan antaranya melalui Bidang Keberhasilan Utama Negara (NKRA) mengurangkan kadar jenayah. Salah satu soalan soal selidik yang dijadikan indikator bagi keselamatan ini ialah adakah kita merasa selamat berjalan seorang diri di tengah malam dan hasilnya hanya 48 peratus sahaja responden yang bersetuju dan ianya jelas menunjukkan tahap keselamatan di Malaysia masih perlu dibaiki. Statistik kadar jenayah walaupun menunjukkan penurunan, namun masih belum cukup memberi kepercayaan kepada rakyat untuk merasa selamat. Malah peratusan ini jauh lebih rendah dari negara-negara lain seperti China, Thailand dan Indonesia. Selain itu, satu lagi soalan yang tidak kurang menariknya ialah adakah terdapat barangan yang dicuri bagi seseorang inidvidu dan hasilnya menunjukkan 11.6 peratus responden Malaysia mengatakan pernah kehilangan harta benda. Ini menunjukkan kadar jenayah di Malaysia masih tinggi berbanding negara-negara lain walaupun peratusan kita lebih baik dari Amerika Syarikat, Perancis, China dan United Kingdom. Jumlah penduduk Malaysia berhijrah ke luar negara juga agak tinggi iaitu 4.3 peratus dan ini adalah kerana bagi memperoleh pendapatan yang lebih tinggi di dalam bidang professional. Mungkin ianya disebabkan faktor tahap keselamatan yang masih rendah di Malaysia. Usaha yang menyeluruh dan berterusan perlu diambil bagi mengurangkan kadar jenayah oleh pihak keselamatan. Di samping itu program ‘Bandar Selamat’ juga telah dilaksanakan bagi membantu pihak berkuasa memantau jenayah dan aktiviti sosial yang negatif. Jadual 4.7 menunjukkan indikator- indikator terpilih berkaitan bidang keselamatan di beberapa buah negara.

China

France

UK

Hong Kong

Indonesia

japan

Korea Selatan

Malaysia

Singapore

US

Indikator

Thailand

Jadual 4.7 Indikator bidang keselamatan

Within the past 12 months, have you had money or property stolen from you or another household member? (% yes)

17.3

9.8

2.7

11.6

7.8

8.9

9.4

3.7

11.5

12.7

13.9

State-sponsored political violence (1 – 5 scale)

3

2.5

4.5

3.5

5

5

3

5

5

4.5

2

Do you feel safe walking alone at night in the area or city where you live? (% yes)

74.8

74.3

89.3

47.1

68.7

78.2

89.7

89.4

76.5

72.3

83.6

Demographic Instability (0-10 scale)

2.9

2

1.9

2.3

2.6

2.9

2.3

2.9

2.8

2.6

2

Modal Sosial Hubungan dan jaringan sosial sesebuah negara dalam mencapai matlamat dan tujuan yang sama merupakan faktor yang penting dalam menentukan kesejahteraan sesebuah negara. Ianya akan menilai sejauh mana masyarakat atau rakyat saling berhubung antara satu sama lain dalam mewujudkan kerjasama dan bantuan bagi memastikan sesuatu perkara itu di capai. Modal sosial sebenarnya agak jarang dibincangkan tetapi sebenarnya amat penting dalam memastikan kesejahteraan rakyat di sesebuah negara. Pada tahun 2013 Malaysia menduduki di tangga ke-80 meningkat dari kedudukan ke 100 bagi tahun 2012. Namun begitu ianya kelihatan masih rendah dan tahap kesepaduan di kalangan rakyat masih belum jelas dari mata kasar.

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Beberapa indikator yang ditanya kepada responden adakah penduduk di sesebuah negara membuat kerja amal pada setiap bulan dan hasilnya hanya 19.5 peratus sahaja yang bersetuju. Ianya memang rendah berbanding negara-negara lain di Asia Tenggara yang lebih banyak bersosial dan menjalankan aktiviti sosial. Malaysia juga hanya mencapai 14.1 peratus responden yang bersetuju bagi persoalan kepercayaan kepada individu lain jauh lebih rendah dari negara-negara lain di Asia tenggara. Apa yang mengejutkan juga ialah didapati rakyat Malaysia hanya 84.1 peratus yang membantu dan memberi pertolongan kepada saudara terdekat dan rakan karib. Ia jelas menunjukkan rakyat Malaysia agak mementingkan diri sendiri dan kurang mesra sesama masyarakat. Selain itu juga hanya 36 peratus sahaja rakyat yang menderma kepada perubahan amal dan kebajikan dan kita di kedudukan yang paling rendah berbanding Thailand dan Indonesia. Sehubungan itu, kerajaan perlu merangka bagi menguatkan kesepaduan dan jaringan sosial penduduk berbilang kaum di Malaysia yang dilihat masih tidak hidup di dalam masyarakat yang harmoni. Pelbagai aktiviti kemasyarakatan perlu dianjur lebih banyak lagi terutama sekali bagi pertubuhan dan persatuan bukan kerajaan dari semasa ke semasa. Aktiviti-aktiviti ini sedikit sebanyak akan menggalakkan penyertaan sosial di kalangan kaum-kaum di Malaysia. Jadual 4.8 menunjukkan beberapa indikator yang dilaporkan terhadap modal sosial sesebuah negara terpilih.

US

Thailand

Singapore

Malaysia

Korea Selatan

japan

Indonesia

Hong Kong

UK

France

China

Jadual 4.8 Indikator bidang modal sosial

If you were in trouble, do you have relatives or friends you can count on to help you whenever you need them? (% yes)

90.3

90.6

90.4

84.1

77.5

90.5

83.4

82.6

93.5

93.7

78.8

Have you volunteered your time to an organization in past month? (% yes)

44.7

12.6

7.9

19.5

29.4

21.3

30.3

15.1

29.5

25.2

3.9

Donated money to charity in past month? (% yes)

62.3

69.7

28.7

36

32.7

32.8

63.3

62.8

72.5

24.1

10.4

Do you think that most people can be trusted? (% yes)

37.1

27.4

32.9

14.1

25.8

33.9

21.4

30.3

35.8

19.9

59.6

Indikator

RUMUSAN Secara keseluruhannya, laporan Legatum Prosperity Index 2013 ini sebenarnya memberi gambaran sebenar kemampuan dan keadaan sebenar sesebuah negara berdasarkan 89 indikator- indikator yang disenaraikan berkaitan kesejahteraan dan keamanan. Hasil laporan ini juga akan wujud perbandingan antara negaranegara yang terlibat bagi mengukur pencapaian yang telah dicapai. Sudah tentu ianya akan menyebabkan berlakunya daya saing negara-negara yang terlibat dalam beberapa bidang tertentu akan berlaku dan hasilnya akan memberi kesan positif. Di samping itu, set-set indikator yang digunakan oleh laporan ini sangat komprehensif. Secara keseluruhannya, tahap kesejahteraan rakyat telah meningkat dalam tempoh 5 tahun kebelakangan ini. Ianya disokong dengan pelbagai dasar dan program utama kerajaan yang telah menyumbang kepada peningkatan kesejahteraan rakyat. Pertumbuhan ekonomi yang sangat positif juga telah Berjaya memberi kesan positif terhadap peningkatan kesejahteraan rakyat. Laporan ini juga menunjukkan Malaysia memperoleh pencapaian yang baik dalam beberapa aspek kesejahteraan rakyat. Laporan antarabangsa yang disediakan oleh Legatum Institute ini pastinya akan memberi petunjuk dan maklumat kepada kerajaan dan pemimpin negara mengenai kelemahan dan kelebihan yang ada agar dipertingkatkan. Walaupun ianya sedikit berbeza dari Laporan Kesejahteraan Rakyat Malaysia 2013 (IKRM) dari segi beberapa indikator yang digunakan, namun banyak persamaan yang dikenalpasti memberi hasil yang © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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tepat dan sama. Sedikit sebanyak kerajaan boleh menggunakan laporan ini sebagai panduan dan tindakan selanjutnya bagi memastikan kesejahteraan penduduk di Malaysia akan lebih baik dari tahun ke tahun. Berdasarkan laporan ini juga dapatlah kita simpulkan bahawa Malaysia terletak di kedudukan yang baik bagi Pendidikan, Ekonomi, Keusahawanan dan tadbir urus kerajaan. Namun bidang kesihatan dan keselamatan, Malaysia berada di kedudukan yang sederhana. Apa yang perlu dipertingkatkan di Malaysia ialah berdasarkan bidang kebebasan individu dan modal sosial yang dilihat masih rendah.

RUJUKAN Asmah Ahmad dan Rosniza Aznir Che Rose. (2011). Peralihan demografi dan kesejahteraan sosial masyarakat Melayu : suatu perbandingan antara Malaysia dan Kemboja. 6(1), 115-123. Azahan Awang, Abdul Hadi Harman Shah, Kadaruddin Aiyub. (2008). Penilaian makna kualiti hidup dan aplikasinya dalam bidang pengurusan persekitaran di Malaysia. Akademika, 72, 45-68. Azizah Md Yusof, Jamal Ali, Roslina Kamaruddin. (2013). Kesejahteraan hidup : Kajian petani di kawasan penanaman padi di Negeri Perlis. Prosiding PERKEM . Haris Abd Wahab. (2010). Kesejahteraan sosial dan pembangunan komuniti: Pendekatan dan Indikator. Seminar Serantau Islam dan Kesejahteraan Sejagat, 24-25 Februari 2010, Universiti Islam Sultan Sharif Ali Brunei Darussalam. Haryati Shafii dan Nurasyikin Miskam. (2011). Pembentukan penunjuk dan indeks kualiti hidup bagi mengukur kesejahteraan hidup masyarakat di Pekan Parit Raja, Johor. Junaidi Awang Besar, Rosmadi Fauzi, Amer Saifude Ghazali. (2012). Penilaian awal impak pelaksanaan dasar perumahan negara terhadap sektor perumahan di Kuala Lumpur. Malaysian Journal Of Society And Space, 8. Lembaga Penduduk dan Pembangunan Keluarga Negara. (2011). Kementerian Pembangunan Wanita, Keluarga dan Masyarakat. Laporan Indeks Kesejahteraan Keluarga Malaysia 201. Laporan Kesejahteraan Rakyat. (2013). Unit Perancang Ekonomi, Jabatan Perdana Menteri, Putrajaya. Norasmah Othman dan Sumathy A/P Panniappan. (2012). Profil keusahawanan peniaga india di Malaysia. Akademika, 82(1), 103-111. Novel Lyndon, Mohammad Reevany Bustami, Salfarina Abd Gapor. (2011). Persepsi kualiti hidup komuniti Bidayuh: Kajian perbandingan antara peserta dan bukan peserta program (Skim Pembangunan Kesejahteraan Rakyat) di Daerah Serian, Sarawak. Malaysian Journal of Society and Space 7. Wan Rozali. (2010). Kualiti Hidup sosial dan proses perbandaran di Malaysia: Bahagian Geografi, Pusat Pengajian Jarak Jauh, Universiti Sains Malaysia

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SECTION XII

COUNSELLING AND PSYCOTHERAPY

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

KESAN TERAPI BERMAIN PASIR DAN MELUKIS TERHADAP KERISAUAN DAN ESTIM KENDIRI MURID Rusli Busu* *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstrak Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti kesan terapi bermain pasir dan melukis terhadap kerisauan dan estim kendiri murid. Subjek kajian terdiri murid sekolah kebangsaan tahun lima (n=18) dari tiga buah sekolah dan GBK (n=2). Kaedah persampelan bertujuan digunakan bagi tujuan pemilihan subjek kajian. Subjek kajian dibahagikan dalam tiga kelompok iaitu; kelompok bermain pasir (n=6), kelompok melukis (n=6) dan kelompok kawalan (n=6). Sebanyak lima sesi dijalankan ke atas kelompok bermain pasir dan kelompok melukis. Setiap pertemuan sesi dalam kelompok mengambil masa selama 60 minit. Dua instrumen digunakan untuk mengumpul data iaitu STAIC A-State (State-Taiit Anxiety Inventory for Children) dan Estim Kendiri Stanley Coopersmith. Transkripsi temu bual digunakan untuk menganalisis data kualitatif. Kajian menunjukkan terdapat penurunan kerisauan dan peningkatan estim kendiri subjek kajian dalam terapi bermain pasir dan melukis. Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa kaedah dan teknik ini sesuai digunakan kepada murid sekolah kebangsaan.

PENGENALAN Vygotsky (dalam Mei-Hsiang Tsai, 2009:23) menyatakan bahawa kanak-kanak meneroka dunia mereka melalui bermain: “In play a child is always above his average age, above his daily behavior; in play it is as though he were a head taller than himself. As in the focus of a magnifying glass, play contains all developmental tendencies in a condensed form; in play it is as though the child were trying to jump above the level of his normal behavior.” Boyd-Webb (dalam Ann Marie Lundberg 2004: 1) menyatakan: “Play therapy is a psychotherapeutic method, based on psychodynamic and developmental principles, intended to help relieve the emotional distress of young children through a variety of imaginative and expressive play materials such as puppets, dolls, clay board games, art materials, and miniature objects”.

Kerisauan Petanda-petanda kerisauan ialah seperti berlakunya peningkatan kemuraman, penurunan estim kendiri, kesukaran memfokus serta bermasalah untuk mewujudkan perhubungan dan bersosial bersama rakan sebaya (Costello, Mustillo, Erkanil, Keeler, & Angold, 2003). Bagi murid-murid sekolah kesan kerisauan ini telah menunjukkan petanda pada fizikal mereka, seperti berlakunya sesak nafas, kelembapan di tapak tangan, peningkatan kelajuan degupan jantung, mengalami masalah ketika tidur, kejang otot dan menggeletar (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Menurut Nicolotti, el-Sheikh dan Whitson (2003) bahawa kanak-kanak yang mengalami peningkatan kerisauan Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

dalam diri sering menunjukkan estim kendiri yang rendah.

Estim Kendiri Estim kendiri merupakan nilai yang diberikan oleh seseorang individu terhadap dirinya sendiri berhubung dengan kebolehan diri, tingkah laku dan perwatakan diri (Woolfolk, 2001). Menurut Michie, Glachan dan Bray (2001) perbezaan estim kendiri bagi seseorang murid itu boleh memberi kesan kepada kesihatan mental, kesejahteraan psikologi dan tingkah laku interpersonal. Faktor ini dapat dibantu dengan penggunaan teori yang sesuai melalui teknik bermain pasir dan teknik melukis.

PENYATAAN MASALAH Keperluan psikologi murid-murid sekolah kebangsaan dan sekolah menengah adalah berbeza. Oleh itu strategi yang perlu diaplikasi dalam sesi kaunseling adalah tidak sama. Gaya ekspresi murid sekolah kebangsaan adalah lebih rendah berbanding dengan murid sekolah menengah. Ini tidak memungkin strategi tradisional kaunseling (bercorak lisan) dapat diaplikasi dengan berkesan. Perhubungan dua hala secara lisan kurang berkesan khususnya kepada murid-murid sekolah kebangsaan, disebabkan kebanyakan mereka kurang mahir dalam menguasai perbendaharaan kata. Menurut Newsome dan Gladding (2003) perkembangan kognitif kanak-kanak sekolah rendah berfungsi pada dua tahap iaitu pra operasional berumur dua hingga tujuh tahun dan tahap konkrit operasional berumur lapan hingga 11 tahun. Ray, Perkins dan Oden (2004) menyatakan kanak-kanak kurang mahir melakukan ekspresi lisan, mengintergrasikan pemikiran, emosi dan pengalaman apabila berada pada tahap ini. Justeru, jika digunakan pendekatan perhubungan kaunseling secara lisan sepenuhnya akan menimbulkan kurang minat dan keseronokan kepada kanak-kanak untuk melakukan ekspresi emosi. GBK kurang memberi tumpuan kepada faktor-faktor penting seperti mewujudkan suasana fizikal dan psikologikal, membentuk kepercayaan dalam membina perhubungan dan mengekalkan sikap membantu dan sikap bertanya kepada kanak-kanak. Mereka hanya memberi bimbingan atau panduan dalam bentuk nasihat dan arahan dan bukannya dalam bentuk proses kaunseling yang sebenar.

METOD KAJIAN Menurut Denzin dan Lincoln (2000) pendekatan kualitatif dapat memberikan maklumat yang boleh menambah baik inovasi dalam pendidikan dan keputusan penilaian kualitatif lazimnya dilaporkan dalam bentuk pengkisahan naratif atau deskriptif. Ini memberi peluang pembaca untuk memahami kesan implementasi dan hasil inovasi pendidikan yang dilaksanakan. Menurut Merchant (1997) pendekatan kualitatif sesuai dalam mengkaji pengalaman dan perasaan individu. Pengkaji juga dapat menyelami perasaan dalaman klien memberi fokus terhadap proses dan kandungan kajian. Creswell (1998) menyatakan pendekatan kualitatif merupakan satu proses eksplorasi berdasarkan maklumat dipilih secara sistematik dengan meninjau masalah sosial atau kemanusiaan, manakala Taylor, Beck dan Ainsworth (2001) menyatakan antara ciri pendekatan kualitatif ialah (i) perspektif yang holistik berhubung fenomena yang dikaji, (ii) menggunakan sampel yang bertujuan (iii) pengkaji merupakan instrumen yang utama mengutip data (iv) menggunakan analisis yang induktif dan data deskriptif, dan (v) melapor data dalam bentuk teks naratif.

Analisis Data Kualitatif Langkah 1:

Data Di Dokumentasikan Secara Sistematik

Langkah 2:

Pembacaan Beberapa Kali Untuk Pemahaman

Langkah 3:

Data Tidak Berkaitan Disingkirkan

Langkah 4:

Mengkategorikan Data

Langkah 5:

Mengelaskan Data Kepada Kategori Utama Dan Sub Kategori

Langkah 6:

Mendefinisikan Semula Kategori Utama Dan Sub Kategori

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ANALISIS DATA DAN DAPATAN KAJIAN Pandangan Guru Bimbingan dan Kaunselling Tentang Faktor Kerisauan Penyebab Penurunan Estim Kendiri Subjek Menurut GBK1 faktor kerisauan seperti berlakunya perceraian, kematian, perpisahan keluarga, banjir, lemas, kebakaran dan penderaan merupakan penyebab penurunan estim kendiri subjek. Menurut GBK 2 faktor seperti berlakunya perceraian, kematian, perpisahan, menjadi anak tiri dan penderaan merupakan penyebab penurunan estim kendiri subjek.

Contoh 1: GBK 1: “Ya estim kendiri depa memang rendah,sebab rasa sedih,malu ibu bapa bercerai. Lepas tu depa suka berasia dan duduk sendiri-sendiri. Depa susah nak cerita pasai pak, mak mati sebab benda tu…abstrak. Yang lain pulak macam …ha…keluarga berpisah, depa kena dera. Depa ni pasif sebab tertekan. Yang lain pulak pasai jadi fobia bila kena banjir, lemas dan rumah terbakak.”

Contoh 2: GBK 2: “Yang mai jumpa saya memang rasa risau, ….sebab hai keluarga. Pak mak depa cerai, pak mak mati, keluarga berpisah, jadi anak tiri, kena dera. Semua ni menyebabkan estim kendiri depa rendah.” GBK 1: “Ya, memang teknik bermain pasir ni berkesan sebab depa boleh rasa seronok, boleh bersembang, hilang risau dan berani. Cara ni depa jadi tak risau dan depa dapat meningkatkan estim kendiri.”

Contoh 3: Pengkaji: “Saya hendak bertanya cikgu beberapa soalan berhubung pelaksanaan teknik melukis yang cikgu telah gunakan kepada subjek. Kedua setelah cikgu menjalani beberapa sesi , apakah faktor yang dapat menarik minat subjek.” GBK 2: “Oh…ya…teknik ni memang kreatif,sebab budak suka lukis bila kita beri depa kertas, pensil warna,krayon. Depa lukis cara individu. Faktor yang menarik minat murid, sebab depa diberi bebas, layanan, melukis apa yang depa ingat. Depa dapat gambarkan isu-isu yang simbolik, rasa sentuhan yang lega, dapat bentuk imej dan buat ekspresi secara kreatif. Saya ingat cara ni baik sebab susah bagi depa buat cerita secara lisan. Pengkaji: “Adakah teknik melukis ini dapat memberi kesan mengurangkan kerisauan dan meningkatkan estim kendiri subjek?” GBK 2: “Ya..la..sudah pasti boleh beri kesan sebab depa dilayan dengan mesra. Teknik melukis ni dapat kurangkan rasa risau depa dan dapat tingkatkan estim kendiri depa.”

Pandangan Subjek Tentang Proses Kaunseling Terapi Bermain Berhubung dengan Perubahan yang Berlaku Terhadap Diri Subjek dalam Sesi Penamatan Contoh 1 Perubahan Perasaan dan Perlakuan Yang Positif Subjek 3: “Ibu saya marah kat saya sebab tak rajin buat kerja rumah, saya sedihlah.. Tapi sejak saya dapat jumpa cikgu, saya mula rasa seronok dan rajin buat kerja rumah.”

Contoh 2 Mengurangkan Kerisauan

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Subjek 3: “Saya rasa ibu dah dapat tengok. La ni, saya jadi tak risau lagi kerana saya lebih baik dari yang lepas.”

Contoh 3 Berkeyakinan Dan Meningkatkan Estim Kendiri Subjek 3: “Sekarang saya rasa berani cerita kat kawan tentang risau saya.”

Contoh 4 Berkeyakinan Dan Meningkatkan Estim Kendiri Subjek 4: “Sekarang saya tak takut lagi, jika silap saya rasa biasa aje.”

Contoh 5 Meningkatkan Rasa Empati Subjek 5: “Saya ada ramai kawan. La ni rasa kasihan kat kawan-kawan pulak.”

PERBINCANGAN HASIL DAPATAN KAJIAN Hasil dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan pengurangan tahap kerisauan yang dialami oleh subjek. Wujudnya hubungan terapeutik antara GBK dan subjek memberi faedah kepada subjek melalui teknik bermain pasir dan teknik melukis. Melalui hubungan terapeutik ini subjek dilayan dengan mesra, dibantu, dihargai dan diterima oleh GBK. Kemahiran mendengar, berempati dan kerahsian yang digunakan oleh GBK dalam teknik terapi bermain membuatkan subjek berasa yakin dan percaya kepada GBK. Faktor-faktor ini merupakan penyebab peningkatan estim kendiri subjek. Hasil dapatan menunjukkan estim kendiri yang dialami oleh subjek turut meningkat. Peningkatan estim kendiri oleh subjek selaras dengan dapatan kajian oleh Landreth (2002) yang menyatakan proses perubahan yang berlaku kepada kanak-kanak melalui terapi bermain dapat membentuk hubungan yang positif rakan sebaya dan keluarga, kanak-kanak dapat mengekspresi emosi dan memperteguhkan estim kendiri mereka. Dapatan ini disokong oleh Gil (1991) yang menyatakan suasana dalam bilik terapi bermain, membuatkan kanak-kanak menjadi kreatif dan mereka dapat membentuk alam yang terapeutik. Mereka menggunakan kognitif dan emosi bagi mengatasi kerisauan. Kajian ini juga selaras dengan Ray, Muro dan Schumann (2004) iaitu dengan menggunakan terapi bermain seperti teknik bermain pasir dan teknik melukis dapat memajukan suasana sekolah dan dapat mewujudkan perkembangan murid dengan sempurna serta dapat membina strategi penyembuhan seperti kerisauan. Selain dari itu kajian ini turut disokong oleh Post dan Robinson (1998) bahawa terapi bermain merupakan strategi kaunseling yang boleh digunakan oleh GBK dalam membantu murid yang mengalami kerisauan.

Kesan Teknik Bermain Pasir dan Teknik Melukis Mengurangkan Kerisauan dan Meningkatkan Estim Kendiri Subjek Bahagian ini membincangkan pandangan dua orang GBK tentang kesan teknik bermain pasir dan teknik melukis terhadap subjek. Menurut GBK 1 teknik bermain pasir merupakan teknik permainan yang kreatif. Teknik ini boleh dijalankan secara individu dan dalam kumpulan. Pendekatan teknik bermain pasir digunakan secara direktif dan tidak direktif. Melalui pendekatan direktif, membolehkan GBK membuat penstrukturan awal supaya dapat mengawal setiap gerakan subjek ketika menjalankan aktiviti bermain pasir, manakala pendekatan tidak direktif pula subjek diberi kebebasan sepenuhnya mengikut kemahuan, selera dan keselesaan subjek. Faktor yang dapat menarik minat subjek melalui teknik bermain pasir ialah ketika berjenisjenis bahan mainan miniatur disediakan seperti askar, kereta, lori, kapal terbang, serengga, haiwan dan sebagainya. Subjek diberi kebebasan untuk memilih bahan tersebut mengikut kemahuan atau pilihan sendiri. Kajian ini selaras dengan pernyataan yang dikemukakan oleh Landreth (2002). Peluang ini membuatkan subjek berasa bebas, seronok, tidak berasa risau dan kekok. Mereka sentiasa terhibur kerana diterima dan dilayan dengan mesra. Cara ini memudahkan subjek gemar untuk bercerita dan dapat mewujudkan sikap bekerjasama dalam kelompok ketika menjalankan aktiviti bermain. Pernyataan ini disokong oleh Campbell (1993) sikap bekerjasama kaunselor dengan kanak-kanak untuk menyelesaikan masalah. Teknik bermain pasir ini dapat mengurangkan kerisauan subjek oleh kerana pada kebiasaannya subjek akan melukis di atas

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kertas. Pada tahap ini subjek sudah mula pandai dan berani melukis di atas dulang pasir. Subjek sudah mula menunjukkan perasaan berani kerana boleh berbual sambil bermain pasir. Ini menunjukkan subjek dapat meningkatkan estim kendiri. Kesimpulannya dapat dinyatakan bahawa subjek mudah bercerita, berasa berani, bekerjasama, bebas, seronok, tidak kekok dan risau, diterima dan dilayan. Ini merupakan kesan yang dapat mengurangkan kerisauan dan meningkatkan estim kendiri mereka. Pernyataan ini selaras dengan Gil (1991) yang menyatakan dalam bilik terapi bermain kanak-kanak secara emosional dan kognitf dapat mengatasi kerisauan. Bagi GBK 2 menyatakan teknik melukis merupakan terknik permainan yang kreatif. Subjek menggunakan bahan seperti kertas lukisan, pensel warna, krayon dan cat. Teknik melukis dijalankan secara individu. Faktor yang dapat menimbulkan minat subjek adalah bebas melukis berdasarkan imajinasi sendiri. Subjek menggambarkan isu-isu secara simbolik. Melalui teknik melukis subjek dapat menikmati sentuhan yang melegakan ketika melukis imej. Subjek dapat melakukan ekspresi dengan secara kreatif. Cara ini agak sesuai oleh kerana terdapat sedikit kesukaran ketika subjek hendak menggambarkan secara lisan. Sepanjang aktiviti ini dijalankan subjek dipandu oleh GBK. GBK 2 menyatakan teknik melukis dapat mengurangkan kerisauan dan meningkatkan estim kendiri subjek oleh kerana subjek diberi penuh perhatian dan dilayan dengan mesra oleh GBK. Melalui teknik melukis lebih jelas subjek mempamerkan masalah melalui gambar yang dilukis, manakala melalui teknik bermain pasir juga dapat mempamerkan objek yang dilukis di atas dulang pasir. Kesimpulannya kedua-dua teknik terapi bermain ini dapat memberi kesan yang mendalam kepada subjek serta dapat mengurangkan kerisauan dan meningkatkan estim kendiri.

IMPLIKASI KAJIAN Implikasi kajian ini berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang dijalankan pada murid sekolah kebangsaan yang menggunakan teknik terapi bermain dalam proses kaunseling. Dua kelompok rawatan dan satu kelompok kawalan telah dibentuk oleh pengkaji terdiri daripada kelompok rawatan bermain pasir, kelompok rawatan terapi melukis dan kelompok kawalan. Hasil kajian yang telah dijalankan menunjukkan bahawa kelompok rawatan bermain pasir, kelompok rawatan terapi melukis telah mengalami proses perubahan pada diri mereka berkaitan dengan perasaan dan perlakuan melalui tiga kategori iaitu hubungan terapeutik, ekspresi emosi dan permainan kreatif. Sumbangan kajian terapi bermain terhadap perkembangan ilmu perkhidmatan kaunseling, kesan hubungan terapeutik, kesan ekspresi emosi dan kesan permainan kreatif yang wujud dalam terapi bermain merupakan hasil dapatan dan maklumat yang boleh dijadikan panduan yang berguna kepada GBK, khususnya dalam penggunaan kaunseling terapi bermain kanak-kanak. Di samping itu gabungan antara intervensi lisan tradisional dengan aktiviti bermain melalui proses kaunseling telah membantu menyelesaikan masalah murid. Melalui proses kaunseling dalam fasa penamatan menunjukkan murid secara signifikan dapat mempamerkan rasa berkeyakinan mengurangkan kerisauan dan meningkatkan estim kendiri. Berdasarkan kepada pernyataan masalah yang menjadi fokus kajian pengkaji mendapati penggunaan teknik-teknik terapi bermain sesuai digunakan melalui proses kaunseling kepada subjek di sekolah kebangsaan. Menurut McCourt (2005) menyatakan bahawa teknik-teknik terapi bermain ini terbukti berkesan penggunaannya melalui proses kaunseling murid-murid di sekolah rendah seperti di Amerika Syarikat, Great Britain, negara-negara di Asia, Afrika dan negara sebelah timur. Implikasi kajian ini dapat memberi persediaan yang rapi kepada GBK bagi mencapai matlamat kaunseling yang terapeutik. Dengan menggunakan strategi penyelesaian masalah berkerjasama secara efektif dan strategi gabungan bermain dan berbual dapat membantu mengurangkan kerisauan klien. GBK dapat menggunakan teknik-teknik kreatif seperti bermain pasir dan terapi melukis ketika menjalankan proses kaunseling bersama klien. Selain dari itu GBK boleh menggunakan pendekatan seperti terapi bermain pemusatan kanak-kanak tidak direktif kerana pendekatan ini memberi keseronokan kepada subjek. Apabila GBK berhadapan masalah yang rumit, soalan berbentuk mencungkil (probing) diajukan kepada klien kerana ini merupakan alternatif digunakan dalam proses kaunseling terapi bermain. Kepada pensyarah-pensyarah kaunseling di institut perguruan dan universiti pula hasil daripada kajian ini boleh membantu mereka supaya dapat meninjau semula kurikulum kaunseling kanak-kanak dengan menerapkan dan memberi penekanan nilai-nilai seperti hubungan terapeutik, ekspresi emosi dan permainan kreatif dalam pengajaran mereka. Sebagai contoh nilai hubungan terapeutik, subjek dapat membuat ekspresi dalam kaunseling melalui ekspresi emosi kerana subjek berasa selamat dan mempunyai kepercayaan terhadap GBK. Pensyarah-pensyarah juga boleh meninjau pelbagai teknik-teknik terapi bermain bagaimana mewujudkan keadaan selamat yang terapeutik dan kongruen. Selain dari itu mereka boleh memberi penekanan semula

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tentang sikap berempati melalui latihan kepada pelatih-pelatih kaunseling di institusi pengajian tinggi supaya dapat meningkatkan suasana yang terapeutik. Ini akan memberi faedah kepada GBK dan klien supaya dapat memahami perasaan yang mendalam antara satu dengan lain.

Cadangan Penyelidikan Lanjutan Bagi memantapkan lagi kajian yang akan datang maka di bawah ini disarankan beberapa cadangan yang boleh dipertimbangkan dan dilaksanakan oleh pengkaji-pengkaji lain yang berminat untuk meneroka pelaksanaan intervensi rawatan teknik bermain pasir dan intervensi rawatan teknik melukis terapi bermain. Pertama adalah dari segi pelaksanaan teknik-teknik kemahiran asas terapi bermain, adalah wajar GBK yang dilantik oleh pengkaji untuk mengendalikan teknik-teknik kemahiran asas terapi bermain berbanding GBK yang sedia ada di sekolah kebangsaan. Cadangan ini dikemukakan kerana GBK yang dilantik sudah menjalani proses latihan kemahiran asas teknik-teknik terapi bermain. Kedua adalah berkaitan pendekatan kajian yang dijalankan. Pengkaji akan datang disaran menggunakan pendekatan kajian secara kualitatif dan kuantitatif dalam mendapatkan maklumat secara mendalam tentang penggunaan teknik-teknik kemahiran asas terapi bermain di kalangan murid-murid sekolah kebangsaan. Saranan ini bagi mendapatkan maklumat secara menyeluruh tentang subjek yang menjalani proses kaunseling teknik-teknik kemahiran asas terapi bermain di sekolah kebangsaan. Ketiga adalah berkaitan faktor etnik subjek terlibat. Faktor etnik subjek mampu memberi sumbangan kepada dapatan kajian dengan lebih menarik. Ini kerana etnik berbeza mempunyai latar belakang budaya dan nilai yang dipegang oleh seseorang subjek adalah berbeza. Perbezaan ini mungkin memberi kesan kepada penggunaan teknik-teknik asas kemahiran asas terapi bermain, kadar kerisauan dan estim kendiri subjek tersebut. Justeru adalah wajar pengkaji akan datang mengkaji aspek etnik dalam penggunaan teknik-teknik kemahiran asas terapi bermain proses kaunseling di kalangan murid di sekolah kebangsaan. Keempat, saranan agar pengkaji akan datang membuat kajian ke atas subjek di peringkat prasekolah dan menengah rendah bagi melihat keberkesanan teknik-teknik kemahiran asas terapi bermain selepas kajian dilaksanakan. Pengkaji mencadangkan kajian oleh pengkaji berikutnya berkaitan dengan persepsi GBK menggunakan teknik-teknik terapi bermain di sekolah kebangsaan. Kelima, saranan agar pengkaji akan datang membuat kajian perbandingan keberkesanan di antara GBK yang mendapat latihan dan tanpa latihan teknik-teknik kemahiran asas terapi bermain.

KESIMPULAN Secara keseluruhan subjek telah melalui proses kaunseling terapi bermain dalam fasa penerokaan fasa intervensi dan fasa penamatan. Dapatan dalam kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa kelompok bermain pasir dan kelompok terapi melukis telah mengalami proses perubahan pada diri subjek berkaitan dengan perlakuan, perasaan dan pengalaman melalui tiga kategori iaitu permainan kreatif, hubungan terapeutik dan ekspresi emosi. Di samping itu penggunaan intervensi lisan tradisional digabungkan dengan aktiviti bermain melalui proses kaunseling bagi membantu menyelesaikan masalah subjek. Dalam fasa penerokaan, pengalaman yang diperolehi oleh subjek melalui permainan kreatif ialah (a) subjek dapat membuat ekspresi emosi, (b) subjek secara kreatif menyelesaikan masalah dan (c) subjek dapat mewujudkan perasaan yang positif dalam menyelesaikan masalah. Bagi kategori hubungan terapeutik terbahagi kepada tiga ciri utama iaitu bebas memilih, berempati/menerima dan berkerjasama merupakan pengalaman subjek melalui proses kaunseling manakala bagi kategori ekspresi emosi, subjek dapat menggambarkan perasaan seperti berasa selamat dan riang (menyeronokkan).

RUJUKAN American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (4th ed). Washinton, DC: Author. Ann Marie Lundberg (2004). Practitioners’ Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Play Therapy and their Utilization of Play Therapy Methods.The Degree of Educational Specialist Department of Educational Psychology Miami University Oxford, OH. Campbell, C. A. (1993). Play: the fabric of elementary school counseling programs. Guidance and Counseling, 28(1), 10-17.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PENDEKATAN KAUNSELING DALAM MENANGANI MASALAH MENTAL GAME DAN YIPS PEMAIN GOLF: SATU PENGENALAN Zainudin Omar* & Noor Azniza Ishak *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Kertas konsep ini merupakan pengenalan kepada kajian penerapan berpendekatan kaunseling dalam menyelesaikan masalah psikologi atlet, dengan. fokus kepada pemain golf. Dua masalah utama dikenal pasti iaitu mental game dan yips. Walaupun pakar-pakar psikologi sukan mengakui kehadiran masalah tersebut namun kajian terhadapnya adalah terhad. Masalah mental game dan yips dikaitkan dengan gejala kerisauan, kebimbangan, berpeluh dan hilang keyakinan diri. Pemain golf yang mengalami masalah berkenaan kerap kali mengalami keadaan seperti kekok terutamanya sewaktu melakukan chipping dan putting. Kertas kerja ini membahas punca kedua masalah dan menghuraikan beberapa kaedah rawatannya dari perspektif kaunseling. Keywords: kaunseling,modul rawatan, terapi kelompok, mental game, yips

PENGENALAN Perkembangan perkhidmatan kaunseling masa kini menunjukkan aliran positif dengan mendapat sambutan yang luas termasuk dalam bidang yang lebih khusus (See & Ng, 2010; Halim, 2005). Antaranya perkhidmatan kaunseling sukan (Hinkle, 1994), termasuk golf (Rotella, 2008). Contohnya, Woods melantik pakar bidang kaunseling dan psikologi bagi membantu beliau dalam pertandingan golf antarabangsa (Woods & Frank, 2001; Rotella, 2008). Perkhidmatan mereka berkaitan memperkukuhkan aspek mental. Woods turut dilapor menerapkan aspek kerohanian sebagai sebahagian dari kekuatan psikologi dan memuji Buddhisme sebagai salah satu sumber kekuatan mentalnya dalam golf (Sprackling, 2012). Atlet profesional antarabangsa pelbagai bidang sukan percaya perkhidmatan psikologi sukan memberi kesan sepertimana latihan fizikal lain (Carr, 2006). Perkembangan ini menunjukkan psikologi termasuk kaunseling dalam sukan menjadi satu fenomena yang perlu diterokai institusi yang berhasrat ingin memajukan lagi bidang sukan (Goldberg & Chandler, 1995). Permainan golf secara relatifnya permainan baru di Malaysia (ParGolf, 2009). Sejarah golf bermula apabila kerajaan British membina padang golf pertama di Taiping pada tahun 1885 (ParGolf, 2009). Sungguhpun demikian, perkembangannya menjadi rancak pada tahun-tahun 90an dengan pembinaan padang-padang golf bertaraf antarabangsa. Azmi, Mohd Rom & Zainudin (2012) menyatakan jumlah padang golf semasa di negara kita adalah sebanyak 220 lapangan yang bertebaran di seluruh negara. Dari segi jumlah pemain golf, Ahmad Sarji (2013) menyatakan anggaran seramai 400,000 pemain golf aktif di Malaysia. Manakala anggaran pemain golf di Asia Tenggara melebihi satu juta. Sehubungan itu, Ahmad Sarji (2013) berpandangan bahawa Malaysia patut menyertai kerancakan industri golf yang sedang berkembang

Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

di seluruh ASEAN. Kegagalan menyertai persaingan ini menyebabkan Malaysia ketinggalan dalam industri golf yang bernilai berbillion ringgit (Ahmad Sarji, 2013). Justeru, golf perlu dianggap sebagai satu industri sukan yang perlu diberi perhatian teliti dalam pembangunan sukan Negara (Ahmad Sarji, 2013). Selari dengan kepesatan pembangunan fizikal, pembangunan aspek psikologi dan mental pemain juga perlu diberikan perhatian serius (Azmi et al., 2012). Contohnya, dalam memastikan kejayaan berterusan atlet golf, penekanan terhadap kajian psikologi dan kaunseling sukan boleh menjadi sebahagian program sokongan bagi melengkapkan industri ini. Perkara ini boleh dijalankan melalui penubuhan institusi latihan mahupun pusat-pusat pengajian seumpama Akademi Golf Nasional Universiti Utara Malaysia (Azmi et al., 2012). Kepentingan bidang kaunseling dan psikologi dalam sukan tidak dapat dinafikan (Low, 2009). Perkhidmatan dalam bentuk kepakaran seperti ahli psikologi sukan dan kaunseling bagi membantu atlet di negara-negara Asia masih kurang berbanding negara-negara Barat (Low, 2009). Potensi bidang psikologi dan kaunseling juga belum diyakini dengan meluas di negara-negara Asia termasuk Malaysia (Saharudin, 2006; Sofian, 2010). Sehubungan itu, keperluan perkhidmatan psikologi dan kaunseling kepada para atlet perlu diperkenalkan (Sofian, 2010; Hinkle, 1994). Antara masalah terawal yang menjejaskan pertumbuhan dan kematangan psikologi atlet adalah akibat pengkomersialan bidang sukan yang bermula pada tahun 70an (Scott, 2000). Menurut Scott (2000) lagi, para atlet menghadapi pelbagai masalah seperti hilang keyakinan diri dan tekanan mental terutamanya terhadap ekspektasi jurulatih yang tidak munasabah. Mereka juga menghadapi tekanan dalam usaha memenuhi jangkaan daripada pihak yang menaja mereka. Menurut Scott (2000) lagi, senarai masalah-masalah yang dihadapi oleh para atlet seperti tekanan dan hilang keyakinan diri sesuai dipadankan dengan perkhidmatan kaunseling. Sementara itu, Hinkle (1994) menganggarkan di Amerika Syarikat sahaja, 10 peratus atlet pelajar menghadapi masalah-masalah berkaitan psikologikal. Hinkle (1994) selanjutnya menyatakan ahli psikologi sukan menumpu kepada performance berbeza dengan kaunselor sukan yang lebih fokus kepada masalah psiko-emosional yang dialami oleh atlet. Mereka akan meneliti dan merekod perkembangan emosional dan psikososial atlet dengan lebih menyeluruh berbanding ahli psikologi sukan. Perbezaan sedemikian boleh dikatakan menjadi sempadan halus antara bidang psikologi sukan dan bidang kaunseling sukan. Kaunselor sukan lebih memahami masalah seseorang atlet dan cuba mengurangkannya, sedangkan para profesional dalam bidang lain tidak mempunyai kemampuan tersebut (Hinkle, 1994).

PERANAN KAUNSELOR SUKAN Penyerapan kaunseling dalam sukan bermula dengan aplikasi teori dan pendekatan berasaskan kaunseling (Larner, 2008). Antaranya ialah teori berasaskan aliran tingkah laku seperti Solution Focused Behaviour Therapy dan Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (Larner, 2008). Kaunselor mungkin bukan seorang pakar terbaik tentang performance atlet, namun kaunselor sukan bergerak dalam ruang mereka yang tersendiri (Hinkle, 1994). Kaunselor sukan menumpukan perhatian kepada perkembangan seseorang atlet, dalam perundingan gaya hidup, program perkembangan dan kerjaya, serta pengurusan tekanan. Selain itu, kaunselor sukan terlibat dalam program pencegahan masalah, kemahiran penyesuaian (coping skills) dan berdaya tindak, kaedah membuat keputusan, pengurusan kehidupan, strategi teraputik dan pengendalian krisis. Walaupun demikian, tidak bermakna kaunselor sukan tidak terbabit langsung berkenaan prestasi dan performance atlet. Perkhidmatan yang diberikan kaunselor sukan boleh menyokong kedua-dua perkara tersebut secara tidak langsung (Hinkle, 1994; Murray, 1997). Justeru, seseorang kaunselor sukan perlu arif atau sekurang-kurangnya biasa dengan sesuatu jenis sukan yang diceburi oleh klien mereka (Carr, 2006). Salah satu halangan terbesar dalam perkembangan sukan ialah kurangnya penekanan terhadap pendekatan holistik dalam aspek latihan dan program pembangunan atlet (Saharuddin, 2006). Apa yang lebih ditekankan ialah perkembangan di peringkat kemahiran, kesesuaian fizikal, aspek kesihatan dan kecergasan pemain, penghargaan serta ganjaran terhadap pencapaian pemain (Carr, 2006). Sebaliknya, aspek psikologikal pemain jarang diberikan perhatian mendalam (Carr, 2006). Keadaan ini merupakan kesan langsung perkembangan pesat industri sukan yang berorientasikan hasil segera dan berterusan yang ditagih stake holder terhadap para atlet. Mereka ini termasuklah pihak penaja, pihak institusi sukan mahu pun Negara yang mengharapkan kutipan pingat daripada atlet berkenaan dalam kejohanan yang disertai (Shaharuddin, 2006). Sewaktu era komersialisasi menyerapi bidang sukan di Amerika, atlet yang ditaja mula menghadapi © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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pelbagai masalah psikologikal dan psikososial termasuk penggunaan dadah dan alkohol. Masalah-masalah ini dikatakan berpunca dari ekspektasi tinggi dari jurulatih, penaja dan peminat (Hinkle, 1994). Adalah dianggarkan sebanyak 10 peratus dari para atlet ini terlibat dalam masalah yang memerlukan campurtangan bidang kaunseling (Etzel & Pinkney, 1991). Justeru, perkembangan psikologi sukan meliputi perkhidmatan kaunseling berpotensi untuk dikembangkan (Carr, 2006; Murray, 1997). Pada masa akan datang, bidang ini dijangka akan terus berkembang (Graddy, 2007). Graddy (2007) menyatakan buat masa ini perkembangan bidang psikologi sukan sedang mencapai kedewasaannya, dan akan berlangsung dalam tempoh yang lama. Kenyataan ini merupakan sokongan penting kepada kelangsungan kajian bidang kaunseling dalam sukan.

APLIKASI KAUNSELING DALAM SUKAN Salah satu sukan yang perlukan perkhidmatan kaunseling terhadap atletnya adalah golf (Wan Rosni, 2012). Ianya berfungsi melengkapkan usaha lain yang dilakukan terhadap atlet golf seperti fizikal dan kemahiran, pemakanan dan aspek psikologi para atlet (Wan Rosni, 2012). Permainan golf memerlukan para pemainnya menguasai dua aspek kemahiran yang membolehkan pemain mencipta kejayaan, iaitu kemahiran fizikal dan psikologi. Kebanyakan jurulatih golf ternama mempercayai kepentingan aspek psikologi dalam permainan golf (Smith & Holmes, 2004). Dalam masa yang sama, para jurulatih ini memperakui golf sebagai salah satu permainan yang kompleks yang melibatkan aspek mental dan kawalan emosi yang kuat (Wan Rosni, 2012). Sehubungan itu, Mumford (2012) menyatakan bahawa tidak hairan sekiranya ramai penganalisis sukan golf meletakkan pengaruh psikologi dan aspek mental dalam golf boleh mencapai 90 peratus. Untuk menjadi pemain golf yang cemerlang, kefahaman mengenai kesepaduan aspek mental, emosi dan fizikal adalah amat penting. Mumford (2010) menyatakan; '...we will turn to a full understanding of how the brain and the body work together to produce what has come to be known as the “automatic principle.”That will be joined by a full description of a forthright “tool” (of mental and emotional proportion) that is designed to aid in the development of ones skills and habits and to serve as the guardian against anxiety in the course of playing.' Untuk menguasai golf, diperlukan gabungan kemahiran dan kesimbangan mental. Ianya dikatakan sebagai sukan yang mencapai 100 peratus keupayaan mental sekiranya kemahiran individu sama antara pemain (Mumford, 2010). Dalam pertandingan golf peringkat profesional, perbezaan kemahiran antara seseorang pemain dengan pemain lain semakin mengecil (Rohaty Majzub & Tajul Ariffin, 2010). Situasi ini menjadikan faktor-faktor mental seperti motivasi, bangkitan dan keupayaan memfokus sebagai faktor pembeza antara pemain yang berjaya dengan yang gagal (Rohaty Majzub & Tajul Ariffin, 2010). Faktor pembeza Tiger Woods dengan pemain lain bukannya kemahiran tetapi kekuatan mental (Mumford, 2010; Rotella, 2008). Menghadapi pertandingan sengit dan memenuhi jadual pertandingan ketat, seseorang atlet golf berprestasi tinggi juga boleh mengalami kelumpuhan mental. Mereka boleh kalah kepada pemain tidak ternama (Morris & Summers, 1995). Situasi seperti ini berlaku dalam kesemua jenis sukan (Saharuddin, 2006). Justeru, dalam usaha mengekalkan prestasinya pemain sentiasa menghadapi halangan yang mengganggu prestasi,terutamanya masalah psikologi (Shaharuddin, 2006).

MASALAH MENTAL GAME DAN YIPS Melalui catatan-catatan pengalaman para pemain ternama dunia menunjukkan wujudnya masalah-masalah berkaitan psikologi (Plumridge, 1988). Antara masalah yang popular dalam literature golf ialah mental game (Plumridge, 1988). Akibatnya telah menjejaskan peluang ramai pemain dalam memenangi kejohanan yang disertai (Rotella, 2008; Andresani, 2001). Terdapat juga masalah yips sepertimana yang berlaku kepada pemain terkenal seperti Tommy Armour, Ben Hogan dan Sam Snead (Haney & Rudy, 2006). Pengalaman Tommy Armour menunjukkan akibat mental game dan yips membuatkan beliau berhenti terus bermain golf dalam kejohanan utama. Beliau merupakan orang pertama yang mempopularkan istilah yips ke dalam dunia golf (Haney & Rudy, 2006; Wikipedia, 2014). Masalah yips berlaku dalam kesemua segmen pukulan golf, bermula dari pukulan tee sehinggalah kepada pukulan putt (Haney & Rudy 2006, Rotella 2008). Namun demikian, yips selalunya dikaitkan dengan pukulan putting (Mumford, 2010). Yips dialami dengan ketara sewaktu melakukan pukulan jarak dekat yang

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memerlukan ketepatan tinggi iaitu pukulan chipping. Sekurang-kurangnya 26 peratus pemain golf di Amerika Syarikat dianggarkan mengalami masalah berkenaan (Haney & Rudy, 2006). Yips turut dikaitkan dengan gejala seperti rasa kaku pada tangan semasa melakukan gerakan putting, samada semasa membuat hayunan ke belakang (back stroke) ataupun ke depan (forward stroke) (Haney & Rudy, 2006). Ianya juga diiringi rasa gugup dan kebimbangan (Smith & Holmes, 2004) sewaktu melakukan pukulan tersebut. Dalam satu temubual bagi melihat perkaitan antara masalah mental game dan yips dengan aspek psikologi, jurulatih kanan Akademi Golf Nasional Universiti Utara Malaysia mempercayai ianya dipengaruhi faktor psikologi lebih daripada faktor yang lain (Wan Rosni, 2012). Kajian-kajian berkenaan masalah mental game dan yips mengutarakan penggunaan pendekatan psikologi bagi mengatasi masalah kebimbangan dalam sukan secara umum. Kajian-kajian tersebut menumpu kepada motor learning experiments (Graddy, 2007). Perkembangan seterusnya memperlihat aplikasi kaunseling dalam psikologi sukan dengan penggunaan pendekatan-pendekatan seperti Psikoanalisis, Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) dan Solution Focused Behaviour Therapy (Larner, 2008). Namun, pendekatan yang paling mendapat perhatian ialah pendekatan tingkah laku (Graddy, 2007). Cameron (2009) menyatakan kajian terhadap masalah kerisauan dalam permainan golf, terutamanya sewaktu melakukan gerakan putting kerap dilakukan. Ini menunjukkan tahap kerumitan masalah tersebut (Cameron, 2009). Ianya juga menunjukkan masalah mental game dan yips dikaitkan dengan masalah psikologikal. Larner (2008) turut mengkaji masalah kebimbangan melampau menggunakan pendekatan REBT sebagai model penyelesaian masalah. Zimmerman & Protinsky (1993) percaya pendekatan dalam terapi keluarga (family therapy) mempunyai persamaan dengan psikologi dalam sukan dari segi objektif dan penyelesaian masalah. Hasilnya, Zimmerman & Protinsky (1993) memperkenalkan pendekatan yang diberi nama Uncommon Sports Psychology (USP). Pengkaji lain, Hays (1995) menyatakan psikologi sukan berkembang selari dengan perkembangan terapi semasa iaitu ringkas, mengarah, tumpuan kepada masalah serta penekanan kepada aspek klinikal. Graddy (2007) merumuskan, antara masalah atlet yang memerlukan campurtangan pendekatan psikologi sukan iaitu kerisauan, tekanan, kecelaruan pemakanan, penyalahgunaan bahan dan mengurus kemarahan. Larner (2008) dalam kajiannya menggunakan pendekatan REBT bagi mengurangkan kerisauan dan fikiran tidak rasional dalam kalangan atlet mendapati pendekatan tersebut lebih berkesan berbanding pendekatan- pendekatan yang lain. Sementara itu, kajian Bell & Thompson (2007) dengan menggunakan Solution-Focused Guided Imagery (SFGI) untuk mengatasi masalah yips pemain golf yang berusia 40 tahun ke atas mendapati tahap keberkesanannya amat tinggi. Keputusan kajian ini selari dengan dapatan dari kajian Anshel (1989) dalam Cameron (2009) bahawa masalah emosi, khususnya kerisauan boleh diurus melalui teknik psikologi termasuk imajeri.

KEKUATAN MENTAL DALAM GOLF Pendekatan kaunseling sesuai diaplikasi dalam memahami dan menyelesaikan masalah atlet (Giacobbi, Foore & Weiberg, 2004; Hinkle, 1994; Etzel, 1991). Bagi memenuhi matlamat itu, Antara perkara yang perlu diterokai seperti memahami hubungan antara keadaan mental (mental state) dan prestasi seseorang atlet. Selain itu, kajian mengenai punca masalah kepada atlet dan kaedah penyelesaiannya perlu diperluaskan (Giacobbi et.al, 2004). Dalam hal ini, pendekatan psikologi termasuk kaunseling boleh digunakan untuk memahami masalah seterusnya mencadangkan alternatif untuk menanganinya (Shaharudin, 2006, Hinkle, 1994). Ramai pengkaji melihat bahawa bidang sukan berkait rapat dengan bidang kaunseling (Giacobbi, Foore & Weiberg 2004; Chartrand & Lent, 1987; Danish & Hale, 1981; Etzel, 1991). Keterkaitan ini disebabkan kedua-dua bidang melibatkan aspek psikologi, mental dan spiritual seseorang (Hinkle, 1994). Dalam golf, aspek tersebut didahului aspek psikologi yang selalunya menunjangi kekuatan mental seseorang atlet golf (Rowe, 2012). Bagi memenuhi tujuan tersebut, kajian ini melihat kesesuaian teori dan pendekatan kaunseling REBT untuk diaplikasikan ke dalam bidang sukan. Dalam golf, faktor kekuatan mental diakui pemain golf ternama dan profesional (Haney & Rudy, 2006). Selain itu, faktor tersebut mempengaruhi prestasi pemain golf di peringkat amatur sebagaimana dibuktikan melalui kajian Hayslip, Petrie, MacIntire & Jones (2010). Dalam konteks ini, Ballesteros (2008) menyatakan sekalipun pemain telah menjalani latihan intensif di lapangan praktis (di driving range atau practice green) kemenangan seseorang pemain belum dapat dijamin kerana situasi dan tekanan yang dihadapi dalam pertandingan sebenar adalah berbeza. Pemain menghadapi situasi tekanan yang sentiasa bertambah sewaktu pertandingan (Rowe © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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2012; Rotella 2008; Reinmuth 1995). Keupayaan berdepan dengan situasi dan tekanan semasa pertandingan ini amat penting dalam keseluruhan permainan golf. Jurulatih golf berpandangan permainan golf boleh dibahagikan kepada dua segmen utama, iaitu segmen pukulan jarak jauh dan segmen jarak dekat yang perlu dikuasai seseorang pemain golf (Reinmuth, 1995). Jurulatih golf, Bob Totski meletakkan penguasaan permainan jarak dekat lebih berpengaruh dan amat menentukan keputusan sesebuah permainan (ParGolf Magazine, 2007). Sehubungan itu, Reinmuth (1995) menyatakan kebiasaannya pemain profesional akan menguasai permainan jarak dekat secara bersungguhsungguh kerana penguasaan kemahiran ini akan menjamin kemenangan mereka dalam sesebuah kejohanan (Reinmuth, 1995). Penguasaan permainan jarak jauh tidak menjadi masalah besar apabila seseorang pemain telah mencapai handikap tertentu yang dianggap telah menguasai pukulan tersebut (Wan Rosni, 2012). Dalam hal ini, boleh dirumuskan bahawa kemahiran permainan jarak dekat dikaitkan dengan penguasaan mental yang seimbang. Golf dianggap satu permainan yang mudah rapuh (Reinmuth 1995; Wan Rosni 2011). Oleh sebab itu, penguasaan mental yang kuat penting kerana perubahan mood dan corak permainan boleh berlaku hanya dalam beberapa ketika. Istilah yang popular dalam kalangan atlet golf iaitu 'swing hilang' merupakan satu fenomena yang dialami kesemua pemain amatur (Wan Rosni, 2012). Kepentingan kekuatan mental diakui kebanyakan instruktor golf utama antarabangsa. Reinmuth (1995) menyatakan dua perkara penting dalam permainan golf yang perlu dikuasai ialah aspek teknikal dan aspek mental (Reinmuth, 1995). Menurut beliau lagi, pemain hebat seperti Hogan dan Nicklaus terkenal bukan hanya kerana kemahiran tetapi juga kekuatan mental mereka yang terserlah dalam setiap pertandingan utama.

HUBUNGAN MENTAL GAME DAN YIPS Pemain hebat faham kepentingan melakukan short game yang baik (Reinmuth, 1995). Ini termasuk pergerakan putter yang lancar, tidak jerky diakui sebagai kunci kejayaan utama para pemain peringkat kejohanan antarabangsa. Namun demikian, dalam usaha melakukan pukulan tersebut sebahagian pemain diganggu masalah mental game dan yips, yang ketara dalam masalah putting (Smith & Holmes, 2004). Haney & Rudy (2006) menyatakan masalah ini boleh juga berlaku dalam kesemua peringkat bermula pukulan tee sehingga kepada pukulan putting. Dengan kata lain, yips diakui sebagai satu masalah yang amat serius di dalam permainan golf sehinggakan Steve Johnson, pengarah Hank Haney Golf Academy menyatakan masalah yips telah menyekat perkembangan sukan golf itu sendiri (Haney & Rudy, 2006). Mental game dirujuk kepada masalah psikologi yang dihadapi pemain sukan yang berbeza daripada masalah kemahiran. Senarai masalah-masalah yang dirujuk sebagai mental game seperti masalah peribadi, tekanan dalam pertandingan, masalah burn out, masalah perhubungan dengan jurulatih dan rakan sepasukan. Dengan kata lain, mental game ialah masalah yang menjejaskan aspek psikologi pemain (Saharuddin, 2006). Cole (2004) menyatakan mental game merupakan masalah yang menjejaskan mana-mana atlet dalam kebanyakan jenis sukan terutamanya melibatkan pertandingan. Pertandingan merupakan medan untuk ahli sukan menunjukkan kemahiran terbaik kepada pihak lain (Cole, 2006). Justeru, keadaan ini menghasilkan pelbagai tekanan berbentuk mental game. Cole (2004) turut membandingkan konsep ini dengan konsep kecergasan fizikal yang meliputi empat perkara iaitu kekuatan mental (mental strength), mudah lentur dalam pemikiran (mental flexibility), ketangkasan dan kecepatan berfikir dan membuat keputusan (mental speed and agility). Tanpa menguasai keempat elemen mental berkenaan seseorang atlet akan mudah mengalami masalah berkaitan mental game di mana mereka akan mengalami salah satu keadaan tersebut atau kesemuanya sekali. Dalam sukan golf, perkara yang dirangkumkan sebagai mental game termasuk bangkitan (arousal), pengurusan permainan (game management), masalah berkaitan hilang keyakinan diri, bersikap positif, goal setting serta masalah penumpuan (Borum, 2007). Dengan itu, bagi mendapatkan satu konsep mental game yang jelas agak sukar tetapi gejala ini boleh difahami melalui kesan-kesan yang berlaku ke atas pemain (Borum, 2007). Justeru mental game merupakan aspek yang luas skopnya dalam sukan. Dalam golf, mental game menjadi signifikan apabila seseorang pemain terdedah kepada perubahan berbentuk psikologikal, berpunca dari pelbagai faktor yang menjejaskan prestasi atlet. Manakala Taylor & Shaw (2002), berpendapat mental game merujuk kepada keadaan kerisauan yang muncul kepada atlet sukan tertentu dalam melakukan sesuatu tugasan atau gerakan. Dalam kajian menggunakan teknik imajeri dalam pergerakan putting, Taylor & Shaw (2002) menunjukkan kehadiran mental game bergantung kepada bagaimana pemain menanggapi kesukaran dan kepentingan pukulan yang bakal mereka © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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lakukan. Kajian lain oleh Morris, Spittle & Watt (2005) pula menunjukkan perbezaan keupayaan mengurus mental game antara kumpulan ahli sukan amatur dan profesional. Kajian yang memfokus kepada dua kumpulan pemain membuktikan bagaimana prestasi tinggi dicapai oleh kumpulan pemain profesional dalam pengurusan emosi dan tekanan, iaitu bahagian utama mental game dalam permainan golf. Yips pula sebahagian daripada mental game. Yips berlaku kepada sesiapa sahaja termasuk ahli muzik dan penulis (Smith et.al, 2004, Rowe 2012). Bagi ahli muzik bertali (strings) dan piano, yips boleh menyebabkan kebekuan jari jemari. Bagi penulis intensif pula, yips dilaporkan berlaku ketika mereka melakukan kerja-kerja menaip (Smith et.al, 2000). Dalam golf, yips berlaku sewaktu pemain melakukan putting, terutamanya pada jarak dekat (Mumford 2010; Smith, et.al, 2000). Yips tidak berlaku ketika pemain melakukan putting pada jarak jauh. Hal ini disebabkan jangkaan pemain tidak tinggi untuk memasukkan bola ke lubang pada jarak sedemikian berbanding putting pada jarak dekat (Smith et.al, 2004). Pukulan putting pada jarak jauh dianggap pukulan biasa (Haney & Rudy, 2006) dan dilakukan tanpa sebarang tekanan. Lazimnya, pemain berhandikap rendah akan membuat dua pukulan putt untuk menghasilkan purata skor yang munasabah (Pelz & Frank, 2006). Sepertimana masalah mental game, yips turut diakui sebagai satu masalah psikologi dalam sukan golf bagi pemain golf profesional dan amatur (Rotella 2008; Haney & Rudy 2006; Andresani, 2002). Masalah ini wujud dalam permainan short game sewaktu pemain ingin membuat pukulan jarak dekat, biasanya dalam jarak 120 meter dan ke bawah (Rotella, 2008). Dalam jarak ini, penggunaan peralatan yang terlibat bergantung kepada kesesuaian dan kemahiran pemain. Penggunaan peralatan wedge yang terdiri daripada degree wedge yang berbeza serta alatan putter dengan tepat memerlukan kemahiran yang kompleks dan aspek mental yang tinggi. Sebagai satu permainan yang berasaskan ketelitian dan fokus tinggi, pemain golf mudah terdorong untuk mengalami masalah yips (Rotella, 2008; Haney & Rudy, 2006). Dalam golf, kemahiran spesifik diperlukan seperti ketelitian dan ketepatan ketika membuat anggaran tentang jarak, ketinggian bola dan lantunan, arah bola, ketepatan serta disiplin mental (Rotella, 2008). Namun demikian, ada yang berpendapat masalah yips boleh berlaku dalam semua segmen pukulan golf, termasuk pukulan permulaan atau disebut pukulan tee off (Haney & Rudy, 2006). Masalah ini bukan sahaja dialami pemain golf rekreasi dan berhandikap tinggi, malahan juga pemain profesional. Sebagai contoh, Snead dan Langer pernah mengalaminya. O Meara, yang merupakan seorang pemain golf professional berpandangan yips menyebabkan seseorang pemain, termasuk dirinya berfikir untuk berhenti terus dari bermain golf (Haney & Rudy, 2006). Masalah yips paling kerap dikesan dalam pukulan putting (Filmater 2011; Smith et.al 2000; Reinmuth, 1995). Gejalanya berupa perasaan kaku dan beku pada tangan dan jari jemari pemain sewaktu melakukan gerakan tersebut. Dalam masa sama semua pemain golf tahu pentingnya gerakan leret kepada skor permainan mereka. Pemain golf sedar kemahiran putting begitu kritikal dalam pertandingan golf kerana ianya meliputi 42 peratus dari kesemua pukulan yang dilakukan dalam setiap sesi permainan (Bell 2006; Rotella 2008). Andrisani (2008) menyatakan putter adalah peralatan golf yang paling penting dan menentukan kemenangan seseorang pemain. Hal ini terbukti apabila Tiger Woods memenangi lebih dari 50 kejohanan golf melalui penguasaan putting (Andrisani, 2008). Mardan Mamat, pemain golf profesional Singapura menyatakan putting yang baik menjadi ukuran kekuatan mental seseorang pemain khususnya sewaktu membuat pukulan leret di lubang terakhir yang menentukan pemain menjadi juara atau sebaliknya (Mardan, 2006). Keadaan ini membuktikan kekuatan mental mempengaruhi corak putting seseorang pemain. Perkara ini dianggap sebagai faktor dominan dalam membezakan seseorang pemain yang mampu menjuarai sesuatu kejohanan golf daripada yang tidak. Mengikut Rowe (2012) yips dirujuk sebagai kegagalan melakukan pergerakan leret yang mudah dalam jarak yang pendek. Kegagalan pergerakan tangan yang sepatutnya berlaku dengan lancar telah menghasilkan pergerakan kaku menyebabkan bola tersasar arah. Mengikut Rotella (2009) pula keadaan tersebut berlaku kerana aspek psikologi negatif menguasai pemain sehingga mereka gagal fokus kepada bola, pergerakan tangan dan arah laluan bola. Sebaliknya mereka lebih berfikir mengenai kegagalan sekiranya pukulan putt yang mudah tidak dapat dilakukan. Gejala ini turut berlaku apabila pemain mula gagal melakukan putting yang mudah secara berulang-ulang. Pemain sepatutnya berfikir tentang pukulan yang dilakukan. Sebaliknya bagi pemain yang mengalami yips, mereka lebih risau mengenai kegagalan melakukan pukulan yang mudah pada lubang sebelumnya. Situasi ini melengkapkan putaran kejadian yips (Rowe, 2012). Rowe (2012) menyatakan 20 hingga 40 peratus daripada pemain golf akan mengalaminya secara berterusan. Semakin baik permainan seseorang pemain, atau semakin berusia seseorang pemain, maka semakin besar kemungkinan masalah yips berlaku (Rowe, 2009).

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Smith & Holmes (2004) melihat pembentukan yips melalui kehadiran elemen kebimbangan dan kerisauan sewaktu melakukan putting. Masalah yips selalunya diikuti petanda-petanda seperti seperti berpeluh. Pemain merasa hilang keyakinan dan kerisauan sewaktu memulakan pukulan tersebut (Smith & Holmes, 2004). Hasilnya pemain tidak dapat melakukan putting yang mudah sekali pun dalam jarak munasabah untuk memasukkan bola ke lubang (Filmater, 2011; Furst, 2010). Punca berlakunya yips sehingga ke hari ini masih menjadi perdebatan di kalangan jurulatih, pakar psikologi sukan mahupun pakar-pakar perubatan. Contohnya kajian pelbagai pakar yang dilakukan Smith, Malo, Laskowski, Sabick & Cooney (2000) menganjurkan pendapat bahawa wujudnya hubungkait antara saraf dengan yips, selain dari aspek psikologikal pemain. Namun begitu, pandangan ini tidak dipersetujui kebanyakan jurulatih golf ternama seperti Perlz dan Leadbetter yang menyatakan masalah ini berpunca dari aspek psikologi seseorang pemain (Mangum, 2010; Wan Rosni, 2012). Para jurulatih percaya masalah yips boleh dirawat secara rawatan psikologi (Mangum, 2010; Haney & Rudy, 2006). Pandangan lebih kukuh diberikan Rotella (2008) bahawa yips bukan satu bentuk penyakit. Menurut Rotella (2008) tidak ada keadaan neurologi yang boleh dirujuk sebagai yips. Sebaliknya yips merupakan keadaan mental, bukannya kelemahan mekanik. Keadaan ini berpunca daripada tekanan dalaman seseorang pemain, terutamanya tekanan yang diletakkan pemain itu terhadap keupayaannya menghasilkan skor yang baik dalam sesuatu pertandingan (Rotella, 2008). Terdapat juga perspektif lain berkenaan kemunculan yips yang dikaitkan dengan teori tingkah laku pelaziman klasik (classical conditioning behavior) oleh Pavlov. Dalam keadaan tertentu, aktiviti atau perlakuan putting memenuhi syarat-syarat untuk terjadinya tindak balas yang tidak diingini. Sumber dari laman web web competitive-golf.com (2012) menyatakan; 'The yips is something you have conditioned yourself to do each time you face that particular shot or putt in a particular situation. Your brain's neurons start firing, your muscles begin to tighten, your breathing gets faster and shallower and your adrenaline can surge. All within seconds and with little or no conscious thought about it. Are you starting to see why you yips?' Menurut Sarazene (2012) beberapa ciri diperhatikan berkenaan pemain yang mengalami yips. Pertamanya yips akan 'menyerang' segmen permainan yang lemah, biasanya segmen putting. Keduanya, yips berkemungkinan berlaku dengan meningkatnya tekanan ke atas pemain tanpa disedari pemain tersebut sewaktu permainan berlangsung. Kadangkala peningkatan tekanan tidak berkaitan dengan golf sama sekali seperti tekanan kewangan, kerja ataupun keluarga. Ketiganya ialah pengalaman kegagalan berulang-ulang dalam melakukan putting yang mudah menimbulkan rasa malu dan kecewa terhadap segmen tersebut (Sarazen, 2012). Kesimpulan yang boleh dibuat tentang kedua masalah ini pertamanya yips merupakan salah satu masalah yang boleh dikesan hasil daripada keseluruhan masalah mental game yang wujud dalam diri seseorang pemain. Keduanya masalah yips tidak wujud secara berasingan daripada masalah mental game yang dialami oleh seseorang pemain. Sebaliknya ianya merupakan satu masalah kontinum dalam keseluruhan permainan golf, yang bermula dengan pukulan tee dan diakhiri dengan pukulan putting (Rotella 2008; Haney & Rudy 2006). Justeru yips boleh saja berlaku sewaktu ayunan permulaan yang dipanggil driver yips atau pukulan-pukulan lain dengan menggunakan alatan yang berbeza. Namun disebabkan oleh penggunaan peralatan ini dilakukan secara ketara dengan pergerakan anggota badan, maka masalah yips semasa menggunakan peralatan ini adalah kurang kelihatan (Haney & Rudy, 2006). Walau bagaimanapun, ini tidak bermakna yips tidak wujud sewaktu melakukan pukulan berkenaan (Haney & Rudy, 2006). Sebaliknya, yips kelihatan jelas sewaktu pukulan putting dilakukan kerana segmen ini memerlukan ketelitian dan ketepatan yang amat tinggi. Dalam hal ini, boleh dirumuskan bahawa putting stroke adalah merupakan satu pukulan singkat daripada keseluruhan swing (Haney & Rudy, 2006) atau diberi jolokan mini swing. Dengan itu, masalah yips ini dianggap sebagai satu masalah yang wujud dalam keseluruhan permainan golf bagi seseorang pemain yang mengalami masalah mental game. Kedua-dua masalah ini tidak wujud secara berasingan. Kenyataan ini bersesuaian dengan kajian-kajian berkenaan yips yang ditumpukan kepada putting kerana yips lebih banyak berlaku semasa putting dilakukan berbanding segmen pukulan yang lain. Walaupun secara fizikalnya putting kelihatannya mudah dan ringkas, namun ianya menjadi sukar apabila berlakunya situasi yang menekankan (Tomasi & Midland, dalam Bell, 2006). Sepanjang penelitian terhadap kajian yips di Malaysia kajian ini mungkin merupakan kajian awal berkenaan masalah tersebut dan kaitannya dengan aspek psikologi pemain sukan. Justeru kajian ini penting bagi mendalami hubungan keadaan psikologi seseorang pemain dengan masalah mental game dan gejala yips yang dialami. Sehubungan dengan perkara di atas juga, wujudnya ketidakpastian mengenai sejauh mana keberkesanan modul rawatan kaunseling yang diberikan kepada para pemain. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Masalah psikologi seperti mental game dan yips juga berlaku kepada atlet dalam bidang sukan yang lain seperti baseball dan kriket (Haney & Rudy, 2006). Justeru, kajian ini dijangka boleh membantu menjelaskan lagi permasalahan tersebut dan hasilnya boleh dijadikan input kepada program-program yang dijalankan oleh pihak-pihak yang berkaitan dengan perkembangan sukan di negara kita seperti Majlis Sukan Negara serta organisasi sukan yang lain. Keadaan ini disokong oleh kenyataan terhadnya sumber rujukan berkaitan masalah mental game dan yips dalam laman-laman web. Sekiranya ada pun, ianya berupa informasi-informasi secara umum sahaja manakala kajian yang benar-benar serius dan spesifik tidak banyak dilakukan (Mumford, 2010).

PENDEKATAN KAUNSELING DALAM KAJIAN BIDANG SUKAN Kepentingan penggunaan kaedah kaunseling sebagai medium penyelesaian masalah dalam pelbagai bidang telah diperakukan dalam pelbagai bidang disebabkan keberkesanannya membantu perubahan dan perkembangan individu (Othman, 2007). Contohnya kaunseling dalam sukan. Bidang sukan memberikan perhatian terhadap kaedah dan pendekatan yang mengaitkan pertumbuhan individu yang menjadi fokus dan keutamaan perkhidmatan kaunseling (Larner, 2008). Namun begitu, perkembangan kaunseling dalam sukan dibayangi bidang psikologi sukan yang berkembang lebih awal (Chartrand & Lent, 1987). Di Malaysia, kajian dalam bidang ini belum banyak berbanding negara-negara seperti Amerika Syarikat, Kanada, United Kingdom, Rusia, China dan sebagainya yang telah lama mengamalkan program tersebut (Low, 1999). Di negara kita aktiviti sukan berkumpulan telah beralih ke sukan berbentuk individu. Malaysia mula mendapat kutipan pingat perak dalam acara golf individu manakala gangsa dalam acara berpasukan di sukan SEA Myanmar (MStar, 2013). Selaras dengan usaha untuk mempertingkatkan perkembangan kajian dalam memajukan bidang sukan, maka kajian seperti ini perlu terutamanya bagi pemantapan kefahaman mereka yang terlibat dalam pengurusan psikologi sukan (Sofian, 2010). Masalah melibatkan mental game bukan sahaja wujud dalam permainan golf malah menjadi masalah kepada hampir semua jenis sukan (Shaharuddin, 2006). Oleh itu usaha menangani masalah berkaitan penting selaras dengan tumpuan negara dalam menaikkan taraf bidang sukan ke tahap lebih tinggi. Kenyataan Menteri Belia dan Sukan berkenaan pemajuan bidang sukan sebagai satu industri yang menyumbang kepada pendapatan negara memerlukan usaha-usaha dari kesemua cabang ilmu sebagai sokongan penting (Khairy, 2014). Menurut Khairy (2014) lagi, secara spesifik pelbagai jenis teknik dalam psikologi sukan boleh diperkenalkan melalui sistem ‘Sains dan Perubatan Dalam Bidang Sukan’ (SSSM) bagi menangani masalah tekanan mental dalam kalangan ahli sukan. Dengan itu, kajian ini boleh menjadi sokongan kepada usaha memantapkan usaha penerapan bidang sains ke dalam industri sukan negara. Dalam sukan golf pula, secara spesifik masalah mental game dan yips membabitkan 30 peratus dari kalangan pemain (Hill, Hanton, Matthews & Fleming 2010). Implikasi masalah mental game dan yips adalah besar kepada pemain, namun dalam masa yang sama kajian terhadap masalah tersebut begitu terhad. Keadaan ini mewujudkan kepentingan untuk kajian ini diadakan. Dengan kata lain, satu kajian untuk memahami punca atau mencadangkan kaedah rawatan terhadap masalah ini penting dan perlu dilakukan terutamanya dalam meningkatkan mutu permainan dalam sesuatu jenis sukan berkenaan. Setakat ini, keberkesanan sesuatu pendekatan kaunseling dalam menangani masalah dalam bidang sukan juga tidak banyak dikaji dalam negara ini. Lagipun kajian berkenaan mental game dan yips sebagai punca serta kaedah rawatannya (Smith et.al, 2004) adalah merupakan kajian yang secara relatifnya amat baru di peringkat antarabangsa. Justeru, kajian berkenaan menjadi penting supaya ianya turut menjadi sumbangan negara kita dalam kajian bidang ini. Kita juga kekurangan kajian-kajian berkaitan modul-modul yang berkesan membabitkan pendekatan kaunseling dalam mengurangkan masalah-masalah yang dihadapi oleh para pemain golf. Kajian seumpama ini akan meningkatkan potensi bidang kaunseling serta meluaskan lagi aspek kebolehgunaan bidang perkhidmatan berkenaan. Ini menunjukkan kepentingan kajian-kajian bagi memperkenalkan kaedah-kaedah, modul, pendekatan dan teknik baru dalam latihan perlu sentiasa dilakukan sebagai sebahagian dari program memajukan sukan golf khasnya dan sulan yang lain amnya di negara kita. Hal ini boleh dilihat daripada kajian Mazlan, Manoharan, Solha & Balbir (2013). Kajian mereka menggunakan modul berpendekatan imajeri membuktikan keberkesanannya dalam meningkatkan keupayaan atlet golf memfokus sewaktu pergerakan putting. Kajian tersebut turut mengambilkira penciptaan situasi latihan sepertimana dalam situasi sebenar bagi meningkatkan keberkesanan pergerakan putting. Ianya juga mendapati pergerakan putting yang baik elok dilakukan dalam keadaan tanpa tekanan. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Kajian-kajian berkenaan mental game telah dibuktikan kepentingannya bukan terhad kepada sesuatu jenis sukan semata-mata. Ianya boleh dikembangkan ke dalam hampir kesemua jenis sukan (Saharuddin Aziz, 2006) kerana kesemua jenis sukan mengandungi elemen mental game (Morris, Spittle & Watt, 2005). Selain itu, kajian bagi memperkenalkan penggunaan modul kaunseling di dalam sukan telah terbukti berkesan dalam menghasilkan atlet sukan yang lebih seimbang (Larner, 2008; Hinkle, 1989).

KESIMPULAN Dengan demikian boleh dirumuskan bahawa kajian ini penting sebagai usaha awal untuk memperkenalkan perkhidmatan kaunseling dalam bidang sukan di Negara kita. Usaha ini diharap mampu mencetuskan lebih banyak lagi kajian-kajian lain berhubung perkara tersebut pada masa depan. Selain itu, kajian ini dijangka memberikan perspektif baru kepada pemecahan masalah mental game dan yips, yang dijangka boleh mengubah persepsi pengkaji sebelum ini yang lebih menumpu kepada masalah biologikal atau pun sistem saraf sebagai puncanya sebagaimana dapatan Smith et.al, (2000). Rumusan ini selari dengan pandangan Rotella (2008) yang menganggap masalah mental game dan yips sebagai masalah psikologi berbanding sebagai masalah biologi. Dengan itu, melalui kajian ini membolehkan pemecahan kepada masalah psikologi ini boleh dilakukan dan satu kaedah rawatan alternatif boleh diberikan dengan berkesan.

RUJUKAN Abdul Halim Othman. (2005). Challenges and opportunities for counselling and guidance in Malaysia in the year 2012. Teks ucapan di Majlis Bicara Kaunselor sempena ulang tahun PERKAMA ke 25, di Bangi, pada 24 Jun 2005. Ahmad Sarji Abdul Hamid. (2013). Teks Ucapan Perasmian Akademi Golf Nasional UUM bertarikh 11 November 2013. Tidak diterbitkan, UUMNGA, UUM. Andrisani, J. (2008). Putt like a pro. Mc Graw – Hill Publishing. New York. Azmi Shaari, Mohd Rom Muslim dan Zainudin Omar. (2012). Golf education in Malaysia: UUMNGA Experience. Kertas kerja yang dibentangkan dalam Seminar Malaysia International Golf Symposium. Kuala Lumpur pada 26-28 November 2012. Ballesterous, S. (2008). Seve: The autobiography. Yellow Jersey. USA. Bell, R. J. (2006). Utilizing Solution-Focused Guided Imagery with golfers experiencing the yips. A single – subject research design. Unpublished thesis. University of Tenessee. Borum, J. (2007). Golf and psychology. Dipetik daripada laman fightzone.com. Dilayari pada 27 Mei 2011. Carr, C. M. (2006). Sport psychology: Issues and applications. Journal Physical and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America. 17. 519 - 535. Cameron, T.B. (2009). The effects of motivational imagery and perceived difficulty of a golf-putting task on emotional states and performance in novice and expert golfers. Unpublished thesis. Canada: University of Calgary. Ching Mey See & Kok-Mun Ng (2010). Counseling in Malaysia: History, current status, and future trend. Journal of Counseling & Development. Winter 2010. 88. Cole, B. (2004). The mental game of tennis. Dipetik dari laman http://www.mentalgamecoach.com/ Assessments/MentalGameOfSports Etzel, E.F. Farrante, A.P. & Pinkney, J.W. (1991). Counselling college student athletes: Issues and interventions. Morgantown, Fitness Information Technology. Filmalter, M. (2011). Motor strategy disturbances in golf: The effect of yips’on the movement of the putter head. Journal Science and Golf (V), proceeding of the World Scientific Congress of Golf. Furst, A. (2012). Mental skill audit. Dilayari pada 29 Mac 2012 melalui laman http://www.iseekgolf.com/ golfpsychology/6781-mental-skills-audit. Giacobbi, P. R., Foore, B., & Weinberg, R. S. (2004). Broken clubs and expletives: The sources of stress and coping responses of skilled and moderately skilled golfers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 16, 166-182. Goulberg, A. & Chandler, T. (1995). Sports counseling: Enhancing the development of the high school student athlete. Journal of Counseling and Development, 71, 39-44. Graddy, J.T. (2007). The Future of Sport Psychology. A Delphi Poll. Disertasi tidak diterbitkan. University of Florida. Guest, A. (2012). Mental game: Pain. Dilayari pada Februari 2012 dari laman http://pitchinvasion.net/ blog/2010/08/24/a-mental-game-pain/ Haney, H. & Rudy, W. (2006). Fix the yips forever: The first and only guide you need to solve the game’s worst curse. Gotham Books. Hayslip, B., Petrie, T. A., MacIntire, M. M. & Jones, G. M. (2010). The influences of skill level, anxiety, and psychological skills used on amateur golfers’ performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,

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22,123-133. Hinkle, J. S. (1994). Integrating sport psychology and sports counselling: Development programming, education, and research. Journal of Sport Behaviour. Khairy Jamaluddin (2014). Intisari sains dalam bidang sukan di Malaysia.www.rembau.net.my/ml_sports_ science_in_malaysia_an_overview Larner, C. (2008). On making warriors out of worriers: The management of trait anxiety in competitive sports. Unpublished thesis. Victoria University of Technology. Low, F. L. (1999). Cognitive strategies for coping with stress in a simulated golf task. Unpublished thesis. UPM. Mangum, G. (2012). The neurophysiology of golf putting: The Mayo Clinic takes a stab at the yips. Daripada melalui laman www.puttingzone.com/Dystonia/yipsstudy.html. Dilayari pada 17 Mac 2012. Mardan Mamat. (2006). Tour tips with Mardan Mamat: The key to my winning putt-soft hands. Par Golf Magazine. Jun 2006. Mazlan Ismail, Santosh Ayathupady Monaharan, Solha Husin, Mohd Salleh Aman & Balbir Singh (2013). Effectiveness of Pettlep Imagery of hardest distance in golf putting. Prosiding UISSCo pada 24-26 Jun 2013 di Universiti Malaysia Sabah. Mohd Sofian Omar Fauzee. (2002). Psikologi sukan: Daya tahan mental dan emosi di kalangan atlet. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications. Morris, T., Spittle, M. & Watt, A. P. (2005). Imagery in sport. Windsor, Ont: Human Kinetics. Mstar Online. (2013). Kevin, Kelly Sandaran Sukan SEA Myanmar. Dipetik mstar.com.my/variasi/sukan/cerita. asp?file=/2013/10/22/mstar_sukan/20131022164220&sec=mstar_sukan Mumford, C. (2012). Non mechanical side of golf. Dipetik dari laman web http://www.iseekgolf.com/ golfpsychology/5790-the-non-mechanical-side-of-golf.Dilayari pada 8 April 2012. Murray, M. A. (1997). The counseling needs of college student-athletes. Paper AAI9737427.http:// digitalcommons.uconn.edu/dissertations/AAI9737427. Unpublished doctoral dissertations. Reinmuth, D. (1995). Tension free golf. Unleashing your greatest shot more often. Chicago. Triumph Books. Rohaty Majzub & Tajul Ariffin Muhammad. (2010). Goal orientation, attention styles and anxiety of junior golfers in Malaysia. Jurnal Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 583-588. Rotella, B. (2008). Your 15th club: The inner secret to great golf. London: Simon and Schuster. Rowe, J. E. (2012). EFT and golf: The new mental game manual. Dipetik dari laman web booklocker.com. Dilayari pada Mei 2012. Rowe, J. E. (2012). Energy psychology and yips: Cure and prevention. Dipetik dari laman web booklocker.com. Dilayari pada Mei 2012. Sarazene, G. (2012). Yips in golf. Daripada competitive-golf. com. Dilayari pada 25 Oktober 2012. Scott, H. J. (2000). Sport counselling: Helping student-athlete. (dipetik melalui carian eric digests.org/1996-1/ sports.htm). Shaharudin Abd Aziz. (2006). Mengaplikasi Teori Psikologi Dalam Sukan. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publishing & Distributors. Smith A. M., Malo S., Laskowski E.R., Sabick M., Cooney III, W. P., Finnie, S.B.,Crews, D.J., Eischen, J.J, Hay, I.D., Detling, N. J. & Kaufman, K. (2000).Amultidisciplinary study of the ‘yips’ phenomenon in golf: An exploratory analysis, Sports Med 2000, Dec; 30 (6): 423-437. Smith, D. & Holmes, P., (2004). The effect of imagery modality on golf putting performance. JSEP, 26(3). Sept 2004. Sprackling, A. (2012). Tiger Woods golf psychology. Dipetik dari laman web www.singlemindedgolf.com. Dilayari pada 13 Jun 2012. Taylor, J. A. & Shaw, D. F. (2002). The effects of outcome imagery on golf-putting performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 607-613. Woods, T., & Frank, W. (2001). How I play golf. New York. Warner Books Inc. Zimmerman, T.S., & Protinsky, H. (1993). Uncommon sports psychology: Consultation using family therapy theory and techniques. American Journal of Family Therapy, 21, 161-174. Temubual Temubual Wan Rosni Wan Chik, jurulatih kanan Akademi Golf Nasional UUM yang dilakukan pada 19 Ogos 2012. Beliau berkelayakan Sijil Kejurulatihan Tahap III Majlis Sukan Negara. Temubual dengan Wan Rosni Wan Chik, instruktor bagi Akademi Golf Nasional UUM yang dilakukan pada 25 Ogos 2012.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PERKHIDMATAN KAUNSELING DI CURE AND CARE SERVICE CENTRE AGENSI ANTIDADAH KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA Mashayani Md Arif Cure and Care Service Centre (CCRC) PERLIS Azemi Bin Shaari* *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Melalui agenda Transformasi Negara, Agensi AntiDadah Kebangsaan ( AADK ) telah turut melakukan transformasi terhadap perkhidmatan yang diberikan kepada rakyat. Salah satu perkhidmatan rawatan dan pemulihan dalam komuniti adalah melalui kewujudan Cure And Care Servis Centre ( CCSC ). CCSC adalah penjenamaan semula apa yang dikenali sebagai Pusat Khidmat AADK sebelum ini. Servis yang ditawarkan di CCSC berdasarkan perlaksanaan modul psikososial untuk membantu para penagih dadah pulih dan kembali befungsi dalam masyarakat. Penulisan ini bertujuan untuk mengupas perlaksanaan modul psikososial di CCSC. Melihat komponan-komponan yang ada dalam modul tersebut serta kaedah penilaian yang menjadi pengukur terhadap kepulihan kalangan bekas penagih dadah yang mendapatkan perkhidmatan di CCSC.

PENDAHULUAN Gejala penagihan dadah selepas merdeka bermula seawal tahun 1960an lagi dengan dikuasai oleh penagihan dadah jenis heroin, morfin dan dadah sintetik. Keadaan ini disebabkan oleh kedudukan negara ini yang hampir dengan Segi Tiga Emas iaitu kawasan pengeluaran dadah terbesar di Asia yang terletak di sempadan negara Thailand, Burma dan Laos. Malaysia bukan sahaja dijadikan sebagai laluan oleh pengedar yang hendak mengekspot dadah mereka ke Eropah, Australia dan Amerika tetapi juga menjual dadah ke pasaran tempatan (Mahmood, 2008). Pengaruh budaya Hippies yang satu ketika dulu melanda dunia merupakan salah satu faktor munculnya gejala penagihan dadah. Golongan ini mengambil dadah sebagai satu menifistasi kebebasan dan jalan keseronokan. Belia di negara ini turut terpengaruh dengan budaya tersebut. Pada waktu yang sama, peperangan di Vietnam sedang memuncak. Askar-askar Amerika Syarikat yang datang bercuti ke Asia Tenggara, termasuk Malaysia telah membawa bersama mereka dadah jenis heroin dan morfin. Ramai belia telah terpengaruh dengan dadah terutama di bandar-bandar besar seperti di Pulau Pinang, Kuala Lumpur dan Singapura. Akibatnya menjelang tahun 1070an, suasana permasalahan dadah di Asia Tenggara menjadi semakin serius. Ramai belia terlibat dengan masalah penagihan dadah terutama dari jenis heroin (Mahmood, 2008). Menjelang tahun 1983, bilangan penagih dadah yang ditangkap semakin ramai dan kerajaan mendapati masalah dadah bukan lagi sebagai masalah sosial tetapi telah mula dianggap sebagaia ancaman kepada negara ( ADK, 1997 ). Akibat penagihan dadah boleh melemahkan tenaga rakyat dan ini boleh memberikan peluang kepada musuh negara seperti golongan komunis dan antinasional untuk mengambil kesempatan bagi mencapai hasrat mereka. Kedua, musuh-musuh negara juga turut mengaut keuntungan hasil daripada Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

penjualan dadah untuk membeli senjata-senjata api disamping memperkuatkan keanggotaan serta memperkukuhkan kewangan mereka. Ketiga, melemahkan jentera kerajaan dan juga kekuatan pasukan keselamatan untuk mempertahankan negara. Keempat, dadah boleh menggalakkna perbuatan rasuah yang boleh menjejaskan keselamatana Negara ( Mahmood, 2008 ). Oleh itu, kerajaan telah mengishtiharkan dadah sebagai musuh nombor satu negara pada 19 Februari 1983. Lanjutan daripada perkembangan ini, Jemaah Menteri telah meluluskan penubuhan Jawatankuasa Antidadah ( JKAD ) pada Jun 1983 untuk bertanggungjawab kepada Majlis Keselamatan Negara dalam semua aspek membanteras gejala dadah (ADK, 1997 ) Kerajaan seterusnya telah menubuhkan Majlis Dadah Kebangsaan (MDK) dan pada 7 Februari 1996 Agensi Dadah Kebangsaan ( ADK ) telah diluluskan penubuhannya oleh Jemaah Menteri. Fungsi MDK adalah untuk menentukan Dasar Dadah Negara, menyelaraskan perlaksanaan, penilaian, dan pemantauaan semua program dan aktiviti antidadah kerajaan dan bukan kerajaan. ( ADK,1997 ) Sehingga ke hari ini Agensi Dadah Kebangsaan telah melalui perubahan dari masa ke semasa dan kini dikenali sebagai Agensi AntiDadah Kebangsaan (AADK) dengan mempunyai akta tubuh sendiri iaitu Akta Pegawai AntiDadah yang telah diluluskan oleh kabinet pada tahun 2004. AADK telah diletakkan di bawah pentadbiran Kementerian Dalam Negeri dan secara asasnya AADK mendokong tiga tugas utama iaitu pencegahan, rawatan dan pemulihan dan penguatkuasaan. Bermula dari tahun 1998 sehingga ke tahun 2012, jumlah terkumpul penagih dadah yang telah direkodkan dengan AADK adalah seramai 372,373 orang dan menunjukkan nisbah 12:1000 orang berdasarkan kepada bancian penduduk pada tahun 2010 (AADK, 2012). Manakala kajian ke atas kos ekonomi terhadap penyalah gunaan dadah ini oleh pengkaji dari Universiti Utara Malaysia pada tahun 2009 telah mendapati sejumlah RM 8.65 billion telah dibelanjakan oleh kerajaan melalui kos langsung ( perbelanjaan agensi-agensi penguatkuasaan dan pemulihan berkaitan pemulihan dadah ) dan kos tidak langsung ( kos rawatan kesihatan, kos kehilangan produktiviti dan kos berkaitan jenayah seramai 63,884 orang penagih ). Ini menjadikan kos perkapita penagih dadah di Malaysia adalah RM332. Sekiranya kos tersebut digunakan untuk membina sekolah menengah kebangsaan berkapasiti 1200 orang pelajar, kerajaan berupaya menyediakan 216 buah sekolah dan seramai 256,200 orang pelajar boleh mendapat faedah daripadanya ( Jamal Ali, 2009 ). Memetik amanat YAB Timbalan Perdana Menteri ketika itu Datuk Seri Abdullah Hj Ahmad Badawi dalam ucapan ketika merasmikan tahun 2003 sebagai tahun memerangi dadah habis-habisan menyatakan bahawa ‘kita perlu mengkaji semula cara perangi dadah, perlu penglibatan semua pihak kerajaan, NGO, bekas-bekas penagih yang berjaya mengatasi masalah penagihan, ibu bapa, pihak media, sektor swasta, pemimpin masyarakat, guru dan semua rakyat negara ini’. Memandangkan kerajaan sangat komited untuk membasmi dadah di negara ini, AADK melalui Kemeterian Dalam Negeri perlu melakukan transformasi untuk menjadikan agenda memerangi dadah ini lebih berkesan. Program transformasi AADK adalah selaras dengan Program Transformasi Kerajaan yang meletakkan hala tuju organisasi ke arah perubahan yang berkesan dan lonjakan berganda untuk memberikan perkhidmatan terbaik kepada masyarakat dan dirasai oleh mereka. AADK telah memperkenalkan beberapa pendekatan baru dibentuk dengan menjadikan program rawatan dan pemulihan lebih terbuka. Melaluinya AADK telah membuka ruang kepada masyarakat untuk memilih perkhidmatan pemulihan secara sukarela tanpa perlu melalui proses tangkapan dan perintah mahkamah (AADK, 2012 ).

CURE AND CARE SERVIS CENTRE Berdasarkan tag line AADK iaitu Ambil Kisah Ambil Tindakan, salah satu agenda transformasi AADK adalah mewujudkan Cure And Care Servis Centre ( CCSC ). CCSC adalah penjenamaan semula daripada apa yang telah ada di AADK sebelum ini iaitu Pusat Khidmat AADK. CCSC/Pusat Khidmat AADK adalah merupakan kaedah pemulihan dalam komuniti, ia bertindak sebagai penempatan sementara atau halfway house menyediakan pekej rawatan dengan menyediakan ubat sebagai rawatan sokongan bagi mencegah relapse sekaligus meningkatkan keberkesanan pemulihan sebagaimana rawatan-rawatan berikut yang terdiri daripada rawatan detoksifikasi, pengambilan ubat-ubatan mengikut protokol, kaunseling, sokongan kelompok dan rakan sebaya, penempatan kerja dan integrasi semula ke dalam masyarakat (Lasimon Matokram, 2006 ). CCSC menyediakan pekej rawatan yang lengkap, tempat rehat sementara, bertindak sebagai rumah perantara dan pusat aktiviti bagi mereka yang mempunyai masalah penyalahgunaan dadah melalui perlaksanaan program rawatan dan pemulihan, program intervensi, outreach dan pencegahan dalam komuniti. (AADK, 2012)

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Selain daripada menyediakan pakej rawatan dan pemulihan, fungsi CCSC juga adalah untuk menggerakkan aktiviti-aktiviti pencegahan, pemulihan dalam komuniti dan merupakan outreach centre yang memberikan ruang kepada pelbagai pertubuhan bukan kerajaan (NGO) dan pelbagai pihak dalam komuniti terlibat secara langsung dalam membantu usaha-usaha kerajaan menangani masalah dadah di peringkat daerah ( Lasimon Matokram, 2006 ). Objektif penubuhan CCSC adalah menyediakan perkhidmatan rawatan dan pemulihan melalui program kaunseling dan bimbingan, aktiviti kelompok sokong bantu, penempatan dalam pekerjaan, rujukan dan khidmat nasihat, sukan dan riadah dan penggunaan ubat-ubatan sebagai rawatan sokongan. Selain daripada itu CCSC juga menawarkan khidmat nasihat dan rujukan bagi mereka yang ada hubungan atau significant others seperti ibu bapa, isteri, suami atau anak-anak kepada penagih dadah yang memerlukan perkhidmatan berhubung dengan permasalahan dadah ( AADK, 2012 ). Konsep CCSC yang lebih terbuka ini adalah bertujuan untuk lebih menarik ramai individu yang mempunyai permasalahan dadah untuk datang mendapatkan perkhidmtan pemulihan secara sukarela. Sehingga ke hari ini terdapat 58 buah CCSC seluruh negara dan telah menawarkan sejumlah 673,548 sesi perkhidmtan kepada klien, ahli keluarga klien serta seluruh masyarakat yang memerlukan perkhidmatan berkaitan permasalahan dadah. CCSC menggunakan pendekatan open access iaitu menggalakkan individu yang mempunyai permasalahan dadah datang secara sukarela ( AADK, 2012 ).

PROGRAM RAWATAN DAN PEMULIHAN DI CCSC: MODUL PSIKOSOSIAL Modul psikososial ialah satu modul rawatan dan pemulihan untuk penagih dadah bertujuan untuk mengubah tingkah laku penagihan, memberikan kemahiran pencegahan relapse, menambahkan pengetahuan berkaitan pemulihan dan memberikan keyakinan kepada klien agar dapat kembali berfungsi seperti yang diharapkan ( Ibrahim Maclean Chong, 2013 ). Program rawatan dan pemulihan yang ditawarkan di CCSC boleh bahagikan kepada dua bentuk iatu:a. Pakej rawatan dan pemulihan secara komprehensif Pakej rawatan ini melibatkan kalangan mereka yang terlibat dengan dadah untuk untuk pertama kali ataupun mereka yang datang secara sukarela. CCSC juga menawarkan pekej ini untuk kalangan mereka yang bawah umur, gelandangan dan wanita yang menghadapi permasalahan dadah. Mereka boleh memilih untuk tinggal di CCSC ( residensi ) ataupun secara non-residensi iaitu hanya hadir ke CCSC secara berkala untuk mendapatkan sesi rawatan dan pemulihan. Tempoh masa untuk pekej ini adalah selama 3 bulan bagi resedensi dan dua tahun bagi yang bukan residensi. b. Pakej rawatan dan pemulihan secara aftercare Pakej rawatan ini adalah untuk bekas-bekas penagih dadah yang telah menjalani perintah mahkamah di bawah seksyen 6(1)(a) Akta Rawatan dan Pemulihan 1983 dan seksyen 6(1)(b) akta yang sama. Mereka juga boleh memilih samada untuk tinggal di CCSC secara residensi ataupun hadir secara berkala untuk menjalani program yang telah di susun aturkan oleh mereka. Manakala Modul Psikososial ini terbahagi kepada tiga komponen utama iaitu komponen psikososial, komponen rawatan kesihatan dan perubatan serta komponen latihan kemahiran dan vokasional ( AADK, 2011) a. Komponan psikososial Komponen psikososial ini terdapat tujuh elimen utama iaitu:•

Early Recovery Pada peringkat awal proses kepulihan, klien akan mengalami masalah triggle. Oleh itu sesi awal kepulihan dakan dijalankan sebaik sahaja klien dalam keadaan stabil selepas pulih daripada masalah withdrawal.

•

Relapse prevention Dalam pendidikan pencegahan relapse ini klien akan diajar dan diberikan pendidikan coping skills untuk mencegah permasalahan relapse. Kaunselor dan pembimbing rakan sebaya akan mengajar coping skills ini dengan menggunakan kaedah role play.

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Sokongan sosial Program kelompok soskongan sosial dilaksanakan untuk memberikan pengetahuan dan kemahiran

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kepada klien agar mereka mampu untuk mngendalikan kehidupan sosial mereka secara normal. Dalam program sokongan sosial juga adanya `kumpulan 12 langkah` untuk mengukuhkan hubungan sokongan bantu di antra `recovery person` bagi mengekalkan kepulihan. •

Agama dan spiritual Program ini memberikan pendidikan dan pengetahuan mengenai agama agar menjadi pengangan klien dalam kehidupan seharian (the way of life) bagi membantu kepulihan klien. Program ini disediakan mengikut amalan agama masing-masing.

•

Bimbingan kaunseling Bimbingan kaunseling digunakan sebagai medium untuk membantu klien yang mempunyai permasalahan mendesak. Selain itu ia juga diaplikasikan untuk menyediakan Rancangan Pemulihan Klien ( RPK )

•

Outing dan excursion Aktiviti rekriasi juga digunakan sebagai salah satu kaedah dalam rawatan dan pemulihan klien untuk menjadikan mereka ceria, selesa dan hilang tekanan. Ia jugak sebagai satu kaedah aplikasi kepada elimen pencegahan relapse yang telah klien pelajari.

•

Psiko pendidikan Merupakan salah satu elimen intervensi yang digunakan untuk memberikan kesedaran dan meningkatkan pengetahuan klien untuk mengekalkan kepulihan.

b. Komponen rawatan kesihatan dan perubatan Pengguna dadah merupakan pesakit yang dikategorikan sebagai Chronic Pelapsing Brain Disease. Oleh itu mereka memerlukan satu kaedah rawatan perubatan. Terdapat tiga elemen dalam komponen ini •

Rawatan susulan ke hospital dan kes ringan Merujuk kes ke hospital mengikut keperluan perubatan klien.

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Rawatan psikiatri Menyediakan perkhidmatan rujukan pakar psikiatri terhadap klien yang mempunyai masalah tersebut.

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Rawatan terapi gentian menggunakan metadon Perkhidmatan Terapi Gantian menggunakan metadon untuk merawat klien yang berhadapan dengan masalah withdrawal symptom kesan penggunaan dadah jenis opiat.

c. Komponan latihan kemahiran dan vokasional Latihan dan kemahiran vokasional diberikan kepada klien bertujuan untuk membantu mereka hidup berdikari serta mempunyai kerjaya selepas keluar daripada CCSC. Terdapar tiga elimen dalam komponan ini. •

Latihan kemahiran. AADK sendiri mempunyai mempunyai sebuah pusat latihan kemahiran iaitu Cure And Care Vocasional Centre (CCVC). Klien CCSC boleh mengikuti program kursus vokasional dan kemahiran jangka panjang atau pendek sebagaimana yang ditawarkan oleh CCVC.

•

Keusahawanan Para pegawai CCSC akan membantu kalangan klien yang berminat dan mempunyai kemahiran untuk meceburi bidang keusahawanan. Dana atau modal akan diperolehi daripada agensi-agensi kerajaan berkaitan.

•

Penempatan pekerjaan Klien yang sudah pulih dan akan menamatkan program rawatan dan pemulihan di CCSC akan dibantu oleh pegawai CCSC untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan dan penempatan kerja daripada majikan yang berminat untuk mengambil klien sebagai pekerja mereka.

INDIKATOR PENILAIAN KLIEN : ASPEK PENILAIAN PRESTASI KEPULIHAN Penilaian prestasi kepulihan klien akan dinilai dengan menggunakan Borang Prestasi Kepulihan Klien yang mengandungi penilaian mengenai aspek-aspek berikut :

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a. Keputusan URICA • Klien akan di nilai setiap 3 bulan dan perlu mendapat score ACTION dan MAINTENANCE sebelum layak dipertimbangkan ke peringkat jawatan kuasa penilaian • Tahap perubahan motivasi klien dan tahap kesediaan untuk mengubah tingkah laku penagihan b. Penglibatan klien di dalam program • Setiap kehadiran klien hendaklah di catat di dalam borang yang disediakan • Tahap prestasi penglibatan klien terhadap program pemulihan c. Nilai positif dan sokongan sosial • Menilai sikap positif klien dan penglibatan klien dalam aktiviti-aktiviti • Menilai tahap sokongan sosial yang diterima oleh klien bagi membantu kepulihan selepas dibebaskan • Menilai sumbangan klien yang diberikan kepada CCSC • Menilai tahap disiplin dan kesalahan yang dilakukan sepanjang mangikuti program

ASPEK PENILAIAN KEPARAHAN PENAGIHAN KLIEN (ASSIST) Direkabentuk oleh WHO dan sekumpulan penyelidik antarabangsa bagi mengenalpasti tahap risiko kebergantungan keparahan penagihan klien kepada substans. Matlamat perlaksanaan ASSIST ini adalah untuk:a. Mengukur tahap risiko kebergantungan terhadap substans b. Program rawatan dan pemulihan yang menepati keperluan klien dapat disediakan (total recovery needs) c. Klien mengetahui tahap risiko penggunaan dan membantu meningkatkan kesedaran untuk berubah ASSIST ini akan dilaksanakan kepada semua klien untuk pembentukan kelompok dan intervensi awalan menggunakan teknik brief intervention di awal kemasukan mereka ke CCSC.

RUMUSAN Program rawatan dan pemulihan dadah telah melalui pelbagai perubahan dan transformasi bagi memastikan setiap perkhidmatan yang diwar-warkan memenuhi kehendak rakyat. Dadah membawa manusia kepada kesengsaraan apatah lagi di zaman moden ini pelbagai dadah jenis sintatik wujud di pasaran, terkini munculnya dadah jenis bath salt dan salah satu peristiwa yang dicatatkan di Miami, Florida pada 29 Meri 2012 apabila seorang lelaki gelandangan kehilangan hampir suku wajahnya kerana ‘dimakan’ penyerang berbogel yang berada di bawah pengaruh bath salt ini. Polis akhirnya menembak mati penyerang tersebut apabila ia tidak mengendahkan arahan supaya berhenti dari menggigit dan ‘memakan’ sambil berdengus seperti haiwan liar. (Sinar Harian, Isnin 3 Mac 2014). Oleh itu untuk mengelak perkara ngeri seperti itu melibatkan kehilangan kewarasan pemikiran melepasi batasan seorang manusia akibat pengaruh dadah, AADK menawarkan perlbagai kaedah rawatan dan pemulihan secara lebih terbuka dan mesra pelanggan untuk membantu rakyat Malaysia khususnya bebas daripada dadah. Ia merupakan satu petanda yang positif dan menunjukkan bahawa pendekatan transformasi yang berlandaskan Rakyat Didahulukan, Pencapaian Diutamakan semakin diterima rakyat (Mohd Najib Razak, 2014)

RUJUKAN Agensi Dadah Kebangsaan ( 2007;2011;2012). Laporan Dadah 2007: Putrajaya: Kementerian Dalam Negeri. Akbar Sinar Harian, Dadah Ubah Manusia Jadi Kanibal ( 2014 ), Isnin 3 Mac. Ibrahim Maclean Chong ( 2013 ). Orientasi Perkhidmatan Kaunseling Penyalahgunaan Dadah Di Malaysia: Klinik Cure & Care 1 Malaysia, dibentangkan pada Prosiding Seminar Internasional Kuanseling Malaysia-Indonesia ( MALINDO ) III Jamal Ali, Sallahudin Hassan & Noor Al Huda Abd Karim ( 2009 ). Kos Ekonomi Penyalahgunaan Dadah, Jurnal AntiDadah Malaysia, Jilid 6. Agensi AntiDadah Kebangsaan Malaysia Lasimon M. & Mahmood, N. M ( 2006 ) Relapse Prevention Module in Malaysia. Kertas Kerja di Internasional Counseling Symposium on Drug Prevention and Rehabilitation ( INCOSYM 2006 ): Kuala Lumpur, 5-7 September Mahmood N. M ( 2008 ). Perubahan Dalam Senario Rawatan Dan Pemulihan Dadah DiMalaysia Dan Arah Masa Depan. Kertas Kerja Syarahan Pengukuhan Profesor: Universiti Utara Malaysia, 27 Mac. Mohd Najib Razak, Perutusan Hari AntiDadah ( 2014 ). AADK. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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SECTION XIII

FAMILY, MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE

ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

MODELS OF FAMILY THERAPY IN PRACTICE: SOCIAL WORKERS’ PERSPECTIVE Chan Cheong Chong* *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Transgenerational, Structural, Strategic and Milan models are four popular models of family therapy. The application of these models in Asian families has been widely discussed by various practitioners and academic scholars. This paper investigates the application of models of family therapy in the Singapore context. Two social workers who have formal training and practices in family therapy were interviewed. The investigation focuses on the sequence of the family therapy sessions, cross-cultural issues, techniques and orientations used by the social workers. The interviews show that the Milan and Strategic models are two most dominant models in practicing family therapy. Besides that, Systemic theory has been found to be the most influential framework for both social workers in conducting family conferences. Keywords: family therapy, social work

FAMILY THERAPY IN PRACTICE Family therapy has been introduced in Singapore since 1981 (Toh, 2006). The development of family therapy in Singapore is closely related to the development of the counselling profession (Tan, 2003). However, those who are working with the families are normally social workers. Thus, it is commonly found that some Singaporean social workers receive formal training in family therapy in order to serve their clients especially families better. Transgeneration, Structural, Strategic and Milan models are the common school of thoughts among the family therapies. These models have been widely used in Asian context. Transgeneration model is popular with its genogram approach for at least three generations in exploring the emotional process across the generations (Goldenberg & Goldenberg, 2000). Structural Model clarifies roles, hierarchy and patterns in a family (Toh, 2006). Its directive approach is well accepted by Asian families because Asian clients are comfortable in taking instructions from someone with authority, the therapist (Walsh, 1995 in Palmer, 1999). The Strategic Model is closely related with the Milan model (Nicols & Schwartz, 2000). Both models focus on the sequences of family interaction and use specific techniques in the sessions. Strategic model is popular with its solution focused therapy, whereas Milan model is popular with its circular questioning (Toh, 2006). Solution focused therapy is a short-term goal driven approach which emphasizes on getting a solution rather than understanding the problem (Wong Oi Kau Stephanie, 1994). Circular questioning technique bridges the generation gaps between the seniors and the juniors in the Asian families by engaging every members of the family for feedback (Goldenberg & Goldenberg, 2000; Nelson, Fleuridas & Rosenthal, 1986). The four models are workable in the Asian context. However, some concepts of these models are incompatible to the Asian family values. For instance, concepts of differentiation (Transgeneration Model), enactment (Structural Model), compliment thru reframing (Strategic Model) and questioning across the members (Milan Model) challenge the patriarchy, authoritative and conservative values which are commonly found in Asian families. In laymen term, children are belonged to the society and they should behave according to Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

the societal expectation. Therefore, differentiation and enactment are difficult to be accepted. Furthermore, it is commonly known that compliment should not be easily given and children are not treated equally to their parents or senior members of the family. As a result, reframing and questioning techniques suggested from the models may not be useful in the Asian context. Hence, family therapists’ or social work practitioners’ experiences and views in working with the Asian families are crucial to be explored in searching the indigenous model of practice.

METHOD OF STUDY Two social workers in Singapore who practice family therapy were interviewed. They have years of experiences in conducting family therapy. Ms. Chai1 currently is an instructor in a university in Singapore. Before joining the university, she was the Centre Director of a NGO. She graduated with a Master’s degree in Social Work, received additional training in family therapy and obtains a Diploma in Clinical Supervision. Ms. Karen2 obtains a Social Work degree and a Post Graduate Diploma in Family and Marital Therapy, certified by the Birkbeck College in London. She has started her career in social work by joining a NGO and in 2005, she was appointed as the Centre Director of the NGO. According to Burck (2005, p. 239), qualitative method is suitable to investigate the process, while quantitative method is used to measure the outcome of the family therapy (Figure 1). Figure 1- Capturing the process and outcome of family therapy.

• • • • •

Family Therapy Process

Family Therapy Outcome

How does it work?

Does it work?

Qualitative research Discovery Explanatory Hypothesis generating Generalize to theory

• • • •

Qualitative research Experimental verification Hypothesis testing Generalize to population

Hence, interviews with Chai and Karen are in line with what was highlighted by Burck as discovering the process of how family therapists conduct the sessions. The findings of the interviews are presented following the sequence of the sessions, namely pre-session, first session, in between the sessions, intervention and termination. This idea is borrowed and modified from the structured family sessions in Classical Milan Interview Format (Goldenberg & Goldenberg, 2000, p.250).

PRE-SESSION Chai and Karen have gone through a similar process of preparation work in pre-session. For Karen, when she was a fresh social worker, she aggressively prepared herself by reading as much as information she can on the incoming family. However, she found that this was not helpful. At current, she would just need to focus only on simple but important information. Similarly, Chai did the same thing like Karen. She did not prepare too much because she tried not to pretend to know a lot about the family. However, she would formulate some hypotheses and uses it as a guideline in the first session. Both of them use different strategies to get different family members to attend the session. For child or teenager who is reluctant to attend the session, Chai would put the responsibility on the parents. She believed that the parents were capable in making their children to join the session. Chai’s strategy is not in line with Stanton and Health’s (1995) comment that family therapist should not ask the family members to do the recruiting for other reluctant members to attend the session because this will not work. However, in reality, Chai’s personal experience has shown that her approach did work very well for those absent children.

1) Pesudonym 2) Pesudonym

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Karen adopts more systematic approach when dealing with the absenteeism of the family members in session. She first politely sent invitation to the family. If this is not work well then she might call up and speak directly to the person. If still not effective, she might just write in formally to the family. However, she explained that family therapy does not require all the family members to present. Therapist should not feel disappointed with the absence of any family member in the session. She perceived this situation as important clues about the current pattern of the family structure. She would then form some hypotheses based on these information.

FIRST SESSION This is the most important session to comprehend Chai and Karen’s preferences in conducting Family Therapy. When first meeting the family, both of them start the session by chatting with the members informally. For instance, both of them would ask family about how they manage to come to the centre or any difficulty in finding the location. Informal and non-threatening conversation is important to build up rapport with the family. Talking informally is also a way to help therapist to understand the dynamic of the family. According to Chai and Karen, teenagers were the most reluctant family members in the session. The teenagers did not feel that they are the problem because they were mostly forced by their parents to attend the session. Chai and Karen accepted the resistant of the teenagers by giving them more space and time. According to Chai, although some teenagers showed resistant body gestures (e.g. close their eye, put their cap down), they were actually following what had been discussed in the session. Thus, Chai would try to engage the teenagers along the session by asking their responses. For those active teenagers, Karen would try to engage them first and at the same time let the parents observe their conversation. However, for those resistant teenagers, Karen would just have to wait for a suitable timing. Different strategies were used by Chai and Karen when dealing with young children in the session. Toys, drawing papers and other tools should be provided in the counselling room. According to Chai, children in session could be very active or passive, but most of them were very curious on why they were there. Karen would start working with the parents before directly interact with the children. She explained that she had to empower the parents and show to the children that she respects their parents. Although, Karen did the same, she would ensure there were sufficient eye contacts with the children. Chai and Karen did not set a specific target to be achieved in the first session. Although Chai’s had her hypotheses, she tried not to be overly dominated by these assumptions. She thought she would never find the answer in a short period of time and to her, it was more important to follow the flow of the conversation and to learn what was more important to the family. She encouraged interaction between the parents and the children because she believes direct communication is important. Karen had similar thought that the main purpose of the first session is to articulate the family’s expectation and their commitments to work together with social worker. For her, the suitable term to describe this process is “Focus Check”. She firmly believed that it was important for the family to experience feelings of workable and comfortable at the end of the first session. It is quite clear that in the first session, Chai and Karen focus on the dynamic of the family structure before making any assumption. They try to interact with the dynamic of the family system in a flexible way and encourage responses from the system. This helps them understand the family structure better. They are opened for many suitable strategies in helping the family along the sessions.

IN BETWEEN THE SESSIONS Tasks are mostly given to the family in hoping that they have something to do in between the sessions. Chai and Karen admitted that not all the families were given tasks at the end of the first session. But, Karen personally preferred to use tasks because she admitted at the beginning of the interview that: “my personal style is to hopefully at some sessions always end with homework”. Both of them agreed that the use of tasks mainly based on the needs of the families. Certainly the instruction of giving task is not like the usual way we known in school context where teachers assign homework to their students. Most of the times, the nature of the task is for parents to observe their children’s conducts and make a brief verbal report in the following session. The instruction of the task is delivered in a soft and polite manner. For instance, Karen asked the parent:

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“May be... mother you want to help me to observe... you know what are the things that he has done well and what are the things he has not done well...” Based on Chai and Karen’s experiences, most of the families members especially parents would complete the given task and bring it to discuss in the following session. However, some parents and teenagers were reluctant to this kind of activity. For Chai, designing an interesting and exciting task to attract the teenagers to participate was the main challenge. Conversely, for Karen, knowing the reluctant of certain family members about the given task reflected the family structure. According to Karen, task may not be necessary given at the end of the session, she sometime would assign task spontaneously during the session. For instance, she actually asked “Show me how you all talk at home.” This task allows the family enact in front of her. In general, there is no any concrete or prescript way of giving tasks. The task is mostly determined by the needs of the family and the progress of the sessions.

INTERVENTION Intervention starts when family members interact with each other in the session. Talking including introduce oneself can be a starting point of intervention. Karen said: “I think intervention also start right from the beginning when I first brought them in. And then I start talking with them along the way that means the intervention.”

This is well explained in systemic thinking and non-linear change concept where if there is a little small change or new thing comes into the system, it will latter cause rapid change in the whole system (Jenkin, 1989; Warren, Franklin, & Streeter, 1998). Thus, Chai was very worried about her admin staff in answering phone calls from the potential clients because that was the beginning of an intervention. She even warned her staff that: “….you don’t do any intervention don’t give advice don’t tell the parent what to do.”

TERMINATION Both Chai and Karen had family cases terminated shortly after one session or prolonged to many unfinished years. Among the one-session cases, the families especially the parents were able to cope with their problems without further psychological assistance. Conversely, among those prolonged cases, it happened to the families with chronic crisis along the developmental stages. In addition, the agency (family service centre) was perceived by the families as the only reliable resource for them. However, a therapeutic session is commonly terminated after three sessions based on a review. According to Karen, it was normal for a family who first come for help and asks: “So how long can we see changes?”, “How soon can we see changes?”, “How often do we have to come here?”. Therefore, for Karen, she mostly discussed the termination with the family at the first session in order to give some assurances and sense of expectation for the family. This is a most appropriate act because a good family therapy normally is a quick one and is not about holding the clients for a long period of time (Fraenkel, 2005).

CROSS-CULTURAL ISSUES IN SERVICES Chai and Karen shared some of their experiences on working with families from different ethnicities especially Malay and Indian families. After a long discussion and detail analysis, three main cross-culture issues can be identified from both interviews. These issues are ethnic belief, patriarchal family system, and the language barrier.

Ethnic Belief Chai highlighted some issues on working with Malay families. She thought that Malay families normally had many children and did not quite emphasize on their children’s education. This cultural based of self determination could be a challenge for family therapist in conducting the session. As commented by Chai: “I also cannot enforce my belief in on them. So I could only at most to find all the financial assistance you know supplements them but I cannot change to the very nature that organizes why they have certain problems…” © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Patriarchic Family System Both of them had issues on working with the Indian men especially the husbands. However, the dimension of the issue is slightly different for Chai as compared to Karen. Chai shared that she had problem to gain respect and participation from the Indian husbands. She commented that: “... but with the Indian is a bit different it could be a cultural thing because I am a female. So there is a ...even if I do home visit I know that they know that I’m in but they won’t care to even say Hello.” Karen highlighted that she did not has much opportunity to work with the Indian husbands. Anyhow, she had some challenges in working with them. She said: “And then the Indian fathers those that I encountered with are those who are very fierce very hands off. And certain elements of temper and violence” Karen commented that in all cultures, the husbands should always be respected. Working with the family shall begin with appreciating and reaffirming the husband if he were attending the session. However, she did not see the absent of the husband in the session as a problem because this reflected the dynamic of the family. Indeed, she considered this was a gender issue and she said, “Because I also mindful if the husband here and got a wife here, I am a female here would the husband see I am align with the wife, you see. So I have to be mindful how can also giving airtime to the husband allow the husband to have fair share in what he has to say”

Language Barrier Family therapists may be required to have various language skills to interact with the families from different ethnic groups. Chai and Karen are bilingual and local Singaporeans. As both of them can speak Mandarin and other dialects, they would not have language barrier with Chinese families. Still, both of them wished to master the Malay language in order to work more efficiently with the Malay families. For Malay and Indian parents who are not highly educated, speaking their languages in the session will be more helpful.

TECHNIQUES AND ORIENTATIONS IN FAMILY THERAPY After investigating their experiences in conducting the sessions, I managed to interview them in more details about their favourite techniques and thinking in delivering family therapy.

Ms. Chai When she was asked about the technique, she commented that: “… if I were to really think about it. I think is my belief in the last I was created… I treasure everyone of my client. I think it has got to do I think ya it has got to do with my cases that died of me of course.” She experienced two tragic deaths of her clients which are not her false. One was suicidal case even before she was able to see the client, while another one was died on road accident after several sessions. Surprisingly, she mentioned about the Carl Roger which is not a proper model in family therapy. However, her intention was to highlight the concept of genuineness. Later she also talked about the strength perspective and then ended up with full discussion on Systemic Theory. She described: “…systemic theory is a bit different from system theory because... yes we are definitely mindful of the systems around them but we are equally mindful about the interacting effect on the person. Ya... so is all this lah. systemic effect that I was also looking at other than mindful of systems and how that make influence on person.” It is quite convincing that she is a very strong systemic believer. She used the word “co-evolvement” when referring to her favourite technique. The term “evolve” is also a term used by Nelson, Fleuridas and Rosenthal (1986) in describing systemic view of family. When I asked further about her favourite models that she has learned from the family therapy training, she then mentioned two models: Milan and Structural. Further than that, she told me about a super guru known as Karl Tomm. She said: “Karl Tomm is one super super guru that talks about questioning skills. So he has developed that reflexive questioning beyond the circular questioning. Milan... is whether… developed into all this reflexive questioning and a lot of different kinds of questioning that help to elicit the © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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dynamics and I find that useful. Yah…so I always think that it is how we question that matters and is through the language lah. How we… how we… use language in the session to affect change which is again talking cure. “ Hence, it is quite clear that her central belief of “talking cure” is actually influenced by the Milan approach in questioning skill. In more accurate term, it is the Post Milan approach led by Boscolo and Cecchin (Goldenberg, & Goldenberg, 2000). Her belief in “treasure every one of my clients” can be linked to the concepts of “Curiosity and Neutrality” in the Milan approach (Cecchin, 1987). This is because she would treasure every of her clients and formulate hypotheses prior to any session. As she had also stressed on Systemic Theory which reflecting the other name for Milan model, Milan or Post Milan School of Thought could be the central influence on her family therapy practice.

Ms. Karen Regarding the technique, she highlighted several techniques from Strategic Model. She commented: “To me it is the system something that I look at and work on. But in term of giving task and home work and also reframing… Yah. Come quite a fair bit from Strategic [Model].” Examples on how she had given task to family have been mentioned in the previous section. Furthermore, she shared with me how she had given paradoxical message for a mother in coping with two young girls who refused to go to school. She recalled, “Is purposely ask let say ‘How long do you think your child actually cry during the period of time?’. So they said half an hour. I said ‘Ok then during this half an hour it seems like your child needs that space to cry yah so once the child finish crying half an hour then you put the child back to bed and then during that course’… affirm the child let the child know something like that.” Her paradoxical technique was a success because the children went to school and the mother introduced her friends to see Karen. She admitted that she was relatively a directive person but surprisingly she found that linear questions were very useful in confronting the clients. Linear questions are part of the circular questions technique in Milan approach (Goldenberg, & Goldenberg, 2000). Linear questions are used to seek history or specific information such as age (Goldenberg, & Goldenberg, 2000). It is certainly not to be used to challenge client unless it is referred to “strategic questions” in Milan approach presented by Karl Tomm in 1988 (Brown, 1997). It has been understood that Strategic model and Milan models are closely related because the early development of Milan model was strongly influenced by Strategic techniques (Goldenberg, & Goldenberg, 2000; Nicols & Schwartz, 2000). Karen highly valued the history of the family especially the children’s behaviour but mostly she would just focus on here and now which is the current and immediate interaction of the family (Seaburn, Landu-Stanton, & Horwitz, 1987). She admitted that she had not tried the Bowenian and considered that was not her preference, although sometime she would form genogram in looking at the impact of the problem. Mostly she would focus on the nuclear system of the family. Under the strategic influence, she would not try to focus all the problems faced by the family. She would ask the family to decide which problem is more important to be worked out. She would then work on the manageable thing first. Hopefully, if success she would then focus on other things. This could be viewed as a solution focused approach and the approach is mostly used in the school context (Toh, 2006). Under the latest trend of the Post-Modernism, beside the Strategic Model, Karen also thought about the other models especially Structural Model. For her, a successful paradoxical technique must be able to pace with the family system. Hearing, talking and understanding the structural pattern of the family interaction are important before any technique can be applied. Thus it is not surprise that she said, “Now... now... I think there are occasion instances with Strategic still and with Structural”. It is quite clear that Strategic School of Thought is very dominant in Karen’s practices on family therapy; however she did refer Structural model in helping her to deliver the session more effectively.

CONCLUSION Both therapists apply loose and flexible approaches in preparing their sessions. Many similarities can be found between them in handling the first session, in between sessions and conducting the interventions. Although they have some slight different preferences on theoretical framework, systemic approach is the fundamental thought in their practices. In brief, Chai and Karen’s practice in family therapy can be summarised in the following Table 1. Chai and Karen have the common understanding on how the family therapy sessions should be conducted. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Chai is mostly informed by the Post Milan model under the influence of Karl Tomm, while Karen is a Strategic practitioner with successful experience in sending paradoxical messages. However, it is not possible that Chai and Karen might go for more integrated model in future as “integration is the future of family therapy” (Seaburn, Landu-Stanton, & Horwitz, 1987, p. 23). Both of them are pragmatic users and have creatively combined the essence of family therapy with the social work values and practice in providing clinical services to family. They have demonstrated what was claimed by Simon (2002, p. 43) that “The therapy of the coming century is likely to be even more pragmatic, integrative, and aggregative”. Table 1 - Model(s) of Family Therapy in Practice

Sessions

Chai

Karen

Orientation

Chai

Karen

Pre-session

Loose and Flexible Hypotheses Not to know more

Loose and Flexible Hypotheses Not to know more

Theory

Systemic Roger Strength perspective

Systemic

First session

Family Structure , Talking Cure

Family Structure, Focus Check

Dominant Model

Milan (Post)

Strategic

In between session

Task Occasionally

Task Oriented

Other references

Structural Strategic for task Post Modernism

Structural Milan for linear question Post Modernism

Intervention

From the beginning

From the beginning

Techniques or Elements

Reflexive Question, Hypotheses, Curiosity, Neutrality

Task, Paradoxical, Linear Question Prescribe, Directive, Reframing

Termination

1 session to many years

1 session to many years

REFERENCES Brown, J. (1997). Circular questioning: An introductory guide. Australia New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 18(2), 109-114. Burck, C. (2005). Comparing qualitative research methodologies for systemic research: The use of grounded theory, discourse analysis and narrative analysis. The Association for Family Therapy and Systemic Practice, 27, 237-262. Cecchin, G. (1987). Hypothesizing, circularity, and neutrality revisited: An invitation to curiosity. Family Process, 25(4), 405-413. Fraenkel, P. (2005). Whatever happened to family therapy? Psychotherapy Networker, 29(3), 30-39. Goldenberg, I., & Goldenberg, H. (2000). Family therapy: An overview (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Jenkins, H. (1989). The family and loss: A systems framework. Palliative Medicine, 3, 97-104. Nelson, T.S., Fleuridas, C., & Rosenthal, D. M. (1986). The evolution of circular questions; Training family therapists. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 12(2), 113-127. Nicols, M. P., & Schwartz, R. C. (2000). Family therapy: Concept and methods (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Palmer, S. (1999). In search of effective counselling across cultures. In S. Palmer, & P. Laungani (Eds.), Counselling in a multicultural society (153-173). London, England: Sage. Seaburn, D., Landau-Stanton, J., & Horwitz, S. (1987). Core techniques in family therapy. In Handbook of family therapy (5-23). New York, NY: Brunner-Routledge. Simon, R. (2002). The larger story. Psychotherapy Networker, 26(3), 36-45. Stanton, M.D., & Heath, A.W. (1995). Family treatment of alcohol and drug abuse. In R. H. Mikesell, D.D. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Lusterman, & S. H. McDaniel (Eds.), Integrating family therapy: Handbook of Family Psychotherapy and Systems Theory (529-541). Washington, DC: APA. Tan, A. (2003). The emergence of family therapy in postmodern Singapore. In K.S. Ng (Ed.), Global perspectives in family therapy (39-55). New York, NY: Brunner- Routledge. Toh, J. (2006). Family therapy modalities in Singapore: Pure type or “Rojak” In A. Yeo (Ed.), Labyrinth of therapeutic encounters (169-177). Singapore: Armour Publication. Warren, K., Franklin, C., & Streeter, C. L. (1998). New directions in system theory: Chaos and complexity, Social Work, 43(4), 357-372. Wong Oi Kau Stephanie (1994). I don’t want to be crazy: Use of Solution Focused Therapy in working with a woman with depression. In N. Rhind (Ed.), Empowering families: A collection of concepts and methods (100-118). Hong Kong, China: Hong Kong Family Welfare Society.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

QUALITY OF LIFE OF WIDOWS INVOLVED IN SOUTHERN THAILAND’S VIOLENCE Arina Charansarn*, Azlin Hilma Hillaluddin & Zakiyah Jamaluddin *[email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract Becoming a victim of violence is a major transition for widows whereby they would be burdened with the responsibility of becoming the head of the family previously held by their spouses. Thus, the general aim of this study is to investigate the quality of life among widows involved in Southern Thailand’s violence. The research measures the quality of life among the widows according to four components (i.e., physical health, psychological health, social relationship, and environmental health). A total of 337 widows from Pattani were involved as the respondents in this research. This study found that the overall of quality of life among the widows is normal. The results also indicate that the violence situation in Pattani affected the quality of life among widows and especially the feeling safety among the widows. This research suggests that the government should provide specialist welfare to the widows to improve their quality of life and also to empower their family in oder to aid them in the long run. Keywords: quality of life, widows, Southern Thailand

INTRODUCTION The instability in Southern Thailand which is due to the continuous violence is a fact that cannot be ignored. When there are violence and tension between social or political groups, there would be consequences and lateral effects that would negatively affect people. One of the main victims of the violence are women who lost their husbands during the violence. These women are now widows who will have to face many difficulties and hardship to maintain their lives and support themselves and their families. When they lose their husbands, most of them are burdened with the responsibility of caring for the family and becoming the leader of the family. In such cases, many would face poverty and no longer be able to provide food, clothes and education for their children. Furthermore, since it is common for women in the southern part of Thailand to be housewives, it would be a challenge for the widows to find jobs and earn money. This may contribute to social and economic problems. These women will not only be affected physically, but also psychologically and mentally (Abuza, 2011). Most of the problems that appear are connected to the conflict that existed which later led to the violence in southern Thailand, and they need to be handled with suitable management. The largely blamed party in the conflict of Southern Thailand is the Islamic separatists, especially in the three provinces mentioned above for the killing of ordinary Thai public, policemen and soldiers. Both Muslims and Buddhists were among those killed (Noor, 2004). Pattani is one of Thailand provinces that have experienced violence which led to many women losing their husbands (Goodman, 2007). As a result, widows play the role of the leader in their family, and have to work hard and take care of their children. Moreover, the mother has to guide and educate their children for their Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

future. For these purposes, they have to struggle and use all their energy in order to lead and create a safe and appropriate environment for their children, despite facing the difficulties of finding a job and the possibility of harassment (Jamjuree, 2010). Therefore, it is very crucial to conduct studies on widows particularly those who lost their husbands in violence, and Southern Thailand is the ideal place to conduct such studies. There are ways that would help widows to continue their life despite all the difficulties they face, and these ways can be analyzed in order to empower them. One of the most effective ways to empower women is through social support which relates to having a good quality of life. The research project focuses upon social support and quality of life among widows in Pattani who have become victims of the Southern Thailand’s violence. However, the focus of this paper is only upon the quality of life portion of the research with the aim of providing information regarding the condition of widows in Southern Thailand who are the victims of violence and social and political destabilization.

METHODOLOGY The method used for this study was a survey method, which is a common method to generate the primary data. A sample of widows from southern Thailand’s violence in Pattani was chosen as the participants to respond to the questions in the research instrument.

Participants of the study The population includes widows from southern Thailand’s violence in Pattani, Thailand who lost their husbands in southern Thailand’s violence situation. This research utilized a purposive sampling method. A number chart used by the government in Pattani that lists an estimate of 1150 registered widows of southern Thailand’s violence was used as the source for participant selection. These widows must receive validation by the police, army and local administrators as widows of southern Thailand’s violence. A minimum of 280 participants are needed as the sample for this study (Krejcie & Morgan ,1970). A total of 337 widows were recruited as participants. The widows were included in this study if they fulfilled these criteria: a. living in Pattani b. identified as widows of violence by the government c. agree to participate in the study

Research instruments The instrument for this study is The Quality of Life Questionnaire (WHOQOL-BREF) by World Health Organization (WHO). The WHOQOL-BREF is a 26-item, with a five- point scale ranging from “very poor” to “very good”. The instrument is composed of four domains: physical health (seven items), psychological health (six items), social relationships (three items), and environmental health (eight items); one item on the whole QOL and one item on general health items. The domain of physical health contains element such as sleep, pain, energy mobility daily activities and functional capacity. Furthermore, the psychological domain measures the mentality status, positive and negative attitudes, self-esteem, learning ability, religion, remembrance and meditation. Meanwhile, personal relationship, social support and sex life are questions that composed the social relationship domains. Lastly, the environmental domain covers to financial aspects, safety, health and social service, living physical environment (noise, air pollution, etc.), and transportation. Higher scores correspond to better QOL. Where an item is missing, there is no overall score for the WHOQOL-BREF. Other items in the domain can be devised to explain their meaning. The domain score should not be calculated where more than two items are missing from the domain, except for domain three (social relationship) where if there is more than one missing item, the domain should not be calculated. The questionnaires that have more than 20 percent missing items should be also rejected (World Health Organization's Quality of Life group, 2004).

Data collection technique Data collection in this study is conducted by distributing self-administered questionnaires to all prospective respondents in cities in the Pattani province. Pattani province includes 13 cities and each of the cities has a center for rehabilitation of the widows affected by the violence. The procedure began by the researcher meeting a social worker at the Center of Social Development in Pattani, for the purpose of contacting the officers who take care of widow groups in all the cities in Pattani province. The social worker then contacted the officers and sent the questionnaires to them who later handed the questionnaires to the participants who are the widows. In the study, the researcher was unable to contact the widows or meet them easily. This problem was compromised by contacting the officer in charge of the widow group who could find them and © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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linked with them with ease. Last but not least, the reason that the researcher could not meet the widows directly is for the safety of the researcher during data collection because some areas are still at risk of insurgent attacks. The questionnaires were handed back to the researcher in two weeks’ time.

Data analysis techniques The data collected were processed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 19.0. Data were analyzed using several statistical methods such as descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics describes the fundamental features of a study’s data. They summarize the sample and the measures. Description is typically done through simple graphics presentation which forms the basis of quantitative analysis (McMillan & Schumacher, 2009).

RESULTS Scoring of Quality of Life Table 1 shows the mean and standard deviation value for overall quality of life. The mean of quality of life of respondents is 83.65, which corresponds to normal quality of life. Table 1 - Overall Quality of Life

Mean Overall Quality of Life

Std. Deviation

83.65

10.69

The respondents were also grouped into categories according to quality of life levels (see Table 2). The majority (n=284, 84.3%) falls under the moderate category while 50 (14.8%) reported high quality of life. Only three (0.9%) respondents scored low quality of life. Table 3 shows the mean and standard deviation value of all the components of quality of life. First, the mean of Physical Health of respondents is 23.24, which indicates normal level. Second, the mean Psychological Health of respondents is 20.82 (normal level). Third, the mean of Social Relationship of respondents is 9.29 (normal level). Finally, the mean of environmental Health of respondents is 23.82 (normal level). Table 2 - Categories of Overall of Quality of Life

Level

Frequency

Low

Percent 3

0.9

284

84.3

High

50

14.8

Total

337

100.0

Normal

Table 3 - The Components of Quality of Life

Mean

Std. Deviation

Physical Health

23.24

3.15

Psychological Health

20.82

3.70

9.29

2.03

23.82

3.92

Social Relationship Environmental Health

Descriptive Statistics of Quality of life Physical Health Table 4 presents the mean and standard deviation value of items from the variable Physical Health. The most dominant item in Physical Health is “How satisfied are you with your ability to perform your daily living activities?” with mean value of 3.54 (Range = 1 to 5). Whereas, the item “How satisfied are you with your sleep?” scored the lowest mean value (3.06). © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Table 4 - Mean and Standard Deviation of Items Measuring Physical Health

Items

Mean

Std. Deviation

How satisfied are you with your ability to perform your daily living activities?

3.54

0.79

How satisfied are you with your capacity for work?

3.45

0.81

How well are you able to get around?

3.37

1.04

Do you have enough energy for everyday life?

3.31

0.78

How much do you need any medical treatment to function in your daily life?

3.26

1.0

To what extent do you feel that physical pain prevents you from doing what you need to do?

3.24

0.91

How satisfied are you with your sleep?

3.06

0.87

Average

3.32

8.89

Psychological Health Table 5 present the mean and standard deviation value of items from variable Psychological Health. The most dominant item in Psychological Health is “How satisfied are you with yourself?” with mean value of 3.92 (Range = 1 to 5). Whereas, the item “I How much do you enjoy life?” scored the lowest mean value (3.17). Table 5 - Mean and Standard Deviation of Items Measuring Psychological Health

Items

Mean

Std. Deviation

How satisfied are you with yourself?

3.92

1.04

Are you able to accept your bodily appearance?

3.67

0.92

To what extent do you feel your life to be meaningful?

3.58

0.88

How well are you able to concentrate?

3.28

0.79

How often do you have negative feelings such as blue mood, despair, anxiety, depression?

3.22

0.90

How much do you enjoy life?

3.17

0.86

Average

3.47

0.90

Social Relationship Table 6 presents the mean and standard deviation value of items from variable Social Relationship. The most dominant item in Social Relationship is “How satisfied are you with your personal relationships?” with mean value of 3.55 (Range = 1 to 5).. Whereas, the item “How satisfied are you with your sex life?” scored the lowest mean value (2.36). able 6 - Mean and Standard Deviation of Items Measuring Social Relationship

Items

Mean

Std. Deviation

How satisfied are you with your personal relationships?

3.55

0.86

How satisfied are you with the support you get from your friends?

3.39

0.89

How satisfied are you with your sex life?

2.36

1.10

Average

3.10

0.95

Environmental Health Table 7 presents the mean and standard deviation value of items from variable Environmental Health. The most dominant item in Environmental Health is “How satisfied are you with the conditions of your living © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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place?” with mean value of 3.28 (Range = 1 to 5).. Whereas, the item “How safe do you feel in your daily life?” scored the lowest mean value (2.58). Table 7 - Mean and Standard Deviation of Items Measuring Environmental Health

Items

Mean

Std. Deviation

How satisfied are you with the conditions of your living place?

3.28

0.72

How healthy is your physical environment?

3.26

0.96

How satisfied are you with your transport?

3.19

0.90

How satisfied are you with your access to health services?

3.19

0.77

How available to you is the information that you need in your day-today life?

2.80

0.87

To what extent do you have the opportunity for leisure activities?

2.79

0.77

Have you enough money to meet your needs?

2.74

0.73

How safe do you feel in your daily life?

2.58

1.02

Average

2.98

0.84

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATION AND SUGGESTION The quality of life of widows in southern Thailand in this study presents a normal level since the mean scores of physical health, psychological health, social relationship, and environmental health are considered normal according to the scores provided by the WHO (1996). This research is related to the findings of Ruangdej, Kama, Chaosuansreecharoen, & Sungkeao (2013), who also conducted a study on the quality of life among victims (those who were affected by violence) under the unrest situation in the southern Thailand. The majority of their participants had quality of life that was normal although they also found that some of the victims had low quality life. Additionally, similar to Puthachart’s (2012) finding, this study also found that majority of the respondents had normal quality of life and the lowest main score was in environmental health domain. Hence, the violence situation in southern Thailand could be the main reason concerning safety of the widows, which led to feeling of distrust in society and having to be more careful in their daily routine (Kraonual, Hathakid, & Punyasopan, 2009). The violence affects the quality of life among the widows, with respect to the findings that showed the lowest score as in “How safe do you feel in your daily life”. McGeown (2006), reported that the southern Thailand violence affects people’s concern of their safety and increased the vulnerability of psychological consequences to women (Murthy, 2007) because violence such as bombing, shooting, and other acts of violence terrorize the lives of people almost every day (McGeown, 2006). Moreover, Pattani has seen violence on a regular basis and more than 90 percent of people who died from insurgent attacks were civilians. The insurgents targets security forces and symbols of Thai state authority such as military and government officials and facilities, commercial locations, state schools and teachers, medical personnel and public health centres (Melvin, 2007). The concern from experiencing mass violence may lead to psychological symptoms and syndromes in people. They need psychological interventions to improve their quality of life and also physical support and psychological support, including managing the crisis situations through religion and cultural practices (Murthy, 2007). Furthermore, Ribeiro and friends (2013) suggests that the negative impacts of traumatic outcomes may be buffered by environmental factors and may require interventions to improve mental health and quality of life. In addition, the findings from Sasaphuri (2012) indicated that the southern Thailand violence leads to a decreased income among the widows as they lost the breadwinner. Hence, the widows should receive some financial aid from the government. Since the situation also affects mental health, the widows would need assistance from the society to support them in the long run term including, the knowledge to create work for themselves. Moreover, qualitative research is also important to help retrieve rich data. Interviewing the widows face to face will help researchers to understand the feelings, opinions, needs, expectations, and problems beyond the questionnaire. Therefore, the study of quality of life among the widows by qualitative method would be interesting and important.

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CONCLUSION The main purpose of this study was to investigate the quality of life from the widows who were involved in the southern Thailand violence and, the result of this study showed that the quality of life among the widows is normal. The information collected from this survey would be very useful as it could help the government to take further steps to improve the way to provide specialist welfare to the widows. The government might use the data collected to understand the quality of life among widows. The researcher hopes that more research will be conducted on quality of life among widows in the future. Therefore, more findings would help to understand and improve the quality of life among the widows from the southern Thailand violence. Moreover, upon losing a spouse, social relations may become poorer and more restricted by the social environments which later affect the widow’s well-being (Ben-Zur, 2012). In sum, quality of life may be important reference points in any intervention aimed at alleviating distress and improving quality of life among the widowed, including empowerment among the widows from the southern Thailand violence to help them in helping themselves.

REFERENCES Abuza, Z. (2011). The ongoing insurgency in southern Thailand: trends in violence, counterinsurgency operations, and the impact of national politics. National defense university press Washington, D.C. Goodman, A.(2007). Southern Thailand: Women for peace, offering solace to victims of violence. PBS Frontline/ world. Retrieved from http://aarongoodman. wordpress.com /ink/journalism/thailand-women-forpeace-offering-solace-to-victims-of-violence-pbs-frontline-world/ on August 3, 2012. Jamjuree, S. (2010). Muslim women living in Southern Thailand want peace. IPS inter press service. Retrieved from http://www.ips.org/blog/ mdg3/2010/10/ muslim-women-living-in-southern-thailand-wantpeace/ on August 3, 2012. Kraonual S., Hathakid A., & Punyasopan A., (2009). The affectation from insurgency to nurse in southern Thailand. Rama Nurse Journal, 15(2), 284-298 Krejcie, R., & Morgan, D. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and psychological measurement, 30, 607-610. McGeown, K. (2006). Violence and vendettas in Thai south. BBC news. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/ hi/asia-pacific/5250322.stm on March 7, 2013 McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2009). Research in education. Pearson Education. Melvin, N.J. (2007). Conflict in southern Thailand Islamism. Violence and the state in the Patani Insurgency 6-7, 28-29. Murthy, S. R. (2007). Mass violence and mental health--Recent epidemiological findings. International Review of Psychiatry, 19(3), 183-192. Noor, F.A. (2004). Thailand’s Smile Fades. BBC News on the web. Retrieved from, from http: //www.news. bbc. co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4017551.stm on January 2, 2013. Puthachart P., (2007). Quality of life of Doctors in southern Thailand’s violence. Medical Journal of Prince of Songkhla, 25(1), 29-37. Ribeiro, W. S., de Jesus Mari, J., Quintana, M. I., Dewey, M. E., Evans-Lacko, S., Vilete, L. M. P. & Andreoli, S. B. (2013). The Impact of Epidemic Violence on the Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders in Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. PloS one, 8(5), e63545. Ruangdej K., Kama A., Chaosuansreecharoen P., & Sungkeao S., (2013). Factors Predicting Quality of Life of Victims under the Unrest Situation in Yala Province. Prince of Narathiwat university journal, 5(2), 1427. Sasaphuri A., (2012). Summarize of assisting to widows and ophans from southern Thailand’s violence (Pattani, Tala, Narathiwat). Retrieved from www.m-society.go.th/.../edoc/ edoc_ 962.doc on April 2, 2013. World Health Organization's Quality of Life group, (1996). WHOQOL-BREF Introduction, Administration and Scoring, Field Trial version. World Health Organization's Quality of Life group (2004). The world health report 2004: changing history. World Health Organization.

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ISDC

ISDC2014 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

2014 ISBN: 978-967-0474-74-8

PERSEPSI TERHADAP KECURANGAN : SATU KAJIAN PERBANDINGAN DI ANTARA PELAJAR LELAKI DAN PEREMPUAN Norhamidah Jarimal @ Safri*, Murnizam Hj. Halik, Balan Rathakrishnan, Jasmine Adela Mutang, Risalshah Latif, Azahar Che Latiff & Surianti Lajuma *[email protected] Universiti Malaysia Sabah

Abstract Kajian ini adalah bertujuan untuk mengkaji perbezaan persepsi terhadap kecurangan mengikut jantina iaitu dalam kalangan pelajar lelaki dan perempuan. Kecurangan yang dikaji adalah berfokus kepada dua aspek iaitu kecurangan fizikal dan emosi. Aspek lain yang diteroka dalam kajian ini adalah persepsi individu terhadap faktor berlakunya kecurangan dalam hubungan, persepsi terhadap perasaan individu apabila berlaku kecurangan serta persepsi terhadap daya tindak yang dilakukan oleh individu jika berlaku kecurangan dalam hubungan. Seramai 191 orang (63 lelaki dan 128 perempuan) yang terdiri daripada pelajar prasiswazah di salah sebuah institut pengajian tinggi di Malaysia telah dijadikan sebagai responden kajian. Satu set soal selidik yang dibangunkan oleh Gallagher (2010) telah digunakan dalam kajian ini. Hasil kajian menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan persepsi terhadap faktor berlakunya kecurangan dalam hubungan di antara pelajar lelaki dan perempuan. Namun demikian, didapati bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan dari aspek persepsi terhadap kecurangan fizikal dan emosi, perasaan yang dialami jika berlaku kecurangan dan daya tindak yang dilakukan jika berlaku kecurangan di antara pelajar lelaki dan perempuan. Implikasi penemuan dibincangkan dan hala tuju untuk kajian akan dating dinyatakan. Keywords: persepsi, kecurangan, pasangan, hubungan, gender

PENGENALAN Kajian berkaitan fenomena kecurangan memberi ruang kepada individu untuk menyatakan persepsi mereka terhadap kecurangan (Cramer, Lipinski, Meteer, & Houska, 2008). Walau bagaimanapun, Cramer, et al., percaya bahawa kecurangan itu bukan sahaja melibatkan fizikal tetapi juga emosi. Alasan yang diberikan sebagai punca kepada kecurangan juga dinyatakan secara berasingan daripada hilang minat sehingga hubungan seksual dan emosi yang tidak memuaskan (Allen, Rhoades, Markman, Williams, Melton, & Clements, 2008). Meneliti dengan lebih lanjut mengenai perbezaan persepsi kecurangan mengikut jantina, adalah penting untuk mengenalpasti apakah persepsi seseorang individu dan apakah yang menyebabkan berlakunya kecurangan. Hal ini dilihat sebagai salah satu cara untuk membantu orang ramai mengelakkan kecurangan dalam perhubungan mereka. Kecurangan boleh berlaku dalam sesuatu perhubungan disebabkan oleh hakikat bahawa lelaki dan perempuan tidak mentakrifkan kecurangan dengan cara yang sama atau lelaki dan perempuan juga tidak bersepakat mengenai apakah perkara atau perbuatan yang boleh dianggap sebagai kecurangan (Allen, et al. 2008). Buktinya, kajian mendapati lelaki memberikan punca berlakunya kecurangan adalah disebabkan masalah hubungan seksual manakala perempuan pula memberikan sebab komunikasi yang tidak berkesan menjadi punca berlakunya kecurangan dalam perhubungan (Zuhal & Dogan, 2006). Paper presented at the International Social Development Conference (ISDC2014), on August 12 - 13, 2014 at The Bayview Hotel, Langkawi Island, Malaysia. The conference was organized by the School of Social Development (SSD), UUM College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA. * Corresponding author.

Beberapa kajian telah dijalankan dan dapat digunakan sebagai rujukan untuk kajian ini kerana ianya dilihat berkaitan secara spesifik dengan kepentingan kajian. Kajian lepas berkaitan maklumat mengenai persepsi dan definisi kecurangan atau ketidaksetiaan antara lelaki dan wanita dilihat sebagai berkaitan. Kajian yang tertumpu kepada persepsi individu mengenai apa yang dianggap sebagai kecurangan dan tindakan mereka terhadap kecurangan yang sedang dihadapi (Henline et al, 2007; Randall & Byers, 2003) juga akan diberi perhatian. Dalam satu kajian yang memberi tumpuan kepada tekanan subjektif terhadap kecurangan, didapati terdapat perbezaan persepsi terhadap kecurangan mengikut jantina (Cramer, et al., 2008). Kajian tersebut telah dijalankan menggunakan soal selidik bagi mengukur jangkaan responden terhadap kecurangan pasangan mereka yang merujuk kepada soalan ketidaksetiaan dari segi emosi dan fizikal. Kajian mereka mendapati bahawa lelaki merasakan pasangan perempuan mereka lebih cenderung kepada kecurangan emosi berbanding kecurangan seksual. Perempuan merasakan bahawa pasangan lelaki mereka lebih cenderung kepada kecurangan secara fizikal berbanding kecurangan emosi. Hasil lain menunjukkan perempuan lebih tertekan jika pasangan mereka terlibat dengan kecurangan emosi dan lelaki lebih tertekan jika pasangan mereka melakukan kecurangan fizikal. Satu kajian lain yang memberi tumpuan kepada mengapa kecurangan berlaku telah dijalankan dengan menggunakan pelajar-pelajar kolej (Cohen 2005). Kajian ini mendapati bahawa kecurangan berlaku dalam perhubungan disebabkan oleh pasangan yang tidak berpuas hati dari segi seksual atau emosi. Kajian mendapati bahawa lelaki lebih cenderung untuk menjadi curang dari segi seksual dan wanita lebih cenderung untuk menjadi curang dari segi emosi akibat daripada ketidakpuasan hati mereka terhadap pasangan masingmasing (Cohen 2005). Walau bagaimanapun, kajian ini tidak mendapati perbezaan dalam sebab berlakunya kecurangan di antara lelaki dan wanita. Menyokong perbezaan persepsi kecurangan mengikut jantina, dalam kajian pada peringkat pra-perkahwinan mengenai kecurangan perkahwinan, punca bagi kecurangan mengikut jantina telah dikaji (Allen, et al. 2008). Kajian ini menggunakan selfreport dan pemerhatian untuk mendapatkan penemuan kedua-dua lelaki dan perempuan secara berasingan. Keputusan menunjukkan sebab-sebab yang berbeza bagi kecurangan antara lelaki dan perempuan. Punca lelaki berlaku curang adalah disebabkan hubungan seksual dan kepuasan yang rendah serta komunikasi yang negatif. Punca bagi perempuan pula adalah disebabkan kepuasan seksual yang lebih tinggi pada awal hubungan berbanding keadaan semasa dan komunikasi yang negatif. Dapatan ini menyokong bahawa lelaki dan perempuan percaya terdapat punca yang berbeza mengapa kecurangan boleh berlaku dalam perhubungan. Terdapat juga kajian lain yang menyokong bahawa terdapat sebab yang berbeza berlakunya kecurangan. Kajian yang dilakukan memberi tumpuan kepada sebab lelaki dan perempuan menjadi curang. Kajian tersebut meminta lelaki dan perempuan menjawab mengapa mereka merasakan kecurangan boleh berlaku (Zuhal & Dogan, 2006). Kajian mereka mendapati bahawa lelaki menyifatkan kecurangan berlaku dalam hubungan akibat daripada hubungan seksual yang tidak memuaskan antara pasangan manakala perempuan menyifatkan kecurangan berlaku akibat daripada hubungan emosi yang lemah antara pasangan. Penemuan ini menunjukkan bahawa lelaki dan perempuan berbeza dalam menyatakan sebab bagi berlakunya kecurangan. Perbezaan jantina dalam mempersepsikan kecurangan juga ditunjukkan dalam kajian perbezaan jantina dalam laporan kecurangan diri dan hubungnya yang mana mengkaji perbezaan jantina dalam berapa kerap kecurangan berlaku dan sebab akibat kecurangan (Brand , Markey , Mills , & Hodges, 2007). Penyelidik meminta responden yang pernah menipu dalam perhubungan mereka untuk menyatakan punca keadaan yang menyebabkan kecurangan itu berlaku. Keputusan menunjukkan bahawa lelaki tidak melakukan kecurangan lebih berbanding perempuan dan tidak ada perbezaan yang signifikan ditunjukkan. Walau bagaimanapun, terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam akibat kecurangan di antara lelaki dan perempuan. Perempuan lebih cenderung untuk berpisah dengan pasangan mereka selepas kecurangan mereka sendiri. Lelaki lebih cenderung untuk mengambil tahu tentang kecurangan pasangan dalam apa cara yang mungkin. Kenyataan Brand et al. (2007 ) juga mendapati bahawa lelaki dan perempuan mempunyai kesan yang berlainan selepas kecurangan mereka dan ia juga menyokong bahawa jantina boleh mempengaruhi persepsi terhadap kecurangan. Kajian Cramer, et al. (2008) juga mendapati jantina dan persepsi terhadap kecurangan adalah berkaitan. Jantina dilihat mempunyai kesan ke atas definisi kecurangan dan juga sebab yang berbeza untuk mengapa kecurangan berlaku. Dalam kajian di Amerika Syarikat, lebih 2,000 orang yang menjadi wakil dalam sampel nasional menunjukkan bahawa 23 peratus lelaki dan 12 peratus wanita dilaporkan melibatkan diri dalam kecurangan perkahwinan © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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(Wiederman, 1997). Begitu juga, satu kajian yang dijalankan di 53 negara dengan hampir 17,000 peserta mendapati bahawa 63 peratus lelaki dan 45 peratus wanita melaporkan bahawa semasa dalam hubungan romantis, mereka telah terlibat dalam hubungan seks dengan pasangan lain (Schmitt et al., 2004). Penyelidikan terkini memberi tumpuan kepada kecurangan fizikal dan kecurangan emosi. Sudah pasti, kecurangan fizikal dan kecurangan emosi adalah dua bentuk kecurangan yang berbeza dari segi aplikasinya. Walaupun kajian sering memberi perhatian kepada dua bentuk kecurangan ini secara berasingan (Barta & Kiene, 2005) namun adalah munasabah untuk mempercayai bahawa walaupun jenis kecurangan adalah berbeza namun kemungkinan berlakunya pertindihan wujud dan seseorang individu mungkin mengalami kedua-duanya sekali, sama ada secara serentak ataupun berturut-turut. Dalam salah satu kajian yang dipetik daripada psikologi evolusi, Buss, Larson, Westen, dan Semmelroth (1992) bertanyakan kepada pelajar kolej tentang apakah yang mungkin lebih merimaskan atau menyedihkan mereka sama ada membayangkan pasangan romantis mereka membentuk hubungan emosi yang mendalam kepada orang lain, atau menikmati hubungan seks ghairah dengan orang lain. Teori evolusi menganjurkan bahawa untuk menjangkakan pemilihan sama ada kecurangan emosi atau kecurangan fizikal, lelaki dan wanita telah menunjukkan sensitiviti yang berbeza bagi kecurangan emosi berbanding kecurangan fizikal. Hasilnya, 60 peratus daripada lelaki memilih kecurangan seksual sebagai yang paling menyedihkan berbanding hanya 17 peratus daripada wanita.

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN Secara umumnya, kajian ini adalah bertujuan untuk mengkaji persepsi individu terhadap kecurangan fizikal dan emosi mengikut jantina. Aspek tambahan yang diteroka dalam kajian ini adalah mengkaji persepsi individu terhadap faktor berlakunya kecurangan, perasaan yang dialami dan daya tindak yang dilakukan oleh individu apabila berlaku kecurangan dalam hubungan.

DEFINISI KONSEP Persepsi Gibson, et. al., (1989) memberikan definisi persepsi sebagai satu proses kognitif yang digunakan oleh individu untuk mentafsir dan memahami dunia di sekitarnya. Gibson juga menjelaskan bahawa persepsi merupakan satu proses pemberian erti atau makna terhadap sesuatu yang berada dalam lingkungan seseorang individu. Oleh itu, setiap individu dilihat memberikan makna kepada sesuatu stimulus secara berbeza walaupun isunya adalah sama. Daripada pendapat tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa persepsi merupakan suatu proses penginderaan dan stimulus yang diterima oleh individu melalui pancaindera yang kemudiannya diinterpretasikan sehingga dapat memahami tentang stimulus yang diterimanya. Proses menginterpretasikan stimulus ini pula biasanya dipengaruhi oleh pengalaman dan proses belajar seseorang individu. Dalam kajian ini, pengkaji mengoperasikan persepsi seperti yang telah dinyatakan dalam borang soal selidik yang telah dibina oleh Gallagher (2010). Item-item yang terdapat dalam soal selidik ini mengandungi beberapa persepsi terhadap kecurangan pasangan.

Kecurangan Kecurangan adalah perbuatan mengadakan hubungan seks dengan seseorang yang bukan suami atau isteri (Cambridge Kamus bahasa Inggeris Amerika , 2010). Menurut Torsina (1995) dalam Yohan Kurniawan et. al., (2010) menyatakan bahawa perbuatan atau sikap curang ini adalah suatu hubungan yang bersifat rahsia untuk membahagikan cinta atau seks yang dilakukan dengan pasangan baru selain daripada pasangannya yang sah. Manakala menurut Then (2002) dalam YohanKurniawan et. al., (2010) mendifinisikan perbuatan atau sikap curang ini sebagai pertemuan seksual atau hubungan intim yang terus menerus dengan seseorang yang bukan pasangannya. Sebuah buku yang bertujuan secara professional untuk merawat kecurangan menawarkan definisi yang lebih inklusif sebagai "pencabulan terhadap pasangan atau menyatakan perjanjian mengenai sikap eksklusif emosi dan/atau seksual" (Weeks et al., 2003). Dalam kajian ini, pengkaji menyatakan kecurangan dalam dua sudut iaitu kecurangan fizikal dan kecurangan emosi. Kecurangan fizikal dikenalpasti sebagai kecurangan yang melibatkan hubungan seks dan sentuhan fizikal dengan seseorang yang bukan pasangan yang sah. Manakala, kecurangan emosi pula dikalpasti sebagai satu keadaan di mana seseorang individu menyalurkan sumber emosi seperti kasih sayang, masa, dan perhatian kepada individu lain yang bukan pasangan mereka yang sah. Kecurangan emosi juga tidak memerlukan hubungan seks ataupun sebarang bentuk sentuhan fizikal. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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METODOLOGI Rekabentuk Kajian Kajian ini merupakan kajian berbentuk tinjauan soal selidik. Dalam kajian ini, kaedah penyelidikan adalah berbentuk kuantitatif. Data kuantitatif dikumpul daripada maklumat yang diperoleh daripada responden yang telah menjawab borang soal selidik. Borang soal selidik telah digunakan untuk mengumpul data persepsi terhadap kecurangan pasangan.

Responden Kajian Responden kajian seramai 191 orang (63 lelaki dan 128 perempuan) yang terdiri daripada pelajar prasiswazah. Pemilihan responden adalah secara rawak tanpa melibatkan pemilihan mengikut faktor demografi seperti status perkahwinan atau umur.

Lokasi Kajian Kajian telah dijalankan di Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu. Pemilihan lokasi kajian adalah disebabkan ahli pengkaji juga merupakan pekerja di Universiti Malaysia Sabah.

Alat Kajian Alat kajian yang digunakan dalam kajian ini merupakan satu set borang soal selidik yang terdiri daripada dua bahagian iaitu bahagian A mengandungi soalan yang berkaitan dengan latar belakang responden kajian seperti jantina, umur dan status perkahwinan manakala bahagian B mengukur persepsi terhadap kecurangan dari aspek kecurangan fizikal dan emosi, faktor berlakunya kecurangan, perasaan yang dialami dan daya tindak terhadap kecurangan yang terdiri daripada 11 item. Alat kajian ini telah dibina oleh Gallagher (2010).

Analisis Data Analisis data yang digunakan dalam kajian ini adalah berbentuk analisis deskriptif iaitu pengkaji memerihalkan setiap item mengikut jumlah min yang diperolehi untuk melihat perbezaan persepsi terhadap kecurangan mengikut jantina. Semakin rendah nilai min yang ditunjukkan, maka pengkaji memutuskan bahawa item tersebut merupakan pilihan utama bagi responden kajian dan begitu juga sebaliknya jika nilai min tinggi, maka item tersebut bukan menjadi pilihan bagi responden kajian ini.

KEPUTUSAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Persepsi terhadap kecurangan fizikal dan emosi Keputusan kajian bagi persepsi terhadap kecurangan fizikal dan emosi mengikut jantina ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 1.0. Jadual 1.0 : Persepsi terhadap kecurangan fizikal dan emosi

Item

Pernyataan

Min Lelaki

Perempuan

1

Hubungan seksual dengan seseorang yang bukan pasangan anda adalah merupakan satu contoh kecurangan A sexual relationship with a person who is NOT your significant other is an example of infidelity

2.16

1.58

2

Hubungan emosi dengan seseorang yang bukan pasangan anda adalah merupakan satu contoh kecurangan An emotional relationship with a person who is NOT your significant other is an example of infidelity

3.21

2.86

10

Saya tidak akan mempunyai hubungan seksual dengan orang lain semasa saya sudah terikat dengan perhubungan dengan pasangan saya I have never had a sexual relationship with another person while I was already in a committed relationship

2.32

1.53

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11

Saya tidak akan cuba membina hubungan emosi yang kuat dengan orang lain semasa saya sudah terikat dengan perhubungan dengan pasangan saya I have never tried to build a strong emotional relationship with another person while I was already in a committed relationship

2.50

1.77

Jadual 1.0 menunjukkan nilai min bagi setiap item dalam bahagian persepsi terhadap kecurangan mengikut jantina. Persepsi kecurangan yang dinyatakan merangkumi dua bahagian iaitu kecurangan fizikal dan kecurangan emosi. Hasil kajian menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan persepsi terhadap kecurangan antara lelaki dan perempuan. Keputusan menunjukkan, persepsi terhadap kecurangan yang menjadi pilihan bagi lelaki adalah ‘Hubungan seksual dengan seseorang yang bukan pasangan anda adalah merupakan satu contoh kecurangan’. Manakala persepsi terhadap kecurangan yang menjadi pilihan bagi perempuan adalah ‘Saya tidak akan mempunyai hubungan seksual dengan orang lain semasa saya sudah terikat dengan perhubungan dengan pasangan saya’. Ini menunjukkan bahawa responden lebih memilih untuk mempersepsikan kecurangan fizikal berbanding kecurangan emosi sebagai tingkah laku kecurangan. Dapatan kajian ini menyokong makna kecurangan yang dinyatakan dalam Cambridge Kamus bahasa Inggeris Amerika (2010) iaitu kecurangan merupakan suatu perbuatan mengadakan hubungan seks dengan seseorang yang bukan suami atau isteri. Definisi kecurangan yang dinyatakan merujuk kepada kecurangan fizikal kerana melibatkan perhubungan fizikal. Kajian Yeniceri & Kokdemir (2006) yang mengkaji persepsi dan penjelasan bagi kecurangan emosi dan kecurangan seksual juga menunjukkan secara keseluruhannya, kebanyakan responden kajian percaya bahawa pengkhianatan terhadap kedua-dua bentuk kecurangan emosi dan kecurangan fizikal adalah merupakan satu bentuk kecurangan. Dalam kajian Randall & Byers (2003) pula menyatakan bahawa definisi terhadap tingkah laku kecurangan adalah termasuk lebih kepada kecurangan tradisional, seperti mengadakan hubungan seks atau terlibat dengan individu selain daripada pasangan. Kajian telah mendapati bahawa definisi kecurangan boleh terdiri daripada banyak tingkah laku yang berbeza, namun secara jelasnya ianya berkaitan dengan hubungan seksual dan yang seangkatan dengannya (Yeniceri & Kokdemir, 2006; Randall & Byers, 2003) Hasil kajian ini menyokong kajian Glass dan Wright (1992) yang telah meluaskan definisi kecurangan dengan meletakkan kecurangan seksual sebagai suatu hubungan seksual tanpa penglibatan hubungan emosi. Kajian mereka menunjukkan bahawa kecurangan fizikal boleh berlaku walaupun tanpa melibatkan hubungan emosi. Maka, kecurangan fizikal harus dielakkan terlebih dahulu bagi mengelakkan berlakunya kecurangan terhadap pasangan sama ada kecurangan fizikal ataupun kecurangan emosi. Beberapa penyelidikan terkini juga memberi tumpuan kepada kecurangan emosi seperti kajian Eaves & Smith (2007) yang telah menentukan kecurangan emosi sebagai satu keadaan di mana individu menyalurkan sumber emosi seperti kasih sayang, masa, dan perhatian kepada individu lain yang bukan pasangan mereka. Kesemua tindakan seperti yang dinyatakan perlu dielakkan untuk mengelakkan risiko melakukan kecurangan terhadap pasangan.

Persepsi terhadap faktor berlakunya kecurangan Keputusan kajian bagi persepsi terhadap faktor berlakunya kecurangan mengikut jantina ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 2.0. Jadual 2.0 : Persepsi terhadap faktor berlakunya kecurangan

Item

Pernyataan

Min Lelaki

Perempuan

3

Kecurangan selalunya terjadi dalam perhubungan disebabkan hubungan seksual yang tidak baik antara pasangan Infidelity is most likely to occur in a relationship because of a poor sexual relationship between significant other

3.4571

1.70368

4

Kecurangan selalunya terjadi dalam perhubungan disebabkan komunikasi yang tidak baik antara pasangan Infidelity is most likely to occur in a relationship because of poor communication between significant other

2.4857

1.46270

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5

Kecurangan selalunya terjadi dalam perhubungan disebabkan kehilangan minat dalam perhubungan antara pasangan Infidelity is most likely to occur in a relationship because of a loss of interest in the relationship between partners

2.9143

1.61558

Hasil kajian mendapati terdapat perbezaan persepsi faktor berlakunya kecurangan mengikut jantina iaitu lelaki didapati memilih item ‘Kecurangan selalunya terjadi dalam perhubungan disebabkan kehilangan minat dalam perhubungan antara pasangan’ untuk mempersepsikan faktor kecurangan berbanding perempuan yang memilih item ‘Kecurangan selalunya terjadi dalam perhubungan disebabkan komunikasi yang tidak baik antara pasangan’. Ini menunjukkan bahawa responden lelaki memilih untuk mempersepsikan faktor berlakunya kecurangan adalah disebabkan oleh faktor kehilangan minat dalam perhubungan manakala responden lelaki memilih untuk mempersepsikan faktor komunikasi yang tidak berkesan antara pasangan sebagai faktor berlakunya kecurangan dalam hubungan. Dapatan kajian ini selari dengan kenyataan (Allen et al., 2005) yang menyatakan bahawa kebosanan dan kekurangan sokongan emosi dalam sesebuah ikatan perkahwinan boleh meletakkan seseorang berisiko untuk melakukan kecurangan. Kekurangan sokongan emosi ini adalah sama seperti komunikasi yang tidak berkesan, termasuk kurang interaksi yang positif dan lebih kepada interaksi yang negatif antara pasangan (Allen et al., 2008).

Persepsi terhadap perasaan dan daya tindak jika berlaku kecurangan Keputusan kajian bagi persepsi terhadap perasaan jika berlaku kecurangan ditunjukkan dalam jadual 3.0. Jadual 3.0 : Persepsi terhadap perasaan dan daya tindak jika berlaku kecurangan

Item

Pernyataan

Min Lelaki

Perempuan

6

Saya berasa sangat sedih jika pasangan saya terlibat dalam perlakuan seksual dengan orang lain How upset would you be if your significant other engaged in a sexual act with another person?

1.8485

1.78748

7

Saya berasa sangat sedih jika pasangan saya mula membina hubungan emosi yang mendalam dengan orang lain How upset would you be if your significant other started building a deep emotional relationship with another person?

2.1875

1.87406

8

Jika pasangan anda mempunyai hubungan seksual dengan orang lain, apakah yang anda akan lakukan: If your significant other had sexual relation with another person, how likely would you be to:

8.1

Menamatkan hubungan serta merta? End the relationship immediately?

2.5238

2.0081

8.2

Cuba untuk menyelesaikan? Try to work things out?

3.6441

3.4322

8.3

Berpura-pura tidak tahu? Pretend that you didn’t know?

5.3036

5.9107

9

Jika pasangan anda mula membina hubungan emosi yang kuat dengan orang lain, apakah yang anda akan lakukan: If your significant other started building a strong emotional relationship with another person, how likely would you be to:

9.1

Menamatkan hubungan serta merta? End the relationship immediately?

2.9344

2.6083

9.2

Cuba untuk menyelesaikan? Try to work things out?

2.9344

2.7750

9.3

Berpura-pura tidak tahu? Pretend that you didn’t know?

4.9344

5.6637

Jadual 3.0 menunjukkan nilai min bagi item dalam bahagian persepsi terhadap perasaan yang dialami jika

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berlaku kecurangan. Persepsi terhadap perasaan yang dialami jika berlaku kecurangan merangkumi dua bahagian iaitu kecurangan fizikal dan kecurangan emosi. Keputusan menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan persepsi terhadap perasaan yang dialami oleh responden jika berlaku kecurangan dalam hubungan. Responden lelaki dan perempuan memilih item ‘Saya berasa sangat sedih jika pasangan saya terlibat dalam perlakuan seksual dengan orang lain’ sebagai persepsi perasaan utama terhadap kecurangan pasangan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan perasaan kesedihan yang dinyatakan mengambarkan kecurangan fizikal dan ini menunjukkan bahawa responden mempersepsikan kecurangan fizikal sebagai lebih menyedihkan berbanding kecurangan emosi. Hasil kajian konsisten dengan logik perspektif adaptasi oleh BUSS, Larsen, Westen, dan Semmelroth (1992) menunjukkan bahawa responden lelaki cenderung untuk menunjukkan kesedihan yang agak tinggi ke atas kecurangan seksual. Namun, dapatan kajian mereka berbeza dimana responden wanita cenderung untuk menunjukkan kesedihan yang tinggi ke atas kecurangan emosi. Sejak itu, banyak kajian lain yang telah melaporkan hasil kajian yang sama di beberapa budaya yang berbeza dan menggunakan kaedah yang juga berbeza (Becker, Sagarin, Guadagno, Millevoi, & Nicastle, 2004; BUSS et al, 1999;. Easton, Schipper, & Shackelford, 2007; Murphy, Vallacher, Shackelford, Björklund, & Yunger, 2006; Pietrzak, Laird, Stevens, & Thompson, 2002; Sagarin, Becker, Guadagno, Nicastle, & Millevoi, 2003; Schützwohl, 2008) Persepsi seterusnya adalah daya tindak yang dilakukan oleh seseorang individu sekiranya pasangan mereka mempunyai hubungan seksual atau hubungan emosi dengan orang lain. Kedua-dua responden lelaki dan perempuan menunjukkan cenderung untuk memberi persepsi menamatkan hubungan serta merta jika pasangan mereka melakukan kecurangan fizikal atau emosi berbanding dengan memilih untuk cuba untuk menyelesaikan atau berpura-pura tidak tahu. Hasil dapatan kajian ini selari dengan dapatan kajian daripada Paul dan Galloway yang juga menggunakan pelajar ijazah sebagai subjek kajian mereka. Hasil kajian mereka mendapati bahawa pelajar wanita (52%) adalah lebih cenderung berbanding lelaki (30%) mengatakan bahawa mereka akan menamatkan perhubungan jika pasangan mereka tidak setia kepada mereka.

PENUTUP DAN KESIMPULAN Kesimpulannya, kajian ini adalah mengkaji persepsi individu terhadap dua bentuk kecurangan iaitu kecurangan fizikal dan emosi dalam kalangan pelajar lelaki dan perempuan. Selain itu, persepsi terhadap faktor berlakunya kecurangan, perasaan yang dialami jika berlaku kecurangan dan daya tindak yang dilakukan jika berlaku kecurangan dalam hubungan turut diteroka dalam kajian ini. Secara keseluruhannya, hasil kajian menunjukkan responden mempersepsikan kecurangan fizikal sebagai tingkah laku kecurangan berbanding kecurangan emosi. Dari segi faktor berlakunya kecurangan, responden lelaki menyatakan bahawa faktor hilang minta kepada pasangan sebagai punca berlakunya kecurangan manakala perempuan pula menyatakan bahawa faktor komunikasi yang tidak berkesan antara pasangan merupakan faktor berlakunya kecurangan dalam hubungan. Dapatan kajian berkaitan persepsi terhadap perasaan jika berlaku kecurangan pula menunjukkan bahawa responden lelaki dan perempuan mengalami kesedihan yang lebih tinggi jika ianya berkaitan dengan kecurangan fizikal berbanding kecurangan emosi. Akhir sekali, responden menunjukkan persepsi terhadap daya tindak untuk memutuskan hubungan serta merta jika berlaku kecurangan sama ada fizikal atau emosi berbanding dengan memilih untuk cuba menyelesaikan dan pura-pura tidak tahu. Kajian lanjut berkaitan dengan isu kecurangan pasangan perlu diberikan perhatian pada masa akan datang bagi membantu pasangan mengetahui punca, kesan serta jalan penyelesaian kepada fenomena ini. Kajian terbaru (Tafoya & Spitzberg, 2007) telah mula dijalankan bagi mengkaji fungsi komunikatif kecurangan, termasuk niat untuk menyelenggara, membaiki, atau menamatkan sesuatu perhubungan.

RUJUKAN Allen, E. S., Atkins, D. C., Baucom, D. H., Snyder, D. K., Gordon, K. C., & Glass, S. P. (2005). Intrapersonal, interpersonal, and contextual factors in engaging in and responding to extramarital involvement. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 12, 101–130. Allen, E., Rhoades, G., Stanley, S., Markman, H., Williams, T., Melton, J., & Clements, M. (2008). Premarital precursors of marital infidelity. Family Process, 47 (2), 243-259. © ISDC2014 • Conference Proceedings

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Barta, W. D., & Kiene, S. M. (2005). Motivations for infidelity in heterosexual dating couples: The roles of gender, personality differences, and sociosexual orientation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 22, 339-360. Brand J., Markey, C., Mills, A., & Hodges S., (2007). Sex differences in self-reported infidelity and its correlates. Sex Roles, 57 (1-2), 101-109. Buss, D. M., Larsen, R. J., Westen, D., & Semmelroth, J. (1992). Sex differences in jealousy: Evolution, physiology, and psychology. Psychological Science, 3, 251-255. Cohan, Alexis B. (2005). The relation of attachment to infidelity in romantic relationship: An exploration of attachment style, perception of partner’s attachment style, relationship satisfaction, relationship quality and gender differences in sexual behaviors. Ph.D dissertation, Adelphi University, The Institude of Advanced Psychological Studies, United States- New York. Cramer, R., Lipinski, R., Meteer, J., & Houska, J. (2008). Sex differences in subjective distress to unfaithfulness: Testing competing evolutionary and violation of infidelity expectations hypotheses. The Journal of Social Psychology, 148(4), 389-405. Easton, J. A., Schipper, L. D., and Shackelford, T. K. (2007). Morbid jealousy from an evolutionary psychological perspective. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28, 399-402. Eaves, S. H., & Robertson-Smith, M. (2007). The relationship between self-worth and marital infidelity: A pilot study. The Family Journal, 15, 382-386. Glass, S. P., and Wright, T. L. (1988). Clinical implications of research on extramarital involvement. In R. Brown and J. Fields (Eds.), Treatment of Sexual Problems in Individual and Couples Therapy (pp. 301-346). Costa Mesa, CA: PMA. Henline, B. H., Lamke, L. K., & Howard, M. D. (2007). Exploring perceptions of online infidelity. Personal Relationships, 14, 113-128. Randall, H. E., & Byers, E. S. (2003). What is sex? Students’ definitions of having sex, sexual partner, and unfaithful sexual behavior. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 12, 87-96. Schmitt, D. P. et al. (2004). Patterns and universals of mate poaching across 53 nations: The effects of sex, culture, and personality on romantically attracting another person’s partner. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 560-584. Weeks, G. R., Gambescia, N., & Jenkins, R.E. (2003). Treating infidelity: Therapeutic dilemmas and effective strategies. New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company. Wiederman, M. (1997). Extramarital sex: Prevalence and correlates in a national study. The Journal of Sex Research, 34, 167-174 Yeneceri, Z., & Kokdemir, D. (2006). University students’ perceptions of, and explanations for, infidelity: The development of the infidelity questionnaire (INFQ). Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 34(6), 639-650

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