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2 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THE CHANGING WORLD AND SOCIAL RESEARCH (ICWSR’2016)

PROCEEDINGS BOOK Barcelona / SPAIN 14 - 16 October, 2016 www.icwsr.org

2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THE CHANGING WORLD AND SOCIAL RESEARCH (ICWSR '2016 - BARCELONA)

PROCEEDINGS BOOK

Barcelona, SPAIN October 14-16, 2016

EDITORS Necmi UYANIK Mustafa ZENGİNBAŞ Menşure AŞCI Yusuf DEMİR Süleyman UZKUÇ

© Her hakkı saklıdır. Bu kitabın tamamı ya da bir kısmı, yazarlarının izni olmaksızın, elektronik, mekanik, fotokopi yada herhangi bir kayıt sistemi ile çoğaltılamaz, yayınlanamaz, depolanamaz. Bu kitaptaki bilgilerin her türlü sorumluluğu yazarına aittir.

ISBN: 978-605-9269-53-7

© Konya, Aralık 2016 PALET YAYINLARI Mimar Muzaffer Caddesi Rampalı Çarşı No. 42 Konya Tel. 0332 353 62 27 e-mail: [email protected] www.paletyayinlari.com

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

COMMITTEES CHAIRMAN OF ICWSR‟2016 Prof. Dr. Benjamin FORTNA, University of London, UK Prof. Dr. Necmi UYANIK, Selcuk University, TURKEY VICE-CHAIR OF ICWSR‟2016 Inst. Mustafa ZENGĠNBAġ, Selcuk University, TURKEY ORGANIZING COMMITTEE Prof. Dr. Adnan KADRĠÇ, Sarajevo University Oriental Institute, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA. Prof. Dr. Anisoara POPA, Danubius University, ROMANIA. Prof. Dr. Charles WILKINS, Wake Forest University, USA. Prof. Dr. Mehmet OKKA, Selcuk University, TURKEY. Prof. Dr. Numan ARUÇ, Macedonia Science and Art Academy, MACEDONIA. Prof. Dr. Peter HAĠDER, Vienna Universal Peace Federation, AUSTRIA. Prof. Dr. ġeref ATEġ, President of Yunus Emre Institute, TURKEY. Prof. Dr. Thomas DREW BEAR, Lyon University, FRANCE. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ġsa BLUMĠ, Stockholm University, SWEDEN. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Necmi UYANIK, Selcuk University, TURKEY. SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE Prof. Dr. Abdüsselam ULUÇAM, Batman University, TURKEY. Prof. Dr. Abid HALĠM, Jamia Millia Ġslamia University, INDIA. Prof. Dr. Adnan KADRĠÇ, Sarajevo University, Oriental Institute, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA. Prof. Dr. Ahmet ÇAYCI, Necmettin Erbakan University, TURKEY. Prof. Dr. Alikram ABDULLAYEV, The Academy of Public Administration, AZERBAIJAN. Prof. Dr. Alymjan ZAKĠROV, International Atatürk Alatoo University, KYRGYZSTAN. Prof. Dr. AyĢe ÇAĞLAR Vienna University, AUSTRIA. Prof. Dr. Azmi SÜSLÜ, Ankara University, TURKEY. Prof. Dr. Bilal KUġPINAR, Necmettin Erbakan University, International Rumi Center for the Study of Civilizations, TURKEY. Prof. Dr. Bülent ÇUKUROVA, Dokuz Eylül University, TURKEY. Prof. Dr. Charles WILKINS, Wake Forest University, USA. Prof. Dr. Claus SCHÖNĠG, Freie University Berlin, GERMANY. Prof. Dr. Derya ÖRS, Yıldırım Beyazit University, TURKEY. Prof. Dr. Dritan EGRO, ALBANIA History Institute, Center of Albanology Studies, ALBANIA. Prof. Dr. Dorhan KHIDIRALĠ, Turkish Academy, KAZAKHSTAN.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Prof. Dr. Eun, Kyung OH, Dongduk Women‟s University, SOUTH KOREA. Prof. Dr. Evangelia BALTA, National Helleearnic Resch Foundation, GREECE. Prof. Dr. Ferid MUHĠÇ, Üslüp Kiril ve Metot University, MACEDONIA. Prof. Dr. Ferit DUKA, Tiran Avrupa University, ALBANIA. Prof. Dr. Furkan AHMED, Jamia Millia Ġslamia University, INDIA. Prof. Dr. Gheorghe ONĠSORU, Stefan Cel Mare University, Romania. Prof. Dr. Géza DAVĠD, Elte Török Tanszék Budapest Múzeum, HUNGARY. Prof. Dr. Hajime TAKAMIZAWA, Josai International University, JAPAN. Prof. Dr. Hans Walter SCHMUHL, Bielefeld University, GERMANY. Prof. Dr. Hasan BAHAR, Selcuk University, TURKEY. Prof. Dr. Hüseyin YILMAZ, George Mason University, USA. Prof. Dr. Jennifer D. KEENE, One University Drive Orange, USA. Prof. Dr. Judith SPENCER, Alberta University, CANADA. Prof. Dr. Kerima FĠLAN, Sarajevo University, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA. Prof. Dr. Kübra ALIYEVA, AZERBAĠJAN Academy of National Sciences, AZERBAIJAN. Prof. Dr. Mahir HOTĠ, ĠĢkodra University, ALBANIA. Prof. Dr. Mehmet ÖZDEN, Hacettepe University, TURKEY. Prof. Dr. Miaser DĠBRA, Arnavut University, Art Institute, ALBANIA. Prof. Dr. Michel BALĠVET, Province University, FRANCE. Prof. Dr. Mijat JOCOVIC, Podgorica Ekonomi Faculty, MONTENEGRO. Prof. Dr. Mushtaq Ahmad KAW, Kashmir University, INDIA. Prof. Dr. Nergiz ALIYEVA, Azerbaijan Academy of National Sciences, AZERBAIJAN. Prof. Dr. Numan ARUÇ, Macedonia Science ve Art Academy, MACEDONIA. Prof. Dr. Parviz ABOLGASSEMĠ, Province University, FRANCE. Prof. Dr. Rizwan QUAĠSER, Jamia Millia Ġslamia University, INDIA. Prof. Dr. S. Esin DAYI, Atatürk University, TURKEY. Prof. Dr. S. Waleck DALPOUR, Maine University, USA. Prof. Dr. Serbo RASTODER, Montenogra University, MONTENEGRO. Prof. Dr. Temuçin Faik ERTAN, Ankara University, TURKEY. Prof. Dr. Thomas DREW BEAR, Lyon University, FRANCE. Prof. Dr. Władysław WITALISZ, Jagiellonian University, POLONIA. Prof. Dr. Zeyniddin KURMANOV, Kyrgyz Republic Foreign Ministry Academy of Diplomacy, KYRGYZSTAN. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Agim BAÇĠ, Elbasan Aleksandër Xhuvani University, ALBANIA. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Berdi SARIYEV, Ankara University, TURKMENISTAN. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Birol GÜLNAR, Selcuk University, TURKEY. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dijana HADŽIZUKIģ, Mostar Dzemal Bijedic University, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dimitris MAVROSKOUFĠS, Aristotle University, GREECE. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Elçin EHMEDOV, The Academy of Public Administration, AZERBAIJAN. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Elvira ģEMALOVIģ-DILBEROVIģ, Mostar Dzemal Bijedic , BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ercan KUNANĠġBAYEV, L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, KAZAKHSTAN. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Galina MISKINIENE, Vilnius University, LITHUANIA. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gasan ALĠYEV, Abılahan International Relations and World Languages University, KAZAKHSTAN. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Huziie HIROAKĠ, Osaka University, JAPAN. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hysamedin FERRAJ, Tiran University, ALBANIA. Prof. Dr. Kemal ÖZCAN, Necmettin Erbakan University, TURKEY. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mimoza PRĠKU, ĠĢkodra University, ALBANIA. Assoc. Prof. Dr. N. Sabiroviç NĠYAZOV, St. Petersburg State University, RUSSIAN FEDERATION. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rahman ADEMĠ, Yunus Emre Institute, TURKEY. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Renetta GOFAROVA, Ardahan University, CRIMEA. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sabri Tevfik HAMMAM, Sohag University, EGYPT. Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Fatih BERK, Necmettin Erbakan University, TURKEY. Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa ÖZTÜRK, Akdeniz University, TURKEY KEYNOTE SPEAKERS

Prof. Dr. Ahmet Kağan Karabulut, Selcuk University Prof. Dr. Anisoara Popa, Danubius University Assoc. Prof. Dr. Julia Haba Osca, University of Valencia

Conference Information Conference Date The ICWSR‟2016 – Barcelona conference is held between October 1416, 2016.

Conference Venue Hotel Catalonia Barcelona Plaza in Barcelona, Spain Language The official language of the conference is English. Conference Web site Further information and updates about the conference can be found 3 at http://www.icwsr.org

CONTENTS

Enver Paşa’nın Türkistan Milli Mücadelesindeki Rolü (1920 - 1922) Mustafa GİRİTLİOĞLU.............................................................................................................................. 1 Legal Developments Related To Maternity Leave In Turkish Labour Law Prof. Dr. Haluk Hadi SÜMER..................................................................................................................... 7 Looking Through The Public Relations’ Window To Social Media: An Analysis On Home Appliances Sector Assoc. Prof.Dr. Ahmet TARHAN............................................................................................................ 15 İmge Ve Şehir: Xıx. Yüzyılda İngiliz Gezginlere Göre Balkanlardaki Osmanlı Şehirleri Doç.Dr. Gürsoy ŞAHİN............................................................................................................................. 18 Management Style Of The Mayor And The Attitudes Of Municipal Employees As Factors Affecting The Satisfaction Of Local Services: The Case Of Karatay SubProvincial Municipality Prof.Dr.Ali ŞAHİN..................................................................................................................................... 25 Using Terrestrial Laser Scanning Technique, 3 Dimensional Model Of Historical Library Of Hadim Lecturer Dr.Ali ULVİ, Lecturer Fatih VAROL, ..................................................................................... 35 Woman And Practices Of Resistance In Popular Turkish Films Dr. Aslı EKİCİ............................................................................................................................................. 41 The Construction Of Femininity In Turkish Cinema In 1980s Dr. Aslı EKİCİ............................................................................................................................................. 50 Cumhuriyet Ve Yeni Şafak Gazetesi Kadın Köşe Yazarlarının Siyasal Perspektifleri Bağlamında Toplumsal Cinsiyet Meselelerine Yaklaşımları Research Assistant Ayşe MİRZA.............................................................................................................. 60 Re-Reading Networking Technologies From The Dystopian Perspective Prof.Dr. Aytekin CAN, Prof.Dr. Halim ESEN, Assitant Prof.Dr.Faruk UĞURLU............................ 73 The Relation Between Loneliness And Interpersonal Communication Motives In The Life Of University Students Assoc. Prof. Dr. Şükrü BALCI, Assist. Prof. Dr. Abdulkadir GÖLCÜ, .............................................. 79 A Research To Determine The Factors Causing Shopping Hesitation Asst. Prof. Dr. Banu KÜLTER DEMİRGÜNEŞ...................................................................................... 93 Analyzing University Students’ Digital Empowerment Ahmet Oguz AKTURK, Baris EMLEK, ............................................................................................... 115 Developments In The Field Of Misdemeanors Under Turkish Code Assoc. Prof. Berrin AKBULUT.............................................................................................................. 123 The Detention In Turkish Law Assoc. Prof. Berrin Akbulut.................................................................................................................... 129

Turkish University Students’ Loneliness Degree And Internet Using Assoc. Prof.Dr. Birol GÜLNAR.............................................................................................................. 136 Analysis Of The Anayurt Oteli Film With Method Neoformalism Research Assistant. Cenk ATEŞ, Assist Prof. Dr. Meral SERARSLAN, ........................................... 145 An Allegoric And Ironic News Platform On Instagram: Resmi Gaste Research Assist. Ceren YEGEN, Research Assist. Çise AYHAN, ..................................................... 154 A Fractional Stationarity Test With Gradual Shifts And The Hysteresis Hypothesis In Oecd Countries Assoc. Prof.Dr. Saban NAZLIOGLU, Cagin KARUL, Ahmet KONCAK......................................... 169 Buddhism Among Turks Living In The Central Asia Between 6th And 8th Centuries Inst. Derya Deniz GEZER, Inst. Seyfi Can GÜR, ............................................................................... 180 Afyonkarahisar’da Bulunan Osmanlı Dönemi Camilerinin Mekansal Analizi Assist. Prof. Dr. Ş. Ebru OKUYUCU, Res. Asist. Yasemin DEMİREL, ............................................ 205 Consumer’s Purchase Cycle Created By Vacation Advertisement: An Application Study On Advertisements Of Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of Culture And Tourism Emine Derya ŞİMŞEK,, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sedat ŞİMŞEK, .................................................................. 221 The Place Of Kutnu, Alaca And Meydaniye Fabrics From The Gaziantep Region In Turkish Culture Emine ESİRGENLER............................................................................................................................... 231 Tourism Demand And Real Effective Exchange Rate Relation In Turkey: Cointegration And Causality Analysis Prof. Dr. Ahmet AY, Asst.Prof Oktay KIZILKAYA, Emrah SOFUOĞLU........................................ 241 The Presentation Of The Ideology In The Cartoons In The Triangle Of Government-Ideology And Media: The Examples Of Smurfs And Richie Rich Assoc. Prof.Dr. Enderhan KARAKOÇ, Research Assistant. İkbal BOZKURT AVCI, ................... 249 The Most Important Factors Which Influence Satisfaction In Hotel Industry According To Booking.Com Reviews Res. Assist. Engin TENGİLİMOĞLU.................................................................................................... 262 Kentsel Dönüşüm Uygulamaları, Maliye Politikası Olarak Kullanılabilir Mi? Teorik Bir Değerlendirme Assist. Prof.Dr. Erdoğan TEYYARE, Research Assistant Gökhan GÜRER, .................................... 269 Örgütsel Sessizlik: Havayolu İşletmelerindeki Hizmetlere İlişkin Bir Değerlendirme Prof. Dr. Canan ÇETİN, Prof. Dr. Şermin ŞENTURAN, Asst. Prof. Dr. Erkan TAŞKIRAN......... 283 Türkiye’de Sürdürülebilir Enerji Politikaları Kapsamında Yenilenebilir Enerjinin Konumu Yrd. Doç. Dr. Erol KAPLUHAN............................................................................................................. 297 The Organisational Commitment Level Analysis Of Health Facility Personnel: The Case Of Silifke Prof.Dr. Ahmet AY, Lecturer Esra AYTEMİR, .................................................................................... 311

In Protection Works In The Scope Of Cultural Heritage Management, Applications Of Surveying Engineering Lec. Fatih Varol, Lec.Dr. Ali ULVİ, ....................................................................................................... 328 Children’s Literature In Iran In The Post-Constitutional Period Research Assistant Gamze Gizem AVCIOĞLU................................................................................... 337 Okul Öncesi Dönemde Müzik Ve Dans Araş. Gör. Gamzegül TETİK.................................................................................................................. 343 Rumi And Turkish Music Öğr. Gör. Gökhan ALGAN..................................................................................................................... 349 Analysis Of The Difference In Instrument Tone Of Students Whose Profession Instrument Is Tambur In Traditional Turkish Music Department Of Dilek Sabanci State Conservatory, Selçuk University Öğr.Gör. Gökhan ALGAN...................................................................................................................... 353 Presentation Stereotypes Of Poverty In Turkish Press: An Example About Refugees From Syria Assistant Prof. Dr. Abulkadir GÖLCÜ.................................................................................................. 357 Female Labor Participation And Economic Growth: Re-Examination Of U-Shaped Curve For Turkey Assist.Prof. Dr. Gülbahar ÜÇLER.......................................................................................................... 365 Critical Analysis Of Failed State Concept Prof. Dr. Gülise GÖKCE.......................................................................................................................... 375 Collapsed States In Middle-East And The Role Of The Foreign Intervention Analysis Of Syria Example Prof. Dr. Gülise GÖKCE.......................................................................................................................... 388 Why And For Whom Is Science Implemented? An Assessment From The Perspective Of Sociology Of Science Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gürcan Şevket AVCIOĞLU........................................................................................ 397 Yerel Gazetelerin Siyasal İletişimdeki Rolü-2002 Genel Seçimlerinde Edirne Yerel Gazeteleri Örneği Assoc. Prof.Dr.H.Hale BOZKURT......................................................................................................... 402 General Profile Of Professional Accountants And The Role Of Demographic Characterictics On Their Level Of Work Engagement Assist. Prof. Dr. H. Pınar KAYA............................................................................................................. 414 An Analysis On Pk (Peekay) Film Within The Context Of Sociology Of Religion And Concept Of Irony Research Asistant Hacer Aker................................................................................................................ 429 What İffet (Cannot) Says: Refractions And Breaking Points In The Rape Narrative Research Asistant Hacer Aker................................................................................................................ 436 From Carrier Pigeons To Twitter İbrahim Hakan GÖVER.......................................................................................................................... 443

Relationship Between Agility And Body Composition Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halil TAŞKIN, PhD student. Tuba GÖRGÜLÜ, Assis. Prof. Dr. Mine TAŞKIN.451 Analyze Of Technical Parameter During Simulated Competition On Tennis Players Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halil TAŞKIN, Graduate student, Nadide Aslıhan PEKTAŞ, PhD student. Cemalettin BUDAK................................................................................................................................. 459 Comparative Analysis Of Operating Performance Of Energy Sector Companies Traded On Borsa Istanbul Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hasan UYGURTÜRK.................................................................................................. 466 Determining Of Trait Emotional Intelligence Of Students Studying In Faculty Of Sports Science Assoc. Prof.Dr.Erkan Faruk ŞİRİN, Dr.Hatice DEVECİ ŞİRİN, ....................................................... 473 Examination Of Predictive Power Of Romantic Beliefs And Self Esteem Upon Love Attitudes Dr. Hatice DEVECİ ŞİRİN...................................................................................................................... 482 Forbidden Operations In Terms Of The Board Members In The Incorporated Companies Ass. Prof. Dr. Hediye BAHAR SAYIN................................................................................................... 492 Çocuğun Sosyalleşmesinde Oyun Ve Oyuncağın Önemi: Aydın İli Özelinde Bir Değerlendirme Yrd.Doç.Dr. Aynur ÖRNEK, Yrd.Doç.Dr. Hicabi ARSLAN, Yrd.Doç.Dr. Mustafa ASLAN......... 499 Sosyal Pazarlama Ve Türkiye’deki Sosyal Pazarlama Uygulamaları: Ağız - Diş Sağlığı Üzerine Bir Araştırma Yrd. Doç. Dr. Hilal UYGURTÜRK........................................................................................................ 519 Examining The Public Relations Activities Of Justice And Development Party (Ak Party) And Republican Party (Chp) In 2014 Local Elections Over Konya Electorate Res. Assist. Hülya Anakız ERTÜRK...................................................................................................... 529 İş’te Cinsiyet Ayrımını Yeniden Üretmeyenler: Meslek Sosyolojisi Açısından Bir İnceleme Res. Assist. Hülya Anakız ERTÜRK...................................................................................................... 542 Rekreasyon Alanı Tercihi Ve Beden Kitle İndeksi İlişkisi Dr. İlkay DOĞAN, Dr. Hüseyin GÜMÜŞ, .......................................................................................... 556 Outsourcing As A Management Strategy Lecturer İlknur Çevik Tekin................................................................................................................... 564 Egzersız Bağımlılığı Depresyon İlişkisi Doç.Dr.Yunus YILDIRIM, Yrd.Doç.Dr.İrfan YILDIRIM, ................................................................. 570 Ekoturizm Merkezi; Dünyanın Ortası Akşehir Yrd.Doç.Dr.Kadir ÖZTAŞ....................................................................................................................... 578 Apollonian Civilization’s War Against Nature: Analysis Of The Film “5 Vakit” Through The Contrast Of Culture And Nature Lecturer Kadir YALÇIN, Research Assistant. Dr. Murat AYTAŞ, Prof.Dr. Aytekin CAN............. 593

Financial Literacy Testing Josef Nešleha, Karel Urbanovský, .......................................................................................................... 599 A Comparison Of Ols And Wls Regression Determinants Of Corporate Borrowing From The Perspective Of The Pecking Order Theory Asst. Prof. Dr. Kartal DEMİRGÜNEŞ................................................................................................... 603 The Inter-Cultural Elements In Feridun Zaimoğlu’s Novel “Leyla” Inst. Mehmet Dudar CANLI................................................................................................................... 613 The Development Of The Bureaucracy-Political Power Relationship In Turkey Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mehmet GÖKÜŞ, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali ŞAHİN, ...................................................... 619 Light As An Instrument Of Visual Metaphor And Expression In Cinema Productions: The Example Of Film Noir Mehmet Sefa DOĞRU............................................................................................................................. 630 Nasreddin Hoca Fıkralarındaki Çeviri Sorununun Kültür Boşluğu Bağlamında İncelenmesi Okt. Melda ŞENEL, Okt. Melek YAVUZ, Hülya ATEŞ....................................................................... 642 The Connection Between Semantic And Vignette Instructor Melek YAVUZ........................................................................................................................ 651 The International Lis Pendens In Terms Of European Union Law And Turkish Law Asst. Prof. Dr. Mesut AYGÜN................................................................................................................ 659 The Analyses Of General (Parliamentary) Election In Turkey’s Posters In 1st November 2015 Assoc. Prof.Dr.Metin KASIM................................................................................................................. 673 Relationship Between Fed And Cbrt Policy Decisions: A Game Theoretic Perspective Metin TETİK............................................................................................................................................. 683 Visual Narrative And Aesthetics Structure Of Otoman Era Tv Series In Turkish Television Channels Research Assitant.Dr. Murat AYTAŞ..................................................................................................... 690 Transformation Of The Space And End Of Object On The Communication Technologies Research Assitant.Dr. Murat AYTAŞ..................................................................................................... 700 Investigation Of Burnout Level Of Classroom Teachers, Who Desire To Change Their Branches To Special Education Teacher Branch, In Terms Of SocioDemographic Variables Lecturer Mustafa GÜLER........................................................................................................................ 709 Examination Of Burnout Levels In Guidance And Psychological Counseling Students Lecturer Mustafa GÜLER........................................................................................................................ 714 Dimensions Of E-Transformation In Kirikkale: The Case Of Special Provincial Administration Asisst. Prof. Dr. Filiz Tufan EMİNİ, Asisst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa KOCAOĞLU, ................................. 721

Turizm Ceza Hukuku Yrd.Doç.Dr. Nazmiye Özenbaş............................................................................................................... 731 Tarih Boyunca İspanya’da Ve Türkiye’de Din Eğitimi Üzerine Bir İnceleme Necmi UYANIK, Atiye EMİROĞLU, ................................................................................................... 741 Voice Training In Traditional Turkish Classical Art Music Through The Right Breathing Techniques Nuran ACAR............................................................................................................................................. 749 A Review Of The Effects Of Mevlana’s Poems On The Composition In The Mevlevi Ritual: Cargah Mevlevi Rituel Ph.D.Oguz KARAKAYA.......................................................................................................................... 765 Reliability Perception Of Media News Among University Students Research Assistant Emre Osman OLKUN, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Şükrü BALCI, .................................... 779 Does Rise Of Far-Right Parties Sign To Collapse Of Liberalism Across Europe? Predictions About What’s Happening Across Europe Through Voter Analysis Prof. Dr. Orhan GÖKÇE......................................................................................................................... 793 Media And Terrorism - Is Media A Tool Rendering Service To The Purpose Of Terrorist Organizations? Prof. Dr. Orhan GÖKÇE......................................................................................................................... 803 The Effect Of Spousal Support On Emotional Exhaustion For Married Academicians: The Mediating Role Of Job Satisfaction Asst. Prof. Dr. Ozan BUYUKYILMAZ.................................................................................................. 813 Types Of Disputes In Labor Law Asst. Prof. Dr. Özgür OĞUZ................................................................................................................... 819 Representation Of Notion Of Family And Neighboorhood For Turkish Sociaty İn Tv Series “80’s” Lecturer Ruhi GÜL, Research Assistant Emre GÜL, .......................................................................... 825 Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın Osmanlı-İran Ticaretine Etkileri Sadık SARISAMAN................................................................................................................................. 832 Automotive Suppliers Applications Of 5s Which Is One Of The Lean Production Methods Ümmü Saliha EKEN İNAN, Münevver ÇİÇEKDAĞI, ...................................................................... 852 The Use Of Advertising Appeals That Enchances Consumer’s Purchasing Trends On Guerilla Advertising Practices Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sedat ŞİMŞEK, Emine Derya ŞİMŞEK, M.A., ......................................................... 862 Kadına Yönelik Şiddetin Medyada Sunumu: “Özgecan Cinayeti Örneği” Res. Assist. Semanur SİVRİTEPE.......................................................................................................... 869 Student’s Viewpoint To Media Literacy Lesson: The Case Of Konya Province Res. Assist. Semanur SİVRİTEPE.......................................................................................................... 881

Kadın Akademisyenlerin Tv İzleme İle İlgili Tutum Ve Davranışlarının Rtük’le İlgili Kanaatlerine Etkisi: Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Örneği Dr. Sena COŞKUN................................................................................................................................... 892 Kazakistan Lojistik Sektörü Ve Sektör Paydaşlarının Lojistik Köy İle İlgili Görüşlerinin Swot Analizi İle Değerlendirilmesi Doç.Dr. Gülsen Serap ÇEKEROL.......................................................................................................... 905 Maupassant’s Social Criticism Trough His Short Story Boule De Suif Inst. Seyfi Can GÜR................................................................................................................................. 915 The Effects Of Intra-Organizational Coaching Practices On Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment And Communication: An Empirical Study Prof. Dr. Şermin ŞENTURAN, Zekiye Satenik BAŞAK (MBA), ...................................................... 921 Sosyal Bilgiler Programındaki Değerlere İlişkin Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretmen Adaylarının Değer Öncelikleri Ve Gerekçelerine İlişkin Görüşleri Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tekin ÇELİKKAYA...................................................................................................... 945 Sosyal Bilgiler Ve Tarih Öğretmen Adaylarının “Tarih” Kavramına İlişkin Algılarının Metaforlar Yoluyla Analizi Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tekin ÇELİKKAYA...................................................................................................... 963 Tüketicilerin Online Alışveriş Davranışında Algıladıkları Güvene Yönelik Bir İnceleme Prof. Dr. Süleyman KARAÇOR, Yrd. Doç. Dr. M. Barış YILMAZ, Öğr. Gör. Yasemin KESKİN YILMAZ.................................................................................................................................................... 983 Leadership Behaviors Analysis With Data Mining Applications Yılmaz AĞCA, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdulkadir ÖZDEMİR, .................................................................. 997 Evaluation Of Motivation Among Individuals Voluntarily Assigned In Recreative Activities Yusuf Barsbuğa....................................................................................................................................... 1009 Üzerlik Otuyla Yapılan Duvar Süsleri Ve Üzerlik Otunun Halk Kültüründeki Yeri Öğr. Gör. Zahide ŞAHİN...................................................................................................................... 1016 El Dokuma Ürünlerinin Patchwork (Kırkyama) Yöntemiyle Modernleştirilmesi Öğr. Gör. Zahide ŞAHİN...................................................................................................................... 1029 Real Wage - Labour Productivity Relationship In Turkish Manufacturing Industry Prof.Dr.Zeynep KARAÇOR, PhD Candidate Emel Selcuk, Assoc.Prof.Dr.Bilge AFŞAR............ 1045 The Language Of Intercultural Communıcatıon: Photograph Doç.Dr. Feyyaz BODUR........................................................................................................................ 1054 The News Of The Local Televısıons In Turkey: For Example Konya PHD. Selman Selim Akyuz................................................................................................................... 1065 İç Kontrol Sisteminin Etkinliğini Artırmada Kısıtlar Teorisinin Rolü Yrd. Doç. Dr. Hakan VARGÜN............................................................................................................ 1079 Muhammed Bin Hamza’nın Satır Arası Kur’an Tercümesi’nin Çorum Nüshası

Doç. Dr. Ali CİN ....................................................................................................... ............................ 1086

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

ENVER PAŞA'NIN TÜRKİSTAN MİLLİ MÜCADELESİNDEKİ ROLÜ (1920 -1922) Mustafa GİRİTLİOĞLU Ahmet Yesevi Uluslararası Türk-Kazak Üniversitesi [email protected] Özet Bu makalede Rusya ve Türk Cumhuriyetleri arşivlerine dayanarak Osmanlı Harbiye Naziri Enver Paşa'nın Türkistan'da yürütülen bağımsızlık mücadelesindeki yeri ve çalışmaları incelenmıştir. Çalışmada Bolşeviklerin Enver Paşa ile olan siyasi ilişkileri tarihi olaylarla ilişkilendirilmiş ve Enver Paşa'nın Sovyet Hükümetinin izni dahilinde yürüttüğü faaliyetler arşiv belgelerine dayanarak ele alınmıştır. Türkistan'ın silahlı mücadele ile bağımsızlık kazanacağı fikrinin güçlenmesinde ve halk tarafından desteklenmesinde Enver Paşa'nın etkisi ortaya konmuştur. Anahtar kelimeler: Enver Paşa, Bolşevik İhtilalı, Türkistan, Milli Mücadele

THE ROLE OF ENVER PASHA’S NATIONAL STRUGGLE IN TURKESTAN (1920 1922) Abstract This work analyzes the struggles and battles for independence in Turkestan, carried out by Ottoman’s Minister of War Enver Pasha. The research based on Russian and Turkish governments’ official archives data bases. According to archival documents political relations between pro-Moscow Bolshevik regime and Enver Pasha associated with historical events and Enver Pasha's activities carried out with the permission of the Soviet Government. Also in the article demonstrated the influence of Enver Pasha for the idea of gaining independence supported by the people in the strengthening with Turkestan’s armed struggles. Key words: Enver Pasha, Bolshevik Revolution, Turkestan, National Struggle

Giriş Enver Paşa’nın 1918 yılında vatandan ayrılışı ile başlayan gurbet hayatı ve 1922 yılında Orta Asya’da, ölümüne kadar olan süreç içerisindeki hayatı, mücadelesi, ideali ve fikirleri pek fazla bilinmemektedir. Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın kaybedilmesinden sonra, Enver Paşa’nın yurt dışına çıkışı ve Sovyet Rusya’daki faaliyetleri ve en sonunda Orta Asya’ya geçişi, Doğu Buhara’daki Basmacı birliklerine katılması ve 4 Ağustos 1922’de Pamir dağları eteklerinde dramatik sonla noktalanmıştır. Enver Paşa’nın Bolşeviklerle ilk münasebeti Berlin’de başlayacaktır. Bu ilişki, Rus Komünist Partisi Merkez komitesi üyesi olup, daha çok dış ülkelerde faaliyet gösteren Karl Radek ile başlamıştır. Radek Enver Paşa’yla tanıştığı dönemde Alman hapishanesindedir. Fakat Enver Paşa, Alman ordusunun başı olan Hans Voon Seect’in kendisine karşı olan güveninden faydalanmasını bilmiş ve Radek’in hapishaneden kurtarılmasını sağlamıştır1. Sovyet liderleri, Enver’in İngiltere’ye duyduğu nefretten yararlanmışlardır. Müslümanlar arasında sözde popülerliğini, Doğu halkı üzerinde müspet bir tesir yaratmak için kullanmayı ümit etmişlerdir. Rus ve Türkistan basınında, Enver sıkça Müslüman dünyasının kurtarıcısı olarak yüceltilmiştir. Buna karşılık Enver, Sovyetleri, siyasi itibarlarının iadesinde sıçrama noktası görmekte 1

Şevket Süreyya Aydemir, Makedonya’dan Orta Asya’ya Enver Paşa, cilt III, İstanbul 1972, s. 520 -522.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ve bu durumu Rusya müslümanlarının fikirlerini öğrenmek için özel bir fırsat olarak düşünmekteydi. Enver’in güvenilir olma sebebi, müslümanlar arasındaki hatırı sayılır popülerliği ve Sovyet Rusya’nın korkunç rakibi ve baş düşmanı İngiltere’ye karşı intikam almak isteğiydi. Enver’in birazda gururlanarak müslüman halkın durumunu ve mali meselelerini konuşmak için 18 Ağustos 1920’de Lenin’le bir zirve görüşmesinde bulunacağını söylemesine rağmen bu hususta Lenin’den gelen rapor hiç de müspet değildi2. 1920 Eylülüne doğru Bolşevikler, Rusya’da vaziyete hakim olmuşlardı. Ancak, idarenin iktisadı buhran konusunda karşılaştığı güçlükler ile Kapitalist Batı Dünyası ile uyuşamaması, Bolşeviklerin Doğuyu ön plana almalarını gerektirmiş ve buna başlangıç olması gayesiyle Bakü’de bir kongre toplanmasını kararlaştırmıştı3. Her şeye rağmen Enver, Bakü kongresinin kapanışından sonraki günlerde, Bolşeviklerle olan yakın münasebetini değiştirmemiştir. Enver, kongrenin Sovyetler için düşündüğü üç amacı geliştirmiş olduğunu söylemiştir. Enver’in Bakü Kongresinde yer alması Bolşeviklerle İşbirliğinin zirvesini temsil etmiş. Enver Paşa 1921 Ekim tarihinde Hacı Sami (Kuşcuzade Selim), ihtiyat subayı Bartınlı Muhittin Bey’lerle beraber Batum’dan Tiflis Bakû, Keresnabat, Aşkâbat, Merv, Bayramali, Carcöy yolu ile Buhara’ya gelir. Enver Paşa’nın Buhara’ya gelişinde burada genç ve istiklâlci bir zümre, bir Cumhuriyet idaresinin başındadır. Bu iktidar biraz da Bolşevik veya sol güçlerin desteği ile sağlandığı için, mutlak veya garantili sayılamıyordu. Osman Hocaoğlu, Buhara Cumhurbaşkanıydı. Kabine üyeleri yerliydi. Ruslar Buhara’da bir temsilcilik bürosu ile çalışıyordu. Orta Asya’da Bolşevik milisler ve Kızıl Birlikler hakimdi. Taşkent gibi önemli bir merkez Rusların elindeydi4. Enver Paşa’nın Buhara’ya geliş gayesi Doğu Buhara, Semerkand, Hive ve Fergana Korbaşılarını bir cephede birleştirmek ve Bolşeviklere karşı genel bir hareket teşekkül ettirmek idi5. Zeki Velidi Togan Buhara’da Enver Paşa ile görüştüğünü belirtir. Bu durumu hiç beklemediğinin, Enver Paşa’nın gelişinin kendileri için büyük bir sürpriz olduğunun altını çizen Togan, daha sonra şunları dile getirir: “Paşa ile görüşüp, kendisinin istediği veçhile Türkistan’ın, bilhassa teşkilatın vaziyetini tafsilatı ile izah ettim. Teşkilatın bilhassa Şarki Buhara tarafındaki faaliyeti ile alakadar olduğundan, o tarafta emircilik ruhiyatı hakim olmasından ileri gelen bütün müşkülatı ve o güne kadar henüz bir İş yapmak imkanı hasıl olmadığını bir bir anlattım.”6 Enver Paşa- Zeki Velidi görüşmesi istenilen neticeyi vermemiş, Zeki Bey, Enver Paşa’ya karşı mesafeli durmuştur. Buhara’daki halkın maddi ve manevi yönden varlığını devam ettirebilmesinin yolunun Rus İşgal kuvvetlerine karşı seferberlikten geçtiğine inanan Enver Paşa hiç zaman geçirmeden çalışmalara başlamış, Buhara Halk Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanı Osman Hoca ile irtibata geçmek istemiş, araya da bir zamanlar Osmanlı ordusunda beraber çalıştığı Hasan Bey’i koyar. Osman Hoca’dan gelen cevap oldukça olumludur7. Enver Paşa’nın girdiği Doğu Buhara, yani eski Bedahşan veya bugünkü idari taksimata göre Tacikistan, Pamir dağlarının muazzam kütlesi ile, bu kûtlenin batı eteğinde, Afganistan sınırına kadar inen sulak Kâfirnihan vadisinden teşekkül eder. Bu vadinin doğu dağ ve tepeleri arkasında Vahş suyu vadisi vardır. Başlıca Şehir ve kasabalar bu vadi üzerindedir. Bunların hepsinde Bolşevik askerleri vardı. Duşanbe, Baysun, İrabad, Termez’de o sırada mahalli hükümetle İşbirliği durumunu sürdüren Rus askereleri bulunuyordu. Enver Paşa harekâtı boyunca Duşanbe’nin geçici tahliyesinden başka, bu Şehirlerin hiç biri İşgal edilemeyeceği için, Enver Paşa’nın bütün harekât sahası Kâfirnihan ve Vahş 2

Masayuki Yamauchi, Hoşnut Olamamış adam-Enver Paşa Türkiye'den Türkistan'a, İstanbul 1995, s.37 Aydemir, a.g.e., cilt III, s. 570. 4 Aydemir, a.g.e., cilt III, s. 629, 630. 5 A. Bademci, Korbaşılar 1917-1918 Türkistan Milli Hareketi ve Enver Paşa, İstanbul 1975. s. 124 6 Z. Velidi Togan, Bugünkü Türkili Türkistan ve Yakın Tarihi, İstanbul 1981, s. 434 7 B. Hayit, Basmacılar, s. 197 3

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Sularının dağlık doğu yamaçlarına bağlı kalacaktır. Bu süretle de kati netice almak mümkün olmayacaktır8. Enver Paşa Buhara’dan çıktıktan (8 Kasım 1921) 14 gün sonra, Basmacılar bölgesini Rusların bulunduğu bölgeden ayıran Kâfirnihan Suyu kenarına varır.Bir ihtilâl emri olarak nitelediği kendi notlarında Şunlar yazılıdır: “Böylece, ilk ihtilâl emrini, Başçardak’ta bir kamış kulübede yazdım. Gece saat birdi. İnşallah utanmayız. Şimdiye kadar her İş yolunda gidiyor. Bu günü köyde, iki metre genişliğinde, üç metre uzunluğunda, üzeri saz örtülü bu çamur kulübe’de geçirdim...” 23 Kasım Çilli Göl : Kâfirnihan kanalını geçtik. Osman Efendinin gönderdiği haber ile, Çilli Göl’deki asilerden bir Vekil bizi subaşında karşıladı. Suyu geçerken, karşı taraftan bir çok atlılar görüyorduk. Kubadyan’daki müfrezeye, bize katılmalarını yazdım. Nihayet Vahş Suyunu da geçtik.Artık sergerdelerin arasındayız. Musafaha ettik, sarmaştık. Burada, Afganistan’dan iki gün evvel gelen Abdülhakim Bey’in evine misafir olduk. Kazak ve Türkmen Vekilleri de var. Saray Türkmenlerine de, Kurgan-tübe’ye gelmelerini yazdım..."9 Kabadiyan civarında İrabad milis kuvvetleri kumandanı Osman Çavuş ile Fergana’lı Sabit Hoca ve Semerkantlı Mirza Muhiddin ile diğerleri Paşa’ya iltihak ettiler. Enver Paşa Çilli Göl’de bulunduğu ilk gece Toğay Sarı sergerdelerinden Astanakul Toksaba askerlerini bırakarak paşa’nın yanına gelir ve silahların teslimini ister. Bu hareketin misafirlere karşı çok çirkin olacağını anlatan ev sahibi Abdülhakim Toksaba’nın isteği ile çekilip giderler10. Nihayet Paşa ve maiyeti üç gün sonra 160 kadar askerle buradan hareket ederek Kurgantepe’deki Lakay İbrahim’in dostlarından 3.000 kişilik bir (çete) basmacı reisi 80 yaşındaki Togay Sarı ile görüşür11. Paşa, Togay Sarı’nın hazırlattığı eski zekathâne binasında askeriyle beraber misafir olurlar. Bu civar tamamıyla Lakay İbrahim gibi Emir taraftarı olan Togay Sarı’nın emri altında bulunuyordu. Togay Sarı Paşa’ya çok hürmet ve misafirperverlik gösterir. Paşa’nın Şerefine ziyafetler verir. Enver Paşa; Buhara Milli Hükümetine; Emir taraftarlığı güderek engel olan bu çetecilerle Buhara Hükümeti lehine anlaşmak ister. Fakat verilen ziyafet esnasında Enver Paşa’nın Emir Âlim Han’ın Buhara’yı İngiliz boyunduruğu altına sokacağını anlatarak Emir'in aleyhinde bulunması Emir taraftarı olan halkı gücendirir. Halk Enver Paşa’yada “Ceditlik” damgasını vurur. Osmanlı Devleti’nin padişahlarından Abdülhamit’i tahtan atmış bahanesiyle gizli propagandaya başlar. Bu suretle Paşa yirmi bin nüfusun reisi olan Emir taraftarı İbrahim Lakay’ın itimadını kaybeder. Enver Paşa, Togay Sarı’ya Duşanbe’nin karşısındaki yine Basmacı reislerinden Lakay İbrahim’in yanına gitmek istediğini söyler. Bunlar, Paşa’nın bu arzusuna itiraz ettiler. Zira Lakay İbrahim, Buhara Emir’in şiddetli bir taraftarı ve son derece mutaassıp bir bendesi idi. Paşa’nın onun yanına gitmesi feci akıbetler doğurabilirdi. Enver Paşa Kurgantepe’den sonra Lakay İbrahim’le görüşmek üzere Karamendi’ye hareket eder. Ziyaeddin Mahdum, Yâr Muhammed ve birkaç Lakay Sergerdesi köy dışında Paşa’yı karşılarlar.Hazırlanan Abdurahman Toksaba’nın evinde misafir edilirler. Askerler de diğer evlere yerleştirilirler. Paşa ve maiyeti geceyi Karamendi’de geçirir12. Bir müddet sonra Molla Ziyaeddin Mahdum, Âlimcan Toksaba, Abdül Kâyyum Toksaba, Molla Egemberdi, Yar Muhammed Bey’lerden oluşan bir heyet Paşa’nın yanına gelir. İbrahim Lakay’ın emriyle yanlarındaki silahları geçici olarak teslim almağa geldiklerini bildirirler. Enver Paşa: “Silahlarımızı niçin istiyorsunuz,” deyince; onlarda “Siz bizi Buhara Hükümeti ile barıştırmak istiyorsunuz. O halde aramızda niçin müsellâh bulunacaksınız? Bize itimat etmiyorsunuz? Bize karşı tam bir itimat beslediğinizi anlamak için silahlarınızı muvakkaten teslim etmenizi istiyoruz...” derler. 8

Aydemir, a.g.e, Cilt III, s. 641-644. Aydemir, a.g.e., cilt III, s. 645. 10 Abdullah Recep Baysun, Türkistan Milli Hareketleri, İstanbul 1943, s. 58. 11 Cemal Kutay, Tarih Sohbetleri, cilt IV, İstanbul 1967, s. 232, 233 12 Baysun, a.g.e., s. 60. 9

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Paşa ve maiyeti de silahlarını teslim etmekten başka çare bulamazlar. Silahları teslim muamelesinden sonra Paşa ve maiyeti İbrahim Lakay ile beraber Göktaş’a doğru hareket ederler. Yolda bir gece kaldıkları İhsaniye köyünde İbrahim Lakay Paşa’dan ayrılarak karargâhına gider. Ertesi gün Göktaş’a yaklaşan Paşa ve maiyetini Ortayüz tepesinde davul, zurnalar ile karşılayan İbrahim Lakay karargâhından, evine bitişik iki odalı bir evde muhafaza edilir Silahları alınmış olan Paşa’nın askerlerini de toplu olarak köyde iaşelerin temininin güç olduğunu bahane ederek civar köylerde ki sergerdelerine dağıtır13. Bu dönemde Duşanbe’de Marazof kumandasında birkaç yüz Bolşevik askeri ile, Türkiyeli Ali Rıza Bey kumandasında 600 Özbek askeri vardı. Ali Rıza Bey Göktaş'ta esir vaziyette bulunan Enver Paşa ile irtibat temin edebilmiş, hatta bir aralık gidip kendisini ziyaret etmeğe de muvaffak olabilmişti. Enver Paşa’nın Bolşeviklere karşı cephe dışında ilk fiili hareketi, Ali Rıza Bey’le birlikte Osman Hoca’nın 10 Aralık 1921 akşamı Duşanbe’deki Rus kumandanlarını davet ettikleri bir ziyafet sonunda yakalayıp hapsetmeleri ve tam vaktinde yetişen Hacı Sami’nin de yardımı ile bunlardan 250 tüfekle 16 mitralyöz ele geçirmişlerdi14. Duşanbe hastane binasında bulunan diğer bir kısım Rus askerleri teslim olmayarak mücadeleyi tercih ettiklerinden çarpışmalar devam etti. Emir’in adamları Lakaylar onlara yardıma koştular, bunlara yiyecek içecek, koyun ve erzak yetiştirdiler. Rus Konsolosu, kendiside Göktaş mahalline gelip, İbrahim Lakay ile görüştü. Ali Rıza Bey üç gün mücadeleden sonra 12 Aralık'da Duşanbe’yi terk etti; Bu esnada Lakaylar tarafından takip edile edile Leteben köyüne geldi. Askerin bir kısmı Lakaylar’a teslim oldular ve onlarda Lakaylar tarafından öldürüldüler. Takip eden Lakaylar’a karış harp ilân edilirse onlar Enver Paşa’yı öldürecekler, etmezlerse silahlarından tecrit edileceklerdi. 14 Aralık'da Hacı Sami kızıp, Lakaylardan birisine tabancası ile ateş etmiş, o münasebetle Lakaylar da Paşa’yı az kalsın öldürecek olmuşlardı. Netice de Ali Rıza Bey Fırkasının askerleri, Lakaylar tarafından yağma edildi. 600 kişilik maiyetinden ancak 150 kişi kalabilmişti. Yurçi yanında Seksentepe mevkiinde ellerine geçerlerse Lakaylar tarafından muhakkak öldürülecek olanlardan Ali Rıza, Hacı Sami ve Osman Hoca tek başlarına Karşı’ya oradan da Afganistan’a Danyal ve Abdül Resül Bey’ler ve maiyetlerinde bulunan genç Buharalı Kâri Abdullah ise bir kısım askerler ile İehr-i Sebz taraflarında savaştılar15. Bu suretle Enver Paşa nezdindeki kuvvet hem de Ali Rıza Bey’in “cedit” ordusu imha edilmiş oldu. Enver Paşa esaret günlerinde de boş durmamış ve bir takım girişimlerde bulunmuştu. Bunun için Karatekin mücahit kumandanı Pir Mehmed, Belcivan mücahit kumandanı Devletmend Bey’lerle, Darvaz mücahit kumandanı İşan Sultan’a kendileriyle görüşmek isteğini bildiren mektuplar göndermiştir. Devletmend Bey, Lakay Togay Sarı’dan korkusu olduğu için memleketini bırakıp gelemeyeceğini hürmetlerle bildirir. Paşa’nın davetini kabul eden İşan Sultan 250 kadar askeriyle Duşanbe civarında bir köye geldiğini bildirir16. İbrahim Lakay, Darvaz mücahit kumandanı İşan Sultan’ın Paşa’yı ziyarete geleceğini bildirir. Paşa, İşan Sultan’ı kabul eder, uzun bir görüşmeden sonra İşan Sultan askerlerinin bulunduğu köye döner. Paşa ve İbrahim Lakay’da Rahati köyüne gider. İbrahim Lakay bir sabah Paşa’ya haber vermeden altmış askeri ile beraber Göktaş karargâhına gider. Bu suretle bir buçuk ay kadar süren esaret hayatından Paşa kurtulur. İki hafta kadar kaldığı Rahati kışlağından Muin kışlağına gelen, Paşa’yı İşan Sultan büyük tezahüratla karşılayarak askerleriyle beraber emrine hazır olduğunu bildirdi.Enver Paşa’nın esaret devresinden sonra elinde 13

Baysun, a.g.e., s. 61. Feridun Kandemir, Şehit Enver Paşa Türkistan’da, Ankara 1945, s. s. 143; 15 Feridun Kandemir, Enver Paşa’nın Son Günleri, İstanbul 1943, s. 13 16 Baysun, a.g.e., s. 77 14

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN hiçbir askeri kuvveti yoktur. 18 Ocak'ta İşan Sultanla beraber Duşanbe’yi kuşatmaya gelir. Fakat bu İşan’ın maiyetindeki birlikler bir koyun sürüsünü teşkil eden 200 Tacikten ibarettir17. İşte kendi milleti olan Lakay Türklerinin esaretinden kurtulan Enver Paşa, İran unsuru olan Taciklere dayanarak Ocak ayında Duşanbe’deki Rus garnizonunu kuşatmaya başlar. Kuşatmaya başladığı zaman 200 asker sayılan bu Taciklerin ancak 13 tanesi Rus tüfeğine sahip olup, kalanları çakmaklı eski usul av tüfekleri ile donatılmış veya büsbütün silahsızdır. Etraftaki Türk ve Tacik köylerinden birkaç adam daha toplayıp yaptığı ilk hücumda Ruslardan 50 asker esir alınır. Bundan başka 180 tüfek, iki mitralyöz Enver Paşa’nın eline geçer. 20-22 Ocak çarpışmalarında Ruslar büyük zayiata maruz kalıp çekilirler. Duşanbe deki Ruslar; “Enver Paşa’ya mukavemet mümkün olmadığını” belirterek kendilerine Duşanbe’den çekilmeğe müsaade isterler. 8 Şubat taarruzunda Ruslar 100 asker zayiat verirler, bunlardan başka 82 asker Enver Paşa’ya katılır. Kalan Ruslar topları meydanda bırakıp kaçarlar. Fakat o topları kendi karargâhlarına getirecek nakil vasıtaları bulunmaz. Nihayet Ruslar 14 Şubat’ta Duşanbe’yi terkettiler18. Duşanbe savaşından kısa bir süre sonra, Buhara Emiri Âlim Han daha çok Emanullah Han’ın tesiriyle Emirliğin askeri gücünü Enver Paşa’ya bıraktığını bir mektup ile bildirdi. Paşa’nın emrindeki kuvvetler durmadan artıyordu. Kendisi de bunları bir tek unvan altında toplamanın uygun olacağını düşündü ve “Emir-i Leşker-i İslâm ve Buhara = İslâm ve Buhara Askeri Kumandanı” unvanını aldı. Paşa bu unvan ile maiyetindeki Türk subaylarını ve itimat ettiği Türkistanlı subayları Ana Vatanın değişik bölgelerine göndererek milli cihadın başladığını bildirdi. Enver Paşa’nın ilk muvaffakiyetleri Afganistan’da da büyük ilgi uyandırır. Bilahare Amanullah Han’ın yerine Afgan Padişahı olan Harbiye Nazırı Mehmet Nadir Han, Katgan Bedahşan valisi Şah Veli Han’ı Enver Paşa’ya bağlı Doğu Buhara hududuna gönderir. Hacı Sami ve Osman Hoca Kâbil’de bulunup İslâm mücahit gönüllüleri toplarlar ve silah satın alıp gönderirler. Afgan hükümeti buna mani olmuyordu. Nisan içinde Afganistan’dan Efdaliddin Han adında birisinin idaresin de 300 kadar gönüllü Afganlı gelir ve Paşa’ya iltihak ederler. Mayıs nihayetinde Şehr-i Sebz’den Cabbar, Danyal, Evliya Kul ve Abdül Resûl Bey’ler 1200 kadar askerle gelip Paşa’ya katıldılar. Ferganalılardan önceki Hokand Milli Şurası Reisi Adil Can ve Türkmenlerden Hudaynazar, evvelce Kaşgar’da Yakup Bey nezdinde bulunan 80 yaşındaki ihtiyar Hacı Hakem, Moğal Katgan kabilesinin reisi Paşa Han, Belcivan Karluklarının reisi Abdülkadir ve Molla Niyaz kuvvetleriyle gelerek Paşa’ya iltihak ettiler19. Enver Paşa, milli mücadeleyi mevzii durumundan kurtararak bütün Türkistanlılara ve halk kütlelerine ulaştırmak için, uzak illerden gelen temsilcilerle kumandanların İştirakiyle yeni karargâhı Kâfirun’da bir kongre toplandı. Kongre de eski Buhara Emiri Âlim Han’ın da temsilcisi İştirak etmişti. Sovyet Rusya ile Enver Paşa arasında Türkistan konusundaki temaslar Duşanbe savaşından da önce başlar. 12 Ocak 1922’de Sovyetlerin Duşanbe konsolosu Nagorny, Enver Paşa’ya bir mektup gönderir ve Buhara’nın iç işlerine karışmamasını rica eder. 14 Ocak 1922’de Nagorny, Enver Paşa’ya tekrar yazarak; “Rus Hükümetinin Buhara’dan askerlerini çekmek istediğini, fakat Osman Hoca’yı himaye etmek için, bir miktar askerini Duşanbe’de bıraktığını bildirir.” 16 Ocak 1922’de Enver Paşa, Nagorni’ye verdiği cevabında; “Rusya’nın beklemekte olan büyük bir felâketten mağdur olmamasını istiyorsanız, işgal edilmiş toprakları boşaltmanızı ve Türkistanlılarla, Buhara’lılara kendi işlerini, düzenlemeleri için fırsat vermenizi tavsiye ederim.” şeklinde ikazda bulunur20. 15 Mayıs 1922’de, Paşa, kumandanlardan Danyal ve Bori Bey’lerle Afganlı Efdaliddin Han kumandasındaki askerlerle beraber; Hasan Bey de kumandanlardan Faruk, Abdülresul, Türe, Behram 17

Kandemir, Şehit Enver Paşa..., s. 154, 155. Kutay, Tarih Sohbetleri, cilt IV, s. 249. 19 Ali Fuat Cebesoy, Moskova Hatıraları, İstanbul 1955,. s. 322 20 Hayit, a.g.e., s. 283. 18

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ve Şeref Bey’lerle ayrı ayrı istikametlerde Baysun üzerine hücum ettiler. Çok çetin, fakat muvaffakiyetli hücumlar yapan Paşa da Rus avcı hatlarına kadar ilerleyerek düşmana büyük zayiat verdirdikten sonra bir çok ganimet almıştı. Fakat Baysun Harekâtında burada bulunan Rus birliklerine karşı daha fazla mukavemet edemeyerek geri çekilinecektir. 28 Haziran 1922 sabaha karşı Ruslar, büyük kuvvetlerle Kâfirun karargâhına taarruz etmeğe başlarlar. On iki gün kadar devam eden ciddi muharebelerden sonra Enver Paşa Kâfirun karargâhını terke mecbur olur ve artçı muharebeleri zayiat vere vere Duşanbe’ye gelir21. Paşa üstün Rus birlikleri karşısında daha fazla mukavemet edemeyerek Duşanbe’yi de bırakarak Belcivan ve Kûlâb taraflarına doğru çekildi. Burada da İşan Sultan, Paşa’dan müsaade alarak askerleriyle beraber memleketi olan Darvaz’a gitmek üzere ayrıldı22. Ruslar, Baysun’un 120 kilometre doğusunda bulunan Belcivan kasabasını, uzun bir direnişten sonra, 18 Temmuzda işgal ettiler. Bu işgal, Enver Paşa’ya son darbeyi vuruyor ve onun gücünü ikiye ayırıyordu. Enver Paşa Belcivan’a takriben 80 kilometre uzakta bulunan Afganistan hududuna doğru geri çekilmekte olduğu tahmin ediliyordu23. 25 Temmuzda Satılmış kışlağında gönderdiği mektupta Şunları yazıyordu: “Afgan Emirine, askerin ve muavenetinin çekilmesinin iyi olmadığını ve Bolşeviklere emniyet caiz bulunmadığını bildirdim...” Enver Paşa yazısını Şöyle bitiriyordu: “İşte efendiciğim, bu son satırlarımı yazarak mektubumu kapıyorum. İçine her gün sana yolladığım yabani çiçeklerinden maada, kaç gecedir, altında yattığım karaağaçtan kopardığım ufak bir dalı gönderiyorum... Seni Hüda’nın birliğine yavrularımla beraber emanet ederim, ruhum efendiciğim. Karaağaca çakımla ismini yazdım... Enver’in” Bu mektup, Enver Paşa’nın eşine yazdığı bilinen son mektubudur. Enver Paşa’nın gücü sürekli olarak dağıtılmaktadır. Kendisi ise, Pamir’in aşılmaz dağları doğrultusunda ve Abiderya suyu vadisinde gerileyerek karargâhına Abiderya köyünde kurmuştur. Onun, Buhara ve Afganistan sınırını oluşturan Penç ırmağını aşamaması ve Afganistan’a geçememesi Kûlâb ve Belcivan doğrultusunda Pamir dağlarının doğusuna dalışı, kurtulma imkânlarını ortadan kaldırmıştır24. 4 Ağustos 1922 sabahı Abiderya köyünün dışında Çegan tepelerindeki çatışmada hayatı noktalanmıştır. 1916 yılında başlayan Ruslara karşı isyan safhasının önemli bir kilometre taşıydı Enver Paşa’nın mücadelesi. O, Korbaşıların alışık olmadığı bir yöntemle savaşıyor, yılların verdiği savaş tecrübesi ile Ruslara zor anlar yaşattı. Türkistan coğrafyasında onun ölümünden sonra da Bolşeviklere karşı mücadele devam etmiş ancak başarıyla sonuçlanamamıştır Kaynakça AYDEMİR Şevket S., Makedonya’dan Orta Asya’ya Enver Paşa, Cilt I-II-III, İstanbul 1972. YAMAUCHI Masayukı, Hoşnut Olmamış Adam-Enver Paşa Türkiye’den Türkistan’a, Bağlam yay., İstanbul 1995. BADEMCi Ali, Türkistan Milli Hareketi ve Enver Paşa, Cilt I, İstanbul 1975. TOGAN Zeki V., Bugünkü Türkili (Türkistan) ve Yakın Tarihi, Enderun yay., İstanbul 1982. BAYSUN Abdullah R., Türkistan Milli Hareketleri, İstanbul 1943. KUTAY Cemal, Tarih Sohbetleri, Cilt IV, İstanbul 1967. KANDEMİR Feridun, Şehit Enver Paşa Türkistan’da, Ankara 1945. KANDEMİR Feridun, Enver Paşa’nın Son Günleri, İstanbul 1943. CEBESOY Ali F., Moskova Hatıraları, Vatan yay., İstanbul 1955.

21

Cebesoy, a.g.e., s. 324. Cebesoy, a.g.e., s. 324. 23 Aydemir, Enver Paşa..., cilt III, s. 674, 675. 24 Aydemir, Enver Paşa..., cilt III, s. 683. 22

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

LEGAL DEVELOPMENTS RELATED TO MATERNITY LEAVE IN TURKISH LABOUR LAW

Prof. Dr. Haluk Hadi SÜMER Selcuk University, Faculty of Law [email protected]

Abstract It is foreseen that newregulations on the birth of female workers in Turkish Law with Law No. 6663dated 29.01.2016. Some additional leave entitlements for maternity are given to men and women workers with that code. According to the regulation, upon therequest, female employees can take unpaid leave weekly working hours until onehundred and eighty days case of request depending on the number of children during the continuation of maternity leave. Law No. 6663 added rule to unemployment insurance code, half of working time women exercising the right of workers tobe granted unpaid leave up to half-time working allowance. Accordingly,workers, the weekly working time permitted after obtaining birth and adoptionduring free time working allowance is paid half as much as half. Law No. 6663 also providedthat part time work opportunity maternity into specific. The purpose of this studyis evaluate of the maternity permission granted to female employees provisionswithin the framework of the European Union Directive 2010/18 EU. Keywords: Maternity leave, Turkish Law, women workers

1. Introduction According to the article 50/2 of the Constitution, women shall enjoy special protection with regard to working conditions. The most important protection provided for women is related to pregnancy and after delivery (Tulukçu, 2001: 1350-1372). In this context, especially, periods forbidden to work during pregnancy and after confinement have been foreseen; working time has been limited during pregnancy and breastfeeding and a ban has been introduced on night work for women workers. Thus, female workers are aimed to fulfil duties of maternity and protect the employment, as well (Ekin&Kayırgan, 2014: 1046). With regulations made in 2015 and 2016, leave of absence, part-time work opportunities and working up to half of the weekly working time rights have been granted depending on maternity. It should be noted that, with the regulations made, the father has also been given the right to leave of absence as well as the mother depending on certain conditions. It should be stated that the new regulations are an improvement for the maternity rights of women workers. In this paper, we will discuss permission rights granted depending on having a child or adoption; in particular, with the Law No. 6645 dated 04.04.2015 and the Law No. 6663 dated 01.29.2016. In addition, we will evaluate to what extent these regulations are in accordance with EU (the European Union) No. 2010/18 (For detailed information on the subject, see. Kökkılıç Eraltuğ (2006): 111-132). 7

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2. Maternity Leave Article 74 of the Labour Law, includes some leave periods that can be used after child delivery and adoption. According to paragraph 8 added to the Labour Law 74 with Law No. 6663, leave periods which will be discussed below is applied to all types of employees with employment contracts, either covered or uncovered by this Act. In other words, workers within the scope of the Turkish Code of Obligations, Maritime Labour Act and Press Labour Law also benefit from these rights (LL.74/8). That the scope of maternity leave has been expanded is a positive approach. Equality has been achieved for the employees covered by different laws in terms of benefiting from maternity leave. 2.1. Periods during which Working is Prohibited before and after Confinement In article 74/ 1 of the Labour Law, periods prohibited before and after confinement, have been regulated. In principle female employees must not be engaged in work for a total period of sixteen weeks, eight weeks before confinement and eight weeks after confinement. In case of multiple pregnancy, an extra two week period shall be added to the eight weeks before confinement during which female employees must not work. However, a female employee whose health condition is suitable as approved by a physician’s certificate may work at the establishment if she so wishes up until the three weeks before delivery. In this case, the time during which she has worked shall be added to the time period allowed to her after confinement (For further information see. Saraç, 2011: 1881-1894; Urhanoğlu Cengiz, 2009: 21-53; Senyen Kaplan, 2000: 709; Yuvalı, 2013: 93-115; Tulukçu, 2000: 127). And with the additional clause added by Law 6111 dated 13.2.2011, in the event of a premature delivery, female employee has been allowed to use the period that she has not been able to use before delivery, by adding to the time period allowed to her after confinement. Thus, eight-week pre-natal period and eight week post-natal period has been linked, and the time for the birthing woman worker prohibited to work has been determined as sixteen weeks. A provision has been added to paragraph 1 of Article 74 by the Law 6663 dated 29.01.2016. In the event of post-natal death of the mother, unused leave shall be used by the father. The regulation allows the father to use the leave period that the mother has not been able to use, in the event of death of the mother during delivery or after delivery. In our opinion, the father would not be able to use the leave in question in case of death of the child with the mother during delivery (LL.74/1). Male employee, in this case, may use leave of absence related to death. (LL. addl. Art. 2) (Şahin, 2016: 38). Another regulation introduced by Law No. 6663 is for adoption. The working woman or man -one of the married couple or the adopter- who adopted a child under three years of age will be benefiting from eight weeks maternity leave as of the date of actual entrustment (LL.74/1). In order to use the maternity leave foreseen in the provision the adopted child must be under three years old. The law sets forth that the father may also use the adoption leave with the expressions of “one of the married couple” and “the adopter”. That this right has been recognised for the father, complies with European Union Directive No. 2010/18 EU (Şahin, 2016: 39). The time periods mentioned above may be increased before and after confinement if deemed necessary in view of the female employee's health and the nature of her work with the physician’s report (LL.74/3). Based on the probable date of birth will take place, if the female worker who has left the workplace to use the eight-week leave does not give birth within the period, pre-natal maternity leave is increased by a physician’s report. In other words, after the end of the eight-week period the women 8

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN worker is not allowed to work again and the ban on working continues until the date of the birth. The extended period of time before birth, cannot be deducted from the eight-week working ban after delivery. In the framework contract which the EU Directive No. 2010/18 is based on, parental leave may be subject to a period of length of service qualification which shall not exceed one year (Şahin, 2016: 39). In Turkish Law, the employee is not required to have length of service qualification in order to benefit from the above mentioned sixteen weeks of maternity leave (Köseoğlu-Kaya, 2011: 56). The female employee has to start work in the former business establishment at the end of sixteen weeks, in case of multiple pregnancies the eighteen-week period of leave. According to the article 2/7 of 2002/73 / EEC Directive, following maternity leave, the woman has the right to return to the same job or to an equivalent post on terms and conditions that are no less favourable. According to the same provision, she must be given all the rights which she would have been entitled if she had worked in this period (Köseoğlu-Kaya, 2011: 39). The Supreme Court of Appeals has resolved this provision in a decision (COA for the 9th Cir. 23.6.2008, 41015/17093).

2.2. Unpaid Leave for one- half of the Weekly Working Time Following the expiry of the maternity leave, in order to ensure nursing and the raising of the child, provided that the child is still living, the female employee and male or female employee adopting a child who is younger than three years of age, shall be granted, upon their requests, unpaid leave for one-half of their working time for a period of;  Sixty days for the first birth,  One hundred and twenty days for the second birth,  And One hundred and eighty days for any subsequent births. In case of multiple births, thirty days per each birth shall be added to these periods. If the child is born being disabled, such periods shall be extended as three hundred and sixty days. Provisions on nursing leave shall not apply within this period (LL. 74/2). The employment method in which the employee works for one-half of the working hours and being on unpaid leave for the other half is essentially a part-time employment. With the provision, unpaid leave for one-half of the working hours shall be granted to only the female employee in case of birth, and in case of adoption of a child who is younger than three years of age, only one of the adoptive parents. In other words, the father is not able to benefit from this application in case of birth. In the regulation the application of unpaid leave for one-half of the working hours has been determined by the number of births. Phrases of "first birth", "second birth" and "subsequent births" are used in the provision. In case of adoption, it is not clear how to apply the provision. For example, if parents with two children adopt a child, will the period calculated as sixty days or a hundred and eighty days? In my opinion, the phrase of "birth" in the provision needs to be interpreted as "child". Therefore, in case a husband and wife with two children adopt a child, adopting the unpaid leave for one-half of working hours for the third child as a hundred and eighty days would be suitable for the purposes of regulation (Şahin, 2016: 40). 9

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The issue on how to use the 22.5 hour unpaid leave in a workplace where employees work for 45 hours is not foreseen in the law. Will the worker use the leave every day or is it possible to benefit from this right by working three days a week (3X7, 5 hours)? In my opinion, the leave is granted, in order to ensure nursing and the raising of the child, to the female employee or male or female employee adopting a child who is younger than three years of age upon their requests, and the authority to determine how to use the leave should belong to the people who will use it. In the doctrine, according to a view, the employer may not identify the part-time unpaid leave application within the scope of the right of management and the employer should use the authority taking obligation of supervision into consideration (Şahin, 2016: 41). Law No. 6663 has added additional article 5 to Unemployment Insurance Law in order to give part-time employment payment to the female employee who is granted unpaid leave for one-half of working hours. Thus, it is aimed to make up for the loss of income of the female employee who is granted unpaid leave for one-half of working hours to a certain extent (Süral, 2016: 145). Accordingly, the employee shall get part-time employment payment; following the maternity and adoption, throughout his/her unpaid leave period. In order to benefit from part-time employment payment;  female employee or male or female employee and the one adopting a child who is younger than three years of age must request for unpaid leave for one-half of working hours - provided that the child is still living,  he/she must have paid at least 600 days' of declared unemployment insurance premium in the last three years before the birth or adoption,  he/she must have actually worked for one-half of the weekly working hours provided under Article 63 of Law No. 4857  he/she must apply to the Turkish Employment Agency within 30 days as of the expiry of maternity leave following the birth and adoption period, along with the documenting of the part-time employment following birth and adoption. Except force majeure circumstances, the time delay in the application will be deducted from the total time entitled to receive part-time employment payment following birth and adoption. Daily amount of part-time employment payment following birth and adoption shall correspond to the amount of the daily minimum gross wage. Payment shall be made from the Fund within the second month following the month to which monthly premium and service document belongs. The period of part-time employment payment is as long as the period of part-time employment leave. Accordingly, part-time employment payment will be paid for:  Sixty days for the first birth,  One hundred and twenty days for the second birth,  And One hundred and eighty days for any subsequent births. In addition, for insured workers getting part-time employment payment, shares of premiums paid by employer and employee are paid to the Social Security Institution from the Fund over the lower limit of basic earnings to the premium specified in Article 82 of Law No. 5510 at a rate of 32.5% in total up

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN to the number of days after birth and adoption on which part-time employment payment is paid, pursuant to paragraphs (a) and (f) of Article 81 of the same law. Under the 5510 Act, the Institution is obliged to pay premiums but is not considered a workplace and employer and it does not make a statement of employment or dismissal notice (LL. addl. art. 5). Regulation of Unpaid Leave for one-half of the Working Time complies with EU Directive No. 2010/18. In the framework contract, the methods of using the leave and arranging as full-time or part –time, in segments or shortening duration of work are left to the member states and social partners (Şahin, 2016: 40). 2. 3. Unpaid leave of up to six months Labour Law recognizes female employees the right to unpaid leave, as well. If the female employee so wishes, she shall be granted an unpaid leave of up to six months after the expiry of the sixteen weeks, or in the case multiple pregnancy, after the expiry of the eighteen weeks. The employer has to give the unpaid leave of up to six months upon the request of female employee. In other words, giving a leave of absence does not depend on the discretion of the employer. A provision added by Law No. 6663 has made it possible to use unpaid leave of up to six months in case of case adoption as well as birth. The unpaid leave mentioned is given to one of the spouses or the adoptive parent of the child who is younger than three years of age. This period shall not be considered in determining the employee’s one year of service for entitlement to annual leave with pay (LL.74/6). It should be noted that, in case of obtaining birth and adoption, worker has a choice at the end of the eight-week period when it is not allowed to work. If she wishes, she may use unpaid leave for one-half of working hours or the right to unpaid leave of up to six months within the periods specified above. Workers are not able to use both at the same. The adopter or in case of adopting together, spouses have to make their choice on the date of actual entrustment; and in case of birth, at the end of an eight-week maternity leave period. In case of spouses adopting a child younger than three years of age together, one of the spouses will be able to make the choice of and use unpaid leave for one-half of working hours or the right to unpaid leave of up to six months. In such a case, it is not possible for one of the spouses to use unpaid leave for one-half of working hours and the other to use the right to unpaid leave of up to six months (Şahin, 2016: 39). 2.4. Paid Leave for Periodic Examinations The female employee shall be granted leave with pay for periodic examinations during her pregnancy (LL.74/4). In our opinion, the doctor will determine how often the female worker will have check-ups. 2.5. Nursing Leave Female employees shall be allowed a total of one and a half hour nursing leave in order to enable them to feed their children below the age of one. The employee shall decide herself at what times and in how many installments she will use this leave. The length of the nursing leave shall be treated as part of the daily working time (LL.74/7). 3. Leave of Absence with Pay Employees shall be allowed the right to leave of absence with pay in the event of some reasons with

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Additional Article 2 added to Law No. 4857 by Law No. 6645 dated 04.04.2015. Leaves of absence with pay depending on giving birth or adoption of a child are as follows:  three days leave of absence with pay in the event of adoption of a child,  five days leave of absence with pay in the event of employee's spouse giving birth,  employed parents whose child has at least seventy percent disability or chronic disease based on medical report, shall be allowed to take up to 10 days leave of absence with pay without interruption or with segments in a year for attending the treatment of the child; on condition that leave may be taken only one of the parents. If both husband and wife who have adopted the child are workers, both can benefit from a leave of absence. In terms of leave of absence, the Law has not introduced restrictions for the use of it by one of the spouses. However, only one of the parents may take leave of absence with pay for disabled child or child with chronic disease. 4. Part- time Employment With the paragraph added to Article 13 of the Labour Law No. 6663 dated 01/29/2016, employees have been given the opportunity of part-time job under certain conditions depending on giving birth or child adoption. According to the article, as of the expiry of the periods envisaged under LL. 74 and explained above, one of the parents may request part-time employment, until the first day of the month following the month in which the child starts compulsory elementary education (LL. 74/5). As it is clearly stated in the provision, request of part-time employment starts only after the expiry of the periods envisaged under article 74. So, the female employee may request the employment contract to be converted to part-time employment contract after expiry of maternity leave for sixteen weeks, unpaid leave for one-half of working hours or unpaid leave of up to six months. The female employee may request the employment contract to be converted to part-time employment directly after expiry of maternity leave for sixteen weeks without using other leaves without pay. This demand shall be met by the employer. In other words, the employer does not have discretionary authority on meeting the demand or not, and also the demand of the worker is not considered a valid reason for termination of the employment contract. The employee working part-time as per this paragraph may return to full-time employment, given that he/she shall not benefit from this right again for the same child. In case the worker working part-time returns to full-time work, the employment contract of the substitute employee shall expire automatically. The employee requesting to benefit from such right, or wishing to return to his/her full-time employment status, shall notify the employer, in writing, at least one month prior to such events. If one of the parents is unemployed, the working parent shall not request part-time work. Also persons adopting a child younger than three years of age either severally or with his/her spouse shall benefit from such right as of the actual entrustment of the child. The fact that only one of the spouses is allowed to benefit from the right of part-time work is contrary to European Union Directive No. 2010/18 EU. The framework contract, which forms the basis of the directive, regards the parental leave as an individual right for men and women workers on a non-transferable basis (art. 2/1) (Şahin, 2016: 42). The provision added to article 13 of the Labour Law regulates what sectors or businesses enable part-time work and the principles and procedures for implementation will be determined by a regula-

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN tion to be issued by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security. The regulation reveals that not every employee may benefit from the right of part-time work but the right is valid for sectors or businesses specified in the regulation. 5. Conclusion With the Law No. 6663 dated 29.1.2016, significant changes were made on maternity leave. With the provision added to Labour Law 13, as of the expiry of the period envisaged under LL. 74, one of the parents is given the opportunity of part-time employment until the child starts compulsory elementary education. Again with the same provision, persons adopting a child younger than three years of age either severally or with his/her spouse shall benefit from such right as of the actual entrustment of the child. With this regulation, the rights depending on adoption are granted for the first time in Turkish law. Significant changes have also been made in Article 74 of the Labour Law. It is regulated that in the event of death of the mother in childbirth or post-natal, unused leave after confinement shall be used by the father. Also the woman or man -one of the married couple or the adopter- who adopted a child under three years of age will be able to use eight weeks maternity leave as of the date of actual entrustment. Also, one of the important innovations is the application of unpaid leave for one-half of the working time. Following the expiry of the maternity leave, in order to ensure nursing and the raising of the child, provided that the child is still living, the female employee and male or female employee adopting a child who is younger than three years of age, shall be granted, upon their requests, unpaid leave for one-half of their working time for a period of sixty days for the first birth, one hundred and twenty days for the second birth, and one hundred and eighty days for any subsequent births. In case of multiple births, thirty days per each birth shall be added to these periods. In case the child is born being disabled, such periods shall be used as three hundred and sixty days. In addition, a provision added to the Unemployment Insurance Act 4447 subsidizes workers who use unpaid leave up to half weekly working time. Another innovation is that the unpaid leave up to six months is also given to one of the spouses or the adoptive parent of the child who is younger than three years of age. Finally, it has been regulated that periods of leaves specified in Article 74 of the Labour Law will be applied to all employees who work with an employment contract regardless of whether they are covered under the Labour Law or not. These regulations mainly depending on maternity are favourable. However, certain measures should be taken for these regulations not constitute an obstacle to female employment. References Ekin, A. & Kayırgan, H. (2014). Uluslararası Alanda ve Türk Hukukunda Eşit Davranma İlkesi Bağlamında Ebeveyn İzni. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 2015/15, 1045-1066. Kökkılıç Eraltuğ, A. (2006). Avrupa Birliği Hukuku'nda Ebeveyn İzni, Legal İş ve Sosyal Güvenlik Hukuku Dergisi, 2006/9, 111-132. Köseğlu, A.C. & Kaya, A. (2011). Türk İş Hukukunda Kadın İşçinin Korunması. Legal İş ve Sosyal Güvenlik

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Hukuku Dergisi, 2011/29, 43-79. Saraç, C. (2011). Analık Halinde Çalışma Yasağı. Prof.Dr.Sarper Süzek'e Armağan, C.II, 1881-1895. Senyen Kaplan, E (2000). İsviçre ve Türk Hukukunda Kadın İşçilerin Hamilelik ve Analık Durumundaki Ücret ve İzin Hakkı, Prof.Dr.Seyfullah Edis'e Armağan, 709-722. Süral, N. (2016). Kadın İstihdamını İlgilendiren Yeni Düzenlemeler. İşveren Dergisi, Mart-Nisan 2016, 142-146. Şahin, B. (2016). 6663 Sayılı Kanun'da Analık Haline Özgü Öngörülen Hükümlerin Değerlendirilmesi. Çimento İşveren Dergisi, 2016/3, 35-49. Tulukçu, N.B. (2000). İş ve Sosyal Güvenlik Hukukunda Gebe ve Anne İşçilerin Korunması. T. Haber İş Sendikası Yayınları. Ankara. Tulukçu, N.B. (2001). Türk Hukukunda ve Milletlerarası Alanda İşverenin Doğum Öncesi İzin Verme Yükümlülüğü. Prof.Dr.Nuri Çelik'e Armağan, 1350-1372. Urhanoğlu Cengiz, İ. (2009). Kadın İşçilerin Hamilelik ve Analık Durumlarının İş Sözleşmesine Etkisi, Kamu-İş, 2009/4, 21-53. Yuvalı, E. (2013). 4857 Sayılı İş Kanunu'nun ve İlgili Mevzuatın Kadın İşçiler ile İlgili Hükümlerine Genel Bakış, Türkiye Barolar Birliği Dergisi, 2013/106, 93-115.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

LOOKING THROUGH THE PUBLIC RELATIONS' WINDOW TO SOCIAL MEDIA: AN ANALYSIS ON HOME APPLIANCES SECTOR Assoc. Prof.Dr. Ahmet TARHAN Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Public Relations and Publicity Dept. [email protected]

Abstract Due to the awareness of target groups and enlargement of the competitive environment, organizations have to develop responsive public relations’ policies for their own target groups. Beside the opportunities of traditional media, developments in the area of new communication technologies present new utilities to reach the target groups for the organizations. Social media, as a new way of public relations’ practices, provides to release the organizations’ messages without any gatekeepers and to make possible the access of the target groups’ wish and expectations easily. In this study, the corporate Twitter accounts of the national and international home appliances manufacturers listed in the rankings of the Top 500 Industrial Enterprises announced by the İstanbul Chamber of Industry in 2015 were analyzed through content analysis. According to the content analysis which involves the period between April 15, 2016 and June 15, 2016; Arçelik and Vestel which are in the list of national category are seen to employ this medium more effectively than the international brandnames such as BSH Group and Bosch. It was seen that majority of the message had the content such as contests, product promotions, and after sales support. It is striking that the two-way messages of the home appliances manufacturers which aim to develop dialogues with their target groups were employed in higher amounts (353; 61.9%) when compared to the one-way messages (227; 39.1%). Keywords: public relations, social media, twitter, home appliances sector

1. Introduction The deepening in the current competition conditions and the rise of awareness among the consumers canalized the institutions to new pursuits in reaching their target groups. In our days which were dominated by the perception of consumer-wise products and services, the institutions started to employ the perception of more interactive communication with target groups. On the contrary to the communication environments where media conducted one-way turned into the two-way communication upon the emerging of new communication technologies. The training of the experts to serve in the fields such as corporate web pages and email which haven’t been perceived up to the 1990’s started to gain importance after those years (Bobbit, 1995: 27). We may conclude that the characteristic features such as reaching to the target group more actively and providing them information (Esrock and Leichty, 1998: 306), presenting information through corporate web pages without the limitation of the journalists and editors (White ve Raman, 1999: 406) and control of the messages are under the initiative of the institution (Peltekoğlu, 2009: 308). During 2000’s, institutions benefited from social media applications which are the new medias where new communication technologies in getting in touch with their target groups and establish a dialogue. Social media which was associated with the share of information, experiences and perspectives (Weinberg, 2009: 1) was primarily designed to establish mutual connection with friends and then they turned into the instruments which provide online communication between public, private and non-profiting organizations and their target groups (Wigand, 2010: 563).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The online communication which is evaluated within the category of social media with the purpose of online communication, participation and cooperation is one of the major social media instruments (Newson et al., 2009: 49-50) and there is a microblog service called Twitter which was established in 2006 with the purpose of enabling the users send messages and read the transmitted messages (Wigand, 2010: 564). Most of the companies which aim to increase the brand recognition help the customers in solving their problems and conduct sales (Weinberg, 2009: 135) take place in Twitter which requires allocating time and enable the consumer analysis rapidly. Moreover, the enterprises employ Twitter in announcing the campaigns and presenting new news about the enterprises (Zarrella, 2010: 31). However, the enterprises may share the contents which they establish in other media and announce their new products and their suggestions to use them. At the same time, they can share both corporate developments and the developments related to products with the target groups, answer the questions of the target groups related to the products or services and use this media as the support line against all sorts of problems (Güçdemir, 2010: 101-102). An increase has been observed in the popularity of Twitter, a social network site which provides significant opportunities to the enterprises in order to enable dialogical communication with their shareholders (Rybalko and Seltzer, 2010: 337). As of the date of March 2016, Twitter has active 310 million of users (https://about.twitter.com/company, 2016). Some advantages which it provide to the enterprises and users play a significant role in this. They are as follows; - It encourages the users for short text messages and decrease the requirements of content production and it’s sharing (Java et al., 2007: 57). - In Twitter which is easy-to-use, the text messages are short since they are limited with 140 characters, similar to the SMS text messages. The messages may be delivered simultaneously or nonsynchronously (Kamerer and Morris, 2011: 14). - It allows enterprises share information and news and it also provides opportunities to them related to the activities of marketing and advertisement targeting the location and interests of the users (van Dijck, 2011: 337). - The consumers find social media as a resource of information about the products and services more reliable than the traditional communication media (Mangold and Faulds, 2009: 360). - It provides convenience to the enterprises in their relationships with both external target groups (clients, partners and suppliers) and internal target groups (employees, units) (Özel and Sert, 2015: 117). There is limited number of researches in the literature related to the employment of social media by the enterprises about the applications of public relations. Some of those researches and their findings are as follows: In a study by Honeycutt and Herring (2009) which was conducted to determine the contributions of Twitter in developing the cooperation between the parties, they observed that Twitter was employed as a one-way instrument in sending text messages to another user rather than Twitter’s current cooperation. In a research conducted by Case and King (2011) on 2009 Fortune 50 companies related to the employment of Twitter, they found that 27 companies out of 50 (54%) used Twitter. The companies using Twitter benefitted from this social media instrument for the news most with the rate of 85% and marketing/promotions, costumer services and human resources, respectively. Sreenivasan et al., (2012: 27-32) analyzed the structure of the text messages in the Twitter accounts of three airline companies through content analysis. Among the tweets sent by the customers, the complaints of the customers were the leading ones, they are followed by marketing which includes promotions and casual events and updating personal status. It was determined that three of the airline companies unsufficiently made come-backs to their customers and adopted a one-way communication form. Kocabaş (2016) conducted a content analysis on the Twitter and Facebook accounts of the brandnames of Arçelik and Bosch between the dates of July 1, 2014 and July 30, 2014. It was found that the brand of Arçelik employed Twitter more actively (93; 64. 3%) when compared to (51; 35.7%) and the 16

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN content of the text messages were related to announcements, introduction, suggestions and celebrations. In the light of the researches and the data obtained from those researches, the questions to be handled are as follows: Research Question 1. What is the general appearance of the corporate Twitter accounts of home appliances manufacturers? Research Question 2. What is the distribution of the number of tweets, the followed individuals and institutions and the followers in the corporate Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers? Research Question 3. What is the distribution of the text messages on the corporate Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers in terms of days of the week and hours of the day? Research Question 4. What is the distribution of the content of the text messages on the corporate Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers in terms of their topic? Research Question 5. What is the communicative direction of the text messages on the corporate Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers? Research Question 6. Are the text messages on the corporate Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers operated one-wayly to inform the target groups or two-wayly to develop communication between parties? 2. Methodology The universe of the research comprises national and international companies functioning in the sector of home appliances. The sampling of the research the home appliances manufacturers which function nationally and internationally and listed in the first 100 companies according to the rankings of the Top 500 Industrial Enterprises announced by the İstanbul Chamber of Industry in 2015 (http://www.iso.org.tr/sites/1/content /500-buyuk-liste-2015.html, 2016). Table 1. The Distribution of Twitter Accounts of the Home Appliances Manufacturers THE RANKING OF ISO TOP 500

HOME APPLIANCES

CORPORATE TWITTER

MEGA INDUSTRIAL COMPANIES

COMPANIES

ACCOUNT

OF TURKEY (2015) 3

ARÇELİK

https://twitter.com/arcelik?lang=tr

18

BSH Group

https://twitter.com/BSHTurkiye

22

BOSCH

https://twitter.com/boschturkey

26

VESTEL

https://twitter.com/vestel?lang=tr

After the conducted analysis, it was determined that Arçelik, BSH Group, Bosch, and Vestel were among the home appliances manufacturers in the list of first 100 companies according to the rankings of the Top 500 Industrial Enterprises announced by the İstanbul Chamber of Industry in 2015. It was also found that the aforementioned home appliances manufacturers had verified Twitter accounts and the text messages received and sent by those companies through their Twitter accounts were analyzed. In the research, the text messages in the corporate Twitter accounts which operate in Turkey were limited with the period of three months between April 15, 2016 and June 15, 2016. They were claasified according to categories such as the general appearance of the corporate Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers which constitute the sampling of coding scale, the transmission frequencies of the text messages, the topics of the content of the text messages and whether the text messages are one-way to send them or two-way ones to develop dialogue with the target groups and the content analysis was conducted.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 3. Findings 3.1. The General Appearance of the Twitter Accounts of Home Appliances Manufacturers The general appearance of corporate accounts of 4 home appliances manufacturers located in Turkey and which were analyzed within the framework of sampling were given in Table 2. Those home appliances manufacturers are Arçelik, Vestel, BSH Group and Bosch.

123

566

+

+

VESTEL

2.381

64

79.326

1.086

885

+

+

BSH GROUP

1.486

212

7.712

58

560

+

+

BOSCH

1.189

5

17.810

205

262

+

+

PAGES

29.256

URL TO WEB

LIKES

1.183

LOGO

FOLLOWERS

3.008

COMPANIES

CORPORATE

FOLLOW

ARÇELİK

HOME APPLIANCES

VIDEOS AND

TWEETS

POHOTGRAPS

Table 2. The General Appearance of the Twitter Accounts of Home Appliances Manufacturers

When the general appearance of the corporate Twitter accounts of 4 home appliances manufacturer companies located in Turkey are analyzed as of the date of June 30, 2016; the majority of the tweets (3.008 text messages) were sent by Arçelik. It was followed by Vestel, BSH Group and Bosch with the number of tweets such as 2.381, 1.486 and 1.189, respectively. The dates when the related companies are registered to Twitter may be an important factor here. Vestel opened its Twitter account in January in 2011, Arçelik was registered in March 2011, BHS Group in September 2012 and Bosch in March 2013. When the Twitter accounts of the institutions or individuals followed by home appliances manufacturers are analyzed, it was seen that Arçelik is the leading one with 1.183 accounts and it was followed by BSH Group with 212 accounts and Vestel with 64 accounts. Bosch follows only 5 accounts. When those companies are evaluated in terms of their followers, Vestel is at the top with 79.326 followers. Vestel is followed by Arçelik with 29.256 and Bosch with 17.810. BSH Group is at the end of thei list with 7.712. When the liking levels in the corporate Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers are analyzed, Vestel is seen to be at the top with 1.086 likings. It was followed by Bosch with 205 likings, Arçelik with 123 liking and BSH Group with 58 likings. It is striking that all the home appliances manufacturers employ verification thicks in their corporate Twitter accounts and there is a corporate logo and a routing link for the corporate web page. 3.2. The Distribution of the Tweets in the Twitter Accounts of Home Appliances Manufacturers in Terms of Time Another point evaluated in the study is the days of the week and the hours of the day when the text messages in the corporate Twitter accounts of the national and international home appliances manufacturers in Turkey. Because, social media allows the home appliances manufacturers maintain communication with their target group twenty-four-seven and develop a dialogue related to some possible requests, complaints, suggestions and expectations received from them. In order to determine the distribution of the hours of the day at which the text messages in the corporate accounts of the home appliances manufacturers are sent; a day was regarded twenty four hours and it was investigated that whether those messages are sent within the working hours or out of office hours. 18

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Table 3. The Distribution of the Tweets in the Twitter Accounts of Home Appliances Manufacturers

11.59 PM

06.00 PM-

05.59 PM

12.00 PM-

11.59 AM

06.00 AM-

COMPANIES

05.59 AM

HOME APPLIANCES

12.00 AM-

in Terms of Time

TOTAL

ARÇELİK

40

29

8

3

80

VESTEL

179

89

89

21

378

BSH GROUP

44

35

1

2

82

BOSCH

24

12

1

3

40

TOTAL

287

165

99

29

580

Within the time periods in which the analyses are conducted, majority of the text messages in the corporate Twitter account was sent to Vestel with 378 tweets while the home appliances manufacturer Bosch had only 40 messages although it had a corporate Twitter account. This finding proves that Vestel the home appliances manufacturer most effectively employs Twitter, one of the social media instruments, while Bosch fails in utilizing this instrument effectively. When the home appliances manufacturers are evaluated in terms of their national and international status, the national brandnames of Arçelik and Vestel had 458 text messages in their corporate accounts while the international brands of BSH Group and Bosch only had 122 messages. Moreover, it is observed that national brandnames employ this instrument more effectively when compared to the international ones. When the sending time of the text messages in the Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers is analyzed, the density of the messages was between 00.00 at night and 05.59 a.m (287; 49.4%). When the distribution of the text messages in the Twitter accounts were analyzed according to the time periods they were sent and received, it was determined that the least text messages were sent between 06.00 a.m and 11.59 a.m (29; % 5). Table 4. The Distribution of the Tweets in the Twitter Accounts of Home Appliances Manufacturers in Terms of Days HOME APPLIANCES COMPANIES

IN WEEK

AT WEEKEND

TOTAL

ARÇELİK

68

12

80

VESTEL

321

57

378

BSH GROUP

55

27

82

BOSCH

39

1

40

TOTAL

483

97

580

It was also investigated that whether the text messages in the corporate Twitter accounts of home appliances manufacturers were sent during the weekdays or at the weekends through this social media instrument. When Table 4 was analyzed, it was found that 483 (83.2%) of the text messages in the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN corporate Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers were sent on weekdays while 97 of them (16.8%) were sent at the weekend. This findings shows that the text messages in the corporate Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers became more intense during the weekdays. This occasion verifies that both instituons and individuals failed in benefiting from the ascpects of Twitter for using it very day of the week. 3.3. The Distribution of the Tweets in the Twitter Accounts of Home Appliances Manufacturers in Terms of Their Topics The topics mentioned in the Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers and the issues which this social media instrument was employed were analyzed within the framework of the research (Table 5). While establishing the coding scale, 13 categories were determined in terms of the content of the text messages. They are product promotion, service, after sales service, application, sponsorship, social responsibility, contest, celebration/commemoration, corporal messages and out of scope messages. Under the title of corporate messages among the categories, it was observed that there were corporate announcements related to the company while the out of scope messages contained information about health, education and some practical hints in the kitchen. Table 5. The Distribution of the Text Messages in the Twitter Accounts of Home Appliances Manufacturers in Terms of Their Topics ARÇELİK

VESTEL

Contest

1

192

Product Promotion

52

After Sales Service

CONTENT OF MESSAGES

BSH

BOSCH

TOTAL

-

-

193

80

6

5

143

13

53

5

6

77

Corporate Message

-

7

22

13

42

Out of the Scope Message

-

4

31

-

35

Commemoration

10

4

9

5

28

Sponsorship

2

14

-

-

16

Corporate Social Responsibility

1

3

9

3

16

Implemantation

-

10

-

1

11

Services

1

5

-

3

9

Promotion Campaigns

-

6

-

-

6

Internal Public Relations

-

-

-

4

4

80

378

82

40

580

TOTAL

GROUP

When the distribution of the messages in the Twitter accounts in terms of their topics are analyzed, it may be observed that majority of the messages (193; 33.2%) had the content of contest. It is followed by the topics of product promotion (143; 24.6%), after sales services (77; 13.2%), corporate messages (42; 7.2%) and out of scope messages (35; 6.03%). The lowest rates of messages in the Twitter accounts of home appliances manufacturers were seen as follows: services (9; 1.5%), promotion campaigns (6; 1.03%) and the messages of internal public relations (4; 0.6%).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 3.4. The Communicative Direction of the Messages in the Twitter Accounts of Home Appliances Manufacturers When the aspects of the messages in the Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers are analyzed in terms of their contents and techniques, majority of the messages (168; 28.9%) were related to the contests which the home appliances manufacturers allow the participation of the target groups. In addition to this, home appliances manufacturers employed those messages in order to inform their customers on any topic (152; 26.2%) and criticisms related to the campaigns, products or services (85; 14.6%). When the messages were analyzed in terms of the direction of communication, the content of the messages such as the use of URL and announcement is a one-way process. We may conclude that the home appliances manufacturers employ the text messages for the topics such as announcements, services, production promotion, sponsorships, social responsibility, promotion campaigns, internal public relations and corporate messages in order to inform the customers (227; 39.1%). Table 6. The Technical Characteristics of the Tweets in the Twitter Accounts of the Home Appliances

URL

ANNOUNCEMENT

LIKE

REQUEST

COMPLAINT

RECOMMENDATION

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

CRITIQUE

QUESTION

REPLY

TOTAL

Manufacturers

ARÇELİK

29

11

4

-

8

-

1

24

-

3

80

VESTEL

31

50

16

23

20

7

4

56

11

160

378

BSH GROUP

11

621

-

-

1

1

-

3

1

3

82

BOSCH

4

29

-

-

2

1

-

2

-

2

40

TOTAL

75

152

20

23

31

9

5

85

12

168

580

The answers of the home appliances manufacturers for the messages from the customers with the contents of requests, complaints, critics, suggestions, likings and questions related to some applications may be considered two-way, having equal parties and having the purpose of establishing dialogues. It was also determined that they consist of messages with the contents of production promotion, after sales support, promotion campaigns and likings, critics, questions, complaints, acknowledgements, requests and suggestions (353; % 61.9). When the findings were evaluated, it was determined that the home appliances manufacturers preferred Twitter which allows establishing communication with the customers disregarding the office hours in order to set up and develop communication with the target groups. Despite the fact that the majority of the shared two-way messages have the contents of promotion campaigns and contests, this occasion is a great opportunity for the home appliances manufacturers who adopted the perception of product developing and providing services focused on the conscious customer satisfaction. The customers will be able to express their expectations for a better quality of products and services while the home appliances manufacturers will achieve the opportunity of developing the quality of their products and services according to the requests and expectations of their customers. It will especially provide important hints to the public relation units of the home appliances manufacturers in the competition with their rivals throught he information they obtained here.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4. Discussion and Conclusion Apart from the traditional media, the enterprises have gained the opportunity to access their target groups thanks to the opportunities without any mediators. In recent years, an interactive communication has become possible through social media instruments which is also called social networks in addition to the corporate web pages. Through social media took the opportunity of actualizing two-way communication which will provide responses for the requests, suggestions, expectations, complaints and questions of their sustomers in addition to the the opportunities provided by the one-way communication. From this aspect, social media instruments turned into indispensable communication channels for the public relations department of institutions. The research comprises of a time period of three months between April 15, 2016 and June 15, 2016 related to the corporate Twitter accounts of the enterprises which operate in the national and international scale home appliances sector in the list of top 100 enterprises according to the Top 500 Industrial Enterprises of 2015 announced by İstanbul Chamber of Industry. As a result of the analyses focused on the employment of this instrument by both enterprises and the target groups; - Majority of the messages in the corporate Twitter account within the time interval during the execution of the analyses were sent to Vestel with 378 tweets while Bosch had only 40 tweets alhough it had a corporate Twitter account. - When they are evaluated in terms of their status as national and international, it was observed that the national brands of Arçelik and Vestel had 458 messages in their corporate Twitter accounts while the international brandnames of BSH Group and Bosch had only 122 messages. - When the time at which the home appliances manufacturers sent their messages was analyzed, it was seen that they were sent between 00.00 at night and 05.59 (287; 49.4%). According to the distribution of the messages in the Twitter accounts, the time periods with the least transmission of messages is between 06.00 and 11.59 (29; 5%). - Among the messages in the corporate Twitter accounts of the home appliances manufacturers located in Turkey, 483 (83.2%) of them were sent on the weekdays while 97 (16.8%) of them were sent at the weekends. - When the distribution of the messages in the Twitter accounts were analyzed in terms of their topics, it was seen that they were focused on the content of contest (193; 33.2%). It is followed by the product promotion (143; 24.6%), after sales support (77; 13.2%), corporate messages (42; 7.2%) and out-of field messages (35; 6.03%). The lowest rates in the messages in the Twitter accounts of home appliances manufacturers were about services (9; 1.5%), promotion campaigns (6; 1.03%) and internal public relations messages (4; 0.6%). - In terms of the technical characteristics of the home appliances manufacturers, it was determined that majority of their messages were related to the answers to the questions from the customers and the campaigns conducted previously (168; 28.9%). Nevertheless, the other topics of the messages sent by the home appliances manufacturers are the announcements sent in order to inform the customers (152; 26.2%) and the messages with the content of critics for the campaigns, products or services (85; 14.6%). - It was also determined that the home appliances manufacturers employed the messages of two-way communication (353; 61.9%); while the messages focused on the one-way communication is less than the two-way communication of public relations (227; 39.1%). With reference to the findings, it was determined that the national brandnames (Arçelik and Vestel) employed the message more frequently when compared to the international ones (BSH Group and Bosch), the distribution of their messages were dominant on weekdays but they were mostly sent during the periods of time out of office hours. In terms of message contents; the promotion activities such as contests, product promotions and after sales support and the service activities while corporate messages, sponsorships, social responsibility activites and the messages related to internal public relations were less in quantity. Instead of the strategy of one-way communication strategy of the home appliances manufacturers focusing on products and services, the messages based on two-way communication where interactive media provided by social media is effectively employed were shared online. 22

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The enterprises may maintain their activities in the environment of conscious consumers and intense competition is possible only when they develop some policies of products and services sensitive to the requests, expectations and complaints fo the customers. For that reason, it is estimated that the sharing of public relations-based messages through social media instruments will contribute to the enterprises in increasing the awareness and establish brand loyalty among the consumers as well as the messages of the enterprises focused on promotion and announcements. In the academic literature, some comparative studies may be conducted related to the ways which enterprises in other sectors employ. It is thought that the studies which deals with the ways the enterprises utilize those instruments with the purpose of public relations will contribute to both academic and private sectors. Acknowledgements

This study was supported by The Scientific Investigation Projects Coordinate Office of the Selcuk University (Project No. 16701438). References Bobbitt, R. (1995) An internet primer for public relations. Public Relations Quarterly, Fall, pp: 27-32. Case, C. J. & King, D. L. (2011) Twitter usage in the Fortune 50: A marketing opportunity?, Journal of Marketing Development and Competitiveness, 5 (3), pp: 94-103. Esrock, S. L. & Leichty, G. B. (1998) Social responsibility and corporate web pages: Self - presentation or agenda - setting?. Public Relations Review, 24 (3), pp: 305-319. Güçdemir, Y. (2010) Sanal ortamda iletişim – bir halkla ilişkiler perspektifi. İstanbul: Derin Yayınları. Honeycutt, C. & Herring, S. C. (2009) Beyond microblogging: Conversation and collaboration via Twitter, Proceedings of the Forty-Second Hawai’i International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-42), Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Press. https://about.twitter.com/company, 2016 https://twitter.com/arcelik?lang=tr https://twitter.com/boschturkey https://twitter.com/BSHTurkiye https://twitter.com/vestel?lang=tr Java, A., Song, X., Finin, T. & Tseng, B. (2007) Why we Twitter: Understanding microblogging usage and communities, 9th WEBKDD and 1 st SNA-KDD Workshop’07, August 12, California, USA. İstanbul Sanayi Odası (2016) Türkiye’nin 500 büyük sanayi kuruluşu org.tr/sites/1/content/500-buyuk-liste-2015.html, 2016.

- 2015. http://www.iso.

Kamerer, D. & Morris, P. (2011) Public relations at the micro level: Connecting with customers on Twitter. Marcia W. Distaso (Ed). 2011 Proceedings - Public Relations Society of America Educators Academy Research Session, Octorber, Orlando, 13-29. Kocabaş, İ. (2016) Halkla ilişkiler aracı olarak sosyal medya: Arçelik ve Bosch markalarının kurumsal Facebook ve Twitter hesapları üzerine bir inceleme, Selçuk İletişim, 9 (2), pp: 69-91. Mangold, W. G. & Faulds, D. J. (2009) Horizons, 52, 357-365.

Social media: The new hybrid element of the promotion mix. Business

Newson, A., Houghton, D. & Patten, J. (2009) Blogging and other social media: Exploiting the technology and protecting the enterprise. Cornwell: Gower Publishing Limited. Özel, A. P. & Sert, N. M. (2015) Dijital halkla ilişkiler – kavram ve araçları. İstanbul: Derin Yayınları. Peltekoğlu, F. B. (2009) Halkla ilişkiler nedir?. İstanbul: Beta Yayınları. Raybalko, S. & Seltzer, T. (2010) Dialogic communication in 140 characters or less: How fortune 500 companies engage stakeholders using Twitter. Public Relations Review, 36, 336-341.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Sreenivasan N. D., Lee C. S. & Goh, D. H. (2012) Tweeting the friendly skies: Investigating information exchange among Twitter users about airlines, Electronic Library and Information Systems, 46 (1), pp: 21-42. Van Dijck, J. (2011) Tracing Twitter: The rise of a microblogging platform. International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics, 7 (3), 333-348. Weinberg, T. (2009) The new community rules: Marketing on the social web, Sebastopol: O’Reilly Media, Inc. White, C. & Raman, N. (1999). The world wide web as a public relations medium: The use of research, planning, and evaluation in web site development. Public Relations Review, 25 (4), 405-419. Wigand, F. D. L. (2010) Twitter in government: Building relationships one tweet at a time. 7th International Conference on Information Technology. IEEE Computer Society, 563-567. Zarrella, D. (2010) The social media marketing. Sebastopol: O’Reilly Media, Inc.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

MANAGEMENT STYLE OF THE MAYOR AND THE ATTITUDES OF MUNICIPAL EMPLOYEES AS FACTORS AFFECTING THE SATISFACTION OF LOCAL SERVICES: THE CASE OF KARATAY SUB-PROVINCIAL MUNICIPALITY Prof.Dr.Ali ŞAHİN Selçuk University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Public Administration Department [email protected]

Abstract Today municipalities, which aim to provide local services to meet the needs and expectation of citizens, is a unit of government close to the citizen. To be successful in this purpose, the municipalities have to gain citizen support, which is possible by increasing the citizen satisfaction. It is considerably difficult subject to determine; to what extent services of the municipalities satisfy the citizens or to what extent they meet the expectations of them. Concordantly it also seems considerably difficult to determine the generally accepted characteristics of the local services to satisfy the citizens. There are many factors that influence the perceived citizen satisfaction with local services. The factors such as: management style of the mayor, attitudes of the employees, speed and efficiency of the services and affordability. There are many theoretical and practical articles concerning the satisfaction of citizens from local services in Turkey. However, there is no adequate paper on the impact of management style of mayor to the satisfaction of local services. The aim of this study is to measure satisfaction level of the citizens with the municipality services and the quality of services given by the municipalities. In other words in this study, management styles of the mayors, the attitudes of municipal employees and the satisfaction of citizens with the local services will be observed. In this study, initially, theoretical knowledge on the subject is mentioned briefly and the results of field research which is conducted for our purpose are discussed. In line with aim of study, a questionnaire has been conducted over the citizens residing in Karatay sub-provincial municipality of Konya metropolitan municipality, by using random method and the obtained data were analyzed using SPSS program. Frequency distribution, descriptive statistics, ANOVA test and t-test methods were applied in analysis process. Keywords: management styles of the mayors, attitudes of municipal employees, citizen satisfaction, local services, case of Karatay/Konya

1. Introduction Local governments provide services for the citizens' benefit. The quality of the services determines the current and future quality of the relationship between them. 21th Century is accepted as a period in which not only in field of information and technology, but also the rapid change and developments in current local government mentality. Today municipalities, which aim to provide local services to meet the needs and expectation of citizens, are units of government close to the citizen. To be successful in this purpose, the municipalities have to gain citizen support, which is possible by increasing the citizen satisfaction. Behaviours and attitudes of local services providers are important in citizens’ evaluation of local services. Because of that fact the provision of local services is an interactive process between mayor, local employees and citizen at the same time. 25

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

It is considerably difficult subject to determine; to what extent services of the municipalities satisfy the citizens or to what extent they meet the expectations of them. Concordantly it also seems considerably difficult to determine the generally accepted characteristics of the local services to satisfy the citizens. There are many factors that influence the perceived citizen satisfaction with local services. The factors such as: management style of the mayor, attitudes of the employees, speed and efficiency of the services and affordability. There are many theoretical and practical articles concerning the satisfaction of citizens from local services in Turkey. However, there is no adequate paper on the impact of management style of mayor to the satisfaction of local services. The aim of this study is to measure satisfaction level of the citizens with the municipality services and the quality of services given by the municipalities. In other words in this study, management styles of the mayors, the attitudes of municipal employees and the satisfaction of citizens with the local services will be observed. 2. Review of Literature Governance oriented public administration reforms foresee citizen-oriented public administration. It is citizen-centric approach that has begun to be recognized as the most important element of public service delivery in all countries. Customer-oriented approach has highlighted information and communication technologies in public administration with a citizen-centric approach in the private sector (King, 47-48). While understanding and the role of the state were reformulated with public administration reform; citizens' views on government and public institutions have become open to change. Changes and developments experienced specifically to public administration in the information society, also affected municipalities and the municipal administration (Alptürker, Şahin and Taşpınar, 2016: 559). Therefore, they are located at the focus of government efforts to improve and modernize the public administration. The mentioned efforts aim to build a local governance understanding and structure that is entrepreneurial, dynamic efficient and effective with citizens (King, 47-49). The countries' political and administrative structures of whatever overall evaluation of local governments are closest units to the citizens and democratic and pluralist culture consolidates at the local level (Şahin et al. 2015: 1348). Citizens' can monitor whether their needs and expectations are fulfilled by local governments; or whether satisfactory solutions are produced for their problems and complaints and therefore they can make better decisions (Montalvo, 2009). In order to provide active, rational, local services with lower costs local governments should take the requirements and expectations of the citizens into account. In other words, taking citizens' preferences for local service into account, not only avoids waste of public resources, but also enhances citizens’ satisfaction level with local services in this context. If citizens are satisfied with their local government officials and administrators, they will put their support to the municipalities more frequently in any environment. Is the local governments meet the expectations and needs of citizens, citizens will increasingly express their satisfaction with not only the local government, but also the overall public service across the country in general (Montalvo, 2009: 1). Together with the citizen-centric approach appearing in public administration, public service satisfaction and service performance issues seem to have taken its place among the subjects studied in scientific researches. For example, the way the civil servants perceive public performance management (Göküş, Bayrakçı and Taşpınar, 2014), the relationships between leadership performance and citizen satisfaction (Şahin and Taşpınar, 2014) are some of the issues discussed on the topic. On the other hand, among the most discussed issues are the performance of public officials and the relationship between their performance and citizen satisfaction (Im and Lee, 420; James, 2011: 1419). The relationship between citizen satisfaction with the level of service and performance management is frequently tried to be analyzed. In those studies, the degree of citizens’ expectations on local services and managerial performance is considered as an important factor in determining the level of satisfaction. How properly and effectively the local services are performed is not the most important issue. The important issue is the level of expectations. If the expectation from municipal services and managers is low, local government satisfaction may be higher (Im and Lee, 420). Satisfaction decreases while expectations get increased. In other words, high expectations are associated with lower satisfaction. In the context of normative expectations model, a negative correlation has been 26

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

found between satisfaction with and the expectations from the services offered by local governments (James, 2011: 1421). It is quite a difficult issue to determine how much the services offered by municipal bodies satisfy the citizens or to what extent their expectations are met. In this context it also seems significantly difficult to the basic, generally accepted characteristics of municipal services for satisfying citizens (Şahin, et al., 2011: 67). Who and why are the most satisfied with local services? What are the reasons for that? Which factors may explain the relationship between citizen satisfaction and the municipal services? Socio-economic and demographic characteristics are leading ones among them. There are various studies about perception of the citizens with the municipal services in Turkey and their satisfaction with those services. Those studies are discussed in the context of demographic characteristics and service satisfaction is tried to be measured in the framework of those factors. In the studies variables such as age, gender, education, income, residential neighbourhood or geographic area take place and citizens’ local service satisfaction levels are tried to be measured (Örselli and Bayrakçı 2016, Ardıç et al., 2004; Usta and Memiş, 2010; Göküç and Alptürker, 2011; Akyıldız, 2012; Akgül, 2012; Menteşe 2013, Daştan and Delice 2015 Göküş and Karayıldırım, 2012). However, perception of citizens about the mayor and municipal employees, the relationship of that with service satisfaction is one of the rarely discussed issues, in those studies. Some of the studies on the management style of the mayors, the perception about mayor and service satisfaction are: Demirel et al. (2013: 45-81), have tried to determine with their work in the context of a TÜBİTAK Project that "how quality the citizens perceive the municipal services and leadership characteristics of the mayor in determining that quality perception". In this context, the study has demonstrated the necessary characteristics of a mayor. In addition, it is especially highlighted that the only effective element in the creation of citizen satisfaction and improvement of the quality of urban life is not the leadership style of the mayor of the municipality. In their study, Yörük et al. (2011: 103-109) have revealed the leadership styles of the mayors in Turkey and the factors affecting their leadership style. Another study by Demirel and colleagues (2012: 80) in that field, see the mayors as the leaders of the local politics. In the same study, mayors exhibiting successful and quality management are suggested to improve the quality of places, where citizens live, especially of the municipal units. Quality management, quality services and spaces can increase the satisfaction with local services. Şahin et al (2013: 735-758), have investigated the effect of the management style of the mayor on local service satisfaction, in another study. In the study it has been put forward that there is a correlation between the mayor's management style and citizen satisfaction with local services. In addition, they have investigated the factors that influence local service satisfaction and among the findings of the study it has been determined that the satisfaction of the citizens, who are satisfied with the mayor, are also have higher levels of local service satisfaction (Şahin, et al., 2011: 74). In the study “The Citizens Report Card for Local Services, The Case of Konya” it is figured that the citizens who are satisfied with the mayor, generally state that they are satisfied with local services, as well (Örselli and Bayrakçı, 2016). 3. Methodology In this study, survey method was used. The studies theoretical and practical referenced have been benefited from, while preparing the questionnaire. In the questionnaire form, questions about demographics, satisfaction with municipal service units in Konya, management styles of the mayors, and the attitudes and behaviours of the municipal employees take place. Questions were prepared according to 5 Point Likert Scale. The universe of the research involves the citizens, who are resident in the Karatay Sub-province of Konya Metropolitan Municipality. The questionnaire forms were distributed by random sampling method. Questionnaires were distributed and collected from 13 to 25 January, 2014. Reliability of survey data was measured and alpha coefficient was found to be 0.85. According to this value, the survey data can be considered to reliable. 4. Results The questionnaire forms taken back from the citizens residing in Karatay sub-province were

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

interpreted using the SPSS software. In evaluation of the data, frequency distribution, percentages, "t" test, ANOVA and correlation analysis methods were applied. 4.1Statistics and Data Analysis Table 1. Demographic Structure

Gender

Age Groups

Education

Sector of Work

Income Level

Frequency

Percent

Female

188

38.4

Male

302

61.6

18-29

174

35,5

30-43

178

36,3

44-55

104

21,2

Older than 56

34

6,9

İlliterate

12

2,4

Literate

34

7,0

Primary School

72

14,8

Secondary School

50

10,3

High School

138

28,4

University and Higher

184

37,9

Public Sector

163

33,3

Private Sector

170

34,7

Own Job

157

32,0

Between 100-500 TL

46

9,4

Between 501-1000 TL

128

26,1

Between 1001-3000 TL

256

52,2

Over 3001 TL

60

12,2

61.6% of respondents involved in the sample are "Male", while 38.4% of them are "Woman". When the distribution of the respondents according to age is observed; 35.5% are seen in "18-29 age group"; 3% "30-43 age group"; 21.2% "44-55 age group"; and 6.9% are in "56 and over age group". These results indicate that age distribution of the participants is concentrated in young and middle-age level. When the participants’ educational situation is examined, 2.4% of them are seen too be "illiterate" and 7% "literate" while 14.8% of them had graduated from "primary school"; 10.3% "secondary school "; 28.4% "high school"; and 37.9% are "university and higher” graduates. According to the distribution of the sample the citizens appear to have a high level of education. The participants were also asked in which sectors they work in the questionnaire form of the field research in Karatay Sub-province. Accordingly, the numbers of the participants involved in each sector is almost equal. Participants are concentrated in three groups; public sector, private sector and own business. When the participants’ income distribution is examined, 35.5% of them are in "lower income group", 52.2% in "middle income group" and 12.2% of them are in "upper income group". Participants mostly have middle-income levels.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Table 2: Citizens’ Local Service Satisfaction (%) 1

2

3

4

5

Are you satisfied with the services of Karatay Municipality?

6,1

12,3

37,7

32,4

11,5

Are you satisfied with the management style of the Mayor?

4,9

15,2

37,7

32,4

9,4

4,9

11,4

32,2

35,9

15,1

9,5

18,5

37,0

28,0

7,0

6,9

11,4

26,1

38,8

16,7

Are you satisfied with the services of Konya Metropolitan Municipality? Are you satisfied with the behaviours and attitudes of the municipality employees? To what extent are you satisfied with your life in general?

(1=Strongly dissatisfied, 2=Dissatisfied, 3=Partly Satisfied, 4=Satisfied, 5=Strongly Satisfied)

There are numerous scientific studies on satisfaction of citizens with local services. The studies show that the satisfaction with local services is affected by different factors. In this study, among those factors the affect of the mayor's management style and attitudes of the employees on citizen satisfaction is investigated. In this context, various questions were directed to the participants, and some analyzes were performed between the factors. Some of these questions are in the table above. The proportion of citizens who are satisfied with the services offered by the municipality Karatay is 44%. The percentage of the people satisfied with the management of the mayor is 42%. If the ones, who are partly satisfied, are included, approximately 81% of the participants are satisfied with both the local services and the management style of the mayor. 51% of respondents are satisfied with the services of Konya Metropolitan Municipality. This rate is higher than the Karatay Municipality. When the partly satisfied ones are added that rate is approximately 83%. The proportion of citizens, who are satisfied with the attitudes and behaviours of municipal employees, is 35%. That rate increases to 72% together with the partly satisfied citizens. The rate of the citizens, who are satisfied their lives, is 55.5% and 80% if the partly satisfied ones are involved. Table 3: Management Style of the Mayor and Local Service Satisfaction Correlations Do you think the Mayor manages the Municipality well?

Are you satisfied with the services provided by Karatay Municipality? ,580**

Do you think the Mayor Pearson Correlation manages the Sig. (2-tailed) Municipality well?

1 ,000 488 486

N

,580**

Are you satisfied with the Pearson Correlation services provided by Sig. (2-tailed) Karatay Municipality?

1 ,000 488 486

N

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The effect of the mayor in determining the level of local service satisfaction of the citizens was tested using Pearson Correlation. If the Pearson Correlation values are between “0” and “+1” the relationship is perceived as and interpreted to be positive. Pearson value is 0.580. The value mentioned means that while the positive perceptions of the citizens about the mayor and his/her management style increases, their satisfaction with the local services also increases. In other words, those satisfied with the 29

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

management style of the mayor are satisfied with local services, as well. There is no doubt that there are various factors affecting citizen satisfaction with local services. It is not an appropriate and true conclusions providing approach to explain local service satisfaction in terms of merely one factor. However the perception about the mayor and his/her management style is one of the most important factors affecting the quality of and satisfaction with local services. That is because, -as previously expressed- the mayor has the authority to represent the legal entity of the municipality. In this context, municipal services and attitudes and behaviours of municipal employees are embodied in the personality of the mayor. Table 4: Attitudes of the Municipality Employees and Service Satisfaction Correlations Are you satisfied with the

Are you satisfied with the

services provided by

behaviours and attitudes of

Karatay Municipality?

the municipality employees?

,547**

Are you satisfied with the Pearson Corr.

1 ,000

services provided by Karatay Sig. (2-tailed) Municipality?

488 474

N

Are you satisfied with the Pearson Corr.

,547**

behaviours and attitudes of the Sig. (2-tailed)

,000

municipality employees?

474

1 476

N

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

In the study, it was tried to see if the municipal employees’ attitudes and behaviours affected the citizens’ satisfaction with local services, or not. The obtained correlation value is 0.547. That values is close to “+ 1”. Accordingly, it is seen that there is a positive relationship between attitudes and behaviours of municipal employees, and local service satisfaction. For those, who are satisfied with the municipal employees’ attitude and behaviours, it is also possible to be satisfied with local services. According to the results given in Tables 3 and 4, an influence of municipal employees’ attitudes and mayor’s management style on ciitizens’ satisfaction with local services, may be mentioned. In other words, among the factors affecting the local service satisfaction, there are citizen perception about the mayor, his/her management style and municipal employees’ attitudes and behaviours. Table 5: Age Groups and Service Satisfaction (Anova) Sum of Squares Are you satisfied with the services Between Groups provided by Karatay Municipality? Within Groups

df

Sig.

14,243

3

501,650

484

,004

It was tried to measure if there was a significant difference between age groups in terms of local service satisfaction, using ANOVA test. According to the findings; the citizens, who are at the age of and older than 56, are more satisfied with municipal services in Karatay in comparison to other age groups. There is no significant difference between the age groups in terms of their satisfaction with mayor’s management style, municipal employees’ attitude and behaviours, and their lives in general. It was also tested whether there were significant differences between the groups of participants according to their education and income levels, in terms of their satisfaction with local services. 30

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

However, no significant difference was found between the educational level and income level groups, regarding their satisfaction with mayor’s management style, local services of Karatay Municipality, municipal employees’ attitude and behaviours, and their lives in general. Table 6: Sector of Work and Local Service Satisfaction (Anova) Sum of Squares Are you satisfied with the services of Between Groups Sub-provincial Municipality? Within Groups Do you think the Mayor of the Between Groups Sub-provincial Municipality manages the Within Groups Municipality well? To what extent are you satisfied with your Between Groups life in general? Within Groups To make a general assessment, to what Between Groups extent are you satisfied with the behaviours and attitudes of the municipality employees? Within Groups

df

Sig.

,912

2

444,617

413

2,184

2

423,932

413

7,489

2

493,009

415

2,179

2

422,334

403

,655

,346

,044

,355

The answer of a question asking whether there is a significant relationship between participant groups according to the sector they work is seen in the table above. According to the ANOVA test, the sector that the citizens work -public or private- does not affect the satisfaction of them with the local services. However, the employees in the public sector have stated that they are more satisfied with their lives, when compared to that of private sector employees in terms of their work place. The main reason of that is the Turkish personnel system. That is; public employees have a higher legal job security than those working at private sector. The risk of them to be affected by a crisis and become unemployed is also less. That's why, they are more satisfied with their lives than the others. Table 7: Political Party Preference and Local Service Satisfaction (Anova) Sum of Squares Are you satisfied Municipality?

with

Karatay Between Groups Within Groups

Do you think the Mayor of the Between Groups Municipality manages the Municipality Within Groups well? To what extent are you satisfied with Between Groups your life in general? Within Groups Are you satisfied with the behaviours and Between Groups attitudes of the municipality employees? Within Groups Are you satisfied with the services of Between Groups Sub-province Municipality, where you Within Groups live?

102,107

Sig. ,000

439,485 98,449

,000

470,232 25,534

,051

572,171 97,643

,000

386,019 65,648

,000

450,056

An answer to the question whether there is a difference in the local service satisfactions of the citizens,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

who vote for different parties in the local elections, was called. The results of the ANOVA test are given in the table. A comparison was made, in terms of the most voted parties, in the local elections in Konya. According to the findings, significant differences are seen in citizens’ satisfaction with local services and satisfaction and the management style of the mayor, according to the parties they had voted for. While AK Party voters are generally satisfied with the Karatay Municipality; CHP and DSP voters are dissatisfied. Similarly CHP and MHP voters are dissatisfied with the management style of the mayor, municipal employees' attitudes and behaviours, and the services provided by them in Karatay Municipality; AK Party voters are satisfied with them. This result is natural, because mayor of Karatay Municipality is a member of AK Party. Even though the services provided are high quality the ones, who had voted for different parties, tend to be displeased about them, in general. In this context, their satisfaction levels are low. On the contrary, even if the mayor, who is a member of the party they had voted for, had not provided quality services; they tend to be pleased about the mayor and the services of that municipality, for justifying their votes in the past. Therefore the satisfaction of AKP voters is significantly higher. According to that result, there is a relationship between political party preference of citizens and their local service satisfaction. Accordingly, political preferences can also be considered as one of the factors that affect local service satisfaction of the citizens. Table 8: Local Service Satisfaction and General Life Satisfaction (Anova) Correlations Are you satisfied with the services To what extent are you satisfied of Karatay Municipality? with your life in general? Are you satisfied with the services of Karatay Municipality?

Pearson Correlation

To what extent are you satisfied with your life in general?

Pearson Correlation

,259**

Sig. (2-tailed)

,000

N

480

Sig. (2-tailed) N

1 480

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

In the study, it was tested if there is a relationship between the citizens’ general life satisfaction and their local service satisfaction. It was found that there is a positive relationship between general life satisfaction and the level of satisfaction with the municipal services. However, that is not a strong relationship. On the other hand, in some scientific studies, a positive relationship is mentioned between government policies and services, and overall life satisfaction. In other words, the citizens who are pleased about government policies are hopeful about the future and their general life satisfaction is observed to be high in this context. In our country, there are no studies to have tested and confirmed that relationship at the local level. 5. Discussion and Conclusion There are many studies on municipal services and the citizens’ perception of satisfaction with those services, in Turkey. Most of those studies are discussed in the context of demographic characteristics and perception of satisfaction with the services is tried to be measured in that framework. In the studies variables such as age, gender, education, income, residential neighbourhood or geographic area are involved and local service satisfaction levels of the citizens is measured. However, between citizens’ perception of satisfaction with the mayor and the municipal employees, and the relationship of them with service satisfaction, do not have much space in the studies. 32

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The studies show that local service satisfaction is affected by different factors. In this study, the affect of the mayor's management style and the attitudes of the employees -among those factors- on citizen satisfaction is investigated. Various questions in this context were asked to the participants and analyzes were performed on those factors. The proportion of citizens, who are satisfied with the services offered by the Karatay municipality, is 44%. The percentage of people satisfied with the management of the mayor is 42%. Approximately 81% of the participants –if the ones partly satisfied are included- are satisfied with both local services and the management style of the mayor. Among the other factors to affect citizen satisfaction with local services, if the perception of the citizens about the mayor is merely considered, no results may be derived. However the perception about the mayor and mayor’s management style is one of the most important factors to influence the quality perception and satisfaction with local services. Additionally, a positive relationship between the attitudes of the municipal employees and service satisfaction is seen, as well. The citizens, who are satisfied with the attitudes and behaviours of municipal employees, are possibly also satisfied with local services. The perception of citizens about the mayor, attitudes and behaviours of the municipal employees and the mayor’s management style are among the factors influencing citizen satisfaction with local services. There are no significant differences between age groups in terms of the mayor’s of management style, attitudes and behaviours of municipal employees and general life satisfaction. In addition, even through service quality of municipality is high; the ones voting for different parties are in tendency to feel dissatisfied with those services in general. In this context, their satisfaction levels are low. Contrarily even if the mayor, who is a member of the party they had voted for, provide poor quality services, they may make effort to see positively and protect that mayor and his/her services, on behalf of justify their preferences. References Akgül, D. (2012). Measuring the Satisfaction of Citizens for the Services given by the Municipality: The Case of Kirşehir Municipality, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 62, 555-560 Akyıldız, F. (2012). Belediye Hizmetleri ve Vatandaş Memnuniyeti: Uşak Belediyesi Örneği, Journal of Yasar University, 26(7). Alptürker, H., Taşpınar, Y. and Şahin, A. (2016). “Merkezileşme ve Yerelleşme Bağlamında Vatandaşların Kamusal Hizmet Tercihleri: Nevşehir İlinde Bir Alan Araştırması”, 9th Public Administration Symposium (KAYSEM9) Proceedings Book, Ankara: TODAIE, 7-9 May 2015, Malatya, 557-569. Ardıç, K., Yüksel, F. and Çevik, O. (2004). Belediyelerde Hizmet Kalitesinin (Vatandaş Tatmininin) Ölçülmesi (Tokat Belediye’sinde Bir Uygulama), Çağdaş Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, 13 (3). Daştan, İ. and Delice, M. E. (2015). Belediye Hizmetlerinden Memnuniyet Düzeylerini Etkileyen Faktörlerin Değerlendirilmesi: İzmir Büyükşehir Belediyesi Örneği”, The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, International Journal of Social Science, 32, 203-223 Demirel, E. T., Düşükcan M., Derin N., Çakınberk A. and Güven M. (2012). Yerel Siyasetin Liderleri Olan Belediye Başkanlarına Yönelik Hizmetkâr Liderlik Ölçeği Uyarlama Çalışması, Akademik Yaklaşımlar Dergisi, Kış 2012, 3 (2). Demirel, E. T., Düşükcan M., Derin N., Çakınberk A. and Güven M. (2013). Vatandaşların Belediye Hizmet Kalitesi Algılamaları Üzerinde Belediye Başkanlarının Liderlik (Hükümdar/Hizmetkâr) Özelliklerinin Belirleyiciliği: TRB - I Bölgesi Örneği, Çağdaş Yerel Yönetimler, 22 (2). Göküş, M., Bayrakçı, E. and Taşpınar, Y. (2014), “Kamu Performans Yönetiminin Memurlar Tarafından Değerlendirilmesi: Bir Alan Çalışması, Selcuk University Journal of Institute of Social Sciences, Dr. Mehmet YILDIZ Special Edition, 57-73. Göküş, M. and Alptürker H. (2011) Belediyelerin Sunduğu Hizmetlerde Vatandaş Memnuniyeti: Silifke Belediyesi Örneği, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 25. Göküş, M. and Karayıldırım Ş. (2012). Vatandaşların Belediye Hizmetlerinden Memnuniyeti Karatay Belediyesi

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Örneği, Türk İdare Dergisi, 474. Im, Tobin and Seung Jong Lee ( ). Does Management Performance Impact Citizen Satisfaction?, American Review of Public Administration, 42(4), 419-436 James Oliver (2011). Managing Citizens’ Expectations of Public Service Performance: Evidence from Observation and Experimentation in Local Government, Public Administration, 89 (4), 1419–1435. King, S. F. (2007), Citizens as customers: Exploring the future of CRM in UK local government, Government Information Quarterly, 24, 47–63. Menteşe, S. (2013). Halkın Belediye Hizmetlerinden Memnuniyet Düzeyinin Tunceli Belediyesi Yönünden Değerlendirmesi, The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, International Journal of Social Science, 6 (6), 831-862. Montalvo, D. (2009). Citizen Satisfaction with Municipal Services, Americas Barometer Insights: 2009 (18). Örselli, E. and Bayrakçı E. (2016). Yerel Hizmetlerde Vatandaş Karnesi Konya Örneği, 1st Ed., Konya: Çizgi Kitabevi. Şahin, A., Özçelik A., Erkış İ. U. and Demirhan N. (2013). Belediye Başkanlarının Yönetim Tarzının Vatandaşların Belediye Hizmetlerinden Duyduğu Memnuniyete Etkisi: Konya İli Örneği, Kaysem 8, Kuramdan Uygulamaya Yerel Yönetimler ve Kentsel Politikalar Kongresi Proceedings Book, 11-12 Mayıs 2013. Şahin, A., Bayrakcı, E., Şahin K. (2011). Belediyelerde Hizmet Kalitesi ve Vatandaş Memnuniyeti ve Karatay Belediyesi’nde Bir Uygulama, S.Ü. Akşehir Meslek Yüksek Okulu Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 1 (2). Şahin, A., Söylemez, A., Tekin, Ö. F. and Taşpınar, Y. (2015) Ankara Büyükşehir Belediyesi ve Kurumsal Kabiliyet ve Kapasitesi, 13. KAYFOR (Kamu Yönetimi Kongresi) Proceedings Book, 15-17 September 2015, Konya, 1348-1357 Şahin, A. and Taşpınar, Y. (2014), Administrative Styles of Mayors and Citizens’ Perception of Satisfaction with Local Government Services: The Case of Selçuklu Sub-Provincial Municipality ,The 2014 WEI International Academic Conference Proceedings, June 22-25, 2014, Budapest, Hungary, pp. 17-30. Usta, R. and Memiş L. (2010), Quality in Municipality Services: The Case of Giresun Municipality, Suleyman Demirel University The Journal of Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 15 (2), 333-355. Yörük, D., Dündar S., Topçu B. (2011). Türkiye’deki Belediye Başkanlarının Liderlik Tarzı ve Liderlik Tarzını Etkileyen Faktörler, Ege Akademik Bakış, 11(1).

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USING TERRESTRIAL LASER SCANNING TECHNIQUE, 3 DIMENSIONAL MODEL OF HISTORICAL LIBRARY OF HADIM Lecturer Dr.Ali ULVİ Selcuk University, Hadim Vocational Schools of Higher Education, Konya, [email protected] Lecturer Fatih VAROL Selcuk University, Tourism Facultiy [email protected] Abstract The developments in technology also affected the developments in measuring techniques. One of the recent technique, developed in measuring area, is also topographic laser scanning technique. When compared it to the traditional measuring techniques, the details of objects measured is obtained in very short time by means of ten thousands of points. The use of this technique, developed in the recent years, especially in architectural area, has become widespread. Depending on this, the use of topographic laser scanning systems in 3D modelling studies has rapidly increased. In this system, modelling the structures containing a number of detail is made by means of point clouds. All points in point cloud have 3D coordinates.. Ten thousands of 3D points are obtained on the surface of the relevant object in a few minutes. Some advantages of topographic laser scanning can be put in order as being able to make measurement without contacting object, integration of laser measures with the other measures, and being able to produce High Accuracy Digital Height Model. The aim of this study is to research the usability of topographic of topographic laser scanning technique in documenting cultural heritage. In this study, 3D model of the historical library of Hadim was obtained by using laser scanning technique The data obtained will comprise a basis for the architectural and restoration studies that will be further carried out. Keywords: Topographic Laser Scanning, Photogrammetry, Cultural Heritage

1. Introduction Cultural assets, due to the fact that they have the different natural characteristics, different dimensions, and a complex structure, for them to be measured and documented in detailed way, require the developed measurement instruments and techniques. In recent years, topographic laser scanning method, in the studies of documenting the cultural heritage and historical buildings, becomes a standard instrument in terms of obtaining 3 dimensional data and forming 3 dimensional model. This method enables to obtain millions of 3 dimensional point series belonging to the objects scanned in rapid and reliable way and thus enabling to be effectively and intensively obtain surface geometries of cultural assets (Alshawabkeh, Y. 2006., Cömert R., et. al.2012). The data of point cloud, obtained as a result of laser scanning provides, besides modelling the structure one-to- one and 3 dimensional, the data, which will form a ground for front, plan and section drawings, which are necessary for relievo plans. Relievo, in case that a cultural object is damaged in any way or collapsed for any reason, is a process of drawing the plans and sections of structure with measurement carried out in the most detailed way for enabling it to be rebuilt (Ulvi, A.,2008.).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2. Terrestrial Laser Scanning Technology Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) method is a technology providing to obtain 3 dimensional coordinates of object directly and precisely without contacting to the objects to be measured. With shortness of scanning time, redundancy of the number of points obtained, obtaining the point sets that are compatible with the real model of the object scanned, this method has recently attracted attention. Thanks to terrestrial scanning technology, measurement can be conducted without contacting to the object to be measured. With this technology, digital land model in high accuracy and real colored image can be produced. Laser scanning method can be used together with traditional measurement methods, and integration of the measurements to the other measurement data can be provided. From the point obtained by laser scanning process, the basic measurement data, orthophotograph images, 2 or 3 dimensional drawings, 3D animation, solid surface models, or textured 3D models can be obtained. Laser scanners, which are effective data collecting technique, provide important easiness to surveyors and those using the measures (Safkan S. et al.,2014). 3. Study Area

Historical library, whose 3D model was drawn, is located in the district Hadim of the province Konya.

Figure 1. The general view of historical Library on the Earth

4. The Use of Terrestrial Laser Technique in Documentatıon 4.1. Equipment used in the Study

Focus3D X 130 Topographic laser scanner called Faro (Figure 2)Ultra-portable Focus3D X 130 enables the object and structures to be quickly and accurately (Figure 2). Architectural front records the information belonging to complex structures, production and supply plants, accident location, and large dimensional parts. Distance accuracy is to ±2mm, measuring distance, from 0.6 m to 130 m, and has the features to reduce noise. 36

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Figure 2. General appearance of laser scanner used in the study

*Spectra Focus 6 Total Station ● Reading distance of 3000 m or 5000 m with a single prism ● Reading distance of 300-500 m without reflector ● Land software that is practice and easy use ● Options of Series and Bluetooth Transfer ● Both economic and superior performance ● Operability in every weather conditions ● Strong and light case ● Long-life battery Figure 3. General Appearance of Spectra Focus 6 Total Station

Target, used in combining point clouds in the same coordinate system, is seen in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Target in A4 Dimension

4.2. Study Method This study consists of two parts as land study and office study. The first part is land study. To the library, whose modeling will be made, A4 dimensional targets were attached, in order to more accurately combine the point clouds to be obtained as a result of scanning. The coordinates of these targets were calculated by measuring by means of Total Station (Figure 5). 37

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Figure 5. Measurement Moment of Targets

4.2.1. Scanning Process It is necessary to plan scanning process before beginning to scanning process In the part of planning, it is necessary to determine the position, number, and reference system of stations to be scanned. Scanning device must be positioned in such a way that it can cover all of object. Each scanning should be realized so that it can include the common areas with the previous scanning process (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Laser scanning and measurement moment

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

4.2.2. Assessment of Scanning Data Scanning process was completed in 8 different session. Before combining point clouds, obtained from scanning, from the part of quick preview in the software, the area scanned can be displayed (Figure 7)

Figure 7. The form of quick preview of scanning area

After recognized that there is no missing area belonging to scanning area, opening scanning files (point clouds), combining process was completed In Figure 8, point cloud belonging to Scanning 1 is seen.

Figure 8. General views of point cloud belonging to Scanning 1 is seen.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4. Results In topographic laser scanners used in the recent years, very dense 3 dimensional point record with high accuracy in object surface by means of laser scanners has become possible. Using these points, digital orthophotography can be used and relievo drawings can be made. In the objects, whose drawings and modeling are difficult with photogrammetric method, in the projects, in which there are some limitations in taking photo due to environmental factors or restrictions from the aspect of time, laser scanners provides important easiness. Since technology is new, that its cost is high is an important limitation in terms of documenting and using in 3 dimensional works. Laser scanning technology are used, beside documenting, 3 dimensional modelling, and visualization studies in the area of our profession, in very different application areas such as virtual museology, computerized simulation, and educational studies. References Alshawabkeh, Y. "Integration of Laser Scanning and Photogrammetry for Heritage Documentation", Phd. Thesis in Institute for Photogrammetry, University of Stuttgart 2006. Resul ÇÖMERT, Uğur AVDAN, Muammer TÜN, Merve ERSOY" Mimari Belgelemede Yersel Lazer Tarama Yönteminin Uygulanması(Seyitgazi Askerlik Şubesi Örneği)" Harita Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi, Cilt: 4, No: 1, 2012 (1-18) SAFKAN Semih, HAMARAT Hakan, DURAN Zaide, AYDAR Umut, ÇELİK Mehmet Furkan, Yersel Lazer Tarama Yönteminin Mimari Belgelemede Kullanılması, V. Uzaktan Algılama ve Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Sempozyumu (UZAL-CBS 2014), 14-17 Ekim 2014, İstanbul Ulvi, A. "Antik Tiyatroların Fotogrametrik Rölöve Planlarının Çıkarılması Üzerine Deneysel Bir Çalışma", Selçuk Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Fotogrammetri Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2008.

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WOMAN AND PRACTICES OF RESISTANCE IN POPULAR TURKISH FILMS1 Dr. Aslı EKİCİ Selcuk University, Communication Faculty [email protected]

Abstract While theorists like Adorno, Horkheimer, Lowenthal and MacDonald evaluate popular culture as mass culture, theorists like Hall, Bennett, Enzensberger, Dyer and Jameson claim that popular culture –within the scope of hold opponent discourse - can’t be thought independent from society. Popular culture embodying a lot about social and cultural life is also a fertile field for presenting inferences about gender. In The Acoustic Mirror: The Female Voice in Psychoanalysis Kaja Silverman indicates that woman’s voice is fetishized like her image and she draws attention to significance of voice in the process of construction of femininity. In this context this study focuses on traces of practices of resistance between men – dominant group at patriarchal order- and women –dependent group at patriarchal order- in popular Turkish films by usage of voice. The films which are discussed are Neredesin Firuze (Ezel Akay, 2004) and Av Mevsimi (Yavuz Turgul, 2010). Keywords: Popular Culture, Woman, Cinema, Gender

Introduction Patriarchal view which approaches to woman as a signifier became influential in construction process of womanhood: Women are shown as a signifier of patriarchal discourse‟s worries, hopes and desires. Patriarchy which is not both homogeneous and consisting of single-pieced structure has changed and developed in order to defend itself as Eisenstein emphasizes (1993, p. 251). In this process of change, struggle of women became influential. Although products of popular culture were besieged by hegemonic discourse, there are always leaks for opposing discourse. When we look at construction of womanhood in films which are products of popular culture, it is seen that popular films as discursive struggle area occurs on contradictions and they try to release/conceal struggle of women for taking subject position via myths which were constructed with regard to being woman. This concealing effort refers to existence of struggle of women in social sphere. Transformations of social, economic and cultural conditions are influential in continuities and deviations in construction of womanhood in the cinema of Turkey after 1990. In 1990s when the crisis of manhood has happened and gender identities have been redefined continuities and deviations in describing/constructing of womanhood are drawn attention. Sampled Turkish Films for analysis in the study problematize the construction of womanhood by handling continuities and deviations in patriarchal discourse and trace leak lines which provides an opportunity to express experiences and desires of women in these films. Sampled films are Neredesin Firuze (Ezel Akay, 2004) and Av Mevsimi (Yavuz Turgul, 2010). Although in most of popular films after 2000 period female characters are in secondary positions or not take part in the narrative, in these sampled films female characters are seen more intensely. One of important factors which influence sampling of the films can be described as these two films were shot by different directors and in 1 This study is derived from a chapter of doctoral thesis entitled “The Construction of Femininity in Popular Turkish Films after 2000s” which is prepared in Ankara University Social Sciences Institute Radio Television Cinema doctoral program.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN different years. Films are analyzed on the basis of whether they have leak lines which provides question patriarchy and make women heard or not. Shohini Chaudhuri states that when the gaze, narrative and voice which enables identification in the cinema was controlled, it is possible to take a place for woman desire and identity (2007, p. 72). This study considers using of voice and by this way films named as Neredesin Firuze and Av Mevsimi are analyzed deeply in terms of using the voice. Popular Culture “Popular” as one of the constituent concepts of popular culture is a jurisprudential and politic term and it is used first time in the later of 15th century (Williams, 1976, p. 198; Storey, 2005, p. 262). In the mid-16th century, the term of popular refers to folk while in the early part of 19th century it is used to denominate art and entertainment styles which are liked by ordinary people (Storey, 2005, p. 262). Another concept of popular culture is the culture which is summation of characteristics which differs human communities from each other and identifies them (Mutlu, 1995, p. 229). The first detailed connection between “popular” and “culture” is made in the later 18 th century as a result of increasing attention on folk culture (Storey, 2005, p. 262-263). In later 18th century and the early part of 19th century, the concepts of “folk” and “tradition” is the center of interest among European intellectuals. Johann Gottfried Herder, Jakob and Hans Grimm are one of the most important intellectuals of aforesaid period. In this period, a series of new terms like folk music, folklore come into use especially in Germany. Popular culture is one of new terms which come into use in this period. Herder uses “popular culture” (Kultur des Volkes) in a way which creates a contrast with “learned culture” (Kultur der Gelehrten). Innovation in Herder, Grimm Brothers and their followers comes from a belief that emphasis on folk and behaviors, traditions, rituals, superstitions, folk songs, proverbs, etc. are parts of a whole and they reveal the spirit of a specific nation (Burke, 1978, s. 3-8). This view refers to anthropological description of “popular” which is used at the present time and this view has a dominant role and influences on views on popular culture. According to this description which is expressed by Stuart Hall as “descriptive”, the word of popular is used in reference to the folk. Approaches with reference to this point of view qualify popular culture as positive. According to view which is qualified by Hall as “commercial”, the word of popular is used in reference to “what the mass listen, purchase, consume and like”. Views with reference to this description of popular culture approach to popular culture negatively and make a connection between popular culture and manipulation/abasement of folk culture (Özbek, 2008, p. 81, 83; Hall, 1997, p. 17). Also, they see popular culture equal to mass culture.

Popular Culture and Feminism Various sides of feminist theory share three basic principles: Gender is a social construction which applies more pressure on women than men. Patriarchy shapes this construction. Empirical knowledge of women helps us to design a future without any gender apartheid (Humm, 1997, p. 5). Patriarchal structure which is based on male domination describes women in specific roles. Gender which draws the lines of “being a woman” and “being a man” has an active role in this context. Popular culture as a data source on social and cultural life is a productive area which can provide inferences about the gender. Studies of feminist critics like Tania Modleski, Janice Radway and Ien Ang from 1980s provides to be realized that popular culture products which is no use apart from reproduction of patriarchal social system transform the current system and has a “liberation” dynamic in terms of women (İrvan & Binark, 1995, p. 8). Lana Rakow lay emphasis on that feminists have a significant role in patriarchal society of popular culture and theoretical analysis of this role has an important place in continuous discussions and also the function of popular culture in gaining the control over women identities by themselves in terms of women and patriarchal culture (1995, p. 20, 37).

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Voice regime of Popular Cinema from Feminist Point of View Popular cinema as a popular culture product is seen as lack of aesthetics values and intellectual accumulation; legitimates dominant ideology; addresses to large masses and it has not been seen as worth-pondering. Like other narratives, formal and thematic consensus of popular culture which is composed of two different planes as story and discourse enables to function of ideology. As Abisel expresses, popular cinema makes gliding of ideology easier by hiding the reality which was constructed by formal consensuses like “narrative integrity, continuity of the scene, equilibrated frames, the camera which hides itself, character identification, parallel fiction, causative reasoning, realist comprehend, dramatic motivation” (Abisel, 1999, s. 37). In fictional world of the film and construction of womanhood, the voice of the image is important as the epitome of the image. In “Developments in Feminist Film Criticism”, Gledhill asks the questions of “can women speak; images of women can speak for women” and she says that answers of these questions will be negative. Firstly, women play a key role in production of symbolic (language and culture) anatomically. However, women make only negative relations with the language and they cannot dominate the symbolic (Gledhill, 1984, s. 31). Smelik states that analysis of the voice using in the cinema which is in evidence less than view is a bit problematic because of independency from any special source and in addition to this in narrative cinema, video stream mediates voice recording and voices gain their meanings in conjunction with the image (2008, p. 71). Mostly, the sound is analyzed in the direction of its relation with the image in the classical cinema: it is focused on whether the sound is diegetic or not (whether the sound exists in narrative world of the film or not), whether the sound takes part in the screen or not (whether the source of the sound is seen in the shot), whether the sound is given synchronically or not (Elsaesser & Hagener, 2011, s. 248). The crucial point in feminist film criticism is emphasized by Gledhill that “woman as woman” is not represented in the cinema; woman perspective is not heard; in this context women don‟t say anything (1984, s. 18). Women voice and women discourse does not exist in dominant cinema or it is repressed and in almost all cases controlling discourse is always man (Kuhn, 1994, p. 85-86). It is expected from the female subjects in the cinema to have a position like newborn baby; female subjects are identified with noise, grumbling with incomprehensible words, or screaming (Chaudhuri, 2007, p. 55). In The Acoustic Mirror: The Female Voice in Psychoanalysis in Cinema (1988), Kaja Silverman as a significant feminist critic shifts the focal point from gaze to voice and analyzes the concept of female voice (Smelik, 2008, p. 15; Chaudhuri, 2007, p. 45). Silverman propounds that female voice functions as an acoustic mirror which has components which are denied from male subjectivity (in Chaudhuri, 2007, p. 60). As Silverman states that Hollywood requires to female voice to take similar responsibilities with presentation of female body. In most cases, it is obliged to exhibit female voice, female body instead of hiding the absence by including losses of males in order to protect masculine subject from castration knowledge. The responsibility of this binary absence is incurred to female voice. Female subject has to involve both its absence and masculine subject‟ absence so in classical cinema the representation of female subject can be named as synecdochical representation- using narrow sense in broad meaning (Silverman, 1988, p. 31, 38, 39). Feminine voice in the cinema is kept within the boundaries of the body while masculine voice has an opportunity to be used independently from the body. By this way, feminine voice is prohibited to have a „signifier‟ position in the language, meaning or power (Smelik, 2008, s. 15). In contrast with the female subject, male one is allowed to occupy speaking position. Male subject not only occupies the authority in diegesis, but also it sometimes talks in exclusive position of other‟s shoes as over-diegetic. In contrast, female subject is excluded from authoritarian position both in and out of diegesis (Silverman, 1990, s. 309-310). As Elsaesser and Hagener express “predisposition to synchronize goes back to beginnings of the 43

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN cinema” (2011, p. 244). Synchronization has a big role in dominant narrative cinema (Doane, 1985, p. 567). Silverman says that synchronization rule is used on female voice acutely (in Chaudhuri, 2007, s. 50). Mostly, speech of female character is synchronized with her image. If the voice of female is given separately from her body, this situation is temporary: it is thought that body which is associated with female voice is in the room next door so she is out of the frame or she is on the other side of the telephone line. Rarely, female voice has a voice-over function (Silverman, 1988, p. 165). Voice-over is an objection to synchronization rule. By this way, audience hear the sound in a discarnate way (Chaudhuri, 2007, p. 50). Chion uses the concept of acousmeter to explain this kind of using of the voice. Acousmatic is qualified in an old dictionary as “thing which is heard or seen without any source” (Chion, 1999, p. 18, 21). Chion expresses that one who talk on the phone with us, but we have not seen yet is acousmeter, in other words s/he is heard one. Also, Chion asks if we see him/her once or if we continue to hear him/her although s/he leaves the visual area is this an acousmeter. Chion expresses that there is another kind of acousmeter which is called as visualized acousmeter. Acousmeter is everywhere; its sound comes from a body which is material and out of bounds and also it is seen as if any barrier cannot stop itself. Most of the acousmeters are masculine. Feminine acousmeters are found rarely in classical cinema (Chion, 1999, p. 21, 24, 55). Silverman conceptualizes the female (maternal) voice as not only tension between imaginary integrity and happiness, but also sign of the weakness and captivity (in Elsaesser & Hagener, 2011, p. 261-262). This situation which was emphasized by Michel Chion as “screaming point” draws attention to “uncertain and multivalent position of the female voice” (Elsaesser & Hagener, 2011, p. 262). Chion expresses “the screaming point” as there is a slot within the structure of time which is a gap; an absence; unimaginable one within the thought; unknown in any speech; not represented one in a representation; interrupts possible process/continuity of the time. The scream takes everything in. The scream is centripetal and fascinating. The screaming point is a black hole where the speech finished immediately. Although the woman‟s scream is unlimited, the man‟s shout restricts an area. On this context, Tarzan‟s shout as one of the most famous examples mediates to show himself and declare his power. We are in tendency to name man‟s shout as yell and woman‟s one as scream: “woman‟s scream reveals the question of „black hole‟ of untellable and unimaginable female orgasm” (Chion, 1999, p. 77-79). Female Voice: Bodiless Voices, Silent Bodies: Av Mevsimi, Neredesin Firuze In this chapter, films named as Av Mevsimi and Neredesin Firuze are analyzed in terms of voice using in order to evaluate resistance dynamics in construction of womanhood in popular Turkish Films. As previously stated that although there is not woman discourse or it is repressed systematically in dominant cinema (Kuhn, 1994, p. 85-86), but these two films enable discourse belonging to woman by way of using female voice so this can be evaluated as significant in terms of feminism. When it is thought that in traditional narratives, men are mostly narrator/voice-over, in mentioned films it is remarkable that female voice is used as narrator/voice-over. In Av Mevsimi, Şener Şen personates the character named as Ferman who is friendly and trusty police officer of homicide bureau and has a short time to be a retired. Another male character of the film is İdris who is divorced police officer and called as “mad”. After death of İdris‟ father, Ferman becomes a father for him and also leads the way for his marriage and getting his job. Hasan who is an intern police officer graduated from anthropology department and writes up his thesis on serial killers in Turkey. In the film, it is told that an amputee hand is found in the forest land and Ferman and his crew -İdris and Hasan- investigates the owner of it and who is the killer. Av Mevsimi starts with a title includes “Absolutely, there are gaps where new things will be seen” and a painting of Yavuz Tanyeli who is a painter. This expression gives the sign of another reading opportunity about woman experience by getting through leaks contained in the patriarchy. While the camera moves along the river which is in the middle of trees covering the frame by forward shift, a voice-over/voice of the woman is heard: There is moon last night. I could not look up. The view of the moon reflected to the river. I was hearing sounds. I guess they were the sound of falling leaves […] It brought me here. It dispersed me to everywhere and then went. First of all, all sounds were silenced; then I heard 44

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN the forest.

This voice is Pamuk‟s one and it contains mystery of the film within itself by her death. This voice can be qualified as internal diegetic sound2 because it is not only subjective as Bordwell and Thompson argues in a different context, but also it cannot be heard by other characters (2009, s. 284) Although Pamuk is a dead character, she takes part in a diegetic world of the film via her voice. The film begins and ends with voice-over of Pamuk; both the starter and finisher of the film is Pamuk. By this way, as Silverman emphasizes, a deviation is created in the film on the popular wisdom which states that female voice has rarely voice-over function (1988, p. 165). This kind of authoritarian position is not given to any character in the film apart from Pamuk. In the only scene which the sound and image are imbricated, it is tried to wrest her kidney from herself forcibly. Pamuk is in interior area and she is imprisoned within the frame by vertical lines like a door. Camera using, fiction and music are dramatic and worrying collaterally with violence against Pamuk. In diegetic world of the film, Pamuk‟s voice is not shown with her body for a long time and this refers to de-accousmatization of the sound and entails a threat risk. Although it is known that it belongs to a killed woman, who is that woman is not known in a long time so it can be said that the source of the sound is uncertain. In diegetic level, the film gives place to comments of male characters about Pamuk and this leads to sexist attitudes of men towards women. On the other hand, it brings this kind of point of view up for discussion and show its sexist attitude. At the end of the film, institution of family is criticized via sacrificed Pamuk by the patriarchal system. In narrative of the film, a matter of holy family and “honour” is questioned and the power of the father (Müslüm and Battal Çolakzade) is criticized. Voice-over of Pamuk is influential in this kind of attitude exhibition of Av Mevsimi. Pamuk mentions her experience. As Bonitzer expresses, when a voice which belongs to a film person is heard from the off-site, a slot is created by this voice (2007, p. 28). In the film, a slot is created by the speech of Pamuk and the audience is made understand that there is a “reality” which stays out of the visual arrangement of the film. In narrative of the film, male characters try to make sense of events by connecting the clues and a slot happens between the narrative of the film and voice over of the female. Voice-over belongs to Pamuk creates a deviation in masculine discourse winks at both hidden reality behind the apparent truth and put pressure over the woman by patriarchy. These moments reveal how womanhood was constructed in the patriarchal system. Av Mevsimi releases the meanings oriented to the positions of women in the system into circulation by implying contradictions and interruption points of patriarchal system. In the film, it is shown that female characters are kept under pressure by male characters. Silent character that we don‟t know what s/he knows leads to query other characters‟ knowledge; the knowledge is always partial and maybe the silent character knows “rest of” the knowledge. The silent character who is thought as mystery‟s guard gives us a clue on existence of the mystery (Chion, 1999, p. 96). We cannot determine what the silent character knows or not know easily so generally it is assumed that s/he knows everything or at least s/he keeps the knowledge about related character to herself/himself. It is supposed that the last speech of the silent character holds the key which will completes the investigation, but s/he does not utter or does not want to utter (Chion, 1999, p. 96-97). With reference to Chion‟s determination, rare participation to conversations of Hatun who is mother of Pamuk, and her silence leads us as audience to ask what she knows. Hatun personates a character who is a wife and mother in a family which has patriarchal patterns. Patriarchal structure expects from Hatun to be an obedient wife and mother and she has these characteristics, too. In diegetic world of Av Mevsimi, there is not only silence of Hatun, but also her yelling which is reminiscent of the scream. This is the only scene which Hatun is seen out of the home. This scene is in the police station and Vakkas who is brother of Pamuk is arrested for gunning down Ömer who is Pamuk‟s boyfriend. In this scene we see Hatun as worrying about her son as a mother role and it is significant that Müslüm‟s/father‟s authority is questioned. Mother shouts out to her husband badgerly 2

“Internal diegetic sound is mostly called as voice-over because it does not come from any real area belongs to the scene” (Bordwell &Thompson, 2009, s. 284).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN that “Are we victims? Is not it enough what we give to the man? You took my daughter; you took my son from me. God damn you! Do not touch me. All of things are because of you”. Chion describes the screaming point as a gap or absence area as previously mentioned (1999, p. 77). The voice of Hatun transforms into yelling and creates a slot in the narrative. Hatun prefers keeping her silence and her voice is heard like a mumbling when she talks so far, but in aforesaid scene she reacts loudly and open her husband‟s authoritarian power in the family criticism. Another female character is Asiye and Av Mevsimi gives place to her yelling. İdris who is ex-husband of Asiye shadows her in the workplace and sees that her boss behaves sympathetically so he follows the boss and assaults him when he about to get in his car. When Asiye knew this, she comes into İdris‟ workplace. Intensive use of moving camera draws attention and also this scene reveals İdris‟ sexist attitude towards women. Hatun and Asiye‟s yellings which are reminiscent of the scream has a similarity with an imputed feature of two women screams in a Hitchcock‟s film named as The Man Who Knew Too Much: According to this, the scream of the woman should be read as a protest against masculine policies and ferocities caused by these policies (Wood, 2004, p. 385). In Av Mevsimi, woman discourse is enabled by way of Hatun and Asiye‟s yelling and apparency of contradictions within patriarchy is increased. Another film which will be analyzed is Neredesin Firuze. This film shows parallelism with masculine narratives of its time and focuses on daily relations and nonidealized male characters-Hayri, Orhan, Melih, Seyfi, Ferhat-. These characters have both working relationship and friendship. Recording Bazaar3 and Umut Music is one of the most important places of the film. The owner of Umut Music is Hayri. Female characters of the film are Firuze, Melek, Neval, Sibel, Ayşen and Sansar. Male characters are at the forefront in the narrative while other female characters apart from Firuze who is eponym of the film are in back-burner. Hayri and his crew make an offer for Ferhat to make record for him that he imagines. Then, he came to Turkey from Germany. Hayri and his friends believe that if they make record for Ferhat, they can get rid of debt spiral. However, anything does not go to plan. Umut Music is distrained. At that point, Firuze springs out and promises Hayri and friends to provide unlimited financial support. Voice using in Neredesin Firuze is highly intensive. There are also lots of dialogs in the film despite songs take part in breaks. There is little or nothing silence in the audiotape which consists of music, dialog, environment sound/noise and other effects. In the film which sounds are used intensively, voices of female characters are audible and there are some scenes that they talk about themselves. Primarily, the film gives a powerful position to a female character which includes setting and directing and by this way a deviation is created in a traditional view which gives active role to male characters and passive ones to female characters. Firuze as main character of the film is constructed from the first seconds of the film without her view, but her voice is heard and then her body covers all of the frame actively. When the screen is black the film starts with a female voice: “Groaning melodies have encompassed my soul. Such a dream which there were all songs”. The female character which we heard her voice is acousmeter because she is heard without the source as Chion expressed. As it is mentioned previously acousmeter which its voice comes from non-materialistic and unlimited body is everywhere and it is seen as if any barrier cannot stop itself. In addition to this, the most acousmeters are masculine; female acousmeters are rare in classical cinema (Chion, 1999, p. 18, 21, 24, 55). As soon as the film starts, acousmeter function is attributed to a female character and authoritarian position is given to her. By this way, the role which is mostly given to male characters in classical cinema is transferred into a female one. When generic information is seen on the screen, the voice of the female character continues to be heard despite the fact that the the female character is not on the screen. The body which is owner of the voice is not seen in the frame, but this does not take a long time. After a few seconds, the view and the voice of the female which we see synchronize. When the camera pans down, the female character who is owner of the voice is seen on the frame. By looking at “de-acousmatized” concept of Chion, it can be said that synchronization of female body and voice is “deaccousmatization”. The female voice is materialized by gaining a body. This 3

It is named originally as Plakçılar Çarşısı and it can be expressed in English as a plaza which includes numerous Recording Companies.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN introduction sequence, the main characters of the film are introduced by Firuze‟s expression. It was mentioned that the views and voices of female characters are presented mostly synchronically (Silverman, 1988, p. 165). The synchronization rule is departed by imbrication of Firuze‟s voice to the views of characters of the film and an asynchronous voice come to the light. Female voice which is not given synchronically becomes free by disembodying. When the generic information is on the screen, narrator voice/female voice continues to narrate. After the title of “Oh Dear! This man is finding me in everywhere”, Neredesin Firuze seen on the screen as a title. A flashback occurs from this moment and it is shown to the audience what happened from we saw the Firuze first time to the date. As Bonitzer exemplifies labyrinth narratives of Jorge-Luis Borges with La Demeure d‟Asterion that the thing which inserts and carries the enigma within narratives, but does not figure itself out or misleads the audience is founder of the narrative; “the subject is me”. Asterion does not identify himself as a monster; the murder of Roger Ackroyd denies his crime by the narrative (2006, p. 57, 59). Superior voice and founder of the narrative in the opening scene of Neredesin Firuze is Firuze and she is also the main female character of the film and takes an active and powerful position in the narrative from beginning to the end of the film. Firuze misleads the audience when she establishes the narrative because she is unaware of being “schizophrenia” so she did not transfer this kind of significant information to the audience. What Suner says about Adı Vasfiye can be said also for Neredesin Firuze. According to this, “the film is a text which is aware of its accompliceship with patriarchal representation regime” (2006, s. 308). Neredesin Firuze highlights this awareness. One of the scenes which exemplifies this kind of approach can be expressed as female characters of the film come together in a raki table in the home. In this scene, Ayşen who is wife of Seyfi is located in right side of the frame; and Sibel who is Melih‟s girlfriend is located in the left side of the frame. With the movement of the camera, Neval who is wife of Hayri is seen in the frame. Sibel and Neval hit their raki glasses. In conversation among main characters of the film emphasizes their position in patriarchal bargain4, but it has a critical view and takes place for woman discourse. Neval who is one of the female characters of the film says uncomfortable position with male dominancy and secondary position of the women in patriarchy with her words: “Let‟s suppose that we put up with these bods for a bright future. If their lucks turn; they will leave us alone. Actually, all roles are for men, there is no role for us”. As previously stated that, the speech of Neval refers to a reality that women are in one of the sides of a patriarchal bargain in a powerless position and men have a dominant position in this bargain. By this way, Neval problematizes this position of the woman by verbalizing the representation of the woman in classical cinema. By looking at diegetic world of the film, the audience is invited to see women‟s secondary roles and men‟s more dominant roles in patriarchal society from women‟s point of view. That speech of Neval mediates to gain “real”ity for women by eluding from the roles which were designed by men for women. This scene is significant because it brings forward that female characters talk about their lives and desires–pregnancy of Sibel; childbirth desire of Ayşen who is wife of Seyfi at any cost; Neval‟s questioning on positions of women in patriarchy- and women friendship/solidarity forward. According to mainstream view, raki table is mostly associated with men and as a traditional man presentation it puts men together. However, this once it is set in the home and puts women together. This scene which we see three female characters of the film concurrently by parallel fiction when male characters of the film have a good time in the pavilion shows parallelism with Kaplan‟s speeches about domestic area, motherhood and woman friendship in Women and Film: Both Sides of the Camera: “Ann Kaplan states divergently that domestic area, motherhood and woman friendship has not been colonized areas by men yet. In this sense, these areas are dominancy areas where women can resist” (in Öztürk, 2000, p. 66). Neval‟s words create a slot in the film. The scene is end with women‟s view in general frame from high-angle shot.

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Deniz Kandiyoti uses the concept of patriarchal bargain in her article named as “Bargaining with Patriarchy”. According to Kandiyoti, patriarchal bargain aims to show/refer existence of set of rules and scenarios which organize gender relations and are accepted by all genders (Kandiyoti, 1988, s. 286).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Discussion and Conclusion Female who is in deprivation of phallus is mostly punished or fetishized as an object of the male‟s gaze in order to soothe the castration anxiety of male in classical narrative cinema. Cinematographic using of the gaze like voice using is one of the factors which are handled by feminist theorists in evaluating construction of womanhood. One of the topics which are evaluated in studies about the voice are whether feminine voice is presented with its image synchronically or not; whether female voice-over is enabled or not. Even narratives which repress the woman discourse completely or constructs it as a fetish object refers to the thing which they repress unconsciously. As a consequence of increasing visibility of women in public space and increasing demand of women to have the right to say something more about their lives, films produce narratives which repress this kind of social situation and keep women within "masculine borders”. Narratives which have a soothing effort to masculine anxiety not only ignore women‟s demands, but also refers to this situation and reveals contradictions of patriarchal discourse. When it is looked at popular Turkish cinema films of 2000s in terms of construction of womanhood, it is seen that in one hand patriarchal discourse forms the narrative world of the films and provides traditional role models for women; on the other hand, tells the truth via various form and content features of the films that these role models were constructed and an area is opened for women who are sides of patriarchal bargain can express their desires and discourses via various resistance practices. One of the formal features which enables resistance practices is voice using as mentioned above. Resistance practices and deviations in patriarchy is traced through Av Mevsimi and Neredesin Firuze which enable women discourse in terms of voice using. Popular Turkish films after 2000 are handled deeply by analyzing textually by the help of feminist theory in order to evaluate how womanhood is constructed. Av Mevsimi is aimed to confine women in masculine borders by presenting a world design on the basis of discourse belongs to men and also reveals contradictions and disintegrative structure of patriarchal discourse in itself. In Neredesin Firuze, voices of female characters are audible and they talk about themselves and their future. From its opening scene, acousmeter -heard without its source- function is given to Firuze/the female character extraordinarily and unprecedentedly in classical cinema and this enables for a female character to establish the narrative and introduce other characters. It is found that leakage points of the films handled in the study put the finger on resistance practices; by the way of films‟ formal features which enable using feminine voice, it is enabled for women to resist to be a subject /take a subject position. In this kind of films which are popular culture product which does not have a homogeneous structure, in one hand patriarchal point of view is reproduced, on the other hand, patriarchy is opened to question from leak lines of the film and women discourse takes place as an opponent discourse in addition to patriarchal discourse as dominant discourse. References Abisel, N. (1999). Popüler Sinema ve Türler. İstanbul: Alan. Bonitzer, P. (2006). Kör Alan ve Dekadrajlar. (İ. Yasar, trans.). İstanbul: Metis. Bonitzer, P. (2007). Bakış ve Ses. (İ. Yasar, trans.). İstanbul: Metis. Bordwell, D. & Thompson, K. (2009). Film Sanatı: Bir Giriş. (E. Yılmaz & E. S. Onat, trans.). Ankara: De Ki. Burke, P. (1978). Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe. New York: New York University. Chaudhuri, S. (2007). Feminist Film Theorists: Laura Mulvey, Kaja Silverman, Teresa De Lauretis. New York: Routledge. Chion, M. (1999). The Voice in Cinema. (C. Gorbman, ed. & trans.). New York: Columbia University. Doane, M. A. (1985). “The Voice in the Cinema: The Articulation of Body and Space”. Movies and Methods Volume II. B. Nichols (Ed.), Berkeley & Los Angeles & London: University of California Press, 565-576. Eisenstein, Z. R. (1993). “Ataerkil Sistem, Annelik ve Kamusal Hayat”. A.Ü. İlef Yıllık. (N. Timisi, trans.), 245-260. Elsaesser, T. & Hagener, M. (2011). Film Kuramı: Duyular Yoluyla Bir Giriş. (B. Soner & B. Yıldırım, trans.).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Ankara: Dipnot. Gledhill, C. (1984). “Developments in Feminist Film Criticism”, Re-vision Essays in Feminist Film Criticism. M. A. Doane & P. Mellencamp & L. Williams (Eds.), Los Angeles & California: University Publications of America, 18-48. Hall, S. (1997). “Popüler Olanın Yapıbozumu Üzerine Notlar”. Mürekkep, Sayı 8, 15-22. Humm, M. (1997). Feminism and Film. Bloomington: Indiana University. İrvan, S. & Binark, M. (Ed. & Trans.). (1995). Kadın ve Popüler Kültür. Ankara: Ark. Kandiyoti, D. (1988). “Bargaining with Patriarchy”. Gender and Society, Vol. 2, No. 3, Special Issue to Honor Jessie Bernard, 274-290. Kuhn, A. (1994). Women’s Pictures: Feminism and Cinema. London, New York: Verso. Mutlu, E. (1995). İletişim Sözlüğü. Ankara: Ark. Özbek, M. (2008). Popüler Kültür ve Orhan Gencebay Arabeski. İstanbul: İletişim. Öztürk, S. R. (2000). Sinemada Kadın Olmak: Sanat Filmlerinde Kadın İmgeleri. İstanbul: Alan. Rakow, L. (1995). “Popüler Kültüre Feminist Yaklaşımlar: Ataerki‟nin Hakkını Teslim Etmek”, Kadın ve Popüler Kültür. (S. İrvan, M. Binark, ed. & trans.). Ankara Ark, s. 15-40. Silverman, K. (1988). The Acoustic Mirror: The Female Voice in Psychoanalysis and Cinema. Bloomington: Indiana University. Silverman, K. (1990). “Dis-Embodying the Female Voice”. Issues in Feminist Film Criticism. P. Erens (Eds.), Indianapolis: Indiana University, 309-327. Smelik, A. (2008). Feminist Sinema ve Film Teorisi ve Ayna Çatladı (D. Koç, trans.). İstanbul: Agora. Suner, A. (2006). Hayalet Ev: Yeni Türk Sinemasında Aidiyet, Kimlik ve Bellek. İstanbul: Metis. Storey, J. (2005). “Popular”, New Keywords: A Revised Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Bennett, T & Grossberg, L. & Morris, M. (Eds.), Oxford & Victoria: Blackwell, 262-264. Williams, R. (1976). Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. London: Oxford University. Wood, R. (2004). Hitchcock Sineması. (E. Yılmaz, trans.). İstanbul: Kabalcı.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

THE CONSTRUCTION OF FEMININITY IN TURKISH CINEMA IN 1980s1 Dr. Aslı EKİCİ Selcuk University, Communication Faculty [email protected]

Abstract Family is still an important institution nowadays like in the past. Marriage is seen “essential” for the union of woman and man under the institution of family. In Yeşilçam melodramas which performs with traditional narrative patterns marriage is presented like it is the major aim of woman. With the rising of women’s movement after 1980 there has been a differentiation at this viewpoint. In this period there has been a conversion not only in conception of marriage but also the roles of woman in social life. In Turkey 1980s is a period which has been economical conversions and women play an active role on working life with the effects of this conversions too. After 1980 military coup feminist attitude which provide an alternative viewpoint to traditional roles of women in family grow and roles of women and men redefine in those years. These changes are also seen in Turkish cinema and a series of films which addresses problems of women that is named “Woman’s film” shoot in these years. At these films we see women who have dilemma of home and work. In these study first of all there will be an overview of family institution and then examples of Yeşilçam melodramas and Turkish films in 1980s which represents characteristics of that period will be examined to review the similar and different parts of construction of femininity in Turkish cinema before and after 1980. Keywords: Turkish Cinema, woman, family, motherhood, marriage, violence, sexuality

Introduction As in many societies, family has been a basic structure in Turkey. Family is one of the best places for patriarchal system which shapes the women. Patriarchal structure is trying to dominate women within the family as in social structure. As family depends on social values, social structure and norms, alterations which are changing from society to society as well as alterations changing in time at the same society have also caused changes in family. Family structure is exposed to changes with economic, cultural and social changes in time and though patriarchal structure is not exposed a fundamental changes, some fractions have occurred. This study which focuses on movies between 1980-1990 in Turkish cinema aims to reach a general evaluation by demonstrating difference of movies from Yeşilçam melodramas in terms of the position of woman in urban family and whether the movies are representing the dominance of expressions which was used at that period. In this study, Yeşilçam melodramas reflecting the features of that period which were shot by different directors at different periods and Turkish movies which were shot between 1980-1990 and called as woman movies are chosen as sample to demonstrate how the position of woman in family is represented in Turkish movies that the change of position is shaped with the entrance of woman into work force and point of view against woman in social, cultural and changing economic settings following 19802. 1

This study is prepared on the basis of post graduate thesis which is titled "The Situation of Woman in the Urban Family in Turkish Cinema Between 1980-1990". 2 Examined Yeşilçam melodrams are as below Artık Sevmeyeceğim (Muzaffer Aslan, 1968), Fadime (Türker İnanoğlu, 1969),

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Selected movies are examined within the defined framework to see the changes in the position of woman in family structure. Within this context, this study is limited with movies related to urban families which were shot between 1980-1990 and it was highly important to select these movies as they serve initially as a narrative of woman that is represented within the family structure. Selected movies to be examined were chosen among the movies that narrate gender building which highlights the feminist studies. At that point movies were qualified as representational system -not a mirror of society- which explain the way of that period. As Michael Ryan and Douglas Kellner stated in Political Camera; cultural representations play a significant role in how to build social reality, and what definitions, limitations and figures shall be dominant in social life (1997: 37). Representations in movies reveal the representation of dominant cultural setting at that period. The reason of examination of movies after 1980 is only feminism as a political reaction came in to agenda at that period as a result of the 1980 military coup and new era has started in terms of women in Turkey with 1980s. Women -increasing women movement within changing social structure with 12 September military coup- has started to become the subject and discuss the problems of women. Thanks to the influence of these discussions, a significant sensibility related to women rights has developed in public. Differences in point of views against the position of women in society have been effective on the perception of family structure with all these differences in social life. Within this context, the main hypothesis of this study is based on the parallelism of women position in cinema with changes in family structure resulted by emerging economic, cultural and social transformation after 1980 in Turkey. While researches related to women in Turkish cinema literature is available, researches related to the position of women in family is highly limited. This study focuses on the construction of gender in terms of woman and family. Classical Family Sociology and Family in Feminist Discourse Family definition which demonstrates differences as to the societies and changes in time at the same society is among the most difficult concepts. It is difficult to make a single and universal definition for family term. As being one of the oldest and significant structures in society, family is the smallest and major unit of the society. Society rules, beliefs and values lived in are taught to children by families since the birth and thus, family becomes the first socialization structure in human life. Family in terms of duties within classical family sociology is highly significant and essential, and at the forefront for all societies. Structural functionalist theories within this tradition highlight the functionality of family. Structural functionalist approach tries to demonstrate that specific family formations meet specific duties, specific duties define the intrafamilial relations, roles and status that shape the family structure, and this structure is tied up the broader system (society) lived inside with functionalist ties (Timur, 1972: 5). The ones who adopt this approach state that family is a universal structure and should meet the required functions to provide the continuance of society. Talcott Parsons who is among the main representatives of structural functionalist theory in sociology states that the status of father has the most important status among family members' occupational status because father consists of the main part of the family income and he is the fundamental base of the family status within society. According to this, the main role of the male is to maintain family and as a result of this role male are not helpful to his wife while she is doing the housework and within this context the care of children is still being the role of women among the division of work with husband (1954:191). Since the second half of the 1960s, family perception in classical family sociology tradition has been discussed in terms of concealing the power distinction between men and women. Feminist movement Ankara Ekspresi (Muzaffer Arslan, 1970), Umutsuzlar (Yılmaz Güney, 1971), Utanç (Atıf Yılmaz, 1972), Bir Demet Menekşe (Zeki Ökten, 1973), ve Zambaklar Açarken (Nejat Saydam, 1973). Movies between 1980-1990 are Dünden Sonra Yarından Önce (Nisan Akman, 1987) and Aah Belinda‟ (Atıf Yılmaz, 1986).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN has started to freshen at that period that the new ideas related to family was suggested. Patriarchal society structure has a determining role in social and individual relations of women. Feminists asserts that gender is used as a tool to suppress in nearly all societies. New born baby has a biological sex, yet it has not a gender. While children are growing, society puts rules and behavioral models as to their sexes (Connell, 1998: 255). Marriage -for feminists- is fundamental persecution formulation against women (Donovan, 1997: 271). From that point of view, heterosexual love is a trap and when the romantic cover is lost, family is the power domain of man (Phillips, 1995: 133). Feminists oppose to the role of women for houseworks and children care as being their natural role, and evaluate that division of work within family in terms of sex and women limitation in the border of house are the fundamental roots of unequal status of women (Jagger and Wright, 1999: 5, 7). Within this context, family is a structure that patriarchal discourse is reestablished and the pressure of men over women is legitimated. Though Morgan stated in Ancient Society book "patriarchal family has not much influence on the past of humanity as it has a limited validity" (1998:152), the patriarchal family structure is still effective today. Changing Family Structure in Turkey during 1980s At the first half of the Republic, patriarch was not much questioned by women. Women were also acting the role of ideology lived in modern society, teachers of the society; on the other hand, they were also the angels of their houses with modesty (Ağduk-Gevrek, 2000: 289). Men are the protector of the nation or family, and women are the representations of honor (moral). During 1970s many structural problems such as less developed country, external dependence, income and opportunity inequality, interclass gap came to the agenda. Also during these years that inequality and exploitation concepts appeared, though the equality concept stated in laws, the conscious of inequality appeared. After that period, 12 September 1980 military coup happened. As being the most significant case marking the social structure, 1980 military coup influenced all parts of the society in depth. Just as Şirin Tekeli emphasized, 1980 military coup is being positive in terms of the emergence of feminism especially with knocking down Marxist left and all political institutions. Feminist movement occurred against the military coup as being the pioneer movement of democratic opposition, and it can be said that movement acted as a fundamental function for democratization of society (Tekeli 1995: 33). State parties to The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) which was put into force in 1981 adopted to follow a policy to prevent any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex. Turkey signed this convention in 1985 and it was put into force on the date of 19 January 1986. Thus, right to benefit from political, economic and cultural rights equally is provided to women. Though it is limited in Turkey, the roots of the family structure is shaking and replacing with new types relations. Although it is at different levels at different social segments, distribution of role is redefined and definitions that the hegemony is divided equally between man and woman are made, yet family structure in Turkish society has still carried being a powerful institution fundamentally. While family has continued to being a powerful institution, traditional feature has also continued, too. Modern nuclear family in Turkey has still carried the traditional structure's traces. Prime Ministry General Directorate of Family and Social Researches and Turkish Statistical Institute demonstrated family profile in Turkey as a result of interview with 24,647 between 10 June-29August 2006. According to this data, houseworks were the duty of woman, and the most frequently activity was visiting neighbors and relatives (Radikal Newspaper, 2006: 6). First legal regulation paid attention to family was 1982 constitution in Turkey. With many reference to family, article 41 of 1982 constitution under the title of "Protection of Family" stated that "Family is the basic unit of Turkish society. State has take required precautions for the welfare and peace of the family especially protection of mother and children, and for the implementation and teaching of family planning, and organizations implement them". With this article, it was specifically stated that an institution work in the field of family shall be formed. Prime Ministry Family Research Institution was established with 396 numbered executive order on the date of 29 December 1989 (www.aile.gov.tr/tarih.asp). 52

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN At that period, as parallel to the changes in social life of Turkey, domestic violencediscourse which exposed to a change is another important subject to be focused on. After 1980, approach to domestic violencein Turkey started to change as in all over the world. The entrance of domestic violencestudies into sociological research area in Turkey was at the same time with the increasing awareness against women and children right in 1980s. (From Seventh Five Year Progress Plan, Specialization Commission Report narrated by Tılıç, 1998: 119). Domestic violenceare not swallowed by hiding from the strangers. Compared to oldies, a decrease is observed in the number of women who interpret domestic violenceas "privacy". These changes that liberal ideologies shaped are in fact required changes to form the "new woman profile" that feel freedom but not to be alienated to system on the other hand; women cannot comply with the feudal habits gained by socialization of women. As this "new woman profile" is existing, the shaping of man definition protects its patriarchal structure originally. When the improvement table of capitalism is examined, the presentation of woman as meta and undefined equality of man and woman labor force, and the current value of women duty in house are still significant factors for shaping the system. The actualization of capitalism itself which has been dominant in Turkey after 1980 was provided by creating an illusion which is reflecting that man is not the authority within family and woman shares this authority with man in family. Family provides the continuity of current institutional order and reproduction of dominant ideology by serving the proliferation of dominant ideology in society. In Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses book of Louis Althusser it was expressed that despite state is a unique pressure apparatus, it has many ideological apparatuses. According to Althusser, though the pressure apparatus of state is totally in public sphere, a large part of ideological apparatuses of state is private sphere and family is the ideological apparatuses of state (2003: 54, 169). As Tekeli expressed patriarch meaning has changed its meaning in terms of man with the capitalization and modern nuclear family emerged in this process was perceived as the end of patriarch, but this situation was illusive and superficial as the qualification of nuclear family was not regarded. Patriarchy is redefined in liberal terms with transition to capitalism (Eisenstein 1993: 251). Family and Woman During and After Yeşilçam Family being an important structure in Turkish society has an important place in Turkish cinema. As a result of 1980 military coup and differentiation is family structure resulted by the changes occurred in Turkish social life, has influenced on family and perception of woman in Turkish cinema. The undertaking of family institution in movies shot after 1980 and differentiation of Yeşilçam melodramas which were living golden ages between 1960-1975 are the key position in terms of study. The tradition of melodrama cinema contributed to production of specific meaning maps. Beside melodrama is regarded as a type, accepting it as a interpretation style make possible to analysis meaning mechanism of society. Melodrama puts heterosexual love between man and man at the center holds values which belong to patriarchal society. National melodramas provides the values of patriarch and way of looking to them in this way. As Ruken Öztürk emphasized on within traditional cinema which can comply individual to adjusted system easily and one of the most important art in our age, the representation of woman is complied with patriarchal ideology (2000: 99). Woman characters were in hard melodramas, no tie with reality, "virtuous mother" and "untouched darling" in the dreams of "male society", unidimensional and good or bad all the way (Kalkan, 1993: 20). Women were presented as the fundamental basic of the family and therefore; they were at the front in these movies were shot in the first half of the 1960s and 1970s that Yeşilçam melodramas were in golden age. Women exist at home within the family. The individual demands of these women falls behind the family interests. Women in Yeşilçam Melodramas Maternity Patriarchal structure based on man dominance define women within specific roles. The most important

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN one among these roles is maternity. Maternity in Yeşilçam cinema is perceived as positive for woman and it is a value attributed to women as being related to gender. As Gittins stated status gaining of women with maternity in social life is the main ideology of patriarchal ideology (1985:96). Abisel expressed that the social existence of woman in many movies is based on maternity and canonizing of maternity is used as one of the most powerful melodramatic mechanism (2000: 176). The position of mother is important in terms of the continuity of patriarchal discourse with capitalist social relations (Onaran, 1994: 37). Yeşilçam melodramas is full with single mothers without married as in Ayşem (Nejat Saydam, 1968) and Sana Dönmeyeceğim (Mehmet Dinler, 1969) movies. Some of these woman had a baby before marriage is being with the man whom they love and cannot resist his wishes by thinking they will get married (Arım Balım Peteğim, Arslan, 1970; Sezercik Yavrum Benim, Önal, 1971), and some of them were raped by the man they fell in love (Kınalı Yapıncak, Aksoy, 1969; Ayşem, Saydam, 1968). However, if the sexual assault was achieved by the lover, rape was absolved, too. Because the man will understand that the raped girl was the woman the man love at last and make her his wife. Thereby, if the main woman character has a sexual intercourse with the man she love before marriage, she gets marries with the father of the child. Thus, sexual life before marriage is legitimized. The audience has already known that the marriage between man and woman would happen because of the consensus of melodramas cinema. The attractive part for the audience is the curiosity about when they get married and how can it be. Women who could not have children are expressed as negatively. Woman means family and family means children. Maternity is presented as a blessed idea. The woman who do not want to have a child is characterized "bad" within the narration of movie. The main male character who got married that kind of woman legitimize another woman existence in his life (Bir Demet Menekşe, Zeki Ökten, 1973). Divorce case is seen in families that this kind of negative relations are highlighted. Sexuality, Love and Marriage In Yeşilçam melodramas, sexuality of woman is ignored by emphasizing romantic love discourse and sexual intercourse before marriage is not approved. Sexuality is presented as "bad" and "immorality" as long as it is perceived as "lust" in these movies. “Women who are not loyal to her husband with love, not the mother of the house and children, live her sexual life, and not dedicated her life and sexual life to her husband and family are "bad women"(Maktav, 2003: 283-284). A wedding dress is always shown in Bir Demet Menekşe (Zeki Ökten, 1973) movie as leitmotiv. The end of Fadime (Türker İnanoğlu, 1970) movie supports the idea that the freedom of women is limited when get married, on the other hand it affirms this situation. At the mentioned scene Fadime looks at the camera wit her wedding dress and say: "There you go dear audiences, Fadik entered into cage and became a bride. This kind of cage is to my friends. I found the man in my dreams". According to Abisel "in terms of sexual ideology woman should press her sensuality and hide herself to only real man" (1994a: 167). If the "pudicity" of woman is dishonored by another man though the good intentions of woman, even the man who loves her do not (want to) get married with her. Because she is a "fallen woman" anymore. In these cases melodramas are "not happy endings". They break up or cannot get marry or woman is punished and killed. Utanç (Shame) (Atıf Yılmaz, 1972) movie describe this kind of story. Bahar and Kemal who are factory laborers come from the same environment and fall in love with each other. However, as Bahar is raped, it is impossible for them to be together anymore. The shame of Bahar can only be eliminated with death. Working Women Mostly the women's working life in Turkish cinema melodramas are not being for to specialization-required areas. In this way, the relationship between women and their profession is weakened, and the profession is easily pushed into the background (Köker, 1994: 140). In Ankara Express, (Muzaffer Arslan, 1970) Hilda is a German spy who works as a doctor in the daytime and a singer at nights. And Major Seyfi (Ediz Hun) is a Turkish military officer. The conversation between them also summarizes said above concerning women's work: as a reply of Hilda's question "Can not beautiful women be doctor?", Seyfi says "Beautiful women can not be a doctor or a lawyer because 54

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN men do not leave them in peace." In Bir Demet Menekşe, the woman in the neighborhood says "working women have more than one string to fiddle" and gives an evil eye to Nesrin who works as a tailor. As Maktav also stated, woman will come off the stage in the end of the story and she will return "nest" where is the promised place by the romantic love to her. She is the woman who decided to devote herself to her children and husband is “ideal woman”. (Maktav, 2003: 282-283) In addition, these women in Turkish cinema melodramas are not working for "good life" standards, they are working compulsorily for the interests of their family (Köker, 1994: 144). More often, women's work and having a career are out of question in melodramas of Turkish cinema. Women can not be identified as having a profession. Even if they work, they are capable of service-based nursing, secretarial which are the "continuation of femininity or they make theatrical works as singer or model. Violence Against Women As Abisel highlighted, using frequently the "slapped woman" scene in the domestic melodramas is an interesting narrative formula as a clear reflection of sexist ideology (1994a: 195). “Even if female characters who have not an opportunity to make statements in misunderstandings which are taking an important place between the reasons of acts of violence which are directed to their beloved and wives by the main male characters, are counting the using violence as the definition of love and manhood and they are taking the punishment of this misunderstood situation naturally” (Abisel, 2000: 201). In Umutsuzlar (Yılmaz Güney, 1971), Fırat expresses his love to Çiğdem with violence. Fırat describes shooting to Çiğdem's wall-hung full length portrait these words: “I have shooted your picture for 467 days, 467 leads in your absence”. Beating is exhibited as an ordinary behavior of the main male characters who become feeling small and can not control his anger in Turkish cinema melodramas. With all similar slapping scenes the violence become ordinary and it is naturalized. In these movies the girl is ready to accept and forgiveness. Never call him to account for the slap. Also women in movies are presented in a way that they have already deserved this violence. Men punish women to keep the required discipline for their protecting "duty" according to them (Abisel, 2000: 190, 192). Women in 80's Turkish Cinema Women Having a Profession Women in melodramas are stated the features like being a good wife and mother, having children in matrimony and having a career plan is being pushed background, but a change is observed after 80's in this case. Women begin to participate actively in working life with economic, cultural and social changes after Turkey's opening period in 1980. There is an increase to the positive direction in value which is given to women's work in the movies made after 1980 compared to the previous period. While Turkish cinema is looking conservative to women before 1980, after 1980s they evaluated in a freer female relative environment. Woman who was tended by "male" until 1980s, learns how to earn money in 1980, and desires to be on equal terms with her "man" in house life. Atıf Yılmaz who was mentioned with women's films after 1980, in his Aaah Belinda (1986) movie has a female character that exemplifies this situation. Theater player Serap goes to the front of the camera for a shampoo advertisement and finds herself in the character's world which she portrayed. In this movie Atıf Yılmaz has emphasized the contrasts between a mother of two children married woman and a solitary woman who is having a profession, including the woman who is partaking in two different lives. Serap represents Naciye who is working at bank in the day time and a mother of two children housewife at nights in commercial film. Film shows how to shove working women in the institution of marriage, working and home life. Neriman Akman‟s Dünden Sonra Yarından Önce (1987) movie also offers a slice of a married couple's life. Gül and Bülent are a married couple, but both can not be met at home because of the intensity of their business lives. Gül is producer at TRT and her husband Bülent is commercial film director. The scene which is Gül's first time seen in the film, she makes ducumentary film's montage with the film editor in studio. A married woman Gül's role is not limited with the relationships at home. As in melodramas, the world outside home is not represented as an unsafe place for woman. The main female character in the film Gul, can express herself outside freely and is a free woman can stand with 55

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN her professional knowledge in the men world, she is having a profession that requires education, she portrayed as a challenging and successful person. Gul's social status occus through her education level and occupation, she has got her economic freedom by herself, not through family relationships or her husband. As a natural reason of Gül's economic freedom, dedicated the traditional roles to women are shaken. Although Bülent is a modern, highbrow character in film, he has a masculine perspective and identify woman with home, he is perceiving Gül's giving an active role in working life as a threat. The film is based on a conflict situation in this case: Will Gül put her home and her husband into the center of her life, or her profession? Leaving her job at the request of her husband the progressive scene is shown negative in narrative of the film. With this speech between Gül and her husband, she realized the lack of job and went back and started again to it. As Öztürk stated, with Dünden Sonra Yarından Önce, job and marital conflict is reflected so clear and accurate for the first time (2004: 175). While women were represented as people who were not have any opportunity to recognize the world which living in, were not able solve the relationships, weren't capable with control their own lives because of them the external world is presented as a dangerous place to them (Abisel, 1994b: 78), in the movies after 1980 external life is not shown as an unsaved area and the woman was participating working life thus she became strengthen her social statue. Sexuality, Love and Marriage In traditional society sexuality is generally related to pudicity concept. "Being pudicit" means no sexual intercourse before marriage. Sexuality for girls in Yeşilçam melodramas should be pressed and ignored, and it is a threat for themselves and families; however, in 1980s when the debates related to sexuality came to agenda within the society, the perception of morality and approach to sexuality is exposed to a change. After 1980, "ideal" woman portrait is not drawn as in Yeşilçam and women with their mistakes, contradictions and wishes are placed. The inner world of women characters is presented with their contradictions. As Onaran stated the movies that women have sexual intercourse before marriage is not perceived as "bad" has started to be shot in 1980s (1994: 29). Women are not in surreal loyalty in movies anymore (Abisel 1994a: 95). Virginity for girls and loyalty for married women are not looked. Women do not live with one love lifelong and are not faithful to one man. Love in movies are important for women, yet not so important to shape their life. The love and individual happiness of women precede the social responsibility and women do not sacrifice themselves for their families no matter what happens. While in Yeşilçam movies women are expected to sacrifice herself when she is deceived and overcome with it, this attitude has changed after 1980. The deceived woman breaks up her husband and this situation is presented positive in the movie. Dünden Sonra Yarından Önce movie is a sample for this situation. Gül who is a director at TRT (Turkish Radio and Television Association) puts her husband stuff in a suitcase that deceives Gül with her assistant Pelin and takes them to Pelin's apartment. Gül divorces his husband that does not support her in business life and starts a new life. A strong woman can also be seen in Aah Belindamovie. Serap is married with a theater player just like herself. While sexuality is implied in Yeşilçam melodramas, it is presented in Aah Belinda movie. Living together before marriage encumbers less responsibility to Serap and Suat. Serap do not supress her sexuality as in Yeşilçam melodramas and is presented as active in terms of sexuality, and marriage is not demonstrated as the only way to experience sexuality. Domestic Violence Against Woman Following 1980, the slogan of "no to violence, our body belongs to us" reflected by feminist movement in Turkey triggered woman in Turkey to act in that way. In Dünden Sonra Yarından Önce movie, domestic violence against woman is embraced as being another theme. Mübeccel working at Gül's apartment is always exposed to violence. During the movie we cannot see the violence scene, but the communication between Gül and Mübeccel and black eye of Mübeccel demonstrate the pyhsical violence. Mübeccel is fatalist, traditional woman and cannot arrange her life alone, and she recognizes her husband violence as right. According to the Mübeccel the life conditions make her husband tough and she legitimates his violence. Thus, Mübeccel helps the reproduction of violence of 56

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN her husband whom see himself as the owner of the power within family. Mübeccel is passive against the violence of her husband. Two different woman from different classes Gül and Mübeccel do not have the same point of view against violence due to different experiences in family and different positions in family, too. In the movie Gül is also exposed to psychological violence. Leaving the job in TRT and pressure applied to Gül by her husband to take care of the house is another type of violence as physical violence. Gül is under pressure to leave her job by her husband. Kadınların bu şekilde engellenmeleri ve sınırlandırılmaları yaşam alanlarını daraltmakta ve kendilerini geliştirmelerini önlemektedir. Though Gül loves her job very much, she chooses to give up the job. Husband waits from Gül to wait at home and give a birth. The expectation of husband reflects the patriarchal demand from woman. Gül who loves her husband very much left work as a result of psychological pressure of her husband. Her new life that she is trying to get used to it does not make her happy and she falls into depression and loses her confidence. At the end of the as it is stated above, she goes back to her work again. Domestic violence can also be seen in Aah Belindamovie. Feride who is the co-worker and friend of Naciye is not allowed to go out by her husband Osman for two night consecutively and Osman uses physical violence against Feride. It is concluded that domestic violence is seen in examined movies, yet when it is compared to Yeşilçam melodramas the violence discourse has changed and domestic violence within family is perceived negatively. Domestic violence is perceived as a social problem regarding whole society rather than belonging to private area in a secret way. Discussion and Conclusion During 1980s Turkish economy opens its gate to West and new values enters into from that door. Increasing new right and new values came into agenda with globalization have been effective in Turkey. The protection of family lies on the basis of capitalist ideology. Family provides the continuity of institutional order and reproduction of dominant ideology. With the development of capitalism, family is seen as main consumption unit and family needs more money to consume more. Women contribute to the consumption of family by taking part in business life. While this "new woman profile" comes into the agenda in society, manhood definition has protected its patriarchal structure. Roles expected from women at that period have been exposed to changes. 1980 military coup represents an important milestone in Turkey. Changes in cultural structure of Turkey is observed with social, political and economical changes at that period. Following 1980s, feminist movement found an opportunity to express themselves stand against the conservative ideology which puts women in traditional discourse. Feminist movement in 1980 revived the redefinition of man and woman role in family and interest in woman rights has occurred since 1980s. Woman rights can discuss about sexuality. At that period women live their sexuality "freely" out of the family institution. Outer world is a place that woman can express themselves liberally rather than a threat to woman anymore. References Abisel, N. (a) (1994). Türk Sineması Üzerine Yazılar [Essays on Turkish Cinema], Ankara: İmge. Abisel, N. (b) (1994). “Nasıl Yaşıyor, Nasıl Düşlüyoruz? Yerli Filmlerin Kurmaca Dünyasında Demokrasi” [How Do We Live, How Do We Dream? Democracy in Fiction of Native Films], Türk Sinemasında Demokrasi Kavramının Gelişmesi, Oğuz Onaran v.d. (der.), Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı [Ministry of Cultural Affairs], 74-132. Abisel, N. (2000). “Yeşilçam Filmlerinde Kadının Temsilinde Kadına Yönelik Şiddet” [Violence Towards Women in Women Representation Within Yeşilcam Films], Televizyon, Kadın ve Şiddet [Television, Women and Violence], Nur Betül Çelik (ed.) Ankara: Kiv, 173-212. Ağduk-Gevrek, M. (2000). “Cumhuriyet‟in Asil Kızlarından 90‟ların Türk Kızlarına… 1990‟larda bir „Türk Kızı‟: Tansu Çiller” [From Royal Girls of Republic to Turkish Women of 90s… A Turkish Girl in 1990s: Tansu Çiller], Vatan, Millet, Kadınlar [Homeland, Nation, Women], Ayşe Gül Altınay (ed.), İstanbul: İletişim.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Althusser, L. (2003). İdeoloji ve Devletin İdeolojik Aygıtları [Ideology and Ideological Apparatus of State] Trans: A. Tümertekin, İstanbul: İthaki. Connell, R.W. (1998). Toplumsal Cinsiyet ve İktidar: Toplum, Kişi ve Cinsel Politika [Gender and Power: Society, Individual and Sexual Policy], Trans: C. Soydemir, İstanbul: Ayrıntı. Donovan, J. (1997). Feminist Teori: Amerikan Feminizminin Entelektüel Gelenekleri [Feminist Theory: The Intellectual Traditiona of American Feminism], Trans: A, Bora, M, Ağduk Gevrek, F, Sayılan, İstanbul: İletişim. Eisenstein, Z. R. (1993). “Ataerkil Sistem, Annelik ve Kamusal Hayat” [Patriarchal System, Motherhood and Public Life], Trans: N. Timisi, A.Ü. İlef Yıllık [A.Ü. İlef Annual], 245-260. Gittins, D. (1985). Aile Sorgulanıyor [The Family in Question], Trans: T. Erdem, İstanbul: Pencere. Jagger, G.; Wright, C. (1999). Changing Family Values, Caroline Wright and Gill Jagger (ed.), London: Routledge. Kalkan, F. (1993). Sinema Toplumbilimi. Türk Sineması Üzerine Bir Deneme [Cinema Sociology. An Article on Turkish Cinema], İzmir: Ajans Tümer. Köker, E. (1994), “Bilinmek İstenmeyen Bir Öykü: Türk Filmlerinde Kadın ve Demokrasi İlişkisi”, Türk Sinemasında Demokrasi Kavramının Gelişmesi [Development of Democracy Concept in Turkish Cinema], Oğuz Onaran vd. (ed.)Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı, 133-166. Maktav, H. (2003). “Melodram Kadınları” [Women of Melodram], Toplum ve Bilim 96 [Society and Science 96], 273-293. Morgan, L. H. (1998). Eski Toplum II [Ancient Society II], Trans: Ünsal Oskay, İstanbul: Payel. Onaran, O. (1994). “Parlak Işıktan Yoksun Alacakaranlığın Filmleri: Türk Filmleri ve Demokrasi” [From Brilliant Light to Deprived Twilight Films], Türk Sinemasında Demokrasi Kavramının Gelişmesi [Development of Demcoracy Concept in Turkish Cinema], Oğuz Onaran v.d. (ed.), Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı [Ministry of Cultural Affairs], 15-73. Öztürk, S. R. (2000). Sinemada Kadın Olmak: Sanat Filmlerinde Kadın İmgeleri [Being Women in the Cinema: Women Images in Art Films], İstanbul: Alan. Öztürk, S. R. (2004). Sinemanın ‘Dişil’ Yüzü: Türkiye’de Kadın Yönetmenler [“Female” Face of the Cinema: Women Directors in Turkey], İstanbul: Om. Parsons, T. (1954). Essays in Sociological Theory, New York: Free Press. Phillips, A. (1995). Demokrasinin Cinsiyeti [Sex of the Democracy], Trans: A. Türker, İstanbul: Metis. Radikal Gazetesi [Radical Newspaper], 29th December 2006, p. 6. Ryan, M.; Kellner, D. (1997). Politik Kamera: Çağdaş Hollywood Sinemasının İdeolojisi ve Politikası [Camera Politica: The Politics and Ideology of Contemporary Hollywood Film], Trans: E. Özsayar, İstanbul: Ayrıntı. Tekeli, Ş. (1995). “1980‟ler Türkiyesi‟nde Kadınlar” [Women in Turkey of 1980s] 1980’ler Türkiyesi’nde Kadın Bakış Açısından Kadınlar [Women in Turkey of 1980’s from the view of Women], Şirin Tekeli (ed.), İstanbul: İletişim, 15-50. Tılıç-Rittersberger, H. (1998). “Aile İçi Şiddet: Bir Sosyolojik Yaklaşım” [Domestic Violence: A Sociological Perspective], 20. Yüzyılın Sonunda Kadınlar ve Gelecek, O. Çitci (der.) içinde, Ankara: TODAİE. Timur, S. (1972). Türkiye’de Aile Yapısı [Family Structure in Turkey], Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi [Hacettepe University]. http://www.aile.gov.tr/tarih.asp (Accessing 21st February 2006).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

CUMHURİYET VE YENİ ŞAFAK GAZETESİ KADIN KÖŞE YAZARLARININ SİYASAL PERSPEKTİFLERİ BAĞLAMINDA TOPLUMSAL CİNSİYET MESELELERİNE YAKLAŞIMLARI[1] Research Assistant Ayşe MİRZA [email protected] Özet Türkiye’de modernleşme politikalarının başladığı İkinci Meşrutiyet Dönemi’nden itibaren erkek yazarlar, modernleşmenin simgesi olan kadınların toplumdaki yerleri hakkında hararetli bir tartışma içine girmişlerdir. Özellikle, İslamcılar ile Cumhuriyetçilerin iki karşıt kutbu oluşturduğu bu tartışma, günümüze kadar güncelliğini korumuştur. Bu çalışmada, çoğunlukla erkek yazarların üzerine söz söylediği toplumsal cinsiyet meseleleri hakkındaki tartışmalarda, kadın yazarların hangi saiklerden hareketle bu konuları ele aldıkları, Cumhuriyetçileri temsilen Cumhuriyet ve İslamcıları temsilen de Yeni Şafak gazetesi yazarları üzerinden incelenmiştir. Ancak ayrıntılı bir analiz için, makalenin sınırları da göz önüne alınarak, Mine G. Kırıkkanat ve Ayşe Böhürler’in 2012 yılındaki yazılarına, güncel bir dönem olmasının da etkisiyle yoğunlaşılmıştır. İlgili kişilerin seçilmesinde bu iki yazarın Cumhuriyet ve Yeni Şafak gazeteleri yazarlarının toplumsal cinsiyet meselelerine yaklaşımlarının genel perspektifini yansıtıyor olması rol oynamıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Toplumsal cinsiyet, feminizm, medyada temsil, Yeni Şafak, Cumhuriyet, Mine G. Kırıkkanat, Ayşe Böhürler

THE APPROACHES OF WOMEN COLUMNISTS OF CUMHURİYET AND YENİ ŞAFAK NEWSPAPERS ABOUT GENDER ISSUE IN THE CONTEXT OF THEIR POLITICAL VIEW[2] Abstract As of the Second Constitutional Era, the onset of modernisation policies in Turkey, male authors have entered into a heated discussion of the place of women, who are seen as the symbol of modernisation, within the society. This discussion, the two opposed poles of which particularly are created by Islamist and Republicans, has preserved its currency to this day. In this study, based on which motives do the women authors take on the discussions regarding the social gender issues, regarding which mostly male authors have a say, will be analysed, within the context of articles of women columnist of Yeni Şafak and Cumhuriyet – which can be deemed to represent the Islamist and Republican groups, respectively – by taking the personal background, political points of views of the columnists and the ideology of the newspaper for which they write into account. In this article, an emphasis will be put on the articles of Mine G. Kırıkkanat and Ayşe Böhürler because they represents the general perspective of women columnists of Cumhuriyet and Yeni Şafak about gender issue. The column articles of 2012 of Kırıkkanat and Böhürler, within the context of the study, have been chosen as they reflect a current period. Keywords: Gender, feminism, media representation, Yeni Şafak, Cumhuriyet, Mine G. Kırıkkanat, Ayşe Böhürler

1.Giriş 1970‟lerden itibaren yoğunlaşan feminist tarih araştırmaları göstermiştir ki, kadınlar ataerkil sistemin bekası için, toplumsal cinsiyet rolleri nedeniyle, tarihin neredeyse her döneminde erkek egemen söylemce baskı altına alınmak istenmiş, küçümsenmiş, ötekileştirilmiş, toplumsal yaşamdan dışlanarak ev içi alana hapsedilmeye çalışılmıştır. Farklı coğrafyalarda yaşayan, sınıfsal, ekonomik ve toplumsal

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN konumları bakımından birbirinden ayrışan kadınlar, bu söylemden her zaman aynı şekillerde etkilenmemiş, ancak illa ki erkek söylemin ötekileştirici etkisine bir biçimde maruz kalmışlardır. Kadın köşe yazarları toplumsal konumları, statüleri, ekonomik gelirleri bakımından toplumdaki birçok kadına oranla üstün bir konumdadırlar. Ancak yine de erkek egemen söylemce ayrımcılığa uğrayan bir toplumsal grup olan kadınlık kimliğine dahil olmaları nedeniyle, bu araştırmada, kadın köşe yazarlarının toplumsal cinsiyet algıları, erkek egemen söyleme yönelik duyarlılıkları, bu söylemi yeniden üretmeye yönelik tutumlarının olup olmadığı, toplumsal cinsiyet rolleri konusunda tutarlı bir yaklaşım gösterip göstermedikleri ve erkek egemen söylemi meşrulaştıran medyada herhangi bir fark yaratıp yaratmadıkları sorunsalına odaklanılmıştır. Bu problem ekseninde, ilk olarak kadın köşe yazarlarının toplumsal cinsiyet rollerine yaklaşımlarını daha iyi anlayabilmek amacıyla, Türkiye‟deki feministlerin hangi toplumsal cinsiyet rollerine itirazlar yönelttikleri aktarılmaya çalışılmıştır. Çalışmada sunulan bulgular, birincil verilerden elde edilmiştir ve Cumhuriyet ve Yeni Şafak gazetesi yazarlarının yazıları, yazarların kişisel geçmişleri, siyasi bakış açıları, yazdıkları gazetenin ideolojisiyle uyumları da dikkate alınarak toplumsal cinsiyet açısından, derinlemesine betimleyici analiz ile incelenmiştir. 2. Türkiye’de Feminist Hareketin Tarihsel Odak Noktaları Her kimlik kategorisinin kuruluşunda olduğu gibi, toplumsal cinsiyet kimliklerinin oluşturulması sürecinde de, erkek egemen sistemin etkisiyle, erkekler biz olarak kurulmuşken, kadınlar onların olumsuz ötekisi olmuştur. Kadınların, doğa-kültür ikiliğinde doğayla özdeş kabul edilmesi, yani akıldan ziyade, bedensel hazlarıyla hareket eden kişiler olarak kodlanması, onların kontrol altında tutulması gerektiği iddiasının temelini oluşturmuştur. Bu nedenle kadınlar eğitim yaşamından, nitelikli işlerden, karar mekanizmalarından dışlanmış, kocalarına ve çocuklarına bakmakla yükümlendirilerek, ev içi alana hapsedilmişlerdir. Kendilerine yönelik bu sınırlamalara karşı çıkan kadınlar ise, Batı‟da on sekizinci yüzyıldan itibaren feminist örgütlenmeler içinde mücadeleye başlamışlar ve ilk olarak erkeklerle eşit yurttaşlık taleplerinde bulunmuşlardır. Ancak bu sınırlı talepleri yirminci yüzyılın başından itibaren elde etmeye başlamalarının etkisiyle siyaset sahnesindeki etkinliklerine geçici bir süre ara vermişlerdir. 1960‟larla beraber “özel” alanda hapsedilmelerine, “özel” alanda şiddet ve baskının pek çok çeşidine maruz kalmalarına, bu konuların kamusal alanda tartışılmamasına, eğitim olanaklarına erkeklerle eşit düzeyde erişememelerine, iş yaşamında ayrımcılığa uğramalarına, toplumsal yaşamda sadece iyi bir eş ve anne olmalarının yeterli olduğu yargısına, ev içi sorumlulukların yalnızca kadınlara yüklenmesine, aile ve namus olgusunun kadınların yaşamına getirdiği sınırlamalara, bedenleri üzerinde söz haklarının olmamasına karşı yeniden harekete geçmişlerdir. İlerleyen yıllarda feminist mücadele gelişmiş, zenginleşmiş, kendi içinde sorgulamalara girişmiş, sorun alanlarını genişletmiş, ancak 1960‟lardaki mücadele hedefleri güncelliklerini korumuştur. Türkiye‟de ise Osmanlı Devleti‟nin son dönemlerine kadar, kadınların sosyal ve özel hayatlarının her ayrıntısının fetvalarla belirlenmesinden ötürü, kadınlar herhangi bir hak talebinde bulunamamış, on dokuzuncu yüzyılın ortalarından itibaren, Tanzimat‟ın etkisiyle görece özgürleşen ortamda, toplumsal yaşama katılmak ve yurttaşlık taleplerini seslendirebilmek için çeşitli dernekler kurmuş, gazete ve dergiler çıkarmışlardır.1 Bu dönemdeki Batılılaşma tartışmalarının, kadınların mahremiyeti ve

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Feminist kadınlar ilk kez yardım derneklerinde bir araya gelerek örgütlenmişlerdir. Savaş zamanında kimsesiz kalan kadın ve çocuklara, asker ailelerine yardımlarda bulunmaya çalışan bu dernekler, kermesler düzenlemiş, piyangolar organize etmiş, eşya toplayıp satarak elde edilen gelirleri ihtiyaç sahiplerine ulaştırmıştır. İkinci Meşrutiyetten sonra kurulmaya başlanan eğitim ve meslek kazandırma dernekleri ise okullar açmayı, kız okullarındaki eksiklikleri tamamlamayı, yetim ve yoksul kız öğrencilere yardım etmeyi, mesleki eğitim kursları düzenlemeyi hedeflemiş, bu doğrultuda girişimlerde bulunmuşlardır. Kültürel amaçlı dernekler de dershaneler açarak kadınların fikren gelişimine katkıda bulunmayı amaçlamış, kadınlara dil eğitimi vermeye yönelik faaliyetlerde bulunmuşlardır. Siyasal partilerin kadın dernekleri de konferanslar düzenleyerek politik görüş alışverişlerine katkı sunmuşlardır (Çakır, 2013: 87-107). İlk kadın yayını ise 1869 yılında çıkarılan Terakki-i Muhadderat olmuştur. Bunun yanında, arşivlerden anlaşıldığı kadarıyla 1985-1908 arası dönemde 10 adet,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN cinsiyetler arası ilişkiler üzerinden yürütülmesiyle, kadın özgürlüğü simgesel bir önem kazanmıştır. (Göle, 2005: 56-75; Sancar, 2013: 86). 1870‟lerde Batılılaşmacı, İslamcı ve Türkçü kesimlerden erkekler, kadınların hakları konusunda görüşler beyan etmeye başlamış, yer yer kadınları destekleyici yer yer de had bildirme amacı taşıyan bir üslûp benimsemişlerdir. Kurnaz‟a göre (1991: 62-65) Batılılaşma yanlıları, kadınları baskı altında tutan faktörün İslamiyet‟in kuralları olduğunu belirtmişler; İslamcılar, asıl İslam ile yaşanan İslam‟ın birbirinden farklı olduğunu, asıl İslam'da kadının eğitimine ve eşitliğine imkân verildiğini, kadınların İslami kurallar çerçevesinde eğitim alabileceklerini, ancak “açılıp saçılmaları”nın ve çalışma yaşamına katılmalarının uygun olmadığını söylemişlerdir. Fakat kadınların özgürlüğü ve hakları konusundaki tartışmalarda, farklı siyasi görüşlerdeki kişilerin uzlaştığı nokta, kadınların özgürlüklerinin hiçbir zaman aile bütünlüğünü tehlikeye atmayacak düzeyde olması gerektiği olmuştur. 1880‟lerden itibaren kurdukları dernekler ve dergilerle seslerini duyurmaya başlayan kadınlar, meşruluklarını kazanmak için, savaş zamanlarında yaptıkları fedakârlıklara, annelik ve nesil yetiştiriciliği görevlerine işaret etmişlerdir. Genellikle savaş zamanlarında yardım amaçlı kadın dernekleri kurmuş olsalar da, eğitim veren ve meslek kazandırmaya yönelik faaliyette bulunan dernekler de açmışlar, kadınların kendilerini geliştirmesine yardımcı olmaya çalışmışlardır. Ayrıca Batı‟da gelişen feminist hareketi takip etmiş, bu konuda tartışmalar yürütmüş, tarihte başarılı kadınların da yer aldığını göstermek, kadınlara özgüven kazandırmak için entelektüel Türk kadınlarının hayatlarını araştırmaya girişmişlerdir (Çakır, 2013). 1900‟lerde ise Batılılaşmanın ilkeleri konusundaki tartışmalar yoğunlaşmış, Batılılaşmanın simgesi kadınların yaşamlarının her ayrıntısını –estetik, tüketim alışkanlıkları, sofra adabı, kılık kıyafet gibibelirleme gayreti baş göstermiştir. Bu konudaki en büyük münakaşa ise kadınların giyimleri konusunda olmuş, telebbüs (giyinme) yanlıları, tesettürü savunanları gerici, tesettür (örtünme) savunucuları ise telebbüscüleri ahlaksız olarak nitelendirmiş (Toprak, 1998), fakat her iki kesim de kadınların şeklen Batılı kadınlara özenmemeleri gerektiği hakkında fikir birliğinde olmuştur. Kadınların erkeklerle eşit şartlarda eğitim ve çalışma hakkından yararlanmaları konusunda da uzun tartışmalar yapılmış, feminist kadınlar ve Batılılaşma yanlıları bu konuyu devletin iyiliğine gönderme yaparak savunmuşlar, Cumhuriyet‟in aydın kuşaklarının yetiştirilmesi için, kadınların eğitilmesi gerektiğini belirtmişlerdir (Çakır, 2013: 66-67). Kadınların çalışma yaşamında yer alabilmesi meselesine destek, (Batı‟da olduğu gibi) devletin çalışan kişi sayısına daha fazla gereksinim duymasıyla artmış, kadınların geleneksel rollerinin yanı sıra meslek kadını olarak da toplumsal roller üstlenmeleri teşvik edilmiştir. Kadınlara önerilen meslekler ise, annelik ve ev kadınlığının bir uzantısı sayılabilecek öğretmenlik ya da hemşirelik olmuştur (Durakbaşa, 1988). Fakat kadınlar, bu kazanımlarına karşın, siyasal hakları için yürüttükleri mücadelelerinden sonuç alamamış, 1924 Anayasası‟nda siyasal haklarına kavuşamamış, kavuştuklarında ise Kurtuluş Savaşı‟nda erkeklerle birlikte çalışmış olan, meydanlarda konuşmalar yapan, bu konuda çaba harcayan feminist kadınlar, siyaset alanından dışlanmış ve kadınlara bütün haklarının verildiği ileri sürülerek, dernekleri kapatılmış, mücadelelerini sürdürmelerine izin verilmemiştir (Saktanber, 2009).2 Bunun yanında elde edilen haklar birçok feminist için tatmin edici olmuş, bu kadınlar başta Mustafa Kemal olmak üzere, Cumhuriyet seçkinlerine karşı şükran duygularıyla dolmuş ve tıpkı Batı‟daki gibi, Türkiye‟deki feminist hareket de uzun bir dönem sönümlenmiştir. 1970‟lere kadar süren suskunluk, bu yıllarda Türkiye‟deki sol siyaset içinde yer alan kadınların, devlet desteğiyle yürütülen, dolayısıyla devlet politikalarının etkisini taşıyan kadın haklarındaki iyileştirmeleri sorgulamalarıyla son bulmuş, fakat feminist hareket esas olarak, 1980‟li yıllarda ivme kazanmış, bu dönemin baskıcı politikalarına karşın, siyasal eylemlere girişen ilk grup feministler 1909-1923 arası ise 22 adet kadın dergisi çıkmış, Hanımlara Mahsus Gazete 13 yıl; Kadınlar Dünyası ise 8 yıl aralıksız yayın yapabilmeyi başarmıştır (Sancar, 2013: 94-95). 2 Feminizmlerinin adı kimi zaman konsa kimi zaman konmasa da, sadece erkekler tarafından değil zamanlarının diğer kadınları hatta diğer feministleri tarafından da muhafazakârlıkla, modası geçmiş olmakla yaftalansalar da Ulviye Mevlan, Sabiha Sertel, Halide Edip ve Nezihe Muhittin'in de içinde bulundukları Osmanlı feministleri erkek politikacılarla ve erkek gazetecilerle mücadele etmekten kaçınmamışlar (Akşit, 2008), ancak sonrasında bu isimler, mücadele alanının dışına itilmişlerdir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN olmuştur (Moralıoğlu, 2012). 1980‟lerin sonlarında oluşan bağımsız feminist hareket toplumsal cinsiyet rollerini sorgulamaya başlamıştır. Kadınlar örgütlenmiş, erkeklerin kadınlar üzerindeki baskılarına, cinsel tacize, kadınlara yönelik şiddete, iş dünyasındaki ayrımcılığa, ev içi emeğin görmezden gelinmesine, kürtaj hakkının kısıtlanmasına, toplumsal hayatta yer alamamalarına, siyasetten dışlanmalarına ve daha birçok konuya itiraz yöneltmişler, dergiler çıkararak fikirlerini savunmuşlar ve en önemlisi sokak eylemlerine başlamışlardır (Tekeli, 2011). 1990‟lara gelindiğinde Türkiye‟de feminist siyasetin eğitimli burjuva kadınların taleplerini yansıttığı ve diğer kadınların sorunlarını yansıtmadığı yönünde eleştiriler temelinde İslamcı ve Kürt kadınlar gibi farklı kimliklere ve kadınlık sorunlarına sahip kadınlar kendi feminizmlerini oluşturmuşlardır. Feminist hareketin içinde yer alan ya da almayan İslamcı kadınlar, başörtüleri nedeniyle uğradıkları ayrımcılıklara itiraz etmiş, Kürt kadınlar da etnik kimliklerinden ötürü Türk kadınlarından farklı ve daha yoğun ayrımcılıklara maruz kaldıklarını belirtmişlerdir. Bu iki feminist grup da, ayrıca, erkek egemen yapının üzerlerinde kurduğu baskı ve sınırlamalara kendi kimliklerinin de belirleyiciliğiyle karşı koymuşlardır (Bora ve Günal, 2011). 2000‟lerde feminist hareket içerisindeki ayrılmalar daha da çoğalmış, ancak bu durum, farklı feminizmleri savunan kadınların ortak eylemliliklerde bulunmalarına engel olmamış, bu gruplar, gündemdeki sorunlar konusunda belli platformlarda bir araya gelerek ortaklaşa bir feminist bir siyaset geliştirmekten geri durmamışlardır. Feminizmin mücadele alanları, pratikleri, eylem tarzları her geçen gün gelişse de, temel sorun alanları konusundaki mücadele varlığını sürdürmüştür. Bunun nedeni erkek egemen iktidarın, eril söylemi sürdürecek, yayacak, üretecek ve yeniden üretecek araçlarını elinde tutması olmuştur. Bu araçlardan en önemlisi medyadır. Güncel gelişmeleri aktaran ve halkın en ucuz eğlence aracı olan medya, geniş kitlelere ulaşma ve etkileme gücüne sahiptir. Feminist temsil araştırmaları göstermiştir ki (van Zoonen: 2002: 473; Saktanber, 2011), bu araçlar, toplumu etkileme gücünü, toplumsal cinsiyet rollerini yeniden üretmekten yana kullanmaktadır. Kadınlar, kar marjının artması amacıyla ya cinsel obje olarak ön plana çıkarılmakta ya da geleneksel rolleriyle temsil edilmektedirler. (Bek ve Binark, 2000: 4). Bu durumda, medya çalışanlarının çoğunun erkek olmasının ve sektörde yer alan kadınların karar verici, üst kademelerde bulunmamasının etkisi büyüktür (Yirmibeşoğlu, 2009: 133-134). Ayrıca medyadaki tekelleşmenin her geçen gün hızını artırması, medya sahiplerinin ekonomik gelirlerini korumak ve artırmak amacıyla siyasi ve ekonomik kesimlerle dirsek temasında olmasının medyadaki ifade özgürlüğünü sınırlandırması da önemli etkenlerdir. Kadınları geleneksel rollerle tanımlayan temsiller her zaman varlığını korusa da, farklı tarihsel dönemler ve farklı ideolojik görüşleri ekseninde yayın yapan medya kuruluşlarının etkisiyle bir takım farklılaşmalar da meydana gelmiştir. Cumhuriyet‟in kurulmasının akabinde kadınlarla ilgili haberler, kılık kıyafetteki farklılıklar ve gelişmeler, medeni kanundaki değişiklikler, kadına seçme ve seçilme hakkını tanıyan yasalar gibi konulara yoğunlaşmış ve bu kazanımlarda Mustafa Kemal‟in önderliği ön plana çıkarılmıştır. İlerleyen yıllarda da, özellikle Cumhuriyet gazetesi ve TRT, Kemalist değerlerin savunuculuğunu üstlenmiştir (Akdoğan, 2004: 118; İmançer, 2006: 67). 1990‟larda ATV, Star, Show TV gibi kanallar da Cumhuriyet ideolojisinin çizdiği kadınlık ideallerini desteklemiş, fakat bu dönemde TGRT, STV, Kanal 7 gibi muhafazakâr ve İslamcı kanalların ortaya çıkışıyla, Cumhuriyetçi kadın idealinin yanında, haber akışlarında, spiker seçimlerinde, konuk ve görüntü seçimlerinde erotizmden arınmış, başörtülü kadın imajları dikkat çekmeye başlamıştır (Uslu, 2000: 83-84; Asker, 2004: 84). 1990‟ların başından itibaren Türkiye‟deki toplumsal pratiklerin, ağırlıklı olarak Kemalizm ve İslamcılık arasındaki karşıtlıklar etrafında merkezileşmesi basında da yankı bulmuş, o güne kadar “büyük ya da merkez medya” olarak anılan gruplar İslamcılar tarafından “laik-popüler basın” olarak; dindar kesimlerin medyaları da Kemalist ideolojiye yakın gruplarca “İslamcı ya da dinci basın” olarak adlandırılmıştır (Dursun, 2003). Basındaki bu karşıtlık, günümüze kadar varlığını sürdürmüştür. Aşağıdaki inceleme bölümünde, bu farklı ve birbirine karşıtlık üzerinden mücadele yürüten Kemalist ve İslamcı gazeteler olan Cumhuriyet ve Yeni Şafak gazetelerinin kadın köşe yazarlarının bu kutuplaşma içerisinde nasıl bir pozisyon almakta oldukları ve bunu toplumsal cinsiyet meselelerini ele alışlarına nasıl yansıdığı incelenecektir. 3. Cumhuriyet Gazetesi ve Kadın Köşe Yazarları

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 1924 yılında Mustafa Kemal‟in desteğiyle yayın hayatına başlayan Cumhuriyet gazetesi Türkiye Cumhuriyeti‟nin kurulmasına tanıklık etmiş, rejimin benimsetilmesi ve yerleştirilmesi misyonunu taşımış bir gazete olarak, Atatürk ilke ve inkılaplarına bağlılığını günümüze kadar korumuştur (EmreKaya, 2010). Bu doğrultuda demokratik toplum yapısının, laik düzenin ve cumhuriyet değerlerinin korunmasını birincil öncelikte gören gazete, bu düzene karşıt politikalar güttüğünü düşündüğü siyasal kesimlere karşı eleştirel bir tavır almış ve Cumhuriyet Halk Partisinin (CHP) ideolojik konumuyla paralelliğini her dönemde korumuştur. Kuruluş yıllarından beri -özellikle kadınlara seçme ve seçilme hakkının verilmesinden itibaren- Mustafa Kemal‟in kadınlara tanıdığı hakları, bir bahşetme söylemiyle dile getiren ve kadınların bu haklar üzerinden Kemalist rejime olan minnettarlığını ön plana çıkaran gazetede, ayrıca İslam‟ın kadınların yaşantısına getirdiği olumsuz etkilere değinilmiş ve bu konu İslamiyet öncesindeki Türk devletlerine yapılan atıflarla vurgulanmıştır (Deniz, 2009: 381). Günümüzde de benzer şekilde Cumhuriyet gazetesinin ağırlıklı olarak Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi (AKP) hükümeti karşıtı yazılara odaklandığı ve bu karşıtlığı da laiklik, demokrasi ve Cumhuriyet değerlerinin tehdit altında olduğu savlarından hareketle kurulduğu gözlemlenmekte (Tirkayi, 2009) ve bu değerlerin kaybı ise başörtüsü serbestisi, hukuk devletinin yok oluşu ve basın özgürlüğüne ket vurulması konuları üzerinden tartışılmaktadır. Cumhuriyet gazetesindeki kadın yazarlar, 2012 yılında, çoğunlukla, Ergenekon tutuklamaları (Kırıkkanat, 2012a), 19 Mayıs kutlamalarının kaldırılması (Oral, 2012a), tutuklu gazetecilerin durumları hakkında yazılar kaleme almış (Oral, 2012a), gazetenin ideolojisiyle uyumlu olarak CHP politikalarını öven ve AKP‟yi eleştiren yorumlarda bulunmuşlardır. Yazarlar AKP hükümet(ler)ini adaleti ve demokrasi ilkelerini yok etmekle (Oral, 2012b), basındaki muhalif sesleri her geçen gün susturmakla, ülkeyi otoriter bir rejime sürüklemekle (Soner, 2012a), gericilikle, yobazlıkla, cahillikle, eğitim sistemini kötüleştirmekle itham etmişlerdir. Toplumsal cinsiyet konularında ise Cumhuriyet gazetesi yazarları, kadınların özgürlüklerine müdahale edilmesi (Cerrahoğlu, 2012a) kadın erkek eşitliğinin sarsılması, kadına yönelik şiddet, taciz ve tecavüz sayılarının artması (Yüzak, 2012a), kadınlara yönelik evlilik baskısı ve aile kurumunun kadını sınırlandırması (Yüzak, 2012b), siyasette kadın temsilinin azlığı ve cinsiyet kotası gerekliliği (Oral, 2012c), medyadaki temsillerde kadınların cinsel obje olarak kullanılması, kadınların iş yaşamında ikincilleştirilmesi (Cerrahoğlu, 2012b), kadın istihdamının düşüklüğü, eşit işe eşit ücret ödenmemesi, kız çocukların örgün eğitim hakkı (Yüzak, 2012b), çocuk gelinlerin sayısının artması (Yüzak, 2012b), tutuklu kadınların mağduriyet durumları, 4+4+4 eğitim yasası sonucu kız çocukların eve kapatılması riski, kız çocukların “mahalle baskısı” ve namus algısı nedeniyle zorla kapattırılmaları ve bu konularda kadın örgütlerinin çabalarına (Oral, 2012d) yoğunlaşmış, erkek egemen söylemin kadınları ötekileştirdiği neredeyse her meseleye değinmiş, bu konulardaki sorunlardan çoğunlukla AKP hükümet(ler)ini sorumlu tutmuşlardır. Özlem Yüzak ve Zeynep Oral erkek egemen söylemi yeniden üretmek yönünde herhangi bir yorumda bulunmazken; Mine G. Kırıkkanat başörtülü kadınları zavallı olarak itham ederek ötekileştirici bir dil kullanmış (2012b), kimi yazılarında kadınları kurban konumunda göstererek kadınların direniş potansiyellerini küçümsemiş (2012c), kadının doğası gereği erkekten üstün olduğu savını dillendirerek, özcü bir yaklaşım sergilemiştir (2012c). Nilgün Cerrahoğlu da Kırıkkanat‟a benzer şekilde İslamcı kesimden kadınların toplumsal cinsiyet meseleleri hakkında konuşmasını, bu konuda sorgulamalarda bulunmalarını paradoks olarak değerlendirerek, bu kadınlara yönelik ayrımcı söyleme dâhil olmuştur (2012b). Hem AKP‟ye yönelik eleştirilerinde hem de kadın hakları konusundaki yorumlarda özellikle, Kırıkkanat‟ın yazıları sert üslubuyla öne çıkmıştır. CHP‟yi hayvan hakları konusundaki duyarlılığı (Kırıkkanat, 2012d), kadınlara yönelik iyileştirici politikaları (2012e) ve partinin AKP‟ye yönelik kendisinin de hak verdiği- eleştiriyle (2012f) yazılarına taşımış, sadece “Türkiye‟de insanlar gözünün üstünde kaşın var diye tutuklanır, adalet yok olur, demokrasi rafa kaldırılırken, en birbirine kenetli olması ve fedakâr direnişi sergilemesi gereken CHP‟de” Deniz Baykal‟ın yeniden genel başkan olma gayretine giriştiği iddiaları nedeniyle cadı kazanlarının kaynamasını eleştirmiştir (2012g). Batılı bir kültüre sahip olduğunu, okuduğu Fransız lisesini de yazılarına taşıyarak (2012ğ) her fırsatta dile getirmeye gayret eden, Fransız kanalı TV5Monde‟nin yabancı gazetecileri içerisinde yer aldığını gururla söyleyen (2012h), Türkiye‟deki pek çok olayı “Avrupa‟da böyle zorba satış yöntemlerine

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN „mafya kapitalizmi‟ denir. Neden bizim ellerde normal sayılıyor?” (2012a) sözlerinde de anlaşılabileceği gibi Batı‟yla mukayese ederek yorumlayan yazar, AKP hükümetini ve onları destekleyenleri aşağıdaki örneklerde de görülebileceği üzere cahil, Batılı yaşam tarzına, Cumhuriyet kazanımlarına, kadın özgürlüğüne düşman olarak nitelendirmiştir: AKP hükümeti, sıfırdan zirveye taşınan kendi varlığına bakarak, “hiçbir işte uzmanlık gerekmez, herkes her şey olabilir” diye düşünüyor. Kurumsal saygınlık umurunda değil. Zaten saygınlığın, uzmanlıkla edinildiğini de bilmiyor! (2012a). Zaten anılarımızı çalanların, tarihi hoyrat bir iştahla yakan, yıkan, satan, yok etmediğini bile illa ki dönüştürenlerin sorunu bu: Bizim güzel anılarımızın beşiği mekânlar, onların unutmak istediği özgeçmişin, artık inkâr ettiği kimliğin tanıkları. Çıktığı kabuğu beğenmeyen “oldumcuk”a aslını, “buldumcuk”a neslini, bağcıyı kovana dağdan inmişliğini, kentli gibi yapana köylülüğünü anımsatıyorlar. Haydarpaşa Garı‟na yamalı poturuyla inen yoksul, yağmaladığı İstanbul‟a efendi olur da çulsuzluğunu anımsatan Haydarpaşa Garı‟nı korur mu hiç?.. Emek Sineması‟nı, çocukluğunda, gençliğinde bu güzel sinemada güzel filmler seyreden, anılar edinen kim gözden çıkarabilir? Elbette kapısından kovulan, bilet parasını denkleştiremeyen, sevgilisiyle el ele tutuşamayanların hıncı satar, yıkar ancak! Ama işte bunlar, bir kez paralanmayagörsünler… (2012ı). 19 Mayıs kutlamalarının değiştirilmesi konusunda hükümete oldukça sert sözler sarfeden Kırıkkanat, AKP‟nin kızların diz kapaklarının gözükmesini, dans figürleri yapmalarını istememesinden, Atatürk‟ün gençlere armağan ettiği bayramın kutlanmasına tahammül edememesinden ötürü bu tip değişiklikler yaptığını, bu noktada hükümetin özgürlükleri kısıtladığını, kadın erkek eşitliğini yok ettiğini, modernite adı altında kadını kara çarşafa değil renkli tesettüre soktuğunu söyleyerek eleştirmiş; bu kısıtlamaları getiren erkeklerin başörtülü eşlerini de, kendi deyimiyle “o ademlerin havvaları”nı da, Ağustos sıcağında kafaları pişen zavallılar olarak nitelendirmiştir (2012b). Kadın meseleleri konusunda son yıllarda yüzde 1400 oranında artan kadın cinayetlerini ele alan Kırıkkanat, Türkiye‟deki siyasal erkin bu konuda fikir birliğinde olduğunu, AKP‟nin de içtenlikle çaba gösterdiğini, ancak sadece yasal düzenlemelerle bu konunun çözülemeyeceğine işaret etmiş ve sorunun kaynağına inilmediği sürece herhangi bir çözüme ulaşılamayacağını belirterek, bu hususta oldukça bilinçli bir yaklaşım sergilemiştir. Ancak bir yandan da yine Kemalist bir bakış açısıyla cinayetlerin artmasında toplumun muhafazakârlaşmasının, dindarlaşmasının etkili olduğunu vurgulamış ve muhafazakârlık önlenmediği sürece de kadına yönelik şiddetin önlenemeyeceğini belirtmiştir. Bunun nedenini de İslamiyet‟in erkeğe kadının üzerinde tanıdığı hak, üstünlük ve sahiplik olgusuna dayandırmıştır. İslamiyet ve kadına yönelik şiddeti Mısır üzerinden örneklendiren yazar, 2011 Kasım ayında Tahrir Meydanı‟nda iki kadın gazetecinin ırzına geçildiğini, bu kadınlardan birinin türbanlı olduğunu ve dinsiz kimsenin bulunmadığı, hatta oldukça dindar olan bu toplumun, kadın tacizinde birinci sırada olduğuna işaret etmiştir (2012i). 8 Mart Dünya Kadınlar Günü için ise “Hepimiz Kadınız, Hepimiz Kurban” adlı bir yazı kaleme alan Kırıkkanat, öncelikle bu başlıkla, kadınları kurban sınıfına sokarak, onların direniş kapasitelerini küçümsemiştir. Doğanın kadınları özel ve üstün yeteneklerle donattığını belirten yazar, erkek egemen düzenin doğaya aykırı olduğunu söylemiş ve böylelikle kadınları erkeklerden üstün tutarak özcü bir yaklaşım sergilemiştir. Bunun yanında kadınların üreme özelliklerinin ilkel erkek zihniyetini korkuttuğunu ve bu nedenle erkeklerin başta din olmak üzere, kültürel ve sosyal baskı araçları geliştirerek kadınları baskılama amacı güttüklerini ileri sürmüş olan yazar, bütün dinlerin bağnazlıkla kadınlara baskı yaptığını, ancak erkeklerin kadınları ezdikleri toplumların başında Müslüman ülkelerin geldiğini söylemiştir (2012c). Dine dayalı muhafazakâr toplum baskısı altındaki Türkiye‟nin hala uygar bir görüntü taşımasını da sosyal demokrat kesimin gösterdiği dirence bağlayarak, politik tavrını belli etmiştir. Yine aynı yazısında 8 Mart‟ı CHP Genel Sekreteri Bihlun Tamaylıgil ve Barçovalı kız kardeşleriyle kutladığını söyleyen Kırıkkanat, “Sanki Türkiye‟de değildik, baskı yoktu, özgürlük vardı ve özgüvenli kadınlar, özgüvenli erkeklerle olağanüstü bir uyum içinde, yaşam keyfini eşit paylaşıyorlardı” sözleriyle bir yandan, Batı‟da ikinci dalga feminist hareketle tanımlanan kız kardeşlik söylemine yaslanmış, bir yandan CHP‟li belediyeyi övmüştür (2012c). Başkana göre, dünyanın en cefakâr ve özverili Türk kadını, Cumhuriyetin itici gücüydü. Halkevleri onların sosyal yaşama katılmalarını sağladı, Köy Enstitüleri‟nin de katkılarıyla

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN eğitim alan Anadolu kadınları pilot oldular, hekim oldular. Doğrudur. Bir televizyon programında, Osmanlı‟da kadın mücadelesinin 19. yüzyılda başladığını ve Cumhuriyetin kadın haklarını gerilettiğini ileri süren Ayşe Böhürler Hanım‟a, ben de dayanamayıp, “Vah vah, yani Cumhuriyet olmasaydı, uçak pilotu falan mı olacaktınız?” demiştim… (2012c). Yukarıdaki sözleriyle de hem “Anadolu kadını”nı hem de “çağdaş Türk kadınını” öven, ancak ikincisinden yana tavır alan Kırıkkanat, konuyu Ayşe Böhürler‟e bağlayarak İslamcı kadınlarla olan çatışmasını alenen göstermiştir. Kırıkkanat‟ın toplumsal cinsiyet konularında önem verdiği bir diğer konu da bu alandaki kavramsallaştırmalar olmuştur. Bilim adamı yerine bilim insanı kelimesini tercih ederek bu hassasiyetini belli eden yazar (2012b), başka bir yazısında da “hayat kadını” kelimesinin etimolojisine dair bir yorumlamada bulunarak, aşağıdaki alıntıda görülebileceği üzere, bu konu üzerinden toplumsal cinsiyet temelli ayrımcılığı çözümlemiştir: Ülkemizdeki kadın erkek ayrımcılığını bir sözcükle simgelemek olasıdır: Hayat. “Hayat adamı” dediğinizde, zamanın gereklerine kolayca uyum sağlayan ve başarı kazanan er kişiyi anlarsınız; “hayat kadını”ndan ise fahişeyi... Öyle ki, bir yazıma da yansıttığım “hayat kadını fahişe ise, erdemli kadınlar ne oluyor, ölüm kadını mı?” sorusu, beynimde yıllardır dönüp durur… Muğlalı olmayan bana dönüp: “Bizim oralarda avluya, evin dışındaki ön bahçeye hayat deriz” diye açıkladı. Hayat, çocukların buluştuğu, ev sakinleri ve komşuların birbiriyle yârenlik ettiği, toplanıp konuştuğu bir sosyalleşme alanıydı. Toplumsala açılımda erkeğe başarı, kadına fahişelik biçen hayat, can ve yaşam anlamında değil, evin dışına çıkıp, ortak alanın bir parçası olmak anlamında kullanılıyordu. Er kişi için oldum olası dışarda bir hayat vardı. Kadın ise dışarda orta malı sayılıyor, fahişenin ortak alanda paylaşılırlığı da “hayat kadını” vurgusuyla anlatılıyordu. Yazının devamında aile kurumuna yönelik eleştiriler de getiren yazar, öncelikle kadına yönelik şiddeti önlemek amacıyla çıkarılan yasanın adının “Ailenin Korunması…” diye başlamasını eleştirmiş, ardından da bu aile yapısıyla amaçlananın şunlar olduğunu belirtmiştir: “Kafalarındaki „korunaklı aile‟, işte size anlatmaya çalıştığım içe dönük, dışa kapanık, tekdüzen ve kimliksiz mimarinin, sosyolojik sistem parçası: Genelinde toplumu, özellikle kadınları dar ve sınırlı alanda, kontrol altında tutabilmek!” (2012f). Görüldüğü üzere toplumsal cinsiyet konularında duyarlı ve kendi ideolojisiyle tutarlı bir yaklaşım gösteren Mine G. Kırıkkanat, kadınları erkekler karşısında yüceltmiş, toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliğine ve kadınların özgürlüklerinin kısıtlanmasına karşı çıkmıştır. Ancak Kırıkkanat‟ın tüm bu sorunları muhafazakâr, İslamcı bir toplum yapısına bağlaması, bu konuları sınırlı bir perspektifle yorumlamasına neden olmuş ve bu bakış açısı Batılı kadınların da erkek egemen sistemin baskısından nasibini aldığı gerçeğini görmezden gelmesine ve dindar kesimlerden kadınları küçümseyerek elitist bir tavır takınmasına neden olmuştur. 4. Yeni Şafak Gazetesi ve Kadın Köşe Yazarları Yayın hayatına ilk olarak 1974 yılında başlayan ve on ay gibi kısa bir süre içinde kapanan Yeni Şafak gazetesi, 1995 yılında yeniden yayınlanmaya başlayarak günümüze kadar aralıksız yayın yapmaya devam etmiştir. Elif Şark‟ın (2010: 130) Yeni Şafak gazetesinin yayın politikası ve haber söylemi hakkındaki yaptığı araştırmadan ortaya çıkan sonuca göre, gazetenin AKP iktidarına destek verdiği, bu partiyle ilgili haberlerde başarı unsurunun öne çıkartılmaya çalışıldığı ve AKP‟ye yönelik eleştirilere karşı savunmacı bir tavır alındığı saptanmıştır. İslami kökenlere bağlılığın ve demokrasi vurgusunun ağır bastığı bir duruş sergileyen gazete, toplumsal yapıya ve iktidar ilişkilerine yaklaşımını seçkinler ve halk ikiliği temelinde kurmuştur. Seçkinler tarafını medya patronları ile politikacılar oluşturmuş, laik bürokratlar, laik ordu ve laik medya onların yanında yer alanlar olarak imlenmiştir. Halk ise Müslüman kimlikleri ön planda olan kişiler olarak tanımlanarak, İmam Hatip Liseleri‟ni savunan, askeri müdahaleye karşı çıkan ve başörtüsü için mücadele eden kesim olarak gösterilmiştir. Gazetenin ideolojik duruşuyla bağlantılı bir biçimde, Yeni Şafak‟ta yer alan kadın köşe yazarları kendi kimliklerini yansıtırken, genel olarak, İslamcı ve dindar yönlerini öne çıkarmış ve İslamcı bir

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ideolojinin içinden seslerini yükseltmişlerdir.3 AKP iktidarıyla olan yakınlıklarını (Ayşe Böhürler ve Sema Karabıyık AKP‟nin kurucularındandır), görüş ortaklıklarını gizlemeye gerek duymayan yazarlar, çoğunlukla hükümeti savunan bir tavır takınmış ve bunu da Kemalist seçkinlere karşı bir cephe oluşturarak ve onlara seslenerek yapmışlardır. Kemalistleri vesayetçi, otoriter, seçkinci, kibirli ve halk için halka rağmen davranmakla suçlayan yazarlar, bazen bu eleştirilerin dozunu yükseltmiş ve aşağılayıcı ifadeler kullanabilmişlerdir4. Kemalist kesimlerin, kendilerini cahillikle itham eden bakış açısına karşı, hem Batı‟nın hem de Doğu‟nun (İslam‟ın) bilgisine vakıf olduklarını, söylemleri ve referanslarıyla göstermeye çalışmışlardır. Kemalistlerle karşıtlıklarını en çok başörtüsü meselesi üzerinden kuran yazarlar, bu konuda oldukça hassas davranmış, yazılarında sıkça bu konuya vurgu yapmışlardır. Normalde özel yaşamlarındaki kadınlık sorunlarından hiç bahsetmeyen yazarlar, başörtüsü yasakları söz konusu olduğunda bireysel tecrübelerini aktarmış, kendilerine geçmişte röportaj verilmediğinden, adam yerine konulmadıklarından, aşağılandıklarından dert yanmışlardır (Böhürler, 2012a). Zaman zaman başörtüleri dolayısıyla maruz kaldıkları dışlanmalara karşı rövanşist bir tavır geliştiren yazarlar, geçmişte kendilerine ayrımcılık yapmış kişilerin günümüzde var olan konumlarını yitirmelerinden ötürü duydukları mutluluğu dile getirmekten çekinmemişlerdir. (Albayrak, 2012b; Böhürler, 2012a). Geçmişle hesaplaşmaya soyunmuş bu kadınlar, 28 Şubat ve başörtüsü konularında mazlumluk/madunluk söylemine sığınmış, Kemalist ideoloji tarafından madun kılındığını, ötekileştirildiğini ileri sürdükleri diğer gruplara -Ermeniler, Kürtler- destek olduklarını göstermeye çalışmışlardır (Böhürler, 2012b). Bu doğrultuda, hükümete yönelttikleri eleştiriler de çoğunlukla Hrant Dink cinayetinin çözümsüzlüğü ve Kürt meselesinin çözümündeki aksaklıklar yönünde olmuştur. Ancak, bu eleştirilerde oldukça duygusal bir ton tutturmuşlar ve sürekli vicdana vurgu yaparak, kendi kesimlerinden gelebilecek itirazlara karşı meşruiyet kazanmaya çalışmışlardır. Anaların gözyaşlarından, yüreklerinin yaralanmasından dem vurarak erkek vicdanlarını “duyguya” çağırmışlardır (Kaplan, 2012a). Köşe yazarları ayrıca, dindar kesimden erkekleri, modernleşme, tüketim, moda gibi konularda erkeklere yöneltmedikleri bir takım eleştirileri kadınlara yönelttikleri (İnternet: Özlem Albayrak'dan dindar erkeklere gönderme), ihtiyaç duyulan zamanlarda kadınları siyasete girmelerini destekledikleri, fakat ihtiyaç kalmayınca kadınları geri evlerine göndermek istedikleri (Böhürler, 2012c), kadınları “ilim”den sakınma yanlısı tutumlar sergiledikleri (Kaplan, 2012b) ve çağın gereklerine uyum sağlayamadıkları için (Barbarosoğlu, 2012a) eleştirmişlerdir. Yeni Şafak yazarları ayrıca toplumsal cinsiyet rolleri konusunda, kadınların siyasal temsil sorunlarına (Böhürler, 2012c), kadın erkek eşitliği fikrinin içselleştirilmemiş olmasına (Böhürler, 2012d) çocuklarla ilgili konulardaki sorumluluğun, annelik vasıflarından ötürü kadınlara yüklenmesine, bu yönde kadınlara baskı uygulanmasına (Barbarosoğlu, 2012b), kadınların çalışma yaşamına katılmalarına sınırlar getirilmesine (Barbarosoğlu, 2012a), küçümsenmelerine (Kaplan, 2012c) medyadaki temsillerde tecavüz olaylarının adeta bir fantezi gibi ele alınmasına (Karabıyık, 2012a), kadına yönelik şiddetin normalleştirilmesine (Karabıyık, 2012b) kadınların seyirlik nesneler haline getirilmesine (Karabıyık, 2012c), kadınların erkeklere hizmet eder pozisyonda temsil edilmelerine (Tümer, 2012a), meslekî becerileriyle alay edilmesine (Tümer, 2012b) ve medya sektöründe ilk gözden çıkarılan kişilerin kadınlar olmasına (Böhürler, 2012e) itiraz etmişlerdir. Köşe yazarları, toplumsal cinsiyet meseleleri hakkındaki birçok farklı ekseni kapsayan bu duyarlılıklarına rağmen, yine de bazen erkek söylemin kadınlara biçtiği rolleri tekrarlayarak, bazen o söylemin tam da içinden konuşarak, erkek egemen söylemi yeniden üretebilmişlerdir. Ayşe Böhürler, kadınların nasıl giyinmeleri gerektiği hakkında bir otorite gibi yorumlar yaparak erkek söylemin baskıcı karakterini sergilemiş (2012f); Fatma Barbarosoğlu bir yandan annelik görevlerinin tüm sorumluluğunun kadınlara yüklenmesine ve kadınların çalışma yaşamına katılmasına müdahale edilmesine itiraz ederken, bir yandan da kadınların birincil görevlerinin annelik ve ev içi sorumlulukları olduğunu belirtmiş (2012b); Özlem Albayrak kadınları erkeklere nazaran duygusal olmakla kategorileştirmiş (2012c); Sema Karabıyık aile kavramının içinin boşaltılmasına, babanın 3

Bu konuda İslamcı kesimleri tüketim kültürüne kapılmaları, siyasal mücadeleleri esnasında oportünist davranmaları, kapitalistleşmeleri, eleştiriye tahammüllerinin olmaması gibi konularda eleştiren Fatma (Karabıyık) Barbarosoğlu ayrıksı bir tavır göstermektedir. 4 Özlem Albayrak’ın başörtü karşıtları için “salyalar saçarak üstümüze yürüyorlardı” ifadesi bu duruma bir örnektedir (2012a).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN otoritesinin sarsılmasına ve kadınların ailede otorite sahibi olmasına karşı çıkmış, ailede babanın söz sahibi olması gerektiği fikrini savunmuş (2012d), bekâreti ve aile kurumunu yüceltmiştir (2012e). Yazarların toplumsal cinsiyet meselelerine yaklaşımlarında İslamcı ideolojinin etkisi de rol oynamıştır. Gülden Tümer dışında bütün yazarların kadın hakları konusunda birincil önceliği başörtüsü meselesine vermeleri ya da Fatma Barbarosoğlu‟nun İslamcı kesimdeki erkeklerin kadınların ev dışında çalışmaları karşısında hissettikleri mahremiyet kaygılarına saygı duyduğunu belirtmesi buna örnek olmuştur. Yeni Şafak köşe yazarları, gazetenin ideolojisiyle uyumlu olarak İslamcı kimlikleri ve AKP‟yi destekleyici söylemlerde bulunmuş, yazılarında Kemalistlere ve İslamcılara seslenmiş, Kemalistleri vesayetçi, otoriter, seçkinci ve kibirli olarak tanımlayarak, onların karşısında AKP‟nin icraatlarını övmüş, bu kesimle olan hesaplaşmalarını rövanşist bir boyuta taşımış, toplumsal cinsiyet meselelerinde başta başörtüsü olmak üzere birçok konuya hassasiyet göstermiş, ancak toplumsal cinsiyet rollerini de yeniden üretebilmişlerdir. Yeni Şafak gazetesi yazarları içerisinde de Ayşe Böhürler, gazetedeki kadın yazarların değerlendirmelerinin genel bir panoramasını temsil etmektedir. İstanbul Üniversitesi Gazetecilik ve Halkla İlişkiler bölümü mezunu olan Böhürler, 1992 yılından itibaren çeşitli basın-yayın kuruluşlarında görev almış, 1995-2006 yılları arasında ise Kanal 7 televizyonunda program yapımcısı ve yönetici olarak çalıştığı süreçte, başörtüsü, kadın sorunları ve Türkiye‟nin kadın birikimi üzerine yoğunlaşmıştır (Böhürler, 2012e). 2006 yılından itibaren Yeni Şafak‟ta köşe yazarlığı yapan Böhürler, aynı zamanda AKP‟nin kurucularından ve MKYK üyelerindendir (İnternet: Ak Parti Kurucu Üyeleri). Böhürler‟in AKP‟nin içinde yer almasının etkileri yazılarında oldukça belirgindir. Bu doğrultuda Abdullah Gül‟ü ve Recep Tayyip Erdoğan‟ı onurlu bir siyasi geçmişlerinin olmasıyla anmış (2012e); AKP‟nin yaptığı düzenlemeleri övmüş, onlara karşı geliştirilen eleştirilere de sürekli savunmacı bir refleksle yanıt vermiş (2012d) ve değindiği siyasi konuları da AKP‟nin hassasiyetlerine göre şekillendirmiştir. Bu yönde, Hrant Dink olayının çözümsüzlüğünden duyduğu rahatsızlığı dile getirmekle birlikte, “Hrant'a sıkılan kurşun aslında Ak Parti'ye sıkılmış kurşundu” (2012b) sözleriyle bu olayı AKP‟nin imajının gördüğü/görebileceği zarara bağlamaktan çekinmemiştir. Ayrıca, Taziye evinde varlığımızın rahatsızlık verdiğini göre göre ziyaretleri aksatmayıp, elimizden gelen desteği vermeye çalıştık. Ancak ne yaparsak yapalım iktidarı temsil eden bir yanımız vardı. Ve bu, o ortamda rahatsızlık uyandırıyordu. Bunu fark ettiğimiz zaman bu desteği daha geriden vermeye devam ettim (2012b) ifadeleriyle, her şeye rağmen bu olayın çözülmesinin arkasında olduğunu göstermeye çalışmıştır. Dindar kesimlere gösterilen düşmanlıkla, Ermenilere gösterilen düşmanlığın eş değer olduğunu söyleyen yazar, Ermenilerle bir özdeşlik kurmuş (2012b); 28 Şubat olayının mağduriyetine sıklıkla vurgu yaparak, ayrımcılığa uğrayan bu kesimleri mazlumlar olarak anmıştır (2012ğ). Böhürler‟in pek çok yazısında olduğu gibi, 28 Şubat hakkında yazılarında da mazlumluk söylemi epey ön plana çıkmış ve bu durumdan sorumlu tuttuğu Kemalistleri elitizmle suçlamıştır: “Geçmişte özgürlüklerden anladıkları tek şey hayat tarzlarıydı. Geri kalan tüm taleplere sağırdılar, kördüler. Bugün ise bir politikleştiler ki, sormayın. Neredeyse asıl halk biziz deyip gecekondularda yazıya çıkacaklar” (2012f). Cumhuriyet'in kuruluş ideolojisinin, korkularının üzerimizdeki tasallutundan kurtulmayı bir on yıl önce sadece hayal edebilirdik. Ancak bugün ülkenin üzerine musallat olan bu zihniyet, bunu besleyen mekanizmalar deşifre ediliyor, yargılanıyor… Bugün geldiğimiz noktada bu korkulara daha fazla saplanıp kalmanın kimseye faydası yok. Artık halkı ile; Şeriatçı, Kürt, Ermeni, Alevi diyerek uğraşan eski Cumhuriyet anlayışı geçmişte kalmalı (2012e). Böhürler ayrıca medya konusundaki görüşlerini de yazılarına taşımıştır. Bu noktada, laik-İslamcı medya karşıtlığında, İslamcı medya taraftarı olan Böhürler, laik medyayı en çok AKP öncesi dönemdeki söylemleri ve icraatları nedeniyle eleştirmiştir: Yaşadığımız zaman diliminde medyada „kese döner sap döner, gün gelir hesap döner‟ atasözünün gerçekleşmesine şahitlik ettik. Bu şahitlikler sadece bizim hafızalarımızda

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN saklı değil. Saldırganlıkları, iftiraları, özel hayatlara tecavüzleri, her konuda sadece onlar bilgi sahibiymiş gibi konuşup yazmaları, lüks otellerden çıkmadan sokakları analiz etmeleri, kendi aralarında top çevirerek sürdürdükleri tartışmalarda kestikleri ahkâmlar kayıtlarda saklı… Kısaca merkez medya white supremacist (beyaz ırk üstünlüğü yanlısı) bir tutum içinde diğerleri adam yerine konmazdı (2012a). Tüm bu alıntılardan da anlaşılabileceği gibi Böhürler yazılarını Kemalist seçkinlere, AKP karşıtı gazeteci ve gazetelere yazmıştır (2012h). Bu metinlerde İslamcı bir üslup kullanan Böhürler, yeni yıl hakkındaki yazısına Bismillah diyerek başlamış (2012h); ayetlerden alıntılar yapmıştır (2012ı). AKP‟nin kuruluş aşamasında partide yer alabilecek kadınlar hakkında görüşlerine başvurulmuş olan yazar (2012e), kadınlıkla ilgili meselelere de İslamcı kimliğiyle yaklaşmıştır. 1980‟lerde üniversitelerden atılan başörtülü kadınlardan birinin yaşamındaki değişikliklere yer veren yazar, İmam Hatip Lisesinden birincilikle mezun olup, İstanbul'da Tıp Fakültesi kazanan, ancak okuldan yaka paça atılan, ardından Almanya‟ya okumaya giden fakat maddi zorluklara katlanamayıp geri dönmesi sonucu tezgâhtarlık yapmak zorunda kalan Şengül‟ün mağduriyetine değinmiş; ayrıca Şengül‟e başörtüsünü kendi isteğiyle takıp takmadığını sorarak, başörtülü kadınların baskı altında kapandıkları savının geçersizliğine bir örnek verme gayreti göstermiştir (2012ğ). Ayşe Arman‟a verdiği röportajında (İnternet: Siz Şeytan Değilsiniz Biz de Melek Değiliz), yirmi bir yaşında kendi isteğiyle kapandığını belirten Böhürler, başörtülü kadınların aile zoruyla kapandığı imajının yaratılmasında katkı sahibi olan medyaya yönelik de epey eleştiri getirmiştir. “Başörtülüleri karafatmalara benzeten yazarlarına ses çıkarmayan, İslam adı geçen her şeye hakareti normal gören, bu doğrultuda haber yapmak üzere muhabirleri kışkırtan bu yayın yönetmenleri, yazarlar hala medyada aktif olarak çalışıyorlar” (2012a) sözleriyle bu duruma yönelik öfkesini dışavurmuş ve rövanşist bir tavır takınmıştır. Medyada çalışan başörtülü bir kadın olarak kendi yaşadıklarına da değinen yazar, sırf bu özellikleri dolayısıyla kendilerine röportaj verilmediğini, adam yerine konulmadıklarını ve hakarete uğradıklarını söylemiştir (2012a). Fakat Böhürler, bir yandan başörtülü olmak nedeniyle maruz kalınan baskılara sıklıkla değinirken bir yandan da örtünmenin ve dindar olmanın gerekleri hakkında yazmış ve modern, tüketim kültürünü benimseyen, marka çantalarla dolaşan ve gösterişli kıyafetler giyen başörtülü kadınların bu davranışlarının dindarlıkla bağdaşmadığını belirterek (2012f), erkeklerin yüzyıllardır kadınlara nasıl davranmaları, nasıl giyinmeleri konusunda yaptığı baskıya ve erkeklerin kendilerine biçtikleri bilirkişilik tavrına ortak olmuştur. Türkiye‟deki İslamcı feministlerin geleneksel kadınlık rollerinin dışına çıkarak sokaklarda eylemler düzenlemelerinin ve haklarını savunmalarının bir benzerinin yaşandığı Yemen‟deki kadınların durumlarını da köşesine taşıyan yazar, Arap Baharı döneminde kadınların özgürlük taleplerine katkılarından ve oryantalist bakış açısının Müslüman kadınlara yönelik oluşturduğu kalıpyargıların bu süreçte tersine çevrilmesinden duyduğu mutluluğu dile getirmiş, ayrıca bu kadınların sonradan “hadi evlerinize dönün size ihtiyacımız kalmadı” denilebileceği tehlikesine işaret etmiştir (2012c). Böhürler‟in kadınlar hakkında yazdığı yazılar sadece İslamcı kesimlerle de sınırlı olmamıştır. Kadınların belediye gibi kurumlarda yönetici konumunda çok az sayıda yer almalarından (2012c), medyada gözden çıkarılan ilk kişilerin kadınlar olmalarından (2012e), şiddet olaylarının ve kadın cinayetlerinin artmasından ve kadın erkek eşitliği fikrinin içselleştirilememiş olmasından (2012d) şikâyet etmiştir. Buna karşın, Böhürler kadınların deneyimledikleri sorunlardan ve maruz kaldıkları ayrımcılıklardan bahsediyor olsa da, “Ak Parti iktidara geldiği andan itibaren kız çocukların eğitimine büyük yatırım yapmış, katkı sağlamış ve bu alanda da Cumhuriyet tarihinin en büyük başarısını sergilemiş durumda” (2012i) ifadelerinden de anlaşılabileceği gibi kadınlarla ilgili politikaları nedeniyle AKP politikalarını övmekten de geri kalmamıştır. 5. Sonuç İnceleme sonucunda, tüm köşe yazarlarını ele alındığında, hepsinin yer aldığı gazetenin ideolojik duruşuyla uyumlu olduğu söylemek mümkündür. Çalışmada elde edilen bir diğer sonuca göre, Yeni Şafak‟ta yer alan köşe yazarları zaman zaman -büyük oranda destekledikleri- AKP hükümetine ve İslamcı kesimlere yönelik eleştirilerde bulunmuş, ancak bunu oldukça sade bir dille yapmışlar,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN gazetenin yayın politikasıyla ters düşmemişlerdir. Öte yandan, Cumhuriyet yazarları da kendi gazetelerinin yayın politikalarına ters düşecek herhangi bir yorumda bulunmamışlardır. Bütün köşe yazarları yazılarında kendi kesimlerine ve eleştirdikleri AKP hükümetine seslenmişlerdir. Bu konuda Yeni Şafak ve Cumhuriyet gazetesi yazarları, Cumhuriyet‟in kuruluş yıllarından itibaren birbirlerine karşıtlık üzerinden politik söylemlerini kuran Batıcı ve İslamcı kesimlerin taraftarları olarak, birbirlerini suçlayıcı ithamlarda bulunmuşlardır. Fakat polarize olmuş bu iki kesimde yer alan köşe yazarları, toplumsal cinsiyet meselelerine karşı geniş bir alanı kapsayan bir duyarlılık göstermişlerdir. Cumhuriyet yazarı kadınlar, bu konuda kendi içlerinde tutarlı bir yaklaşım sergilemiş, ancak bu tutarlılık bazen, İslamcı kesimden kadınlara yönelik aşağılayıcı söylemleri de içerisinde barındırmıştır. Yeni Şafak yazarları ise, ötekileştirme pratikleri açısından hassas bir tavır sergilemiş, ancak zaman zaman toplumsal cinsiyet meseleleri hakkında tutarsız yorumlarda bulunabilmişlerdir. Fakat bu değerlendirmeler, inceleme dâhilindeki yazarların içerisinde yer aldığı yapılar da dikkate alınarak düşünülmelidir. Nitekim sadece bu iki gazetede değil, genel anlamda çalışanların çoğunluğunu erkeklerin oluşturduğu5 ve erkek egemen söylemi sürekli yeniden üreten medyada, bu yazarların bir şekilde toplumsal cinsiyet ayrımcılıklarına dikkat çekmesi hem değerli hem de kadınların bu konuda bir fark yaratabilme potansiyeli açısından umut vericidir. Çalışma belirli bir zaman diliminde gerçekleşmek kısıtlılığında olduğu için sadece belirli gazeteler ve yazarlar seçilmiştir. Ancak bu çalışmanın konuyla ilgili başka çalışmalara fikir vermesi, elde edilen niteliksel bulgularla konu hakkındaki akademik ve toplumsal tartışmalara katkı sağlaması düşünülmüştür. Kaynakça Akdoğan, H. (2004). Medyada Kadın. (İkinci Baskı). İstanbul: Ceylan Yayınları. 118-128. Asker, A. (2004) “Medyada Cinsiyetçilik ve Kadın gazeteciler”, Kadın Çalışmalarında Disiplinlerarası Buluşma 1-4 Mart 2004 Sempozyum Bildiri Metinleri 2. Cilt, İstanbul: Yeditepe Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi, 7986. Bek, M. G. ve Binark, M. (2000). Medya ve Cinsiyetçilik. Ankara Üniversitesi Kadın Sorunları Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi Yayını, 6-11. Bora, A. ve Günal, A. (2011). 90’larda Türkiye’de Feminizm. A.Bora ve A. Günal (Editörler). Dördüncü Baskı. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 7-13. Çakır, S. (2013). Osmanlı Kadın Hareketi. Dördüncü Baskı. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları Durakbaşa, A. (1988). Cumhuriyet Döneminde Kemalist Kadın Kimliğinin Oluşumu. Tarih ve Toplum. 51, 3943. Dursun, Ç. (2003). İslamcı Basında Kemalizm Karşıtlığının Kurulması. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 58-4, 47-82. Emre-Kaya, Ayşe Elif. (2010).Cumhuriyet Gazetesinin Kuruluşundan Günümüze Kısa Tarihi. İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2010,2(39): 75-92. Göle, N. (2011). Modern Mahrem: Medeniyet ve Örtünme. On Birinci Baskı. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. İmançer, D. (2006). Türk Medyasında Kadının Temsili. Medya ve Kadın. Dilek İmançer (Editör). Ankara: Ebabil Yayınları, 67-71. Kurnaz, Ş. (1991). Cumhuriyet Öncesinde Türk Kadını (1839-1923). İkinci Baskı. Ankara: Başbakanlık Aile Araştırma Kurumu Başkanlığı. Kurnaz, Ş. (2011). Yenileşme Sürecinde Türk Kadını. İstanbul: Ötüken Yayınları. Moralıoğlu, A. (2012). 80‟li Yıllarda Kadın Hareketi ve Kampanyalar. Türkiye Barolar Birliği Dergisi. 99, 291296. Sancar, S. (2013). Türk Modernleşmesinin Cinsiyeti: Erkekler Devlet, Kadınlar Aile Kurar. İkinci Baskı. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Saktanber, A. (2011). Türkiye‟de Medyada Kadın: Serbest, Müsait Kadın veya İyi Eş, Fedakar Anne. 1980’ler Türkiyesi’nde Kadın Bakış Açısından Kadınlar. Şirin Tekeli (Editör). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 187-206.

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2012 yılında Cumhuriyet gazetesinin künyesinde dokuz erkeğe karşı dört kadının ismi yer alırken, bu oran Yeni Şafak gazetesinde, on beşe ikidir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Saktanber, A. (2009). Kemalist Kadın Hakları Söylemi. T. Bora (Editör). Modern Türkiye’de Siyasi Düşünce: Kemalizm Cilt II. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 323-334. Tekeli, Ş. (2011). 1980‟ler Türkiye‟sinde Kadınlar. Ş. Tekeli (Editör). 1980’ler Türkiye’sinde Kadın Bakış Açısından Kadınlar. Beşinci Baskı. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 15-47. Tiryaki, C. (2009). Cumhuriyet ve Yeni Şafak Gazeteleri Örnekleminde 2007 Milletvekili Seçim Sürecinde Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi ve Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi Politik Eğilimlerinin Basında Yer Alma Biçimlerinin İçerik Analizi Tekniği ile Karşılaştırılması. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara. Toprak, Z. (1998). Sabiha (Zekeriya) Sertel ve Türk Feminizmi. Toplumsal Tarih, 51, 7-14. Uslu, Z. K. (2000). Televizyon ve Kadın. İstanbul: Alfa Yayıncılık. van Zoonen, L. (2002). Medyada Feminist Yaklaşımlar. Medya Kültür Siyaset. Süleyman İrvan. (Derleyen). Ankara: Alp Yayınevi. 467-515. Yirmibeşoğlu, G. (2009). Medyada Çalışan Kadınlar ve Karşılaştıkları Zorluklar. 21. Yüzyılın Eşiğinde Kadınlar: Değişim ve Güçlenme. Füsun Çoban Döşkaya, Serdar Kurt, Serap Alp, Sedat Çapar (Editörler). Uluslararası Multidisipliner Kadın Kongresi Bildiri Kitabı. Cilt 3. 130-136 İnternet Kaynakları İnternet: Ak Parti Kurucu Üyeleri http://www.akparti.org.tr/site/yonetim/kurucu-uyeler adresinden 10 Ekim 2014 tarihinde alınmıştır. İnternet: Arman, A. (Ağustos, 2006). Siz Şeytan Değilsiniz Biz de Melek http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/yazarlar/4984921.asp. adresinden 12 Kasım 2013‟te alınmıştır.

Değiliz.

Web:

İnternet: (Eylül, 2011). Özlem Albayrak'dan dindar erkeklere gönderme. Web: http://www.ensonhaber.com/ozlem-albayrakdan-dindar-erkeklere-gonderme-2011-09 18.html. adresinden 10 Kasım 2013‟te alınmıştır. Süreli Yayınlar Albayrak, Ö. (2012a). Benim 28 Şubat'ım. (2 Mart 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6205. Albayrak, Ö. (2012b). BMW ile başörtülü. (3 Ocak 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6146. Albayrak, Ö. (2012c). Sevgililer Günü yazısı. (14 Şubat 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6188. Barbarosoğlu, Fatma (2012a). "Ev kadını" yok "evdeki kadın" var.... (26 Mart 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6229. Barbarosoğlu, Fatma (2012b). Türk erkeği ne ister!/Erkekten sorumlu devlet bakanlığı. (3 Şubat 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6177. Böhürler, A. (2012a) Medya sınıfı. (4 Şubat 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6178. Böhürler, A. (2012b) Hiç bir cinayet karanlık dehlizlerde kaybolmaz. (21 Ocak 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6164. Böhürler, A. (2012c) Arap baharı ve kadın hakları. (10 Mart 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6213. Böhürler, A. (2012d) Zulmü alkışlayamam/ Zalimi asla sevemem. (27 Mart 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6230. Böhürler, A. (2012e) Kan uyuşmazlığı. (14 Ocak 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6157. Böhürler, A. (2012f) Tanrım, akıl ver!. (31 Mart 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6234. Böhürler, A. (2012g) Zulmü alkışlayamam/ Zalimi asla sevemem. (27 Mart 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6230. Böhürler, A. (2012ğ) Şengül'ü tanır mısınız?. (3 Mart 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6206. Böhürler, A. (2012h) Yeldeğirmenleri ile savaşıyoruz zannetmiştik.... (7 Ocak 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6150. Böhürler, A. (2012ı) Masamdakiler. (28 Ocak 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6171. Böhürler, A. (2012i) Eğitimde doğruculuk/4+4+4. (25 Şubat 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6199. Cerrahoğlu, N. (2012a). „Bayan Yanı‟, Helal Otobüs. (24 Ocak 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31520. Cerrahoğlu, N. (2012b). Dizilerdeki Hayali Türkiye (25 Mart 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31581. Kaplan, H. (2012a) Faruk Encü canına kıyarsa, vebali devletin boynunadır. (17 Şubat 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6191. Kaplan, H. (2012b) Kadın muhaddisler (22 Ocak 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6165. Kaplan, H. (2012c) Uludere, TBMM raporunu bekliyor. (05 Mart 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6208.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Karabıyık, S. (2012a). Bütün diziler inandırıcılık problemi yaşıyordu, birinciliği Koyu Kırmızı'ya verdiler!. (19 Ocak 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6162. Karabıyık, S. (2012b). Dizilere özel entrika ailesi. (5 Şubat 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6179. Karabıyık, S. (2012c). Esas kız enflasyonu Kuzey Güney'i kurtaracak mı?. (8 Ocak 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6151. Karabıyık, S. (2012d). Dizilere özel entrika ailesi. (5 Şubat 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6179. Karabıyık, S. (2012e). Senaryoların üst metni muhafazakar peki ya alt metin?. (2 Şubat 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6176. Kırıkkanat, M. G. (2012a). Büyük İkramiye Devekuşu!. (1 Ocak 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31497. Kırıkkanat, M. G. (2012b). Oğlan Niyet, Kız Kısmet. (18 Ocak 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31514. Kırıkkanat, M. G. (2012c). Hepimiz Kadınız, Hepimiz Kurban. (07 Mart 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31563. Kırıkkanat, M. G. (2012d). Yöresel Şöhret Olarak: Kaşar. (19 Şubat 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31546. Kırıkkanat, M. G. (2012e). Gönül Ege‟de Kalmalıdır. (11 Mart 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31567. Kırıkkanat, M. G. (2012f). Hayatlarımızı Çalanlar. (25 Mart 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31581. Kırıkkanat, M. G. (2012g). Sehven Hukuk, Kerhen Adalet. (08 Ocak 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31504. Kırıkkanat, M. G. (2012ğ). Anılarımızı Çalan Hırsızlar (1). (08 Şubat 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31535. Kırıkkanat, M. G. (2012h). Hangi Türkiye‟ye İnanılır? (29 Ocak 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31527. Kırıkkanat, M. G. (2012ı). Anılarımızı Çalan Hırsızlar (2). (12 Şubat 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31539. Kırıkkanat, M. G. (2012i). Erkeğin Tahtı Hiddet, Kadının Bahtı Şiddet. (04 Mart 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31560. Oral, Z. (2012a). Benim 19 Mayıs‟larım…. (15 Ocak 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31511. Oral, Z. (2012b). Kahrolsun Adalet!. (19 Ocak 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31515. Oral, Z. (2012c). Naftalin Kokusu ve Değişim. (26 Şubat 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31553. Oral, Z. (2012d). Bu Bir Karşıdevrimdir…. (23 Şubat 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31550. Soner, Ş. (2012a). Canlar Üzerinden Kirli Siyaset.... (3 Ocak 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31499. Tümer, G. (2012a). Cihangir mukimleriyle ilk buluşma. (16 Ocak 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6159 Tümer, G. (2012b). Türklük hallerinin komedisi. (23 Mart 2012). Yeni Şafak. 6228. Yüzak, Ö. (2012a). Utanıyorum Çünkü.... (14 Mart 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31570. Yüzak, Ö. (2012b). Kadın Nasıl Birey Olur?. (07 Mart 2012). Cumhuriyet. 31563.

Son Not: Ayşe Mirza, Gazi Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Gazetecilik Bölümü Araştırma Görevlisi

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

RE-READING NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES FROM THE DYSTOPIAN PERSPECTIVE Prof.Dr. Aytekin CAN Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Radio-TV and Cinema Dept. [email protected] Prof.Dr. Halim ESEN Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Communication, Radio-TV and Cinema Dept. [email protected] Assitant Prof.Dr.Faruk UĞURLU Anadolu University, Faculty of Education, Fine Arts Education Dept. [email protected]

Abstract Spanish sociologist Manuel Castells mention in his work “Rise Of The Network Society” that eventhough the technology and technical relationship of production are organized in the framework of paradigms born in the principal areas of society, they spread in all social relations and structures and change them by penetrating to power and experience. Internet which controls the flow of power and communaciton by „networks‟, as it is integrating new technologies with others, makes the transmission of all kinds of personal and public information at an enormous rate over network‟s to a very large mass possible. The growing power of the media and it‟s interaction with each others leads to new problems on the context of relation between network structures and power. “Google” that incorporated many features since the year of first emerged as a search engine, a phenomenon in itself today, is one of the most user-reaching web services all over the world.However, Chrome OS and Android, the operating systems have been emerged as alternatives to other systems by Google, had opportunity to access all personal data through mobile communication devices and personal computers and networks by connecting them all to each other.By leveraging Web 3.0 technology and accompanied by an artificial intelligence,Android software, through managing all of the user‟s data at the system, along side of transmitting the most relevant results also offers a personalized experience by accessing local services, mobile communications and GPS information.It is possible to observe that humankind losts his activity step by step in the new communications systems. Seen as an alternative medium of communication since the first year of emergence, enformation technology seems to reinforce and universalize the consumption-oriented life of modern man. In this study, Chrome OS, iOS and Android Operating System whichcollects all communication tools and networking technologies as fundamental infrastructure in a common interfacehas been reviewed by taking in the dystopian perspective. Keywords: google, android, network society,web 3.0

1. Introduction In 20th century, rapid developments on communications technologies and internet which is an military technique applied on daily life experiences, within a short time, has pioneered the new social formation of the organization with it‟s the structure based on networks in parallel with the increasing number of users. As it has been seen as an alternative focus of resistance since the first occurance, networking technologies and any software devised has frustrated this belief day by day, on the contrary there is an increasing debate that they strenght the existing domination. Networking technology and virtual space are being involved in real life every day in many ways and 73

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN continues to develop as an indispensable part of real life.Emerging technology has brought computer processing speed and storage capacity to the tremendous levels. With the help of this capacity and processing speed, it has become possible to keep and analyze people‟s data from all sites they visited on the internet.As a result of this analysis, by subtracting out the demographic profile of the people, advertisements for their interest are being shown.However, this development has not only stayed at advertisement, with Web 3.0 techology, has becomed a situation that all personal information is analyzed by processing from a variety of networks.This case raises some issues such as violation of personal information, rights and privacy in the face of networking instutions. Commonly used and leading operating systems in the world, Chrome OS, iOS and Android has the ability to access all personal data by connecting all the mobile communication devices through personal computers, networks partners to each other. Examining the relationship between networking technologies and daily life practices in order to understand and interpret such a social formation indicates an important new social and cultural form. The purpose of this study is to examine the networks and other mobile and personal computer operating systems based on networks and integrated and considered as a new social formations, in parallel with the idea of network society from the dystopian perspective. On this context, a literature study with social and cultural assesments on the axis of dystopian society was made toinvestigatenetworking technologies as a fundamental infrastructure and Chrome OS, iOS and Android operating systems which gather all communication technologies to a common interface.

2. Networking Society As A Dystopian Society Draft While utopias simulate the structures with more positive proposals such as hope and prosperity within an alternativethriving community imagined and idealized, on the contrary dystopias correspond to the repressive and totalitarian structures and relationships. While utopias exhibit a sort of paradise on earth, dystopias exhibit the hell that created by the dreamers trying to build a paradise hidden somewhere in their mind; utopias emphasize the need to adapt for happiness, dystopias express the fear and pain caused by the established order (Bezel, 1993:17). Dystopia oftenly identifies the exact opposite of the social structure drawn by the utopia. A dystopian society reflects the power which is based on an authoritarian, repressive and totalitarian understanding. In dystopian narratives, the centralization of power and totalitarian social restructuring concerns were expressed, on the other hand, the individual‟s conditions are explained who opened the “Pandora‟s box” in parallel with technological progress and got into a scrape suddenly (Dolgun, 2005: 21).There is a tight relationship between fear of technological progress and dystopias.In George Orwell's famous dystopian novel 1984, the suppression of the individual and the social sphere in relation to the technology involved can be observed, as well. According to Postman(2006: 24) all firmly established technology is ideological bias that “builts the world in an original way, counts someting more valuable than anything, voices a thought, an ability, an attitude louder than the others”. At this point, technology and technological developments have prepared the ground for the emergence of new social formations.These technological advances, at first, can offer some conveniences in the frame of humanity ideals, yet, they also can pose threat to individual freedom in terms of capital and power relations that they connected. Investigating the internet technology, which integrates with computers and personel mobil devices, as a new form of communication and social model is important. Today, technology and sociology relationships within the meaning of the information society discussions are still in progress,with his book “Rise of the Network Society” Spanish sociologist Manule Castells (2005: 17), who argues new communication processes and a new model of society depended on it started to rise,submits that communities are organized in the frame of humanitarian processes which are structed historically determined production, expertise and power relations. In the conceptualization of the network society, individual and social identity is one of the most important concepts to be scrutinizedon behalf of the individual and a dystopian society. Castells, who states that identity is self-knowledge of an individual; is to built the meaning based on a cultural feature or features by excluding to refer other social structures extensively, describes the general 74

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN artifact of identity in a network society in following way: “Yet identity is becoming the main, and sometimes the only, source of meaning in an historical period characterized by widespread destructuring of organizations, delegitimation of institutions, fading away of major social movements, and ephemeral cultural expressions. People increasingly organize their meaning not around what they do but on the basis of what they are, or believe they are. Meanwhile, on the other hand, global networks of instrumental exchanges selectively switch on and off individuals, groups, regions, and even countries, according to their relevance in fulfilling the goals processed in the network, in a relentless flow of strategic decisions. There follows a fundamental split between abstract, universal instrumentalism, and historically rooted, particularistic identities. In this condition of structural schizophrenia between function and meaning, patterns of social communication become increasingly under stress. And when communication breaks dovvn, when it does not exist any longer, even in the form of conflictual communication (as would be the case in social struggles or political opposition), social groups and individuals become alienated from each other, and see the other as a stranger, eventually as a threat” (2005: 3-4) According to Castells (2005: 17) what should be emphasized in terms of the relationship between society and technology is that the state has a determinative role for the entire process due to having a certain place and also organizing an express and the social and cultural forces that dominate whether by starting, leading or banning the technological innovation. Power is inter-subjective relations to imposing the wishes of some to other subject on the basis of production or experience as a potential or actual use of physical or symbolic violence.“Institutions of society, including the controls obtained from strugglesof power, restrictions and social contracts, in all historical periods are established in order to strengthen the existing relations of power”.From this point on, today, power‟s support to networking technologies is decisive for those in and outside of the network and we can talk about the existence of an invisible domination. Even network society may seem like a democratic restructuring of independent contact points, network space also indicates the presence of a kind of invisible dystopia as a day by day changing and controllingarea. Dystopian approach, we have mentioned, appears with various operating systems put forth to control the network infrastructure by global companies. Operating systems IOS and Androis which has been developed by global American companies, today are used in cell phones, mobile and electronic devices, especially in computers designed to connect to the network. 3. Google, Chrome ve Android OS Operating Systems As it has started by a college student first in 1990 and called “Archei” at that time, searching process, today, with search engines, takes place in more than 6 billion website and constitutes 80% of the traffic on the internet. Search engines, which delivers the information to the user and index that information for further searches through examining any web sites by tags or independently, are the most commonly used software for internet users (Gülcü and Alan, 2003:292). In terms of development of Chrome OS and Android operating system which are written by Google as open source, from the first year emerged as the search engine that combines many of the features of its own, 'Google', as a phenomenon in itself today, reaches the most users on the web.However, in parallel with the developments in web technology posed by Google as an alternative to other operating systems, Chrome OS and Android operating systems, under the name of Google Social Innovations, has the possibility of accessing to all personel data by connecting virtually all mobile communication devices and personal computers to each other through shared networks. Google Inc. is a multinational American joint-stock company engaged in investment for the internet search, online information distribution, advertising technology and search engines. It develops internet-based services and products, in addition, hosts them. Google is estimated to operatein more than one million world-class data centers, more than one billion committed by the search requests and twenty-four petabytes per day of data generated by users (1024 TB = 1 PD). The actual growth rate from the establishment, beyond the company's core web search engine, has led to the occurrence of products, acquisitions and partnerships chain.The company offers social networking applications

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN software such as Google+ and e-mail services such as Gmail. Looking at the progress, Google is still developing in a network system that surrounds us and still make a profit through this system. Withthe widespread use of social networks and with the profilesof broad masses, people give their personal information to these companies by their own hands. Personalization technology with the Android operating system of Google has a significant share in mobile use systems. It has achieved a large part of income from advertising fort he companies called Google Adwords.With Chrome OS or Android operating systems used in devices connected to the Internet network, Google records demographic information and sell this personal information to companies indirectly. The iOS is an operating system designed by global American electronics and software company for it‟s own devices (OS - Operating System). IOS (iPhone / iPad OS) originally developed for Apple's iPhone, but then is a mobile operating system used in the iPod touch, and iPad. Mac is derived from OS X. iOS records all searches of the users on the internet, the sites they enter, relationships they have established with people and personal internet data traffic through the Safari, Chrome OS of Google and Android operating system which is designed to be used in every search engines and mobile devices. Likewise, Apple's iOS operating system that is designed for self-produced mobile phones and mobile devices as well, records personal data of the users.These software companies uphold the emerging situation in the context of compliance with Web 3.0 that social semantic network to review the data received from the user accompanied by an artificial intelligence to provide more personalized internet experience.However, the NSA scandal revealed by former American National Security Agency (NSA) employee Edward Snowden has showed us that the Internet turned into a giant viewing area.With this scandal, the presence of the Big Brother on the network technology has gained official.

4. Re-reading Networking Technologies From The Dystopian Perspective The most important elements of the network society are networking logic and networking technologies. In this mentioned society, individuals realize the process of communication through these networks.At this point, when the communication and communication processes are thought as most fundamental human activity, allowing it to be everywhere, networks and mobile communication technologies are very important to createchangesin social aspect. The increasing speed of technological change and ambition to get competitive advantage in this new form of communicationattends the necessity to adopt to this technology without gripping the social occurring in society, the scale of economic and cultural change (Doğan, 2011:173). At the first period of internet, one-sided communication extending the user from the publisher is concerned, yet, with the development of Web 2.0 infrastructure, users provided a bidirectional interact with authorisation to create, intervene and change the internet page content. With Web 3.0, aka semantic network,internet experience has evolved to situation which is personalized and customized beside the bi-directional flow and the artifical intelligence is engaged in (Parsa and Aytaş,2014:90-94). In other words, semantic networks is an application which aimed at gathering all information around the world on a single platform and automatically managed by computers through the web.This requires all information and data on the web to be associated with explanations. The important point here is to create meta-data for managing the information and to achieve most relevant information with more complex queries made by computers(Emiroğlu, 2009). It has been revealed that personel data collected by American-based global internet and software companies such as Microsoft, Apple, Google, Facebook and Yahoo is open to direct access for NSA (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/06/us-tech-giants-nsa-data). NSA can access each user's personal mail addresses, messages, chats, videos, photos and all other personel information on the internet. NSA gets that information on the various networks with a software called Prism.In June 2013, it has emerged that this gargantuan information is managed by an analysis and visualization program named Boundless Informant (https ://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/08/ nsa-boundless-informant-global-datamining). With this program, how much data is collected by which software could appear. Former NSA employee Edward Snowden has led to the questioning of the internet and networking technologies by sharing 1.7 million of original NSA document that proves 76

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN these claims with the media. Apart from monitoring and formalization of the personal data, the digital universe set on networking technologies, because of it‟s structure, is naturally more vulnerable to malicious content, viruses, hackersor softwares. In addition, many discussions revealed that youth are more easily affected by sexual hunting and bullying through online publishing.On the other hand, commonly referred this 'new' threats face with the real-world threats in different environments. Here, new media form rebounds and at this point an impartially and carefullystrategy is needed in order to protect young population without blocking their development. Day by day, personalizing social structure and authoritarianist internet use also raises some questions about the future. John Markoff, the author of Science at New York Times responses to the future internet foresight as following way: “When you pick up the phone you hear your mother‟s or a close friend‟s voice but in fact you talk to a malware with social engineering purpose. What kind of future do I predict? Basically, eventhough I started as an internet utopian (like Betty John Barlow), then I noticed the technical and social forces revealed by the microprocessor carry a potential for a dystopian and unequal world. I often find myself thinking about „Who did say that it will be better?‟”(Cited by Kara, 2014:Paragraph 2). Baudrillard mentions that we can not envisage how virtuality chages our perception, as it bestow hand on, in relation to all forms of the world designed in our mind. "We can not envisage it, since, the feature of the virtuality is not only to end the reality, but also to end the envisaging the reality, politcs and social” (Baudrillard, 2001:93). Emerging networking technologies and virtuality at this point, end the reality in our perception of the world and even about ourselves, our perception of the past and for the future. 5. Conclusion Internet, within a short time, has risen to the world's largest network of operating media from small-scale academic environment.Internet as a communication technology, has created globalization itself in a commercial sense.All over the world, it has opened the door of synchronous communication by leaving the ranks of local time. This is not only communication, yet, perhaps it is the largest conversion of the information technology confronts us since the invention of the printing press. Just as printing press has created the age of scientific revolutions and Enlightenment in several centuries, on this context, it will not be wrong to say that humanity is primed for the much larger information conversion.Internet is not only creating an economic and technological infrastructure to virtual placelessness promised, is also spearheading the establishment of a network society which is decentralized.Network society has led to many changes economic, social and political changes. According to the 2014 data shared by the Advertising Association; digital advertising investments are measured as 23.2% market share in the world and this data is converted to a digital industry, leaving behind newspapers and TVs.This developmentquickly spread to commercial areas, at the same time, it leads to recording of data as states use the internet and personal space. Although operating systems and mobil techonolgies such as Google Chrome OS, iOS and Androidease our life with their applications, in fact, they also know what each of us doing through the information we gave and through the GPS services working at backround. In addition, social media can lead to a physical, symbolic or potential violence while class, ethnic and political divisions of users becomes more and more visible. Global companies, which have access to data collected by internet and networking technologies, by misusingthat in both economic and politic sense, can cause an increase the pressure of the state. Today, structure of society installed onnetwork or individuals who are fulfilling the requirements of existence in network society are in danger of losing their privacy and confidentiality. With all these aspects,within the appeared developments, networking technologies actually lead to the emergence of a dystopian society, contrary to their positive claims such as being faster, accessible and open to communication at any moment.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Since the first publication of George Orwell‟s 1984novel, the concept of “Big Brother” has been translated in many languages and has been used to indicate power which uses the potency to it‟s own people and to observe them. In the past years, establishingsecurity cameras and recording systems to the public and private areas has been associated with this concept, today, internet and networking technologies which gathers our personal data have replaced these cameras in much more powerful and effective way. With the development of internet and related softwares wtitten by global companies such as Google, Apple, Microsoft, Facebook and Twitter, system that we have founded on networks approach us closer to the dystopian society of digital age everyday.

References Atiker, E., (1998) Modernizm ve Kitle Toplumu, Ankara, Vadi Yayınları. Aytaş, M., Parsa, A., (2014). “Yeni Gerçeklik: Dijital Yerliler ve Göçmenlerle 21.Yüzyıl Okuryazarlığında Birleşmek”, (Ed). Z.Beril Akıncı Vural, Dijital

Panorama: Bilgi İletişim Teknolojilerinde Son

Gündem. Ütopya Yayınnları, Ankara. Baudrillard, J., (2001). Tam Ekran. (Çeviren: Bahadır Gülmez). İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Bülent G., E, "Semantic Web (Anlamsal Ağ) Yapıları ve Yansımaları", XI.

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Akademik Bilişim Konferansı,

Harran Üniversitesi, Şanlıurfa, 2009. Castells, M., (2005) Enformasyon Çağı: Ekonomi, Toplum ve Kültür - Ağ Ebru Kılıç). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi

Toplumunun Yükselişi. (Çeviren:

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Castells, M., (2006). Enformasyon Çağı: Ekonomi, Toplum ve Kültür – Kimliğin

Gücü. (Çeviren: Ebru Kılıç).

İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları. Doğan, M. T., (2011) Enformasyonel İş Gücü için Yeni Bir Öğrenme Yaklaşımı: Bağlantıcılık, Akademik Bilişim‟11 - XIII. Akademik Bilişim Konferansı Bildirileri 2 - 4 Şubat 2011 İnönü Üniversitesi, Malatya Dolgun, U., (2005). İşte Büyük Birader. İstanbul: Hay Yayınları. Gülcü, A., Alan, M.A. (2003), Bilgisayarın Temelleri ve İnternet Rehberi, Ankara : Detay Yayıncılık Kara M., (2014) İnternetin 25 yıl sonrası: Dijital hayallerimiz mi yoksa distopya mı? Reklamcılar Derneği - http://rd.org.tr/haber-8.html Erişim tarihi: 21 Haziran, 2016. Nail B., (1993), “Ütopyalarda ve Karşı Ütopyalarda Aklın ve İnsanın Durumu ve

Kapsamı”,çev. Selahattin

Özpalabıyıklar, Varlık, Sayı:1026, Mart 1993, s. 17 Postman, N., (2006) Teknopoli Yeni Dünya Düzeni. (Çeviren: Mustafa Emre Yılmaz) İstanbul: Paradigma Yayıncılık. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/06/us-tech-giants-nsa-data). Erişim Tarihi: 10

Mayıs 2016.

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/08/nsa-boundless-informant-global- datamining. Erişim Tarihi 12 Mayıs 2016.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

THE RELATION BETWEEN LONELINESS AND INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION MOTIVES IN THE LIFE OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS Assoc. Prof. Dr. Şükrü BALCI Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Journalism Department [email protected]

Assist. Prof. Dr. Abdulkadir GÖLCÜ Uşak University, Faculty of Communication, New Media Department [email protected] Abstract Loneliness as a problem is not only seen in the societies which are underdeveloped and developing. This problem has been increasing because of development, technology production and its usage. Alone persons have some kinds of negative feelings such as disparity, exclusion, isolation, unlikable, trashiness, rejections; these people are also withdrawn, asocial, hardworking, unhappy, angry, depressive, self-disrespectful, problematic and furious to others. Loneliness has related to psychological and psychical situations of people. The main problems observed from alone people are low-qualified friendship, too few social activities with social environments and small number of friends. Contrary to this, interaction and communication activity can be seen as a process in which conscious cannot satisfy with itself and it plans to be together, mix or share something with other conscious and this process can be seen as a formation process of high awareness. In this context, loneliness creates a situation in which people imprison themselves to their own subjectivity and eliminate the feeling of belonging to others. On the other hand, communication rescues people from condemnation, and communication has also a feature connecting people to society. In this study, the relation between loneliness and interpersonal communication motivations in the life of university students will be come into picture. According to data taken from 411 participants, five motives were identified which are effective about university students’ tendency to interpersonal communication. These are Escape/Control, Relaxation, Inclusion, Affection and Pleasure. Among participants answering research questions, women try to seek more satisfaction in interpersonal communication oriented Escape/Control motive. When loneliness level of participants increases, satisfaction seeking from interpersonal communication oriented Escape/Control and Relaxation motives increase. In addition to this, a decrease happens on their satisfaction seeking from interpersonal communication oriented Pleasure motive. Keywords: Loneliness, Interpersonal Communication Motives, University Students

1. Introduction Interpersonal communication is stated as creating and sharing process of meaning which forms after interaction between two persons. In this kind of communication process every person formulates message, sends message as resource function and then receivers receive and make of this message as his or her function. Resource and receiver functions are constructed and arranged between two persons on interpersonal communication level. Who communicate, what he knows and believe, to what he gives importance, what he wants, what he hear and his belief and behaviors affects what he says, how he says, how he receives messages and how he gives answers (Gürüz & Eğinli, 2008, p. 54-57). Interpersonal communication is the most well-known and needed communication type among 79

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN communication types (Aziz, 2010, p. 87). People are social existences who take place in social environments, processes and relations. Consequently, people must communicate with others within different types and levels because of so many reasons such as compulsory, coincidentally, oriented and planned reasons. The direction, purpose, suitability with purpose and demand of interpersonal communication supplies importance to people in terms of feeling well (Güngör, 2011, p. 141). There are repulsive powers directing people to interpersonal communication in social life. This formulation, rearranged by Uses and Gratifications Theory (Katz, 1959; Blumler & Katz, 1974; Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1974; McQuail, 1994) to interpersonal communication, people can communicate with others because of some purpose like appreciating, winning recognition, showing care about others, relaxation, telling people what to do, sharing feelings with others as Rubin's and his friends (1988) state. Similarly, people can tend to interpersonal communication to eliminate loneliness and interacting with others all of their life. That is why; the relation between loneliness and interpersonal communication motivations is drawn attentions as an important study subject. Although the relation between loneliness and communication motivations has been stated by some scholars (Rubin et al., 1985; Downs & Javidi, 1990), this relation has not been tested as empirically within a study in Turkey. After usage of communication motivations in functionalist perspective, it was found that people's communication needs are different and whether depending on meeting the needs or not, loneliness sometimes can be inevitable result (quoted by Downs & Javidi, 1990, p. 33). This study conducted on the sampling selected among university students aims to come into picture the relation among participants' interpersonal communication motivations, interpersonal communication motivations and gender, loneliness, happiness and life satisfaction levels. Beside this, this study puts forth participants' loneliness level, loneliness sub-dimensions and happiness and life satisfaction levels of participants. 2. Interpersonal Communication Motives Interpersonal communication researches being conducted so far have focused on some basic topics such as definition of interpersonal communication, its literal structure, functions of verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Some studies about interpersonal communication researches have focused on personal reasons of communicating with others (Barbato & Perse, 1992, p. 517). According to Maslow (1954), people have some kinds of needs like psychological, egoist purposes, and self-realization. Some of these needs are suitable with interpersonal interaction and specific in interpersonal relations. For example, Schutz (1966, p. 15) defined control, inclusion and affection as three interpersonal needs. As stated by Schultz, an interpersonal need can be only realized throughout by satisfying relations with others. In this context, Schultz says that these kinds of needs can be met throughout interpersonal communication. Contrary to this; Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch say that these kinds of needs can be met throughout mass communication vehicles (quoted by Hullman, 2004, p. 211). Katz and his friends (1974, p. 510) stated that people are existences who knows their own-needs and they stated that people join media to need their needs. The basic claim of this approach is that people are selective messages of mass communication and in this process people make message and channel selection according to suitability of their ideas, needs and likes (Katz et al., 1973; Katz et al., 1995). Rubin and his friends (1988) rehashed control, inclusion and affection motivations defined by Schultz (1966) in the frame of uses and gratification approach and they found motivations of control, inclusion, affection, pleasure, escape and relaxation as basic motivations of interpersonal communication. The Interpersonal Motives Measure (ICM) is a 28-item, six-factor instrument. The six factors are: Pleasure, affection, inclusion, escape, relaxation, and control. Pleasure reflects an entertainment, exciting, fun-loving motive for communicating. Affection refers to communicating for the purpose of social ritual and showing appreciation and concern for others. Inclusion is a need to be with and share feelings with others and to alleviate loneliness. Escape taps a need to avoid other activities through communicating. Relaxation reflects the need to communicate for the purpose of resting and unwinding. Control represents communicating for instrumental compliance gaining purposes (Graham et al., 1993, p. 173). Four motives (i.e., pleasure, affection, relaxation, inclusion) are considered to be relationally oriented motives used to facilitate interaction with others, and two motives (i.e., control, escape) are

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN considered to be personal influence motives used to manage interactions with others (Myers et al., 2008, p. 157). 3. Interpersonal Communication Motives and Loneliness in the Life Loneliness as a problem is seen not only underdeveloped and developing countries. This problem has increased with developments, advancements, technology production and heavy technology usage. Business areas and employment capacities have shown a continuous growth after starting of development processes. Finally, development is being transformed to original roots of social change. This transformation and change phenomenon is in the basics of psychological problems' rising and increasing (Özodaşık, 2001, p. 15). According to Jin (2013, p. 2464), loneliness has negative effects on mental and psychical health. Loneliness is related to depression, addiction, substance abuse and death. Loneliness is related to not only psycho-social but also psychical health. Lonely people have less and shoddy friendship relations and they have also joined so few social activities. These are the main problems taking attention of researchers. Lonely people have a self-conscious character and they avoid developing face to face communication. Because of this, these people direct themselves to virtual world which has no risk to develop relations. People with high loneliness feeling do not want to be known in social life and virtual world does not require real identity of people and it provides an environment to get a different identity (Özodaşık, 2001, p. 104). People have to communicate and develop relations with other to avoid loneliness and develop interaction in their whole life. With using communication, people can introduce themselves by explaining their spiritual powers and feelings, similarly people can understand others' needs, expectations and purposes. Finally, people can reach satisfaction and be happy after communication process or they are forced to become lonely, unhappy and insatiable because of lack communication skills (Armağan, 2014, p. 31). Loneliness may prompt a student to leave college. Indirect evidence for this is provided by Kemerer et al. (1982) who report that students who are socially integrated into a campus are much more likely to receive a degree than those who are socially isolated. Socially integrated students are more likely to live in a dormitory, have a part-time job on campus, participate in clubs and social organizations, and declare an academic major earlier in their college careers. In addition to the relationship between loneliness and persistence in college, researchers have examined the communication skills of lonely and non-lonely students. Jones, Hobbs, and Hockenburg (1982) found that high-lonely individuals gave less attention to their dyadic partners. Also, tests manipulating degree of partner attention produced a significant decrease in self-reported loneliness as partner attention increased (quoted by Hawken et al., 1991, p. 299). According to findings of a study about university students conducted by Armağan (2014, p. 42), when loneliness level of participants increase, their communication skills decrease, contrary to this, when loneliness level of participants decrease, their communication skills increase. It was observed that there is a positive relation between two variables. Although generalization of findings is not possible, this study being the first study taking loneliness-interpersonal communication skills and the relation these two variables will make contribution to next studies. According to findings of the study conducted by Downs and Javidi (1990, p. 44-45), significant relationship emerged between health status and both the inclusion and pleasure motives. Interestingly, these results suggest first, the more positive the perceived health status the higher the motive for pleasure. Beside this, a significant and inverse relationship was found between perceived health status and feeling of loneliness and these results replicate those found by Downs et al. (1988). Especially, when people feel good they also feel themselves less lonely. As stated in the research conducted by Downs and Javidi (1990, p. 45), individual's well-being is crucial in the development of loneliness; that is, when one maintains a positive outlook on life, the development of loneliness may be impeded. On the other hand, loneliness appears to be inevitable when an individual does not maintain that positive outlook. This study also focused upon the relationship between certain interpersonal communication motives and loneliness in older adult populations. Older adults seek interpersonal 81

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN interaction that one purpose of such interaction might be the reduction of feelings of loneliness. For older adults, escape is one motive for communication. They have explained this situation as a motive to talk people because they have nothing better to do or get away from pressures and responsibilities. Holladay and et al. (1997, p. 180) suggest that older adults' telephone communication motives are linked with feelings of loneliness. Specifically, those who reported greater loneliness were less likely to use phone communication to satisfy affection needs and more likely to use it to satisfy safety and escape needs. According to Hosman (1991, p. 77) lonely people can communicate because of different reasons and they get different satisfactions from communication processes. But loneliness is related to worry for developing communication and it is estimated that lonely people do not want to communicate or they develop communication processes only to control others. Beside these topics, Hosman focused on privacy and communication relation in his study. Privacy needs were related most prominently with interpersonal communication motives. These relationships indicate that need for privacy is associated with how one uses interpersonal communication and the satisfactions received from interpersonal communication. More specifically, need for various types of privacy was frequently associated with pleasure and affection motivations, suggesting that whether one enjoys interpersonal communication is an important variable in understanding whether people need privacy. With the lighting of literature review listed above, this study tries to answer the research questions listed below. RQ 1: What are the basic motives directing participants to interpersonal communication? RQ 2: What are the basic determinatives of interpersonal communication motives? RQ 3: What kind of relation is there between people's interpersonal communication motives and their loneliness level? RQ 4: What kind of relation is there between people's interpersonal communication motives and their life satisfaction and happiness level? RQ 5: Do participants' satisfaction seeking in interpersonal communication differ according to gender? 4. Methodology This study was designed as a descriptive survey which aims to come into picture the relations between interpersonal communication motivations of university students, interpersonal communication motivation and gender, loneliness level, happiness level and life satisfaction level. Questionnaire technique was implemented in the content of the study. A questionnaire was prepared which consists of 5 different parts and 59 questions. The questionnaire was analyzed by two experts and it was made ready for survey after necessary corrections. 4.1. Procedure and Sampling In order to determine the relations between interpersonal communication motivations of university students and loneliness, happiness level and life satisfaction level a survey was conducted in sampling of Selçuk and Uşak Universities. Consequently, the population of the study was composed by students of Selçuk and Uşak Universities. These two universities with their multicultural students’ structure have been among the important universities of Turkey. For the determination of sampling accidental sampling technique was employed and face to face questionnaire was implemented to students of Selçuk and Uşak Universities. After pre-examination, 411 questionnaire papers were accepted to analyze. 4.2. Measurement Demographic Information: Subjects provided information regarding their age, gender, and place of residence. Interpersonal Communication Motives: The Interpersonal Communication Motives (ICM) scale developed by Rubin et al. (1988) contains twenty-eight items reflecting the communication motives of pleasure, affection, inclusion, escape, relaxation, and control (Rubin & Rubin, 1992). Pleasure

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN motives indicate that communication is undertaken because it is fun, exciting, stimulating, entertaining, etc. Affection motives for a communication interaction point to one’s need or desire to offer help, to let others know one cares, to thank others, and to show encouragement and concern. Inclusion motives represent the need to be with others, talk to others, diminish loneliness, gain reassurance, etc. Escape motives express a need to procrastinate, fend off boredom, etc. Relaxation motives generally emerge from the need or desire to unwind, feel more settled, and reduce tension and stress. Control motives indicate that communication is spurred by a need to tell someone something, to get someone’s help, to gain something important, and so on (Heeman, 2008, p. 9; Graham et al., 1993, p. 173). The multi-dimensional measure employs 5-Point Likert-type formats ranging from (1) not at all to (5) exactly. The ICM scale has demonstrated internal reliability ranging from a low of .77 for escape to a high of .89 for pleasure (Rubin et al., 1988). For the present study, the fallowing internal reliabilities (Cronbach’s alpha) were obtained for each factor of the ICM: escape and control (.80), relaxation (.75), inclusion (.70), affection (.66), and pleasure (.72). UCLA Loneliness: Originally UCLA Loneliness Scale was developed by Russell, Peplau and Ferguson (1978) and then it was rearranged by Russell, Peplau and Cutrona (1980). The scale determining the loneliness level of person is a likert type scale which has one dimension, twenty items and 4 points (1= Never, 4= Every Time). 10 items of the scale are positive (semantically do not include loneliness) and its 10 items are negative (semantically include loneliness) (Duy, 2003, p. 90). While negative statements reflect insatiable and belonging perception situations of person, 10 positive statements reflect social interaction and satisfaction level gained from relations (Armağan, 2014, p. 35). The highest point get from the scale is 80 and the lowest point get from the scale is 20. When the point increases, the loneliness level also increases. The reliability of the scale (Cronbach’s α) differs between .89 and .94 in different samplings (students, nurses, teachers, elders) (Russell, 1996, p. 26). In the content of this study, it was calculated as Cronbach’s α= .91. Satisfaction With Life Scale: Another phenomenon measured in the content of this study is life satisfaction. Life satisfaction is a scale used to measure different dimensions of participants’ life according to their original evaluation with a quintet Likert scale (1= Totally Disagree, 5= Totally Agree) and it is also frequently used. The scale (Satisfaciton With Life Scale) developed by Diener and his friends in 1985 was also used by different researchers (Ye, 2005; Vohra & Adair, 2000; Arauj, 2009; Wang, 2006). Fisher and Concoran (1994, quoted by Wang, 2006, p. 85) calculated the alpha value of scale as .82. They also states that the scale has s structure validity. Arauj (2009, p. 21) calculated the Cronbach’s alpha value of scale as .87 and the same value was calculated as .85 in Wang’s (2006, p. 85) study and Gülnar and Balcı (2011) calculated the same value as .68 in their study. In this study, Cronbach’s alpha reliability value was calculated as .79. 4.3. Analysis and Procedure This survey was conducted between the dates of 9-23 May 2016 with using face to face interview technique to participants. Data obtained from the survey was processed in electronic environment with using statistic program. For the analysis of data, Frequency Analysis was used to determine demographic features of participants and Exploratory Factor Analysis was used to come in to picture interpersonal communication motives and loneliness level. Correlation Analysis was used to come into picture the direction and power of relations between interpersonal communication motives. The relation between gender and loneliness level of university students was identified by using Independent Samples T-Test. The relation between interpersonal communication motives and gender, loneliness, happiness and life satisfaction level of participants was come into picture by using Linear Regression Analysis. 5. Results Beside socio-demographic features of participants, under this title the results of analysis explaining the relation between interpersonal communication motives and gender, loneliness, happiness and life satisfaction level of participants are particularly taken in hand. 5.1. Some Distinctive Features of Participants  49,9 percent of participants are male and 50,1 percent of participants are female. These ratios are suitable and convenient for comparing genders. 83

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN



The questions about residing style were answered by participants like this: 1,7 percent of participants stay alone at home. 17,5 percent of participants stay at home with friends. 8,3 percent stay with their family. 72 percent stay at dormitory and 0,5 percent stay hotel or hostel.

Table 1. Findings about the some features of participants

Gender

Place of residence

Frequency

Percent (%)

Male

205

49,9

Female

206

50,1

At home alone

7

1,7

At home with friends

72

17,5

With family

34

8,3

At dormitory

296

72,0

2

0,5

Pension/ Hotel

N

Minimum

Maximum



SD

Age

411

18

30

21,38

2,12

Loneliness Level

411

23

70

47,33

9,66

Happiness Level

411

1

10

6,38

2,05

Satisfaction With Life Level

411

1

5

2,92

0,80

   

When the descriptive statistics of age dispersion are taken in hand, the lowest age of participants is 18 and the highest age of participants is 30. Participants' average age is 21,38 and standard deviation of dispersion is 2,12. It is drawn attentions that university students gave point about their loneliness level to UCLA Loneliness Scale 23 as lowest and 70 as highest. Average loneliness point of university students attending to the survey was identified as 47,33+/-9,66. These results show that participants experience loneliness below intermediate level. A scale was formed to determine happiness level of participants wanted to give point among 1-10 (1= I am not happy at all, 10= I am so happy). The results of descriptive statistics analysis in accordance with 411 participants' answers show that participants have a happiness on intermediate level (  = 6,38). In order to determine life satisfaction level of participants, 5 items taking place in the scale was computed and turned into only one variable and central tendency statistics were tried to come into picture. As seen on Table-1, medium of life satisfaction levels is  = 2,92. This arithmetical medium value shows that life satisfaction level of university students is on intermediate level.

5.2. Interpersonal Communication Motives of Participants Answers given to Likert type 28 items, formed to determine interpersonal communication motives of participants, were processed by factor analysis and it was seen after eigenvalue and screeplot examinations that 5 factor groups can be taken in hand. Other 5 items taking part in scale do not have necessary load value and because of this they were excluded from analysis. Factor load values of statements taking part in the scale were shown on Table-2.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Table 2. The Results of Factor Analysis about Interpersonal Communication Motives (Principal Component Analysis, Varimax Rotation, N= 411) Factors

Interpersonal Communication Motives

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1. Factor: Escape/Control To get away from pressures and responsibilities

,744

To put off something I should be doing

,741

To get something I don’t have

,711

Because I have nothing better to do

,709

Because I want someone to do something for me

,617

To get away from what I am doing

,574

To tell other what to do

,463

2. Factor: Relaxation Because it’s a pleasant rest

,784

Because it relaxes me

,700

Because it’s entertaining

,564

Because it makes me feel less tense

,561

Because it allows me to unwind

,458

3. Factor: Inclusion Because it makes me feel less lonely

,728

Because I need some to talk to or be with

,719

Because it’s reassuring to know someone is there

,636

Because I just need to talk about my problems sometimes

,618

4. Factor: Affection To help others

,718

Because I’m concerned about them

,717

To thank them

,630

Because it’s stimulating

,613

5. Factor: Pleasure Because it’s fun

,851

Because it’s exciting

,822

To have a good time

,590

Varimax rotation table was taken into account for classification and evaluation of factor groups. Eigenvalue of items subjected to factor analysis is more than 1 and 0,40 criteria was used as minimum load value. Reliability coefficient of 23 items which were added to factor analysis were generally found high (Cronbach’s α = .87). 5 items set forth after analysis can explain 55,39 percent of total variance in terms of interpersonal communication motivations.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Table 3. Factor Self-esteems, Variance Reported and Reliability

Motives

Eigenvalue 5,70 2,67 1,69 1,54 1,11

Escape/Control Relaxation Inclusion Affection Pleasure Total

Variance Explained

Cronbach's

(%)

Alpha (α)

14,72 11,09 10,63 9,91 9,01 55,39

,80 ,75 ,70 ,66 ,72 ,87

KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy: ,844; Barlett’s Test of Sphericity: X²= 2994,7; df= 253; p= .000

When the factor analysis table is examined, the most important and first motivation directing university students to interpersonal communication are Escape/Control. When the items forming this factor is taken in hand, it is come into picture that people tend to interpersonal communication because of escaping from pressure and responsibilities, postponing works to do, obtaining new things and needs to others. Escape/Control motivation explains 14,72 percent of total variance. Reliability (Cronbach’sα = .80) and eigenvalue (Eigenvalue= 5,70) of the factor is up to acceptable level. When items forming second factor which is Relaxation are focused on, it is drawn attention that people can develop interpersonal communication because of providing good rest, relaxation, entertainment and decreasing tension. Relaxation motivation with its 2,67 eigenvalue can explain 11,09 percent of total variance. Factor reliability was measured as Cronbach’s α = .75. Third motivation coming into picture after analysis is Inclusion. Items forming this factor points that people prefer to interpersonal communication because of feeling less loneliness and meeting the needs of speaking about their problems. Inclusion factor explains 10,63 percent of total variance and reliability (Cronbach’sα = .70) and eigenvalue (Eigenvalue= 1,69) of the factor is on a satisfying level. Third factor’s name is Affection. The items forming this factor aim to explain satisfaction looking of people who have concerns to show their intentions about helping and thanking to others in social life. Affection factor coming into picture after factor analysis can explain 9.91 percent of total variance. Reliability coefficient of factor is Cronbach’s α = .66 and eigenvalue= 1.54. These numbers are among the acceptable lines. Fourth factor is Pleasure. When the items assigned to factor are taken in hand, it is seen that people who have satisfaction looking oriented leisure time spending and entertainment tend to interpersonal communication. In terms of load value, the lowest value is .590 and the highest value is .851 and at this point Pleasure factor can explain 9,01 percent of total variance. Reliability coefficient of factor is Cronbach’s α = .72 and eigenvalue= 1.11.

Note: **p< .01

86

Inclusion

Affection

Pleasure

1 ,356** ,338** ,345** ,136**

Relaxation

Escape/Control Relaxation Inclusion Affection Pleasure

Control

Correlation Analysis among Motives

Escape/

Table 4. The Findings of Correlation Analysis among Interpersonal Communication Motives (Pearson r)

1 ,525** ,382** ,407**

1 ,262** ,264**

1 157**

1

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN On the other hand, when correlation analysis findings are taken in hand in order to determine power and direction of the relation among interpersonal communication motives, the most powerful relation is experienced between Inclusion and Relaxation motives (r= ,525; p< .01). In other words, people tending to look for interpersonal communication satisfaction oriented Inclusion motivation ascribe importance to Relaxation motivation. Beside this, there is a mid-level and meaningful relation between Pleasure and Relaxation motives (r= ,407; p< .01). The most week relation is realized between Escape and Pleasure motivation (r= ,136; p< .01). 5.3. Loneliness Levels of Participants For the purpose of making sense and easy evaluation of findings about loneliness level and to determine suitability of data for factor analysis, KMO and Bartletts Test were implemented and it was fixed that results are suitable for factor analysis. Table 5. The Results of Factor Analysis about UCLA Loneliness Scale (Principal Component Analysis, Varimax Rotation, N= 411) Factors

UCLA Loneliness Scale

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1. Factor: Who Does Not Experience Loneliness a There are people I can talk to a There are people I can turn to There are people who really understand me a a There are people I feel close to a I feel in tune with the people around me a I feel part of a group of friends a I can find companionship when I want it a I have a lot in common with the people around me a I am an outgoing person a I do not feel alone 2. Factor: Who experience loneliness I am unhappy being so withdrawn There is no one I can turn to People are around me but not with me I feel isolated from others I feel left out I am no longer close to anyone No one really knows me well My interests and ideas are not shared by those around me I lack companionship My social relationships are superficial

,802 ,745 ,735 ,732 ,726 ,694 ,676 ,602 ,560 ,385 ,684 ,647 ,640 ,633 ,624 ,581 ,578 ,543 ,526 ,475

a

Note: Item should be reversed (i.e., 1 = 4, 2 = 3, 3 = 2, 4 = 1) before scoring.

The table with Varimax rotation was taken into account in order to classification and evaluation of factor groups. Eigenvalue of items subjected to factor analysis is up to 1 and 0,35 was used as minimum load value. Reliability coefficient of 20 items added to factor analysis (Cronbach’s α= .91) is generally accepted as high. Two factors put forth after the analysis can explain 43,02 percent of total variance.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Table 6. Factor Self-esteems, Variance Reported and Reliability for UCLA Loneliness Scale Eigenvalue

Variance Explained

Cronbach's

(%)

Alpha (α)

24,52 18,50 43,02

,86 ,81 ,91

5,93 2,67

Who does not experience loneliness Who experience loneliness Total

KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy: ,910; Barlett’s Test of Sphericity: X²= 2651,4; df= 190; p= .000

The first loneliness dimension coming into picture after factor analysis is Who does not experience loneliness. This factor can explain 24,52 percent of total variance. Eigenvalue of first factor is 5,93 and its reliability ratio is Cronbach’s α=.86. Items defining the factor can also define people who communicate with others, more social, do not have any problems to develop relationships. Second factor is named as Who experience loneliness. The difference percentage defined by this factor was determined as 18,50. Eigenvalue of second factor is 2,67 and its reliability ratio is Cronbach’s α= .81. Table 7. Difference According to Loneliness Level

Loneliness Level

Gender

N



SD

Male

205

2,33

0,33

Female

206

2,39

0,33

t-value

Sig.

-1,35

,175

Loneliness level of people answered the research question shows meaningful difference according to gender (t= -1,35; p> .05). When the results of descriptive statistics are taken in hand, female (  = 2,39) and male (  = 2,33) have close arithmetical values to each other in terms of loneliness level (see Table 7). Table 8. The Relation among Loneliness Level, Happiness Level and Life Satisfaction Level of Participants Loneliness Level -,253** -,358** 411

Happiness Level Satisfaction With Life Level N Note: **p< .01

This study shows that there is a negative and weak relation between loneliness and happiness level of university students participating this study (r= -,253; p< .01). According to this finding, when loneliness level of participants increases, their happiness level decreases. Similarly, loneliness level of participants answering the research question decrease, a raising about life satisfaction level of participants happens (r= -,358; p< .01). 5.4. The Relation among Interpersonal Communication Motives and Gender, Loneliness Level, Happiness Level and Life Satisfaction Level of Participants Linear Regression Analysis was used in order to determine variables affecting interpersonal communication motives of university students joining the survey. Gender, loneliness level, loneliness dimensions, happiness level and life satisfaction level are among independent variables subjected to 88

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN analysis. Gender of the participants in the survey has been converted to dummy variable and men were taken as reference group. The results of linear regression analysis showing variables affecting interpersonal communication motives of university students are shown on Table-9. Table 9. The Results of Linear Regression Analysis among Interpersonal Communication Motives and Gender, Loneliness Level, Happiness Level and Life Satisfaction Level

Inclusion

Affection

Pleasure

-,202***

,033

-,099*

,064

-,012

Who doesn’t experience loneliness

,185***

-,008

-,184**

,033

-,052

-,037

-,323***

,287***

,110

,330***

Loneliness Level

,159**

,139*

,112

-,131*

,066

Happiness Level

,015

,104

-,040

,055

,153**

,282***

,133*

,025

257***

,083

Model Summary R Square

160

,149

,080

,083

,169

Adjusted R Square

147

,136

,066

,069

,156

F

12,81***

11,75***

5,82***

5,82***

13,67***

Df

6

6

6

6

6

Predictors

Who experience loneliness

Satisfaction With Life Level

Control

Gender (Male)

Escape/

Relaxation

Interpersonal Communication Motives

Note 1: Table contains standart Beta (β) values Note 2: Variables have been turned into dummy gender variable; “male” was got as reference Note 3: ***p< .001, **p< .01, *p< .05

The first model in which Escape/Control motivation was accepted as dependent variable; gender (β= -,202; p< .001) and persons feeling loneliness (β= -,185; p< .001) are on independent variable position making negative meaningful contributions to model. Loneliness level (β=,159; p< .01) and life satisfaction level (β= ,282; p< .001) are on independent variable position making positive meaningful contributions to model. Among the women who answered to research question, people feeling alone and people having high loneliness level want to seek more satisfaction in interpersonal communication motives oriented Escape/Control. In other words, 16 percent of factors affecting Escape/Control motivation can be explained with these variables. Relaxation motive was subjected to analysis as dependent variable in second model. When the analysis results are taken in hand, it becomes clear that people does not experience loneliness feeling (β= -,323; p< .001) make negative meaningful contribution to the model; loneliness level (β=,139; p< .05) and life satisfaction level (β= ,133; p< .05) make positive meaningful contribution to the model. That is; people having high loneliness level and life satisfaction level ascribe more importance to Relaxation motive. People who don’t experience loneliness level seek less interpersonal communication motives oriented Relaxation motive. Second model can explain 15 percent of total variance related to factors affecting Relaxation motives. In third model; the meaningful relation among Inclusion motive and gender, people who does not experience loneliness feeling and people who experience loneliness feeling are come into picture. People who experience loneliness feeling (β= -,287; p< .001) are on independent variable position 89

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN making positive meaningful contributions to model and gender (β= -,099; p< .05) people who experience loneliness feeling (β= -,184; p< .01) are on independent variable position making negative meaningful contributions to model. Women and people who do not experience loneliness level seek more satisfactions oriented Inclusion motive in interpersonal communication. In fourth model, the meaningful relation among Affection motive and loneliness level (β= -,131; p< .05) and life satisfaction level (β= -,257; p< .001) was shown. In other words, people who have high life satisfaction model pay more attention to Affection motive for interpersonal communication process. When loneliness level of university students increases, their satisfaction seeking efforts decrease in interpersonal communication oriented Affection motive. In fifth model in which Pleasure motive was accepted as dependent variable, there are two independent variable which are Who doesn’t experience loneliness (β= ,330; p< .001) and Loneliness Level (β= ,153; p< .01) that make meaningful contribution to the model. Participants, who have high happiness level and who doesn’t experience loneliness, try to find more satisfaction oriented happiness finding in interpersonal communication. Fifth model can explain 16,9 percent of total variance about factors affecting Pleasure motive. Table 10. The findings of correlation analysis among interpersonal communication motives and loneliness level,

Inclusion

Affection

Pleasure

,111*

,139**

,028

-,034

-,213**

Happiness Level

,015

,238**

,006

,141**

,295**

,206**

,232**

,049

,258**

,226**

Satisfaction With Life Level

Control

Loneliness Level

Escape/

Relaxation

satisfaction with life level, happiness level (Pearson r)

Note: **p< .01, *p< .05

Finally, it was shown a positive meaningful relation between loneliness levels of participants, Escape/Control (r= ,111; p< .01) and Relaxation motives (r= ,139; p< .01). It was also shown a negative and weak meaningful relation between loneliness levels of participants and Pleasure motive (r= -,213; p< .01). When loneliness levels of university students increase, an increase among Escape/Control and Relaxation about interpersonal communication motive happens. At the same time, interpersonal communication satisfaction oriented happiness can experience a decrease. When happiness level of university students increase, their attentions paid to interpersonal communication motivations such as Relaxation (r= ,238; p< .01), Affection (r= ,141; p< .01) and Pleasure (r= ,295; p< .01) increase. Similarly, when life satisfaction level of participants increase, an increase happens about satisfaction seeking in interpersonal communication oriented Escape/Control (r= ,206; p< .01), Relaxation (r= ,232; p< .01), Affection (r= ,258; p< .01) and Pleasure (r= ,226; p< .01) motives. 6. Conclusion and Discussion This study was designed to show the relations among interpersonal communication motives, interpersonal communication motives and loneliness, happiness and life satisfaction levels of people. It was found that the most important motivation directing students to interpersonal communication is Escape/Relaxation. When the findings of the study is focused on, participants preferred to tend interpersonal communication because of escaping pressure and responsibilities, postponing jobs, obtaining new things, need someone. In terms of people answering the survey questions interpersonal communication provide people relaxation, entertainment and reduce on pressure. When the relations among motivations are taken in hand, it draws attentions that the most powerful relation is between Inclusion and Relaxation. People tending to seek interpersonal communication satisfaction oriented 90

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Inclusion motives and at the same time they ascribe importance to Relaxation motivation. UCLA Loneliness Scale was subjected to factor analysis in the survey and two loneliness dimensions were come into picture. First loneliness dimension coming into picture after factor analysis was named as who does not experience loneliness. This factor defines people who have no problem to develop friendship, who are more sociable and who have close relation with others. Second factor named as who experience loneliness defines people who have problem to develop relation, who are self-conscious, who are unhappy and pessimistic. Gender of participants cannot form a meaningful difference in terms of loneliness level. Beside this, existence of a negative and weak meaningful relation among loneliness, happiness and life satisfaction level has been shown in the content of this study. So when loneliness level of participants increases, their happiness level decreases. Similarly, when loneliness level of university students increases, life satisfaction level of university students decreases. On the other hand, people who experience loneliness and who have high loneliness level seek to more satisfaction in interpersonal communication oriented Escape/Control. People who have high loneliness and life satisfaction level ascribe more importance to Relaxation motivation. An increase on satisfaction seeking on interpersonal communication oriented Escape/Control and Relaxation, when loneliness level of students answering the survey questions increases. Satisfaction seeking on interpersonal communication oriented Pleasure experience a reduction, when loneliness level of students answering the survey questions increases. To sum up; this study is one of the first examples to show the relations among interpersonal communication motives, interpersonal communication motives and loneliness, happiness and life satisfaction levels of university students in Turkey. Certainly, new studies taking different part of Turkish society as sampling will be conducted in the future. People’s satisfaction seeking oriented interpersonal communication can differ according to time and place. Data used in this study was gathered by using face to face communication method. Later studies in the future can use different data collecting methods like online questionnaire.

Acknowledgment The research is financed by Selcuk University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit, Konya/ TURKEY, Project No: 16701422. References Araujo, L. (2009). Acculturation and Life Satisfaction among Latinos in the United States. Unpublished Master Thesis. California State University, Los Angeles. Armağan, A. (2014). Loneliness and interpersonal communication ability relationship: A research on university students. The Journal of International Social Research, 7 (30): 27-43. Aziz, A. (2010). İletişime Giriş. İstanbul: Hiperlink Yayınları. Barbato, C. A. & Perse, E. M. (1992). Interpersonal Communication Motives and the Life Position of Elders. Communication Research, 19 (4): 516-531. Blumler, J. G. & Katz, E. (1974). The Uses of Mass Communications: Current Perspectives on Gratifications Research. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J. & Griffin, S. (1985). Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49 (1): 71-75. Downs, V. C. & Javidi, M. (1990). Linking Communication Motives to Loneliness in the Lives of Older Adults: An Empirical Test of Interpersonal Needs and Gratifications. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 18 (1): 32-48. Downs, V. C., Javidi, M. & Nussbaum, J. F. (1988). A comparative analysis of the relationship between communication apprehension and loneliness for elderly nursing home and non‐nursing home residents. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 52 (4): 308-320.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Duy, B. (2003). Bilişsel-Davranışçı Yaklaşıma Dayalı Grupla Psikolojik Danışmanın Yalnızlık ve Fonksiyonel Olmayan Tutumlar Üzerine Etkisi. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Graham, E. E., Barbato, C. A. & Perse, E. M. (1993). The Interpersonal Communication Motives Model. Communication Quarterly, 41 (2): 172-186. Gülnar, B. & Balcı, Ş. (2011). Yeni Medya ve Kültürleşen Toplum. İstanbul: Literatürk Yayınları. Güngör, N. (2011). İletişime Giriş. Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi. Gürüz, D. & Eğinli, A. T. (2008). Kişilerarası İletişim: Bilgiler-Etkiler-Engeller. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Hawken, L., Duran, R. L. & Kelly, L. (1991). The Relationship of Interpersonal Communication Variables to Academic Success and Persistence in College. Communication Quarterly, 39 (4): 297-308. Heeman, V. C. (2008). Interpersonal Communication Motives, Satisfaction, and Psychological Well-Being in Father-Young Adult Daughter Relationships. Unpublished Master Thesis, Kent State University. Holladay, S., Crutcher, K., Gustavson, K., Jones, J., Laughlin, L., & McKown, S. (1997). Older Adults' Motives for Mediated Interpersonal Communication: An Examination of Telephone Communication and Loneliness. Communication Reports, 10 (2): 173-183. Hosman, L. A. (1991). The Relationships among Need for Privacy, Loneliness, Conversational Sensitivity, and Interpersonal Communication Motives. Communication Reports, 4 (2): 73-80. Jin, B. (2013). How Lonely People Use and Perceive Facebook. Computers in Human Behavior, 29: 2463-2470. Katz, E. (1959). Mass Communication Research and the Study of Culture. Studies in Public Communication, 2: 1-6. Katz, E., Gurevitch, M. & Hass, H. (1973). On The Use of Mass Media for Important Things. American Sociological Review, 38 (2): 164-181. Katz, E., Blumler, J. G. & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Uses and Gratifications Research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 37 (4): 509-523. Katz, E., Blumler, J. G. & Gurevitch, M. (1995). Utilization of Mass Communication by the İndividual. Oliver Boyd-Barrett & Chris Newbold (Eds.), Approaches to Media: A Reader, London: Arnold Published, pp. 164-173. McQuail, D. (1994). Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction. London: Sage Publications. Özodaşık, M. (2001). Modern İnsanın Yalnızlığı. Konya: Çizgi Kitabevi Yayınları. Rubin, A. M., Perse, E. M. & Powell, R. A. (1985). Loneliness, parasocial interaction, and local television news viewing. Human Communication Research, 12 (2): 155-180. Rubin, R. B. & Rubin, A. M. (1992). Antecedents of interpersonal communication motivation. Communication Quarterly, 40 (3): 305-317. Rubin, R. B., Perse, E. M. & Barbato, C. A. (1988). Conceptualization and measurement of interpersonal communication motives. Human Communication Research, 14 (4): 602-628. Russell, D. (1996). UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, Validity, and Factor Structure, Journal of Personality Assessment, 66 (1): 20-40. Russell, D., Peplau, L. A. & Cutrona, C. E. (1980). The Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and Discriminant Validity Evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39 (3): 472-480. Russell, D., Peplau, L. A. & Ferguson, M. (1978). Developing a Measure of Loneliness. Journal of Personality Assessment, 42 (3), 290-294. Vohra, N. & Adair, J. (2000). Life Satisfaction of Indian Immıgrants in Canada. Psychology and Developing Societies, 12 (2): 109-114. Wang, Y. (2006). Internet Use among Chinese Students and Its Implication for Cross-Cultural Adaptation. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Kent State University. Ye, J. (2005). Acculturative Stress and Use of the Internet among East Asian International Students in the United States. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 8 (2): 154-161.

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A RESEARCH TO DETERMINE THE FACTORS CAUSING SHOPPING HESITATION Asst. Prof. Dr. Banu KÜLTER DEMİRGÜNEŞ Ahi Evran Üniversitesi, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Business Administration Dept. [email protected] Abstract New technologies have changed not only product characteristics but also consumers’ needs, expectations and their buying decisions. Technological developments are especially important for consumer electronic products. Deciding on these kinds of products can be more difficult, because purchasing involves long term usage and the characteristics of these products such as durability, performance and design are perceived as more competitive. Consumers’ evaluation and buying decision on these products require considerations of a number of factors surrounding the evaluation process. The aim of this study is to provide general understanding of different set of factors that cause hesitation in buying electronic products. The study proposes seven cosntructs that predict shopping hesitation. The research model offers that consumer traits of innovativeness, risk averseness, brand consciousness, price/value consciousness, confused by over choice and contextual factors as time pressure and negative past experience cause shopping hesitation. The sample of this study consists of 500 customers, visiting electronics stores in a shopping mall in Ankara, capital city of Turkey. The data was gathered by using convenience sampling and face to face survey methods. The survey results were analyzed by using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The study reveals that shopping hesitation has a positive relationship with price/value consciousness, risk averseness, confused by over choice and time pressure. Besides, negative relationship exists between brand consciousness and shopping hesitation. Thus, both personality traits and contextual factors can cause consumers to hesitate in buying electronic products. The study is expected to help marketers, especially consumer electronics stores in various ways. The results can be applied to plan strategies for reducing hesitation and delay factors. Strategies can also guide consumers to know their hesitate factors and to close their buying successfully in offline electronic stores. Keywords: Shopping hesitation, consumer electronic product, consumer electronics store (technology store)

1. Introduction The criteria by which consumers choose a product has been changing so rapidly. Product variety, innovativeness, higher value and increased quality offerings may cause consumers to spend more time for shopping and lead to more purchase involvement. These factors are especially important when it comes to products such as consumer electronics (Kwahk and Han, 2002, p. 419). On-going advances of technology have promoted both the features of electronic products and the growth of consumer electronics market. Global consumer electronis market grew by 2.1% in 2012 and reached USD 295 billion. In 2017, the market is anticipated to have a value of USD 381.6 billion, corresponding to an increase of 29.4% since 2017. More spesifically, Turkish electronics production raised by 4.1% and reached USD 12.4 billion (Deloitte, 2014). Consumer electronics stores such as Teknosa, Media Markt, and Bimex and so on have been synonymous with innovation and wide range of products. Consumers face more opportunities to choose among various products that satisfy their needs. These all may cause overload of information. Consumers have to think more while purchasing these kinds of products (Cao and Li, 2007, p. 233). Thus, it is not surprising to feel hesitation on what and which kind to buy while experiencing shopping. 

This study is supported by Scientific Research and Project Coordination Office of Ahi Evran University under the project number IIB.E2.16.009

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Nearly all consumer electronic products have common properties such as less frequently purchased and more likely to be influenced by technological innovations. When buying consumer electronics, shopper may get him into some trouble. When compared with other products, the life of a new model consumer electronic is shorter and as the new models come out in the store, it will be more difficult to know and learn about all models of poducts. Moreover, the price gap may widen among different models of the same product (Cao and Li, 2007, p. 231). Purchasing of these kinds of produts necessitate more user requirements and industry‟s responsibility to its customers (Kwahk and Han, 2002, p. 419). Thus, consumer electronics stores have to know factors affecting their decision making process so that they can attract consumers hesitating in shopping (Cao and Li, 2007, p. 231). Marketers should develop hesitation regulation strategies because individuals often try to make a choice that minimize the degree of negative feelings. More importantly, making profit by decreasing hesitation can be achieved only if company can understand consumers and their basic personality traits. There are certain factors in literature (e.g., social factors, subjective norms, consumer characteristics, contextual factors) for predicting consumer‟s decision making process and their hesitation behaviors (Cho et al, 2006; Krishen et al., 2010; Saptalawungan, 2015). In some previous studies consumers are categorized based on being innovative (Roehrich, 2004), risk averse (Okada, 2010), brand conscious, price/value conscious and confused by overchoice (Sproles and Sproles, 1990). Many researchers treat these factors as personality traits (Knowles, et al., 1973; Mitchell and Bates, 1998; Chao et al., 2013). Personality of an individiual is composed of certain predisposition attributes called traits and a trait is spesifically defined as any distinguishable characteristic and is described as having one or more characteristics. Personality trait indicates personal readiness for responding in the certain way and is found to be related with the choices of customers (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2008) Then, most of them were proposed and examined for predicting purchasing behavior (Sproles and Sproles, 1990) and for adoption and acceptance of a product (Chao et al., 2013). One way of learning about consumers‟ purchase decision is to examine contextual factors such as time, limitations of avaibility, past experiences and so on (Cho et al., 2006; Shen et al., 2013). Contextual factors are defined mostly as uncontrollable variables. For instance, consumers may not decide and are not able to purchase the product due to the effects of the factors of time pressure and a negative past experience. Thus, conumers may fail to close the buying successfully (Cho et al., 2006). Most studies in literature (Cho et al., 2006; Egeln and Joseph, 2012; Yousaf et al., 2012) have studied the „shopping hesitation‟ concept in the context of online shopping. Although much is known about hesitation in online purchases, hesitation or doubt on in-store shopping has not yet recived much attention (Zeelenberg and Pieters, 2007, p. 4). Different from other studies, this study tries to explain feeling of hesitation and its predictors, while consumers are visiting offline electronics stores and planning to purchase desired product. Therefore, present study focuses on exploring two groups of factors (personality traits and contextual factors) that may anticipate shopping hesitation during consumers‟ shopping trips. The study proposes seven factors to anticipate consumers‟ feelings of hesitation in electronics stores. These factors are predicted as innovativeness, risk averseness, quality consciousness, price/value consciousness and confused by overchoice in the context of personality trait; time pressure and negative past experience as contextual factors. In several previous researchs (Cho et al., 2006; Yousaf et al., 2012) similar constructs have been used as the drivers of shopping hesitation. Nevertheless, they have particularly focused on online shopping. There are also studies focusing on consumer negative emotions such as regret and dissonance after purchasing (Tsiros and Mittal, 2000; Inman and Zeelenberg, 2002). Yet, no study has tried to anticipate consumers‟ feelings of hesitation during their visit to an offline store. Different from other studies, this study mainly focuses on hesitation that is felt inside the store. That is, it contributes to the literature by evaluating shopping hesitation from different perspective. This study is also one of the unique studies that evaluate certain personality traits and contextual factors in the context of offline shopping hesitation. The study also explores the concept in a specific sector, in consumer electronics industry, and undertake an empirical test. This study provides consumer electronics stores with specific knowledge of the attributes that cause consumers to hesitate and delay the purchase. So, apart from its theoretical contribution, it also 94

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provides manegarial implications by profiling consumer electronics shoppers and revealing the characteristics of them who can be called as shopping hesitators. It helps companies to know the reason why consumer hesitate and presents the ways to persuade or convince them to buy. In other words, the results suggest hesitation-reduction strategies for marketers. The results of the study are also useful for consumers to see the delay and hesitate factors, and to reduce these factors. Thus, the main question in this study is “Do consumers‟ personality traits (innovativeness, risk averseness, brand consciousness, price/value consciousness, confused by over choice) and contextual factors (time pressure, negative past experience) affect shopping hesitation?” The aim is to examine the relations between these factors and hesitancy to buy electronic products from electronics stores like Teknosa, Bimex, Media Markt, and so on. The next section of this study discusses the definitions of the constructs, mentioned above, and presents the theoretical background for the proposed research model. After presenting the research model, information about the research method is given, then the relationships in the model are tested. The last section discusses the results, practical and managerial implications and limitations of the study. Finally, the study concludes with implications for future researches. 2. Review of Literature Making decision is not always fun. In fact, it can be painfull when the decision maker feels that deciding means committing to one out of a many other options. From a consumer‟s point of view, it can be difficult to make his mind and he may probably delay the purchase. Decision maker reflects on what is important about particular decision, what is important to him and what the short term and long term consequences of the decision can be. Lastly, he will be thoughtful enough to conclude that perhaps none of the available alternatives are satisfactory (Schwartz, 2004, p. 75). This discomfort of deciding on a product to buy and the factors affecting or enhancing this feeling are the center of this study. 2.1. Shopping Hessitation It is well established in the literature that consumer goals are the most motivational aspect relevant to decision making. Failing to get this valued goal can lead to discomfort and tension. This, in turn, motivate consumers to deal with hesitation reduction strategies. A consumer can face with discomfort during his shopping trip (Shao and Shao, 2011, p. 14). Private Label Manufacturers Association‟s (PLMA) research survey of shopping behavior revealed that only one in four shoppers choosed the brand they were searching for without hesitation. Shoppers were defined as so attentive inside the stores and read information on labels, controled the other products or brands available in store. 76% of consumers decleared that they had wanted to see other options while 24% decleared they had bought the brand without hesitation. Bei et al. (2007) define the concept of hesitation as an “anticipatory quilt”. In their studies examining the relation between consumer quilt and shopping behavior, they pointed out that consumer quilt had three dimensions as hesitation, pain of paying and self-blame. They categorize quilt as an anticipotary, prooceding and reactive quilt. While hesitation is a major dimension of anticipatory quilt, pain of paying and self-blame are the major dimensions of proceeding quilt and reactive quilt respectively. Hesitating consumers think that they should stop buying the product because they feel that buying the product can violate their social standards and value judgment. Rawlings (1970) also suggests that consumer quilt can be divided into two categories as anticipatory and reactive quilt. Anticipatory quilt emerges before buying, while reactive quilt emerges after buying (Bei et al., 2007, p. 405). Hesitation can be in the process of exloring, alerting and analyzing that precede the final decision moment. Accordingly, overall hesitation is defined as general hesitation tendency in shopping, which can be caused by technological or risk avoidance, information overload and so on (Cho et al., 2006, p. 266). Hesitation decision behavior includes picking up a product and examining it closely. Checking the price, reading the label and picking up similar products to compare are one of the indicators of this decision behavior (Spanjaard et al., 2008). When consumers hesitate to buy a product, they feel doubt or anxiety. Anxiety is treated as a case, that is, when feeling anxiety, consumers are in a situation which requires them to make permanent commitment relative to an alternative choice of other alternative options which are not selected by the consumer. Hesitation can reduce the number of 95

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buyers and the demand for a ceratin product (Saptalawungan, 2015, p. 120). Singh and Tiwari (2015) suggest that there are several hesitation status (e.g. the influence of other people‟s suggestions, uncertainty between old and new items, delay factors because of availabilities of item and money costraints that reflect overall information of customer intention for an item. These are all supermarket scenariaos that cause hesitation from consumer‟s poit of view. All these can lead to hesitation and decrease the item‟s attractiveness (Singh and Tiwari, 2015, p. 161). Coppola and Sousa (2008) point out that people are more likely to hesitate when there is time pressure and when they are more quality conscious. They indicate the value consciousness as the strongest predictor of overall shopping hesitation. In addition, price comparison, negative past experience and confusion are the several factors that cause online shopping hesitation. Saptalawungan (2015) point outs the factors namely personal factors, extrinsic and intrinsic cues, risk aversion and social factors to find their influence on consumer hesitation. He indicates that risk aversion indirectly –mediated by attitudes towards fake products- enhances hesitation of consumer to buy counterfeit products (Saptalawungan, 2015). Cho et al. (2006) examine buying hesitation in three procedural aspects such as overall hesitation, shopping card abondanment and hesitation to click the final payment button. They evaluate contextual factors perceived as uncertainty factors, consumer characteristics and medium/channel innovation factors which predict online shopping hesitation. They state that consumer characteristics factors (such as high value onscousness and guality consciousness) are closely related to overall hesitation. Hesitation is most commonly examined in the context of online shopping. However, offline shoppers have different characteristics than online shoppers and they also differ in motivations for shopping (Cho et al., p. 265). The current study focuses on offline shoppers‟ hesitation behavior. It tries to answer why people hesitate and which factors cause people to hesitate in purchasing electronic products during their shopping trips inside electronic stores. Seven factors below are predicted to cause shopping hesitation. 2.2. İnnovativeness İnnovativeness is defined as “the degree to which an individual is relatively earlier in adopting an innovation than other members of this system” (Goldsmith and Hofacker 1991, p. 209). Roehrich (2004) indicates that innovativeness is a tendency to buy new products more quickly and more often than other people. It refers to “consumption of newness” (Roehrich, 2004, p. 671). Innovativeness is mostly defined from the consumer‟s point of view in marketing literature. The concept refers to an idea, application or an item perceived as new by consumers. Consumer innovativeness refers to a “tendency to adopt innovations” (Akdoğan, 2013, p. 2,5). Although there is no real concensus on the definition of innovativeness, many researchers suggest that consumer‟s innovativeness can be treated as a personality trait (Chao et al., 2013, p. 618). There is also no concensus about the measurement of innovativeness. Researchers studied various scales to measure consumer innovativeness in previous studies (Chao et al., 2013, p. 618). There are various scales in the literature developed to measure level of innovativeness (Madran and Esen, 2002; Roehrich, 2004) and to compare the degree of innovativeness measured by different scales (Eryiğit ve Kavak, 2011). Many researchers classify innovativeness in different forms such as innate innovativeness (Midgley and Dowling, 1993), vicarious innovativeness and domain specific innovativeness (Hirschman, 1980). Innate innovativeness is related to the degree which the consumer accept a new product without influences of others‟ past purchasing experience (Clark and Goldsmith, 2006); whereas domain specific innovativeness is related to the willingness of consumer to find out about new products and accept innovations (Goldsmith and Hofacker, 1991, p. 210). Lastly, vicarious innovativeness is identified as consumer‟s adopting the concept of product without accepting the product itself (Hirschman, 1980, p. 285). In spite of the importance of it, innovativeness is valuable only if there is a market potential –a market need- for it. Considering that electronic products are more likely to include new technological innovations, it is believed that consumers‟ being innovative or not can influence their hesitation behaviors of buying electronic products. Chao et al. (2013) indicate that hesitation of adopting an electronic product is closely related to innovativeness. Consumers having tendency to adopt new 96

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products and tendency to search for new ones may think more about various innovations and new product information. They may all affect speed of purchase (Chao et al., 2012, p. 215) and feeling of hesitation. Therefore, the current study offers the following hypothesis: Hypothesis (H1): Consumer innovativeness has a positive and statistically significant effect on shopping hesitation. 2.3. Risk Averseness Risk -to most people- is linked with the possibility of something bad. The concept of risk is defined as the “possibility of injury or loss”. There are also researchers using the word “risk” and “hazard” interchangeably (Cox et al., 2006, p. 79). Hesitation behavior includes a substantial degree of uncertainty because consumers often do not have enough information to decide quickly (Spanjaard et al., 2008). In the context of buying products, risk is defined as the degree of perceived negative consequences associated with product purchases (Cho et al., 2006, p. 262). Consumers can become risk averse when they face with any losses. Risk averseness is important in marketing, because it is one of the determinants of purchasing decisions (Saptalawungan, 2015, p. 118). Saptalawungan (2015) inticates risk aversion as an important factor causing hesitation in buying fake cosmetics products. Risk averseness is a trait which induces the consumer to adopt different situation when assessing the value of a good (Okada, 2010, p.76, 82). The concept indicates a tendency to avoid risk situations. As a trait, the willingness to avoid risk has the potential to explain orientation of people toward a wide variety of situations (Knowles et al., 1973, p. 131). Knowles et al. (1973) define risk behavior such as risk taking and risk averseness as a personality trait. Risk averseness -as a personality trait- is one of the intrinsic information source for consumers to make decisions. In this context, the level of risk perception and personal risk tolerance are the factors that influence consumers‟ buying strategies (Yeniçeri et al., 2012, p. 146). Similarly, risk averse consumers require much more motive to delay or exchange when the value is uncertain (Okada, 2010, p.76, 82). Consumers often face with the dilemma of purchasing a product and hesitate to buy because they may realize that they can suffer from some type of loss. When a consumer perceives risk in a purchase, he can choose among different risk resolution strategies. He can make the purchase, delay the purchase or he can shift among alternatives (Roselius, 1971, p. 56). Thus, risk or uncertainty is one of the most critical reasons for hesitation. Risk has been viewed as an important cause of hesitation in deciding to purchase items (Cho et al., 2006, p. 262). Yousaf et al. (2012) indicate that risk factor has an important role on consumer hesitation and can lead to consumer anxiety and cause to cancel or delay the purchasing. Even if the risk is not explicility clear and stated, consumers can make evaluations about the risk level of a specific product. They may consider certain products more risky and consider certain functions of a product riskier than other (Cox et al., 2006, p. 79). It will be more difficult for risk averse consumers to decide on a product in order to be sure that the decision is right and involves less or no risk. Thus, this study argues that consumers would hesitate in purchasing electronic product because they are risk averse, and offers the following hypothesis: Hypothesis (H2): Risk averseness has a positive and statistically significant effect on shopping hesitation. 2.4. Brand Consciousness Brand directly influences conumer‟s purchase decision and has an important role in purchasing process (Radam et al., 2011). Some consumers believe that price have equal with quality, so they buy products with high price so long as the quality is equally high. In recent times, consumers prefer their familiar and favorable brands because of the rise in their consciousness. A well known brand plays an important role while buying a product and may have control on perceived risk evaluation of consumers (Malik et al., 2013, p. 167). Experience of a brand or being aware of it can also add value to the product. For example, it places the brand in the consumers‟ mind, act as a barrier to entry to new unestablished brands and reassure the customer of the organizations‟ commitment (Aaker, 1992). Shim and Gehrt (1996) define brand consciousness “as a direction of shopping that describes a type of consumer tendency to purchase well known brand products”. Brand consciousness is a characteristic 97

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that identifies consumers buying more expensive and well known brands (Anic et al., 2010, p. 108). Within a combination of fashion, price and brand name as the important purchasing criteria, this factor can be conceptually named as brand conscious consumer. Consumers with high brand consciousness consider brand as a symbol of identity status, symbol of image, so they choose to buy goods having high brand publicity. They feel that highly advertised brands are good choices (Mokhlis, 2009, p. 143). People having the style of brand consciousness prefer well known, best sellig and expensive brands, and they think that high price brings high quality (Ünal and Ercis, 2008, p. 91). After deciding on a brand, a consumer can feel that by choosing a certain brand, he has desisted the positive traits of an alternative brand that might have possessed if he had preferred the alternative brand. He may feel quilt if the brand bought does not carry out or does not meet the desired expections of the consumers (Hasan and Nasreen, 2012, p. 8). That is, consumers have a tendency to choose the same brand over subsequent purchase decision. Because they feel more regret when this experience is the result of purchasing different brand than when it is the result of buying the same brand (Inman and Zeelenberg, 2002, p. 117). Brand conscious consumers do not consider all brands as being potential choices. They tend to buy their usual brands. That means they have tendency to buy a certain brand regularly (Mitchell and Bates, 1998, p. 206). When considered the feeling of quilt with buying unfamiliar brands and the tendency of brand conscious consumers to buy their usual brand; thus, this study argues that brand consciousness would negatively affect consumers‟ feeling of hesitation during their shopping, and offers the following hypothesis: Hypothesis (H3): Brand consciousness has a negative and statistically significant effect on shopping hesitation. 2.5. Price/Value Consciousness Price/value consciousness is defined as getting the highest value compared to money paid (Mitchell and Bates, 1998). High quality conscious consumers carefully look for the best quality products whereas price/value conscious consumers look for high value for money (Bandara, 2014, p. 6). High quality conscious consumers prefer to purchase high quality products rather than satisfactory products. If they satisfy their needs, they tend to be less sensible towards price (Mohebbi, 2015, p. 226). Different from quality conscious consumers, price/value conscious consumers compare the perceived quality with price paid in a purchase. That means they tend to be sensitive about both the price paid and quality (Cho et al., 2006, p. 265). They search for sale prices and want to get the best value for money. They try to find the lowest price of products of the same quality (Bauer et al., 2006, p. 345). As the price/value consciousness of a consumer increases, their tendency for searching products offering the highest benefit –to cost ratio also increases. They want a lower price product, but at the same time with a higher value option. Price/value consciousness is stated to influence consumers‟ choice and their purchase decision (Radam et al., 2011). Price/value conscious consumers spend more time for seeking information about prices and quality level. So high price/value conscious consumers are more likely to feel hesitation and delay their purchasing (Cho et al., 2006, p. 265). Based on this relationship between two concepts, this study proses the following hypothesis, with regard to electronic product purchasing; Hypothesis (H4): Price/value consciousness has a positive and statistically significant effect on shopping hesitation. 2.6. Confused by Overchoice Confused by overchoice trait is one of the main mental characteristic in consumer‟s decision making (Walsh et al., 2001, p. 73). Mitchell and Bates (1998) state that in today‟s cluttered market place, confusing by overchoice plays a significant role in decision making (Mitchell and Bates, 1998, p. 202). Confused by overchoice means that there are many products and much product-related information available to be confusing (Walsh et al., 2001, p. 85). Uncertanity also appears with confusing by overchoice. If there are variety of products and too much information about products, consumers may experience with different prices and varies characteristics. So they may feel confused and unstable (Cho et al., 2006, p. 265). Confused by overchoice consumers often feel confused about the quantity of brands, products and the 98

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information offered (Mitchell and Bates 1998, p. 209). They perceive too many brands and stores from which to choose (Bandara, 2014, p. 4) and seek for another person who will influence the decision (Mitchell and Bates, 1998, p. 202). Walsh et al. (2001) point out that 28 % of German consumers find it hard to choose which stores to shop and 28 % decleare that there are many brands to choose and this causes to feel of confused. So consumers are less likely to make optimal choices if they experience information overload (Walsh et al., 2001, p.85). When consumers are confused by much information, they hesitate and delay their purchase decisions to get more information about the product (Sproles and Sproles, 1990). Today, electronics stores offer different alternatives within a certain product category. Although consumers have chance to access to all types of products within a product category, in a specific store, it might be difficult to evaluate all available information. So consumers who are confused by information overload can hesitate to pay for a product (Cho et al., 2006 p. 265). This trait may be especially important for electronic products including many details and technological information (Mitchell and Bates 1998, p. 218). Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed: Hypothesis (H5): Confused by overchoice has a positive and statistically significant effect on shopping hesitation. 2.7. Time Pressure Time pressure is another factor influencing consumers‟ hesitation behavior. Consumers‟ cognitive processing in purchasing is highly influenced by time pressure. When consumers perceive that they do not have enough time to devote to purchase decision, they hesitate to purchase the product. If there is a time pressure, they try to change their strategies, become more selective and more likely to feel hesitation (Cho et al., 2006, p. 264). Unlike, consumers who have more time during their purchase processes are more likely to feel they have made the best possible decision. So time plays an important role in controlling the feeling of dissonance. If consumer does not spend much time in the purchase decision, he would get more anxious over his decision. Therefore, salespeople in the store should ensure enough time to make the decision. When the salespeople push the customer to buy quickly, the consumers may feel regretion (Hasan and Nasreen, 2012, p. 11). Consumer‟s feeling a time pressure does not give himself much time to his purchase, shops quickly, spends little time in decision and prefers shopping in the same store (Mitchell and Bates, 1998, p. 202). Consumer sometimes has less control over the timing of his purchases and this may cause fellings of regret. Cooke et al. (2001) indicate that when consumer is forced to buy in a limited time, he is more likely to feel hesitation. Therefore, the current study proposes the following hypothesis: Hypothesis (H6): Time pressure has a positive and statistically significant effect on shopping hesitation. 2.8. Negative Past Experience Experience is defined as the effect upon the judgment or feeling emerged from a stimulus or an event affected by external and internal factors (Chodchuang and Haron, 2012, p. 11). It is an internal and subjective response of customers resulted from any indirect or direct contact with a company. Creating a superior experience is one of the important aims in today‟s retailing environment (Verhoef et al., 2009, p. 31, 32). The creation of positive customer experience is one of the central objectives in the retailing industry. The retail sector has to increase their focus on customer experience. This is especially important in the retail experience for in-store customers (Chodchuang and Haron, 2012, p. 10). Experience can not sell the same product and service or provides benefits directly, but it can gather emotions of the customer‟s needed stimulate motivation to buy the product or service (Chodchuang and Haron, 2012, p. 11). Experience influences the determinants on current customer experience and emerges from generally in the course of a purchase or use of a product by customers (Verhoef et al., 2009). If the customers have greater usage experience and familiarity with a department store, they are more likely to purchase the product in that store (Chodchuang and Haron, 2012, p. 12). In addition, past expererience is also an important predictor of behaviour and affects present decision making process (Cho et al., 2006, p. 265; Su et al., 2012, p. 401). Negative past experience or past dissatisfaction is a bias of previous 99

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experience and affects present decision-making process. Customer behaviour can change as he gains more experiencence and knowledge from past transactions (Su et al., 2012, p. 401). If consumers perceive past transactions as negative, the likehood of hesitation increases. Therefore, this study predicts that if consumers have negative past experiences associated with electronic product purchasing, they are more likely to hesitate when buying an electronic product, and offers following hypothesis: Hypothesis (H7): Negative past experience has a positive and statistically significant effect on shopping hesitation. This study tries to answer the question why people hesitate or delay in purchasing electronic products during their shopping trips. Specifically, the study predicts the relationships between seven constructs, mentioned above, and shopping hesitation. The antecedents of the model are innovativeness, risk averseness, brand consciousness, price/value consciousness, confused by over choice, time pressure and negative past experience, and the consequent is shopping hesitation. The research model is presented in Figure 1.

Personality Traits Innovativeness

Risk Averseness

H1

H2 Brand Consciousness H3

Price/Value Consciousness

H4

SHOPPING HESITATION

H5 Confused by Overchoice

H6

Contextual Factors

H7

Time Pressure

Negative Past Experience

Figure 1: Research Model

3. Research Methodology 3.1. Sampling and Data Collection This study investigates consumers‟ feelings of hesitation in purchasing electronic products, during 100

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their visit to offline electronics stores, such as Teknosa, Bimex, Media Markt, Vatan Computer and so on. The empirical analysis was carried out based on the data obtained from customers having experience of buying consumer electronic products. The sample includes 500 customers visiting electronics stores in a shopping mall in Ankara. The selected shopping mall included various electronic stores. Convenience sampling and face to face survey methods were used in order to collect the data. Questionnaires were gathered from the shoppers voluntarily participated with in the research, between June and July, 2016. Respondents were wanted to rate their level of o verall hesitation during their purchasing electronic products. That means they were wanted to explain whether they would feel hesitation or how much they would feel hesitation when they were in an offline consumer electronics store and deciding to buy an electronic product. Besides, every respondent was wanted to rate their certain personality traits and the factors that may have influence on their feelings of hesitation. 3.2. Questionnaire Design and Measures This study used the previous studies‟ measurement scales to design questionnaire items. Questionnaire items were measured by using five-point Likert scale from 1 to 5, rating from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Firstly, Goldsmith and Hofacker‟s (1991) domain specific innovativeness scale was used to measure consumer‟s innovativeness. In spite of the importance of innovativeness, there is not yet a unique scale for measuring it (Chao et al., 2013, p. 614). Domain specific innovativeness scale is characterized with speed of purchase and new product information (Chao et. al. 2012, p. 215). Since the measurement items at domain specific level are about new products in a specific product category (Roehrich, 2004, p. 675), this study preferred to use Goldsmith and Hofacker‟s (1991) domain specific innovativeness scale by adopting it into electronic products. Measurement of risk averseness was measured with four items adopted from De Matos et al. (2007). Brand consciusness was measured by using five items adopted from the work of Mitchell and Bates (1998) wheras price/value consciousness was measured by five- item scale adopted from Lichtenstein et al. (1993). This study refers to Walsh et al. (2001) in order to measure confused by overchoice including four items. The questionnaire items for time pressure, negative past experience and shoping hesitation were adopted from Cho et al. (2006), including three, two and five items respectively. Items used to measure the constructs are presented in Appendix (see Table 6). 3.3. Analytical Procedure Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 20.0 and AMOS version 6.0. Firstly, exploratory factor analysis was employed to see the factor structure of the measure. Reliability was tested to determine the internal consistency of each construct. Then, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to confirm significance of variables on their respective constructs and reliability and validity analyses were conducted. Finally, structural model fit and causal relationships between constructs were tested by using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) technique, a multivariate analysis method examining the casual relationships between observed variables and latent variables, or among latent variables (Hair et al., 1998). 4. Results 4.1 Statistics and Data Analysis A total of 500 respondents participated in the survey. The demographic profile of the respondents and their habits of purchasing electronic product is presented in Table 1. Among the respondents, 62% of them were male and 46% of them were married. About 37% of the respondents were between the ages of 18 and 25, whereas 21% of them were between 26 and 35 and 20% of them were between 36 and 45. That is, the majority of respondents are young and in the middle age. According to the survey, 40% of the sample indicated that they had university graduate degree and 13% of them indicated having post graduate degree. That is, a majority of respondents seems to be highly educated. The average monthly income of 40% of the respondents were stated to be between 3001 and 4000 Turkish Lira. In terms of their occupation, 24% of the respondents stated their occupations as government employee and %24 as self employed. 30% of the participants reported the amount spent on electronic products in recent year between 1000 and 1999 Turkish Lira. Approximately 50% of the respondents 101

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indicated that they had been visiting offline electronic stores -once every six months-, whereas 42% indicated this frequency as once every three months. Among the survey respondents, 27% of them reported Teknosa as their favorite electronics store. 31% of the respondents indicated their most frequently bought product from offline electronic stores as „mobile phone‟. Finally, 64% of the respondents stated that they had hesitated mostly when they were browsing the products inside the store. Of the respondents, 62% of them stated that they had mostly postphoned or delayed their purchasing, when shopping in offline electronic stores. That means over half of he respondents hesitate in buying electronic products from offline electronic stores and they delay their purchasing because of hesitation. Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the respondents (n=500) Gender

Frequency

Percent

Male

310

62.0

Female

190

38.0

Frequency

Percent

Married

229

45.8

Single

271

54.2

Frequency

Percent

Frequency

Percent

18-25

184

36.8

Elementary Education

73

14.6

26-35

107

21.4

Secondary Education

160

32.0

36-45

102

20.4

University Graduate

201

40.2

46-55

60

12.0

Post Graduate

66

13.2

56-65

35

7.0

Frequency

Percent

Over 66

12

2.4

Government Employee

121

24.2

Frequency

Percent

Worker

57

11.4

Less than 1000 TL

22

4.4

Self-employed

120

24.0

1001-2000 TL

69

13.8

Housewife

102

20.4

2001-3000 TL

133

26.6

Retired

38

7.6

3001-4000 TL

200

40.0

Student

53

10.6

4001-5000 TL

45

9.0

Others

9

1.8

More than 5000 TL

31

6.2

Frequency

Percent

Frequency

Percent

Less than 500 TL

88

17.6

Once per month

42

8.4

500-999 TL

73

14.6

Once every three months

211

42.2

1000-1999 TL

150

30.0

Once every six months

247

49.4

2000-2999 TL

134

26.8

Frequency

Percent

3000-3999 TL

31

6.2

Mobile phone

154

30.8

More than 4000 TL

24

4.8

Computer

92

18.4

Favorite electronic store

Frequency

Percent

Television

101

20.2

Bimex

113

22.6

White good

49

9.8

Gold Computer

45

9.0

Heating and cooling systems

41

8.2

Media Markt

76

15.2

Electrical household apliances

63

12.6

Teknosa

137

27.4

Frequency

Percent

Vatan Computer

117

23.4

Age

Average Income (Monthly)

The frequency of visiting electronic stores

Most frequently bought electronic products

When shopping in electronic stores, mostly hesitate……

Marital Status

Education level

Occupation

Money spent on electronic products (in recent year)

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While browsing the products at the store

321

64.2

While going to pay desk

125

25.0

At the pay desk (at the final stage)

54

10.8

Others

12

2.4

Frequency

Percent

Purchase the desired product

192

38.4

Delay (or) postphone purchasing

308

61.6

When shopping in electronic stores, mostly……

Exploratory factor analysis was firstly used to determine the number of constructs and factor loading of each item. Kaiser- Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was calculated at 0.813 and Bartlett‟s test of sphericity revealed statistically significant result (p=.000). Accordingly, tha data set for this study can be indicated as suitable for factor analysis. Principal component analysis with varimax rotation technique was used for factor reduction. A total of eight factors, having eigenvalues greater than 1, were determined. Factor loading of each item was calculated as greater than the recommended level of 0.5 (Gegez, 2007, p.371)1. Only one items‟ factor loading, belonging to brand consciousness construct, was found less than the level of 0.5. Eight factors accounted for 69.31% of total variance explained, greater than the recommend level of 0.6 (Gerbing and Anderson, 1988). Besides, the internal consistency of the scale used in the study was tested via Cronbach‟s alpha coefficient. Cronbach‟s alpha of innovativeness was 0.843, risk averseness was 0.854, brand consciousness was 0.707, price value consciousness was 0.934, confused by over choice was 0.817, time pressure was 0.719, negative past experience was 0.755 and shopping hesitation was 0.845. Cronbach‟s alpha value for each factor was greater than 0.7 which is a sufficient indicator of reliability (Hair et al., 1998). So the scale can be proved to be reliable. The results of exploratory factor analysis and Cronbach‟s alpha values are presented in Table 2. After exploratory factor analysis and internal reliability test were conducted, composite realibility and validity of measurement were tested by using confirmatory factor analysis. Table 3 presents the results of confirmatory factor analysis. Factor loadings (standardized regression weights) of all items (except BC2 and BC3)2 were calculated as greater than the recommended level of 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010). All constructs had significant standardized regression weights (p<.001). This means all items, apart from only two, are significantly important to measure their constructs. Besides, the composite reliability value of each construct was calculated greater than 0.7 and the average variance extracted (AVE) for each was determined greater than 0.5. The acceptable level for composite reliability and AVE are values >0.7 and >0.5 respectively (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). In addition, when the AVE of a construct is greater than 0.5, this indicates convergent validity for the construct (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Since the AVEs of the eight constructs are higher than 0.5, the convergent validity of the measurement is also proved to be acceptable. Thus, the measurement model proves an adequate level of reliability and validity. Table 2. Exploratory factor analysis results Constructs Innovativeness

Items

Factor Loadings 1

I1

0.798

I2

0.828

I3

0.805

I4

0.826

2

3

4

5

Variance

6

7

8

Cronbach’s

Explained

alpha

9.401

0.843

1

The level of factor loading represents how well a factor explains a variable in factor analysis. The factor loading greater than 0.3 represents minimum level whereas the loading greater than 0.4 represents a more important explanation of the factor. Besides, the factor loading greater than 0.5 represents a really significant explanation of the factor (Gegez, 2007, p. 371). 2

Since the standardized regression weights of BC2 and BC3 were less than recommended level of 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010), these items were extracted and not included in further analyses. Descriptions of these items are shown in Appendix (see Table 6).

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Risk Averseness

Brand Consciousness

Price/Value Consciousness

RA1

0.766

RA2

0.816

RA3

0.750

BC1

0.700

BC2

0.434

BC3

0.537

BC4

0.756

BC5

0.802

PVC1

0.795

PVC2

0.821

PVC3

0.809

PVC4

0.851

PVC5

0.747

PVC6

0.785

PVC7

0.701

Confused by Overchoice

Time Pressure

Negative Past Experience

Shopping Hesitation

CO1

0.764

CO2

0.673

CO3

0.766

CO4

0.832

TP1

0.751

TP2

0.731

TP3

0.755

NE1

0.860

NE2

0.833

SH1

0.617

SH2

0.770

SH3

0.802

SH4

0.778

SH5

0.788

Eigen Values

2.853

1.023

2.041

8.257

1.914

1.552

1.371

5.107

0.704

7.439

0.707

19.697

0.934

6.625

0.817

6.290

0.719

5.222

0.755

9.537

0.845

3.865

Total Variance Explained (%) 69.318 KMO Measue of Sampling Adequacy: 0.813 Barlett‟s Test of Sphericity: Chi-Square: 9740.45; df: 528; Sig. 0.000

Although composite reliability and AVE values are acceptable, it is also important to test the discriminant validity of the measurement. In order to assess the validity of the constructs, Fornell and Larcker‟s (1981) measure of discriminat validity was conducted. According to this measure, correlation between constructs must be less than the square root of the constructs‟ AVEs. For instance, the correlation between innovativeness and brand consciousness is 0.469 and the square root of the AVEs of innovativeness and brand consciousness were 0.766 and 0.738, respectively; that means both square root of AVEs were greater than the correlation (0.469). Similarly, the square roots of all constructs‟ AVEs are more than the correlations among all constructs. Thus, all constructs have

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acceptable discriminant validity. So, the results satisfy the requirement of the discriminant validity. According to all these results, reliability and validity tests are adequate in this study. Table 4 presents the results of discriminant validity test.

Table 3. Confirmatory factor analysis results Constructs I

RA

BC

PVC

CO

TP

NPE

SH

Items

Standardized Regression Weights

Composite Reliability

AVE

The Square Root of AVE

I1

0.686***

0.884

0.588

0.766

I2

0.773***

I3

0.768***

I4

0.811***

RA1

0.785***

0.821

0.715

0.846

RA2

0.863***

RA3

0.819***

BC1

0.503***

0.735

0.545

0.738

BC4

0.737***

BC5

0.813***

PVC1

0.803***

0.916

0.613

0.783

PVC2

0.837***

PVC3

0.889***

PVC4

0.908***

PVC5

0.838***

PVC6

0.811***

PVC7

0.662***

CO1

0.610***

0.861

0.612

0.782

CO2

0.618***

CO3

0.797***

CO4

0.785***

TP1

0.719***

0.834

0.626

0.791

TP2

0.639***

TP3

0.658***

NPE1

0.868***

0.773

0.636

0.797

NPE2

0.635***

SH1

0.585***

0.882

0.607

0.779

SH2

0.918***

SH3

0.877***

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SH4

0.683***

SH5

0.610***

***p<0.001

Table 4. Discriminant validity test Constructs I

I

RA

BC

P/VC

CO

TP

NE

SH

( 0.766)

RA

0.000

(0.846)

BC

0.469

-0.214

( 0.738)

PVC

-0.001

0.613

-0.190

(0.783)

CO

0.272

0.327

0.110

0.420

(0.782)

TP

-0.19

0.341

0.082

0.337

0.282

(0.791)

NPE

0.216

0.197

0.264

0.068

0.337

0.274

(0.797)

SH

0.009

0.308

-0.186

0.393

0.322

0.283

0.145

(0.779)

*Values in bracket indicates square root of the AVEs of the constructs.

After the reliability and validity of the measurement model were tested, its relevance to the observed data was evaluated. The assesment of measurement model fit was based on some multiple criteria; chi-square (χ2 ) = 1094.419 with 352 degree of freedom (df); adjusted chi-square (χ2/df ) = 3.109; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.962; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.963; Tucker Lewis index (TLI) = 0.957; normed fit index (NFI) = 0.940; relative fit index (RFI) = 0.905 and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.055. All these values are acceptable based on model fit criterias recomended by Schumacker and Lomax (2004). Since the measurement model proved an adequate level of reliability, validity and model fit indices, SEM was conducted to test the research hypotheses. 4.2. Structural Model Assessments 4.2.1. Structural model fit and hypothesis testing Following adequate level of reliability, validity and model fit indices of the measurement model, structural model fit was tested. Then, relationships in the model were tested through path analysis. The overall fit statistics of the structural model are as follows; chi square = 1191.084; df = 360; χ2/df = 3.309 is lower than 5; CFI = 0.951; IFI = 0.953; TLI = 0.947 are higher than or at 0.95; NFI = 0.930 and RFI = 0.895 are higher than or at 0.90 and RMSEA = 0.058 is close to <0.05 level of recommended (Schumacker and Lomax, 2004, p. 82). Since all fit indices are at recommended levels, the research model fit can be acceptable. The results of hypotheses test are shown in Table 5. In adddition, the regression weights of structural model and a more detailed table is shown in Appendix (see Table 7). Table 5. Hypotheses testing of the structural model Path

Hypothesis

Path Coefficient

Standard Error

t- statistic

a

p value

Result

I

SH

H1

0.070

0.045

1.545

0.122

Not Supported

RA

SH

H2

0.180

0.087

2.068

0.039**

Supported

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

BC

SH

H3

-0.209

0.054

-3.856

0.000***

Supported

PVC

SH

H4

0.366

0.119

3.073

0.002***

Supported

CO

SH

H5

0.181

0.048

3.476

0.000***

Supported

TP

SH

H6

0.192

0.063

3.042

0.002***

Supported

NPE

SH

H7

0.074

0.076

0.977

0.329

Not Supported

a

t- values (two tailed test) ***2.58 (sig. level 1%).**1.96 (sig. level 5%).

The results of the research hypotheses verify that five of the seven hypotheses are supported. H3, H4, H5 and H6 are supported at p<.01, whereas H2 is supported at p<.05. Specifically, the findings show that price/value consciousness and brand consciousness have relatively stronger effects on shopping hesitation compared to other constructs‟ effects. Price/value consciousness has a positive and statistically significant effect on shopping hesitation (H4: β = 0.366, t = 3.073, p<.01). That means as the level of price/value consciousness increases, the level of shopping hesitation also increases. This finding is also supported by the study of Cho et al. (2006). In addition, the more brand conscious a consumer is the less hesitation he feels inside the store when buying an electronic product. So, there is a negative relationship between brand consciousness and shopping hesitation and this effect is also one of the strongest effect on hesitation (H3: β = -0.209, t = -3.856, p<.01). Thus, H3 and H4 are supported. Findings also support the prediction that time pressure has a statistically significant effect on shopping hesitation (H6: β = 0.192, t = 3.042, p<.01), supporting H6. Since the relation between two constructs is positive, the greater the time pressure is the more likey consumers hesitate in purchasing electronic product inside the store. Further, the study proved that a consumer confused by overchoice is more likey to feel hesitation in his electronic product purchasing. That means there is a positive and statistically significant relationship between confused by over choice and shopping hesitation (H5: β = 0.181, t = 3.476, p<.01). Thus, H5 is supported. Similarly, Walsh et al. (2001) point out that consumers are less likely to make optimal choices if they experience information overload. Findings of this study also show that risk averseness has a positive and significant effect on shopping hesitation (H2: β = 0.180, t = 2.068, p<.05), supporting H2. Similar to this finding, Yousaf et al. (2012) indicate the important role of risk factor on consumer hesitation in their study. Lastly, two hypotheses (H1 and H7) received no support. The exception is the prediction that there is a positive relationship between consumer innovativeness and shopping hesitation. Yet, this study found no significant effect of innovativeness on shopping hesitation (H1: β = 0.070, t = 1.545, p = 0.122). Thus, H1 is not supported. This result differs from the findings of Chao et al. (2013), indicating a relation between hesitation of adopting an electronic product and innovativeness. This contradiction may emerge from the differences between focus points of two studies. This study focuses on hesitation during purchasing an electronic product, whereas Chao et al. (2013) focus on hesitation of adopting an electronic product. Contradictory findings may also emerge from different scales used to measure innovativeness. The current study adopted domain specific innovativeness scale, characterizing consumer with his speed of purchase and early buyer of a new poduct (Goldsmith and Hofacker, 1991). Nevertheless, no significant relation is found between these characteristics (e.g. speed of buying a new electronic product) and feeling of hesitation during electronic product purchasing. Unexpectedly, no significant relation between negative past experience and hesitation in purchasing electronic product is found (H7: β = 0.074, t = 0.977, p = 0.329), consequently not supporting H7. Although proved effect of experience on decision making (Su et al., 2012), negative past experience is not treated as the predictor of shopping hesitation in this study. In sum, all hypotheses about consumers‟ shopping hesitation (except for H1 and H7) are supported in the study. 5. Discussion and Conclusion This study offers a model of hesitation in purchasing electronic product from offline electronics stores. The study reveals that different sets of factors are closely related to overall hesitation while shopping for electronic products. Firstly, most of the personality trait factors are found to affect shopping

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hesitation. The analysis results support the significant effects of brand consciousness, price value consciousness, risk averseness and confused by overchoice on hesitancy to buy electronic product. Especially, findings propose the strong influences of brand consciousness and price/value consciousness on shopping hesitation. It is supported in this study that as the level of consumers‟ brand consciousness increases, the feeling of hesitation in purchasing electronic product decreases. Since brand conscious consumers tend to buy their favaroble and well known brands, they will be more likely to ignore other product brand. So, there will be no need for brand conscious consumers to hesitate. It can be inferred from this finding that a well known brand may create a feeling of trust. As a result, brand conscious consumer feels less hesitation during his purchasing. In other words, brand conscious consumers are more likely to close their buying successfully, without feeling hesitation. This supports the study of Malik et al. (2013) that indicates important role of a well known brand while buying a product. This finding of current study is also similar to Radam et al. (2011) indicating sensitivity of consumers towards brand name products and its strong influence on a successful purchasing. Thus, it is advisable for electronics stores to dictate brand name product and have strategy for their brands to reduce consumers‟ hesitation. Another way for hesitation reduction is to sell speciality brands in their electronics stores or create trust and love for their brands in the minds of consumers in order to compete with rivals. While brand conscious consumers search for quality and may ignore the price for high quality, price/ value conscious consumers are sensitive to both price and guality. This study reveals that there is a positive relationship between price/value consciousness and shopping hesitation. Since decision makers belonging to this group need more time to compare price paid and quality, they feel more hesitation and are more likely to delay their purchasing. This finding is also supported by Cho et al. (2006). Logically, one of the reason to postphone purchasing can be a need for a chance to compare other alternatives. Thus, big stores can be more advantegous for price/value conscious consumers because they can find many products in one store. So, electronics stores can extend their product variety, try to sell different brands, having different prices and quality. After all, they should target and differentiate individuals since they have different needs. Findings also emphasize the importance of risk averseness and confused by overchoice as personality traits on consumers‟ feelings of hesitation. The factors that create hesitation while shopping are thought to be especially important because of increased technology and variety of products in consumer electronics industry. So, it is not suprising that overload of information, many kinds of products and need to know about these products cause hesitation while purchasing electronic products. This result is consistent with the results of Inman and Zeelenberg‟s (2002) study. They indicate that when faced with new options, consumers tend to repeat the decision they made before to avoid anticipated regret. So they may apply hesitation reduction strategies. For example, they may choose the same or a well known brand. One way to reduce hesitation resulted from confused by overchoice is to provide consumers with desired information. At this point, the role of salesperson should not be ignored. Because providing the desired information immediately and trying to persuade consumers can be an important competitive advantage of offline consumer electronics stores. This stategy is also advisable for persuading risk averse consumers. Since risk averse consumers want to avoid risky alternative and want to be sure that purchase decision is right, there is also need to reduce their hesitation. Significant effect of risk averseness on hesitation behavior is also supported by the studies of Cho et al. (2006) and Yousaf et al (2012). Since level of risk aversion influence feeling of hesitation, consumer‟s risk profile should be identified. Offering money back gurantee can also be a way for reducing shopping hesitation because it may help consumers to feel safe. Moreover offline electronic stores are more likely to identify these certain traits, because these stores have a chance for face to face communication with their customers. When contextual factors are examined, time pressure is stated as an antecedent of shopping hesitation. The positive effect of limited time on shopping hesitation is also supported by the study of Cooke at al. (2001). As Hasan and Nasreen (2012) indicate, one way to reduce hesitation is to give enough time to customers inside the store, so that they can make up their mind. The role of salesperson should also not be ignored at this stage. In the context of time pressure, it is advisable for consumers to have more time during their electronic product purchasing in order to avoid hesitation. 108

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In the context of negative past experience as a contextual factor, this study finds no significant relationship between negative past experience and shopping hesitation. Although Su et al. (2012) indicate that consumers‟ behaviors can be shaped by experiences, the current study reveals that similar relation can not be talked between negative past experience and shopping hesitation. This may because consumers‟ being sure about defectives of the product and being sure on other alternative product due to negative experience of prior one. This finding differs from the study of Cho et al. (2006). The findings of this research reveal that it is important for electronic strores to succesfully target and differentiate individuals. Future studies can expand this research by examining hesitation behavior in different types of electronics stores, because different types of retails respond different preferences (Krishen et al., 2010, p.174). Future researchs can also choose among different electronic products (e.g. mobile phone, television, computer, white good, and home appliances) to make comparison. Comparing different retail formats and different kinds of electronic products can provide marketers with a more specific view to differentiate their customers and to develope strategies for hesitation reduction. This research is also limited with consumer electronics stores only. Future researchs can test the prosed model on different kinds of stores, such as grocery stores, clothing stores and personal care stores. Thus, cosumers‟ hesitation behavior can be compared among the stores in different industries. References Aaker, D.A. (1992). The value of brand equity. Journal of Business Starategy, 13(4), 27-32. Anic, I.D., Suleska, A.C., & Rajh, E. (2010). Decision-Making Styles of Young Adult Consumer in the Republic of Macedonia. Ekonomska İstrazivanja, 23(4), 102-113. Akdoğan, Ş., & Karaaslan, M.H. (2013). Consumer innovativeness. Atatürk Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 27(2), 1-20. Bandara, W.M.C. (2014). Consumer decision-making styles and local brand biasness: Exploration in the Czech Republic. Journal of Competitiveness, 6(1), 3-17. Bauer, H.H., Sauer, N.E., & Becker, C. (2006). Investigating the relationship between prouct involvement and consumer decision-making styles. Journal of Consumer Behavior, 5, 342-354. Bei, L., Lin, Y. T., & Yu, C.M. (2007). The relationship between consumer guilt and shoping behavior. In NA-Advances in Consumer Research, G. Fitzsimons & V. Morwitz (Eds.), Duluth, MN: Association for Consumer Research, 34, 405-408. Cao, Y., & Li, Y. (2007). An intelligent fuzzy-based recommendation system for consumer electronic products. Expert Sytems with Applications, 33, 230-240. Chao, C.W., Reid, M., & Mavondo, F.T. (2012). „Consumer innovativeness influence on really new product adoption. Australasian Marketing Journal, 20(3), 211–217. Chao, C.W., Reid, M., & Mavondo, F.T. (2013). Global cosumer innovativeness and consumer electronic product adoption. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 25(4), 614-630. Cho, C.H., Kang, J., & Cheon, H.J. (2006). Online shopping hesitation. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 9(3), 261-274. Chodchuang, S., & Haron, M.S. (2012). Cognitive customer experience of women shopper in personal interaction in Thailand‟s department store: An examination of the influence of previous experience. Business Management Dynamics, 1(10), 10-21. Clark, R.A., & Goldsmith, R.E. (2006). Interpersonal influence and consumer innovativeness. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 30(1), 34-43. Cooke, A.D.J., Meyvis, T., & Schwartz, A. (2001). Avoiding future regret in purchase-timing decisions. Journal of Consumer Research, 27(4), 447-459. Coppola, J., & Sousa, K.J. (2008). Characteristics affecting the abandonment of e-commerce shopping carts-A pilot study. Conference Proceedings for the Northeast Region Decision Sciences Institute, p.384.

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Cox, A., Cox, D., & Zimet, G. (2006). Understanding consumer responses to product risk information. Journal of Marketing, 70(1), 79-91. Deloitte. (2014). Electronics sector in Turkey. March, 2014, www.invest.gov.tr. Accessed: 09.08.2016 De Matos, C.A., Ituassu, C.T., & Rossi, C.A.V. (2007). Consumer attitude toward counterfeits: A review and extension. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 24(1), 36-47. Egeln, L.S., & Joseph, J.A. (2012). Shopping car abondanment in online shopping. Atlantic Marketing Journal, 1(1), Inaugural Issue: (Winter 2012). Eryiğit, C., & Kavak, B. (2011). Attitudinal and behavioral consistency of consumer innovativeness. H.Ü. İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 29(2), 95-113. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D.F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(81), 39-50. Gegez, E. (2007). Pazarlama Araştırmaları. Beta Publications, İstanbul. Gerbing, D.W., & Anderson, J.C. (1988). An update paradigm for scale development incorporating unidimensionality and its assessment. Journal of Marketing Research, 22, 11-19. Goldsmith, R.E., & Hofacker, C. F. (1991). Measuring consumer innovativeness. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 19(3), 209-221. Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L., & Black, W. (1998). Multivariate data analysis. International 5th ed. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L., & Black, W. (2010). Multivariate data analysis. 7th ed. USA: Prentice Hall. Hasan, U., & Nasreen, R. (2012). Cognitive dissonance and its impact on consumer buying behavior. Journal of Business and Management, 1(4), 7-12. Hirschman, E.C. (1980). Innovativeness, novelty seeking and consumer creativity. Journal of Consumer Research, 7(3), 283-295. Inman, J.J. & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). Regret in repeat purchase versus switching decisions: The attenuating role of decision justifiability. Journal of Consumer Research, 19(1), 116-128. URL: Knowles, E.S., Cutter, H. S. G., Walsh, D.H., & Casey, N.A. (1973). Risk-taking as a personality trait. Social Behavior and Personality, 1(2), 122-136. Krishen, A. S., Bui, M., & Peter, P.C. (2010). Retail kiosks: how regret and variety influence consumption. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 38(3), 173-189. Kwahk, J., & Han, S.H. (2002). A methodology for evaluating the usability of audiovisual consumer electronic products. Applied Ergonomics, 33, 419-431. Lichtenstein, D.R., Ridgway, N.M., & Netemeyer, R.G. (1993). Price perceptions and consumer behavior: A field study. Journal of Marketing Research, 30(2), 234-245. Madran, C., & Esen, K. (2002). Yeniliklerin kabul süreci: Üniversite öğrencileri ile yapılan bir pilot çalışma. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 9(9), 136-152. Malik, M.E., Ghafoor, M.M. Iqbal, H.K. (2013). Importance of brand awareness and brand loyalty in assessing purchase intentions of consumer. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4(5), 167-171. Midgley, D.F., & Dowling, G.R. (1993). A longitudinal study of product form innovation: The interaction between predispositions and social messages. Journal of Consumer Research, 19(4), 611-625. Mitchell, V.W., & Bates, L. (1998). UK consumer decision-making styles. Journal of Marketing Management, 14, 199-225. Mokhlis, S. (2009). An investigation of consumer decision-making styles of young adults in Malaysia. International Journal of Business and Management, 4(4), 140-148. Mohebbi, F., Bistooni, S.M., Sabet, S.A.M., Badri, M.H., & Bolooki, A. (2015). Evaluation of consumer decision-making styles when buying cosmetics products (A case study in Iran), Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 5(125), 226-232.

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Okada, E.M. (2010). Uncertainty, risk aversion, and WTA vs. WTP. Marketing Science, 29(1), 75-84. PLMA (2011). Consumer research survey of shopping behavior: How shoppers make decision? Private Label Manufacturer‟s Association‟s Consumer Research Report. Accessed: 08.20.2016 Radam, A., Ali, M.H., & Leng, Y.S. (2011). Decision-making style of Chinese consumer on clothing. Journal of Global Business Management, 7(2), 1-8. Rawlings, E. (1970). Reactive quilt and anticipatory quilt in altruistic behavior. In J. Macaulay & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and Helping Behavior (pp. 163-177). New York, NY: Academic Press. Roehrich, G. (2004). Consumer innovativeness concepts and measurements. Journal of Business Research, 57, 671-677. Roselius, T. (1971). Consumer rankings of risk reduction methods. Journal of Marketing, 35(January 1971), 56-61. Saptalawungan, S. (2015). Hesitation to buy counterfeit products: An Indonesian perspective. Proceedings of International Conference on Management Finance Economics, July (11-12). Schiffman, L.G., & Kanuk, L. (2008). Consumer Behavior. New York: Prentice Hall. Schumacker, R.E., & Lomax, R.G. (2004). Beginner’s Guide to Structural Equation Modeling. New Jersey: Erlbaum Associates. Schwartz, B. (2004). The paradox of choice: Why more is less. HarperCollins Publishers. Shao, W., & Shao, G. (2011). Understanding choice-goal compatibility, dissonance and decision satisfaction. Australian Marketing Journal, 19, 14-21. Shen, Y., Sun, H., & Chan, H.C. (2013). Understanding consumer decision making for complex choices: The effects of individual and contextual factors. Thirty Fourth International Conference on Information Systems, Milan, 1-13. Shim, S., & Gehrt, K.C. (1996). Hispanic and Native American Adolescents: An Exploratory Study of Their Approach to Shopping. Journal of Retailing, 72(3), 307-324. Singh, A.K., & Tiwari, A. (2015). Exploring the utility of vague concept for uncertainty and hesitation management. International Journal of Hybrid Information Technology, 8(12), 153-170. Spanjaard, D., Freeman, L., & Young, L. (2008). Why happy shoppers don’t stop and think. Australia and New Zealand Marketing Academy Conference, December (1-3), New South Wales, Australia. Sproles, E.K., & Sproles, G.B. (1990). Consumer decision-making styles as a function of individual learning styles. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 24, 134-147. Su, K.W., Wang, J.W., & Hsu, M.H. (2012). The impact of prior experience on shopping behaviors. Journal of Chinese Institute of Industrial Engineers, 29(6), 400-416. Tsiros, M., & Mittal, V. (2000). Regret: A model of its antecedents and consequences in consumer decision making. Journal of Consumer Research, 26(4), 401-417. Ünal, S., & Erciş, A. (2008). The role of gender differences in determining the style of consumer- decision making. Boğaziçi Jourmal, 22(1-2), 89-106. Verhoef, P.C., Lemon, K.N., Parasuraman, A., Roggeeven, A., Tsiros, M., & Schlesinger, L.A. (2009). Customer experience creation: Determinants, dynamics and management strategies, Journal of Retailing, 85(1), 31-41. Walsh, G., Mitchell, V.W., & Hennig-Thurau, T. (2001). German consumer decision makig styles. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 35(1), 73-95. Yeniçeri, T., Yaraş, E., & Akın, E. (2012). Determining of consumers‟ online shopping risk perception and online impulse tendency according to risk aversion level. International Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences, 5(9), 145-163. Yousaf, U., Altaf, M., & Sarwar, N. (2012). Hesitancy towards online shopping: A study of Pakistani consumers. Management & Marketing, X (2), 273-284. Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2007). A theory of regret regulation 1.0. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17(1),

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3-18.

Appendix (See Table 6) Table 6. Measurement of constructs Items

Reference

Innovativeness I1 I2 I3 I4

I will buy a best new electronic product, even if I have not heard it yet. In general, I am among the first in my circle of friends to buy a new electronic product when it appears. If I heard that a new electronic product was available in the store I will be interested enough to buy it.

Goldsmith and Hofacker (1991)

I know the names of electronic products before other people do.

Risk Averseness RA1

When I buy something, I prefer not taking risk.

RA2

I like to be sure the product is a good one before buying it.

RA3

I don‟t like to feel uncertainty when I buy something

De Matos et al., (2007)

Brand Consciouness BC1

I have favorite brands which I buy every time.

BC2

I prefer buying the best-selling brands.

BC3

I usually buy well known brands.

BC4

I usually buy the more expensive brands

BC5

The most advertised brands are usually god choices.

Mitchell and Bates (1998)

Price/Value Consciousness PVC1 PVC2 PVC3 PVC4 PVC5 PVC6 PVC7

I am very concerned about low prices, but I am equally concerned about product quality. When buying electronic product, I compare theprices of different brands to be sure I get the best value for money. When purchasing electronic product, I always try to maximize the quality I get for the money spend. When I buy electronic product, I like to be sure that I am getting my money‟s worth. I generally shop around for lower prices on products, but they still must meet ceratin quality requirements before I buy them. When I shop, I usually compare the „price per ounce” information brands I normally buy. I always check prices at the technological store to be sure I get the best value for money.

Lichtenstein et al., (1993)

Confused by Overchoice CO1

The more I learn about products, the harder it seems to choose the best.

CO2

All the information I get on different products confuses me.

CO3

Sometimes it si hard to choose which stores to shop.

CO4

There are so many brands to choose from that I often feel confused.

Walsh et al., (2001)

Time Pressure TP1

I am too busy to devote time to the purchase decisions.

TP2

I spend little time deciding on the products and brands I buy.

TP3

I shop quickly, buying the first product or brand I find that seems good enough.

Cho et al., (2006)

Negative Past Experience NPE1

I am overall dissatisfied with the electronic products I have purchased.

NPE2

My overall shopping for electronic products are unsatisfactory.

Cho et al., (2006)

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Shopping Hesitation I hesitate to purchase electronic products at the final stage afer spending some time finding products. I sometimes delay my final purchase decision at the store at the checkout stage I can decide not to buy products that I sepend some time at the store trying to find. I am almost ready to buy electronic products; I can not make the final decision (it is hard forme to make the final decision) I search for specific electronic products with some purchase intention, but do not make the final decisions at the same time in store.

SH1 SH2 SH3 SH4 SH5

Cho et al., (2006)

Items in italics (BC2 and BC3) were extracted from further analysis because of their low factor loadindgs in confirmatory factor analysis.

Appendix (see Table 7) Table 7. Regression weights of structural model Estimate

Standard Error

Critical Ratio

P

SH

<--

I

0.070

0.045

1.545

0.122

SH

<--

RA

0.180

0.087

2.068

0.039

SH

<--

BC

-0.209

0.054

-3.856

0.000

SH

<--

PVC

0.366

0.119

3.073

0.002

SH

<--

CO

0.181

0.048

3.746

0.000

SH

<--

TP

0.192

0.063

3.042

0.002

SH

<--

NPE

0.074

0.076

0.977

0.329

I1

<--

I

0.741

0.046

16.259

0.000

I2

<--

I

0.829

0.044

18.789

0.000

I3

<--

I

0.963

0.852

18.557

0.000

I4

<--

I

1.000

RA1

<--

RA

1.252

0.062

20.089

0.000

RA2

<--

RA

1.118

0.048

23.052

0.000

RA3

<--

RA

1.000

BC1

<--

BC

0.441

0.058

7.564

0.000

BC4

<--

BC

0.833

0.067

12.380

0.000

BC5

<--

BC

1.000

PVC1

<--

PVC

1.322

0.081

16.283

0.000

PVC2

<--

PVC

1.235

0.072

17.110

0.000

PVC3

<--

PVC

1.263

0.072

17.499

0.000

PVC4

<--

PVC

1.217

0.068

17.791

0.000

PVC5

<--

PVC

1.088

0.070

15.525

0.000

PVC6

<--

PVC

1.263

0.060

20.895

0.000

PVC7

<--

PVC

1.000

CO1

<--

CO

0.780

0.060

13.098

0.000

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C02

<--

CO

0.706

0.055

12.930

0.000

CO3

<--

CO

0.947

0.055

17.265

0.000

CO4

<--

CO

1.000

TP1

<--

TP

1.193

0.104

11.460

0.000

TP2

<--

TP

0.952

0.086

11.020

0.000

TP3

<--

TP

1.000

NP1

<--

NP

1.868

0.282

6.628

0.000

NP2

<--

NP

1.000

SH1

<--

SH

0.758

0.66

11.520

0.000

SH2

<--

SH

0.807

0.068

11.819

0.000

SH3

<--

SH

1.330

0.111

12.025

0.000

SH4

<--

SH

1.219

0.097

12.518

0.000

SH5

<--

SH

1.000

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ANALYZING UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ DIGITAL EMPOWERMENT Ahmet Oguz AKTURK Necmettin Erbakan University, Eregli Faculty of Education / Turkey [email protected] Baris EMLEK Selcuk University, Cumra Vocational School / Turkey [email protected] Abstract Today, sharing and restructuring of large amounts of information produced by digital technologies for the purpose of using them require individuals to possess some digital skills. Digital empowerment, which is defined as effective use of digital technologies, will influence the future of both individuals and societies. In this study, digital empowerment levels of university students were investigated. The study group consists of 298 students attending a large university in Turkey. Survey model was used to design the current study and in order to determine university students’ digital empowerment levels, “Digital Empowerment Scale”, which is composed of 45 items under 4 factors, was used in this study. The data obtained as a result of the study, indicated that the digital empowerment levels of university students were high in the awareness and motivation dimensions whereas they were at a medium level in the technical access and empowerment dimensions. In addition, university students’ digital empowerment levels exhibited a significant difference in favor of male students in the motivation and empowerment dimensions in terms of gender variable. When the matter was investigated in terms of the department variable, a significant difference was observed in the awareness, motivation and empowerment dimensions in favor of the students attending the department of mathematics while a significant difference was seen in the technical access dimension in terms of the students attending the department of law. Finally, the university students’ digital empowerment levels according to the perceived computer usage level exhibited a significant difference in all of the dimensions (awareness, motivation, technical access and empowerment) in favor of those whose perceived computer usage levels are high. Keywords: Digital empowerment, university students, gender.

INTRODUCTION It cannot be denied that today societies need to possess digital technologies to maintain their existence and develop. Possessing digital technologies alone is not enough to solve problems encountered in daily life. At the same time, it is increasingly becoming necessary that one should have certain digital skills to use these technologies. The term digital is defined as “electronic display of data on a screen” (TDK, 2016); the term empowerment, on the other hand, is stated to be “developing and controlling skills and abilities that will enable individuals to learn by themselves the information they need” (Harvey, 2004). The term “Digital Empowerment”, which is composed of these two terms, can be expressed as the ability to use digital technologies. Makinen (2006) defined the concept of “Digital Empowerment” as individuals’ ability to reach, using digital technologies, the information they need from among large amounts of information, interpret and evaluate this information and generate new information from it. Akkoyunlu, Soylu and Çağlar (2010), on the other hand, defined digital empowerment as making use of the possibilities offered by digital technologies in the best way. Makinen (2006) listed the four sub-factors of digital empowerment as awareness (understanding the need for using a new technology as well as its uses), motivation (needs of using a new technology and understanding its benefits), technical access (possessing the software and hardware necessary for benefiting from the opportunities offered by digital technologies) and empowerment (knowledge, skills and efficiency to use digital technologies/technological literacy skill). Along with digital empowerment, “Digital Divide” and “Digital Gap” are also frequently used expressions. Digital divide/gap has been the most controversial subject of information technology law and information technology policy. According to Menschel (2011), digital divide is a state where differences or inequality occur among individuals in terms of digital empowerment. Although digital divide is used to define the gap among those who have and do not have internet access in the early 21st century in Europe, it was also defined in a congress on information technology held in 2008 as a difference or gap among individuals in terms of awareness of digital technology and using digital technology. In a study conducted by Keniston and Kumar (2003), digital divide was subsumed under four headings, namely economic imbalance among

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN individuals, linguistic and cultural differences, economic conditions of nations and differences between urban and rural lives. Digital divide has become an issue for countries now and governments have sought ways to reduce digital gap by developing new policies and strategies (Hague & Williamson, 2009). Some problems are also being experienced in the process of integration of citizens into digital technologies in the e-government project which constitutes the backbone of the projects with digital technology content initiated to accelerate the running of the state in Turkey and render the communication between state and citizen more effective. It is emphasized that the most prominent problem in the development of e- government is digital gap (Şişman, Alkış, & Maraş, 2011). In our age, for our individuals to use digital technologies effectively, they first need to know areas of use of these technologies and to what extent they raise the quality of their daily lives. In short, they need to understand how and why digital technologies have to be learned. Having digital empowerment both individually and socially is an indication of the level of social development. Digital technology is of great significance in every aspect of daily life but it is also gaining more importance in learning environments. Among the factors influencing effective use of digital technologies in learning environments, attitude towards these technologies is of prime importance (Gokhale, Brauchle, & Machina, 2013). Although attitudes towards technology were investigated extensively in various past studies conducted on research groups having different characteristics (Hignite & Echternacht, 1992; Teo, 2010; Teo, Lee, Chai, & Wong, 2009; Teo & Noyes, 2011; Yavuz & Coşkun, 2008), it can be said that studies investigating levels of digital empowerment according to different variables are limited. In one of these limited studies, digital empowerment levels of 598 pre-service teachers attending different departments were investigated and it was concluded that digital empowerment levels of pre-service teachers were high (Gökçearslan & Bayır, 2011). In another study conducted by Kazu and Erten (2014), it was determined that digital empowerment levels of pre-service teachers were at a medium level, that awareness sub-dimension was higher compared with the other sub-dimensions but that the technical access subdimension was low. In the same study, again, it was seen that the digital empowerment levels of male and female pre-service teachers were at a medium level but that female pre-service teachers were at a higher level than male ones in the motivation and awareness sub-dimensions whereas male pre-service teachers were at a higher level in the technical access sub-dimension. In this study, we aimed to investigate the digital empowerment levels of university students attending different departments. METHOD The Research Model The survey model was used to determine the university students’ digital empowerment levels. The survey model aims to determine a situation existing now or in the past as it is or as it was (Karasar, 2003). More clearly, this research method is used to define the structure of objects, societies and institutions and the way phenomena take place (Cohen, Manioni, & Morrison, 2007). The Research Group 298 university students attending a university in Central Turkey participated in the study on a volunteer basis. The demographic features of the research group are given in Table 1. Table 1. Demographic Features of the University Students Variables Gender Department Perceived Computer Use Levels

Choice Female Male Law Mathematics Low High

n 153 145 154 144 220 78

f (%) 51,3 48,7 51,7 48,3 73,8 26,2

As can be seen in Table 1, 153 (51,3 %) of the students participating in the study were female whereas 145 (48,7 %) of them were male. When the departments where the university students were attending were taken into consideration, it was seen that 154 (51,7 %) of the students were studying in the department of law, 116

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN while 144 (48,3 %) of them were studying in the department of mathematics. 220 (62,1 %) of the university students regarded their computer use level as low whereas 78 (26,2 %) of them considered it to be high.

Data Collection Instruments The “Digital Empowerment Scale” was used to collect data from the university students participating in the study. Personal Information Form A personal information form prepared by the researchers was used in the study to determine the genders of the university students, the type of schools they were attending and their perceived levels of computer use. Closed-ended questions connected with the aforementioned variables were asked in the personal information form and the adolescents participating in the study were asked to tick the choices suiting them. The Digital Empowerment Scale for University Students The “Digital Empowerment Scale”, which was developed by Akkoyunlu, Yılmaz Soylu and Çağlar (2010) and for which reliability and validity studies were conducted on 761 university students, was used in the study in order to determine the digital empowerment levels of the university students. The scale consists of four sub-dimensions. There are 45 items in total in the scale, of which 9 belong to the “Awareness” subdimension, 10 to the “Motivation” sub-dimension, 10 to the “Technical Access” sub-dimension and finally 16 to the “Empowerment” sub-dimension. In the Digital Empowerment Scale, which is a 7-point Likert type scale, the participants were asked to tick one of the seven choices, namely 1-I Totally Disagree, 2-I Disagree, 3-I Partially Disagree, 4-I am Undecided, 5-I Partially Agree, 6-I Agree, 7-I totally Agree. These choices are given scores of 1, 2, …7 respectively. There are no items in the scale that were scored reversely. It was recommended in the scale that instead of obtaining a total score from the scale, a total score should be obtained for each sub-dimension and digital empowerment levels should be assessed on the basis of subdimensions. It was emphasized that as the total score increased in each sub-dimension, so would the digital empowerment level. Cronbach α internal consistency coefficients concerning the reliability of the scale were calculated and Cronbach α was found to be 0,86 for the whole scale, 0,94 for the awareness sub-dimension, 0,84 for the motivation sub-dimension, 0,78 for the technical access sub-dimension and 0,81 for the empowerment sub-dimension. Analysis and Interpretation of the Data The reliability of the scale used in this study was re-calculated within the scope of this study. As a result of the calculations, Cronbach α internal consistency coefficient was found to be 0,84 for the “Awareness” subdimension, 0,86 for the “Motivation” sub-dimension, 0,64 for the “Technical Access” sub-dimension and 0,87 for the “Empowerment” sub-dimension. A Cronbach α internal consistency coefficient above 0,70 or higher indicates that the testing instrument is reliable (Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz, & Demirel, 2008). Coefficient of kurtosis and coefficient of skewness of the sub-dimensions of the scale were calculated through the data that were obtained from the scale in order to determine appropriate statistical techniques to be able to reach results that were scientifically valid. The values obtained as a consequence of the calculations are given Table 2. Table 2. Coefficient of Kurtosis and Coefficient of Skewness for the sub-dimensions of the Scale Awareness Motivation Technical Access Empowerment Skewness -,731 -,684 ,222 -,163 Kurtosis -,564 ,046 ,076 -,286 When the values given in Table 2 were examined, it was seen that the coefficient of kurtosis and coefficient of skewness calculated for each sub-dimension of the scale remained between the limits of -1 and +1, which indicated that the scores obtained from the sub-dimensions exhibited a normal distribution (Huck, 2012). As a result of this, it was decided that parametric tests be used on the data obtained from the scale descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data obtained within the scope of the study whereas independent sample t-test analysis was used to identify the differences between pairs. The scoring of the Digital Empowerment Scale according to the sub-dimensions was summarized as follows (Akkoyunlu, YılmazSoylu, & Çağlar, 2010). 117

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Table 3. Scoring of the Digital Empowerment Scale According to the Sub-Dimensions Scale Low Medium High Awareness (9 items) 9 – 27 28 – 46 47 – 63 Motivation (10 items) 10 – 30 31 – 50 51 – 70 Technical Access (10 items) 10 – 30 31 – 50 51 – 70 Empowerment (16 items) 16 – 47 48 – 80 81 – 112 FINDINGS Digital Empowerment Levels In the study, first, the university students’ digital empowerment levels were investigated. The university students’ digital empowerment levels were evaluated separately for each sub-dimension by calculating the total scores obtained from the sub-dimensions of the scale. High total scores from the sub-dimensions indicate that the digital empowerment level in the relevant sub-dimension is also high. Results of the analysis conducted according to this are shown in Table 4. Table 3.University Students’ Digital Empowerment Levels Digital Empowerment N Min. Max. X Awareness 298 17 63 48,20 Motivation 298 25 70 53,93 Technical Access 298 18 70 43,17 Empowerment 298 28 112 76,75

SD 8,271 9,444 9,277 15,974

When the average scores which the university students received from the sub-dimensions of the digital empowerment scale are examined, it is seen that their awareness ( X =48,20) and motivation ( X =53,93) levels are “High”, whereas their technical access ( X =43,17) and empowerment ( X =76,75) levels are “Medium” . Digital Empowerment Levels According to Gender The differences between the scores which the university students received from the Digital Empowerment Scale in terms of their gender were investigated using the independent sample t-test and the results of the analysis are given in Table 5. Table 4. Results of the Analysis of the University Students’ Digital Empowerment Levels According to Gender Scale

Sub-dimensions Awareness Motivation

Digital Empowerment Technical Access Empowerment

Gender Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male

N 153 145 153 145 153 145 153 145

X 47,63 48,80 52,88 55,04 43,49 42,84 74,04 79,61

SS 7,960 8,574 9,383 9,412 10,133 8,301 16,291 15,168

t

p

-1,224

,222

-1,988

,048

,606

,545

-3,053

,002

When the values given in Table 5 are examined, it is seen that there is a significant difference in favor of male students between the scores obtained from the motivation (t=-1,988; p<0,05) and empowerment (t=3,053; p<0,01) sub-dimensions of the Digital Empowerment Scale, whereas there is no significant difference between the scores obtained from the awareness (t=-1,224; p>0,05) and technical access (t=,606; p>0,05) subdimensions in terms of gender. These results indicate that compared with female students, male university students make more conscious and enthusiastic efforts to use digital technologies and possess more knowledge, skills and empowerments needed to use the digital technologies than female students

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Digital Empowerment Levels According to Their Relevant Departments The differences between the scores which the university students received from the Digital Empowerment Scale in terms of the departments they were attending were analyzed using the independent sample t-test and the results of the analysis are shown in Table 6. Table 6. Results of the Analysis of Digital Empowerment Levels According to their Departments Scale Sub-dimensions Department N SS t p X Law 154 46,71 8,437 Awareness -3,254 ,001 Mathematics 144 49,78 7,811 Law 154 51,32 9,651 Motivation -5,144 ,000 Mathematics 144 56,72 8,389 Digital Empowerment Law 154 45,26 10,029 Technical Access 4,153 ,000 Mathematics 144 40,94 7,839 Law 154 74,44 16,032 Empowerment -2,607 ,010 Mathematics 144 79,22 15,590 When the values given in Table 6 are examined, it is observed that the in terms of the departments of the students, there is a significant difference in favor of the students attending the mathematics department between the scores which the university students obtained from the awareness (t=-3,254; p<0,01), motivation (t=-5,144; p<0,01) and empowerment (t=-2,607; p<0,05) sub-dimensions of the Digital Empowerment Scale, whereas there is a significant difference in favor of the students attending the law department in the technical access (t=4,153; p<0,01) sub-dimension. These results indicate that compared with the students attending the law department, students in the mathematics department better understand the opportunities posed by the use of new technologies, that they make an effort of their own will to use digital technologies and possess more knowledge, skills and empowerment needed to use digital technologies. In addition, it can be said that compared with the students in the mathematics department, students attending the law department possess more hardware and software needed for internet access. Digital Empowerment Levels According to Their Perceived Computer Use Levels The differences between the scores which the university students received from the Digital Empowerment Scale were analyzed in terms of their perceived computer use levels using the independent sample t-test and the results of the analysis are shown in Table 7. Table 7. Results of the Analysis of the University Students’ Digital Empowerment Levels According to Their Perceived Computer Use Levels Scale Sub-dimensions Level N SS t p X Low 220 47,02 8,160 Awareness -4,235 ,000 High 78 51,51 7,709 Low 220 52,75 9,299 Motivation -3,712 ,000 High 78 57,27 9,096 Digital Empowerment Low 220 41,77 8,827 Technical Access -4,522 ,000 High 78 47,13 9,428 Low 220 73,52 15,371 Empowerment -6,221 ,000 High 78 85,86 14,086 When the values given in Table 7 are examined, it is seen that there is a significant difference in favor of those with high perceived computer use level between the scores obtained from all the sub-dimensions of the Digital Empowerment Scale (awareness [t=-4,235; p<0,01], motivation [t=-3,712; p<0,01], technical access [t=-4,522; p<0,01] and empowerment [t=-6,221; p<0,01]). These results indicate that university students with high perceived computer use levels are better aware of the potential opportunities posed by the use of new technologies, make a conscious effort to use digital technologies of their own will, possess more hardware and software needed for internet access and also have more knowledge, skills and empowerments necessary for the use of digital technologies.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION One needs to access information at the right place and at the right time in order to be able to integrate into the age of information we are living in and benefit by the potential opportunities offered by the rapidly developing technology. Today, spread of information to large masses in a speedy way depends on effective use of technologies forming and transmitting information. In this respect, technological literacy is of huge importance for all individuals but it is becoming even more so for university students who have to follow technology more closely. Therefore, determination of university students’ digital empowerment levels bears significance. In this study, university students’ digital empowerment levels were investigated in four subdimensions (awareness, motivation, technical access and empowerment). Within the scope of this study, an effort was made to determine whether or not the digital empowerment levels of university students differed significantly in the 4 sub-dimensions (awareness, motivation, technical access and empowerment) according to gender, department being attended and perceived level of computer use. According to the results obtained from the study: When the average scores which the university students obtained from the sub-dimensions in the scale were examined, it was seen that university students’ digital empowerment levels were “high” in the awareness and motivation sub-dimensions whereas they were “medium” in the technical access and empowerment subdimensions. These results are similar to the results obtained in Kazu and Erten’s (2014) and Timur, Timur and Akkoyunlu’s (2014) studies. Makinen (2006) emphasized in a study that high awareness and motivation levels meant digital empowerment existed. The fact that the students high scores from the awareness and motivation sub-dimensions of the scale reveals that they considered it necessary to use innovative technologies and that they exhibited enthusiastic and diligent behaviors while using those technologies. On the other hand, the fact that the low scores which the students received from the technical access sub-dimension might have resulted from their low level of possession of software and hardware necessary to make use of those technologies. Finally, medium scores obtained from the empowerment sub-dimension of the scale might have stemmed from the fact that the students’ knowledge and skills needed to be able to use technology were at a low level. When the university students’ digital empowerment levels were examined in terms of the gender variable, a significant difference was observed in the motivation and empowerment sub-dimensions in favor of male students whereas no such significant difference was observed in the scores received from the awareness and technical access sub-dimensions. In a study conducted by Kazu and Erten (2014), too, the digital empowerment scale developed by Akkoyunlu, Yılmaz Soylu and Çağlar (2010) was used as the data collection instrument, as we did in our study. In that study, when the scores obtained from the sub-dimensions of the scale were examined according to the gender variable, a significant different was found in the scores obtained from the awareness sub-dimension in favor of female students whereas a significant difference was found in the scores obtained from the empowerment sub-dimension in favor of male students. The same study also found that there was no significant difference in the scores obtained from the technical access and motivation sub-dimensions in terms of gender. It can be said that findings supporting our results were reached in some studies that were conducted using different testing tools (Kay, 1989; Yıldız, Kahyaoğlu, & Kaya, 2012). For example, in a study they conducted, Yıldız, Kahyaoğlu and Kaya (2012) concluded that male students’ technical literacy levels were higher than those of female students, while Kay (1989) stated that male students were at a better level concerning computer use skills and being technology-friendly. When the university students’ digital empowerment levels in terms of the departments they were attending were examined, it was found that there was a significant difference in favor of the students attending the mathematics department in the scores obtained from the awareness, motivation and empowerment subdimensions of the scale whereas there was a significant difference in favor law students in the technical access sub-dimension. It was emphasized in some studies where digital empowerment levels were investigated that empowerment levels varied by the department being attended (Gökçearslan & Bayır, 2011; Kazu & Erten, 2014; Timur, Timur, & Akkoyunlu, 2014). In one of these studies, Kazu and Erten (2014) concluded that students’ awareness and motivation levels varied according to the departments they were attending. It was also stated in the same study that students at the faculty of science had higher motivation and awareness levels compared with the students receiving education in other faculties. The result we obtained in our study can be explained by the fact that students in the mathematics department were attending a science department and they needed technology and computer software more in the department they were attending. On the other hand, the fact that the students in the law department were at a higher level in terms of technical access may have resulted from the fact that they had socio-economic advantages compared with the students attending the mathematics department. However, it was emphasized by Makinen (2006) that technical access alone was not enough for digital empowerment. 120

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN When the university students’ digital empowerment levels were investigated in terms of their perceived computer use levels, it was found that the scores obtained from all of the sub-dimensions of the scale (awareness, motivation, technical access and empowerment) differed significantly in favor of those whose perceived computer use levels were high. This result indicates that compared with those with low levels, the university students with high perceived computer use levels better understood the potential opportunities offered by the use of new technologies, engaged in an effort to use digital technologies enthusiastically, had more software and hardware necessary for internet access and possessed more knowledge, skills and empowerments needed to use digital technologies. In other words, it is thought that students who consider themselves at a better level concerning computer use and feel self-confident in this regard can use technology more effectively and consciously and therefore their digital empowerment levels are higher. SUGGESTIONS This study provides an overview of university students’ digital empowerment levels. In this section, some suggestions were made in light of the findings obtained in the study:  One of the most important areas where digital empowerment levels can be increased is schools. In particular, shortcomings of university students, if they have any, need to be identified through more extensive studies and efforts should be intensified on these shortcomings.  Equality of opportunity should be offered to university students and free computer and internet use services should be provided at schools.  In order to raise university students’ digital empowerment levels and prepare them for the future in a better way, it should be ensured that the contents of the courses they receive during their education should be in a manner that supports the use of technological hardware and software that is compatible with the requirements of the time.  Digital empowerment levels of academics teaching at universities should also be taken into consideration and, if necessary, efforts should be made (organizing in-service training, courses, seminars etc.) to increase their digital empowerment levels.  In future studies, digital empowerment levels should be investigated through different research groups and different variables. REFERENCES Akkoyunlu, B., Soylu, M. Y., & Çağlar, M. (2010). Üniversite öğrencileri için “Sayısal Yetkinlik Ölçeği” Geliştirme Çalışması [A study on developing “Digital empowerment scale” for university students]. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi [H. U. Journal of Education], 39, 10-19. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çakmak, E. K., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş., & Demirel, F. (2008). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri [Scientific Research Methods]. Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2013). Research methods in education. London: Routledge. Gokhale, A. A., Brauchle, P. E., & Machina, K. F. (2013). Scale to measure attitudes toward information technology. International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education (IJICTE), 9(3), 13-26. Gökçearslan, Ş., & Bayır, E. A. (2011). Öğretmen adaylarının sayısal yetkinlik düzeylerinin incelenmesi [A study on pre-service teachers’ digital empowerment levels]. In 2nd International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, 27-29 April 2011 (pp. 1177-1182). Hague, C., & Williamson, B. (2009, August). Digital participation, digital literacy, and school subjects: A review of the policies, literature and evidence. Futurelab Research Report. Retrieved from https://www.nfer.ac.uk/publications/FUTL08/ Harvey, L. (2004). “Analytic quality glossary”. Quality Research International, online at: Hignite, M. A., & Echternacht, L. J. (1992). Assessment of the relationships between the computer attitudes and computer literacy levels of prospective educators. Journal of Research on Computers in Education, 24(3), 381-389. Huck, S. W. (2012). Reading statistics and research (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Karasar, N. (2003). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi [Scientific Research Method]. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Kay, R. H. (1989). Gender differences in computer attitudes, literacy, locus of control and commitment. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 21(3), 307-316. 121

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kazu, İ. Y., & Erten, P. (2014). Öğretmen adaylarının sayısal yetkinlik düzeyleri [A prospective teachers’ digital empowerment levels]. Bartın Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi [Bartin University Journal of Faculty of Education], 3(2), 132-152. Keniston, K., & Kumar, D. (2003). The four digital divides. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.581.83&rep=rep1&type=pdf Makinen, M. (2006). Digital empowerment as a process for enhancing citizens’ participation. E-learning and Digital Media, 3(3), 381-395. Menschel, B. (2011). One web to unite us all: Bridging the digital divide. Cardozo Arts & Ent. LJ, 29, 143. Şişman, A., Alkış, Z., & Maraş, E. E. (2011). E-devlet ve m-devlet’in geliştirilmesinin önündeki engel; Sayısal uçurum [The obstacle of development of e-government and m- government; Digital divide]. Harita Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi [Electronic Journal of Map Technologies], 3(1), 27-37. TDK. (2016). Güncel Türkçe Sözlük. Türk Dil Kurumu [The current Turkish dictionary. Turkish Language Association], online at: Teo, T. (2010). A path analysis of pre-service teachers’ attitudes to computer use: Applying and extending the technology acceptance model in an educational context. Interactive Learning Environments, 18(1), 6579. Teo, T., & Noyes, J. (2011). An assessment of the influence of perceived enjoyment and attitude on the intention to use technology among pre-service teachers: A structural equation modeling approach. Computers & Education, 57(2), 1645-1653. Teo, T., Lee, C. B., Chai, C. S., & Wong, S. L. (2009). Assessing the intention to use technology among preservice teachers in Singapore and Malaysia: A multigroup invariance analysis of the technology acceptance model (TAM). Computers & Education, 53(3), 1000-1009. Timur, B., Timur, S., & Akkoyunlu, B. (2014). Öğretmen adaylarının sayısal yetkinlik düzeylerinin belirlenmesi [Determinig pre-service teachers’ digital empowerment level]. Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi [Journal Of Social Sciences And Humanities Researches], 33, 41-59. Yavuz, S., & Coşkun, E. (2008). Attitudes and perceptions of elementary teaching through the use of technology in education. H. U. Journal of Education, 34, 276-286. Yıldız, Ç., Kahyaoğlu, M., & Kaya, M. F. (2012). Siirt İlindeki ortaöğretim öğrencilerinin sayısal okuryazarlık düzeylerinin cinsiyet, sınıf ve öğrenim gördüğü lise türüne göre farklılaşmasının incelenmesi [An Investigation into High School Students’ Digital Literacy Level]. Uşak Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi [Usak University Journal of Social Sciences], 5(3), 82-96.

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DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF MISDEMEANORS UNDER TURKISH CODE Assoc. Prof. Berrin AKBULUT Selcuk University Faculty of Law, Turkey [email protected]

Abstract In the Turkish Law, crimes were divided into two groups called felony and misdemeanor until June 1, 2005. Separate penalties were adopted for both felonies and misdemeanors by our Penal Code. Doctrine was attempting to demonstrate the differences between felonies and misdemeanors, too. However, there was also a tendency of doctrine to take misdemeanors out of the criminal code. On June 1, 2005, the reform codes were enacted in Turkey. One of these reforms is also found in the field of misdemeanors. In order to establish a common structure for misdemeanors, the Code on Misdemeanors No. 5326 went into effect on June 1, 2005. Thus, the developments in some countries related to taking misdemeanors out of criminal code are also reflected in Turkish code. Since then, it is quite out of question to separate crimes such as felonies and misdemeanors in criminal code into two parts. The concept of crime is used as a reply to acts for which penalties and security measures apply. However, the concept of misdemeanor is used for the acts against which administrative penalties and administrative measures are implemented. While the basic code for crimes is the Turkish Penal Code, the Misdemeanor Code is the basic code for misdemeanors. In the Code on Misdemeanors No. 5326, the legislator has regulated the general principles of misdemeanors, the principles of responsibility, types of sanctions, the decision-making process regarding the sanctions, legal remedy and some misdemeanors. In this study, the important regulations in Turkish Code related to misdemeanors and introduced by the Code on Misdemeanors will be examined. Keywords: Misdemeanor, felony, crime, the Turkish Penal Code, the Misdemeanor Code

Introduction The crimes have been distinguished according to their severity and also rated as they have been systematized in time. One of these ratings is the distinction of the felony and misdemeanor. This distinction has naturally resulted in the adoption of a number of different provisions. Therefore, this has led to discussions of whether there is a difference between misdemeanors and felonies in the doctrine. In the 19th century in some countries (such as Germany), different views have emerged to determine the difference. The complexity of social life over time and the need to make arrangements regarding many different areas have increased the number of misdemeanors in the legislation.That misdemeanors are usually regulations that aim to restore order in a certain area and the excess number of the acts contrary to the regulations of those involved in this scheme, have increased the number of misdemanors committed. The existence of different areas of regulation, the excess number of committing, the adoption of a more simple reasoning and because of the practical needs such as the courts not having to deal with these acts have revealed the tendency of the offenses to be taken out of the criminal law. The arguments which are put forward in the doctrine has effects over time in the legislation, and the countries have attempted to make a separate general code for the misdemeanors to clarify a common structure. Turkey enacted the Misdemeanor Code on 1st of June, 2005.

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I.THE DEVELOPMENTS IN TURKISH LAW The Separation of the crimes in the Turkish Law based on the severity has been issued in Turkey for the first time with the code no 1858. This code has divided the crimes into three groups such as the crime of felony, the petty crime and the misdemeanor since it was prepared by means of translating the French Criminal Code dated 1810 into Turkish. As for The Criminal Code Number 756 which is put into force in 1926 and prepared according to the 1889 Italian Penal Code,it has seperated crimes into two as the crime of felony-misdemeanor like the Italian Penal Code. This distinction has been continued until June 1, 2005. On that date, by putting the Criminal Code into force for offenses, and The Code on Misdemeanors into force for the misdemeanors, the misdemeanors were excluded from the criminal code offenses. On the issue of excluding the misdemeanors in the Turkish Law out of the criminal code, there has been no improvement in Turkish code based on the distant past. Only in the doctrine, some of the authors have reported that misdemeanours should be excluded from the criminal code. Even if draft codes have been prepared in different periods, the presence of the misdemanours within the scope of the criminal code have been continued to be adopted. But on the process of legalisation of the Draft Code 2003, very rooted amendments have been done and the misdemeanors have been excluded from the criminal code. Today in our law, when we use the concept of crime, misdemeanors are no longer meant, in return, criminal acts relating to the penalty and safety measures have been specified. After the Code on Misdemeanors were put into force, in our legal system the concept of misdemeanor law and misdemeanor started to be used. In the period of code No. 765, not the concept of misdemeanor law, but the concept of administrative criminal law regarding the misdemeanors and the sanctions having a compensation for money were used instead. Today, along with the code bearing the name of the Misdemeanor law, we have some of our writers using the concept of administrative criminal law. After the removal of the misdemeanors from the criminal code, in our code, the discussion of whether the misdemeanors law is the sub-discipline of the criminal law took place and is still being experienced. Whereas some authors state that it has created a common area between the administrative and the criminal law and some authors have stated that it is not within the scope of criminal law, some authors have expressed that the misdemeanors are broadly covered by the criminal law. Administration lawyers have admitted the misdemeanors within the scope of the administrative law. Because of the classification of the crimes according to their severity, in the doctrine occurs the debate whether there is quantitative difference or qualification difference between the crimes and the misdemeanors . Also, in our country, in the period of the Code No. 765, the differences of the crimes and the misdemeanors have been tried to put forward. But long years of ongoing discussion whether the misdemeanors have difference from the crimes is now obsolete in our law. Today, in our law, it has been approved that between the felonies and the misdemeanors there is not qualification difference but quantitative difference. In the reasoning of the Article 2 of the Code on Misdemeanors, while doing the distinction between misdemeanors and crimes, it is stated that the injustice content of the act has been based and that there has been no quantitative difference inbetween. The Code on Misdemeanors is the general code on the misdemeanors law. The general quality of code is regulated in the Article 3 of the Code on Misdemeanors. For all the misdemeanors held both in the Code on Misdemeanors and in private codes, it has the quality to be applied as a rule. But if there are specifications in the private codes relating to the legal remedies, the provisions relating to code of the Misdemeanor Code will not be applied. The Code on Misdemeanors consists of two parts. The general provisions to be applied for all misdemeanors are included in the first part. And in the second part some misdemeanors are regulated. Considering the provisions set out in the first part, it can be seen that some of the institutions included 124

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN in the Turkish Penal Code or the Criminal Procedure Code are taken under the provision, and for some of the institutions the codes mentioned before are implied, and for some others specific determinations have been made. The reason for this is that there is quantitative difference between the the misdemeanors and crimes. II. THE REGULATION OF THE CODE OF MISDEMEANORS A. General Principles The Code of Misdemeanors has made the definition of misdemeanor after specifying the purpose and the scope of the code in A.1 (Art. 2). In return, it has stated that the injustice prescribed administrative sanction is the misdemeanor. Thus, it is stated that it has been separated from the injustice constituting crime because of the sanction applied. The elements which are searched for the formation of injustice is also recognised for the misdemeanors. Therefore, to talk about a misdemeanor, an act appropriate for the legal recognition and the contrariety to law must be held. It has approved the legality of crime and administrative sanction, but it has been resolved that the contents of the framework provisions can only be filled through the regulatory process of the authorities on condition that the sanction will be specified in the code. (art. 4). Since the principle of legality is approved, that the analogy ban, the law of customs and traditions can not create misdemeanor, the principle of certainty and the principle of walking to past are recognised in terms of misdemeanors. It has been adopted that the code can be applied at the time when the act which referred TPC (Turkish Penal Code) in terms of time has been committed. However, if the code put into force after the act was committed has kept the act from being a misdemeanor or if it has brought a regulation for benefit, it will be applied to the past. The Code on Misdemeanors has regulated what the time of the act which is not included in the Penal Code and that’s why it is controversial in the doctrine means and the code has been based on the behaviour. Therefore, it is stated that the actual time of the behaviour is the time of the commission of the act, and the time when the result is realized will not be taken into consideration. In terms of sanctions, immediate application policy has been adopted (art. 5). The principle of territoriality in terms of the misdemeanors is recognised unless otherwise specified in the code. As a rule, the misdemeanors committed in Turkey will be punished. To impose sanctions for the crimes committed in foreign countries is not in question. Where in Turkey will be determined according to the Art. 8 has been stated (art. 6). B. The Principles of Responsibility in the Misdemeanor The elements of the misdemeanor should be realized for the responsibility for misdemeanor. Financial elements, moral elements and the contradiction to the law should be realized. It is approved that the misdemeanors will be committed both operationally and neglectively (art. 7). In our penal code, whether the crimes which are not regulated and therefore found problematic will be committed in negligence or not were clearly stated in terms of misdemeanors. Along with the fact that the legal entity is not considered to be a perpetrator, it has been resolved that the legal entity will be responsible for the crime,if the person with the quality of perpetrator commits the crime. It has also been approved that the person who is being represented also has the responsibility of the administrative sanctions for the act of the representative (art. 8). Therefore, the individuality of the administrative sanction has not been adopted (art. 9). Unless otherwise is specified, the committing of the misdemeanors both deliberately and negligently are regulated (art. 9). With this arrangement, there is no question of the objective responsibility of the perpetrator, but if the subjective element was actualised, they are ensured to be held responsible. Error provisions have been adopted, but are arranged to be applied on the deliberately committed misdemeanors (art. 10). On the reckless misdemeanors committed, only injustice error can be applied. The responsible age for the administrative penalties was approved as the age 15 (art. 11). On the conditions when there is no provision to the contrary in the code, the reasons of the compliance with the law in the Turkish Penal Code (TPC) and the reasons removing the faultiness will be regulated also for the misdemeanors (Art. 12). Attempt to misdemeanor was not considered as a rule. If there is a provision contrary to what is in the code, the provisions of Turkish Penal Code related to the attempt and voluntary remitment will be applied (art. 13). In terms of taking part in the misdemeanor, the principle of unity has been approved and it is approved that anybody who is involved in committing of the misdemeanor will be responsible for the administrative penalties as

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN the perpetrators. In cases of seeking for special perpetration, it has been regulated that the person who does not have this quality is to be held responsible for the wrongdoing (art. 14). In the misdemeanors, in the cases in which more than one fault is committed only through a single act, it has been adopted that the most severe administrative penalties will be given (intellectual aggregation), but the responsibility of administrative penalty separately from each has not been approved. It has been regulated that each of the sanctions except for the administrative penalty may be applied. As for the realization of both the crime and the misdemeanor through a single act, it can only be sanctioned because of the crime (the intellectual aggregation has been approved between the crimes and misdemeanors). When the sanctions of the crime can not be applied, the sanctions will be applied for the misdemeanor. As for the crime committed with the continuous act, until administrative sanction has been decided to be applied, the misdemeanor has been regulated to be considered as the only act (art. 15). C. The Principles of the Sanction Two sanctions for the misdemeanors were adopted. These are the administrative fines and administrative measures. Administrative measures are transfer of the property to public’s ownership and other measures. Just as the administrative penalty can be fixed or proportional, so it can be shown between the lower and upper limits in the code. But this should be stated that it is more often specified as fixed. Therefore, in determining the administrative penalty, it is not possible for some certain matters to be taken into consideration. For example, in the intentional committing of the misdemeanor, since the penalty is fixed, these are not taken into consideration. If the administrative fine is shown between the lower and upper limits, the unfair content of the misdemeanor can be taken into consideration together with the perpetrator’s fault and his economic situation. It must be finalized in order to fulfill the administrative penalty. However, the person concerned has the opportunity to pay before or at the time of final cut of the administrative fine. Administrative penalties except for proportional fines are applied increasingly within certain ratios each year (art. 16, 17). Among the other measures, how to fulfill transfer of the property to public’s ownership is regulated in the code. Property transfer to the public can only be decided if there is an explicit provision in the code (art. 18). Investigation and fulfillment lapse of time have been approved for the sanctions. On the condition of the expiry of the period specified for the investigation lapse of time, administrative penalty can not be given because of the misdemeanor. If the fulfillment has expired the lapse of time, the measure of transfer of the property and the administrative fine into public’s ownership can not be performed. The periods of limitation have not been determined for other measures (art. 20, 21). D. Principles of Reasoning It is clearly indicated in the relevant code, the administrative committee or authorities or public officials are authorized to give administrative sanctions because of the misdemeanor. The public prosecutor is authorized to issue sanctions in cases where there are explicit provisions in the code. The highest authority of the relevant public institutions and organizations has the authority on the issue in cases where there are no clear provisions in the code. Within the scope of the investigation carried out other than these, just as the public prosecutor has the authority to issue administrative sanctions, so the court is also authorized to issue administrative sanctions during the procesecution. On the matter of authority, the provisions of the Criminal Procedure Code are recognised (art. 22, 23, 24). The way to recourse against administrative fines and transfer of the property to public’s ownership has been approved. The duration is 15 days beginning from the notification and the pronouncement. It should applied to a criminal judge. If the administrative sanctions have been decided by the court, it can be appealed. Calling on the parties upon request or ex mero motu, the criminal judge has the authority to listen to them at a certain day and time as well as examining on the file. The provisions of the Criminal Procedure Code related with the testimony, expert review and explore can also be applied with respect to the way to recourse in the misdemeanors. However, the protection measures regulated in the Criminal Procedure Code is beside the point of the implementation of on the misdemeanors. The exception is the approval of that the person can be arrested if necessary regarding the misdemeanor, that is not to inform his identity (art. 40). The decision which is given at the end of the criminal

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN investigation by the judge may be appealed according to the Criminal Procedure Code .Duration is 7 days.The person who applied to court can cancel his application and can get it back (art. 26 f.). Conclusion The Code on Misdemeanors has 11-year long history. Since there are no adequate studies on the subject, much discussion and many views regarding the incomplete codes haven't been seen in the area of doctrine yet. In practice, there are problems related with the implementation of the code. It has been observed that the provisions are not fully understood and the wrong applications are being held. For example, when an act constitutes both crime and misdemenour, criminal sanctions can be applied from both uncodefully. Procedural problems are encountered in the field as well. For example, along with being unexpressed in the code, it is being discussed whether some of the legal remedies included in the Code of Criminal Procedure will be applied or not. There are also problems in terms of regulation. For example, in determining the punishment, the practitioner has not been given the right to increase or decrease related with some institutions. From the point of citizens, it can be said that the code has not been settled yet or they do not want to deal with less administrative fines.

References Akbulut, B. (2014). Türk Ceza Kanunu İle Kabahatler Kanunu Genel Hükümlerinin Yaptırım Hükümleri Dışında Karşılaştırmalı Olarak İncelenmesi. Ankara, Turkey: Adalet. Bayraktar, K. (1984). Ceza Hukukunda Suç Olmaktan Çıkarma Akımı, İÜHFM /Istanbul University Faculty Of Law Review (Vol. L, No. 1-4, pp. 197-212), Istanbul, Turkey. Bohnert, J. (2007).

OWİG Ordnungswidrigkeitengesetz, Kommentar. Munich, Germany: C.H.Beck

Demirbaş, T. (2014). Ceza Hukuku, Genel Hükümler. Ankara, Turkey: Seckin Gökcen, A. (1989). Tanzimat Dönemi Osmanlı Ceza Kanunları ve Bu Kanunlardaki Ceza Müeyyideleri. Istanbul; Turkey. Gölcüklü, F. (1963). İdari Ceza Hukuku ve Anlamı; İdarenin Cezai Müeyyide Tatbiki, AÜSBFD/Ankara University Faculty of Political Sciences Review (Vol. XVIII, No. 2, pp. 115-182). Ankara, Turkey Hafızoğulları, Z. (1996). Ceza Normu, Normatif Bir Yapı Olarak Ceza Hukuku Düzeni. Ankara, Turkey: Seckin. Hafızoğulları, Z.,  Özen, M. (2011). Hakeri, H. (2015).

Türk Ceza Hukuku, Genel Hükümler. Ankara, Turkey: US-A Publishing

Ceza Hukuku, Genel Hükümler. Ankara, Turkey: Adalet

İçel, K. (1984). İdari Ceza Hukuku ve Kabahatleri Suç Olmaktan Çıkarma Eğilimi, İÜHFM/ Istanbul University Faculty Of Law Review (Vol. L, No. 1-4, pp. 117-131). Istanbul, Turkey. İçel, K.,  Donay, S. (1999). Karşılaştırmalı ve Uygulamalı Ceza Hukuku, Genel Kısım. İstanbul, Turkey: Beta Jescheck, H. H. (1959). Das deutsche Wirtschaftsstrafrecht.

JZ/ JuristenZeitung

( No. 15/16, pp. 457-462).

Kangal, Z. T. (2011). Kabahatler Hukuku. Istanbul, Turkey: XII LEVHA. Karlsruher Kommentar zum Gesetz über Ordnungswidrigkeiten (2006). Munich, Germany: C.H.Beck Koca, M.,  Üzülmez, İ. (2015). Türk Ceza Hukuku, Genel Hükümler. Ankara, Turkey: Adalet. Kurt, R., Werner, R.,  Herrmann, S. (2010). Gesetz über Ordnungswidrigkeiten, Kommentar. Stuttgart, Germany: W. Kohlhammer. Önder, A. (1992). Ceza Hukuku Dersleri. Istanbul, Turkey: Filiz Özbek, V., Kanbur, M. N., Doğan, K., Bacaksız, P.,  Tepe, İ. (2015). Türk Ceza Hukuku, Genel Hükümler. Ankara, Turkey: Seckin Mahmutoğlu, F. S. (1995). Kabahatleri Suç Olmaktan Çıkarma Eğilimi ve Düzene Aykırılıklar Hukukunda (İdari Ceza Hukukunda) Yaptırım Rejimi. Istanbul, Turkey: Mahmutoğlu, F. S. (2009). Suç-Kabahat Ayrımı-İdari Ceza Hukuku’nun Temelleri, İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Tarafından Düzenlenen İdari Ceza Hukuku Sempozyumu (pp. 36-42). Ankara, Turkey: Seckin.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Mitsch, W. (2005). Ordnungswidrigkeiten, Recht der Ordnungswidrigkeiten. Berlin Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. Sancakdar, O. (2009). İdari Cezaların Yaptırımlar Teorisindeki Yeri ve Türk Hukuku’ndaki Anayasal Temelleri, İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Tarafından Düzenlenen İdari Ceza Hukuku Sempozyumu (pp. 59-109). Ankara, Turkey. Toroslu, N. (1977). Suçların Tasnifi Sorunu ve Taksirli Suçlar ile Kabahatler Konusunda Bazı Eğilimler, Değişen Toplum ve Ceza Hukuku Karşısında TCK’nın 50 Yılı ve Geleceği (pp. 115-154). Istanbul, Turkey: Sermet Printing Press. Yarsuvat, D. (1972). Trafik Suçları. Istanbul, Turkey: Istanbul University.

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THE DETENTION IN TURKISH LAW

Assoc. Prof. Berrin Akbulut Selcuk University Faculty of Law, Turkey [email protected]

Abstract Detention is regulated in the second chapter named "Detention" of the fourth section called Protection Measures of the Criminal Procedure Code. It is adjudicated in the Articles 100 through 108. Furthermore, it has been also stated in Article 19 of the Constitution under the title of “Liberty and Security of Person”. Since detention is the most important protection measure in terms of infringing a person’s individual liberty, it is made subject to stringent conditions. Strong suspicion and one of the reasons of detention must take place to order it. However, a special determination concerning the reason of detention for some crimes is made. According to the regulations of the Criminal Procedure Code, detention is possible only with a judge or by court decision. Even if the conditions of detention are met, it is not necessary to render the detention warrant. There is a time limit for the detention period. Justification must be given in the detention warrant. When detention is ordered, legal assistance of a lawyer to the suspect or the accused is required. There is the opportunity to challenge the detention. Furthermore, detention must be examined in specific periods. In general, there are these provisions about the detention in our legislation. However, there are some problems in our country arising from the implementation of detention. Under Turkish law, detention is applied rather arbitrarily or as advance punishment or in order to satisfy the community or because of the problems posed by existing deficiencies or inadequacies, apart from its implementation in accordance with the law. These applications regarding detention occurring in our country have a broad repercussion in press from time to time. After Turkish Criminal Procedure Code No. 5271 had gone into effect on June 1, 2005, a number of amendments to the provisions relating to detention were made. An important part of the decisions of the Constitutional Court relating to the criminal procedure on infringement of rights is about the detention. Because of these reasons, the detention was chosen as the subject of our study. In our study we will examine the arrangements for detention and explanations relating to problems concerning detention. Keywords: Detention, strong suspicion, protection measures, personel liberty, suspicion of escape, judge, court, Constitutional Court.

Introduction Detention is the most coercive protection measure in terms of infringing a person’s individual liberty. By resorting to detention, rise can be given to arbitrary and unfair practices and unlawful restrictions on individual rights and freedoms can be made. In various societies, there have been intensive efforts to limit detentions and prevent arbitrary implementations. Many international treaties also include provisions and introduce some restrictions in order to prevent arbitrary detentions. At the present time, state of law should protect individuals both by the law and against the law. Therefore, detention is an institution that has been regulated in detail to ensure the individual liberty in our legal system. However, this situation has not eliminated arbitrary detentions and unlawful practices in our country. A study conducted in 2013 remarked that prosecutors gave justification in 3% of the files when he/she 129

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN requested a detention and 97% of the detention requests were approved by judges and the strong suspicion of crime took place in 9% of files (The Research of "Türkiye’de Tutukluluk Uygulamaları ve Tutuklamada Savunmanın Rolü”, http://www.bahcesehir.edu.tr/icerik/2266-turkiyede-tutukluluk-uygulamalari-ve-tutuklamada-savunma nin-rolu-arastirmasi). As is seen, judges overwhelmingly decide to order detention upon request in practice although it is not a mandatory to render the detention warrant. The number of detainees has increased more than 100% in the last five years (Ünver,  Hakeri, 353). Moreover, this number increased vastly after the coup attempt on 15 July 2016. Within 25 days, number of detainees over coup attempt passed 17.000. According to the information given on 11 August number of people detained passed 210.000 (http://www.mynet.com/haber/politika/bekir-bozdag-af-calismasi-yoktur-2582854). I. CONDITIONS FOR DETENTION A. Presence of Strong Suspicion of Crime There should be strong suspicion of crime to order a detention. The strong suspicion of crime must be based on concrete evidences (CrPC art.100/1). The strong suspicion of crime implies that a verdict of conviction is highly-likely to be given by court. It is a more intense degree of suspicion than initiating a criminal case. The strong suspicion of crime required for detention warrant, is expressed as “the strong symptom” in article 19th of the Constitution. The strong suspicion of crime must be present both in the moment of the detention warrant and as long as the detention continues. B. Presence of a Reason of Detention. Except strong suspicion of crime, there should be also one of the two reasons of detention at present to be able to order a detention, which are suspicion of escape and suspicion of spoliation of evidences. Suspicion of escape is accepted in the case of escaping or hiding of the suspect or the accused or the presence of concrete facts arousing the suspicion of escape (art. 100/2-a). That is, only the presence of abstract suspicion is not enough. Suspicion of spoliation of evidences is accepted when the behaviors of the suspect or the accused constitute a strong suspicion about destroying, hiding or changing evidences or the behaviors of the suspect or the accused constitute a strong suspicion about the attempt to put pressure on witnesses or victims or third parties. The legislator has adopted that a reason of detention is deemed to exist in the present case if there is a strong suspicion on the committal of certain crimes. Even in this point, detention is not an obligatory measure. This should be interpreted as follows: If there is a strong suspicion regarding the committal of the types of catalogue crimes enshrined in Code, the presence of the suspicion of escape and suspicion of spoliation of evidences can be assumed to exist in the present case. The regulation at this issue emphasizes the discretionary power of the judge (Centel,  Zafer, 360; Yenisey,  Nuhoğlu, 488, 494). Moreover, the judge must give written reasons why detention for a type of catalogue crimes is required, too. However, this justification will be less concrete and detailed in comparison with that of non-catalogue crimes (Şahin, 296). Although detention is not an obligatory measure even in case of a type of catalogue crimes under the Code, the judges or courts order detention in practice as if it is an obligatory measure when the suspect or the accused has been involved in the committal of a type of catalogue crimes (Centel,  Zafer, 360; Sınar, 206). Also, this provision is criticized for various reasons in doctrine. First critic is that the existence of catalogue crimes doesn’t point at the suspicion of escape and suspicion of spoliation of evidences. Second critic is that certain types of catalogue crimes are contrary to both the principle of proportionality and the necessity of that detention is the last resort (Öztürk, Tezcan, Erdem, Sırma, Saygılar Kırıt, Özaydın, Alan Akcan,  Erden, 467; Sınar, 208, 209). Third critic is that detention is not a form of punishment in advance and its implementation in this manner, is not in compliance with the nature of the detention and the notion of state of law (Centel,  Zafer, 360). However, some authors in the doctrine approve the existence of the types of catalogue crimes in the Code (Özbek, Kanbur, Doğan, Bacaksız,  Tepe, 316). The types of catalogue crimes are as follows (CrPC art.100/3): Genocide and Crimes against Humanity (CrPC art. 76, 77, 78), Willful Murder (CrPC art. 81, 82, 83), Willful Injury with a weapon (CrPC art. 86/3-e) and Willful Injury Aggravated due to Results (CrPC art.87), Torture (CrPC art. 94, 95), Sexual Assault (CrPC art.102 / Except Paragraph 1), Sexual Abuse of Children (CrPC art. 103), 130

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Theft (CrPC art. 141, 142), Plunder (CrPC art. 148, 149), Manufacture and Trade of Narcotics or Stimulants (CrPC art.188),Establishing an Organization in order to Commit a Crime (CrPC art. 220/2, Except Paragraphs 7 and 8), Crimes against State Security (CrPC art. 302, 303, 304, 307, 308), Crimes against the Constitutional Order and Its Functioning (CrPC art. 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315), Arms Trafficking Crimes enshrined in the Code on Firearms and Knives and Other Tools (art. 12), Embezzlement enshrined in the Article 160 of the Banking Law, Crimes Requiring Deprivation of Liberty and Enshrined in the Anti-Smuggling Law, Crimes described in the Articles 68 and Article 74 of Code on Protection of Cultural and Natural Properties, Crimes of Burning Forest Intentionally defined in the Article 110 of the Forest Law (in paragraphs 4 and 5), Crimes listed in the Article 33 of Code on Meetings and Demonstrations, the Crimes set in Article 7 (in Paragraph 3) of the Anti-Terror Code. Detention is not an obligatory measure even when the conditions are met. That means, the judge has a discretionary power to order detention in this matter. II. DETENTION BANS The judge or court may order a detention warrant when the conditions are met. However, a detention warrant cannot be ordered if there is not a balance between the importance of work and the possible penalties or security measures in terms of the proportionality (CrPC art.100/1). The principle of proportionality required for all protection measures has been regulated specifically for the detention measure. The regulation has the meaning that the detention may be ordered for the security measures. However, it is claiming in doctrine that the application of detention on the security measures will be contrary to the principle of proportionality of detention (Özbek, Kanbur, Doğan, Bacaksız,  Tepe, 317). Other than this, detention warrant is not ordered for the crimes which requires only judicial fine or crimes punishable by deprivation of liberty for a term of at most two years (art.100/4). Moreover, detention of juveniles is limited, as well. According to the Child Welfare Code (art.21), it is not possible to order the detention of children under the age of fifteen due to the acts that require imprisonment not exceeding five years. This certain provision is also compatible with the regulation enshrined in 11.a of the United Nations Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty (Havana Rules). Accordingly, less age limit under which it is not permitted to deprive a child of his or her liberty should be determined by law. Next, if an assurance document is given to the accused, again detention warrant will not be ordered. If an assurance document is given to the absentee or fugitive defendant, accused cannot be detained when he or she appears before court (CrPC art. 246, 248/7). Notwithstanding, the validity of the document terminates if the defendant is sentenced to imprisonment or is preparing to abscond or does not obey the rules of the assurance document (CrPC art. 246). That is, the detention of the accused in these cases will be possible. Detention is only available for crimes. So, it is not allowed to order a detention warrant for misdemeanours. However, if needed, it may be ordered for the people who don’t report their identities despite being asked by the public officer. III. DETENTION WARRANT Detention warrant can only be ordered for the suspect or the accused. The competent authorities to order detention of the suspect or accused are the judge in the criminal investigation stage and the court during the prosecution phase. If the public prosecutor makes a formal request, then the judge is able to order a detention warrant. However, the court may order a detention warrant both on demand of the prosecutor or ex mero motu. The judge who is entitled to make a decision about detention of the suspect or the accused is the judge who is at the place where the investigation is made, the competent court is the court where defendant is tried. The judge or court must give written reasons why detention is required. This obligation of showing reasons has been adopted for both the public prosecutors and courts in the case. According to the 101th article of the CrPC, the public prosecutor must absolutely give reasons why detention is required and emphasize the legal and factual reasons why the application of judicial control would be insufficient, when he or she makes a motion. In addition, the judge or the court must explicitly justify the evidences

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN pointing at the strong suspicion of crime and the existence of reasons of detention and the proportionality of detention measure with concrete cases in decisions regarding the detention or the continuity of detention or the rejection of a release request in this matter. However, in practice there are certain problems about the justification of the points aforementioned (see: The Research of "Türkiye’de Tutukluluk Uygulamaları ve Tutuklamada Savunmanın Rolü”, http://www.bahcesehir.edu.tr/icerik/2266-turkiyede-tutukluluk-uygulamalari-ve-tutuklamada-savunma nin-rolu-arastirmasi). The rule specifying the justification at these three points and enshrined in 101th article was added in 2012 with the Code no. 6352. Surely, the motive of the regulation in question was that the competent authorities had not given reasons in the detention warrants. Therefore, Turkey occasionally was condemned by the ECHR because of detention warrants without justification (see: Turhan, 77 and more). In spite of this regulation, in practice, it is acting contrary to Article 101, the provision of law is just being repeated with the worry of fact that determinations about the strong suspicion of crime may be considered as comments reflecting bias and the justification of warrants have been written by evaluating collectively instead of separately in the files where more than one suspect or accused are involved in (Yıldız, Dursun,  Talas, 302). In addition, the reasons which are remarked at the warrants regarding the detention or the extension of detention or the refusal of a release request in this matter should be relevant and sufficient (Constitutional Court, Ap. No. 2012/1137, 2.7.2013, 63,70). Detention warrant can be ordered in presence of the suspect or the accused. In principle, it’s impossible to order the detention of a suspect or accused in absentia (see the following concerning regulation of the detention in absentia under Code: Yenisey,  Nuhoğlu, 505). However, exceptionally the detention in absentia is accepted for fugitive defendant on abroad (art. 248/5 and the Code on Enforcement art. 5/2) (However, some authors in doctrine claims that the authority who examined the appeal may order a detention warrant in absentia upon the rejection of a detention request of the prosecutor and appeal of this decision: Centel,  Zafer, 365. Also, according to some authors, the judge may order a detention warrant in absentia if the defendant doesn't meet the requirements of the judicial control decision and that results in a detention warrant. For this view, see: Yıldız, Dursun,  Talas, 303). Except that, the judge or court shall see and listen to the suspect or accused in person. If the detention is requested, the suspect or defendant shall be benefited from the counsel his/her choice or assigned to him/her by the bar. In other words, the compulsory counsel system is adopted for detention (CrPC art. 101/3). However, a survey conducted in 2013 reported that, in practice, for 11% of detained a detention warrant was ordered without defense counselor and only 15% of defense counselors advocated detainees in detail (see: The Research of "Türkiye’de Tutukluluk Uygulamaları ve Tutuklamada Savunmanın Rolü”, http://www.bahcesehir.edu.tr/icerik/2266-turkiyede-tutukluluk-uygulamalari-ve-tutuklamada-savunma nin-rolu-arastirmasi). In Turkish law, the counsel's power to access to the case file may be restricted on the types of catalogue crimes. There is no specific determination regarding the detention. However, some authors in doctrine state that the suspects or the defendants or their counsels should be able to access to the evidences which are important for the supervision of detention. The judge or court may order detention of suspect or defendant in presence or may refuse the detention request in this matter. If there is no detention warrant, the suspect or the accused shall be released immediately. If a detention warrant is ordered, the content of the warrant will be reported verbally to the suspect or defendant, also, a written example of this will be given to them and this situation will be specified in the decision (art. 101/2). With the judicial decision, a person chosen by the detainee or someone close to him shall be informed of each orders of detention or the extension of detention without any delay. Furthermore, the detainee shall be allowed to inform of someone close to him or the person of his own choice in person that he is detained, provided that the purpose of the investigation is not in danger. In case the suspect or the accused is a foreigner, the consulate of his country shall be informed of his detention as long as he doesn’t notify his averseness in written (CrPC art. 107). If there is not a notification, it is entitled to compansate the damages from his state (CrPC art. 141/1-h). Despite of fact that only a notification is a requirement of article 19th of the Constitution, the legislator has made certain additions which are not written in the Constitution such as informing in person, someone his own choice, regulations on endangering the purpose of the investigation. Therefore, it is criticized for being inaccurate in doctrine

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN (Şahin, 305). IV. DURATION OF DETENTION In Article 102 of Criminal Procedure Code, maximum period of detention is determined. According to this article, where the crime is not within the jurisdiction of the heavy penalty courts, the maximum period of detention shall be one year. However, if necessary, this period may be extended, for six more months, by giving its justifications. Namely, it shall be one year and half in total. Where the crime is under the jurisdiction of the court of assize, the maximum period of detention is two years. Also, this period may be extended by giving its justifications in necessary cases, but the extention shall not exceed 3 years (it is incorrect that the extension period is longer than the actual period. For this view, see: Feyzioğlu,  Okuyucu, http://www.feyzioglu.av.tr/yayin/tutuklamada-azami-sure.html (A.D.26.06.2016); Katoğlu, 24). Therefore, the maximum period of the detention can be five years where the crime is under the jurisdiction of the court of assize. Even though this determination is accepted by the majority of the doctrine and by practitioners, some writers in doctrine express that application of this period will be better as 2+1 (Özbek, Kanbur, Doğan, Bacaksız,  Tepe, 327; Yenisey,  Nuhoğlu, 511). The decisions of extension prescribed by this article, have to be rendered only after the opinions of the public prosecutor, the suspect or accused and defense counsel have been received. Controversial and problematical matter in detention period is whether the period should be calculated up to court of first instance's decision or elapsed time in the legal remedy should also be considered in calculation. Some writers indicate that elapsed time in legal remedy shall not be considered in calculation of detention period. As ground, this view is based on that ECHR limits reasonable time to the elapsed time in trial in court of first instance (Ünver,  Hakeri, 375; Centel,  Zafer, 368). Also the practice is in this direction. Furthermore, the Constitutional Court makes the determination in this direction, too (Sınar, 333). However, reasonable view in doctrine indicates that making a determination in accordance with ECHR decisions is not compatible with domestic law and elapsed time in legal remedy should be considered in calculation of detention period, because under Turkish law the person is regarded as accused until the final judgement (Özen,  Okuyucu Ergün, 185; Sınar, 335, 336). Until the end of the accused status; detention period have to be considered (Şahin, 309; Özbek, Kanbur, Doğan, Bacaksız,  Tepe, 336, 337). Detention warrants issued in investigation and prosecution about a person against whom it is alleged that he committed multiple crimes, have a result for all investigation and prosecution process (Centel,  Zafer, 367). In other words, even if detention warrants were given for seperate crimes by the different courts, for all of them there is one detention period (Sınar, 339) and maximum period for the crime which requires heavy penalty is 5 years. Turkey is a country that has been fined by the ECHR (For the determinations of the ECHR relating to the duration of detention see: Eker Kazancı, 91) due to long periods of detention. An important part of the decisions of the Constitutional Court on violation of right regarding detention was made on that the ground of maximum detention period is surpassed and / or it is not reasonable. V. CONTROL OF DETENTION AND CHALLENGE TO THE DETENTION WARRANT A. Control of Detention The detention is a protection measure. Therefore it is temporary. When the conditions which require the detention warrant are dissapeared, detention shall be ended. For this reason, control of detention is included in the Criminal Procedure Code. During the investigation phase, status of detention is examined upon the request of the suspect or prosecutor. If a change is occured in conditions of detention or in any case within 30 days at the latest, aforesaid people can make a formal request to judge for examination of detention status.The judge will make a decision by considering the provisions relating to the conditions of detention. It will be decided by listening to the suspect or defense counsel upon the motion of public prosecutor (art. 108/1, 2). Also during the investigation phase, supervision of detention may be asked by release request or judical control request. The public prosecutor may ask the judge to release the suspect by putting him under judicial control (CrPC art. 103/1). However, if the public prosecutor deems that judicial control or detention is no longer necessary, he may release the suspect ex mero motu (CrPC art. 103/2). 133

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Suspect or defense counsel may ask the judge for release warrant by means of enforcing judicial control (CrPC art. 103/1) or without enforcing judical control at every stage of investigation (CrPC art. 104/1). After the request of public prosecutor or suspect or defense counsel, a decision is made by judge up to 3 days. Before the decision, opinions of the public prosecutor, the suspect, the accused or defense counselor have to be received (CrPC art. 105). When it is ordered that prosecution is not needed, the suspect will be released (CrPC art. 103/2). During the prosecution period; the judge or court ex mero motu may evaluate the status of the accused who is in jail on each trial day or, if the conditions make it necessary, between the trial days or within thirty days at the latest whether it is necessary to continue detention period (art. 108/2). The court may put an end to detention by means of practicing a judical control as well as decide to release of the accused or continuation of detention. Also; accused, defense counsel and public prosecutor may ask the court for the release of the accused or to put an end to detention by practicing a judical control. When the decision is made without trial, the opinions of the accused, defense counsel and public prosecutor are not received (art. 105). If it is decided at the trial, people except the person who made the request have to be listened (If public prosecutor does it; accused or/and defense counsel, intervening party or/and representative are listened; If accused or/and defense counsel do it; public prosecutor, intervening party or/and representative are listened) (CrPC art. 105, art. 33) (see: Centel,  Zafer, 376-378). The determinations above are valid normally and for investigations and prosecutions related to any crime. However, during state of emergency release request on some crimes against the state and the nation, terror crimes and collective crimes are determined by means of control of detention within 30 days at the latest. On these crimes it is not possible to receive opinion or to listen, requests will be settled on the file (Decree Law No. 668 art. 3/1-ç). In order to decide continuation of detention by the judge or the court, conditions of detention shall last and maximum period of detention shall not be over yet (Feyzioğlu,  Okuyucu, http://www.feyzioglu.av.tr/yayin/tutuklamada-azami-sure.html). When the file gets in the hands of the courts of appeal, or the Court of Cassation, the decision on the motion of release shall be rendered by the related Chamber of the Regional Court of Appeal on Facts and Law, or the related Chamber of the Court of Cassation, or the General Assembly of the Court of Cassation after reviewing the file; this decision may be rendered also by the courts ex mero motu (art. 104/3). B. Appeal of the Detention Warrant Appeal of the detention warrant given by judge or court has been accepted. It is possible to appeal not only detention warrant, but also decisions related to the rejection of the request to detention, the continuation of detention, the abolition of detention, applying judicial control instead of detention or the rejection of the request for release (CrPC art. 101/2, 104/2, 105). The appeal can be made only within 7 days from the day when the decision has been learned. Whether the examination of appeal should be with main hearing or not depends on the discretion of the inspecting authority.Under Decree Law No.667 it is regulated that appeal against detention can be settled on the file. According to the Constitutional Court, as long as the principle of equality of arms is not violated, it does not constitute a breach of Article 19 (Centel,  Zafer, 372). CONCLUSION In our law; in point of detention measure, there are problems caused by both regulations and practice. Moreover the problems caused by the practice are leading to modification in the regulations. It is possible to say that practice has been affecting the legislate technique in our country. However, this situation doesn’t provide the disappearence of the problem. Regarding detention, it is not possible to say that the defense did its duty as it should be. Therefore, for the elimination of problems, besides that regulations must satisfy how they should be, it is necessary for authorities to work in practice to comply with regulations, to act in accordance with the requirements of their task and to comply with the protection of fundamental rights and freedoms. References

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Eker Kazancı, B. (2012). AİHS Ve AİHM Kararları Çerçevesinde Yakalama ve Tutuklama Koruma Tedbiri ile Kişi Güvenliği ve Hürriyetinin Sınırlandırılması/ Restrict of Right to Liberty nnd Security With Arrest nnd Detantion Within the Framework of The Judgment Echr and Convention, TBB Dergisi/Union of Turkish Bar Associations Review (pp. 75-104), Ankara, Turkey. Centel, N.,  Zafer, H. (2015). Ceza Muhakemesi Hukuku. Istanbul, Turkey: Beta. Feyzioğlu, M.,  Okuyucu, G. (2010). Türk Hukukunda Tutuklulukta Azami Süre/ The Upper Limit of Arrest under Turkish Law, pp. 35-59. http://www.feyzioglu.av.tr/yayin/tutuklamada-azami-sure.html (A.D.26.06.2016). Katoğlu, T. (2011).Tutuklama Tedbirine İlişkin Sorunlar, ABD/Ankara Bar Review (Issue 4, pp. 17-33). Ankara, Turkey. Özbek, V. Ö., Kanbur, M. N., Doğan, K., Bacaksız, P.,  Tepe, İ. (2015). Ceza Muhakemesi Hukuku. Ankara, Turkey: Seckin. Özen, M., Güngör, D.,  Okuyucu Ergün, G. (2010). Avrupa İnsan Hakları Mahkemesi Kararları Işığında Türk Hukukunda Azami Tutukluluk Süresinin Hesaplanmasına İlişkin Değerlendirmeler, ABD/Ankara Bar Review (Issue 4, pp. 181-187). Ankara, Turkey. Öztürk, B., Tezcan, D., Erdem, M. R., Sırma, Ö., Saygılar Kırıt, Y. F./Özaydın, Ö., Alan Akcan, E.,  Erden, E. (2015), Nazari ve Uygulamalı Ceza Muhakemesi Hukuku, Ders Kitabı. Ankara, Turkey: Seckin. Sınar, H. (2016). Ceza Muhakemesi Hukukunda Tutuklama. İstanbul, Turkey: Onikilevha. Şahin, C. (2015). Ceza Muhakemesi Hukuku I. Ankara, Turkey: Seckin. Turhan, F. (2001). Avrupa İnsan Hakları Mahkemesi (İHAM) Kararlarına Göre Makul Tutukluluk Süresi ve Türk Hukuku, SÜHFD/Selcuk University Faculty Of Law Review (Vol. 9, Issue 3-4, pp. 77-110). Konya, Turkey. Ünver, Y.,  Hakeri, H. (2015). Ceza Muhakemesi Hukuku. Ankara, Turkey: Adalet. Yenisey, F.,  Nuhoğlu, A. (2014). Ceza Muhakemesi Hukuku Ders Kitabı. Istanbul, Turkey: Bahcesehir University. Yıldız, A. K., Dursun,  S., Talas, S. (2016). Tutuklama ve Adli Kontrol, 11. Ceza Hukuku Günleri, 11.Strafrechtstage, 11th Criminal Law Days, Koruma Tedbirleri ve Türk Anayasaları ile Yeni Anayasa Önerilerinde Koruma Tedbirlerine İlişkin Düzenlemeler, Protectıon Measures and Regulations Related to Protection Measures İn Turkish Constitutions and New Bills of Constitutions (1-3 Haziran 2016), pp. 297-309. İstanbul, Turkey. The

Research of “Türkiye’de Tutukluluk Uygulamaları ve Tutuklamada Savunmanın Rolü”, http://www.bahcesehir.edu.tr/icerik/2266-turkiyede-tutukluluk-uygulamalari-ve-tutuklamada-savunmanin-r olu-arastirmasi (A.D.25.06.2016)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

TURKISH UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ LONELINESS DEGREE AND INTERNET USING Assoc. Prof.Dr. Birol GÜLNAR Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Radio Television and Cinema Dept. [email protected]

Abstract New technologies especially internet can have some positive or negative effects on modern society and people. It asserted that loneliness is an important situation especially among young population in modern age. This study intend to show level of Turkish university students’ loneliness as an indicator of psychological well-being, and types of internet usage (communication, entertainment, and informative). Add to this, the research purpose to explore that the relationship between loneliness (social and emotional), and internet usage types (communication, entertainment, and informative) among Turkish university students. A survey was performed on two thousand eight hundred and six (2806) students who attend twenty six (26) universities that located on whole Turkey. Different sampling techniques were used such as cluster, purposeful and random sampling for representing all Turkey university students. Data was collected via a questionnaire which included different subscales such as loneliness, internet usage types and individual differences. Results indicated that 44.6 % of participants leave loneliness at medium or high degree. Also participants’ daily average internet usage time is 118 minutes. Students more frequently use to internet purpose of communication and entertainment while they use less purpose of information. In additionally, internet usage for entertainment was positively and significantly correlated with general loneliness. Lastly it was concluded that internet usage for entertainment and information seeking were positively and significantly correlated with emotional loneliness. Keywords: Social and emotional loneliness, Turkish University students, internet usage.

1. Introduction Internet has widespread usage area every passing day. Cause of that reason, researchers have more pay attention internet and its relation to other concepts. Researchers especially want to focus internet’s psychological and social effects on modern society. Besides, researchers are examining who are using the internet and which motivations they have. Numerous studies revealed that people use the internet more frequently purpose of communication and maintenance of relations the others. Especially it is observed that instant messaging usage on smart phones is rather become widespread (Shaw and Gant, 2002: 157-158, Şahin and Gülnar, 2015). Although, this situation seems internet usage has positive effects on interpersonal relationships and psychological well-being, study results of related of this topic are contradictory. Some researchers have asserted that internet facilitate people to get through geographical limitations and connect with a broader and more different groups than real life. Moreover, researchers try to determine whether online relationships can be as fulfilling as face to face relationships, or whether they simply serve as less meaningful substitutes (Kraut, 1998; McKenna and Bargh, 2000; Wolfradt and Doll, 2000). The internet has recently emerged as the principal of the factors that are believed to have an effect on the psychologies and social relationships of young people. The fact that it initially became increasingly easier to access the internet, and in the following period it became very easy for devices such as smart phones to find a place in everyday life seems to justify the reputation of the internet in this regard. Frequent discussions have been made on the mass media and among academic circles, regarding the 136

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN relationship between internet usage and the psychological problems of the modern society, such as depression and loneliness. Academic literature tends to focus on the potential relationship between internet usage and general mental health (psychological well-being). At this stage, the necessity of scientifically presenting mental health and its indicators in a clear manner comes into prominence. 2. Review of Literature Section of literature review include concepts of loneliness and its relation to internet usage. 2.1. Loneliness

Loneliness is a subjective experience which a person’s relationships are less satisfying than desired. In another words it is the failure of satisfying social realtionships. Loneliness is more related to meaningful a person’s relations than amount of that relations. Therefore quality of interactions is more important than quantity of interactions (Hu, 2007: 27). The sense of loneliness comprises a complex set of feelings that encompass reactions to the loss of intimate and/or social needs (Ernst and Cacioppo 1999). In this way, it can be construed as the emotional response to the discrepancy between desired and available inter-personal relationships (Walton et al. 1991; Kileen 1998). Empirical interest in loneliness began in the early 1980s, and today it continues to be a topic of research and clinical focus (Heinrich & Gullone, 2006). Loneliness is a subjectively unpleasant and painful feeling with potentially serious conclusions (Heinrich & Gullone, 2006). One factor that excited theoretical and research interest in loneliness was Weiss' typology of social and emotional loneliness. Weiss (1987, 1998) was the first to examine loneliness as a multidimensional experience and proposed a differentiation between social loneliness as a result of an insufficient access to social relationships such as a network of peers, co-workers, neighbors, or friends, and emotional loneliness perceived as a lack of close or intimate relationships which are characteristic of ties with a romantic partner, parent, or child. Two factors are idenfified which determine the loneliness. The first one is internal factors that is personality characteristics such as introversion, shyness, low self-esteem, (John, Freeman, Goswick 1981); lack of social skills (Page, et.al, 1992); negative evaluation of interpersonal relationships (Jones, et.al., 1983); feelings of emptiness, awkwardness, and boredom (Russell, et.al., 1978). Second factor which determine the loneliness is external factors such as divorce, loss of a spouse, newly enrolled college students (Hu, 2007: 32). As it mentioned above, internet and its psychological and social affects are very important at this stage. Loneliness as indicator of psychological well-being is and its’ relation to internet usage have to examine more detail. 2.2. Loneliness and Internet Usage

While several studies deal with the level and type of technology use (Balcı and Ayhan, 2007; Ayhan and Balcı, 2009), a much smaller number of studies focus on the psycho-social effects of technology (Heim, et al., 2007). In this manner, the psycho-social effects of the internet, which is very commonly used among young people, are of extreme importance. While some of the studies on the topic present the negative effects of internet use on psychological well-being (Kraut et al., 1998; Mathers et al., 2009; Rosen, 2006), some others reveal the positive dimension of this effect (Lavoie and Pychyl, 2001; La Rose et al., 2003; Morahan - Martin, 2005). Kraut and colleagues (1998) performed a longitudinal research which related to internet and psychological well-being. This study’ results revealed that greater internet use caused a small but significant decline in social involvement (family communication, local social network, and social support) and an increase in loneliness and depression. Morahan - Martin (1999) conducted a similar research which investigated loneliness, internet use and abuse. The researcher found that loneliness is correlated with both increased internet use and internet abuse. Kubey and colleagues (2001) conducted a research at a large public university that sample consisted 572 students. They examined the relationship between heavier use of internet and academic performance. Researchers found that heavier recreational internet use correlated highly with demaged academic performance. Loneliness, staying up late, tiredness, and missing class were also intercorrelated with of Internet-caused impairment. Similarly Matanda and colleagues (2004) 137

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN investigated relation to internet use and loneliness, computer anxiety and education among 158 adults. They found that lonely and younger men used to internet more for entertainment. On the other hand there are numerous studies which indicate that internet use could weaken negative psychological well-being - loneliness and depression – (Shaw & Gant, 2002; White et al., 1999). In addition some researcher found that internet use related to better psychological well-being (Cheng, Wigand, & Nilan, 2000). Weiser (2001) conducted a similar study who investigated psychological well-being and internet use. Psychological well-being was consisted three elements which were loneliness, depression and life satisfaction. Weiser (2001: 733) indicated that psychological well-being negatively correlated with internet use for social purposes and hours of personal internet use while it was positively correlated with social integration. At the end of the literature review following research questions was written: RQ1: What is the degree of university students’ loneliness? RQ2: What is the frequency and kinds of university students’ internet usage? RQ3: Is there any relationship between loneliness and students’ internet usage? 3. Methodology A survey was conducted purpose to show the relationship between university students’ loneliness and their internet usage. This survey was conducted on two thousand eight hundred and six (2806) students who attend twenty six (26) universities and twenty seven (27) different programs that located on whole Turkey. Different analysis such as descriptive statistics and correlation analysis have been performed for answer to the relevant research questions. 3.1. Procedure and Sample

This study has aimed to investigate loneliess degree of university students as indicator of psychological well-being and the relation between their internet usage types and frequency. Different sampling techniques were used such as cluster, purposeful and random sampling for representing all Turkey university students. The sample was consisted 1525 (56.2 %) females participants and 1190 (43.8 %) males. Participants’ ages were varying between 19 and 33 and mean of ages is 21.55. 7.7 % of the students were from Seljuk University, 7.2 % were from Marmara University, 5.3 % were Uludag University, 5.2 % were from KATU, 4.9 % were from Istanbul University, 4.8 % were from Karabuk University, 4.8 % were from Ege University, 4.7 % were Adnan Menderes University. Also the sample included Mugla, Cumhuriyet, Gazi, and Anadolu University students with smaller counts. 3.2. Measurement

A questionnaire which contained two main parts was designed to measure Turkish University students’ loneliness degree and the relationship between loneliness degree, and internet usage types. First part of the questionnaire included UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3) and is constituted of twenty items. Participants reported situations which indicated on the scale by using one-to-five point scale (1= never, 5= always). Russell (1996:26) reported that its test-retest reliability is .73 and cronbach alpha ranged from .89 to .94. Also Russell (1996: 26) proved the construction validity of the scale. In addition Wang (2006: 69) reported that this scale’s cronbach alpha is .91. Gülnar and Çakır (2015: 48) computed .91 for cronbach alpha which is consistent with the findings of other researchers. Also they proved that the scale had constant validity. Also, cronbach alpha .89 was computed for this study, scale’s validity exhibited by the positive relation between loneliness and depression (r= .646, p< .001). Second part of the questionnaire which aimed students’ internet usage type and frequency included 14 items. That 14 items measured students’ internet usage type and frequency at three different usage dimensions: Communication, information and entertainment (Johnson, 2007, 2008 aktaran Erickson ve Johnson, 2011: 201). That scales’ total reliability .89, .70 usage for communication, .87 usage for information, .66 usage for entertainment were computed. Also that scales’ validity proved constant validity: Internet usage for communication positively correlated with face to face interaction scale (r = .080, p< .001). 3.3. Analysis and Statistical Tests

Firstly, a pilot study was applied on a small group which included one hundred students at the 138

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN beginning of the survey and the questionnaire was reviewed according the results of this study. Analysis was performed by SPSS 17 statistical Program. Descriptive analysis was used to introduce demographic characteristics of participants. Central tendency statistics and computed items were performed for assessing participants’ degree of loneliness, and internet usage. Also Correlation analysis was used to investigate the relations between loneliness and internet usage. 4. Results Part of finding contains three different subjects which try to answer research questions. These subjects are (1) loneliness level of participants, (2) frequently and type of internet usage, (3) lastly the relationship between loneliness and internet usage. 4.1. Loneliness Level of University Students

Firstly loneliness degree of Turkish University students’ is descriptively investigated in this part. As seen on Table 1, mean score of participants’ emotional loneliness is  = 2.47, social loneliness is  = 2.45 and lastly general loneliness is  = 2.46. This value showed that participants’ loneliness degree is low-point (As mentioned before, a five point scale was used to assess self-esteem. Answers ranged one to five therefore 0.80 (4/5= 0.80) range was used in staging: 1,00-1,80 = very low; 1,81-2,60 = low; 2,61-3,40 = midpoint; 3,41-4,20 = high; 4,21-5,00 = very high). Table 1. Central Tendency Statistics for Participants’ Total Loneliness Degree N

Minimum

Maximum

Mean

SD

Emotional Loneliness

2775

.00

4.82

2.47

.730

Social Loneliness

2775

1.00

5.00

2.45

.707

General Loneliness

2775

1.00

4.80

2.46

.641

In addition, students’ loneliness degree investigated thorough frequency analysis as a categorical variable (loneliness index was categorized based on categorical degree as it was mentioned). As have been seen on Table 2, 19.5 % of participants have very low loneliness, 35.9 % of participant’s low loneliness, 39.6 % of participants midpoint loneliness, 4.4 % of participants high loneliness, and 0.6 % of participants very high loneliness degree. In another words 44.6 % of participants leave loneliness at medium or high degree. Table 2. Results of Frequency Analysis for Loneliness Categories Frequency

Rate

Valid Rate

Very Low

542

19.0

19.5

Low

995

35.0

35.9

Mid Point

1100

38.7

39.6

High

122

4.3

4.4

Very High

16

0.6

0.6

2775

97.5

100.0

71

2.5

2846

100.0

Total Missing General Total

100.0

4.2. Turkish University Students’ Internet Usage

Turkish university students’ internet usage types and frequency were introduced in this part by descriptive statistics. Table 3 included mean values concerning students’ internet usage types. Firstly students’ daily internet usage average time is  = 118 minutes. According to this, it is observed that students use internet most frequently purpose of “instant messaging” by the daily internet usage 139

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN average time is  = 215 minutes. Second most frequently internet usage type is purpose of social media by the daily usage average time is  = 184 minutes. Internet usage for listening to music (  = 137), playing game (  = 117), and video/TV watching (  = 114) follow internet usage purpose of instant messaging and social media. Minimum daily average internet usage types are in order e-mail (  = 48), private information seeking (  = 65), academic information seeking (  = 69), following news bulletin (  = 73) and general information seeking (  = 79). Table 3. Central Tendency Statistics Related Internet Usage Types and Frequency Usage on One Day Time (Minutes) Usage Time on an Average Day (Minutes) Internet Usage Types

N

Minim.

Maxim.

Mean

N

Minim.

Maxim.

Mean

E-Mail Instant Messaging Social Networking Internet Telephone Dating Sites Search Engines Public Information Seek Private Information Seek AcademicInformation Newsgroups/Bulletin Boar Seek

1238 2097 1984 613 673 1697 1385 904 1038 1363

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1020 1440 1440 1420 1420 1440 1440 1140 1200 1440

43.56 205.4 182.6 7 95.68 7 85.34 96.35 84.98 67.01 77.27 71.15

1433 2130 1981 712 758 1767 1476 1013 1199 1466

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1

1020 1440 1440 1420 1420 1440 1440 1140 1200 1440

48.17 215.0 184.9 9 81.24 1 80.73 94.41 79.24 65.21 69.69 73.19

Listening Music Video/TV Watching Playing Games All Other Types General Internet Usage

1776 1525 851 592 2355

1 1 0 1 1

1440 1440 1440 1020 1440

136.9 113.6 8 120.6 1 81.93 7 117.2

1862 1650 950 790 2337

1 0 1 1 1

1440 1440 1440 720 1440

136.9 114.4 7 116.5 1 69.82 8 118.1

9

6

Internet usage types categorized three different dimensions which are (1) communication (e-mail, instant messaging, social networking, internet telephone, dating sites), (2) information (search engines, public information seek, private information seek, academic information seek, newsgroups), (3) Entertainment (listening music, video/TV watching, playing games). Tablo 4. Central Tendency Statistics Related Internet Usage Types and Groups Usage on One Day Time (Minutes) Usage Time on an Average Day (Minutes) Internet Usage Types Communication Information Entertainment

N

Minim.

Maxim.

Mean

N

Minim.

Maxim.

Mean

2286 2028 2038

0 1 1

1440 1440 1440

148.90 78.11 121.92

2291 2068 2070

1 0.25 1

1440 1440 1440

151.18 78.50 123.14

Table 4 included central tendency statistics related that internet usage groups. According to this Turkish university students use internet most frequently purpose of communication. They spend daily average  =151 minutes for internet usage purpose of communication. Internet usage for entertainment follow usage for communication daily average  = 123 minutes. Internet usage for information is the minimum usage type with daily average  = 78 minutes. Turkish university students use internet less frequency purpose of information while they use internet more frequently purpose of communication and entertainment. 4.3. Relationship between Loneliness and Internet Usage

The relation between Turkish university students’ internet usage and level of loneliness was investigated in this section. Different correlation analysis was performed loneliness and internet usage. Firstly, correlation analysis was performed internet usage for communication and loneliness. 140

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Table 5 included results of this analysis. Correlation analysis revealed that general loneliness and e-mail usage positively correlated (r= .078, p< .01) while it negatively correlated (r= -.065, p< .01) with instant messaging. On the other hand there is no correlation between general loneliness and internet usage for general communication. Table 5. Results of Correlation Analysis between Internet Usage for Communication and Loneliness Degree (Pearson r) Instant

Social

Internet

Messaging

Networking

Telephone

.078**

-.065**

-.020

-.044

.014

-.032

1429

2125

1977

711

757

2418

E-Mail Total Loneliness N

Dating Sites

General Communic.

Secondly one more correlation analysis was performed between internet usage for information seeking and loneliness. Table 6 contained results of this analysis. Correlation analysis revealed that total loneliness and search engines using, positively and significantly correlated. In addition loneliness and internet usage for (general) information seeking positively and significantly correlated (r=.048, p< .05). Table 6. Results of Correlation Analysis between Internet Usage for Information Seeking and Loneliness Degree (Pearson r)

Total Loneliness

Search

Public

Private

Academic

News

Information

Engines

Information

Information

Information

Groups

General

.053*

.010

.018

-.053

.009

.048*

Lastly one more correlation analysis was performed between internet usage for entertainment and loneliness. Table 7 also contained results of correlation analysis which related to general internet using and loneliness. Correlation analysis indicated that loneliness and internet using for entertainment (r=.055, p< .05) positively and significantly correlated. Table 7. Results of Correlation Analysis Between Internet Usage for Entertainment and Loneliness Degree (Pearson r)

Total Loneliness

Listening

Video/TV

Playing

Music

Watching

Game

.039

.020

.014

The Others .017

Entertainm.

Internet

General

General

.055*

.011

5. Discussion and Conclusion This study purposed to investigate relation to Turkish university students’ loneliness degree as indicator of psychological well-being, and their internet usage types and frequency. Findings revealed that Turkish university students’ level of loneliness is low. On the other hand an important part of the sample has mid-point or high degree of loneliness. In another words 44.6 % of Turkish university students felt lonely. This percentage is fairly noteworthy. This situation indicated that it is a negative statement in the manner of University students’ psychological well-being. Internet usage types and frequency is the another important variable in this study as it mentioned. University students’ daily internet usage average time this included all types of usage is 118 minutes. According to this, it is observed that students use internet most frequently purpose of “instant messaging” by the daily internet usage average time is  = 215 minutes. Second most frequently 141

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN internet usage type is purpose of social media by the daily usage average time is  = 184 minutes. Internet usage for listening to music (  = 137), playing game (  = 117), and video/TV watching (  = 114) follow internet usage purpose of instant messaging and social media. Minimum daily average internet usage types are in order e-mail (  = 48), private information seeking (  = 65), academic information seeking (  = 69), following news bulletin (  = 73) and general information seeking (  = 79). Turkish university students use internet less frequency purpose of information while they use internet more frequently purpose of communication and entertainment. It was revealed clearly that the relationship between Turkish university students’ loneliness level as indicator of psychological well-being and their internet usage seemly to this study’s main purpose. It was concluded that loneliness and internet usage for information seeking and entertainment positively correlated. These findings are also consistent with the other findings which include the negative relation internet usage and psychological well-being (Thomée et.all., 2007; Şahin and Gülnar, 2015, Rosen, 2006; Brenner, 1997; Young, 1996; Aa van der ve ark., 2009). On the other hand this study also revealed that instant messaging usage and loneliness negatively correlated. Students have more use instant messaging they live less loneliness. This result consistent with Walz’s (2008) results which include the ositve relationship between student’s social media use and sense of belonging as indicator od psychological well-being. This result can be interpreted that the people who have negative psychological conditions can use the internet for overcome these bad mood (Pychyl, 2001; Chou, 2001; La Rose vd., 2003; Morahan-Martin, 2005). As it mentioned while internet usage for e-mail, information seeking and entertainment positively correlated with loneliness instant messaging negatively correlated. It can be explained Leung’s (2007). The researcher asserted that the relation between internet usage and psychological well-being can vary according to purpose of internet usage. So that internet usage for social aims can help overcome to psychological problems. On the other hand internet usage for gathering information can be negatively correlated with psychological well-being. References Aa van der N., Overbeek G., Engels R., Scholte, R., Meerkerk, G., Eijnden, R. (2009). Daily and Compulsive Internet Use and Well-Being in Adolescence: A Diathesis-Stress Model Based on Big Five Personality Traits, J Youth Adolescence, 38, 765-776. Brenner, V. (1997). Parameters of Internet Use, Abuse, and Addiction: The First 90 Days of the Internet Usage Survey, Psychological Reports, 80 (1): 879-882. Cheng, H., Wigand, RT., & Nilan, M. (2000). “Exploring Web Users’ Optimal Flow Experiences”, Information Technology & People 13 (4), 263-281. Chou, C. (2001). Internet Heavy Use and Addiction Among Taiwanese College Students: An Online Interview Study, Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 4, s. 573-585. Erickson, J., & Johnson M. (2011). Internet Use and Psychological Wellness during Late Adulthood. Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue canadienne du vieillissement, 30 (2) : 197– 209. Ernst, J. M. and Cacioppo, J. T. (1999). Lonely hearts: psychological perspectives on loneliness. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 8, 1, 1–22. Heinrich, L.M., & Gullone, E. (2006). The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(6), 695-718. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002 Hu, Mu (2007). Social Use of The Internet and Loneliness. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. The Ohio State University. Jones, W.H., Sansone, C., & Helm, B. (1983). Loneliness and Interpersonal Judgements, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 437-441. Kileen, C. (1998). Loneliness: an epidemic in modern society. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 28, 4, 762–70. Kraut, P., Patterson M., Lundmark V., Kiesler S., Mukopadhyay T., & Scherlis W., (1998). “Internet Paradox: A Social Technology That Reduces Social Involvement and Psychological Well-being?”, American Psychologist, 53, 65-77.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kubey, R.W., Lavin, M.J., & Barrows, J.R. (2001). Internet Use and Collegiate Academic Performance Decrements: Early Findings, Journal of Communication, 51 (2), 366-382. La Rose, R., Lin, C.A., & Eastin, M. S. (2003). Unregulated Internet Usage: Addiction, Habit, or Deficient Self-Regulation?, Media Psychology, 5, s. 225-253 Leung, L. (2007). Stressful Life Events, Motives For Internet Use, and Social Support Among Digital Kids, CyberPsychology & Behavior, 10, (2), s. 204-214. Matanda, M., Jenvey, V.B., & Phillips, J.G. (2004). Internet Use in Adulthood: Loneliness, Computer Anxiety and Education, Behaviour Change, 21 (2), 103-114. McKenna, K.Y.A., & Bargh, J.A. (2000). Plan 9 from cyberspace: the implications of the Internet for personality and social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review 4:57–75. Morahan-Martin, J.M. (1999). The Relationship Between Loneliness and Internet Use and Abuse, Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 2 (5), 431-439. Morahan-Martin, J. (2005). Internet Abuse – Addiction? Disorder? Symptom? Alternative Explanations?, Social Science Computer Review, 23, 39-48. Page, R.M., Frey, J., Talbert, R., Falk, C. (1992). Children’s Feelings of Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction – Relationship to Measure of Physical-Fitness and Activity, Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 11 (3), 211-219. Russell D., Peplau, L. A., & Ferguson, M.L. (1978). Developing a Measure of Loneliness, Journal of Personality Assessment, 42, 290-294. Russell, D (1996). UCLA Loneliness Scale (Versiyon 3): Reliability, Validity, and Factor Structure. Journal of Personalitiy Assessment, 66 (1), 20 - 40. Shaw, L.H. & Gant, L.M. (2002). In defense of The Internet: The Relationship Between Internet Communication and Depression, Loneliness, Self-Esteem, and Perceived Social Support, Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 5 (2), 157-171. Şahin, M., Gülnar, B. (2016). İletişim korkusu ve internet kullanımı ilişkisi: Türkiye’deki üniversite öğrencileri arasında bir alan araştırması, Selçuk İletişim, 9 (2): 5-26 Thomée, S., Eklöf, M., Gustafsson, E., Nilsson, R., Hagberg, M. (2007). Prevelance of Perceived Stress, Symptoms of Depression and Sleep Disturbances in Relation to Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Use Among Young Adults - an Explorative Prospective Study, Computer Human Behavior, 23 (3), s. 1300-1321. Young, K. (1996). Internet Addiction: The Emergence of a New Clinical Disorder, CyberPsychology and Behavior, 1, (3): 237-244. Walton, C. G., Schulz, C. M., Beck, C. M. and Walls, R. C. (1991). Psychological correlates of loneliness in the older adult. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 5, 3, 165–70. Walz, L. O. (2008). The Relationships Between Colege Students’ Use of Social Networking Sites and Their Sense of Belonging, University of Hartford, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Wang, Y. (2006). Internet Use Among Students and Its Implication for Cross-Cultural Adaptation, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Kent State University. Weiss, R.S. (1987). Reflections on the present state of loneliness research. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 2(2), 1-16. Weiss, R.S. (1998). A taxonomy of relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15, 671-683. doi: 10.1177/0265407598155006 Weiser, E.B. (2001). The Functions of Internet Use and Their Social and Psychological Consequences, CyberPsychology & Behavior, 4 (6), 723-743. White, H., McConnell, E., Clipp, E., Bynum, L., Teague, C., Navas, L., Craven, S. & Halbrecht, H. (1999). Surfing The Net in Later Life: A Review of The Literature and Pilot Study of Computer Use and Quality of Life, Journal of Applied Gerontology, 18 (3), 358-378. Wolfradt, U, & Doll, J. (2000). Motives of Adolescents to Use The Internet as a function of personality traits, personal and social factors. Journal of Educational Computing Research 24:13–27.

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ANALYSIS OF THE ANAYURT OTELI FILM WITH METHOD NEOFORMALISM Research Assistant. Cenk ATEŞ Selcuk Universty Social Science Institute, Faculty of Communication, Cinema Dept. [email protected] Assist Prof. Dr. Meral SERARSLAN Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Cinema Dept. [email protected] Abstract It is known that all fields of art have differed by breaking ordinary rules in sometimes. In the most basic sense, neoformalism which means “creating difference, breaking habits” not only handles formal and contextual change of cinema in terms of its unique tools, but also researches the influence of changes in the form and content on the audience. Traditional narrative in Turkish Cinema has always made its dominance felt. The biggest difference occurred in classical narrative is modern narrative structures which have commercial concerns and aim to provide identification and detach audience from real life during the film. Directors of Turkish Cinema like Ömer Lütfi Akad, Yılmaz Güney, Metin Erksan have made social themed films with the aim of being free from Yeşilcam influence and passing over melodramatic structure. After these films which mostly deal with urban-village phenomenon, films which reflect the inner world of individuals have been started to appear in Turkish Cinema. Ömer Kavur and Anayurt Oteli as his one of the most successful films are leading in this kind of films. Formally, the director who is in search of individualistic style with modern narrative structure handles anti-heroes within their environments and also reveals the links among time, space and characters successfully. Anayurt Oteli is differed from Yeşilcam Cinema by its narrative language and the content. It is also differed from modern narrative by creating anti-heroes and breaking identification. Key Words: Breaking Habits, Innovation, First Cinema, Second Cinema, Narrative Patterns, Neoformalism

1. Introduction Since 1895, when the first shows conducted, cinema has contiuned its development under the certain ideologies. Hollywood cinema which is financial earnings-based and reflects American ideology, has created specific structures within itself. Cinematic codes, by imposing a tradition of Hollywood cinema to the masses, has set up a structure based on to being identifed with the audience and thus the film has created methods that hide the film. Modern Cinema mentality that is against to this consept of cinema as an alternative form and content, based on Brecht's alienation theory and cinematic codes has a structure built to reming to the audience that the film they watch. Making a difference in art, on the basis of neoformalist approach to break the routine, at this point aims to presents both cinema understanding and these different constructions' features that vary in itself. The aim of the work from this point; according to neoformalist approach, clarifying the consept of "giving up on the habit" on cinema and to determine Homeland Hotel (Anayurt Oteli) film's features of neoformalist approach which is in different place in term of narrative form and wording in Turkish cinema history whether carry or not. 145

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

2. Review of Literature 2.1. Neoformalism Neoformalism is based on the mantality of the origin of the innovations brought by the Russian formalists in literature. In the ninteenth century literary criticism and investigation is not relative to work of art. Mentality of this period; either taking the art as a sense of diegesis and bringing the artist to the center position or turning to politics, sociology and history to explain the literature as saying this is reflecting outside of the art world. Russian Formalists has suggested that literary study, seperate from other kinds of studies, should be based on typical method. According to this, Russian Formalists, has put forward the idea of moving from the work of art and above all, the stylistic feature that seperates literature work from the other work of arts, namely, they has tried to find the answer of what literariness means (Moran, 2013: 177-178). To understand how to use the Neoformalist approach in the film analysises, it is necessary to cinema's elationship with the audience, diegesis structures and examine the tools that it used. Neoformalisn is a term that is used to explain the innovations that occurs in cinema and since Griffith, it is a thinking style of invoking the audience as an active person to the partipication, breaking the conventional diegesis structure and style. As well as every art branch has its own unique tools, cinema has also tackled the consisted change in 'scenario, sound, decor, lighting, camera movements etc.' with its own unique tools. With the Neoformalist approach, observing the objects of the outside world, emotion and thoughts from the different perspective again and perceiving is provided. " With this way of Neoformalism, is not the one which explains the world, is an approach which tries to explain its connection with the world and its aesthetic area (Topçu, 2012:37). According to the Neoformalizm, the main purpose of the art is making a differentiation and if the differentiation that is made in the name of breaking the habit continues, after a while carries a danger of being the habit itself. Therefore, differentiation should be constantly looking for new forms. For example, differentiation in the use of camera on hand used for a long time becomes a habit. 2.2. Audience in Neoformalism - Diegesis Structure – Tool Making a difference in poetry, is obtained by arranging the language strangely and playing on it. Difference in cinema; is made with story, plot and style. The only change is the story line and the story selections whose difference is a matter of dispute. The audience who is accustomed to genre films, has estimated more or less what kind of film will go in which direction, how will it be resulted or how cinema will use its tools. Thus, the audience, has watched the film with the schemes that it got before and has seen it from a point of view that automated the life devoid of mental activity. In this respect, cinema has its own methods in the name of creating the cognitive activity on the audience, the idea of using an unusual style, is one of the important points in Neoformalism (Topçu, 2012:33). Diegesis structure comes at the beginning of the steps which starts the mental process on audience. The diegesis encompasses many definitions that contain common points. According to Ayşen Oluk, diegesis is transmitting two or more event that are connected to each other logically, happening over time and connected as a whole with a consistent subject. (Oluk, 2008:17) The diegesis term is in the book of "Film Art (Film Sanatı)" by the David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson whose are the names that revealed the Neoformalist approach in cinema; corresponds to the chain of events in the cause-effect relationship in which time and place (Bordwell and Thompson, 2012:78). Eventhough throughout the history of cinema different trends comes up with regard to creating the diegesis, the most common diegesis type is traditional diegesis type. 'Traditional diegesis structure', Dramatic aesthetic hypothesis, which is developed thousands of years ago by Aristoteles and in our present-day makes the basic diegesis structure of Hollywood cinema, depends on the audience's setting up sense-experience unity with the film's characters. The events in dramatic diegesiss, aims to "drag to mental conflict" the protagonist who is expected to shoot it out with all the simplicity of their inner world (Brecht, 2011: 49). Dramatic structure which is based on causality, makes the audience forget what they watch by using standart techniques with tools such as cameras which hide its existance, fiction of continuity, natural highlighting, serves as a purification function of pity and fear that

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN overlooks on people. The most important thing that allows to identify the traditional cinema diegesis is the way it narrating the events. There are inceptive, evolving and ending event sequences. The evolotion of events is connected to a specific cause. The audience by watching evolution in events in a row depends on cause-and-effect relationship, loses himself/herself to diegesis by wondering events that will develope. Sound is recorded in order to makes the dialogues clear in maximum degree with technology with the highest standarts, because classical diegesis aims to integrate with the audience. It is definitely synchronous with the image. Camera movements is used for making the place certain. At the same time, with the way to reveal the three-dimensional objects, to gain 'impression of reality' to them sliding action is done. Generally it is working with a constant camera. Camera follows the character with a speed and angle similar to a human who is following the another person in action with hers/his eyes. Thus, the expression is inhibited in order not to draw the attention. Panning movement resembles the movement of a human head (Oluk, 2008:110). In classic diegesis, actors and actrists takes place on the stage like camera is not existed and they never look at the camera. As a decor, until the Italian Neo-Realism which is considered the beginning of modern cinema, films were shot in studio ambience. Lighting is in the center of the frame and artificial light is used. The stage which is illuminated with high light can be seen from every point. One of the most salient features of the classic narrative is foreground, the background separation. Character is not shown in crowded groups of people and outside places. The audience's attention is intended to performer that is located in the middle of the stage and front. One of the defining features of classical diegesis films is seperating the scenes into the little pieces, shootings. While doing this as a classic rule; it uses an allignment which goes far to near as a general plan, waist plan, detail plan. This technique that is named analytic editing, is an invisible technique that makes a decision through the agency of short-shootings and rapid editing what the audience should pay attention. Another feature of classic diegesis is the tempo of the film. Increasing the rhytm by editing, boring the audience is blocked. Shooting lengths are so short in classic diegesis and the number of the scenes are so many via rapid cutting method as much as possible. Thus, the tempo of the film rises and the directs to the action the audience. Close and single frames makes shoots understandable easily. With this way, classic diegesis, without allowing the audience to think, ensures its focusing to the act and action through editing (Büker and Topçu, 2010:140-142). In classic diegesis, the plot is usually intented to delay the formation of the story. It makes us produce the story by creating curiosity and expectation with a certain way. The space that is created, is filled after a while and the viewer estimates is verified. The viewer, produces assumotions based on the clues given in the film about the spaces that is created and the viewer's assumptions are confirmed soon. However the classic diegesis, pushes the viewer towards the target that is showed by the director to the cognitive activiy. Classic diegesis, can make a differecence in terms of plot. Therefore, the plot in the classic diegesis can be analyzed in terms of neoformalist (Topçu, 2012:42). Cinema mentalities such as expression cinema, auteur cinema, new cinema that creates alternative to the classic diegesis; is stands for the idea that the directors who are seeking to express themselves in a non-standard language. Therefore, directors who want to reach their thoughts, beyond the pulling the audience to the films and having the booth anxiety, has created the differences in shape or forms that conventional in content (Odabaş, 2013:19). This is almost all films with a difference have the narrative structure of modern and they are divided on classical narratives in main subjects. In modern diegesis, generally, unlike the classic diegesis, shooting duration is long and the number of the scenes are few. Thus, with this method, the audience remembers it is the film that they watch instead of losing theirself to the film. (Büker and Topçu, 2010:153). Also in modern diegesis; priority is not in the story, is in the narrating process and a diegesis which consist of with free conotation is preferred rather then the plot that is connected with causality chain (Büker,1985: 101-102). In modern diegesis, instead of normal view perspective, objectives that changes the proportions according to things that disrupt form can be used. Inclined angles, shaky shoots made with the shoulder camera, grainy footages, documentary footages, distorted sounds and footages that traditional diegesis doesn't use are used for unusual lighting techniques in the modern diegesis in order to break the habits on the audience (Coşkun, 2003:170). In addition in this diegesis type, the pieces consist from pieces/seperations (episod), take palaces of plot. Every one of the pieces in question, is appear independent and apart. Anything can be happen in 147

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN any time, unexpected situations can arise, time and palace jumps can be happen (Kayıran, 2013:100). In modern diegesis; plot, encourages the audience to the more cognitive activities by making it difficult. More than one character that is played by one person is an example to this. The audience is asked to fill themself the gaps which are given without any redirecting. In other word, it is left open to interpretation. In modern diegesis, weak causility, creating differentiation from the classic plot, is becoming an example to the neoformalist approach (Topçu,2012:59). Classic diegesis, differs from the classical diegesis about lighting. Instead of objective diegesis, the modern diegesis that cares the character's perspective, may presents the scenes according to the character's mood or in a dark place regarding to the subject that is told. For example, in film with existential elements, the character usually can often talk about him/herself in a dark palace. Similarly, as in the examples of French New Wave films, may choose dark, foogy, hazy atmosphere as a palace. This method, is an example of differentiation in classic diegesis method that uses artificial lighting and lighting the whole stage. Neoformalism in general, besides tackling the differences is classical and modern diegesis, takes examination topic the classic and modern diegesis's difference within itself. For example, in classic diegesis, while Western films in term of plot don't hide any information from the audience, detective films may restrict the informations from the audience in order to curiosity. Althogh the technical usage conditions are the same, the differences in the two diegesis structure may occur. According to Neoformalism, oen of the most effective weapons that cinema used in order to make a difference by breaking the conventions are also the tools. The use of camera, costumes, etc. vehicles, not only to express the meaning in the cinema, is also used for differentiate the conventional (Akt; Topçu, 2012:39:). Overall, neofromalism, is a method that can be used in all artworks which aims to change the conventional. Turkish cinema which passes through in various stages and differentaties that were observed by the time to the to the political and social conditions of the period as a parallel, has a rich archive for film analysises with neoformalist method. 3. Methodology Ömer Kavur cinema, is located for many years at a different point in Turkish cinema which put forths the films that are the type of traditional narrative because of the box-office anxiety. The Kavur cinema which had successfully managed to tell its own ideas about the life, has differences in narrative structure, manipulating technique, lighting and use of the camera from Yeşilçam cinema. Homeland Hotel (Anayurt Oteli) comes as a head among his films that are the most obvious of this difference. In this context, in this work with the movement of structural analysis method that is developed by Bordwell and Thompson, neoformalist method will be used. 4. Results 4.1. Ömer Kavur and Homeland Hotel (Anayurt Oteli) Turkish cinema produced films based on the classic diegesis structure that is named Yeşilçam for many years and couldn't create its own language. Generally, these films where the popular actresses and actors of the period plays, aimed to indenttification at the audience and withdrew beacuse of the booth anxiety. On the other hand, the directors such as Ömer Lütfi Akad, Yılmaz Güney, Metin Erksan, shot social realistic films away from Yeşilçam's influence. After the films that handles much more urban-rural phenomenon, especially the films that reflects the individual's inner world after the military coup, showed themselves in the Turkish cinema. In this context, lots of directors and film names that are in the effort of melodramatic structure in the Turkish cinema can be counted. Ömer Kavur and his one of the most succesful artworks Homeland Hotel (Anayurt Oteli) comes as a head ofthis names. Ömer Kavur, is seeking an individual style with his doesn't not seen camera movements in Yeşilçam, homorous essays and modern diegesis structure. He endeavored to handle the anti-characters that he used in his films with his enviroment and he successfully put forth the bond that Yeşilçam cinema couldn't put forth between time, place and personalities (Kayıran, 2013:60).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4.2. Analysis of the Homeland Hotel (Anayurt Oteli) Film in a Neoformalist Perspective Homeland Hotel (Anayurt Oteli) is a film that contrary to the traditional structure as diegesisal and formally. Traditional structures's gaps that is left in the plot, don't confront to us. In the film the are some scenes that the audience couldn't understand but this situation, as in the classic diegesis, they are not the events that will be given the reason after a while, like in the modern diegesis it is built on the causilty and aims to think to audience. In classic diegesis, the gaps that are given in the plot, raises a sense of wonder in the viewer. Audience hypothesizes about this gaps for a while and his/hers expectation becomes. Thus, the audience fells relief and purification. But Homeland Hotel, does not offer this kind of a relief to the audience. It makes to think and join to the film. In this sense, the audience, has faced with a diegesis structure different from story and plot template that the audience is used to. Informativity that modern diegesis uses and reflects the character's inner world, takes a part in the film extremely. The audience in the film, not to any event, witnesses to the Zebercet character's inner world. Therefore Homeland Hotel, by differentiating itself from the classic diegesis which depens on identification princible and event-centered, is drawn to the modern diegesis which reflects the individual's inner world. In Turkish cinema, both Yeşilçam and Social Realistic films are away from reflecting the individual's inner world. Therefore, Homeland Hotel, creates the character's inner world with the tools such as venues, dialogues and lighting; also creates in diegesis with differences in story and discourse. The film starts with a mysterious woman who comes with delayed Ankara train, entering through the door of the hotel. The woman, looking at the camera 'Do you have a room?' asks. The first differecnce in terms of Neoformalist as a genre, arises in this scene. Ömer Kavur who wants to disrupts the classsic diegesis method, so as the Yeşilçam, made the actress tell her cue while looking to the camera and with this way, the classic diegesis's " the actress/actor must not look at the camera" rule has been disregarded by him. In modern diegesis, fiction and camera without hiding its existance can show to the audience it is the film they are watching. After the woman's cue, generic flows up and the main character of the film Zebercet,, introduces himself while looking at thecamera andgives imformation about his past. Kavur, with the method that he imposed at the first two shoots of the film, disrupts the classic diegesis structure. The dates that Zebercet used in the scene of introducing himself, as a different thing from the classic diegesis, drags the audience into the cognitive activity and it draws attention the points of Turkish political life's certain breaking points. 1839 which mansion was built, is the date when the Tanzimat Edict was declared. Transforming the mansion into the hotel becomes in 1923 which the declaration of the Republic. 1950 which is Zebercet's birth year which Democrat Party comes to the ruling, 1960 which his mother's death and his circumcision is the year that 27 May military coup was done. 1971 date which Zebercet began to work at the hotel is the March 12 Memorandum, 1980 date which his father's death and taking over the manager of the hotel is the date of the November 12 military coup. The day that he suicide is November 10 which Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's death date. Kavur, by using these dates in the film, aims to building a parallism between the changes during the democratization, liberation and modernization of our country, through the individual's internal world, the changes that occurs in the society (Esen, 2000:111). The scenes that Zebercet talk about himself while looking at the camera, creates a difference also in terms of lighting. Zebercet stands up on a bright corner of a dark room and the only light source which lights his face is the little lamb on the wall. This scene, in classic diegesis, breaks the rule of lighting is at the center of the frame. Kavur, in accordance to creating a difference theory by using tool of Neoformalizm (camera, fiction, lighting, decor), in this scene he used the lighting not for the purpose of making scenes and actors/actresses visible, for supporting the theme of the film. Zebercet's unclear face, anxiety and pessimistic picture which will be processed along the film gives a clue about the life of character who can't be an individual, goes to the way where wind swungs. Looking at the camera and lighting are different from the templates that the audience accustumed to and create the alienation. The director created a differentiation by using alienation effect, which classic diegesis avoids from it and disturped the audience with this method. At the same time in this scene, informativitiy that modern diegesis used is increasing. Homeland Hotel, consists of nine sections which are "Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, Friday, Night, Tuesday, Wednesday, Monday and Sunday". Interval articles which states the days created a 149

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN differentiation in time and place continuity. This genre that is away from features of dramatic diegesis molds, has a diegesis language which is Turkish cinema audience is not used to and adapts to to the Neoformalism's principle of breaking the habit. Ömer Kavur, as in his all movies, uses a simple language in the Homeland Hotel. The film, instead of using complex structures such as sequence, leap, overlap, moves forward with cuttings. Another factor that differentaties the Homeland Hotel, is the imbalance situation at the first opening scene of the film. In classic diegesis, there is a balance situation at the beginnings of the films. This balance, disrupts by external forces and the protagonist is drawn into as a result of various conflicts. However, the conflict is resulted as the most prominent feature of the classic diegesis and it is returned to the balance situation at the beginnig of the film. But Homeland Hotel starts with imbalance. A woman who is an anonymous comes to the hotel and wants a room. After that in the scene which Zebercet introduces himself, mentions about difficulties of life and it is understood that the person who is he talk to is actually the women who comes from the Ankara train. But there is no woman. Zebercet, says to the imaginary person he is waiting for her/him. From this point on, it can be said that there is no balance situation. At the end of the film, Zebercet's suicide, is an example of differentiation from the classic diegesis. Because, the conflicts in the film didn't resolved, the balance couldn't be cought. The woman who came with the Ankara train, will never reach to the solution of who she is, her name and why did she stay in the hotel that night. In this way, the gap in the plot can never be filled and it differentaties in the plot. At the end of the film, Zebercet's family photos is shown. The photo of the woman who comes from Ankara is Zebercet's aunt's photo. With this way, while the film, approaches to the modern diegesis by creating formal difficulty with a feature of a performer who has more role than one (Şahika Tekand characterizes two different character), on the other hand the questios of which whether she is Zebercet's aunt or not whether a woman came from Ankara or not ends without coming to the solution. The other factor that creates differentation in the film is repeat. Repeat in classic diegesis, provides a informative frame or basic. However,in the Homeland Hotel, the repeat of the scenes that Zebercet washing his feet in his 'Monday' and 'Tuesday' episodes, is not made with information fuction. The repeat in the film, is used to tell the diseased personality, regular life and monotony of the character. According to Neoformalism, to give the informativity in the best way is necessary to reflect the characters' inner world. In modern diegesis, widely subjective camera angles are used to reflect the individual's inner world. In Homeland Hotel, the scenes that informativity is increasing, are differ from the use of modern diegesis. Zebercet's inner world is given with dream scenes about the woman who came with Ankara train. The plans in this scenes is not given to the audience with the perspective of the character but the informativiy increases because we are watching his products of his mind with the effect of his mental condition. Another factor that worth to consider as a differentiation and the increased informativity, the use of mirrors as a technique is to tell the Zebercet's inner world. In the film, Zebercet, looks to the mirror to watch his changed look with his changing mood, to see how is he looking, to face with the things that he hides from other people. With this way, Ömer Kavur, reflects the person's inner world on the mirror by bringing difference to the use of subjective camera that modern diegesis uses to increase the informativity. Zebercet, even though he doesn't have a mustache, tells the change in himself by showing himself as he has a mustache on the mirror. When he goes to the barber, tells to cut his mustache but the barber thinks that Zebercet is making a joke. When he came back, a customer tells to him he looks young by cutting his mustache. Zebercet asks, "Did i have a mustache?". He tries the understand whether the mustache that he saw on the mirror real or not. The director, implies to the fascist society structure after September 12 by seeing Zebercet himself with mustache on the mirror, he also tells the character's desire of being contentious with the dream he saw. The places that are used in the Homeland hotel is also convenient to examine in terms of Neoformalist. The film takes places in a town in Nazilli. The schema that audience has; is founded on the closer relationships between the poeople who are living in the town. However Zebercet, in contrast to this scheme, is not in the intimate relationship with anyone. He is strange to the town that he was born. The director, to make realistic motivation in the audience, he uses the sounds of Quran that are read in the mosques in the towns. The whole town stops where they are and pray with open hands. Zebercet looks at the people that are around him and he continues on his way without knowing what to do. His anxiety and unrest in his behavior states in the fore. In this scene camera usesin the hand. It increases informativity by turning around itself. Moreover, this shooting, is the section where the camera is used

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN the most active along the film. Zebercet emphasizes the atmosphere that he is in is foreign, doubtful and haunted place. Likewise,another place is the hotel where he lives and which he has. Homeland Hotel, is a place which he feels strong when it is compared with the life that outside of the hotel and he maintains the bonds that about his past. But Kavur, opposed to the idea of that people will feel strong and peaceful where they live, portrayed the hotel as a dark, old, empty rooms and depressing place. Thus, the hotel, indicates parallelism to the message that is wanted to be given in the film by reflecting the Zebercet's inner world. When it is exited from this dark and gloomy atmosphere (hotel), the lighting of the outside world attracts the attention. With this way, The Zebercet's experiences that between real and dream is similar to the usage of the places inside and outside of the hotel. (Genco, 2005:101). In another work diegesis, people are supposed to be peaceful in their homeland, by turning it to reverse, it presents the hotel as haunted and gloomy differentaties the place. This, disturbs the sense of peace that classic diegesis will create on the audience. The concept of time used in the film, can be shown as an other factor that creates difference. Zebercet, while he is sitting in the lobby of the hotel, the bell of the room where the woman stays and who he waits rang and Zebercet comes in the room, starts to talk with the woman. The director creates a difference in a sense of time with passing to the schizophrenic time from the real time. When it is looked to the Homeland Hotel in terms of neoformalist, use of the camera is important also. Vivid and fast, unlike the classic diegesis that benefits from camera and fiction's every method in the name of not to bother the audience, camera is generally stable and the shootings are long in the Homeland Hotel. With this usage, film, has a modern diegesis structure. At Outside shootings, being cloudy weather generally and use of low ligh at night shootings supports the themes of loneliness and boredom, lack of commucation which are wanted to be given in the film. Kavur, conveys Zebercet's character with camera angles also. The image of the character who is walking alone on the middle line of the road at the most crowded street of the town, shows Zebercet's lack of commucation and loneliness (Esen, 2002:221). Ömer Kavur, uses the music in different way also in camera angles to tell the character. Zebercet who understands the woman who he falls in love is not going to come, to eliminate his loneliness by reaching to top of the alienation drinks alcohol in the pub and at the end of the night goes to the hotel by taxi. The folk song that plays in the taxi, is a new method to tell Zebercet (Esen, 2002:417). Homeland Hotel, as diegesis way, creates a difference in preception of customary consistent hero. In the movie, during the speech of Zebercet with an old man at the graveyard, he tells that someone in his family kills his wife in the nuptial night. Actually, this is the action that made by the defendant during defendant's trial. The old man asks the reason of the murder, Zebercet answers, "Maybe there was no reason or were lots of reason but we didnt know, eventually was hanged." This sentence is a striking example to the think about the Zebercet character. In modern diegesises as there may be no reason in behaviour of the character, may be the are lots of reasons and this is asked from the audience to analysis. Similarly, In Homeland Hotel, it is expected from audience to examine Zebercet's behavior's reason. In the scene which Zebercet is swinging the cradle, a photo is there which is thought to be his aunt. But the woman in the photo, is very similar to the woman who came from Ankara. With this way, diegesis language is complicated and has left the audience in a dilemma whether the woman on the photo is Zebercet's aunt or the woman who came from Ankara. At the end of the film, unlike classic diegesis's turning to the situation at the beginning of the film, in Homeland Hotel, Zebercet suicides. But cuicide, doesn't suprise the audience. In other words, this situation doesn't confront to us verifying the assumptions of the audience in classic diegesis and thus as achieving to the catharsis. Because the director, prepared the audience to the inevitable end. In the schene of end in the film, the camera is turned to the internal places of the hotel from the Zebercet's swinging feet in the emptiness. After this depressing atmosphere is showed, camera heads for to the Homeland Hotel's door which opens to the outside. Darkness and light, symbolizes the death and life. As is seen, in the last scene, as in the classic diegesis, doesn't walk out from the film as happy. 5. Discussion and Conclusion Neoformalism, is to be applied the criticism method which gets its inspiration from Russian formalists, aims to put foward the literariness on literature. David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson whose are put 151

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN forward this consept descripe the Neoformalism; as diegesis-form, audience-tools in the cinema in terms of bringing innovation. When it is viewed from this frame, traditional diegesis structure that feels its weight in the world cinema until the 1950's creates the biggest difference in the cinema; and the modern diegesis structure which is consisted with social contented films generally after this date creates. In Turkish cime is not different also. The films that are called with Yeşiçam name and shot for commercial purposes, has maintaned the traditional diegesis structure for a long time in the name of not losing the audience. When the social and political conditions that the country lives is considered, some directors have rejected the traditional diegesis structure and have rejected the classic structure and the films with social content also. This difference, not only occurs in the story that is told only, also it felt itself in terms of form-diegesis. In addition, passive viewer of the classic structure, is forced to bein the cognitive activity in modern diegesis with the change that occurs in the form-diegesis. Homeland Hotel which is chose as an example in the study, is one of the most obvious examples of this change. Homeland Hotel, has drawn attention as a film that breaks usual Turkish cinema molds with long shootings. Similarly, has used the method of looking to the camera while talking inthe name of creating alienation effect and it is the film that the audience is watching. The dates that used in the part of character introduces himself with a long shooting on the beginning of the film, are the important milestones of the country and the director with this way pushes the audience to the intellectual activity. By creating difference in the use of the light in the film, the general lighting technique that is used to is left. In terms of plot, Homeland Hotel, the gap in the specific time period that classic diegesis uses by spreading to the whole film has an open-ended sturcture that doesn't reach to the certain result. In the film, the feature of characterizing more than one character by one person has made the form difficult. The diegesis of the story that spread to the specific days of the week, has built a epizootic structure by breaking the continuity at the time and place of the classic diegesis rule. In the name of increasing the informativity, the dreams that character sees and the mirror metaphor has contributed to creating a scheme at the audience by bringing differences subjective shootings in the modern diegesis. The balance situation at the beginning and the end of the film that classic dramatic structure uses has not been seen at the Homeland Hotel. As a result, Homeland Hotel, with its diegesis, form and language, is an proper film to the neoformalist analysis method which is put forward by Bordwell and Thompson.

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References Bordwell. D ve Thompson. K. ( 2012). Film Sanatı.(Çev: E. Yılmaz ve E.Onat). Ankara; .Deki Yayınları. Büker, S. (1985). Sinema Dili Üzerine Yazılar, Ankara: Dost Kitabevi Yayınları, , ss. 101-102. Büker, Sve Topçu, G. (2010). Sinema: Tarih-Kuram-Eleştiri. İstanbul; Kırmızı Kedi Yayınevi. Brecth, B. (2011). Epik Tiyatro. (Çev. Kamuran Şipal). İstanbul; Agora Kitaplığı. Çoşkun, E. (2003). Dünya Sinemasında Akımlar, İstanbul; İzdüşüm Yayınları. Esen, H. (2000). Anayurt Oteli Filminde Zaman ve Mekan. Selçuk Üniversitesi İletişim Dergisi Temmuz (3), 3-13. Esen, Ş. (2002).Sinemamızda Bir „Auter‟ Ömer Kavur. İstanbul; Alfa Yyaınları. Genco, E. (2005). Bir Ömer Kavur Uyarlaması: Anayurt Oteli, Yeni Film Dergisi, Sayı 9, İstanbul. Moran, B. (2013). Edebiyat Kuramları ve Eleştiri. İletişim Yayınları: İstanbul. Odabaş, B. (2013). Üçüncü Sinema. İstanbul: Agora Kitaplığı. Oluk, A. (2008). Klasik Anlatı Sineması. Hayalet Kitap: İstanbul. Topçu, G. (2012). Anlatı ve Biçim İlişkisine Neoformalist Bir Yaklaşım, İstanbul; ÜtopyaYayınevi, Kayıran, N,R. (2013). Plastik Sanatlardan “Anayurt Oteli”Filmine Bakmak. Gazi Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi. Haziran (11), 57-73.

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AN ALLEGORIC AND IRONIC NEWS PLATFORM ON INSTAGRAM: RESMİ GASTE Research Assist. Ceren YEGEN Muş Alparslan University, Faculty of Communication, Journalism Dept. [email protected] Research Assist. Çise AYHAN Beykent University, Faculty of Communication, Visual Communication Dept. [email protected] Abstract Although it is difficult to consider news in the same pot with humour, humour is an instrument used in media contents or news. For example, with Zaytung we met humour and irony in the news and saw that humour is used as a tool for criticism in the news. Thus in this study, Resmi Gaste which was originated from Zaytung and drew attention with its witty, ironic news was selected as research smple. The photo news shared on Resmi Gaste's Instagram account between June, 19, 2016 and June, 26, 2016 were examined with semiotic analysis and the study was supported by content analysis. Hereby we tried to imply which topics, cases and situations were processed by Resmi Gaste's news which is an allegoric and ironic news platform. Key Words: New Media, Instagram, News, Humour, Irony, Resmi Gaste

1. Introduction In media news and its contents, humour functions as critique. In her article " Pufterem Web Site As An Online Humour Platform And News Via False News Service "Agency News", Connection Between Reality and Humour" published in October 2015 on TOJDAC, Ceren Yegen reported that news shared on Ajans News, fake news service of a humour based web site Pufterem, usually serves as criticism towards some state officers, instutitions and opposition. Therefore, its of a huge importance how and what humour is used in news for, which makes it an urgency to take on news and humour on social media where they can reach the masses easier, quicker and with a bigger impact. Such that, according to Digital News Report 2015 datas presented by Social Bakers quoting "Reuter Institute for the Study of Journalism" as authority, people from any age group can be seen on social media. While youngsters between ages 18-24 frequently use Snapchat, late-middle ages ( 55-64 ) are more active on Facebook. Instagram is used mostly by people between 25-34 years old.

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Figure 1. User Age Distribute, by Social Networks Hence, the subject of this study is Resmi Gaste, originated from Zaytung and attracting attention with its humorous content, and its allegorical and ironical way of reporting news via Instagram, a photo-sharing application. So, it will be hopefully achieved to comprehend Resmi Gaste's way of reporting news via Instagram, what points it focuses on, what points it does not. Concentrating on the connection between humour and news, this study has its significance because it takes on humour basing on new media and it approaches to Instagram as an instrument of reporting news. The reason why Instagram is chosen as sample channel in this study is overage of the studies discussing news-reporting in an only-Twitter-Facebook based method and lack of studies that take on reporting news specifically based on Instagram. Resmi Gaste, instead of Zaytung, is chosen as the sample channel in the study to demonstrate how Resmi Gaste, as a fresh organism, uses Instagram as a reporting instrument, compared to Zaytung where Resmi Gaste emerges from and how Resmi Gaste experiences Instagram through its period of reporting. Reducing the study to Zaytung would mean the repetition of the studies that take on Zaytung with its customary form. To remain limited in the study, Resmi Gaste's Instagram account is looked over and the content is recorded by the writers during a week chosen randomly (19.06.2016 – 26.06.2016). The fact that large numbers of contents are shared on social media made us consider a periodical limitation. Thus, the examination period of the study is reduced. The writers reach the datas in the study with their Instagram accounts and the news reached ( 10 news with photographs in total ) are semiologically analyzed. The study also examined Resmi Gaste's viewing frequency on Twitter to make a comparison in terms of its use except for Instagram. Research period of the study is supported with contextual analysis. 2. Humour, News and the Evolution of News with New Media Studies and approaches focusing on use of humour in media contents usually take on the comic side of argument. However, humour is also a way of opposing (Fergokce, 2009). According to Ozdemir (2010: 155

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28), Nasreddin Hoca takes on humour particularly as a cultural form and the writer says : "As long as the worldwide-known anecdote types and humour characters are considered, it can be seen that those characters are symbols of the critical thinking of public. Among the most evident characteristics of the representatives of humour and public thinking are their ageless lives. They live in the time and dimension they created. Actually, they are made to. So they, as people on top, carry their nation's memories from past to future. " Culture is a source for humour. Apart from its comedy function, humour can take part in reporting texts as a way of opposition. That's actually what humour magazines frequently do today; drawing attention to social issues not only by using comedy but being sarcastic, as well. Nowadays, it's significant to transfer printed humour magazines to online platforms by new media. It's because online materials are getting more prefferable compared to printed materials. Producing humour on social platforms will lead its way to reach broader masses. Even though reading humour magazines is a cultural ritual, online web sites using humour, social media memes and electronical humour draws attention of internet users. According to Edosomwan and co. (2011), social media concept expressing an interactive communication proccess is not a brand new term. They think social interaction had been developing since the early ages when human beings would communicate. Social media has become popular with people communicating on it. Such that using social media is a daily routine for most people. Crowdsourced organisms such as social networks, blogs and wikipedia cover social sharing web sites, status update services, virtual contents and media sharing web sites (Dewing, 2012 1-2). Although social media is meant for everybody (Jang vd 2015), its used mostly by youngsters. Social media's difference from traditional media is its capacity to easily and quickly reach and interact to multiple resources and people. Besides, it's also of a huge significance that it involves especially young people into communication proccess. Youngsters living in MySpace/ YouTube era (Hall, 2006) spend most time on social networks, thematical video news sites or video games. Expressing the huge role of youngsters ( teens) in social media's rise, Hosseinmardi and co. (2014) draws attention to negative sides of social media referring to Natasha MacBryde (15) and Hannah Smith (14) who commited suicides having lost in the reality of social networks and effected by the comments made on those web sites. According to Jang and co. (2015) one reason why young people use social networks is that they provide their personal and social needs on those sites. On their research " Generation Like: Comparative Characteristics in Instagram" Jang and co. (2015) draw attention to the facts that most of the youngsters whose social media practices are focused on use emojis while posting on Instagram, share things to show off themselves as cool and desire to get as much likes as possible. Those fact gives us an idea about what young people use social networks for. New media that came into existence by people's search for different communication chanels (Griessner, 2012: 5) refers to a huge change. Change of media has its significance among the social and economical changes witnessed until the 20th century when Communications Revolution happened. According to Tambini (2014: 75), new media's power shows off in broadcasting industry. While Baum and Groeling (2008: 346) say that new media is considered by many people as a force to beat traditional "big media" in terms of one-way communication stream, Deuze (1999) believes that online 156

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journalism must be considered beyond such concepts as hypertextuality or multimedia. It's because while online journalism establishes its roots in internet, it opens its power and feasibility to discussion. Such that citizens provided with internet or other technological tools can do online journalism. It means that traditional journalism fundementally changes with online journalism. Although this type of jorunalism doesn't provide an opportunity for a hundred percent interaction, news reporting platforms indicate the structural transformation of traditional journalism and lead up to new set-ups and innovations (Beckett and Mansell, 2008: 92). Besides the urge to reach the masses in a quick and interactive way, high costs of newspaper and television lead some media corporations' way to social media. The table about sensitive issues in media and the impact of digital media concept in Chan's (2014: 123-125) research " Journalism and Digital Times: Between Wider Reach and Sloppy Reporting" shows that among the sensitive issues on social networks on Turkey are minority groups, religious minority groups, sexual minority groups, Armenian Genocide and EU Membership. According to the table, media context in Turkey is marginal! Twitter, which is a free microblog that draws as much massive attention as Facebook in terms of social networks, enables its users to interact each other by tweeting, following and retweeting each others (Kwak vd, 2010). Restricted to 140 characters, Twitter can be used with an account easily created on a computer, smart phone and a tablet (Mollet vd, 2011). Besides enabling its users to interact with each other, Twitter provides its users with opportunity to tweet insantly about various issues to news-reporting companies(Cha vd, 2010). Whereas it's been discussed whether Twitter is a useful source of news, the need for verification is always evident on this platform (Petrovic vd, 2013). It's because just like other social networks, groundless and untrue news for different purposes might be spread via Twitter. Such that, in their research " Twitter Under Crisis: Can we trust what we RT?" where they focused on 2010 Chile earthquake and discussed how Twitter works on an emergancy, Mendoza and co. (2010) say that huge waste of misinformation spread as true news on Twitter during this period. Discussing the reliability of the news on Twitter, Castillo and co. (2011: 676) says that Twitter has become an instrument of political propoganda. Drawing attention to the presence of large numbers of fake accounts created to attract visitors, spreading unreal news or advertising, Castillo and co. (2011: 676) add that Twitter is the most ideal place for hackers. News verification is made by major search engines (Google, Yandex). In addition, a quick and true news verification organism Newswire, which Facebook announced that they will use, is used to verify news on social networks. Newswire is meant to share the news with eyewitnesses in an unbiased way. Working since the protests in Tahrir Square in 2011, a social news reporting agent Storyful also draws attention as an organism serving as an instrument for new media and citizen journalism (Eyidilli, 2015). 3. Hearing from Instagram Instagram is a mobile photograph uploading and video catching-sharing application. It's one of the most popular mobile applications of last years. Enabling its users to manipulate the visuals, photographs with filters, Instagram has an average of 55 million photos uploaded per day since its establishment in 2010 and over 16 billion photographs has been shared on Instagram so far (Hu vd, 2014). 157

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Although Instagram was established in October, 2010, its the most popular photo-sharing app today. Actually, Instagram exhibits the collective visual production. Different cultures are interacted and lives are visualised, shared (Hochman, 2012: 6). Alongside, news portals, newspapers, and magazines use Instagram for reporting. The change in journalism and reporting is noticed by many and this technology-based change has upmost significance (Fenton, 2009, 557). Nature of journalism has to catch up with new media, which has its power from communication technologies, and its users. When Daily Mail established its web site in 2004 (Fenton, 2009: 557), local, regional and national newspapers also initiated to carry the traditional journalism to a different place; online platforms. Describing the activities of citizens who actively take part in collecting news, analysis and spreading processes, participant journalism and citizen journalism demonstrate (Bowman and Willis, 2003: 9) how news, journalism evolved in new media. Even though Instagram is being debated nowadays for showing ads, its not widely used for journalism, yet. Companies involved in journalism create Instagram accounts most probably to reach any channel on social media. It's because Instagram is not an ergonomic platform for journalism. Even though it enables its users to share visuals, photos, textual contents and getting comments, likes in return, it doesn't have the widespread domain and impact that journalism needs, yet. Such that the sample of this study Resmi Gaste shares its contents with a wider space for visuals and less for news. In the official web site, news are reported comprehensively. Concisely, even though news that describes the events and issues related to society doesn't change structurally with the new media, it shows huge signs of change in terms of its channels of reaching masses. Saying that new media journalism is a method of collecting and spreading news in a modern fashion, Erdoğan (2013: 254) confirms this approach. Nowadays, Instagram can be used as a journalism platform in order to catch up with intense use of visuals on social networks and to reach all channels of social media. 4. Resmi Gaste: An Alegoric and Ironic News Platform Resmi Gaste was found by a team that drew apart from Zaytung and with its sarcastic news it's in the same language with Zaytung. Resmi Gaste draws attention as an organism that reflects the critical side of humour with its allegoric and ironic news about social issues. In Resmi Gaste's Instagram account examined in this study, it's observed that Resmi Gaste shared 66 news in total between the dates 19.06.2016 and 26.06.2016. 52 of those news doesn't include photos, whereas 14 of them does. While the shortest news on the account is two lines long, the longest news covers 6 lines. News examined in the study have a total like of 395 and the most liked news is about Turkey's chances of advancing the group stage in Euro 2016, with 54 likes. The least-liked issues ( 27 each ) are about Isis and the artificial beach in Eskişehir. Issues of the news published in the period examined in the study are categorized by means of writers' having read them. It's demonstrated on the table below (see table 1).

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Table 1. News were Shared on Resmi Gaste’s Instagram Account Category

Numberof Sharing

Environment

5

Religion

5

Education

4

Weather

10

CurrentMatters (AlikeFiruzağaMatter, TrusteeAppointmentsetc.)

4

Technology

3

Art

2

Politics

20

Sport

13

Total

62

As it can be deducted from the table above, Resmi Gaste shared mostly about politics and sports and least about arts and technology. While affairs with Russia and Brexit lead the field in politics category, Turkish National Team's experience of Euro 2016 is the main issue in sports category. Dominant theme in weather category is the extremely hot conditions in Adana and troubles caused by the weather in the city. We need to say that Turkish National Team's captain Arda Turan and the Head Coach Fatih Terim is the most popular figures in sports category. Popular figures in politics and weather categories are the citizens exhausted by the hot weather, former Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu and President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. Resmi Gaste's Twitter practices are also seen in the study in order to compare it's use of Twitter to Instagram. It's noticed that on its Twitter account https://twitter.com/resmigastecom?lang=tr, Resmi Gaste's tweeted 5.482 times by 17.07.2016. ( the account is checked on this date ) The account has 28.300 followers and it follows no accounts. Resmi Gaste joined Twitter on October, 2014 and the statement on the account is : " Resmi Gaste official account. We have no other accounts. " Resmi Gaste's other adresses on social networks are http://facebook.com/resmigaste http://instagram.com/resmigastecom and http://plus.google.com/+ResmiGasteRG/posts. Resmi Gaste's e-mail adress stated on the Twitter account is [email protected] . Resmi Gaste's web site www.resmigaste.com is also stated in the account. By 17.7.2016, Resmi Gaste has 5149 on its Instagram account. Followed by 2684 people, account follows nobody just like it does on Twitter. The motto here is " no kidding in humour " and Resmi Gaste's official web site is stated in the Instagram account, like it is on Twitter. The examination reveals that Resmi Gaste share the same news on its Twitter and Instagram accounts. That's why Roland Barthes' semiological analysis technique is used in the study in order to examine the news shared on Resmi Gaste's Instagram account. Explaining semiotics as the relation between what indicates and what is indicated, Barthes (2008: 159

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82-88) also aims to understand the texts' substructure and its message. He believes that semiotics is meant for it and indicators has a huge role in this context. Having Roland Barthes' semiological method as the starting point, the news chosen randomly and examined are demonstrated below:

Picture 1. 1st News Photo News; Ahmet Davutoğlu’s book, where he tells about his experiences in cities such as Cizre, Sur, Yüksekova, Medeniyetler ve Şehirler (Civilizations and Cities) is published. Linguistic message is the name of the book “Civilizations and Cities”. Ahmet Davutoğlu, who resigned from his duty as Prime Minister, is seen in the elements and structure in the denotation of the photo news. Davutoğlu is in his office with a bunch of books. Connotation of the news is Davutoğlu’s getting focused on scientific researches, having resigned from his duty. Metalanguage in the text is not the scientific part of Davutoğlu’s book. Instead, it’s his attitude towards the terrorist actions in Cizre, Sur, Yüksekova. In this context, the news ironically points out questioning Davutoğlu’s policies on terrorism. It’s an allegory relating the name of Davutoğlu’s book and terrorism facts in the said territories.

Picture 2. 2nd News 160

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Photo News: ISIS informs meida about about criterias and qualities required for their new recruits from Turkey. This photo news include no linguistic message. Denotation shows the ISIS activists, while connotation is the activists increasing in numbers. Metalanguage of the news is the criticism on the excessive amount of news about ISIS in media and the youth population recruiting ISIS from Turkey, as well. By pointing out the increasing number of activists in ISIS, the terrorist group’s search for new recruits is sarcastically problematized.

Picture 3. 3rd News Photo News; Nihat Hatipoğlu excites real estate market, announcing that Al Sirat, which he purchased by tender, is going to be buit in Bayburt. Linguistic message in this photo news is the question “Where is Al Sirat is going to be built in ? Soon …” Denotation in the structure and elements of the image is a group of people listening to Nihat Hatipoğlu. Connotation is the senseless and meaningless state of the questions asked Hatipoğlu at times. In this context, metalanguage is the allegoric expression of Hatipoğlu’s purchasing Al Sırat, a bridge believed to be walked on other world in Islamic discipline, with tender and thus; criticism of Hatipoğlu who is rumoured to be paid astronomical wages.

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Picture 4. 4th News Headline: Non-graphic students calculating Turkey’s chance to advance the group stage: “Well, according to our calculations, we finish the group as the first team.” Fourth photo news doesn’t include any linguistic messages. Denotation in the elements of the image is Turkish National Football Team’s fans and a trophy is placed in the structure. Connotation is the intensity of the arguments concerning Turkey’s chance of advancing the group stage in Euro 2016. Metalanguage is based on the ironical narrative of Turkey’s almost impossible chances for advancing the group stage.

Picture 5. 5th News 162

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Photo News: - Breaking - #BurningWeAre – Breaking – Please don’t shoot the sun – Adana Metropolitan Municapilty warns the public against provocations. Linguistic message in fifth photo news is the expression in local Adana accent written with a hashtag; #Yaniyürük. A major dashboard ( showing 50*C ) and apartment blocks and vehicles behind it are the elements of the image. Connotation is the extremely hot weather in Adana getting unendurable. Metalanguage is attracting attention to funny state of the Municapility’s warning for the public, by recalling the angry people overwhelmed by the hot weather in Adana and shooting the sun as a result.

Picture 6. 6th News Photo News; Erdoğan: “Would you like me to send you a law administration ?” Sixth photo news include no linguistic messages. Elements of the image are President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Turkish National Football Team coach Fatih Terim and the team’s captain Arda Turan. They are all in suits and they are likely to attending an event, opening or an organization. Connotation is Turkey Football Team’s failure in Euro 2016. Metalanguage is the expression of the President’s possible displeasure for the failure, by recalling recent law-administrations over some institutions.

Picture 7. 7th News 163

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Headline: Ministry of Justice starts working on Insult-on-Erdoğan-Type of prison. This photo news include no linguistic messages. Elements of the image are Republic of Turkey Ministry of Justice's logo, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and a hand holding a book behind fences. Connotation shows that insults towards President Erdoğan are punished. Metalanguage ironically attracts attention to Erdoğan often resorting to the judgement for receiving personal insult. Herein, we need to say by the end of July 2016, Erdoğan has decided to withdraw all lawsuits concerning personal insult, just for once.1

Picture 8. 8th News Photo News: Artificial beach built in Eskişehir is a promising place for peeping Toms who can’t go to Antalya. This photo news include no linguistic messages. Elements of the image are a beach and men and women at the beach. Connotation is the men watching the women. Metalanguage is ironically emphasizing that some men go to beach just to secretly watch women.

1

“President Erdoğan: “I withdraw all lawsuits for personal insult for once.”, Accessed on: http://www.ntv.com.tr/turkiye/cumhurbaskani-erdoganbir-kereye-mahsus-hakaret-davalarini-geri-cekiyorum,E1M9-Vp-SEe MgAVfgbFa3A, 30.07.2016).

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Picture 9. 9th News Photo News: Principal of the school where the incoming milk for students are used for making yoghurt said: “We used grapes for making compote.” This photo news doesn’t include a linguistic message, either. Elements of the image are a table, a saucepan where packaged milks are poured out and a couple of people without their faces in the picture. Connotation is pointing out that the milk delivered to schools for the students is abused by school administrators. Metalanguage is to sarcastically remind that the milk delivered to schools to feed the students in Adana are misused by pouring out to a saucepan and making yoghurt and rice pudding out of it.1

Picture 10. 10th News 2

Also see: “Claims that school milk became yoghurt and rice pudding for teachers.” Accessed on:

http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/yerel-haberler/adana-haberleri/okul-sutu-ogretmenlere-yogurt-ve-sutlac-oldu id_297969/, 19.06.2016.

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Headline: Mobile frauds cheated a doctor in WhatsApp this time by introducing themselves as police, soldier and attorney with emojis. There is no linguistic messages in this news, either. Elements of the image are WhatsApp logo, emojis and some WhatsApp messages. Connotation is we are having WhatsApp frequently involved in our lives. Metalanguage is pointing out the mobile fraud that have recently caused trouble for many people and warning that it might happen on WhatsApp with the use of emojis as well. 5. Discussion and Conclusion Now that the news examined in the research are generally photo news, it can be said that photos and graphics are news themselves. When it is considered that the photos and used graphics easily provide the rhetoric plausibility and impact, if you are going to involve in reporting on such a popular photo-sharing web site as Instagram, it is quite normal and successful to do it with photos as being reports like Resmi Gaste. As a result, we can say that Resmi Gaste makes ironical an allegorical way of reporting news on it’s Instagram account, just like the same happens on it’s Twitter account. Contents of Resmi Gaste’s news on Instagram are usually criticism by irony towards people. For instance, making an ironic news about the arguments that milk distributed to students in a school in Adana is misused to make yoghurt and rice pudding for the teachers, Resmi Gaste opens those arguments to discussion. This attitude of Resmi Gaste is significant and neccesary. It also shows the opposite and adverse side of humour. Pointing out the recent mobile frauds with WhatsApp and emojis that are used by almost everyone shows that Resmi Gaste carries responsibility. Herein, we need to say that Resmi Gaste doesn’t use any Instagram filters. Besides, Turkish National Football Team’s failure in Euro 2016 is often used as a material for Resmi Gaste. In its news, Resmi Gaste also makes use of politics and politicians. In this context, particuarly President Erdoğan and Russia are among the frequently-used materials on news. Furthermore, the extremely hot and distressing weather in 2016 summer in Turkey is also a matter of subject for Resmi Gaste news. In a phrase, via ironical and allegorical news on Instagram, Resmi Gaste actively carried out both adverse and burlesque nature of humour. References Ahlers, D. (2006). News Consumptionandthe New Electronic Media, Press/Politics 11 (1), 29-52, 2006 bythePresidentandtheFellows of Harvard College. Barthes, R. (2008). Göstergebilimsel Serüven, Çev. Mehmet Rifat& Sema Rifat, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul. Baum, A. M. & Groeling, T. (2008). New Media andthePolarization of AmericanPoliticalDiscourse, PoliticalCommunication, 25: 345–365, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Beckett, C. ve Mansell, R. (2008). CrossingBoundaries: New Media andNetworkedJournalism, Communication, culture&critique, 1 (1), 92-104.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Castillo, C.; Mendoza, M. &Poblete, B. (2011).Information Credibility on Twitter, WWW 2011, March 28–April 1, 2011, Hyderabad, India, ACM 978-1-4503-0632-4/11/03. Cha, M.; Haddadi, H.; Benevenuto, F. &Gummadi, P. K. (2010). Measuring User Influence in Twitter: TheMillionFollowerFallacy, AssociationfortheAdvancement of ArtificialIntelligence (www.aaai.org). Chan, Y. (2014). JournalismandDigital Times: BetweenWider Reach andSloppyReporting, InIn: MappingDigital Media Global FindingsDigitalJournalism: Making News, Breaking News, pp. 107-127, A Report btthe Open SocietyFoundations, EditedbyMariusDragomirand Mark Thompson (Open Society Program on Independent Journalism). Deuze, M. (1999). Journalismandthe Web: an Analysis of SkillsandStandards in an Online Environment, Gazette 61 (5), 373-390. Dewing, M. (2012). Socila Media: An Introduction. Publication No. 2010-03-E, 3 February 2010, Revised 20 November 2012, Ottawa, Canada, Library of Parliament. Edosomwan, S.; Prakasan, K. S.; Kouame, D.; Watson, J.&Seymour, T. (2011). TheHistory of Social Media anditsImpact on Business, TheJournal of Applied Management andEntrepreneurship, Volume 16, No 3. Erdoğan, İ. (2013). Yeni Medya Gazeteciliğinde Etik Bir Paradigma Belirlemenin Kapsamı ve Sınırları, İletişim Kuram ve Araştırma, (36), 254-272. Erol, G. (2002). Türkiye’nin Haber Kanalları: NTV ve CNN-TÜRK’ün Karşılaştırmalı İncelemesi, İstanbul University Peer-reviewedJournalof CommunicationFaculty, 2 (12), 857-871. Eyidilli, S. (2015). YouTube yeni medya yayıncılığını öne çıkaran Newswire kanalını yayına soktu, 19.06.2015, Accessed: http://webrazzi.com/2015/06/19/youtube-yeni-medya-yayinciligini-one-cikaran-newswire-kanalini-ya yina-soktu/ Fergökçe,

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biçimi

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http://www.sabitfikir.com/dosyalar/bir-muhalefet-bicimi-olarak-mizah. Fenton, N. (2009). News in theDigital Age (Chapter 50), In: TheRoutledge Companion to News andJournalism, pp 557-567, Routledge, London. Griessner, ChristophMag. (2012). News AgenciesandSocial Media: A Relationshipwith a Future?, Reuters InstituteFellowshipPaperUniversity

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MichaelmasTerm

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Sponsor:

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kwak, H.; Lee, C.; Park, H. & Moon, S. (2010). What is Twitter, a Social Network or a News Media?, Copyright is heldbythe International World Wide Web Conference Committee (IW3C2). Distribution of thesepapers is limitedtoclassroomuse, andpersonalusebyothers. WWW 2010, April 26–30, 2010, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA. Mendoza, M.; Poblete, B. &Castillo, C. (2010). Twitter Under Crisis: Can wetrustwhatwe RT?, 1st Workshop on Social Media Analytics (SOMA’10), July 25, 2010, Washington, DC, USA. Mollett, A.; Moran, D. ve Dunleavy, P. (2011). Using Twitter in universityresearch, teachingandimpactactivities A guideforacademicsandresearchers, LSE PublicPolicyGroup 2011. Özdemir, N. (2010). Mizah, Eleştirel Düşünce ve Bilgelik: Nasreddin Hoca, Millî Folklor, 2010, Year 22,

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(www.aaai.org). Tambini, D. (2014). Public Media andDigitization: Seven These, In: MappingDigital Media Global FindingsDigitalJournalism: Making News, Breaking News, pp. 75-105, A Report btthe Open SocietyFoundations, EditedbyMariusDragomirand Mark Thompson(Open Society Program on IndependentJournalism). Yegen, C. (2015). Online Bir Mizah Paltformu Olarak PÜFTEREM İnternet Sitesi ve Yalan Haber Servisi AJANS NEWS Üzerinden Haber, Gerçeklik ve Mizah İlişkisi, TheTurkish Online Journal of Design, Art andCommunication – TOJDAC, October 2015 5 (4), 13-25. Willis, C. &Bowman, S. (2003). We Media How audiencesareshapingthefuture of newsandinformation, Editedby J.D. Lasica, CommissionedbyThe Media Center at TheAmericanPressInstitute, PublishedJuly 2003 online in PDF and HTML: www.hypergene.net/wemedia/,Cover illustrationbyCampbellLaird, www.campbelllaird.com.

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A FRACTIONAL STATIONARITY TEST WITH GRADUAL SHIFTS AND THE HYSTERESIS HYPOTHESIS IN OECD COUNTRIES1 Assoc. Prof.Dr. Saban NAZLIOGLU Pamukkale University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Econometrics Dept. [email protected] Cagin KARUL Pamukkale University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Econometrics Dept. [email protected] Ahmet KONCAK Pamukkale University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Econometrics Dept. [email protected] Abstract In this paper, we aim to extend the literature on stationarity tests with gradual/smooth shifts based on Fourier approximation by focusing on the null hypothesis of stationarity instead of the unit root null. The Monte Carlo simulations show that the test with fractional frequency has good size properties. We re-examine the hysteresis hypothesis for 19 OECD countries and find out an evidence on that the hypothesis is rejected in the majority of countries. Keywords: Stationarity, Fourier Approximation, Fractional Frequency, Hysteresis Hypothesis

1. Introduction Developing stationarity tests2 has attracted interest in the literature on non-stationary time series. The stationarity test known as the KPSS test developed by Kwiatkowski et al. (1992) has attracted interest by practitioners and widely used in the empirical studies. Given the importance of structural breaks in macroeconomic variables as indicated in the seminal paper by Perron (1989), a special attention has been paid for accounting shifts in a stationarity analysis. Lee et al. (1997) asymptotically show that if data generating process has a structural shifts and the break is ignored in the testing procedure, the KPSS test diverges from the distribution under the null hypothesis of stationarity. The Monte Carlo analysis indicates that the KPSS is over-sized in the case of a structural shift. Since the presence of structural breaks affects the limiting distribution of the individual statistics under the null hypothesis, it is crucial to control for structural breaks in the stationarity tests to deal with the size distortion problem. A research effort has extended the literature on stationarity analysis by taking into account structural shift(s) in the KPSS model (inter alia, Busetti and Harvey, 2001; Kurozumi, 2002; Harvey and Mills, 2003; Busetti and Taylor, 2003; Carrion-i-Silvestre and Sanso, 2007). In all these studies, dummy variables are introduced to model shifts in the level and slope of a series that hence shifts are assumed to occur as a sharp/instantaneous process. In case the macro economic variables show gradual structural change, the dummy variable approach is not able to capture this kind of structural shift. In order to deal with this limitation of using dummy variables, structural shifts are modelled by means of 1

Saban Nazlioglu gratefully acknowledges that this study is carried out under the Outstanding Young Scientists Award Program-2015 of the Turkish Academy of Sciences (TÜBA-GEBİP 2015). Cagin Karul and Ahmet Koncak would like to thank the Pamukkale University Scientific Research Projects Unit for the financial support. 2 The null hypothesis of stationarity would be more natural than the null of unit root for many macroeconomic series (Carrion-i-Silvestre et al., 2005) and useful to confirm results from the tests with the null hypothesis of unit root (Hadri, 2000; Becker et al., 2006).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN smooth transition approach. Harvey and Mills (2004) propose a stationarity test with gradual structural shift by a smooth transition framework. As discussed by Becker et al. (2006), the dummy variable and smooth transition approach to modelling structural shifts requires a pre-specified number of breaks or a specific type (logistic or exponential) of nonlinearity. These approaches are thereby subject to know date, number, and functional form of breaks. To relax the need for such a priori knowledge, the recent and attractive tendency is the use of a Fourier approximation for controlling for structural shifts. The Fourier approximation by using a small number of low-frequency is able to model the behavior of series without a priori information for date, number, and/or form of structural shifts. The flexibility of the Fourier approximation has led to document a growing literature on the stationarity and unit root tests. Becker et al. (2006) propose the Fourier-KPSS stationarity test, Enders and Lee (2012a) propose the Fourier LM unit root test, Enders and Lee (2012b) propose the Fourier ADF unit root test, and Rodrigues and Taylor (2012) propose the Fourier DF-GLS unit root test3.

3

See Phillips and Schmidt (1992) for the LM unit root framework, Dickey and Fuller (1981) for the DF testing strategy, and Ng and Peron (1996) for the DF-GLS unit root methodology.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN In these testing procedures, an integer frequency of Fourier approximation is used for determining structural break determination and none of them consider the small sample properties of thee test if the true data generating process includes a fractional frequency component. Omay (2015) compare the size and power properties of an integer frequency Fourier ADF test with those of a fractional frequency Fourier ADF test. He first modifies the regression model in Enders and Lee (2012b) with a simple change by using a fractional frequency instead of a single frequency and then tabulate critical values for the Fourier ADF test with different values of fractional frequency. The Monte Carlo analysis indicates that that the power properties of the fractional frequency test are found to be better than that of the integer frequency counterpart. This result provides a room to compare the small sample properties (in particular the size) of the stationarity test based on an integer Fourier frequency of Becker at al. (2006) with those of the stationarity test with a fractional Fourier frequency which is not analyzed yet to the best of our literature knowledge. This paper aims to extend the literature on stationarity analysis with gradual/smooth shifts. We first propose a simple extension of the KPSS test with a Fourier approximation by using fractional frequency. We then investigate the small sample properties of the fractional frequency test in comparison with those of the integer frequency test. We finally re-investigate the behavior unemployment within the context of the hysteresis hypothesis during October 2006-December 2015 for 19 OECD countries. The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 simply outlines the testing framework, Section 3 is devoted to Monte Carlo simulations for the small sample analysis; Section 4 presents the empirical application; and Section 5 concludes. 2. Model and Test Statistic We consider the data generating process (DGP): (1) yt    X t   Zt  rt   t rt  rt 1  ut (2) where t=1,…,T time dimension, rt is random walk process with initial values r0  0 without loss of generality as heterogeneous constant term are included.  t and ut are mutually independent and independently and identically distributed (i.i.d) with ( t )  0, ( t2 )   2  0, (ut )  0 and (ut2 )   u2  0 . We use X t  [1] for a level stationary and X t  [1, t ] for a trend stationary process. We are interested in testing the null hypothesis of stationarity H 0 :  u2  0 against the alternative hypothesis of unit root H1 :  u2  0 . As an approximation of Z t , we benefit from a Fourier approximation which is capable to capture the essential characteristics of an unknown functional form. A single Fourier frequency mimics a variety of breaks in deterministic components regardless of date, number, and form of breaks and an integer frequency is used in the literature (see, Becker et al., 2006; Enders and Lee, 2012a and 2012b; Rodrigues and Taylor, 2012). In order to simply modify the Fourier KPSS test by Becker et al. (2006), we use a single fractional Fourier frequency and hence define Z t as  2 k f t   2 k f t    cos 2     T   T 

  Z t   1 sin 

(3)

where kf denotes the fractional frequency for a Fourier approximation. The stationarity statistics is defined as 1 KPSS ( k )  2 T f

where



T t 1

St (k f )2

(4)

 2

St ( k f )   j 1  j is the partial sum process by using the OLS residuals from equation (1) , t

and  2 is an estimate of the long-run variance of  t that is defined as  2  lim T 1 ( ST2 ) . T 

The asymptotic distribution of KPSS ( k f ) statistic is the same to that of Fourier KPSS statistic by 171

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Becker et al. (2006) which only depends on kf and is invariant to other parameters in the DGP. Table 1 reports the simulated asymptotic critical values for T=100, 200, 500, and 1000 with 50,000 Monte Carlo replications for different values. Table 1. Critical values for KPSS (k f ) T=100 10%

k

5%

T=200 1%

10%

5%

T=500 1%

10%

T=1000

5%

1%

10%

5%

1%

Constant

f

1.0

0.131

0.173

0.274

0.130

0.170

0.268

0.129

0.169

0.267

0.128

0.168

0.270

1.1

0.181

0.243

0.396

0.178

0.237

0.380

0.176

0.238

0.389

0.176

0.237

0.389

1.2

0.234

0.319

0.516

0.233

0.314

0.519

0.233

0.319

0.528

0.230

0.313

0.517

1.3

0.282

0.386

0.634

0.277

0.375

0.623

0.275

0.378

0.631

0.273

0.373

0.629

1.4

0.309

0.426

0.697

0.308

0.425

0.697

0.303

0.414

0.689

0.304

0.415

0.693

1.5

0.320

0.435

0.716

0.312

0.424

0.707

0.311

0.429

0.709

0.311

0.427

0.712

1.6

0.318

0.428

0.696

0.315

0.431

0.697

0.319

0.431

0.708

0.314

0.433

0.709

1.7

0.321

0.428

0.703

0.316

0.425

0.690

0.310

0.418

0.690

0.309

0.415

0.694

1.8

0.319

0.423

0.681

0.306

0.410

0.670

0.306

0.411

0.663

0.306

0.414

0.672

1.9

0.313

0.419

0.668

0.306

0.409

0.649

0.303

0.403

0.654

0.305

0.407

0.660

2.0

0.314

0.416

0.663

0.307

0.411

0.667

0.305

0.403

0.649

0.304

0.405

0.661

Constant and trend 1.0

0.047

0.055

0.072

0.047

0.054

0.072

0.046

0.054

0.072

0.046

0.054

0.072

1.1

0.047

0.055

0.072

0.047

0.054

0.072

0.046

0.054

0.071

0.046

0.054

0.073

1.2

0.048

0.056

0.074

0.047

0.055

0.074

0.047

0.055

0.074

0.047

0.055

0.074

1.3

0.050

0.059

0.080

0.050

0.059

0.080

0.049

0.058

0.080

0.049

0.058

0.080

1.4

0.054

0.065

0.091

0.054

0.065

0.092

0.054

0.064

0.091

0.054

0.065

0.092

1.5

0.062

0.077

0.111

0.062

0.076

0.112

0.061

0.075

0.111

0.061

0.076

0.113

1.6

0.072

0.092

0.138

0.072

0.091

0.137

0.071

0.090

0.135

0.071

0.089

0.136

1.7

0.084

0.108

0.166

0.082

0.105

0.163

0.082

0.105

0.164

0.082

0.105

0.164

1.8

0.092

0.119

0.185

0.091

0.118

0.182

0.090

0.117

0.180

0.090

0.116

0.180

1.9

0.098

0.126

0.193

0.097

0.124

0.194

0.097

0.125

0.195

0.095

0.124

0.195

2.0

0.102

0.131

0.199

0.101

0.130

0.200

0.100

0.128

0.199

0.099

0.128

0.199

3. Small Sample Properties In order to compare the small sample properties of KPSS ( k f ) with those of the Fourier KPSS with the integer frequency (hereafter, KPSS ( k ) ), we design the Monte Carlo analysis which is similar to that of Becker et al. (2006). Hence, we generate yt with and  t N (0,1) by drawing the parameters i ~ U [0,1] where U  denotes the uniform distribution, As in Becker et al. (2006), we consider three cases.  1   2  0.2 ,  1   2  0.5 , and finally  1   2  1 . The difference from Becker et al. (2006) is that yt is generated with k f  1.3 ,1.5 and 1.7. Monte Carlo simulations are carried with 5,000 replications by using the 5 percent critical value. We compare the small sample properties of KPSS ( k f ) with those of KPSS ( k ) by using the integer frequency k=1. Table 2. Size Analysis

172

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN T=100 f

k 1.3

1.5

1.7

1.3

1.5

1.7

kf

k 1

kf

0.2 0.5 1 0.2 0.5 1 0.2 0.5 1

0.049 0.048 0.051 0.050 0.047 0.047 0.043 0.047 0.044

0.056 0.097 0.300 0.238 0.879 1.000 0.050 0.839 1.000

0.050 0.045 0.048 0.046 0.058 0.052 0.051 0.046 0.049

0.2 0.5 1 0.2 0.5 1 0.2 0.5 1

0.051 0.047 0.050 0.047 0.056 0.043 0.047 0.057 0.045

0.075 0.257 0.738 0.094 0.471 0.972 0.001 0.026 0.531

0.045 0.045 0.043 0.049 0.044 0.052 0.050 0.045 0.047

1   2

T=200 kf k 1 Constant 0.056 0.040 0.097 0.051 0.300 0.051 0.408 0.046 0.994 0.045 1.000 0.052 0.232 0.051 0.999 0.049 1.000 0.047 Constant and trend 0.099 0.046 0.471 0.052 0.973 0.055 0.179 0.049 0.781 0.055 1.000 0.055 0.003 0.044 0.167 0.044 0.987 0.054

T=500

T=1000

k 1

kf

k 1

0.090 0.388 0.993 0.820 1.000 1.000 0.781 1.000 1.000

0.053 0.050 0.048 0.043 0.056 0.047 0.047 0.046 0.054

0.136 0.802 1.000 0.979 1.000 1.000 0.994 1.000 1.000

0.214 0.870 1.000 0.402 0.995 1.000 0.030 0.862 1.000

0.060 0.049 0.049 0.052 0.052 0.053 0.052 0.051 0.048

0.370 0.993 1.000 0.686 1.000 1.000 0.113 1.000 1.000

Table 2 reports the size analysis for KPSS ( k f ) test considered in this study and Fourier KPSS with the integer frequency of Becker et al. (2006). If the DGP process includes the fractional frequency, but the test statistic is obtained by using the integer frequency, the results provide a strong evidence on the size distortion which arises from the over rejection of the true null hypothesis of stationarity. On the other hand, if the test is obtained with the fractional frequency, it is clear that the KPSS ( k f ) test seems to have correct size. The size analysis also indicates that the size distortion in KPSS ( k ) appears to increase as the amplitude (  1 ) and displacement (  2 ) parameters get bigger values and the size distortion is not annihilated as T grows. Nonetheless, KPSS ( k f ) test does not have this kind of size distortion. The power of the test depends on the value of  u2 where  u2  0 means stationary and  u2   implies a random walk process. Table 3 reports the power analysis by considering the different values of  u2 . At the first glance, as it is expected the power of both KPSS ( k f ) and KPSS ( k ) tests increases as T grows. The results show that KPSS ( k f ) test seems to have the power properties which are similar to the empirical size for both constant and constant trend models as  u2 has smaller values. This finding is indeed expected because the power of the test with the small values of  u2 is expected to be close to the size scores. As noted by Becker et al. (2006), when  u2 is small, for example  u2  0.001 or lower, the DGP is essentially the same as the stationary process. However, it appears that KPSS ( k ) statistic does not possess this expected power property. The results clearly indicate that the power of KPSS ( k ) statistic is higher than that of KPSS ( k f ) test even though one expect to see the power scores close to the empirical size with the small values of  u2 . As shown in the size analysis in table 2, KPSS ( k ) test tends to over reject the null hypothesis of stationarity. This is why it seems to have a higher power even in the cases where the DGP is same as the stationary process. An interesting result is that the power analysis of KPSS ( k ) appears to increase as the as the amplitude and displacement parameters increase for a give value of  u2 , which is not the case for KPSS ( k f ) test. With respect to 2 the higher values of  u which implies the non-stationary DGP, the power of KPSS ( k f ) test increases monotonically when  u2 increases from 0.0001 to 0.01 and it approaches to one when  u2 is equal to 173

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN one. Table 3. Power Analysis T=100

1   2



2 u

0.000001

k

1.3

1.7

1.3

1.5

1.7

0.01

1.3

1.5

1.7

1

k 1

kf

f

1.5

0.0001

kf

T=200

1.3

1.5

1.7

k 1

T=500

T=1000

kf

k 1

kf

k 1

Constant 0.5

0.044

0.110

0.047

0.145

0.053

0.398

0.058

0.755

1

0.053

0.302

0.059

0.655

0.052

0.995

0.064

1.000

0.5

0.049

0.890

0.049

0.994

0.050

1.000

0.061

1.000

1

0.046

1.000

0.052

1.000

0.060

1.000

0.064

1.000

0.5

0.053

0.995

0.055

1.000

0.055

1.000

0.059

1.000

1

0.053

1.000

0.052

1.000

0.054

1.000

0.067

1.000

0.5

0.066

0.109

0.087

0.166

0.282

0.496

0.544

0.813

1

0.068

0.326

0.088

0.630

0.269

0.991

0.542

1.000

0.5

0.070

0.876

0.092

0.991

0.297

1.000

0.569

1.000

1

0.067

1.000

0.104

1.000

0.303

1.000

0.557

1.000

0.5

0.060

0.995

0.103

1.000

0.297

1.000

0.569

1.000

1

0.059

1.000

0.094

1.000

0.310

1.000

0.582

1.000

0.5

0.519

0.398

0.756

0.702

0.934

0.955

0.990

0.999

1

0.507

0.535

0.755

0.831

0.934

0.986

0.988

0.999

0.5

0.554

0.733

0.767

0.842

0.945

0.976

0.995

0.998

1

0.562

0.985

0.775

0.992

0.950

0.997

0.993

1.000

0.5

0.555

0.899

0.804

0.917

0.971

0.980

0.998

0.998

1

0.566

1.000

0.810

0.999

0.968

0.999

0.996

1.000

0.5

0.933

0.964

0.987

0.998

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1

0.936

0.958

0.984

0.998

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

0.5

0.955

0.962

0.992

0.999

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1

0.954

0.966

0.990

0.998

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

0.5

0.973

0.962

0.994

0.999

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1

0.970

0.967

0.995

0.998

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

Constant and trend 0.000001

1.3

1.5

1.7

0.0001

1.3

1.5

0.5

0.048

0.260

0.054

0.469

0.051

0.870

0.062

0.995

1

0.046

0.754

0.051

0.967

0.059

1.000

0.054

1.000

0.5

0.048

0.449

0.044

0.774

0.059

0.993

0.054

1.000

1

0.058

0.964

0.050

1.000

0.051

1.000

0.053

1.000

0.5

0.050

0.457

0.053

0.785

0.049

0.995

0.048

1.000

1

0.044

0.975

0.052

1.000

0.057

1.000

0.055

1.000

0.5

0.048

0.261

0.054

0.458

0.072

0.855

0.169

0.978

1

0.054

0.744

0.059

0.969

0.074

1.000

0.167

1.000

0.5

0.052

0.426

0.057

0.772

0.098

0.993

0.231

1.000

174

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

1.7

0.01

1.3

1.5

1.7

1

1.3

1.5

1.7

1

0.049

0.968

0.061

1.000

0.103

1.000

0.223

1.000

0.5

0.055

0.447

0.055

0.781

0.096

0.996

0.283

1.000

1

0.050

0.982

0.057

1.000

0.105

1.000

0.273

1.000

0.5

0.158

0.334

0.457

0.637

0.948

0.966

0.999

0.999

1

0.170

0.746

0.452

0.913

0.950

0.987

1.000

1.000

0.5

0.211

0.496

0.517

0.783

0.934

0.975

0.999

1.000

1

0.220

0.940

0.516

0.989

0.942

0.998

0.999

1.000

0.5

0.269

0.507

0.562

0.820

0.921

0.986

0.998

1.000

1

0.266

0.966

0.568

0.997

0.922

1.000

0.998

1.000

0.5

0.990

0.991

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1

0.991

0.987

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

0.5

0.975

0.994

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1

0.977

0.993

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

0.5

0.952

0.990

0.999

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1

0.953

0.994

0.998

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

In sum, the size analysis for empirical applications implies that (i) if both KPSS ( k ) and KPSS ( k f ) tests do not reject the null hypothesis of stationarity, the data is stationary, (ii) if KPSS ( k ) test rejects the null hypothesis of stationarity but KPSS ( k f ) tests do not reject, the data is stationary because KPSS ( k ) test exhibits the size distortion under the null hypothesis and KPSS ( k f ) test has the correct size. The power analysis clearly implies that if both tests reject the null hypothesis of stationarity, the data is non-stationary because they have the high power in the case of non-stationary DGP. The small sample analysis hence provides an evidence on the use of both tests for the robustness of results. 4. Empirical Application The economic recession has led to a weakening in the labor market after considerable fluctuations, such as 1973 oil crisis and financial crisis of 2008. Unemployment has become one of the most important problems for many economics and policymakers (Fosten and Ghosray, 2011). From theoretical viewpoints, there are two main hypotheses on the time path of unemployment (Murray and Papell, 2000). One hypothesis is the natural rate of unemployment (or non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment (NAIRU)) which proposed by Phelps (1967) and Friedman (1968), and second hypothesis is the unemployment hysteresis as revealed by Blanchard and Summers (1986, 1987). The natural rate of unemployment hypothesis suggests that the unemployment rate is a stationary and mean reverting process where shocks only have transitory effects (Ayala et al., 2012). The hysteresis hypothesis argues that the rate of unemployment is characterized as a non-stationary/unit root process, in other word shocks are permanent (Fosten and Ghosray, 2011). We re-examine unemployment hysteresis hypothesis for the OECD countries by carrying out the stationarity procedures which are KPSS test by Kwiatkowski et al. (1992), KPSS test with integer Fourier approximation - KPSS ( k ) - by Becker et al. (2006), and KPSS test with fractional Fourier approximation - KPSS ( k f ) - considered in this study. We employ the unemployment rates for 19 OECD countries (Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, and United States) from October 2006 to December 2015. Figure 1 depicts the dynamics of unemployment rates. The Fourier approximations of the series with one frequency are also shown in figure 1.

175

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 6.5

11

6.0

10

9.2

Table 4. Results of Hysteresis hypothesis

5.5

8.8

4.0 7.6

8.0 8

4.5

7

4.5

8.0 8.4

9

5.0

5.0

8.4

8.8

3.5

7.2 6.8

7.6

No shift

3.0

Integer frequency

Fractional frequency

6.4

7.2

2.5

6.0 4.0

6

Constant Model Australia Australia Austria Belgium Canada Denmark Finland Finland Germany Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Japan Netherlands

3.5 2006 2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

5 2006 2007

6.8

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Austria

11

11

10

2011

2012

2013

7

2014

2015

6 2006 2007

9

8

5.0

7

6

4.0

5

3.5

4

3.0 2006 2007

3 2006 2007

2011

2012

2013

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2008

2009

2010

3.2

2.8

2.4

4.5

2010

2008

Germany

5.5

2009

0

-2 2006 2007

2.0

2014

2015

1.6

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Netherlands

4.8

15

4.4

14

2015

1.2 2006 2007

kˆ

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Belgium

2

6.0

2008

2010

4

8

6

2010

2009

6

9

7

2009

2008

8

8

2008

6.4 2006 2007

10

10

9

5 2006 2007

KPSS 0.903 1.001 0.561 0.235 0.616 0.736 1.097 0.264 0.554 1.124 0.435 1.031

2015

5.6

2008

2009

2010

9.0 8.5

2 1 2 1 1 Iceland 2 1 1 1 1 1 Norway 1 2011

2011

2012

2012

KPSS ( k ) 0.940 0.386 0.301 0.152 0.327 0.366 2.847 0.353 2.183 0.812 0.033 0.119 5.2 2006 2007

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Canada

16 14 12 10

8 6 4

2013

2014

2015

2 2006 2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Ireland

4.8

4.4

4.0

3.6

3.2

2013

2014

2015

2.8 2006 2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

9

7.5

8

11

7.0

7

10

6.5

6

9

6.0

5

2.4

8

5.5

2.0 2006 2007

7 2006 2007

5.0 2006 2007

2.0

2015

1.9 1.9 1.9 1.3 1.1 1.9 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1

2014

2015

2014

2015

2013

2014

2015

South Korea

10

8.0

12

kˆ

2014

2013

11

13

4.0

2008

f

1.5 2006 2007

2008

KPSS (k f ) 2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Denmark

14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 2006 2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

9.5 9.0 8.5 8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 2006 2007

0.980 0.926 0.328 0.199 0.825 Ital y 0.373 5.879 0.501 5.120 1.943 0.069 Sweden 0.379

3.6 3.2 2.8

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Switzerland

2013

2014

2015

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Turkey

2014

2015

4

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

UK

2013

2014

2015

3 2006 2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

United State

Figure 1. Dynamics of Unemployment

The results from the stationarity analysis are presented in table 4. The conventional KPSS test shows that the null hypothesis of stationarity is rejected in five countries (Australia, Austria, Germany, Italy and Netherlands) for the model with constant and the null hypothesis of stationarity is rejected in eight countries (Iceland, Ireland, Japan, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, UK and United States) for the model with constant and trend that the hysteresis hypothesis appears to valid for these countries.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Norway South Korea Sweden Switzerland Turkey UK United States Constant and Trend Model Australia Austria Belgium Canada Denmark Finland Germany Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Netherlands Norway South Korea Sweden Switzerland Turkey UK United States

0.713 0.096 0.437 0.136 0.200 0.315 0.280

2 2 1 2 2 1 1

0.359 0.164 0.184 0.088 0.364 0.042 0.184

1.9 1.9 1.1 1.9 1.4 1.1 1.1

0.372 0.156 0.172 0.090 0.071 0.075 0.210

0.073 0.111 0.081 0.210 0.176 0.071 0.163 0.258 0.299 0.118 0.256 0.129 0.141 0.097 0.218 0.089 0.136 0.288 0.280

2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1

0.025 0.068 0.044 0.038 0.122 0.014 0.091 0.067 0.064 0.032 0.029 0.025 0.135 0.028 0.054 0.066 0.037 0.043 0.033

1.9 1.1 1.9 1.1 1.3 1.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.7 1.1 1.1 1.9 1.9 1.1 1.9 1.7 1.1 1.1

0.029 0.068 0.042 0.037 0.104 0.015 0.097 0.067 0.098 0.043 0.027 0.025 0.120 0.034 0.054 0.075 0.104 0.061 0.060

Bold numbers: The null hypothesis of stationarity cannot be rejected at the 1 percent level. The statistics are constructed using the Bartlett kernel with the bandwidth of 4(T/100)2/9 under the boundary rule proposed by Sul et al. (2005). The 1 percent level critical values for KPSS statistic are 0.739 for the constant model and 0.216 for the constant and trend model (Kwiatkowski et al., 1992: 166). The 1 percent level critical values for KPSS (k ) statistic are 0.2699 (k=1) and 0.6671 (k=2) for constant model and 0.0716 (k=1) and 0.2022 (k=2) for constant and trend model (Becker et al., 2006, p.389). See Table 1 for the critical values for KPSS(kf). The optimal number of frequency is determined by the minimum sum of squared residuals.

The conventional KPSS does not take into account any role of structural changes and as shown by Lee et al. (1997) it tends to reject the null hypothesis in the case of a structural shift. The stationarity tests with a Fourier approximation indicates that the null hypothesis is rejected in seven countries (Australia, Austria, Denmark, Germany, Iceland, Ireland and Italy) for the constant model and the null hypothesis is rejected in only two countries (Denmark and Germany) for the constant and trend model. Similarly, Fourier approximation with fractional frequency shows that the null hypothesis is rejected six countries (Australia, Austria, Denmark, Germany, Ireland and Italy) for the constant model and the null hypothesis is rejected in only three countries (Denmark, Germany and Ireland) for the constant and trend model. The results from the stationarity test with a Fourier approximation indicate that the hysteresis hypothesis appears to invalid for many of the countries. 5. Conclusion This study extends the stationarity tests with gradual structural breaks using a Fourier approximation. We tabulate the new critical values for the data generating process with the fractional frequency. We compare the size and power properties of the fractional frequency test with those of the integer frequency test. The Monte Carlo simulations show that while the test with integer frequency recently 177

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN developed by Becker et al. (2006) shows considerable size distortions, the test with fractional frequency has good size properties. We test whether the hysteresis hypothesis is valid in OECD countries and find out that the hypothesis does not hold in the majority countries. References

Ayala, A., Cuñado, J., & Gil-Alana, L.A. (2012). Unemployment Hysteresis: Empirical Evidence for Latin America. Journal of Applied Economics, XV(2), 213-233. Becker, R., Enders, W. & Lee, J. (2006). A Stationarity Test in the Presence of an Unknown Number of Smooth Breaks. Journal of Time Series Analysis, 27, 381–409. Blanchard, O. J., & Summers, L. H. (1986). Hysteresis and the European Unemployment Problem. In NBER Macroeconomics Annual 1986, Volume 1 (pp. 15-90). Mit Press. Blanchard, O.J. & Summers, L.H. (1987). Hysteresis in Unemployment. European Economic Review, 31(1), 288-295. Busetti, F. & Harvey A. (2001). Testing for the Presence of a Random Walk in Series with Structural Breaks. Journal of Time Series Analysis, 22, 127-150. Busetti, F. & Taylor, A.M.R. (2003). Testing against Stochastic Trend and Seasonality in the Presence of Unattended Breaks and Unit Roots. Journal of Econometrics, 117(1), 21-53. Carrion-i-Silvestre, J.L., Del Barrio-Castro, T. & Lopez-Bazo, E. (2005). Breaking the Panels: An Application to GDP Per Capita. Econometrics Journal, 8, 159–175. Carrion-i-Silvestre, J.L. & Sansó-i-Rosselló, A.S. (2007). The KPSS Test with Two Structural Breaks. Spanish Economic Review, 9(2), 105-127. Dickey, D.A. & Fuller, W.A. (1981). Likelihood Ratio Statistics for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root, Econometrica, 49, 1057-1072. Enders, W. & Lee, J. (2012a). A Unit Root Test Using A Fourier Series to Approximate Smooth Breaks. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 74, 574-599. Enders, W. & Lee, J. (2012b). The Flexible Fourier Form and Dickey-Fuller Type Unit Root Tests. Economics Letters, 117, 196-199. Fosten, J. & Ghosray A. (2011). Dynamic Persistence in the Unemployment Rate of OECD Countries. Economic Modelling, 28, 948-954. Friedman, M. (1968). The Role of Monetary Policy. American Economic Review, 58(1), 1-17. Hadri, K. (2000). Testing for Unit Roots in Heterogeneous Panel Data. Econometrics Journal, 3, 148-161. Harvey, D.I. & Mills, T.C. (2003). Modelling Trends in Central England Temperatures. Journal of Forecasting, 22, 35-47. Harvey, D.I. & Mills, T.C. (2004). Tests for Stationary in Series with Endogenously Determined Structural Change. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 66, 863-894. Koedijk, K.G., Tims, B. & Dijk, M.A. (2004). Purchasing Power Parity and the Euro Area, Journal Of International Money And Finance, 23, 1081-1107. Kurozumi, E. (2002). Testing for Stationarity with a Break. Journal of Econometrics, 108(1), 63-99. Kwiatkowski, D., Phillips, P.C.B., Schmidt, P. & Shin, Y. (1992). Testing the Null Hypothesis of Stationary against the Alternative of a Unit Root. Journal of Econometrics, 54,159–178. Lee, J., Huang, C.J. & Shin, Y. (1997). On Stationary Tests in the Presence of Structural Breaks. Economics Letters, 55, 165-172. Murray, C. J., & Papell, D. H. (2000). Testing for Unit Roots in Panels in the Presence of Structural Change with an Application to OECD Unemployment. Advances in Econometrics, 15, 223-238. Omay, T. (2015). Fractional Frequency Flexible Fourier Form to Approximate Smooth Breaks in Unit Root Testing. Economics Letters, 134, 123-126.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Perron, P. (1989). The Great Crash, the Oil Price Shock, and the Unit Root Hypothesis. Econometrica, 57, 1361-1401. Perron, P. & Ng, S. (1996). Useful Modifications to Some Unit Root Tests with Dependent Errors and Their Local Asymptotic Properties. The Review of Economic Studies, 63(3), 435-463. Phelps, E. (1967). Phillips curves, expectations of inflation and optimal unemployment over time. Economica, 34(3), 254-281. Rodrigues, P. & Taylor, A.M.R. (2012). The Flexible Fourier Form and Local GLS De-Trending Unit Root Tests. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 74, 736-759. Schmidt, P. & Phillips, P.C.B. (1992). LM Test for a Unit Root in The Presence of Deterministic Trends. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 54(3), 257–287.

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BUDDHISM AMONG TURKS LIVING IN THE CENTRAL ASIA BETWEEN 6th AND 8th CENTURIES Inst. Derya Deniz GEZER Selcuk University, School of Foreign Languages [email protected] Inst. Seyfi Can GÜR Selcuk University, School of Foreign Languages [email protected]

Abstract Religion, which means a way, belief system and principles of a belief to be obeyed, is one of the most important factors generated by whole beliefs. It also enables communities to become a nation. It is also a social foundation which exists wherever and whenever a human being lives without considering whether he is primitive or modern. When states are taken into consideration, they are not supposed to form a religiously homogeneous society, likewise, the religions embraced by Turks cannot have a homogeneous structure. The concept of religion both differentiates and varieties in Turkic tribes. It is known that Turks believed in various religions, moreover they often converted to other religions because of some factors in the several regions of Asia that Turks reigned and in the territories where they immigrated. These religions impressed their socio-cultural lives deeply. Turks’ main religion was Tenriism before they converted to Islam. In addition to that, they also came across Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Christianity and Buddhism and some of the tribes embraced these religions. The aim of this study is to enlighten how Buddhism was spread among some of the Turkish tribes and states and how it was embraced by them in the Middle Asia between the 6th and 8th centuries. Furthermore which of the Turkic tribes converted to Buddhism and the influence of this religion on Turkish national culture will be dwelled on. Keywords: Religion, Buddhism, Turkic Tribes, Asia.

1. Introduction The time when Turks, who were Tengriist, encountered other religions dated back to old times, because the geography they lived was a region where the missionaries visited frequently. As a result of the religious tolerance of Turks, missionaries could travel around Turks’ states and proselytise their religions easily (Roux, 1984). In addition to that the adaptation ability of Turks to new situations facilitated missionaries work in the Turkic geography (Grousset & Denilier, 1955). Buddhism which arose in India in the 6th century B.C, began to spread out of this region about the 3rd century B.C. It firstly took place in Bactria and Gandhara. Then, it passed to Khwarezm and Sogdia. Although it failed to stand against Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism in West Turkestan, it could find suitable surroundings for itself in the settled areas of East Turkestan. The schools of Buddhism, which were constructed along the caravan roads lying to China, continued their activities for centuries. The

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Buddhist monks or Toyins1 proselytised this religion in the Buddhist Sanctuaries which begun to be constructed in Khotan, Kushan and Tumxuk in 3rd and 4th centuries. In addition to that the name of the city of Bukhara is originally derived from Vihara (in Turkish Vihar) that is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a Buddhist temple. Especially during the term of Turkic Khaganate, there were a lot of Buddhist Sanctuaries in this region (Güngör, 2002). As well as, Buddhism has a lot of branches, Hinayana, Lamaism and especially Mahayana branches found approval of Turks. Mahayana attracted Turks’ attention more because it contained the influence of Universalism strongly which underlay Turkic cosmology (Esin, 1978). The first contact of Turks with Buddhism was during the period of Kushans (between 1st and 3rd centuries). In fact, this dynasty proselytized this religion in the Middle Asia and China. In the 4th century, some tribes of Huns converted to Buddhism in Khotan. The main reason of this conversion was to conserve their culture and not to be assimilated by Chinese culture. Another Turkic tribe that converted to Buddhism was Tuoba (or Tabgaches). After invading firstly most of the territories dominated by Huns then North China, Tabgaches needed a religion in order to preserve their national unity and converted to Buddhism due to the Chinese they hegemonized. However, they lost their national identity because of this religion and Sinicized (Güngör & Günay, 2009). During the 6th and 8th centuries, in other words during the last years of pre-Islamic term and the period Islam arouse and started to expand, there were three Turkic clans who converted to Buddhism partly or completely, these were Gokturks, Qarluks and Uighurs. Buddhism whose homeland is India, was important for Turks since it was one of the religions which influenced them most. Since throughout the history Turks converted to another religion frequently and protected them (Gömeç, 1998), they also protected Buddhism and tried to proselytize it during the term when they were followers of it. 2. a. Buddhism among Gokturks It is extremely likely that the Western Turks of the first empire must have already come into contact with Buddhism, as that religion had at this point made advances into the piece of Central Asia they possessed. Although there are not sufficient information about Turks’ conversion to Buddhism during this period, it is known that Turkish realm established Buddhist Temples in the territory of Kapisa (Begram) (Klimkeit, 1990). Buddhism especially got attention of Gokturks during the periods of Mu-han Qaghan (553- 572) and Taspar Qaghan. Even though it is not known whether he converted to Buddhism or not, a Turkish Temple was established for Mu-Han, the great Qaghan of the Turks in Ch'ang-an, the capital of Chou Dynasty. In addition to that, an inscription in which firstly Buddhism was praised and after that Mu-han Qaghan was praised for his military virtues, was erected in order to commemorate the founding of this temple (Ekrem, 2002; Klimkeit, 1990). It is also known thanks to the Inscription of Bugut which was found on the valley 10 km away from the Bugut Mountain in the East in Mongolia in 1956, a small sangha, a kind of meeting venue for Buddhist monks or temple was established in the period of Mu-han Qaghan. The inscription was written on a stele and edited by S.G. Klja'tornyj and V.A. Liv'ic in 1972. Though this part is damaged so seriously that a successful reading has not been possible up to now, it is clear that it is a Buddhist text. (Alyılmaz, 2003; Ekrem, 2002). Although Klimkeit (1990) claims that whether Mu-han's successor and younger brother, Tapar (Topo) Qaghan (572-581) embraced Buddhism is not known, the general approach is that he converted to it but there is also a divergence among the researchers. According to a claim, when Emperor Wu-ti of the Northern Chou Dynasty prohibited Buddhism, Buddhist monk Jinangupta of Gandhara and his followers took sanctuary in Gokturks who hosted them for ten years. Tapar Qaghan learnt Buddhism from this monk and embraced it (Güngör, 2002; Ekrem, 2002). According to another view, as it was stated in the records of Gokturks in the History of Sui Dynasty (581-618), Buddhist monk Huilin from this dynasty was captured during a raid by Gokturks from 572 to 574. While the monk had a talk with the Qaghan, he predicated the wealth of his dynasty on 1

The Uyghur word for Buddhist monks

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Buddhism and taught the doctrines of this religion to the Qaghan who converted to it and had a temple built. Moreover, he invited other Buddhist monks and had books brought from Tai'an, the province of Sui Dynasty. As to this view, Buddhist monk Jinangupta of Gandhara made an exploration with his master, however, when he came to the territory of the Northern Chou Dynasty, he found out that the emperor was against Buddhism and decided to go back to his hometown. However, while he was passing through the land of Gokturks, he was captured (574). Tapar Qaghan respected and gave consequence to the monk. The Qaghan’s positive manner towards the monk shows that he had information on Buddhism before, namely he learnt this religion from the monk Huilin (Ekrem, 2002; Baykuzu, 2007). After learning dharma (the doctrines of Buddhism), Tapar Qaghan acted just as a Buddhist. He prayed to Buddha, fasted and also asked for Buddhist scriptures from the ruler of T’si dynasty. The ruler had a high state official Shi-Ts'ing translate it into Turkish. This first translation of a Buddhist text into Turkish had great difficulties, because the Turkish language did not have required terminology in order to express the doctrines of Buddhism. Tapar Qaghan also had several temples and sanctuaries established. In spite of his great interest in Buddhism, how much this religion attracted the people’s attention is not certainly known (İnan, 1976; Ekrem, 2002). Which branch of Buddhism Tapar Qaghan followed is not known for certain. However, Sarvastivada Vinaya, one of the four Buddhist scriptures was sent to him by the ruler belonged to Hinayana branch of Buddhism. On the other hand, it is read by both Hinayana and Mahayana branches. The other three scripture (Vimalakirti Sutra, Nirvana Sutra and Avatamsaka Sutra) pertained to Mahayana. In this sense, the branch of Buddhism that Tapar Qaghan followed was most probably Mahayana which was also followed by Chinese (Ekrem, 2002). Not only Buddhist monks but also Sogdians and trade routes caused Gokturks to be interested in Buddhism. The trade colonies of Sogdians pervaded around the Central Asia. Sogdians translated Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit language to Chinese, then they translated them from Chinese to Sogdian language. Taking their abilities on this issue consideration, Turks took advantage of Sogdians in their embassy and diplomatic issues. At that time, they were influenced by Sogdian Buddhists unavoidably. In addition, the development of trade routes enabled Buddhist monks and missionaries to travel easily in the region and proselytize their religions there (Güngör & Günay, 2009). During the reign of Gokturks, Bukhara and Balkh became the centre of Buddhism. Hsuan-tsang who visited these cities in 630s, saw a lot of Buddhist temples and monks. Additionally, when the Islamic army conquered the city of Beykent, they captured lots of idols and jewelleries in the Buddhist temples. During the period of the governor Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, the cities Balkh, Gandhara and Bamyan were conquered and a lot of gold Buddha sculptures and jewelleries were taken from the temples (Güngör, 2002). Although during the period of the First Turkic Khaganate, especially between the years 570s and 590s, Buddhism increased among Turks partially and Russian researchers claimed that Buddhism had been seen as a power that might have constructed unity and solidarity among Turks, during the period of the Second Turkic Khaganate even though Bilge Khagan inclined to convert to Buddhism, Turkic unity was constituted around traditional Turkish culture and religion (Roux, 1984). Bilge Qaghan (716-734), the Qaghan of the Second Turkic Khaganate, desired Turks to adopt a sedentary life, to establish cities surrounded with walls and settle there and to convert Buddhism. However, his minister and father-in-law Tonyuquq objected to his desire warning him that type of life was inappropriate for Turks and dissuaded the Qaghan from his aim (Ekrem, 2002). 2. b. Buddhism among Qarluks Both historical sources and their comparison with archaeological excavations and the observations of Shakik-i Belhi, one of Islamic Sufis, show that Buddhism gained acceptance among Qarluqs, who are known to have lived in the Chuguckak region of Tarbagatai between Lake Zaysan and Ala-Kul. Qarluqs encountered Buddhism firstly in Beiting in the 7th century when they were under the domination of Gokturks. In this city there were two Buddhist sanctuaries which belonged to Qarluqs and were built up in Gokturk and Turgesh style (Esin, 1976).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Moreover, Shakik-i Belhi explained that he met a monk (Toyin) with shaved face and head in white clothes, in Ajina-tepe Buddhist Temple in Vahs valley where Qarluqs lived (Esin, 1976; Güngör, 2002). In the 7th century, Turkestan partly got out of Turks’ control because of Chinese, Tibetan and Arabian invasions. In the 8th century, fights for this region went on. Qarluqs waged war against Turgeshes with Chinese and Tibetans with their ally Arabians at times and captured great Buddhist centres such as Karasahr, Kushan, Kashgar and,Khotan. Qarluqs met Buddhist culture and art in these cities (Esin, 1976). In Fergana and Quba which were under the control of Qarluqs, remains of a Buddhist temple dated back to 7th – 8th centuries were found. This temple had characteristic of both Turkish style and Tantric features of Buddhist art. Turkish Tantric Buddhist culture was seen and developed also in Uighurs later (Esin, 1978). Although Güngör (2002) claims that aristocratic Qarluqs converted to Buddhism, but nomadic Qarluqs did not embrace it since it was inappropriate their national identity, it is seen that Buddhist Qarluqs, who were acutely influenced by Uighurs culturally, prevented Islam to spread in Chu valley. This situation demonstrates that Buddhism gained great numbers of followers among Qarluqs and it lived in their territory quite a while (Ögel, 1984). Besides, that they created their own style called Farhâr-I Halluh1 (Qarluq Buddhist Art) proves their tendency to Buddhism. 2. c. Buddhism among Uighurs Uighurs most probably met Buddhism in the 4th-5th centuries when their ancestors Kankalis lived in Buddhist cities (Esin, 1978). Uighurs had religious liberty, converted to another religion easily and tried to proselytize their new religion (Güngör, 2002). Uighurs were Tengriist at first, then they converted Buddhism and then Manichaeism. Uighurs who built up a monotheistic interpretation from polytheistic tendencies of Buddhism, adopted Tantric branch of Mahayana Buddhism and served for this religion for a while. Mahayana did not lead Uighurs’ traditions to change in a considerable extent. Because when Buddhism started to spread among Uighurs was one-thousand-year-old religion and had already undergone great changes. Even its nature changed in Uighurs’ tradition in time. As other Turkic tribes, Uıghurs were also tolerant of other religions and defended them (Güngör, 2002; Güngör & Günay, 2009). Uighurs, who translated classical Buddhist concepts into Turkish, created a great Turkish Buddhist literature and art (Esin, 1978). As a result of that kind of approach and espousing, they produced their own religious terminology called Buddha as ‘Burkan’ and Buddhism as ‘Burkancılık’ in their language. In 762, Bogu Khagan (Mo-yu) came into contact with Manichaeism in China and declared it as the official state religion (Klimkeit, 1990). Although most of Uighurs converted to Manichaeism (Tekin, 1962), Buddhism had still followers among the people. In 840, Ordu-Baliq, the capital of Uighurs, was besieged by Kyrgyz army and Wucheih, the last Uighur Khagan, was killed and Uighur Khaganate collapsed. Uighurs who could get free from Kyrgyz went to Tibet and Anhsi regions. The centre of this region was Kansu. For that reason Uighurs who established a state there were called ‘Uighurs of Kansu’ or ‘Yellow Uighurs’. Kansu was important since it was the region where Buddhism spread most. Yellow Uighurs lived in tents as Uighurs in Orkhon did and they maintained their nomadic traditions. They pastured their herds on the mountains on the south of the city. However, they lost their fighting ability because of Buddhism and Manicheism. Yellow Uighurs who have survived until today are still Buddhists (Güngör, 2002). 3. Conclusion Turks who were Tehngriist at first embraced several religions throughout their history. One of these religions was Buddhism which arose in India in the 6th century B.C. There were some essential factors that led Turks to convert to Buddhism. The monks and tradesmen travelling in their territories caused Turks to get to know Buddhism. Moreover, the Buddhist cities or 1

Halluh’ is Arabic version of the name ‘Qarluq’.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN regions captured by Turks led them know Buddhism. Turks also converted or wanted to convert to Buddhism in order to adopt a sedentary life and not to assimilate in external cultures. However, this situation sometimes caused a reverse situation just as in Tabgaches. On the other hand, Turks could sometimes reflect their perspective and style to this religion as Qarluqs and Uighurs did. References Alyılmaz, C. (2003). Bugut Yazıtı ve Anıt Mezar Külliyesi Üzerine. S.Ü. Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi, 13, 1121. Baykuzu, T. D. (2007). V. Yüzyılda Hunlar ve Budizm. A.Ü. Türkiyat Araştırmaları Enstitüsü Dergisi, 34, 193214. Ekrem, E. (2002). Seyahatnamelere Göre Göktürklerde Budizm. Türkler, V. 3, Ankara, Yeni Türkiye Yayınları, 636-669. Esin, E. (1978). İslamiyetten Önceki Türk Kültür Tarihi ve İslama Giriş. İstanbul, Edebiyat Fakültesi Matbaası. Esin, E. (1976). Farhar-ı Hallul Karluk Budist Sanatı. Türkiyat Mecmuası, XVIII, 79-140. Gömeç, S. (1998). Şamanizm Ve Eski Türk Dini. PAÜ. Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 4, 38-50. Güngör, H. (2002). Eski Türklerde Din ve Düşünce. Türkler, V. 3, Ankara, Yeni Türkiye Yayınları, 463-503. Grousset, R. & Denilier, G. (1955). La Face de I’ Asie, Paris: Payot. Güngör, H. & Günay, E. (2009). Başlangıçtan Günümüze Türklerin Dini Tarihi. İstanbul: Rağbet Yayınları. İnan, A. (1976). Eski Türk Dini Tarihi, İstanbul: Milli Eğitim Basımevi. Klımkeıt H.-J. (1990). Buddhism in Turkish Central Asia. Numen, 37, 53-59. Ögel, B. (1984). İslamiyetten Önce Türk Kültür Tarihi Orta Asya Kaynak ve Buluntularına Göre, Ankara: TTK Basımevi. Roux, J. P. (1984). La Religion des Turcs et des Mongols, Paris: Payot. Tekin, Ş. (1962). Mani Dininin Uygurlar Tarafından Devlet Dini Olarak Kabul Edilişinin 1200. Yıldönümü Dolayısı ile Birkaç Not. TDAY Belleten, 217, 1-11.

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İMGE VE ŞEHİR: XIX. YÜZYILDA İNGİLİZ GEZGİNLERE GÖRE BALKANLARDAKİ OSMANLI ŞEHİRLERİ Doç.Dr. Gürsoy ŞAHİN Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü, Afyonkarahisar, Türkiye. e-mail: [email protected] Özet Bu çalışmanın amacı, XIX. yüzyılda İngiliz gezginlerin Balkanlardaki Osmanlı şehirleri ile ilgili izlenimlerini, algılama ve değerlendirme biçimlerini irdelemektir. Malum olduğu üzere Balkanlardaki Osmanlı hâkimiyeti XV. yüzyıldan itibaren tesis edilmeye başlanmıştır. XVI. yüzyıldan itibaren ise Balkanlarda Osmanlı kültürünün yayılmasıyla birlikte Avrupa’nın Balkan halklarına ve şehirlerine yönelik yaklaşımı değişime uğramıştır. Anılan yüzyıldan itibaren Balkanlar imgesi, Doğu’nun ve Osmanlı’nın bir parçası olarak şekillenmiştir. Bu meyanda bölge, seyahatnamelerde coğrafi olarak Doğu’ya, kültür olarak da Türklere dâhil edilmeye başlanmıştır. Avrupa kültürel yazınındaki bu imge, XVIII. yüzyılda daha da derinleşmiştir. Bu dönemde artık Balkanlar, özellikle gezginler ve tarihçilerin katkıları ile Avrupa olmaktan çıkarılmış, “Avrupa’nın ötekisi” haline getirilmiştir. Avrupa’nın dışında tutulan Balkanlar, bir anlamda Doğululaştırılmış ve Türkleştirilmiştir. Balkanları ötekileştiren Avrupalı bakış açısı, XIX. yüzyılda daha da belirginleşmiş ve politikleşmiştir. Bu meyanda seyahatnamelerin çoğunda gezginlerin siyasi görüşlerinin ön plana çıktığı görülmektedir. Bu siyasal ve ön yargılı bakış açısı, Balkanlardaki Osmanlı şehirlerinin değerlendirilmesinde de etkili olmuştur. Örneğin seyyahlar şehirlerdeki sokak, çarşı, pazar vs. gibi toplumsal mekanları şehrin kendine özgü görüntüsü olarak kabul etmeyip, kargaşa ve düzensizliğin hüküm sürdüğü yerler olarak değerlendirmişlerdir. Keza gezginler Avrupa şehirleriyle kıyasladıkları Balkan şehirlerindeki “geri kalmışlığı” Osmanlı yönetimine bağlamışlardır. Balkan şehirlerinin dış görüntüsünü eleştiren gezginler, aynı zamanda evlerin Doğulu tarzda döşenmiş olmasını da yadırgamışlardır. Osmanlı Devleti’nin Balkanlardaki hakimiyetinin sona ermesi ve modernleşmenin hız kazanması, Balkan şehirlerindeki dönüşümü de beraberinde getirmiştir. Balkanlarda bilinçli olarak “şehirlerin Avrupalılaştırılma” süreci başlamış, kentsel mimari ve moda Avrupalılaşmanın görünür kılınmasını sağlamıştır. Bu dönüşüm XX. yüzyıldaki gezi edebiyatına da yansımıştır. Bu meyanda seyyahların değerlendirmeleri, şehirlerin orijinal görüntüsünün bozulduğuna dairdir. Çalışmada temel olarak İngiliz gezginlerin Balkanlar ile ilgili kaleme aldığı seyahatnamelerden istifade edilecektir. Anahtar Kelimeler; Osmanlı Devleti, İngiliz, Seyyah, Şehir, Balkanlar, İmaj.

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Bu çalışma Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Koordinasyon Birimince kabul edilen 16.KARİYER.44 numaralı proje kapsamında desteklenmiştir.

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IMAGE AND CITY: THE OTTOMAN CITIES IN BALKANS ACCORDING TO THE 19TH CENTURY ENGLISH TRAVELLERS

Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine the impressions, perceptions, and evaluation forms of English travellers to Ottoman cities in the Balkans during the 19th century. As it is known, Ottoman control of the Balkans began in the 15th century. Starting from the 16th century, the attitude of Europe towards the Balkan people and cities affected by the spread of Ottoman culture in Balkans began to change. During this time, the image of the Balkans was formed as being one with the Ottoman Empire and the East rather than with Europe. In this regard, travel books began to include the Balkans in the East geographically and with Turks culturally. This image in the cultural literature of Europe was deepened further during the 18th century. During that period, the Balkans were not regarded as a European country especially because of the contribution of travellers and historians, and had become “an outsider in the Europe”. In a sense, by being excluded from Europe, the Balkans became rather “Easternized” and “Turkified”. The alienation of the Balkans by the European point of view was clarified more and became politicized in the 19th century. In most travel books, the political views of the travellers came to the forefront. This political and biased view influenced the evaluation of the Ottoman cities in Balkans. For example, travellers did not accept social areas such as streets, markets, and bazaars in the cities as the specific image of the city but rather evaluated them as just chaos and confusion. Furthermore, they attributed the “relative backwardness” of Balkan cities to Ottoman government. Criticizing the outer view of Balkan cities, travellers found the decoration of the houses in Eastern style strange at the same time. The end of Ottoman dominance in the Balkans coupled with the acceleration of modernization brought a lot of change to Balkan cities. The process of “Europeanization” started consciously in the Balkans. Urban architecture and fashion began to show European influence. These changes were also reflected in travel literature during the 20th century. In this regard, European travellers’ evaluations had an influence on the deterioration of the original image of the Balkan cities. The travel books written by English travellers about the Balkans were basically used for this study. Key Words: The Ottoman Empire, English, Traveller, City, Balkans, Image.

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1.Giriş Malum olduğu üzere milletler, kendi kimliklerini oluşturmak veya belirginleştirebilmek için kendisinden farklı değerlendirdiği toplumları ―ötekileştirme‖ eğilimindedir. Ötekileştirme meselesi, esasen Herodot’tan beri devam edegelen bir olgudur1. Bu bağlamda Doğu ile Batı arasında ilk çağlardan beri çeşitli şekillerde mücadelelerin devam ettiği ve iki bölgenin insanlarının da kendilerini bu sayede tanımladıkları ve kimliklerini oluşturduklarını söylemek yanlış olmayacaktır. Yani ―Doğu olmasaydı Batı da olmazdı‖ demek abartılı bir yaklaşım olmamalıdır2. Esasen her toplumun veya devletin, kendisini dünyanın merkezine koyma ve diğerlerini-ötekilerini genellikle kendisinin gerisinde değerlendirmesi bir vakıadır. Bu anlamda örneğin Batı Avrupalılar kendilerini ―uygar insanlar‖ olarak adlandırırken, diğer toplumları yüzyıllar boyunca ―ilkel, barbar veya vahşi‖ olarak tanımlamışlardır3. Bu eğilim, diğer milletlere bakış açısını da etkilemektedir. Yine Avrupalılar, kendi devlet yönetimi veya ekonomik yapısı ile ilgili bir takım hususları ―kendilerine has üstün özellikler‖ olarak görürken, aynı özellikleri başka toplumlarda ―kusur‖ olarak nitelendirebilmektedirler4. Batı tarafından ―ötekileştirilen Doğu‖ kavramı az veya çok değişmeden devam etmekle birlikte bu kavramın coğrafi sınırları tarih boyunca değişiklik göstermiştir5. Avrupalıların Türkler ile ilk ilişkilerinden itibaren Türklere yönelik başlayan ötekileştirme söylemi, Osmanlı Devleti’nin Anadolu’da ve Balkanlarda hâkimiyet sahasını genişletmesiyle birlikte farklı bir boyuta ulaşmıştır. Osmanlılar, Balkan topraklarında hakimiyet alanlarını genişlettikçe Avrupalılar, gerek Balkanları gerekse Osmanlı Devleti’nin sahip olduğu diğer bölgeleri ötekileştirmeye başlamışlardır. Böylece ―Balkanizm‖ adı verilen ve ―Oryantalist bakışın, Balkanlara yönelik olanı” şeklinde tanımlanabilecek bir kavram ortaya çıkmıştır6. Avrupa’nın Balkanlara karşı ötekileştirici bakış açısının yani Balkanizm’in temellerini hangi dönemde aramak gerekir sorusu ise tartışmaya açıktır. Bu hususta, XV. yüzyıldan itibaren Balkanlarda Osmanlı hâkimiyetinin ve kültürünün yayılmasıyla birlikte Avrupa’nın Balkan halklarına, şehirlerine ve kültürüne karşı bakış açısının değişmeye başladığı genel kabul görmektedir. Yani XV. ve XVI. yüzyıllar Balkanları ötekileşmenin ilk safhasını oluşturmaktadır. Bölge coğrafi olarak Doğu’ya ve kültür olarak da Türklere dâhil edilmeye başlanmıştır7. Öte yandan Hıristiyanlığın Katolik-Ortodoks kiliselerinin çekişmesi veya Latinlerin bölge halkıyla olan sürtüşmeleri de Balkanların ötekileştirilmesinin etkenlerinden birisi olarak değerlendirilmelidir. Keza çeşitli kaynaklarda Ortodoks kilisesinin, Bizans kültürünün ya da Balkanların, Avrupa’nın bir parçası

1

Bkz. Herodotos, Herodot Tarihi, (çev. Müntekim Ökmen), Türkiye İş Bankası yayını, İstanbul 2002, s. 213; Stuart Hall, ―The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power‖, Modernity and Introduction to Modern Societies, Thompson, Blackwell, 1996, s. 185-227. 2 Edward Said, Oryantalizm, (çev. Selahattin Ayaz), Pınar Yayını, 4. basım, İstanbul 1999, s. 17; Rana Kabbani, Avrupa’nın Doğu İmajı, (çev. Serpil Tuncer), Bağlam Yayını, İstanbul 1993, s. 154. 3 Božidar Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other (i.e. The Balkans)‖, Perifèria, Revista de Recerca i Formació en Antropologia, No. 6, June 2007, s. 4; keza bkz. Gürsoy Şahin, İngiliz Seyahatnamelerinde Osmanlı Toplumu ve Türk İmajı, Gökkubbe Yayınları, İstanbul 2007, s. 19 vd. 4 Yücel Bulut, Oryantalizmin Eleştirel Kısa Tarihi, Yöneliş Yayını, İstanbul 2002, s. 95. 5 Milica Bakić-Hayden, ―Nesting Orientalisms: The Case of Former Yugoslavia‖, Slavic Review, C. 54, Nr. 4, (Winter, 1995), s. 918; Diana Mishkova, ―In Quest of Balkan Occidentalism‖, Tokovi istorije, (Institute for Recent History, Belgrade), 1-2, 2006, s. 30-31. 6 M. Bakić-Hayden, ―Nesting Orientalisms‖, s. 920-921; K.E. Fleming, ―Orientalism, the Balkans, and Balkan Historiography‖, The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, No. 4, (Oct., 2000), ss. 1228. 7 Galip Çağ, ―Modern Çağın Ötekisi Balkanlar ve 20.Yüzyılın Başında Avrupa’dan Balkanlara Bakmak‖, Motif Akademi Halkbilim Dergisi, Balkanlar Özel Sayısı, 2012 /2, s.133.

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olmadığı ve Avrupa olarak kabul edilmemesi gerektiği yorumları da yapılmaktadır8. Bununla birlikte Avrupa’da gerçek anlamda bir Balkan imajının oluşmasında Aydınlanma Çağı’nın belirgin rolü gözardı edilmemelidir. Aydınlanma Çağı sonunda Avrupa’da etkili olan romantizm ve doğa hayranlığı ile birlikte Balkanlar, XVIII. yüzyılda tabiri caizse yeniden keşfedilmeye başlanmıştır. Balkanlar, Aydınlanma Çağı sonrası ―Avrupa’ya coğrafi olarak çok yakın, buna karşılık kültürel olarak bir o kadar uzak‖ olarak algılanmıştır9. Mesela Thomas Arnold, Adriyatik Denizi’nin doğu kıyısını, ―medeniyete temas edebilecek bir coğrafyada olmasına rağmen sürekli barbar kalan yeryüzünün talihsiz kısımlarından biri‖ olarak tanımlamıştır10. Avrupalılar tarafından bu dönemde gerçekleştirilen keşifte, ―Balkanlardaki çarpıklıkların kasıtlı olarak bilimsellikten uzak bir yaklaşımla ve sosyal yapı üzerinden‖ ortaya konulmaya çalışıldığı anlaşılmaktadır11. Esasen kültürel ve coğrafi bir bölge olarak Balkanların net olarak tanımlanmadığı ve bölgenin kapsamının farklı araştırmacıların analizlerinde değişiklik gösterdiği de hatırdan çıkarılmamalıdır12. Balkan Yarımadası’nın geleneksel tanımının ilk olarak 1808’de Alman coğrafyacı August Zeune tarafından reddedildiği anlaşılmaktadır. Zeune, bölge için ―Balkan Yarımadası‖ yerine bugün Bulgaristan sınırlarında yer alan ―Hoemus-Haemus-Haimos Dağı‖13 adına izafeten ―Haemus Yarımadası‖ (Hämushalbinsel) adını kullanmayı tercih etmiştir14. Toparlamak gerekirse kilise çekişmeleri, Aydınlanma Çağı’nın bakış açısı ve en önemlisi Osmanlı hakimiyeti ve kültürünün Balkan halkları arasında yayılması ve etkileşimin bir sonucu olarak Avrupalıların Balkan milletlerine bakış açısı değişmeye başlamıştır.

2. XVIII. ve XIX. Yüzyıllarda Balkanlar İmajı İngiliz edebiyat literatüründe gezi edebiyatının ayrı bir yeri olduğu bilinmektedir. Özellikle XVIII. yüzyılda gezi edebiyatı ile ilgili eser vermemiş önemli İngiliz yazar neredeyse bulunmamaktadır. Bu süreçte bir çok İngiliz gezgin, Balkanlar ile ilgili seyahatler yapmış ve seyahatnameler kaleme almıştır. Bu tür eserler her ne kadar tarihi belge niteliği taşımasa da İngiltere’de Balkanlara yönelik algının ve tutumun şekillenmesinde önemli bir rol oynamıştır15. Ancak bu kadar verimli bir kaynak

8

Milica Bakic-Hayden ve Robert M. Hayden, ―Orientalist Variations on the Theme ―Balkans‖: Symbolic Geography in Recent Yugoslav Cultural Politics‖, Slavic Review, C. 51, Nr. 1 (Bahar 1992), s. 1-3; Barbara Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi, 18. ve 19. Yüzyıllar 1, Çevirenler: İhsan Durdu-Haşim Koç-Gülçin Koç, 2. Baskı, Küre Yayınları, İstanbul 2009, s. 88. 9 B.Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 3. 10 Thomas Arnold, History of Rome, Early History To The Burning Of Rome By The Gauls, Vol. 1, Third Edition, B. Fellowes ve diğerleri, London 1844, s. 495. 11 Galip Çağ, ―Batılı Seyyahların Gözünde Karanlık Bir Orman: Balkanlar‖, Türk Yurdu, S. 310, Haziran 2013, s. 180-181. 12 Muhammet Kaçmaz, ―Balkan Coğrafyası‖, Türk Tarihinde Balkanlar, C.I, Yay.Haz. Zeynep İskefiyeli – M. Bilal Çelik – Serkan Yazıcı, Sakarya Üniversitesi Balkan Araştırmaları Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi Yayınları, Sakarya 2013, s. 11-37. 13 Trakya’nın efsanevi kralı olan Haimos, kendisine ―Zeus‖, karısı Rodope’ye ise ―Hera‖ adıyla tapınılmasını isteyince ikisi de Haimos ve Rodop dağlarına dönüştürülmüşlerdir. Bkz. Maria Todorova, Balkanlar’ı Tahayyül Etmek, Imagining the Balkans, (çev. Dilek Şendil), İletişim Yayınları, 4. Baskı, İstanbul 2013, s. 54, 57-58, 6364; Maria Todorova, ―Balkanlar’daki Osmanlı Mirası‖, İmparatorluk Mirası, Balkanlar’da ve Ortadoğu’da Osmanlı Damgası, Derleyen L. Carl Brown, Çev. Gül Çağalı Güven, İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul 2000, s.70. 14 Vesna Goldsworthy, ―The Balkans in Nineteenth-Century British Travel Writing‖, Travel Writing in the Nineteenth Century: Filling the Blank Spaces, Edt., Tim Youngs, Anthem Press., London, UK-New York, USA, 2006, s. 19; B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 1. 15 M. Todorova, Balkanlar’ı Tahayyül Etmek, s. 187.

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olan seyahatnameler, özellikle Balkan tarihi ile ilgili Türkçe araştırmalarda yeterince yer bulamamıştır16. XIX. yüzyılda İngiliz gezi eserlerinin içeriği ciddi anlamda zenginleşmiştir. Özellikle Osmanlı’nın Balkan şehirleri, bölgedeki toplumsal yapı ve dönüşüm, bu dönüşümün şehirlere yansıması gezginler açısından son derece ilgi çekici olmaya başlamıştır. Bu anlamda Balkanlara yönelik oryantalist bakış açısının etkilerini belirgin bir şekilde hissetmek mümkündür. Esasen XIX. yüzyılda Osmanlı topraklarına seyahat eden gezginler için merak edilen konular, şehirlerde insanların nasıl yaşadıkları, hastalıktan nasıl kırıldıkları ve kadınların sosyal hayattaki rolleri ve çok kadınla evlilik meselesidir17. Keza İngiliz gezginlerin Balkanlardaki Osmanlı şehirleri ile ilgili cevap aradıkları soruları bir kaç başlık altında sınıflandırmak mümkündür. Bunlar; XIX. yüzyılda Balkanlardaki Osmanlı şehirlerinin fiziksel özellikleri nelerdir? Şehirlerdeki Osmanlı eserleri nelerdir? Bu eserlerin kullanımı, bakımı nasıl yapılmaktadır? Şehirlerin temizliği nasıldır? Şehirlerde hastalık var mıdır? XIX. yüzyılda şehirlerin mimari dokusunda değişiklik yaşanmış mıdır? Balkan şehirleri ile Avrupa veya Anadolu şehirleri arasında işlevsellik olarak benzerlik veya farklılıklar nelerdir? gibi hususlardır. Avrupa’nın Balkanlara yönelik algısı XIX. yüzyılda daha da derinleşmiş, bu dönemde artık Balkanlar, Avrupa olmaktan çıkarılmıştır. Avrupalıların başka milletlere bu şekilde yaklaşımları, İngiltere gibi önemli küresel sömürgeci ülkelerden birisinin gezi edebiyatını da oluşturan18 emperyalist dünya görüşünün önemli bir uzantısı olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Aslında bu tür edebiyat güçlü bir ırkçılığı ve sömürgeciliği de beraberinde getirmekte idi19. Keza bu dönemde sanayileşmenin bir gereği olarak kaynakları zengin olan alanlar, Avrupalılar tarafından ―potansiyel bir sömürü alanı‖ olarak gösterilmekteydi. Örneğin Ruland isimli bir Alman yazar, Balkanları adeta ―soylu Avrupalıların villa ve konut yapmak için çekiştikleri bir bahçe yeri‖ olarak nitelendirmektedir20. Anlaşılacağı üzere oryantalist bakış açısı; ırkçılığı, sömürgeciliği ve emperyalizmi ortaya çıkarmış olup Doğu’ya ve Balkanlara karşı önyargılar taşımaktadır. Keza bu bakış açısı, Doğu’nun ve Doğulunun veya Balkan halklarının dinini, dilini, kültürünü, tarihini, coğrafyasını ve karakterlerini kendince belirlemektedir21. XIX. yüzyılda Balkan coğrafyasına bir çok İngiliz ve diğer Avrupa ülkelerinden gezginler seyahat etmiştir. Esasen gezginlerin Balkan coğrafyasına olan ilgilerinin arkasında; Yunan hayranlığı (Philhellene), Balkanların oryantal ve egzotik bir bölge olarak tanımlanması ve XIX. yüzyılda başlayan bağımsızlık hareketleri gibi çeşitli sebepler bulunmaktadır22. Bahsedilen tüm bu etkenlerin sonucunda gezginlerin eserlerinde ve Avrupa kamuoyunda olumsuz bir ―Balkan imajı‖ oluşmuştur23. Bu anlamda Balkanlara gelen seyyahların eserleri incelendiğinde Balkan 16

Balkanları konu alan seyahatnamelerle ilgili çeşitli araştırmalar için bkz. Barbara Jelavich, ―The British Traveller in the Balkans: The Abuses of Ottoman Administration in theSlavonic Provinces‖, The Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 33, No. 81 (Jun., 1955), s. 396; V. Goldsworthy, ―The Balkans in NineteenthCentury...‖, s. s.19-35. 17 İlber Ortaylı, ―Türkler Hakkında Yazılmış Seyahatnameler‖, I. Uluslararası Seyahatnamelerde Türk ve Batı İmajı Sempozyumu, (28.X-1.XI.1985), Eskişehir 1987, s. 116-117. 18 M. Todorova, Balkanlar’ı Tahayyül Etmek, s. 188. 19 R. Kabbani, Avrupa’nın Doğu İmajı, s. 76-77; Seyfi Başkan, Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Türkiye’de Resim, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yayını, Ankara 1997, s. 29. 20 B.Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 2. 21 İ. E. Bilici, ―Oryantalist Seyahatnamelerde Türk ...‖, s. 8. 22 V. Goldsworthy, ―The Balkans in Nineteenth-Century...‖, s. 20. 23 K.E. Fleming, ―Orientalism, the Balkans‖, s. 1218-1233; Gürsoy Şahin, ―Balkanizm Hakkında Bazı Tespitler: Osmanlı Devleti’nin Son Dönemlerinde Avrupa’nın Balkan Milletlerine Bakışı‖, Proceedings Book of International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research I, Edt. Necmi Uyanık vd., Palet

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halklarının kültürünün ve Balkan coğrafyasının tam anlamıyla çarpıtılarak ortaya konulduğu görülmektedir. Örneğin XVIII. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Balkanlar, Avrupa için ―ıssız bir ada‖ ve ―terk edilmiş Avrupa uzak karası‖ olarak değerlendirilmiştir24. Nitekim bu bakış açısını XIX. yüzyılda bölgeye gelen seyyahlarda da görmek mümkündür. Bu şekilde Balkanlar, bir anlamda Avrupa’nın dışında tutulmuş, daha ziyade Doğu’nun bir parçası olarak görülmüştür. B. Jezernik, coğrafi yakınlığı kültürel ilişkilerin bir şartı olarak görenler için Balkanların bir istisna olduğunu ifade etmektedir. Örneğin Bulgaristan dağları, coğrafi anlamı dışında başka özellikleri belirtmek için kullanılır. Bu ―ideolojik önyargı sınırının ötesi‖ yani Balkanlar; ―pis, pasif, dönek, kadınların önemsenmediği, komplocu, vicdansız, fırsatçı, tembel, batıl inancın, ilkesiz ve gayretkeş bürokrasi ve benzeri olumsuzlukların yaygın olduğu bir mekan‖ olarak tanıtıldı. Avrupalıların dillerinde Balkan terimi ―medeni olmayan‖ ve ―geri kalmışlık‖ ile eşanlamlı olmuştur25. Keza Balkanlar, Batı medeniyetinin antik kentlerinde yaşayan insanların bulunduğu bir coğrafya olmakla birlikte günlük yaşantılarında ―entelektüel hayatın en ufak bir işareti olmayan‖ bölge26, ―medeni olmayan, ilkel ve el değmemiş‖ yerler olarak tarif edilmiştir27. Seyyahlara göre Balkanlar, Batı ile Doğu medeniyetlerinin arasında kalmıştır28. Bölge ―ne Batı’nın ışığıyla ne de Doğu’nun egzotik parıltısıyla aydınlanan bir alacakaranlık bölge‖dir29. Bu anlamda mesela 1873-1915 yıllarında Osmanlı ülkesinde görev yapan ve Balkan halklarının sosyo-kültürel yapıları hakkında önemli incelemeler gerçekleştiren İngiliz gazeteci Sir Edwin Pears’a30 göre; Balkan halkları hiçbir zaman tam olarak Batılı olamayacaklardır. Gezgin, Balkan uluslarını Avrupa ve Osmanlı kültürü arasında değerlendirmekte, çoğu zaman Doğulu, ancak Avrupa kültürüne de yakın olarak tanımlamaktadır31. Gezginler, Balkanlar yanında Doğu Avrupa bölgelerini de kültürel olarak Avrupa ile Doğu’nun arasında bir yerde tanımlamıştır32. Örneğin 1877 yılında Bükreş’i gezen Florence Berger, Romanyalıların Rumen olmakla birlikte bir Türk, bir Sırp, bir Karadağlı, bir Galiçyalı ya da bir Yunanlı ile benzerlikler gösterdiğini ifade etmektedir. Keza şehrin ―Doğu olmadığı, henüz az miktarda Batı‖ olarak kabul edilmesi gerektiğini ifade etmiştir. Seyyah sözlerine şu şekilde devam etmektedir. ―Şehrin ne eti, ne tavuğu, ne de kırmızı ringası iyi. Öte yandan şehirde bir tarafta minareler, beyaz bezlerin içerisinde örtülü kadınlar, diğer tarafta kredi mektubunuza Türk lirası veren bankerler bulunmaktadır‖33.

Yayınları, Konya 2015, s. 467-478; James Andrew Perkins, British liberalism and the Balkans, c. 1875-1925, PhD thesis, University of London, Birkbeck, 2014, s. 17. 24 G. Çağ, ―Batılı Seyyahların Gözünde...‖, s. 181. 25 B.Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 3. 26 F. Berger, A Winter in The City..., s. 37. 27 V. Goldsworthy, ―The Balkans in Nineteenth-Century...‖, s. 21; Bkz. M. Todorova, Balkanlar’ı Tahayyül Etmek, s. 102. 28 Milica Bakic-Hayden ve Robert M. Hayden, ―Orientalist Variations on the Theme ―Balkans‖: Symbolic Geography in Recent Yugoslav Cultural Politics‖, Slavic Review, C. 51, Nr. 1 (Bahar 1992), s. 3; Michał Buchowski, ―The Specter of Orientalism in Europe: From Exotic Other to Stigmatized Brother‖, Anthropological Quarterly, C. 79, Sayı 3, (Yaz 2006), s. 464; Ljiljana Šarić, ―Balkan Identity: Changing Selfimages of the South Slavs‖, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, C. 25, Nr. 5-6, (2004), s. 390. 29 M. Todorova, Balkanlar’ı Tahayyül Etmek, s. 166. 30 Gürsoy Şahin, ―İngiliz Gazeteci Sir Edwin Pears’a Göre XX. Yüzyılın Başlarında Balkanlar’da Sosyal Yapı ve Birlikte Yaşama Tecrübesi‖, Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Defter-i Hâkânî, C. 1, Edt. Abidin Temizer-Uğur Özcan, Libra Yay., İstanbul 2015, s. 317-344. 31 Sir Edwin Pears, Turkey and Its People, Methuen& Co. Ltd., London 1911, s.168. 32 Larry Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment, Stanford University Press, California-Stanford 1994, s. 7. 33 Florence Berger, A Winter in The City of Pleasure; or, Life on The Lower Danube, Publisher R. Bentley & son, London 1877, s. 35.

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Balkanlar ile ilgili seyahatnamelerde Balkanların sınırı da kesin olarak tespit edilememiştir. Örneğin Alexander William Kinglake, İngiltere’den yola çıkarak 1834-1835 yıllarında İstanbul’a gelmiş, bilahare Çanakkale’de Truva, İzmir ve diğer Anadolu şehirlerinden geçerek Şam, Gaza, Nablus ve Kudüs gibi Osmanlı topraklarında seyahatler yapmıştır. Kinglake, bu seyahatlerini 1844 yılında ―Eothen‖ adıyla neşretmiştir34. Kinglake eserinin birinci bölümünde, Balkanlardan Osmanlı topraklarına girişini anlatırken; güneye bakınca tarihi Belgrad’ta Tuna Nehri kenarındaki sert ve simsiyah yükselen Osmanlı kalesini gördüğünü, burada adeta ―Avrupa’nın sonuna geldiğini‖, bundan sonra artık Doğu’nun ―ihtişamını ve kargaşasını‖ seyredeceğini ifade etmektedir. Gezgin Kinglake’in ifadelerinden anlaşıldığı üzere Avrupa’nın bitip Doğu’nun/Balkanların başladığı sınır Belgrad’tır35. Gezginler, Balkanların sınırı kabul edilen Belgrad’ın bir bakıma Avrupa kıtasının görgü ve geleneklerini benimsediğini, bölgeye gelen gezginler için şartları kolaylaştırıcı önemli düzenlemeler yapıldığını ifade etmektedir36. Gezginlere göre, Belgrad’tan başlayan Osmanlı’nın Balkan toprakları Boğaziçi’nde sona ermektedir37. Balkanlar ―medeni olmayan yerler‖ olarak tarif edilirken Bulgaristan hariç diğer ülkelerin bu tanıma uyduğu ifade edilmektedir. Öte yandan Romanya, çoğunlukla Slavların yerleştiği bir coğrafya olması hasebiyle kaynaklarda Balkanların dışında tutulmuş, Doğu Avrupa olarak tanımlanmıştır38. Bu anlamda 1802 yılının Haziran ayında Romanya’nın doğusunda Moldova sınırında bulunan Galatz’a ulaşan İngiliz seyyah W. Wittman, burasının Moldova topraklarında yer aldığını bildirdikten sonra, şehirde Hıristiyanların yaşadığına vurgu yaparak ülkesinden uzakta yer almasına rağmen Hıristiyanların yaşadığı bölgeye vardığı için ―içinin huzurla dolduğunu ve bu duyguya uzun süredir hasret olduğunu‖ bildirmektedir39. Tüm bu değerlendirmelerden anlaşılan şudur ki, Balkanların sınırlarının tespiti net olmayıp zamana ve şartlara göre değişiklik göstermiştir.

3.Balkanlardaki Osmanlı Şehirlerine Dair İzlenimler Bilindiği üzere Osmanlı Devleti’nin Balkanlar üzerinde gerek somut gerekse somut olmayan önemli bir kültürel mirası bulunmaktadır40. Osmanlı mirası çerçevesinde değerlendirilen somut ve somut 34

İbrahim E. Bilici, ―Oryantalist Seyahatnamelerde Türk İmgesi Üzerine Bir İnceleme: Alexander William Kinglake’in Seyahatnamesi Eothen Örneği‖, Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi, S: 2, Eylül 2011, s. 11. 35 Alexander William Kinglake, Eothen, Üçüncü Baskı, John Olliver, London 1845, s. 1; Alexander William Kinglake, Eothen, Bernh. Tauchnitz Jun., John Olliver, Leibzig 1846, s. 1; M. Todorova, Balkanlar’ı Tahayyül Etmek, s. 39; benzer bakış açısı için bkz. Edmund Spencer, Travels in European Turkey, in 1850, Thuough Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Thrace, Albania, and Epirus; With a Visit to Greece and the Ionian Isles and a Homeward Tour Through Hungary and the Slavonian Provinces of Austrıia on the Lower Danube, Vol. I, Colburn and Co., Publishers, London 1851, s. 9. 36 Edmund Spencer, Travels in European Turkey, in 1850, Thuough Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Thrace, Albania, and Epirus; With a Visit to Greece and the Ionian Isles and a Homeward Tour Through Hungary and the Slavonian Provinces of Austrıia on the Lower Danube, Vol. I, Colburn and Co., Publishers, London 1851, s. 10-11. 37 V. Goldsworthy, ―The Balkans in Nineteenth-Century...‖, s. 20. 38 V. Goldsworthy, ―The Balkans in Nineteenth-Century...‖, s. 21; M. Todorova, bir Romen’i kızdırmak için Romanya’nın bir Balkan devleti olduğunun söylenmesi gerektiğini ifade ederek, Romenlerin bu durumda Romanya’nın bir Balkan devleti olmadığı, ―bizi yarı-vahşi Yunanlılarla, Slavlarla nasıl karıştırırsınız! Biz Latiniz‖ dediklerini ifade etmektedir. Bkz. M. Todorova, Balkanlar’ı Tahayyül Etmek, s. 102. 39 William Wittman, Osmanlı’ya Yolculuk 1799-1800-1801, (Türk Ordusu ve İngiliz Askeri Heyeti ile Birlikte Küçük Asya, Suriye ve Çöl Yoluyla Mısır’a Yolculuk), ODTÜ Yayıncılık, çev. Belkıs Dibudak, Ankara 2011, s. 272. 40 Halil İnalcık, ―Türkler ve Balkanlar‖, Bal-Tam, Türklük Bilgisi, 3, Balkan Türkoloji Araştırmaları Merkezi, Prizren, Eylül- 2005, s. 30-31; Suat Alp, ―Balkanlar’da Osmanlı Dönemi Maddi Kültür Mirası Evreni‖, Millî Folklor, Yıl 21, Sayı 84, 2009, s. 151.

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olmayan kültürel unsurlar veya eserlerin önemli bir kısmı, Balkanlarda halen canlı bir şekilde varlığını sürdürmektedir. Bu anlamda Osmanlı’nın Balkanlardaki en belirgin ve somut mirasının ―şehirler‖ olduğu ifade edilmelidir. Keza Balkan şehirlerindeki sosyo-kültürel yapı ve vakıf eserleri, Osmanlı mirasının en canlı tanıklarıdır. Osmanlı ülkesine seyahat eden Avrupalı gezginlerin dikkatlerini çeken ve haliyle haklarında en çok bilgi verdikleri mekanların başında şehirler gelmektedir. Seyahatnamelerde yer alan şehirlere dair gözlemlerden kimi bahse konu şehirde geçirilen bir-iki saatlik bir molanın yüzeysel izlenimlerinden oluşurken kimisi ise bütün bölgeyi tanıtan, nüfus ve fiziki özelliklerle ilgili bilgiler veren izlenimlerdir41. Burada bir soru akla gelebilir. Balkan şehirleri, Osmanlı şehri olarak kabul edilebilir mi? Esasen Balkanlardaki Osmanlı şehirlerinin iki ana eksende gelişme gösterdiği ifade edilmelidir. Eğer bir şehir yeni baştan kurulmuşsa, buralarda tipik Osmanlı-Türk şehirlerinin gelişme çizgisi izlenmektedir. Şayet bölgede önceden mevcut eski bir şehrin üzerinde Osmanlı şehri şekillenmişse, orada geçmişten izler taşıyan ve kendine has özellikler gösteren karma bir şehir oluşmuştur. Bu durumda Osmanlı Devleti’nin Balkanlar’daki mevcudiyetinin bölgede kendine has mimarîsi, gündelik hayat şekli ve kültürüyle ―Osmanlı dönemi Balkan şehirleri‖ olarak adlandırılabilecek bir şehir hayatının teşekkülüne önayak olduğu rahatlıkla söylenebilir42. Osmanlı Devleti’nin Balkan şehirleri, bölgedeki ekonomik faaliyetler ve üretim ilişkileri sonucunda şekillenmişlerdir. Keza şehirlerin yanında bugünkü yol ve ticaret güzergahları da genel olarak Osmanlı döneminde ortaya çıkmıştır. Günümüzde önemli Balkan şehirleri haline gelen Filibe, Tatarpazarcık, Sofya, Belgrad, Sarayova, Üsküp, Yenişehir, İlbasan, Manastır, Köstence ve Rusçuk gibi yerleşim yerleri eskiden köy veya küçük birer kasaba iken, Osmanlı döneminde büyüyerek şehir halinde gelişmişlerdir. Osmanlı Devleti’nden önce mevcut Edirne, Selanik, Niğbolu ve Silistre gibi şehirler ise büyük gelişmeler göstermiştir43. XIX. yüzyılda Osmanlı Devleti’nin büyük Balkan şehirlerinin başında İstanbul ve Selanik gelmekteydi. Belgrad, Sofya, Atina veya Bükreş ise taşra kentleri olarak kabul edilmekteydi. Taşra kentleri olarak kabul edilen şehirlerden Belgrad, uzun zaman Osmanlı Devleti’nin askeri ve idari merkezi olarak kalmış ve Osmanlı otoritesinin ortadan kalktığı 1867’ye kadar bu durum bu şekilde devam etmiştir. Diğer yandan Bükreş’in, prenslikler birleşmeden önce de büyük kabul edilebilecek bir şehir olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Öte yandan Sofya, Filibe ve Varna kadar önemli bir şehir değildi. Keza Atina, 1830’larda eski dönem kalıntılarının bulunduğu küçük bir Osmanlı şehrinden ibaretti44. Esasen Osmanlı kültürü tabiata, bahçelere, akarsulara ve nehirlere büyük değer vermiştir. Bu özellik gerek Anadolu’daki gerekse Balkanlardaki şehirlerde kendisini derinden hissettirmiştir. Bu anlamda şekillenen Osmanlı şehir kültürünün Balkanlardaki yansıması adeta ―masalımsı bir Balkan manzarası‖ sunmakta olup seyyahlardan bazıları bu güzellikten son derece etkilenmektedir45. Bu durumun bir sonucu olarak Balkan şehirleri özellikle uzak bir mesafeden genel olarak ―hoş ve pitoresk‖ yani resmedilmeye elverişli olarak nitelendirilmektedir46.

41

Emre Madran, ―Seyahatnamelerde Anadolu Kenti‖, IX. Türk Tarih Kongresi, (21-25 Eylül 1981), C. III, Türk Tarih Kurumu yayını, Ankara 1989, s. 1306-1308. 42 Fatma Sel Turhan-Özgür Kolçak-M. Ali Gökaçtı, ―Osmanlı Dönemi Balkan Şehir Tarihi: Bosna, Macaristan ve Yunanistan Şehirleri‖, Türkiye Araştırmaları Literatür Dergisi, Cilt 3, Sayı 6, 2005, s. 117, 146. 43 H. İnalcık, ―Türkler ve Balkanlar‖, s. 34. 44 Barbara Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi, 20. Yüzyıl, C. 2, Çevirenler: Zehra Seven-Hatice Uğur, 2. Baskı, Küre Yayınları, İstanbul 2009, s. 48. 45 B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 110. 46 Gezginlerin pek çoğu Doğu ile ilgili eserler, cami, çeşme, hamam, ev ve diğer pek çok mekanın hemen hepsini ―resmedilmeye elverişli güzel manzaralar‖ ve ―egzotik yapılar‖ olarak tanımlamaktadır. Bu tanımlamayı R. Schiffer gibi olumlu ve pozitif bir durum olarak açıklayan araştırmacılar bulunduğu gibi S. Başkan gibi

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Örneğin XIX. yüzyılın başında Şumnu ve ardından Razgrad bölgesinde yolculuk yapan Wittman, mola verdiklerinde çevredeki manzaranın son derece etkileyici ve romantik olduğunu belirtmektedir. Razgrad’ın birkaç camisi olan büyük bir kent olup çitlerle ve parmaklıklarla çevrildiğini ve iki kapısının bulunduğunu ifade etmiştir. Yine W. Wittman seyahatnamesinde, Rusçuk’a geldiğinde şehrin, büyük ve resmedilmeye elverişli olduğunu bildirmektedir. Gezgin benzer ifadeleri, Bulgaristan’ın en uç noktasında yer alan Tutrakan (Torkotai) için de kullanmıştır. Wittman’ın ifadelerine göre burası Tuna’nın kıyısına kurulmuş, romantik görünümlü küçük bir kasabadır. Çevresindeki tepelerde yer alan bağlar, ağaçlar ve ormanlar ile tablo gibi nefis bir manzara sunmaktadır47. Benzer şekilde 1863 yılının Mayıs ayında Selanik şehrini ziyaret eden M. Mackenzie ve A. P. Irby isimli kadın seyyahların kaleme aldığı seyahatnamede de Türk şehirlerinin, durumu ne olursa olsun ve hangi noktadan bakılırsa bakılsın kendine has bir cazibesi bulunduğu ifade edilmiştir. Gezginlere göre atalarının pastoral içgüdülerine sadık kalan Türkler, ―sıradan kente tabiatın şiirselliğini katmaya çalışır‖, şehirlerde minareleri artırır ve nereye ev yaparsa bir ağaç dikerler48. Balkanlardaki Osmanlı şehirlerinin uzaktan ilk göründüklerinde iç içe geçmiş camiler, minareler ve selvi ağaçları ile çok sayıda kubbenin belirli bir cazibesi olmasına rağmen, gezginlerin beğenileri şehre yaklaştıkça ve özellikle şehrin içine girdikçe değişmekte, seyyahlar eleştiriye başlamaktadır. Uzaktan algılanan güzelliğin kaybolduğunu bildiren gezginler, şehirleri ―bakımsız mimarisi olan, çirkin ve kirli‖ mekanlar olarak değerlendirirler49. Bu anlamda İngiliz Sir Edwin Pears’ın gözlemleri de dikkat çekicidir. Gezgin, İstanbul’un Türk yönetiminde Avrupa’nın en geri kalmış başkenti olduğunu, benzer şekilde seksen yıl önce Atina, Bükreş, Belgrad ve Soyfa’nın da fakirlik ve sefalet içerisinde bulunduğunu, halkın kerpiç kulübelerde yaşadığını bildirmektedir. Pears’ın iddiasına göre; adı geçen bölgeler Türklerin yönetiminden çıktıktan sonra büyümüş, gelişmiş ve medenileşmiştir. Bağımsızlığına daha önce kavuşan Bükreş ve Atina, iyi yönetilen ve mamur hale gelen şehirler olmuştur. Keza akıllı ve ilerlemeci bir nüfusu barındırır. Sofya ise halen gelişmesini sürdürmekte olup yakın bir zamanda Bükreş ve Atina’ya yetişecek potansiyele sahiptir. Adı geçen Balkan şehirlerinden İstanbul’a gitmek ise ―medeni bir şehirden barbar bir şehre gitmek demektir‖50. Öte yandan kimi gezginler Balkan şehirlerindeki mimari gelişmişliği, bölgenin mali yapısı ile orantılı bir şekilde değerlendirmişlerdir51. Gezginlerin eserlerinde dikkat geçen hususlardan birisi de Balkanların ekonomik potansiyeli ve avantajlarından bahsetmeleridir. Bu anlamda XIX. yüzyılın başında Varna’dan Rusçuk’a giden İngiliz gezgin ve doktor William Wittman, yol boyunca kulübelere rastladığını bildirdikten sonra bölgenin çok verimli olduğunu, bolca tahıl ve meyve bahçelerinin bulunduğunu ancak ekili topraklara göre köy sayısının az olduğunu ifade etmektedir. Bölgede pek çok haydut ve soyguncunun bulunduğu da yine Wittman tarafından aktarılmaktadır52. Keza Wittman, Rusçuk’u Tuna’nın doğu kıyısında güzel bir bölgeye kurulmuş, Türklerle Rumların yaşadığı oldukça büyük bir yerleşim yeri olarak tarif etmektedir. Gezgin, ziyareti sırasında bölgedeki olumsuz değerlendirenler de bulunmaktadır. Bkz. Reinhold Schiffer, Turkey Romanticized Images of the Turk in Early 19th Century English Travel Literature with an Anthology af Texts, Materialia Turcica, Beiheft 5, Studienverlag Dr. N. Brockmeyer, Bochum 1982, s. 49; S. Başkan, Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e, s. 35. 47 W. Wittman, Osmanlı’ya Yolculuk, s. 268-270. 48 G. Muir Mackenzie - A. P. Irby, Travels in the Slavonic provinces of Turkey-in-Europe, In Two Volumes—I., Second Edition Revised, Daldy, Isbister & Co, London 1877, s. 55. 49 B.Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 5. 50 Edwin Pears, ―A Description of The Turkish Government‖, The Balkan Question; The Present Condition of The Balkans and of European Responsibilities, Edt. Luigi Villari, John Murray, London 1905, s. 33-34; G. Çağ, ―Batılı Seyyahların Gözünde... ―, s. 184. 51 G. Çağ, ―Batılı Seyyahların Gözünde... ―, s. 182. 52 W. Wittman, Osmanlı’ya Yolculuk, s. 267.

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tek açık ve serbest ticaret yerinin Rusçuk olduğunu, tüm ticaret malların buraya getirildiğini ve pazarların oldukça çeşitli malla dolu olduğunu ifade etmektedir53. Esasen Wittman, XIX. yüzyıl İngiliz gezi edebiyatında yer alan ―Osmanlı Devleti’nin kaynaklarının yöneticilerin beceriksizliği ve tembelliği yüzünden boşa sarf edildiği‖54 şeklindeki klasik söyleme eserinde yer vermiştir. İngiliz gezginlerin kaleme aldıkları seyahatnamelerde gerek Balkan şehirlerini gerekse Balkan halklarını, Avrupa ve Osmanlı toplum yapıları açısından sürekli bir kıyaslamaya tabii tuttukları görülmektedir. Ya da E. Spencer’in Üsküp’te yaptığı gibi eski Makedonya ve Roma döneminin izlerini ayrıntısıyla aktarmaktadır55. Mesela gezginler Balkan milletlerinin bazı kültürel özelliklerinin Avrupalılara benzediğinden bahsederlerken Balkan şehirlerindeki düzensizliğin Osmanlı şehirlerini anımsattığını vurgulamaktadırlar. Keza XIX. yüzyılda Avrupalı gezginler Balkan şehir ve kasabalarını; müze, tiyatro, park ve bahçeler gibi kentsel kurumların eksikliği sebebiyle ―kasvetli‖ yerleşim yerleri olarak değerlendirirler56. Kimi gezginlere göre ise ne şehirlerde ve ne de sosyal hayatta Avrupalılık hissi vardır. Ancak gezginlerin kültürel farklılıkları bir kenara bırakarak yaptıkları bu kıyas sonucunda Balkanlardaki Osmanlı şehirleri, Avrupa kentlerine göre konser, tiyatro veya kulüpler gibi eğlence mekanlarının bulunmadığı şehirler olarak eleştirilmiştir57. Balkan şehirlerinin Avrupa şehirleri ile benzerlikleri veya farklılıkları arama düşüncesi bir çok gezginde görülmektedir. Örneğin 1787 yılında Hindistan’dan dönerken Rusçuk’u ziyaret eden İngiliz John Jackson, 31 Ağustos tarihinde Rusçuk’u ziyaret ettiğinde burasını Liverpool kadar büyük ve yoğun nüfuslu bir yerleşim yeri olarak tarif etmiştir58. Farklı kaynaklarda Rusçuk’ta Çin tarzında inşa edilmiş evler, çok renkli bir şekilde boyanmış yüksek minareler, evler, villalar bulunduğu ve şehrin yarım milden uzun nehir boyunca canlandırıldığı da ifade edilmektedir59. 1873’te İstanbul, Yunanistan ve Bulgaristan’a seyahat gerçekleştiren ve akabinde ―Die Türken in Europa‖ adlı eseri yazan Gustave Rasch’ın Rusçuk ile ilgili gözlemleri de dikkat çekicidir. Rasch’ın bildirdiğine göre; Rusçuk’ta şehrin iki tip görüntüsü bulunmaktadır. Türk mahallesi ne kadar ―pejmürde ve sevimsiz‖ görünüyorsa, Bulgarların yaşadığı semtler o kadar ―sevimli, temiz ve medeni‖ görünmektedir60. Gezginlerin dikkatini çeken bir diğer şehir ise Bükreş’tir. Bazı gezginler XIX. yüzyılın ilk yarısında Bükreş’i, eğlenceli ve neşeli bir şehir olarak değerlendirmişlerdir61. Keza 1787 yılında Hindistan’dan dönerken çeşitli Balkan şehirleriyle birlikte Bükreş’i de ziyaret eden İngiliz John Jackson, 1 Eylül 1787 tarihinde Bükreş’i ziyaret etmiş, buranın çok geniş ve kalabalık bir nüfusa sahip olduğunu bildirmiştir62.

53

W. Wittman, Osmanlı’ya Yolculuk, s. 269. Bu anlamda örnekler için bkz. Gürsoy Şahin ―İngiliz Gezgin Edwin John Davis’in Seyahatnamesine Göre XIX. Yüzyılın Son Çeyreğinde Adana ve Çevresi‖, Osmanlı Medeniyeti Araştırmaları Dergisi, Ocak 2016, C. 2, S. 2, s. 60–77. 55 Edmund Spencer, Travels in European Turkey, in 1850, Thuough Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Thrace, Albania, and Epirus; With a Visit to Greece and the Ionian Isles and a Homeward Tour Through Hungary and the Slavonian Provinces of Austrıia on the Lower Danube, Vol. II, Colburn and Co., Publishers, London 1851, s. 26. 56 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 6. 57 1880’lerdeki Sofya örneği için bkz. B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 48. 58 John Jackson, Journey from India, Towards England in the Year 1797: By a Route Commonly Called OverLand, Through Countries Not Much Frequented, and Many of Them Hitherto Unknown to Europans, Printed for T. Cadell , Jun., and W. Davies , by G. Woodfall, London 1799, s. 255-256. 59 Nagehan Üstündağ, ―Osmanlı’da ―Şehir‖ ve Şehri Geliştiren Unsurlardan Biri Olarak Ayanlar: Vidin ve Rusçuk Örneği (18. Yüzyıl)‖, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Türkiyat Araştırmaları, S. 2, Bahar 2005, s. 164-165. 60 G. Çağ, ―Batılı Seyyahların Gözünde... ―, s. 182. 61 The Man Who Dined with The Kaiser, My Secret Service, Vienna, Sophia, Constantinople, Nish, Belgrade, Asia Minor etc., George H. Doran Company, New York 1916, s. 50; B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 48. 62 J. Jackson, Journey from India, s. 258. 54

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Balkanları ötekileştiren Avrupalı bakış açısı, esasen Balkanların Avrupa’ya kıyasla ―geri kalmışlığının‖ sorumluluğunu da Türklere yüklemeye çalışmıştır63. Buna karşılık Balkan medeniyetinde söz konusu olan en küçük ilerleme dahi Avrupa medeniyetine bağlanmaya çalışılmıştır64. Bu bakış açısının XIX. yüzyılda daha da belirginleştiği ve birçok gezginde görüldüğünü söylemek mümkündür. Örneğin İngiliz gazeteci Sir Edwin Pears’a göre; Balkanlardaki Türk hâkimiyeti, Balkan topluluklarının geri kalmasının en önemli sebebidir. Nitekim zaman içinde Türk yönetiminden ayrılıp bağımsız olan Balkan devletleri büyük ilerleme kaydetmiştir. Örneğin Romanya, Sırbistan, Bulgaristan ve Yunanistan bir asır önce ―Sultanın tebaası olarak ölmekte iken‖, Türk yönetiminden ayrıldıktan sonra ―medeniyet yolunda ilerlemeye‖ başlamışlardır65. Bu bakış açısı ile Balkanlardaki Osmanlı şehirlerinde mevcut medeniyetin, mimari eserlerin yok sayılması veya görmezden gelinmesi, esasen Osmanlı’nın bölgeye yatırım yapmadığının bir göstergesi olarak da değerlendirilmektedir66. Öte yandan XIX. yüzyılda Balkan tarihçiliğinin önemli isimleri, Balkanlar’da mevcut Osmanlı sisteminin, Balkanlar’da iç barışı sağlayarak gerek ticaret ve gerekse şehirleşmeye önemli katkılar yaptığını ve büyümeye yol açtığını belgeleriyle ortaya koymuşlardır67. Gezginler Balkan şehirlerinin dış görünüşü yanında aynı zamanda tüm Balkanlarda evlerin iç mekanlarının da Doğulu tarzda döşenmiş olmasını eleştiri konusu yapmışlardır. Bu anlamda Balkanlardaki evlerde çatal ve bıçak bulunmadığı, duvarlarda ayna veya boyalı resimlerin, tabloların veya sandalyelerin yer almadığı ifade edilmektedir. Gezginler, bu şekilde Doğu tarzında düzenlenen evlerdeki tek dekorasyonun bir veya iki hat eseri olduğunu ifade etmektedirler68. Gezginlerin Balkan şehirlerine ve kültürüne karşı ötekileştirici bakış açısı günlük yaşantıda da kendini göstermektedir. Temizlik buna örnek verilebilir. İngiliz gazeteci Pears, evlerin son derece konforsuz olduğunu, sabunun neredeyse hiç bilinmediğini, her çeşit pirenin evlerde bulunduğunu, bu haşerenin tedbirsiz Avrupalılara da musallat olduğunu ifade etmektedir. Balkan Yarımadası’ndaki bir ülkeye seyahat eden bir gezginin de aynı durumla karşılaşacağını, gezginlerden bazılarının mola verirken dikkatli olunmasını tavsiye ettiklerini ifade etmektedir69. Balkan şehirlerinde gezginlerin ilgisini çeken diğer bir mekan ise kahvehaneler olmuştur. Gezginlere göre Balkan şehirlerindeki Osmanlı kültürel varlığının somut örneklerinden birisi de kahvehanelerdir. Seyahatnamelerde Balkanlardaki kahvehanelerin mevcudiyeti, Balkan erkeklerinin ―aylaklığı‖ ile özdeşleştirilmiştir. Gezginlere göre; kahvehaneler erkeklere aittir. Burada sosyal hayatın ve eğlencenin odağında sadece erkekler bulunur. Erkekler kahvehanede bir araya gelerek kahve ve sigara içerler70. Ancak Bükreş bunun için istisnadır71. Balkan şehirlerinde aile yapısı ve kadını da Avrupalıların ilgisi çeken hususlardandır. Örneğin İngiliz E. Pears, Balkan halklarını birbirleri ile kıyaslarken klasik Balkan algısından ve İngiliz politik tavrından kurtulamamıştır. Nitekim eserinde Balkan halklarını Avrupa veya Osmanlı’ya yakınlık derecesine göre kıyaslamıştır. Yaptığı değerlendirmelerde Balkan halklarının çelişkili halinden bahsetmiştir. Ona göre, Balkan halkları, Avrupa ulusal içgüdülerine sahip bulunmaktadır. Örneğin Müslüman Arnavutlarda Türkmen anlayışının egemen olmadığını, ―aile yaşam duygularının Avrupalı‖ 63

B.Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 1; benzer değerlendirmeler ve bu durumun tarihyazımına da etkileri hakkında bkz. Fikret Adanır, ―Bosna-Hersek’te ―Müslüman‖ Bir Ulusun Oluşumu: Bir Tarihyazımı Tartışması‖, Osmanlı ve Balkanlar, Bir Tarihyazımı Tartışması, Der: Fikret Adanır-Suraiya Faroqhi, İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul 2011, s.307 vd. 64 M. Todorova, Balkanlar’ı Tahayyül Etmek, s. 269. 65 E. Pears, Turkey and Its People, s.196. 66 G. Çağ, ―Batılı Seyyahların Gözünde... ―, s. 183. 67 Geniş bilgi için bkz. H. İnalcık, ―Türkler ve Balkanlar‖, s. 36. 68 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 6. 69 E. Pears, Turkey and Its People, s.46. 70 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 6. 71 The Man Who Dined with The Kaiser, My Secret Service, s. 50.

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olduğunu, tek eşliliğin ön planda tutulduğunu ifade etmektedir. Keza, Müslüman Arnavut kadınlarının peçe ile örtünmediklerini, bu yönüyle Türkiye’deki Müslüman kadınların davranışlarından ve kıyafetlerinden farklı olduklarını belirtmiştir. Pears, Arnavutlarda sosyal statünün denkliğine önem verildiğinden bahsederken, Arnavutların kendi seviyelerindeki kişilerle evlendiklerini belirtmiştir72. Keza çeşitli kaynaklarda Balkan toplumunda kadınların dışarı çıkmasına ve eğlence yerlerine gitmesine pek hoş bakılmadığı hatta izin verilmediği ifade edilmektedir. Keza, kaynaklarda Balkan şehirlerindeki kadınların İkinci Dünya Savaşı’na kadar yüzlerini örttüğü de bildirilmektedir. Bu bağlamda kadınların toplumda yeterince yer bulamaması sebebiyle Balkan toplumu ―donuk ve tekdüze‖ olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Balkanlarda gezginlerin üzerinde durdukları hususlardan bir diğeri ise kadınların eğitimi meselesidir. Seyyahlara göre, Balkan toplumunda eğitim sadece erkekler için mümkün görünmekte olup, bir kadının okuyup yazması olağanüstü bir şey olarak kabul edilmektedir73. Balkan şehirlerindeki çok kültürlülük, karışık etnik ve sosyal yapı gezginlerin ilgisini çeken temel hususlardandır. İngiliz gezginlerin kaleme aldığı seyahatnamelerde, Balkanlarda yaşayan milletlerin birbirleriyle karıştığına ve hiç bir ırkın saf kalmadığına vurgu yapılmıştır. Bu bağlamda bölgede gerek konuşulan diller, gerek etnik yapı ve gerekse dinî inançlar çok karışık bir görünüm arz eder. Ancak konuşulan diller kadar ırkların da farklı olması bölgede gerçek bir kaynaşmayı engellemiştir. Bazı Avrupalılara göre, Balkan halkları birbiriyle karışsalar da asla tam olarak birleşememişlerdir74. Keza XIX. yüzyılın ilk yarısında 1834-35 yıllarında Balkanlarda seyahat eden Alexander William Kinglake de benzer ifadeler kullanmıştır. Örneğin Belgrad şehrinde Türk, Macar ve Sırpların beraber yaşadıklarından ancak birlik oluşturamadıklarından bahsetmektedir75. Bu durum bir çok seyahatnamede karşımıza çıkmaktadır. XIX. yüzyılın başında Razgrad’a uğrayan Wittman, şehrin yerleşik halkının Rumlar ile Türklerden oluştuğunu bildirmektedir76. Öte yandan Pears, Müslüman Arnavutların asimile olmadığına ve Arnavutların Türklerle tam karışmadığına dikkat çekmiştir. Pears, Balkanların iç içe geçmişliğine vurgu yaparak burada yaşayan halkların birbirine karışmamasının mümkün olamayacağını, Arnavutların buna dikkat etmelerine rağmen azda olsa Türk kanı ile karıştıklarını dile getirmiştir77. Osmanlı Devleti’nin çok kültürlülük kuralının canlı örneği Balkanlarda yaşamış ve Osmanlı’dan hemen sonra bölge insanları normal hayatlarına devam etmişlerdir. Bu anlamda en önemli örneklerden birisi 1492 yılında İspanyol hükümdarları Ferdinand ve Isabella tarafından İspanya’dan kovulan yaklaşık 170.000 Yahudi’ye sığınma hakkı verilmesidir. İspanya’dan Osmanlı ülkesine gelen Yahudiler İstanbul, Selânik, Saraybosna ve diğer Osmanlı kentlerinde özgür bir şekilde yaşamlarını sürdürmüşlerdir78. Bilindiği üzere Balkanlardaki Osmanlı hakimiyeti sadece siyasi yapıyı değil, aynı zamanda sosyal hayatı da derinden etkilemiştir. Bununla birlikte Osmanlı Devleti, hakim olduğu yüzyıllar boyunca Balkan halklarını asimile etmeye teşebbüs etmemiştir. Lamartin’in ifadesi ile Türkler, ―zaferlerini istismar etmemiş ve dini hoşgörü ruhunu kaybetmemişlerdir‖. Hıristiyanların kiliselerinde ve toplum hayatında ibadet özgürlüğünü sağlamışlardır79. Avrupa hükümetlerinin, kendileri bağlı halkların kendilerine ait hukuklarını ulusal kimliklerini veya anadillerini ortadan kaldırmak için her türlü çabayı

72

E. Pears, Turkey and Its People, s.171. B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 6. 74 Kemal Karpat, ―Balkanlar‖, DİA, C.5, TDVY, İstanbul 1992, s.27-28; Bu anlamda bilgiler için bkz. Sibel Akova-Cenk Demirkıran, ―Regarding The Culture of Multi-Ethnicity and Cohabitation in The Western Balkans‖, Human, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 2013, s.8-9. 75 Alexander William Kinglake, Eothen, Üçüncü Baskı, John Olliver, London 1845, s. 1; Alexander William Kinglake, Eothen, Bernh. Tauchnitz Jun., John Olliver, Leibzig 1846, s. 1. 76 W. Wittman, Osmanlı’ya Yolculuk, s. 268. 77 E. Pears, Turkey and Its People, s.168. 78 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 10. 79 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 9. 73

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gösterirken, Osmanlı Devleti kendi idaresindekilere karışmama politikasını takip etmişlerdir80. Osmanlılar, Batı Avrupa’daki çağdaşı olan yönetimlerden farklı olarak idaresindeki halkları asimile etmeyi denememişlerdir. Bu etkileşimde dikkat çeken bir diğer husus ise Müslüman olan Balkan halklarının kendi kimliklerini kaybetmemeleridir. Gezginlerden kimilerine göre, Balkan halkları hiçbir zaman tam Batılı olamayacaklardır. Örneğin Pears, arada kalmışlığın olumsuzluklarını yaşayan Balkan uluslarının farklılıklarının değerinin zamanla takdir edileceğine dikkat çekmiştir81.

4. Balkan Şehirlerinde Yaşanan Dönüşüm XIX. yüzyılda Balkan şehirlerinde Osmanlı geleneksel şehir dokusunun değişmeye veya yeniden düzenlenmeye başladığı anlaşılmaktadır. Ancak bu dönüşümün tam olarak ne zaman başladığı ile ilgili çeşitli görüşler mevcuttur. Kimi araştırmacılar şehirlerin değişim sürecinin Balkanlarda ulus devletlerin kurulmasını takiben söz konusu olduğu yorumlarını yapmaktadır82. Bazı yorumlarda ise şehirlerdeki dönüşümün Balkanlardaki uluslaşma sürecinden hatta Tazimat reformlarından önceye 1830’lara götürülebileceği ifade edilmektedir. Bu yorumlarda özellikle sanayileşmenin artması ile geleneksel şehir dokusunun değişmeye başladığına vurgu yapılmıştır83. XIX. yüzyılın ortalarında Balkanlarda ve diğer Osmanlı topraklarında Batılılaşma, modernleşmenin karşılığı olarak kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Bu süreçte modernleşmenin bir göstergesi olarak Balkan şehirlerinde değişim ve dönüşümün ilk örnekleri görülmeye başlanmıştır. Ancak şehirlerde yaşanan değişimle birlikte gezginler, eleştirilerini farklı bir şekilde sürdürmüşlerdir. Bu süreçte Balkan şehirleri, Batı Avrupa’nın bir ―kopyası‖ ya da ―karikatürü‖ gibi görülmektedir. Gezginlere göre, Balkan şehirlerinde yaşanan dönüşümde hiçbir şey orijinalini muhafaza edememiş, her şey adeta ödünç alınmış görüntüsünde kalmıştır. Balkan kimliği yerine tüm mekan, sanat ve kültürel ortamlar ile mobilya, araba ve kıyafetlerde de Paris veya Viyana modası hakim olmuştur84. Ancak Batılılar, Balkan halklarını ―kendi eşitleri‖ olarak değil yine ―Doğulu öteki‖ veya Doğu ile Batı arasında ―arada kalmış‖ olarak görmeye devam etmişlerdir. Öte yandan bazı Doğulular da Balkan halklarındaki Batılılaşma ve ―Batılı görünme çabasını‖ genellikle tuhaf ve gülünç bulmuştur85. Balkanlardaki Osmanlı hakimiyetinin sona ermesini müteakip bölgede önemli bir değişim süreci yaşanmıştır. Bu süreç göz önünde bulundurulduğunda ―ötekileştirme‖ modelinin önemli bir unsurunun Balkan şehirleri olduğu söylenebilir. Avrupalıların, Balkanları ötekileştiren yaklaşımlarına karşılık Balkan milletlerinin bağımsızlık süreci ile birlikte Batı medeniyetinden yana bir tavır takındıkları, Doğulu veya Osmanlı hayat tarzından Avrupaî hayat tarzına hızlı bir geçiş yapmaya çalıştıkları anlaşılmaktadır86. Bu durum Balkan şehirlerinin görünümünü kökten değiştirmiştir. Balkan toplumunun entelektüel kesimi esasen sadece şehirlerin fiziksel görünümü değil geri kalmışlığın, medeniyetsizliğin daha doğrusu ―Doğulu hayat tarzının‖ değiştirilmesi gerektiğini iddia etmekteydiler87.

80

David Urquhart, The Spirit of the East, Illustrated in a Journal of Travels Through Roumeli During an Eventful Period, Vol. II, Henry Colburn Publisher, London 1838, s. 236-237. 81 E. Pears, Turkey and Its People, s.168. 82 B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 47. 83 Yannis Kizis, ―Balkanlar’da Osmanlı Şehir Düzeninin İzleri‖, Sabah Ülkesi, Kültür, Sanat ve Felsefe Dergisi, Sayı 43, Nisan-Haziran 2015, s. 51. 84 B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 49. 85 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 7-8. 86 M. Buchowski, ―The Specter of Orientalism...‖, s. 464; B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 47. 87 B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 47.

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Doğulu hayat tarzının değiştirilmesi gerektiğini savunan yeni elitler, Balkanlardaki şehirlerin Londra, Viyana, Paris ve Münih gibi Avrupa şehirlerine benzemesi gerektiğini ifade etmekteydiler. Balkanlarda ulus devletlerin kurulmasını takiben yeni hükümetin iskan edilmesi için saraylar, devlet daireleri ve millet meclisleri mekanlar temin etmek gerekmiştir. Bilahare kütüphaneler, opera binaları, tiyatrolar, müzeler ve üniversiteler gibi kültür merkezleri ile kilise ve katedraller inşa edilmeye başlanmıştır88. Esasen kimi kaynakların bildirdiğine göre Balkan halkları için Avrupalılaşmanın veya modernleşmenin bedeli oldukça pahalıya mal olmuştur. Bu süreçte Balkan coğrafyasında mevcut cami, minare, çarşı, han, mezarlık, köprü ve evler gibi somut miras alanlarının bir kısmı, ―geri kalmışlığın sembolleri‖ olarak kabul edildiği için imha edilerek yerlerine yeni mekanlar oluşturulmaya başlanmıştır89. Ancak eski görünümünü kaybetmenin, Balkan şehirlerinin ruhunu kaybettirdiği yorumları da yapılmaktadır. Şehirlerin fiziksel dokusunu ve adeta ruhunu kaybetmesi, toplumun ve şehirlerin tarihini de kaybettirmiştir. Yaşanan değişimin sonucu olarak mekanların görüntüsü yenileşmiş ancak içi boşaltılmıştı. Balkan şehirlerinde Osmanlı döneminden kalma ve görülmesi gereken eski binalar birer ikişer imha edilmiş, bunların yerine Slav mimarisi ile kiliseler inşa edilmiştir. Keza İngiliz ve Fransız binalarının ―monoton ve ucuz taklitleri‖ görülmeye başlamıştır90. Belgrad gibi şehirlerde ise Slav etkisiyle birlikte Moskova etkisi de söz konusu olmuştur91. Bu dönemde Balkanlar, Avrupalı ve modern olmak, böylece dünyaya kendini kanıtlamak için ciddi şekilde çabaladıkları anlaşılmaktadır. Türkler ve Osmanlı döneminden kalan miras, Avrupa kültürü ile arada bir engel olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Doğu medeniyeti Batı’dan farklı veya benzer özellikleri sebebiyle yargılanmaya başlamıştır. Bu noktada gezginlerin gezdikleri yerlerin ve kültürlerin kendilerinden farklı yönlerini anlamayarak kendi değerleriyle bu toplumları yargılama ve yalan yanlış bilgileri Batı toplumlarına aktarma şeklindeki oryantalist bakış açısı devreye girmiştir. Buna göre, Avrupalılara daha az benzeyenler ve diğerleri daha geri planda iken Avrupa’ya daha çok benzeyenler daha ileri bir seviyededir92. Bu çaba sonucunda Balkanlar görüntü olarak ―Avrupalı‖ olmuş, en radikal değişiklikler ise görünür alanlarda, yani mimari ve modada gerçekleşmiştir93. Toplumun dış görünüşü, şehirler ve kasabalar değişmiş Avrupai bir hal almıştır. Dönüşüm sürecinde Balkan şehirlerinde evlerin pencere kafesleri çıkarılmış ve evleri çevreleyen duvarlar kısa sürede yıkılmıştır. Ancak Balkan halklarının halen devam ettirdiği sosyal yapı, yemek kültürü veya kahvehaneler Osmanlı mirasının çok daha kuvvetli hissedildiği alanlar olarak varlığını devam ettirmiştir94. Balkanlardaki hızlı değişim bazı olumsuzlukları da beraberinde getirmiştir. Örneğin B. Jelavich, Balkan halklarının, Osmanlı döneminin pek çok yönden rahat olmasından istifade ettiklerinden bahsetmektedir. Jelavich, gerek cami, köprü, han gibi devlet kurumlarının gerekse şahsi evlerin kendisinden sonra yerine inşa edilen mekanlardan kat be kat üstün olduğunu ifade etmektedir95. Balkan halkları, Avrupalılaşma sürecinde popüler inançlar, gelenekler, tutum ve değerler sistemini de Osmanlı dışı bir hale dönüştürmek için yoğun çaba harcamıştır. Fakat, insanların uzun süreli alışkanlıklarını kısa sürede değiştirmeleri mümkün olmamıştır96. Bu anlamda Balkanlar üzerinde çalışan İngiliz M. F. Durham, bölgenin beş yüz yıl boyunca Türklerin idaresinde olmasına rağmen, ―Balkan halkları üzerinde hiçbir görünür Türk izi olmadığını‖ iddia etmektedir. Öte yandan Balkanlarda mevcut Osmanlı varlığının tüm somut kalıntılarının silinebileceğini ancak, ―insanların 88

B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 47. B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 7; B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 47. 90 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 8. 91 Frank Fox, The Balkan Peninsula, A.&C. Black Ltd Published, London 1915, s. 158. 92 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 8. 93 B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 49. 94 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 8. 95 B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 110. 96 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 8-9. 89

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ruhları üzerinde bırakılan izleri‖ silmenin çok zor olduğunu ifade etmektedir97. Mesela XX. yüzyılın başlarında Priştina’ya seyahat eden bir tüccar, misafir olduğu evin hanımı dışında kasabada örtüsüz kadın görmediğini bildirmektedir. Keza, Osmanlı mirasının bir parçası olan yemek kültürü ve kahvehaneler devam etmektedir98. Osmanlı idaresi sona erdikten sonra da bölgede varlığını devam ettiren yaklaşık iki milyona yakın Müslüman nüfus sayesinde Balkanlardaki Osmanlı mirası ve Osmanlı gelenekleri, ulusal mirasın parçası olarak muhafaza edilmiş veya korunmaya çalışılmıştır99. I. Dünya Savaşı’ndan sonra Balkanlarda bazı endüstriyel faaliyetlerin ve demiryollarının kurulmasına rağmen bölge genellikle ziraata bağlı kalmış, köy ve şehir hayatı farklı biçimlerde gelişmiştir. Şehirlerdeki halkın Batı Avrupa yaşayışına özentileri artarak devam ederken kırsal kesimde geleneksel yapı sürdürülmüştür100. Balkanlardaki şehirlerin dönüştürülmesi, bazı bina ve sembollerin ortadan kaldırılması, Balkan halklarının Avrupa ile birleşmeyi ve Osmanlı kültürel izlerinin silinmesine yetmemiştir101. İngiliz kadın gezginlerinden Esmé Scott-Stevenson’ın dediği gibi, Batı uygarlığının Balkanlara girmesi ve etkin olması, bütün Doğu topraklarının resmedilmeye değer (pitoresk) görünümünü Rusçuk örneğinde olduğu gibi kaybettirmiştir. Buna karşılık ―Avrupa’nın kir ve sefaleti‖ bölgede kalmıştır102. Osmanlıların ayrılmasından kısa süre sonra, Avrupalılaşma günün modası haline gelince eski Balkan ruhu ölmüştür. Mitoloji ve tarih yerine; hoşgörü ve çok kültürlülük bu sürecin ilk kurbanları olmuştur103. Balkanlardaki Osmanlı mirasının ilerleyen yıllarda bütün devletlerin tarihinde olumlu ve olumsuz bir çok yansımaları olmuştur. Geçmişten getirilen ortak tarih ve ortak kültürel miras, Türkiye ile Arnavutluk, Bulgaristan, Romanya, Yunanistan ve Yugoslavya arasında önemli bir bağ oluşturmuştur104. Söz konusu ülkelerin kendi aralarındaki ilişkilerinde de ortak Osmanlı mirasının inkar edilemez rolü bulunmaktadır.

5.Sonuç Bu çalışmada; Osmanlı kültürünün Balkan halkları üzerindeki tesirlerinin somut göstergesi olan şehirlerin fiziksel özellikleri ile şehir kültürünün, XIX. yüzyılda İngiliz gezginler tarafından ne şekilde algılandığı ve İngiliz kamuoyuna nasıl aktarıldığı ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. Bu sayede XIX. yüzyılda İngiltere’de oluşan Osmanlı ve Balkan imajı ortaya konulmuştur. Osmanlı Devleti’nin XV. yüzyıldan itibaren Balkanlar’da hâkimiyet kurmaya başlaması ile birlikte Avrupa’nın Balkan şehirlerine, halklarına ve kültürüne karşı bakış açısının değişmeye başladığı söylenebilir. Bu anlamda Balkanlar XV-XVI. yüzyıldan itibaren ötekileştirilmeye, bölge coğrafi olarak Doğu’ya ve kültür olarak da Türklere dâhil edilmeye başlanmıştır. Avrupa’nın Balkanlara yönelik algısı XVIII. yüzyılda daha da derinleşmiş, bu dönemde artık Balkanlar, ―Avrupa olmaktan‖ çıkarılmıştır. Bu bakış açısını XVIII. yüzyılın ikinci yarısı ve özellikle XIX. yüzyılda bölgeye gelen İngiliz seyyahlarda da görmek mümkündür. 97

8. Bölümde Deçan (Dechani) ve Podgorica’ya dönüş kısmı için bkz. Mary Edith Durham, Through the Lands of the Serb, Edward Arnold Publisher, London 1904, s. 318; keza bkz. B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 109. 98 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 8-9; B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 109. 99 B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 110. 100 K.Karpat, ―Balkanlar‖, s. 30. 101 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 10-11. 102 Esmé Scott-Stevenson, On Summer Seas, (Including the Mediterranean, The/Egean, The Ionian, The Adriatic, and The Euxine, and a Voyage Down The Danube.), Chapman and Hall Publishing, London 1883, s. 217. 103 B. Jezernik, ―Europe and its Other‖, s. 10-11. 104 B. Jelavich, Balkan Tarihi 2, s. 111.

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Balkanlar’ı ötekileştiren Avrupalı bakış açısı İngiliz gezginlerde de belirgindir. İngiliz gezginler Balkan şehirlerini resmedilmeye değer mekanlar olarak tanımlamakla birlikte diğer taraftan şehirlerin geri kalmışlıkla yüzyüze olduğuna dikkat çekmişlerdir. Bu geri kalmışlığın nedeni de Osmanlı yönetimine bağlanır. XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında bu bakış açısı derinleşmiştir. Ancak bunun tam aksine Balkan şehirlerinin, ticaret, tabii kaynaklar ve yol güzergahları ile ekonomik faaliyetlerin sonucu olarak köy veya kasaba olan yerleşim yerlerinin Osmanlı döneminde büyüyerek şehir halinde geldiği unutulmamalıdır. Bu anlamda Filibe, Sofya, Belgrad, Üsküp, Yenişehir, Manastır, Köstence ve Rusçuk sadece bir kaç örnektir. Yani Osmanlı Devleti’nin, Balkanlar’daki şehirleşme, ticaret ve yol ağına ciddi manada katkılar sağladığı aşikardır. İngiliz gezginlerin Balkanlardaki Osmanlı şehirleri üzerindeki ötekileştirici ve eleştirel yaklaşımları, Balkanlarda Osmanlı hakimiyetinin sona ermesi ile ortadan kalkmaya başlamıştır. Bu defa bölgenin Doğu ile Batı medeniyetleri arasında kaldığı savunulmuştur. Balkan elitleri veya halkları, XX. yüzyılda modernleşme sürecinde Avrupalılaşmayı tercih etmişlerdir. Bu şekilde Osmanlı dönemine ait somut veya somut olmayan miras bir anlamda reddedilmiştir. Balkan halklarının Osmanlı geçmişi yerine modernleşmeyi tercih etmesiyle birlikte Osmanlı mirası olarak kabul edilen cami, minare, çarşı, han, mezarlık, köprü ve evler gibi somut miras alanlarının bir kısmı, ―geri kalmışlığın sembolleri‖ olarak kabul edildiği için imha edilerek yerlerine yeni mekanlar oluşturulmaya başlanmıştır. Sonuç olarak şunu söyleyebiliriz ki, Balkan elitleri veya halkları, Balkanlardaki somut Osmanlı mirasını reddetme eğilimi gösterseler de tarih milletlerinden eteklerinden tutmaya devam etmektedir. Söz konusu mirasın ilerleyen yıllarda bütün devletlerin tarihinde olumlu veya olumsuz bir çok yansımaları olmuştur. Geçmişten getirilen ortak tarih ve ortak Osmanlı kültürel mirası, gerek Türkiye ile Balkan ülkeleri arasında, gerekse Balkan ülkelerinin kendi aralarındaki ilişkilerde inkâr edilemez role sahiptir.

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6.Kaynaklar Adanır, Fikret, ―Bosna-Hersek’te ―Müslüman‖ Bir Ulusun Oluşumu: Bir Tarihyazımı Tartışması‖, Osmanlı ve Balkanlar, Bir Tarih Yazımı Tartışması, Derleyenler Fikret Adanır-Suraiya Faroqhi, İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul 2011, s.307-350. Akova, Sibel - Demirkıran, Cenk, ―Regarding The Culture of Multi-Ethnicity and Cohabitation in The Western Balkans‖, Human, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 2013, s. 6-16. Alp, Suat, ―Balkanlar’da Osmanlı Dönemi Maddi Kültür Mirası Evreni‖, Millî Folklor, Yıl 21, Sayı 84, 2009, s. 151-161. Arnold, Thomas, History of Rome, Vol. 1, Early History To The Burning Of Rome By The Gauls, Third Edition, B. Fellowes ve diğerleri, London 1844. Bakic-Hayden, Milica and Hayden, Robert M., ―Orientalist Variations on the Theme ―Balkans‖: Symbolic Geography in Recent Yugoslav Cultural Politics‖, Slavic Review, C. 51, No. 1, (Bahar 1992), s. 1-15. Bakić-Hayden, Milica, ―Nesting Orientalisms: The Case of Former Yugoslavia‖, Slavic Review, C. 54, Nr. 4, (Winter, 1995), s. 917-931. Başkan, Seyfi, Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Türkiye’de Resim, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yayını, Ankara 1997. Berger, Florence, A Winter in The City of Pleasure; or, Life on The Lower Danube, Publisher R. Bentley & son, London 1877. Bilici, İbrahim E., ―Oryantalist Seyahatnamelerde Türk İmgesi Üzerine Bir İnceleme: Alexander William Kinglake’in Seyahatnamesi Eothen Örneği‖, Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi, S. 2, (Eylül 2011), s. 1-21. Buchowski, Michał, ―The Specter of Orientalism in Europe: From Exotic Other to Stigmatized Brother‖, Anthropological Quarterly, C. 79, S. 3, (Yaz 2006), s. 463-482. Bulut, Yücel, Oryantalizmin Eleştirel Kısa Tarihi, Yöneliş Yayını, İstanbul 2002. Çağ, Galip, ―Batılı Seyyahların Gözünde Karanlık Bir Orman: Balkanlar‖, Türk Yurdu, S. 310, Haziran 2013, s. 180-184. Çağ, Galip, ―Modern Çağın Ötekisi Balkanlar ve 20.Yüzyılın Başında Avrupa’dan Balkanlara Bakmak‖, Motif Akademi Halkbilim Dergisi, Balkanlar Özel Sayısı, 2012 /2, s.129-144. Durham, Mary Edith, Through the Lands of the Serb, Edward Arnold Publisher, London 1904. Fleming, K. E., ―Orientalism, the Balkans, and Balkan Historiography‖, The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, No. 4 (Oct., 2000), s. 1218-1233. Fox, Frank, The Balkan Peninsula, A.&C. Black Ltd Published, London 1915. Goldsworthy, Vesna, ―The Balkans in Nineteenth-Century British Travel Writing‖, Travel Writing in the Nineteenth Century: Filling the Blank Spaces, Edt., Tim Youngs, Anthem Press., London, UK-New York, USA, 2006, s. 19-35. Hall, Stuart, ―The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power‖, Modernity and Introduction to Modern Societies, Thompson, Blackwell, 1996, s. 185-227. Herodotos, Herodot Tarihi, (çev. Müntekim Ökmen), Türkiye İş Bankası Yayını, İstanbul 2002.

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İnalcık, Halil, ―Türkler ve Balkanlar‖, Bal-Tam, Türklük Bilgisi, 3, Balkan Türkoloji Araştırmaları Merkezi, Prizren, Eylül- 2005, s. 20-44. Jackson, John, Journey from India, Towards England in the Year 1797: By a Route Commonly Called OverLand, Through Countries Not Much Frequented, and Many of Them Hitherto Unknown to Europans, Printed for T. Cadell , Jun., and W. Davies , by G. Woodfall, London 1799. Jelavich, Barbara, ―The British Traveller in the Balkans: The Abuses of Ottoman Administration in the Slavonic Provinces‖, The Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 33, No. 81 (Jun., 1955), s. 396-413. Jelavich, Barbara, Balkan Tarihi, 18. ve 19. Yüzyıllar 1, Çevirenler: İhsan Durdu-Haşim Koç-Gülçin Koç, 2. Baskı, Küre Yayınları, İstanbul 2009. Jelavich, Barbara, Balkan Tarihi, 20. Yüzyıl, Çevirenler: Zehra Savan-Hatice Uğur, 2. Baskı, Küre Yayınları, İstanbul 2009. Jezernik, Božidar, ―Europe and its Other (i.e. The Balkans)‖, Perifèria, Revista de Recerca i Formació en Antropologia, No. 6, June 2007, ss. 1-17. Kabbani, Rana, Avrupa’nın Doğu İmajı, (çev. Serpil Tuncer), Bağlam Yayını, İstanbul 1993. Kaçmaz, Muhammet, ―Balkan Coğrafyası‖, Türk Tarihinde Balkanlar, C.I, Yay.Haz. Zeynep İskefiyeli – M. Bilal Çelik – Serkan Yazıcı, Sakarya Üniversitesi Balkan Araştırmaları Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi Yayınları, Sakarya 2013, s. 11-37. Karpat, Kemal, ―Balkanlar‖, DİA, C.5, TDVY, İstanbul 1992, ss.25-32. Kinglake, Alexander William, Eothen, Bernh. Tauchnitz Jun., John Olliver, Leibzig 1846. Kinglake, Alexander William, Eothen, Üçüncü Baskı, John Olliver, London 1845. Kizis, Yannis, ―Balkanlar’da Osmanlı Şehir Düzeninin İzleri‖, Sabah Ülkesi, Kültür, Sanat ve Felsefe Dergisi, Sayı 43, Nisan-Haziran 2015, s. 48-52. Mackenzie, G. Muir - Irby, A. P., Travels in the Slavonic provinces of Turkey-in-Europe, In Two Volumes.—I., Second Edition Revised, Daldy, Isbıster & Co, London 1877. Madran, Emre, ―Seyahatnamelerde Anadolu Kenti‖, IX. Türk Tarih Kongresi, (21-25 Eylül 1981), C. III, Türk Tarih Kurumu yayını, Ankara 1989, s. 1303-1322. Mishkova, Diana, ―In Quest of Balkan Occidentalism‖, Tokovi istorije, (Institute for Recent History, Belgrade), 1-2, 2006, s. 29-62. Ortaylı, İlber, ―Türkler Hakkında Yazılmış Seyahatnameler‖, I. Uluslararası Seyahatnamelerde Türk ve Batı İmajı Sempozyumu, (28.X-1.XI.1985), Eskişehir 1987, s. 115-132. Pears, Edwin, ―A Description of The Turkish Government‖, The Balkan Question; The Present Condition of The Balkans and of European Responsibilities, Ed. Luigi Villari, John Murray, London 1905. Pears, Sir Edwin, Turkey and Its People, Methuen& Co. Ltd., London 1911. Perkins, James Andrew, British liberalism and the Balkans, c. 1875-1925, PhD thesis, University of London, Birkbeck, 2014. Said, Edward, Oryantalizm, (çev. Selahattin Ayaz), Pınar Yayını, 4. basım, İstanbul 1999. Šarić, Ljiljana, ―Balkan Identity: Changing Self-images of the South Slavs‖, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, C. 25, Nr. 5-6, (2004), s. 389-407.

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Schiffer, Reinhold, Turkey Romanticized Images of the Turk in Early 19th Century English Travel Literature with an Anthology af Texts, Materialia Turcica, Beiheft 5, Studienverlag Dr. N. Brockmeyer, Bochum 1982. Scott-Stevenson, Esmé, On Summer Seas, (Including the Mediterranean, The /Egean, The Ionian, The Adriatic, and The Euxine, and a Voyage Down The Danube.), Chapman and Hall Publishing, London 1883. Sel Turhan, Fatma - Kolçak, Özgür - Gökaçtı, M. Ali, ―Osmanlı Dönemi Balkan Şehir Tarihi: Bosna,Macaristan ve Yunanistan Şehirleri‖, Türkiye Araştırmaları Literatür Dergisi, Cilt 3, Sayı 6, 2005, s.117-150. Spencer, Edmund, Travels in European Turkey, in 1850, Thuough Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Thrace, Albania, and Epirus; With a Visit to Greece and the Ionian Isles and a Homeward Tour Through Hungary and the Slavonian Provinces of Austrıia on the Lower Danube, Vol. I-II, Colburn and Co., Publishers, London 1851. Şahin, Gürsoy, İngiliz Seyahatnamelerinde Osmanlı Toplumu ve Türk İmajı, Gökkubbe Yayınları, İstanbul 2007. Şahin, Gürsoy, ―Balkanizm Hakkında Bazı Tespitler: Osmanlı Devleti’nin Son Dönemlerinde Avrupa’nın Balkan Milletlerine Bakışı‖, Proceedings Book of International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research I, Edt. Necmi Uyanık vd., Palet Yayınları, Konya 2015, s. 467-478. Şahin, Gürsoy, ―İngiliz Gazeteci Sir Edwin Pears’a Göre XX. Yüzyılın Başlarında Balkanlar’da Sosyal Yapı ve Birlikte Yaşama Tecrübesi‖, Balkanlarda Osmanlı Mirası ve Defter-i Hâkânî, C. 1, Edt. Abidin TemizerUğur Özcan, Libra Yay., İstanbul 2015, s. 317-344. Şahin Gürsoy, ―İngiliz Gezgin Edwin John Davis’in Seyahatnamesine Göre XIX. Yüzyılın Son Çeyreğinde Adana ve Çevresi‖, Osmanlı Medeniyeti Araştırmaları Dergisi, Ocak 2016, C. 2, S. 2, s. 60–77. The Man Who Dined with The Kaiser, My Secret Service, Vienna, Sophia, Constantinople, Nish, Belgrade, Asia Minor etc., George H. Doran Company, New York 1916. Todorova, Maria, ―Balkanlar’daki Osmanlı Mirası‖, İmparatorluk Mirası, Balkanlar’da ve Ortadoğu’da Osmanlı Damgası, Derleyen L. Carl Brown, (çev. Gül Çağalı Güven), İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul 2000, s.70-112. Todorova, Maria, Balkanlar’ı Tahayyül Etmek, Imagining the Balkans, (çev. Dilek Şendil), İletişim Yayınları, 4. Baskı, İstanbul 2013. Urquhart, David, The Spirit of the East, Illustrated in a Journal of Travels Through Roumeli During an Eventful Period, Vol. II, Henry Colburn Publisher, London 1838. Üstündağ, Nagehan, ―Osmanlı’da ―Şehir‖ ve Şehri Geliştiren Unsurlardan Biri Olarak Ayanlar: Vidin ve Rusçuk Örneği (18. Yüzyıl)‖, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Türkiyat Araştırmaları, S. 2, Bahar 2005, s.149-167. Wittman, William, Osmanlı’ya Yolculuk 1799-1800-1801, (Türk Ordusu ve İngiliz Askeri Heyeti ile Birlikte Küçük Asya, Suriye ve Çöl Yoluyla Mısır’a Yolculuk), ODTÜ Yayıncılık, çev. Belkıs Dibudak, Ankara 2011. Wolff, Larry, Inventing Eastern Europe, The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment, Stanford University Press, California-Stanford 1994.

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Ek-1 Balkan Yarımadası ve Osmanlı Dönemi Balkan Şehirlerinden Örnekler

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AFYONKARAHISAR’DA BULUNAN OSMANLI DÖNEMI CAMILERININ MEKANSAL ANALIZI Assist. Prof. Dr. Ş. Ebru OKUYUCU Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Interior Architecture and Environmental Design Dept. [email protected] Res. Asist. Yasemin DEMİREL Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Interior Architecture and Environmental Design Dept. [email protected] Özet İslam dini için cami, tarih boyunca önemli bir yapı olarak yerini korumuştur. Camiler; müslümanların birincil amaç olarak ibadet etmek için toplandıkları, bireysel ve toplu halde ibadet etmeye uygun, dini eğitim aldıkları, bir sosyo-kültürel öğe olarak da toplum hayatının sürdürüldüğü mekanlardır. Cami mimarisi İslam dininin sembolü ve kalbi olmuştur. Ayrıca mimari ve süsleme özellikleriyle İslam sanatına yön vermiştir. İslamın ilk dönemlerinde ekonomik nedenlere bağlı olarak basit bir kuruluşa sahip olan camiler ekonomik büyümeyle birlikte özgün örneklerini vermiştir. İslam dininin kabulünden sonra dini yapılar, bir olma ve birlik içerisinde var olma bilincinin öğretilip yaşatıldığı mekanlar olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Tarihi süreç içinde Emeviler, Abbasiler, Selçuklu, Beylikler ve son olarak Osmanlı döneminde camilerin plan şemalarının, mekan kurgularının ve boyutlarının gereksinimlere ve işlevlere göre hızla değiştiği görülmektedir. Osmanlı dönemi cami mimarisi ise tarihin biriktirdiği dini yapı mimari özelliklerini bünyesinde barındıran ve aynı zamanda düzlemsel, hacimsel boyutlarda yeni yaklaşımları içeren bir kurguya sahiptir. Bu bağlamda çalışmada; Afyonkarahisar’da bulunan Osmanlı dönemine ait beş adet caminin, yapıldıkları dönemlere (erken, klasik, geç) göre; plan şemaları, iç mekan organizasyonları, malzemeleri, yapım teknikleri, süslemeleri, üst örtüleri bağlamında içerik analizleri yapılarak, Osmanlı dönemindeki camilerin mimari özellikleri ve iç mekan kurgularıyla karşılaştırılmıştır. Dönemin karakteristik özelliklerini taşıyan beş adet caminin, fotoğraflarla ve çizimlerle belgelenmesi Kültür Bakanlığı Kütahya Kültür ve Tabiat Varlıklarını Koruma Bölge Kurulu Müdürlüğü Arşivine dayanarak yapılmıştır ve literatüre dayalı olarak bu yapıların mimarisi ve gelişim süreçleri incelenmiştir. Elde edilen bulgular, arşiv belgeleri, çizim ve fotoğraf albümünü kullanarak her bir yapı için aynı düzenle monografik olarak mimari tanım yapılmak suretiyle sistematik bir katalog hazırlanmıştır. Afyonkarahisar’da bulunan ve Osmanlı’nın farklı dönemlerinde yapılan beş adet caminin ait olduğu dönemin cami mimarisinin karakteristik özellikleriyle karşılaştırma yapılarak; bulunduğu dönemin ve bölgenin özelliklerine göre camilerin mimari kurgusundaki ve iç mekan tasarımlarındaki değişimlerin veya benzerliklerin saptanması amaçlanmıştır. Oluşturulan içerik analizlerinden elde edilen veriler sonucunda; Afyonkarahisar’daki genel cami formasyonunun daha iyi algılanması, camilerde yapılacak olan restorasyon çalışmalarına girdi sağlaması amaçlanmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Afyonkarahisar Osmanlı Camileri, Cami Mimarisi, Cami İç Mekan, Cami Mekansal Analizi 205

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Abstract Mosques maintained their importance and had an important role throughout history for the religion of Islam. Mosques are the place which is the prayer’s place of the Muslims, consonant with individual and collective pray, having religious education and also community life’s continuing places as a sociocultural item. Also gave direct to Islamic art with architecture and decoration properties. Mosques had low importance at the first stage of the Islam due to economically and after that gave its original samples by economic growth in time. After the embracing of the Islam religion, religious structures are confronting as the places which is the purposes of collaborating and existence consciousness. Seeing that planning schemas, venue setups and sizes are changing based on requirements and functions in the period of Umayyads, Abbasids, Seljukians, principalities and lately Ottoman period throughout history.Ottoman period mosque architecture has the religious structure of the historically and architectural specification contained itself and at the same time included a new construct the new approaches at the planar and volumetric sizes. Planning schema, internal place setup, decorations, qualification of mosque components, used material topics and spatial content analysis of the mosque structure at the Ottoman period in this context - study processed. Within the scope of the study, mosques available in Afyonkarahisar are compared with the mosque architecture structure of Ottoman period in regard to the planning schemas, interior place organizations, materials, structure techniques, decorations and cover coats as far as built period (early, classic, late). Documentation with photographs and drawings of 5 ea. mosques which are the reflecting the specifications of the period with existing samples based upon the Archive of General Directorate of Cultural and Natural Heritage of Ministry of Culture and definition and processes of these structures are evaluated compared to literature. A systematic catalogue has prepared for the make an architectural definition for every structure with the same order monographically by the using of obtained information, archive documents, drawing and photograph album. With the compare of mosques available in Afyonkarahisar and mosque architecture’s characteristic specifications pertain to structured 5 ea. mosques in the Ottoman period’s different times; determination purposed that changes and similarities of the mosques’ architectural construct and interior place design as far as available period and specifications of the zone. As a result of obtained data from creating content analysis; better perceiving of general mosque perception in Afyonkarahisar and data entries will be useful for restoration works in mosques subjects are aimed. Keywords: Mosques of Afyonkarahisar, Mosque Architecture, Mosque Interior Place, Spatial Analysis Of Mosques

1. Giriş Afyonkarahisar kentinde yer alan Osmanlı dönemine ait camilerin mekansal niteliklerine ve mimari kurgusuna ilişkin analizleri içeren çalışmada, seçilen beş adet caminin, Osmanlı dönemi camilerinin karakteristik mimari özelliklerini ne ölçüde yansıttığı sorusuna cevap aranmıştır. Bu da Osmanlı dönemine ait cami mimarisine ilişkin bir açılım yapmayı gerektirmektedir. Bu bağlamda Osmanlı dönemi camilerinin plan şemaları, üst örtüleri, malzemeleri, iç mekan süslemeleri ve mekansal organizasyonları tanımlanmıştır. Tanımlamalardan elde edilen veriler, Afyonkarahisar‟da yer alan camilerin mevcut mimari kurgusunun mekansal analizinde kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen bulgular ve mevcut durum analizi sonucunda ise cami mimarileri, dönem özellikleri ölçeğinde karşılaştırılmıştır. Osmanlı dönemi camilerinin mimari özelliklerini tanımlamadan önce süreçte cami mimarisinin gelişimini sistematik olarak irdelemek gerekmektedir. Arapça “cem” kökünden türeyen cami kelimesi, “toplayan, bir araya getiren” anlamını taşır ve büyük mescitler için kullanılan “mescidü‟l cami” ifadesinin kısaltılmış şeklidir (Önkal ve Bozkurt, 1993). Topluca namaz kılınan ibadet mekanı anlamına gelen mescidü‟l cami, giderek “cami” olarak kullanılmaya başlanmıştır (Hasol, 2002). İslamiyet inancına göre, Hz. Muhammed‟in evi ilk cami örneği sayılır. Evin avlulu yapısı sebebiyle cami biçimlenişine örnek oluşturan yer, zamanında dinsel ve siyasal bir merkez olarak işlev görmektedir (Hasol, 2002). Grabar‟a göre (1988), Hz. Muhammed‟in Hicret sonrası Medine‟de yaptırdığı evin avlusundaki düzenleme, ilk önemli cami kabul edilmiştir. (Grabar 1988)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN İlk büyük camilerin yapımına Emeviler döneminde başlanmıştır. Sonrasında Abbasiler, Büyük Selçuklular ve Anadolu Selçuklular dönemlerinde cami mimarisinde gelişmeler devam etmiştir (Onay, 2008). Osmanlılar dönemine gelindiğinde ise, camilerin etrafına eğitim, sağlık kurumlarını barındıran külliyeler inşa edilmeye başlanarak camiler daha kompleks hale getirilmiştir. Emeviler dönemi, İslamiyet'in ve İslam sanatının genişleyip yayıldığı bir devirdir. Ümeyye Cami, bu devrin önemli eserlerinden biridir. Plan şeması sonradan pek çok camiye örnek olmuştur. Cami, Halife Velid zamanında (705-715) yıkılan bir kilisenin yerine inşa edilmiştir. Plan düzeni olarak, hem Mescid-i Nebevi planından hem de yerine yapıldığı eski kiliseden izler taşır. İki sütun sırası, dikdörtgen biçimindeki yapıyı mihrap duvarına paralel üç sahına ayırır. Doğudan batıya uzanan sahınların düzenini bunlardan sekiz metre daha yüksek, kuzeyden güneye giden geniş bir orta sahın keser. Burada dört büyük ayağın taşıdığı dört kemere oturan sekizgen kasnaklı yüksek bir kubbe bulunmaktadır. Kemerlerden kubbeye geçiş dört köşedeki tonoz bingilerle sağlanmıştır. Caminin kuzey cephesi önünde revaklarla çevrili bir avlu vardır (Yetkin 1959). Irak‟ta Bağdat‟ın kuzeyinde yer alan Samarra Ulu Camii, Abbasiler döneminde M.848-852 yılları arasında inşa edilmiştir. Nefes‟e göre (1996), Emevi camilerinin aksine tuğladan inşa edilen caminin ölçüleri dıştan dışa 180 x 260 metre olup, büyük bir cami özelliği taşımaktadır. (Nefes 1996 s.48). Türk cami mimarisinin gelişim süreci Karahanlılar döneminde önemli aşamalar kat etmiş ve merkezi planlı kubbe sistemi o dönemde yaygınlaşmıştır. Kışlak Hazara Camii (11.yy), Talhatan Baba Camii (11.yy sonu-12.yy başı-) ve bir Gazneli yapısı olan Bazar Ulu Camii (11.yy) kubbeli strüktürün üç ayrı uygulamasıdır. Bu üç camide de mihrap önünde bulunan kubbeli mekan, yanlarda enlemesine genişletilmiştir. İran‟da Selçuklu Camilerinin bütün yeniliklerinin tek bir plan halinde gerçekleştirildiği ilk eser, Zevvare‟de 1135 tarihli Mescid-i Cuma‟dır. Burada kubbe önünde mihrapla dört eyvanlı ve minareli küçük Selçuklu Camii, muazzam bir gelişmenin başlangıcı olmuştur. Karahanlı kervansaraylarında ve Gaznelilerin sarayların da gördüğümüz dört eyvanlı plan şeması ilk defa bir Selçuklu Camii içinde değerlendirilmiş ve bundan sonraki bütün İran ve Orta Asya camileri için yeni bir çığır açılmıştır (Aslanapa 2005). Zevvare Mescidi Cuması‟nda ortaya çıkan mihrap önü kubbeli ulu cami geleneği Anadolu Selçuklularında da devam etmiş, harim yine çok destekli görünümünü sürdürmüştür (Oral 2006 s.20). Anadolu Beylikler Dönemi Camilerinde ise Selçuklularda olduğu gibi düz çatılı tavanlar görülmekle beraber, mekan birliğine doğru bir yöneliş vardır. Bu bağlamda zaviyeli cami, çok üniteli cami gibi birçok şemanın bu dönemde uygulama alanı bulduğu görülmektedir (Oral 2006 s.20). 2. Osmanlı Dönemi Cami Mimari Özellikleri Osmanlı dönemi camileri, “erken dönem-klasik dönem-geç dönem” olmak üzere dönemlere ayrılarak incelenmiştir. Cami mimarilerinin dönemlere göre özellikleri şu şekildedir: Erken Dönem Osmanlı Cami Özellikleri (1299-1501) Osmanlı camilerinin mekan gelişimleri merkezidir. Osmanlı Mimarisinin temel birimi kubbeli “kare-küp” olmuştur. Tek kubbe; küçük çaplı camilerde gelişimini sürdürmüş, daha büyük satıhlı camilerde tek kubbenin yetersiz olduğu görülmüştür. Bu asamadan sonra yapılacak olan; temel birim kubbenin yardımcı elemanlarla desteklenerek cami iç mekanını büyütmek olmuştur. Bu düşünceyle Osmanlı Camisi merkezileşerek, iç mekanın kubbe altında toplanması amaçlanmıştır (Kuban, 1958).  Ferah ve aydınlık mekanların oluşumu  Tek kubbeli ve kare planlı camiler  Ters T planlı, dikdörtgen ana bir bölümün ve ona bağlı bölümlerin olduğu camiler  İlerleyen süreçte çok kubbeli ve ayak ve sütunlarla eşit bölümlere ayrılan camiler  Orta Asya ve İran‟da 9.yüzyıldan başlayan çok ayaklı ve kubbeli cami geleneğinin Erken Osmanlı döneminde son örneklerinin inşa edilmiştir (Kuban, 2007).  Moloz ve kaba yonu örgüler, boyut ve ölçek olarak mütevazi yapılarda kullanılmıştır. Bu teknikte taşlar ocaktan çıktıkları düzensiz biçimleriyle bırakılarak, kum, kireç ve tuğla-kiremit toz ve kırıklarından oluşan Osmanlıların horasan diye adlandırdığı bir harçla örülmüştür (Tuluk, 2000). Taş ve tuğla malzemelerden oluşan almaşık duvar örgüsü 207

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN  Yanaşık derzli kesme taş ise 12. yy. dan itibaren cami duvarlarında görülmektedir. Tekniğin özelliği ise, örgüyü oluşturan blokların düzgün dik açılı biçimlerde oluşu ve aradaki harcın gözükmesine olanak vermeyecek kadar birbirlerine yanaşık bir düzende örülmesidir (Tuluk, 2000). Yapıların cephelerinde taş, tuğla kullanımı ile, hareketli cephelerin varlığı ile bazı eserlerde renkli sır ve sır altı tekniğinde zengin çini kullanımı dikkat çekicidir.  Harim mekânını oluşturan masif altyapıların taşıdığı, düz damlı-mihrap önü kubbeli ya da çok kubbeli örtülerle kütlenin oluşturulması yönündedir. Yine strüktürel nedenlerle çok ayaklı örneklere de bu dönemde rastlanır.  15. yüzyılla birlikte mihrap önü kubbesi genişleyerek tüm mekana hakim olmaya başlamakta ve gittikçe merkezi kubbe formuna rastlanmıştır. İstanbul'un fethinin ardından kentteki Bizans ibadet yapılarının gösterişi ve kente kattıkları ile karşılaşan Fatih Sultan Mehmet'in rekabetçi bir tavırla kendi adına yaptırdığı Fatih Camisi ile birlikte Osmanlı cami mimarisi yeni bir sürece girmiştir ve ana mekan genişlemiştir.  Dört minareli cami Kubbe ve tonozlarda tuğla kullanılmıştır. Osmanlı taş minareler uygulanmıştır. Minare Osmanlı döneminde inceltilmiş, yükselmiş, şerefe sayıları arttırılmış, şerefe altında mukarnas ağırlık kazanmış ve yüzeyler yalınlaşmıştır. Klasik Dönem Osmanlı Cami Özellikleri (1501-1703)  İstanbul‟un fethi Osmanlı mimarisinin ufkunu genişletmiştir. Özellikle Doğu Roma‟dan kalmış yegane yapı Ayasofya; Osmanlı mimarisinin temel örneği olmuştur. Ayasofya‟nın örtü sistemindeki kubbe-yarım kubbe ilişkisi Osmanlı mimarlığına da esin kaynağı olmuştur (Ödekan vd. 2008). 15.yy. ortalarından itibaren ise merkezi kubbenin belirlediği kesintisiz alanı büyütme ihtiyacı, ana mekanı mümkün olduğunca büyük bir kubbe ile örtme fikrini ve enine gelişmeyi sağlayacak her yönde büyüme ve açılma isteğini ortaya çıkarmıştır (Tuluk, Ö.,İ., 2006).  Kubbeli ve merkezi planlı yapılar, klasik dönemde daha anıtsal ölçeklerde uygulanmıştır.  Camilerde ağırlıklı olarak kubbeli ve yan kubbeli örtüler ve tavanı destekleyen filayak sistemleri mevcut.  Malzeme olarak mermer ve küfeki taşı kullanılmıştır. Bu dönem özellikle İstanbul ve çevresindeki Süleymaniye, Selimiye gibi anıtsal camilerle özdeşleştirilmiş ve bu alanda ulaşılan yetkinlik, dönemin Osmanlı mimarisinin ustalık çağı oluşunun bir göstergesi olarak kabul edilmiştir (Kuban, 2004; Faroqhi, 2000). Mimar Sinan'la özdeşleşen bu yaratıcı ve üretken dönem birçok strüktür, mekân ve biçim denemelerine sahne olmuş, imparatorluğun sahip olduğu ekonomik gücün de desteğiyle farklı arayışların başarıyla uygulandığı bir süreç olarak tanınmıştır. Geç Dönem Osmanlı Cami Özellikleri (1703-1730)  18. ve 19. Yüzyıl batılılaşma döneminin başlangıcıdır.  İçe dönük ve geleneksel mimari değişmeye başlamıştır.  Tuğla duvar örgüsü Osmanlı döneminde 18.yy. da yaygınlık kazanmıştır.  Barok üslubu camiler yapılmaya başlanmıştır. Bu dönemde özellikle süslemede batı kaynaklı üsluplar görülür ama bu üslupların Osmanlı sanatındaki uygulamasında geleneksel Türk motifleri ve yapı tiplerinden vazgeçilmemiştir. Cami planları, biraz daha ayrıntılı olmakla birlikte, klasik dönemde yapılanlardan çok farklı değildir. Genellikle kare planlı, üzeri kubbe ile örtülü bir ibadet mekanı görülmektedir. Klasik dönem sonrası camilerde, klasik dönem ilkelerinden uzaklaşma görülmektedir. Ancak yine de cami planları, biraz daha ayrıntılı olmakla birlikte, klasik dönemde yapılanlardan çok farklı değildir. Genellikle kare planlı, üzeri kubbe ile örtülü bir ibadet mekânı görülmektedir. Kubbeye geçiş elemanları, tromp ya da pandantif olmaktadır. Bu dönem camilerinin iki yanında gelişim gösteren galeriler, mekana genişlik sağlamaktadır. Kubbeye geçiş elamanları tromp ya da pandantif olmaktadır. 208

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Bu dönem camilerinin iki yanında gelişim gösteren galeriler mekana genişlik sağlamaktadır. Yine bu dönemde mihrabın dışa taşkın olarak bir hücre şeklinde başlı başına bir bölüm olarak düşünülmesi, Osmanlı mimarisinde geç dönem özelliğidir (Oral 1993 s.39).  Bu süreçte genel yönelime koşut olarak Avrupa Mimarisi'nin Barok ve Rokoko üsluplarına ait öğeler de geleneksel öze yeni kılıf olarak cami mimarisine katılmıştır. (Ödekan, 2011, Necipoğlu, 2008).  Roux (2011), genel olarak 18. yüzyılı, Avrupa etkisinin arttığı, bu etkinin özümsendiği ve bu etkinin Osmanlı mimarlığının çok ihtiyacı olan bir yenileşme hareketinin başladığı dönem olarak görür ve artan teknik bilgilerin de desteğiyle yeni biçimlerin denendiği bir dönem olarak değerlendirmektedir.  Lale Devri (1703-1757), bu dönemde yapılan cami sayısı azdır. Bu dönemin mimariye başlıca etkisi, klasik çini ve kumaş desenlerinde mevcut olan çiçek motiflerinin taşa aktarılması olmuştur (Kuban, 2007). Barok Dönemi (1757-1808), bu dönemde tek ana kubbe kullanılmıştır. Minare sayıları ikiye inmiştir ve minareler incelmiştir. Çini süslemeler yerini freskolara bırakmıştır. Köşeli yapılar yerini oval ve yuvarlak planlı yapılara bırakmıştır. Dış cephelerde sadelik azalmıştır. Ampir Üslup (1808-1876), bu dönem süslemelerinde çiçek ve yaprak motifleri kullanılmıştır. Minareler ana yapıdan ayrılmış ve avlu içinde yerini almıştır. Yuvarlak pencereler kullanılmıştır. Son cemaat yeri ortadan kalkmıştır. Süslemede gösteriş ön plana çıkmıştır. Tanzimat Dönemi (1876-1922) ve Neoklasik dönemde Avrupa tarzından vazgeçilerek sivri kemer, kubbe gibi klasik Osmanlı dönem öğeleri kullanılmıştır. 3. Afyon’da Bulunan Osmanli Dönemi Camileri Çalışma kapsamında Osmanlı dönemine ait, farklı yapım tekniklerine, üst örtülere, plan şemalarına sahip beş adet cami analiz edilmiştir. Camilerin analizleri Osmanlı döneminde yapılan camilerin plan şemaları, malzemeleri, üst örtüleri, iç mekan süslemeleri ve cami elemanları baz alınarak yapılmıştır. Afyon‟da bulunan ve Osmanlı dönemine ait beş adet caminin konumuna, dönemine, malzemesine, plan şemasına ve üst örtüsüne ilişkin analiz şemaları hazırlanmıştır. Analiz şemaları esas alınarak, camilerin mekansal kurgularını, iç mekan tezyinatını, strüktürünü ve cami elemanlarını içeren tablolar oluşturulmuştur. Afyon kentinde bulunan farklı mimari özelliklere sahip ve farklı dönemlerde yapılmış olan Gedik Ahmet Paşa Cami, Karaman Cami, Yeni Cami, Yoncaaltı Cami ve Mevlevi Cami mekan kurguları analiz edilmiştir. Bu camilerin seçilme nedenleri, Afyon kentinde farklı konumlarda yer almaları, Osmanlı döneminde yapılmış ancak farklı dönem mimari özellikleri göstermeleri, farklı üst örtülere sahip olmaları, farklı plan şemalarına sahip olmaları, süslemelerin ve malzemelerinin farklı olmalarıdır. Camilerin mimari özelliklerindeki farklılıklar, analiz açısından değişik bakış açıları oluşturmuş ve cami özelinde çözümlemelere gidilmiştir. Tablo 1. Afyon camilerinin bölgedeki konumlarına göre analizi

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

3.1. Gedik Ahmet Paşa Cami

Afyonkarahisar‟daki önemli mimari eserlerden biri, XV. yüzyılda Gedik Ahmet Paşa tarafından yaptırılan, halk arasında İmaret adıyla anılan camidir. Caminin mimarı, Ayaz Ağa‟dır. Onun da cami ve diğer birimlerle ilgili vakıfları bulunmaktadır. Şehrin kuzey-doğusunda yer alan cami, külliyenin merkezinde yer almaktadır. Bu tür camilerde bir yenilik olarak görülen ters-T şeklinde bir planla inşa edilmiş olan cami, esas ibadet mekanını örten iki ana kubbesi ve doğu batı yönünde üçer kubbeli yan mekanlarıyla Türk mimarisinin en güzel örneklerinden birisi olarak göze çarpmaktadır. Cami duvarlarında zeminden yaklaşık olarak 50-60cm yükseklikte, cümle kapısının iki tarafında birer, sağ ve sol duvarlarda beşer, mihrabın iki tarafında birer olmak üzere 14 pencere bulunmaktadır. Bu pencerelerdeki işlemeli ahşap kapaklar dikkat çekicidir. Cümle kapısı ceviz, şimşir ağaçlarıyla örülmüş bir sanat harikasıdır. Kesme taşla, yivli olarak yapılan minaresinin yivler arasına yerleştirilen lacivert çinileri, eşsiz bir güzelliğe sahiptir. 17.yy Türk seyyahlarından Evliya Çelebi, Afyonkarahisar‟a yaptığı seyahat hakkında izlenimlerini seyahatnamesine aktarırken, bu camiden de bahsetmekte ve caminin nezih bir burmalı minaresi olduğunu, mihrap ve minberinin eski sanat tarzında işlendiğini belirtmektedir. Caminin ahşap ve mermer işçiliği özenle yapılmıştır. Caminin iç mekanında hat örnekleri ve motifler bulunmaktadır. Hattat Hasan Efendi tarafından yazıldığı belirtilen, geniş kemerin iç yüzeyinde simetrik biçimde celi sülüs hattı ile Yasin Suresi‟nden ayetler bulunmaktadır. Yine aynı kemerin kıble cephesine bakan yan yüzeyinde, kemer çizgisinin başladığı yerden bittiği yere kadarki şerit içinde, kufi yazı ile Esmai Hüsna yer alıyor. Kuzey cephesindeki kapının iç yüzeyinde, sağlı sollu biçimde ve simetrik olarak yer alan “Katebehü Nakkaş-ı Fakir Hasan” imzası, Rumi motifler arasında stilize edilmiştir (İlgar ve Karazeybek, 2005) (Tablo 2).

GENEL GÖRÜNÜM

Tablo 2. Gedik Ahmet Paşa Cami mekan analizi GEDİK AHMET PAŞA CAMİ ERKEN OSMANLI DÖNEMİ YILI: 1472

Güney Cephesi

Batı Cephesi

Kuzey Cephesi

GÖRÜNÜŞ

Doğu Cephesi

CAMİNİN MEKAN KURGUSU

GİRİŞ

MEKANSAL DÜZENLEME Son cemaat yeri revakı eşit büyüklükte, kare planlı ve altı sütunun taşıdığı, kubbeli beş birimden oluşur; bunlardan yanlardakilerin zeminleri orta biriminkine göre daha yüksektir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

HARİM

Camii beş kubbeli bir son cemaat yeri, kıble eksenine yerleştirilmiş kubbeli iki birim ile „‟ T „‟ planlı bir harim ve harimin köşelerine bitişik dört tabhane mekanından meydana gelmektedir. Tabhane hücrelerinin arasına, dışa açılan birer kubbeli eyvan yerleştirilmiştir. 5.30 x 5.30 m. boyutlarındaki tabhane birimleri kubbeli olarak tasarlanmış, kubbelere geçiş prizmatik üçgenler kuşağı ile sağlanmıştır. Bunların basık kemerli kapılarla açıldıkları, aralarında yer alan ve biraz daha büyük olan (5.55 x 5.55 m. ) eyvanlar da geçiş unsurları pandantif olan kubbelerle örtülüdür.

ÜST ÖRTÜ

KUBBEYE GEÇİŞ ELEMANLARI

MEKAN ORGANİZASYONU

Ters “T” plan tipi CAMİ ELEMANLARI MALZEME

Düzgün kesme taş

YÜKSEKLİK

23.65 m

ÖLÇÜLER

29.20 x 35.40 m

SÜSLEME

Taç kapı mukarnaslı, kenarları bitkisel motifli kalem işli, Nakışlı, vitraylı camlar, revzen, Rumili bezemeler

YAPIDAKİ KONUMU

Güneyden doğuya 42°‟dir. Güney duvarında

MALZEME

Beyaz ve gri kesme Mermer

SÜSLEME

Kum saatiyle mukarnaslı minyatür başlıklar, siyah ve beyaz renkte mermer dizilmiş bordür

MALZEME

Beyaz Mermer

SÜSLEME

Kum saatiyle mukarnaslı minyatür başlıklar ve çiçek motifleri, yan yüzeyler geçmeli yıldız motifleri

MİNBER

MİHRAP

GENEL

GÖRSEL

YAPIDAKİ KONUMU

MİNARE

MALZEME

SÜSLEME

211

Pabuç, küfeki taş Gövde, kesme taş kaval silme ve aralarda lacivert çini kuşaklar Sıratlı tekniğinde koyu lacivert çini süsleme Şerefe altı mukarnas dolgulu

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 3.2. Karaman Camii

Karaman Mahallesi‟nde bulunan cami, düzgün olmayan sekizgen planlıdır. XV. yüzyıl sonunda yapıldığı düşünülmektedir. Tavanı düz olup ahşaptır. Minaresi camiden ayrı olarak yapılmıştır. Toprak damı, 1915-1920 yıllarında çatıya dönüştürülmüştür. 1998 yılında çıkan yangından sonra tavan ve çatı bölümü yeniden ahşap olarak yapılmıştır (İlgar ve Karazeybek, 2005) (Tablo 3).

GENEL GÖRÜNÜM

Tablo 3. Karaman Cami mekan analizi KARAMAN CAMİ KLASİK OSMANLI DÖNEMİ YILI: 15.yy.

CAMİNİN MEKAN KURGUSU MEKANSAL DÜZENLEME

HARİM

GİRİŞ

Klasik Osmanlı dönemi cami mimarisinde görülen simetri tutarlılığı, geleneksel bezemeler ve masif cephelerin revaklarla zenginleştirilmesi Karaman Cami‟sinde yer almamaktadır. Caminin giriş kapısı sokakla doğrudan ilişkili olup, yarı açık mekan olarak nitelendirilen revağın bulunmaması klasik dönem cami mimari mekan anlayışına uzaktır. Bu nitelikler ise Karaman Cami‟yi dönem mimarisinden farklı kılmaktadır. Klasik Osmanlı dönemi cami mimari anlayışından farklı bir plan şemasına sahiptir. Caminin düzgün olmayan sekizgen bir formu vardır. Klasik Osmanlı dönemi camilerinde görülen tek kubbe veya kubbe-yarım kubbe ilişkisi, merkezi plan anlayışı bu camide olmayışı, cami mekan düzenlemesinin klasik dönemden ayrı tutulduğunun göstergesidir. Karaman cami mimarisinde yapılan analizlerde minarenin ana kütleden kopuk olması, mihrabın dışarıya taşması, pencerelerin sivri kemerlerle taçlandırılması, revağın kaldırılması geç Osmanlı dönemi cami mimarisi özellikleridir. Caminin içinde bulunan sütunun yapısı yani kaide, gövde ve sütun başlığı, klasik dönem Osmanlı cami mimarisi anlayışından öte, eklektik bir çizgiye sahiptir.

ÜST ÖRTÜ

KUBBEYE GEÇİŞ ELEMANLARI Kiremit örtülü kırma çatı

MEKAN ORGANİZASYONU

CAMİ ELEMANLARI

GENEL

GÖRSEL

MALZEME

Moloz taş ve tuğla almaşık duvar

SÜSLEME

Payandalar geometrik desenli

YÜKSEKLİK

7.68 m

ÖLÇÜLER

18.0719.71 m

212

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

MİNBER

MİHRAP

YAPIDAKİ KONUMU

MALZEME

Mermer

SÜSLEME

Sade

MALZEME

Ahşap

SÜSLEME

İç içe geçmeli geometrik ve bitkisel motifli süsleme,kabe resmi ahşaba işlenmiş

MİNARE

YAPIDAKİ KONUMU MALZEME

Kaide taş, gövde tuğla, külah kurşun kaplı

SÜSLEME

Şerefe altı mukarnaslı, çini bilezik mevcut

3.3. Yeni Cami

Daha çok “Camii Cedid” şeklinde belirtilen bu cami, Hacı Bakı oğullarından Abdi Çavuş tarafından 1711 yılında yaptırılan külliyenin bir ünitesidir. Camiden başka medrese, kütüphane, muvakkithane, şadırvan, çifte hamam, han vs. külliyenin diğer birimleri olarak görülmektedir. Büyükçe bir ana kubbesi ve üç kubbeli son cemaat yeri olan caminin, duvarları kesme taş, minaresi tuğladır. Kubbeleri ise kurşun kaplıdır (İlgar ve Karazeybek, 2005) (Tablo 4). Tablo 4. Yeni Cami mekan analizi

GENEL GÖRÜNÜM

YENİ CAMİ GEÇ OSMANLI DÖNEMİ YILI: 1711

Kuzey Cephesi

GÖRÜNÜŞ

Batı Cephesi

213

Güney Cephesi

Doğu Cephesi

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN CAMİNİN MEKAN KURGUSU MEKANSAL DÜZENLEME

GİRİŞ

Camide üç kemerli, dört sütunlu ve 1.15 m yüksekliğinde olan bir revak mevcuttur. Geç Osmanlı dönemi cami mimarisinde son cemaat yerleri zamanla kaldırılmıştır ancak Yeni Camide bu plan anlayışı yoktur. Aynı dönemde minareler ana kütleden koparılmıştır ki; Yeni Cami minaresi de kütleden ayrı olarak çözülmüştür.

HARİM

Geç Osmanlı cami mimarisinin kare planlı ve tek kubbeli mekan anlayışını Yeni Cami‟de görülmektedir. Kubbeye geçiş elemanları olarak kullanılan tromp Yeni Camide görülmektedir. Ancak geç Osmanlı dönemi cami mimarisinde görülen süslemeden arınmış ve sade bir cami anlayışı hakimdir.

ÜST ÖRTÜ

KUBBEYE GEÇİŞ ELEMANLARI

MEKAN ORGANİZASYONU

Kare planlı CAMİ ELEMANLARI

GENEL

GÖRSEL

MALZEME

Kesme taş

SÜSLEME

Sade, süsleme yok

ÖLÇÜLER

25.7426.07 m

YÜKSEKLİK

11.67 m

MİNBER

MİHRAP

YAPIDAKİ KONUMU MALZEME

Mermer

SÜSLEME

Sade

MALZEME

Ahşap

SÜSLEME

Geometrik süsleme, kum saati şeklinde ahşap dilimler

MİNARE

YAPIDAKİ KONUMU MALZEME

Tuğla

YÜKSEKLİK

30.70 m

SÜSLEME

Şerefe altı mukarnaslı, gövdede aralıklarla bilezikler mevcut

214

belirli

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

3.4. Tevfikiye (Yoncaalti) Camii

Mehmet Efendi‟nin verdiği bilgilere göre, iki katlı olarak yeni yapılan binanın üst katına medrese ve cami, alt kısmına da dükkanlar yapılmıştır. Tevfikiye-Yoncaaltı Camii, Fakih Paşa mahallesinde, Tuz pazarı mevkiindedir. Cami çevresinde sebzeci dükkanları, güney kısmında Sahipler türbesi bulunur. Vakfiyesi 11 Eylül 1840 tarihlidir. 1909 yılında Yoncaaltı‟nda meydana gelen yangında yok olan bir cami ile medresenin, aslına uygun olarak tekrar yapıldığından bahsetmektedir (İlgar ve Karazeybek, 2005) (Tablo 5).

GENEL GÖRÜNÜM

Tablo 5. Yoncaaltı Cami mekan analizi YONCAALTI CAMİ GEÇ OSMANLI DÖNEMİ YILI: 1840

Kuzey Cephesi

Doğu Cephesi

Güney Cephesi

GÖRÜNÜŞ

Batı Cephesi

CAMİNİN MEKAN KURGUSU

HARİM

GİRİŞ

MEKANSAL DÜZENLEME

ÜST ÖRTÜ

Tek giriş kapısıyla girilen yapıda iki bölüm bulunmaktadır, yapının yarısı cami olarak kullanılırken, diğer yarısı dersliklerden ve odalardan oluşan medrese nitelikli eğitim mekanları olarak kullanılmaktadır. Yoncaaltı Cami, diğer camilerden farklı olarak hem cemi hem de medrese işlevleriyle kullanılmaktadır. Üst örtüsü kiremit kaplı çatı olmasına rağmen harimin üst örtüsü tonoz mantığıyla yapılmıştır. Caminin minaresi caminin içindedir. Caminin minaresindeki incelik, süslemeler, mihraptaki bitkisel motifli süslemeler, son cemaat yerinin olmaması gibi mimari özellikler, geç Osmanlı dönemi cami mimari özellikleriyle örtüşmektedir. Cephedeki pencerelerin taş kemerlerindeki detaylar son dönem Osmanlı cami mimari özelliklerini taşımaktadır. KUBBEYE GEÇİŞ ELEMANLARI

215

MEKAN ORGANİZASYONU

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

CAMİ ELEMANLARI

GENEL

GÖRSEL

MALZEME

Taş Duvar

YÜKSEKLİK

14.64 m

ÖLÇÜLER

11.7411.93 m

SÜSLEME

Caminin dış cephesindeki ve kemerlerindeki taş işçiliği ve tavandaki çiçek motifli süslemeler

pencerelerin süslemeleri,

YAPIDAKİ KONUMU Taş

MİNBER

MİHRAP

MALZEME SÜSLEME

MALZEME

Bitkisel motifli taş işleme Ahşap

SÜSLEME

Sade ve geometrik şekilde üçgen formlu süsleme

MİNARE

YAPIDAKİ KONUMU MALZEME

Taş

YÜKSEKLİK

30.72 m

SÜSLEME

Külah altı taş işçiliği ve yivli gövde

3.5. Mevlevi Camii

Afyonkarahisar şehir merkezi, Zaviye Sultan mahallesi, Akmescit Caddesi Zaviye Canbaba yokuşu ile Türbe caddesi arasında bulunmaktadır. Yapı, ana mekan ile bahçesinde yer alan çeşitli birimleriyle yaklaşık 5.000 metrekarelik bir alan üzerindedir. Neo-klasik ve Türk Barok üslubu özelliğinde inşa edilen yapı, “Zaviyeli Mescid” vasfını taşımaktadır. Mevlevihanedeki ana mekan cami-mescit, semahane ve türbe bölümlerinden ibarettir. Bina bir ana kubbe ve beş küçük kubbe ile örtülüdür. Yapıya ek olarak piramit çatılı son cemaat mahalli bulunmaktadır. Barihüda Tanrıkorur yapının 740 metrekarelik alanı kapladığını tespit etmiştir. Ana girişe son cemaat mahallinde bulunan ahşap çift kanatlı, aynalı kapı ile girilmektedir. Kilit taşının içinde kabartma destarlı sikke motifi üzerinde Besmele-i Şerif yazılıdır. Mevlevihane‟nin ana mekanında cami-mescit, semahane ve türbe bölümü bulunmaktadır. Ahşap çift kanatlı aynalı, yüksekçe görkemli işçiliğe sahip olan iç giriş kapısı günümüzde de estetiğini korumaktadır. Kapı üstü kemeri ve beşgen kilit taşı mermerden yapılmış olup tüm sadeliğini göstermektedir. Semahaneye göre, ortada ana kubbe, güneyde iki küçük kubbe ile mescit, şerbethane ve kadınlar bölümü üzerinde güneyden kuzeye doğru dizilmiş üç küçük kubbe yer almaktadır. Afyonkarahisar Mevlevihanesi‟nde, semahanenin yan tarafında sema edenleri seyir edercesine on iki adet sanduka bulunmaktadır. Camiinin minaresi kuzeybatı köşesinde yer almaktadır. Cami ile birlikte ortak temele oturan minare, kubbe hizasına kadar duvarı içinden çıkmakta olup kesme taştan çokgen dilimli ve yüzeyi oluklu olarak yapılmıştır. Şerefe altında iki ayrı silme bulunmaktadır. Taş çıkmalar üzerinde şerefe yer almıştır. Korkulukları taştandır, külah boğumlu olarak daralmaktadır. Pencere içi duvarları eğik yapılmıştır. Bu özellik cami içerisine bol ışık girmesini 216

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN sağlamıştır (İlgar ve Karazeybek, 2005) (Tablo 6).

GENEL GÖRÜNÜM

Tablo 6. Mevlevi Cami mekan analizi MEVLEVİ CAMİ GEÇ OSMANLI DÖNEMİ YILI: 1844

Batı Cephesi

Güney Cephesi

Doğu Cephesi

GÖRÜNÜŞ

KuzeyCephesi

CAMİNİN MEKAN KURGUSU MEKANSAL DÜZENLEME

GİRİŞ

Caminin harim kısmına ulaşmak için öncelikle kapalı mekan olarak çözülen son cemaat yerine girilmektedir. Bahçe kotundan merdivenle çıkılarak bu mekana ulaşılmaktadır. Bu mekanın piramidal bir üst örtüsü vardır. Piramidal üst örtünün iç kısmı kalem işleriyle bitkisel motiflerle süslenmiştir.

HARİM

Caminin harim kısmında müezzin mahfili, kadınlar mahfiline geçiş mekanı ve sandukalar bulunmaktadır. Sandukaların etrafı korkuluklarla çevrilmiştir. Kubbe, kalem işi bitkisel motiflerle süslenmiştir. Her pencerenin üztünde kalem işi çiçek motifli süslemeler mevcuttur. Ahşap giriş kapılarının üzerinde rumi süslemeler mevcuttur. Caminin Osmanlı dönemi neoklasik mimari özellikleriyle örtüşen bir kurgusu vardır. üst örtünün kubbeye dönmesi, sivri kemerlerin kullanımı, incelen minare ölçüleri, son cemaat yerinin varlığı bu dönem özelliklerini yansıtmaktadır. Süslemelerde ise rumi ve kalem işleri dönem özelliğinin sergilemektedir.

ÜST ÖRTÜ

KUBBEYE GEÇİŞ ELEMANLARI

MEKAN ORGANİZASYONU

Kare planlı CAMİ ELEMANLARI GÖRSEL

MALZEME

Kesme taş

GENEL

SÜSLEME Rumi, kalem işi süslemeler ÖLÇÜLER

217

25.3224.13 m

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN YÜKSEKLİK

20.87 m

MİHRAP

YAPIDAKİ KONUMU MALZEME

Mermer

SÜSLEME

Taç kısmında bitkisel motifli süslemeler

MALZEME

Mermer

MİNARE

MİNBER

SÜSLEME

Rumi madalyon süslemesi

MALZEME

Kesme Taş

YÜKSEKLİK

37.21 m

SÜSLEME

Taş silmeler ve yivli gövde

4. Sonuç Afyon kentinde bulunan ve kente önemli katkılar sağlayan Osmanlı dönemi camilerinden beş adet cami mekansal bağlamda analiz edilmiştir. Analiz edilen camiler; Osmanlı döneminin üç farklı dönem özelliklerine göre ele alınmıştır. Erken, klasik ve geç dönem Osmanlı cami mimari özellikleri; plan şemaları, malzeme, üst örtü, süsleme ve mekansal kurgu kriterlerine göre belirlenmiştir. Afyon kentindeki Osmanlı dönemi camilerinin plan şemalarına, üst örtülerine, mekansal kurgusuna, süslemesine ve kullanılan malzemeye göre analiz yapıldığında; Gedik Ahmet Paşa Cami plan şemasının tipik erken Osmanlı dönemi cami mimari özelliklerini taşıdığı görülmüştür. Klasik tek kubbeli merkezi planlı bir mekan kurgusuna sahiptir. Osmanlı dönemi cami mimari kurgusunun şemasına bakıldığında; 10 ve 11 numaralı camilerin plan şemaları ve ait olduğu dönem ile Gedik Ahmet Paşa Cami planı ve yapım yılı örtüşmektedir. Camide kullanılan malzeme bağlamında; yapıda taşın kullanılması, minarede taş ve çininin kullanımı, süslemelerin abartıdan uzak olması ve yerinde kullanılması, bitkisel motiflerin ve Rumilerin varlığı erken dönem Osmanlı cami mimarisiyle benzeşmektedir. Karaman Cami plan şeması, emsallerinden çok farklı bir kurguya sahiptir. Düzgün olmayan sekizgen plan şeması, minarenin yapıdan ayrı bir yerde olması, son cemaat yerinin var olmayışı üst örtünün kırma çatı olması, mihrabının seramik olması gibi özellikleriyle klasik Osmanlı dönemi cami örneklerinden farklıdır ve Afyon kenti için diğer camilerin mekan kurgularına benzemeyen yapısıyla farkındalık yaratmıştır. Yeni Cami plan şeması; şemadaki 11 numaralı mekan kurgusuyla benzerlik göstermektedir. Caminin yapım yılı, geç dönem zaman dilimi aralığında olmasına rağmen, cami klasik Osmanlı dönemi cami mimari özelliklerine daha yakındır. Tek kubbeli ve merkezi planlı yapısı, süslemeden arınmış olması, son cemaat yerinin var olması, minarenin caminin içinde yer alması gibi mimari özellikleri Klasik Osmanlı dönemi camilerine gönderme yapmaktadır. Yoncaaltı Cami plan şeması, 8 numaralı mekan kurgusuyla benzerlik gösterse de, cami yapısının 218

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN içinde yer alan medresenin bulunması, son cemaat yerinin kalkması, minarenin yapısındaki incelme, taş işçilikleri, süslemeler, sivri kemerler ve kubbenin olmaması gibi özellikler, geç dönem Osmanlı cami mimarisini yansıtmaktadır. Mevlevi Cami plan şeması, 15 numaralı mekan kurgusuyla örtüşmektedir. Neoklasik dönemde üst örtünün tekrar kubbeye dönmesi, sivri kemerlerin kullanımı bu caminin özellikleriyle benzerlik göstermektedir. Ancak piramdial örtü sistemi, kalem işleri, çiçek motfleri ve taş işçiliği, minarenin incelmesi gibi özellikler ise geç dönem ampir özelliklerini yansıtmaktadır. Camiler, kentler için, kente kattıkları için, sosyal mekan oldukları için, manevi değerleri barındırdıkları için ve en önemlisi insanların saf ve temiz duygularıyla arınmak amacıyla buluştukları mekanlar oldukları için çok önemli yapılardır. Bu bağlamda camilerin tarihi süreç içindeki gelişiminin, mimari yapısının, mekan kurgusunun, iç mekan tezyinatının ve cami elemanları niteliklerinin analiz edilmesi, kültürel varlığın ait olduğu döneme ait mimari özelliklerini gelecek nesillere aktarmak bağlamında önem taşımaktadır. Bu çalışmada Afyon kentinde bulunan ve farklı mimari özellikler taşıyan, farklı dönemlere ait camilerle ilgili bir analiz çalışması yapılmasının camilerle ilgili yapılacak çalışmalara ışık tutacağı düşünülmüştür. Camiler için yeni tasarımlar yapmadan önce önceki dönemlere ait örneklerin çalışılması, inşa edilecek yere özgü geleneklere saygı gösterilmesi, insan ölçeğini kaçırmadan, alt yapı ve üst yapı arasındaki ilişkinin kurulması, doğru malzemelerin seçilmesi, cephelerde iç-dış ilişkisinin kurulması, bezemelerin ve süslemelerin yerinde kullanılması ve en önemlisi camilerin ilettiği manevi duygunun mekana yansıtılması ve insanlara huzur dolu bir yapı etkisi bırakması için geleneksel camilerin yapısal, soayal ve psikolojik etkilerinin analiz edilmesi gerekmektedir. Kaynakça Aslanapa, O., (2005), Türk Sanatı, Remzi Kitapevi, İstanbul. Burckhardt, T., (2005). İslam Sanatı-Dil Ve Anlam (Çev. Turan Koç), Klasik Yayınları, İstanbul. Çetintaş, S., (1946), Türk Mimari Anıtları-Osmanlı Devri Bursa‟da İlk Eserler, İstanbul. Eyice, S., (1993). Cami, İslam Ansiklopedisi, Cilt 7, Türk Diyanet Vakfı, İstanbul, 56-90. Faroqhi, S. (2000). Osmanlıda Kentler Ve Kentliler. İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları Grabar, O., (1988). İslam Sanatının Oluşumu (Çev. Nuran Yavuz), Hürriyet Vakfıyayınları, İstanbul. Günay, R., (2002), Mimar Sinan Ve Eserleri, Yem Yayınları, İstanbul. Hasol, D., (2002). Ansiklopedik Mimarlık Sözlüğü, Sekizinci Baskı, Yem Yayınları, İstanbul. Karazeybek, Yusuf Ve Mustafa Karazeybek, (2005), Afyonkarahisar Vakıf Eserleri Cilt 1, Akü Yayınları, Afyon. Kuban, D. (2004). Çağlar Boyunca Türkiye Sanatının Ana Hatları. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Kuban, D., (2007), Osmanlı Mimarisi, Yem Yayınları, İstanbul. Necipoğlu, G. (2007). Anatolia And The Ottoman Legacy. Frishman, M Ve Khan, H. Londra (Ed.) The Mosque (141-157). Londra: Thames & Hudson. Nefes, E., (1996), Minarenin Cami Mimarisine Katılımı Ve İlk Minare Örnekleri, Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, Sos. Bil. Ens.,Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Samsun. Onay, A., (2008). Türkiye‟nin Cami Profili (Fiziki Ve Sosyolojik Açılardan Bir Analiz), Değerler Eğitimi Merkezi Yayınları, İstanbul. Oral, M., (1993), Gelişim Süreci İçinde Cumhuriyet Dönemi Cami Mimarisinin İrdelenmesi, Konya Örneği, S.Ü., Fen Bil. Enst., Y. Lisans Tezi, Konya. Oral, M., (2006), Günümüz Cami Mimarisinde Kimlik Sorunu, Konya Örneği, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Fen Bil. Enst., Doktora Tezi, Konya. Ödekan, A., Kunt, G.M., Yurdaydin, H.G., (2008), Türkiye Tarihi 2 Osmanlı Devleti 1300-1600, Cem Yayınevi, İstanbul. Önkal, A. Ve Bozkurt, N., (1993). Cami Maddesi, İslam Ansiklopedisi, Cilt 7, Türk Diyanet Vakfı, İstanbul, 46-56. Renda, Günsel, (1977),

Anadolu'daki Mihrapların Dili, O.D.T.Ü. Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi Cilt 3, Sayı 2,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Roux, J.-P. (2011). Osmanlı Sanatı. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Tarihi Içinde, (293- 351). İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. Stierlin, H. (2006). İmanın Ve Iktidarın Hizmetinde İslam Sanatı. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Tuluk, Ö.,İskender, (2006), Osmanlı Camilerinde Mekan Kurgusu Açısından Kare Tabanlı Baldaken Varyasyonları (15.-17.Yy.) Gazi Üniv. Müh. Mim. Fak. Der. J. Fac. Eng. Arch. Gazi Univ. Cilt 21, No 2, 275-284, 2006 Vol 21, No 2, 275-284. Ülgen, A., (1996), Klasik Devir Minareleri, Melisa Matbaacılık, Alfa Basım Yayım Dağıtım, No:243, İstanbul, 276 Yetkin, S., K., (1959), İslam Mimarisi, Ankara Üniversitesi,İlahiyat Fakültesi Türk Ve İslam Sanatları Tarihi Enst. Yayınları:2, Ankara. Yorulmaz, M. Ve Zeynep Ahunbay, (1986), Sinan Camilerinde Taşıyıcı Sistem Ve Yapım Teknikleri, Uluslar Arası Türk-İslam Bilim Ve Teknoloji Tarihi Kongresi, 123-143.

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CONSUMER’S PURCHASE CYCLE CREATED BY VACATION ADVERTISEMENT: AN APPLICATION STUDY ON ADVERTISEMENTS OF REPUBLIC OF TURKEY MINISTRY OF CULTURE AND TOURISM Emine Derya ŞİMŞEK, M.A. [email protected] Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sedat ŞİMŞEK Selçuk University, Faculty of Communications, Radio Tv and Cinema Dept. [email protected] Abstract Human who exhausts phiscal and mental in the modern world’s hardwork pace requires to address the recommendations of the holiday needs. For example, to get information on issues such as the most beautiful destinations, the best facilities, the best time or best price, people benefits from advertising and makes it tirelessly. For this, the advertisements made by reliable sources are always reason for preferance. For instance, advertisments made by the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Tourism as a government entity are to leave a positive impression on the domestic and foreign tourists and are a trusted source in their holiday preferences. Advertising has great importance at purchasing of services such as vacations, where the consumers pay fees before trying the product. Therefore, the reliability has come to the forefront of the institutions that advertised. In this paper, an application study on the advertisments of Ministry of Culture of Turkish Republic as a government entity will be done for attempting to achieve a contribution in the field. Keywords:Tourism, Vacation, Advertising, Destination.

1.Introduction In our recent century, human being lives in a busy schedule. Among the work, school, home and other activites, globe-trotter modern man is extremely tired in both physical and mental way. To overcome tiredness, he makes holiday in his own country or all over the world. Also known as “smokeless industry”, turism makes an indelible impression as a tertiary sector which serves to people intending to have a holiday or put this idea into action. In tourism sector, small or big, domestic or foreign, every single company makes an affort to attract the tourists to their country and since therefore to their bussiness by making ads and promotions through their own means. However, sometimes these efforts are not sufficient. In order to support them, the state ministries and state institutions related to tourism have signed in many activities. The state agencies supporting private organizations in all matter such from the promotion of the country to the security of the tourists, also constitute an important source of income in the country. In Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism has undertaken this function. In this study, some frames of introductry films prepared by Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism will be examined which are produced to attract tourists and promote the country. 2.Advertisiment Advertisement is the world of fantasy or a magic. According to some, it is a trick, a jugglery. Some percieves the advertisment as a mental game and some perceives it as a conspiracy to economy, individual, politics, cultural structure etc. As well as considering the advertisement as a part of entertainment industry, master of pleasures world, the ruler of the myths and so on, there is also an available review taking it as one of the main cornerstones of the economic and social order (Fırlar, 2008: V). However, no matter by whom and how it is defined, as in the past, it is still an important tool for the promotion and sales of goods and services producers in 2016.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Advertisement is a promotion and sales activity that is designed and prepared through brand positioning strategy and then met the consumer through the mass media. For an advertisement to be successful, instead of chop and change, it is necessary to position the brand in one certain place and create a value. Even if you carry on a bussiness in a sector for many years or have incredible experience, it is still necessary positioning the advertisement and choose the best strategy to increase sales and promote the brand (Altunbaş, 2016: 71). As a matter of fact, the companies only which determine their strategy properly, achive to find a good place in the market. 3.Vacation Advertisments People needs to go on holiday to relax both mentally and physically. For this, people takes vacation on many purposes such as to satisfy their intangible psychological or inner desire, to escape from boredom, to realize their adventure needs, to discover new things, to be healthy, to socialize or even to gain prestige (Dryglas & Freinds, 2016: 2). In fact, tourism options has already risen so high that, even special rural tourism activites are carried out under the name of farm-based tourism (Dionysopoulou & Friends, 2014: 13). With so much alternative in the tourism industry, tourists benefit from advertising in to find the best of what they are looking for. Turkish writer Alev Alatlı, at the first page of her book „Schödinger‟in Kedisi‟ (Schrödinger‟s Cat), says that “Do not look at the finger but the place it shows”. As a reference to this statement, the advertisers say “Do not look at advertisement but what it is telling about the product or the brand”. Since, the aim of the adevertisement is quite simple. Advertisement is persuading the consumers to choose or use a brand/product by giving a brief information about the brand/product or potential benefits by using it. In other words, advertisement is tool that transmits a massage (Batu, 2010: Introduction). Advertisement sector which is specialised on promoting vacation or resorts, can also be called as touristic advertisement. Touristic advertisement can be defined as "the all efforts being made to increase the demand of people who have not clearly decided yet although having enough money to make the trip, in order to send them to a specific place for vacation, to arouse interest by promoting the wealth of a country or region" (Cited from Sezgin & Friends by Çetinel, 2001: 153). Holiday advertisements, as the other ads with the introduction of a goods and services, are promotional function for the people get rid of the troubles of modern life, who needs to relax, to have fun, to empty the head and to choose the best way to relax physically and intellectually. People chooses the vacation destination by accrediting to the messages of the advertisements they have watched. Therefore, holiday advertisements are extremely important for people who wants to go on holiday. 4.Consumer Expectation on Advertisements Producing or marketing goods, services or ideas is a form of behavior which apply to all businesses large and small. With this production and marketing process, businesses fulfill their duties towards their costumers -in other word consumers-, other business owners and society by producing goods, services and ideas (Altıntaş, 2000: 3). On the other hand, with the purchasing behavior they show, consumers help the producers to achive their business goals through the money the spent. Generally speaking, behavior is the image that sends an answer across the information detected by the human brain. The brain evaluates the information which is sent and constitutes a response by emergent comments. This response, by reaching muscles of the body, provides occurence of movements called behavior. All types of states and movements observed from outside are defined as behavior. In this context, consumer behavior is the reactions positive or negative in the process of purchasing goods and services for an individual or a group to meet the needs. Consumption behavior, through all acts of the people, only includes behavior intended purchasing to satisfy their needs. First of all, it can be said that people are dependent on a number of objective reasons and purposes but not random in any behavior. Consumers act with some enviromental effects in their consumption behavior of purchasing goods and services. Advertisements are on the top of this effects (Bilge & Friends, 2010: 51). In the tourism sector, the purchase of holiday services, the advertisements of Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism have a paramount importance. Since as noted in the introduction of this study, for consumers, getting information from reliable sources, as they bought a holiday services without trying it, is extremely important. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism is also one of the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN official institutions of the Republic of Turkey, and thanks to the promotional ads, is one of the most reliable information source for both domestic and foreign tourists. 5.Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture And Tourism Advertising Activities Advertisements made under the tourism sector are carried out by national tourism organizations and individual tourism businesses. With their holiday advertisements, national tourism associations aim to promote the country's tourism values and to remind potential touristic areas, to expose the impression that these places are worth to be seen (Cited from Akat by Çetinel, 2001: 53). Tourism development should be seen as a public policy. Thus, as a public policy, torism should be held and promoted in humanist, multidisciplinary and multicultural understanding (Minasi & Friends, 2014: 182). Therefore, as it is a public institution and a national organization in the tourism sector, and intends to introduce people Turkey's sights and tourist features, Ministry of Culture and Tourism has been launching several promotional activities each year in countries around the world. Improving the image of Turkey in the world tourism market with its unique cultural heritage and natural beauty, offering product diversity and determine the positioning as a modern country are the communication objectives of the Minisrty (http://www.tanitma.gov.tr, 2016) and on behalf of Turkey's promotional activities abroad, Ministry is allocating significant sums of money from five different sources; Prime Ministry Promotion Fund, Ministry of Culture and Tourism Central Directorate of Revolving Fund, Tourism Development Fund, additional fund from Ministry of Finance and its own budget. The promotional activities are carried out every year by the Ministry the main headings are as follows: a-Advertisement activities: The group country method is applied on the execution of advertising campaigns in a foreign country. Ministry of Culture and Tourism overseas offices carry out advertising campaigns at the market countries and undertake coordination of activities for tourism. In addition, to eliminate the negative effects of individual incidents in Turkey, in the name of gaining the trust of tourist, advertising and public relations are done. Beside, supporting catalogs and advertising works of tour operators and travel agencies working in Turkey is also included in the activity field. b-Travel development activities: For extending the tourist season (Çetinel, 2001: 153) and spreading the tourism demand over 12 months by reducing seasonality, different travel motivations from Turkey's sea-sand-sun are on focus. In order to increase the number of tourists, various alternative tourism type projects such as golf, winter, congress, yachting, city, youth, health and eco-tourism (www.tanitma.gov.tr, 2016) are carried out. c-Congress activities: The support is given to various international conferences held in the country for the promotion of Turkey. d-Promotional publishing activities: For visitors from all income groups, especially for high-income group (www.tanitma.gov.tr, 2016), the promotional publications in different languages and types are prepared. Behalf to support this publication, related video film studies in different formats are to be made to offer them to relevant units (tourists, tour operators, Tv channels, international agencies etc.). In this publications, primarily in the areas of tourism, cultural values, foods, clothes and features etc. take part. e-Research-evaluation activities and following foreign press: Any material situated in foreign printed press, radio and television related to Turkey‟s tourism is to be collected and evaluated by the Ministry. In addition, making the assessment of foreign tourism market, to prepare a report on developments in overseas promotion within the jurisdiction of the consultancy at market countries is one of the main duties (Çetinel, 2001: 154). On the other hand, there may be exceptional circumstances. For instance, according to the statements of United Nations World Tourism Organization, due to the depreciation of the Russian Ruble currency in 2014, Russian citizens has experienced a serious decline in abroad tourism spending. Addition to the depreciation of the Russian Ruble, with the aircraft crisis between two countries, Turkey has carried out significant diplomacy and economic measures in order to win the Russian tourists back. Many actions have been taken in by varios statesmen and especially by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Turkey. As Russia have the most important role in the tourism market of Turkey, while

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4.479.049 Russian tourists had come to Turkey in 2014, due to various adversities experienced, the number has almost halved in 2015. To overcome this crisis, Turkey has been working to remove the Russian tourists to their old number with the signing of several activities such as 6.000 Dollars of fuel support to the airplanes carrying more passengers than 100 or crediting tourism agencies under favorable conditions (www.tursab.org.tr, 2015). In many tourism troubles unforeseen like this example, Ministry of Culture and Tourism is playing an active role and realizes many activities not to decline but to increase tourism revenues gradually which is one of Turkey's most important source of income. Naturally, advertising and promoting activities lead the way in every sector. In this study, some frames of tourism promotion activities undertaken by Ministry of Culture and Tourism in 2015, will be investigated with the post structuralist research method on discourse analysis and a contribution to the field will tried to be done. (In Discourse Analysis in Post Structuralist Approach, idea of the reader, viewer or evaluator is important, rather than the idea of the executer of advertisement, text, work etc.) 6.The Analysis of Advertisements Produced By The Ministry of Culture and Tourism

Ad Frame-1:Maiden’s Tower of İstanbul

Ad Frame-2: Maiden’s Tower Nostalgia

Maiden‟s Tower of Istanbul is one of the most important historical monuments of the Bosphorus. This structure can be seen from both the European and Asian continents in a very clear way, in the part close to the Marmara Sea at Bosphorus, is built on a small islet located off to Salacak. The only remaining vestige of the Byzantine in Uskudar, the tower has become a symbol of Üsküdar and it has been used for many purposes throughout history such as mausoleum, customs station, defense tower, exile station, quarantine rooms etc. (Vikipedia, 2016). Today, still existing as a jewel of the Bosphorus, this building is serving as a restaurant. The tower is one of the most visited plcaes by foreign and local tourists. With it‟s breathtaking beauty in the middle of the deep blue waters of the Bosphorus, the structure is one of the most essential places for Turkey's domestic and foreign promotional films and advertisements held by Ministry of Culture and Tourism. As undulating that glorious „Turkish Flag‟ with the honor and proud, 'Maiden's Tower', as it was before, will continue to be one of the most important tourism centers.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Ad Frame-3: Bosphorus (Martrys of 15th July) Bridge and Ortaköy Mosque In 1973, opened with a state ceremony in honor of 50th anniversary of the Republic of Turkey, Bosphours Bridge (aka first bridge) is one of the three suspension bridges over the Bosphous that links the Black Sea with the Marmara Sea. The official name of the bridge has been changed to „Martrys of 15th July Bridge‟ in memory of our citizens who were killed during the military coup attempt in Turkey in 2016 (Vikipedia, 2016). As a symbol of Istanbul with fabulous view of the Bosphorus, the bridge is one the important elements used in the presentation of Turkey with the slogan “first bridge connecting the two continents”. Seen in ad frame, located in the Ortaköy district in Istanbul and known by the name of this neighborhood Ortaköy Mosque is one of the most important places of worship. This structure is an Ottoman mosque dating from the 19th century, located just below the Martrys of 15th July Bridge near the sea. Ortaköy Mosque was built by Sultan Abdulmejid in its present form. Made by the Baroque architectural style and receiving the sun by four sides, (gezipgordum.com, 2016) this structure is one of the places that visited by local and foreign tourists. The in the ad frame, small fishing boats anchored in front of the mosque, unique view of the Bosphorus, the last light of the sun sinking over the horizon, the air of mystery constitutes a peace and tranquility envireonment that attracts people. To ensure that people wished to see the here by using this beauty and serenity, Ministry of Culture and Tourism is using the tremendous visual feast of Martrys of 15th July Bridge and Ortaköy Mosque as one of the main elements at Turkey's promotional films and commercials.

Ad Frame-4: Fairy Chimneys

Fairy Chimneys, is one of the world's most important tourism centers located in the region called Cappadocia. 60 million years ago it was formed by flood waters and wind erosion in the soft soil of the valley. These landforms are the rare beauty of the world. Avanos, Ürgüp, Göreme, Ortahisar Castles, Akvadi, Uçhisar, Aynalı Church, Güvercinlik Valley, Derinkuyu, Kaymaklı, Underground City of Özkonak, Selime Village, Çavuşin, Güllüdere Valley, Paşabağ-Zelve is among the place to be seen in the region (Vikipedia, 2016). It is possible to increase the number of these places to be seen. The region always attracts the attention of domestic and foreign tourists with it‟s mystical structure and local values. Many region‟s elements such as wine, local food, stonemasonry etc. add value to the region and tourists are stunned by an extraordinary sight. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism gives that region a place at domestic and foreign promotional films and commercials in order to attract tourists to the region as it has so many values and touristic areas.

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Ad Frame-5: Whirling Dervish (Mevlana)

The founder of Mevleviyeh, Mevlana Celaleddin Rumi was born in Belh of Khorasan in 1207. His father was Muhammed Bahâeddin Veled who was known as “sultans of the scholars”. Lived in Konya and his mausoleum (tomb) located here, Rumi wrote the Masnavi which is one of the most important works of Islamic mysticism. The whirling dervish (Semazen) who appear in the frame has also an important place in the Mevleviyeh Order. Literally, “sema” means “to hear”. Yet, in term, it means “to move ecstatically accompanied with the music”. Semazen means “whirling dervishes (friends)”. Dervishes stem t oto whirling area with black cardigans. The meaning of this cardigans is “grave”. They start whirling by take this cardigans off. This means “rebirth”. They wear a white dress named “tennure” that symbolised the “cerement”. Dervishes wear a long mat hat called “Sikke” and that symbolise a “gravestone”. While they whirl, they put their right hands up to mean “taking from the God” and put their left hands down to mean “giving to public”. Whirling do not describe the death but the rebirth, by contrast (www.semazenekibi.com, 2016). The whirling dervish seen in advertising frame, is like an image of peace that calls people all over the world to Turkey. With this frames, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism aims to attract domestic tourists to Konya and foreign tourists to Turkey by Mevlana.

Ad Frame-6: Turkish Breakfast

Turkey, which has a rich culinary culture, is in the attention of both domestic and foreign tourists. Turkish cuisine is the heir of the Ottoman culture, has influenced the Balkans and the Middle East and were affected by them at the same time. Showing local changes such as Black Sea, Southeast, Central Anatolia, Aegean or Mediterranean and dating back to centuries, „Turkish Cuisine‟ has various and one more beautiful than the other foods (Vikipedia, 2016). In other words, Turkish Cuisine plays host to many flavors such as kebap, pita, baklava, Turkish coffee, Turkish tea etc. Although it is parried with a cup of coffee and croissaint or a bowl of cornflakes in many cultures, breakfast is an important tradition in Turkish culture. As it is seen in the advertisement frame, there is a table of flowing milk and honey. Sausage eggs in copper pan, several kinds of cheese, black and green olives, menemen (a mix of tomatoes, peppers, onion,

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egg and butter), many varieties of donuts, honey and jam etc ... All these are ate in one meal; with the ritual of breakfast Turkey is on the focus of domestic and foreign tourists. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism aims to increase tourism and tourism revenues by using the marvelous breakfast tradition of Turkey in almost all advertising films, both domestic and foreign.

Ad Frame-7: Turkish Döner Kebab

As one of the world famous dishes 'Turkish doner kebab', especially prepared with red meat, is one of the most important elements used in the promotion of Turkey's image with splendid ritual in taste and preparation. So much so that, this wonderful meat dish intensely demanding in many European countries, especially in Germany and in many other destinations throughout the world, whet everybody‟s apetite and raises the desire to eat. The image of this tasty and world famous dish slowly cooked in a wood fire almost naturally plays a key role in Turkey's promotional film and advertisements.

Ad Frame-8: Turkish Coffee

“A cup of coffee has a sake for fourty yerars”. This is a Turkish proverb and consumed with taste all over the world, Turkish coffee is one of the most important elements for the promotion of Turkish tourism. Having an important place in Turkish culture, coffee, according to the researchers, has spread from the Kaffa region in southern Ethiopia in 14th century. It is thought that the name of coffee also has been derived from the name of this region (wikipedia.org, 2016). After roasting, raw coffee beans are beaten into dust in a special place called mortar and cooked at pots in different varieties, then served with cups accompanied by Turkish delight. As it can be consumed Daily, coffee is an irreplaceable beverage of chit-chat and ceremony of asking for the girl‟s hand for marriage. The coffee fortune telling is one of the indispensable passion for Turkish people, as well.

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In the advertisement frame, Turkish coffee cooked in copper pot is seen to be served with coffee cups. As a tasty beverage, Turkish coffee is used in the any film of Turkey‟s promotion and advertisement with it‟s features.

Ad Frame-9: Copper Teapot and Turkish Tea In The Slim Waisted Glass

At the breakfast, at lunch or dinner, on a time between breakfast and lunch, between lunch and dinner, at midnight, after midnight, in the morning, afternoon, summer-winter-springautumn in all seasons, in short everytime and everywhere... Turkish tea is the national drink of Turkey. Cooked in woodfire at a copper teapot and served with slim waisted glass with sugar or no sugar, especially hot but recently cold version has been emerged, Turkish tea is indispensable for domestic tourists and can also be interesting experience in foreign tourists. Cognizantly, The Ministry of Culture and Tourism definitely uses the Turkish tea as one of the main elements on domestic or foreign promotional films and advertisements.

Ad Frame-10: Turkish Tile

Ad Frame-11: Turkish Tile Sample

“The art of tile making is similar to nature of the world which is created by the God. This is the version of nature which is translated to clay, stone and paper. Everything created by God is beautiful and sculpted meticulously. Therefore, all lines and the pattern of creation can be seen and to be excellent finds itself in Turkish tile making” (Gürsoy, 2004). As one of the most important areas of Turkish ornament arts, tile making, especially İznik ceramics, is an art that is known all over the world and sees value. Turkish art of tile making can be seen as an ornament art at mosques, palaces, museums and so on, also shown in advertisement frames, it is one of the most important elements of Turkish culture. For this reason, it is included in all domestic and foreign publicty and advertising films of The Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Conclusion

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The tourism sector is one of the fastest areas of competition. So much so that countries works to maximize their earning leves by bringing up their tourism values in that smokeless industry. Promotion or advertising films that emphasizes most important features of Turkish tourism, either are carried out by The Ministry of Culture and Tourism or are supported by the ministry. In addition to individual promotional activities of tourism companies, promotional and advertising works of Turkey's Ministry of Culture and Tourism fill an important gap in this area. Advertisement frames set out in this work reveals that Turkish cultural values and tourism centers are used as promotional tools in the works of The Ministry of Culture and Tourism which are done in order to revive Turkish tourism sector and to increase tourism revenues. In behalf of The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, making or supporting this kind of promotional and advertising films which gives meaning to travel needs of domestic and foreign tourists and stimulates these requests is considered to be highly successful implementation by the researchers. Again, by the researchers, making and supporting the continuation of this promotion and advertising films that subvenes the Turkish tourism is recommended to the ministry.

References Altunbaş, M. H. (2000) Tüketici Davranışları, Bursa: Alfa Yayınevi. Altunbaş, M.H. (2016) Reklamın İyisi Kötüsü Olur, Konya: LiteraTürk Yayınevi. Batı, U. (2010) Reklamın Dili, İstanbul: Alfa Yayınevi. Bilge, F.A. & Göksu, N. (2010) Tüketici Davranışları, Ankara: Gazi Kitabevi. Çetinel, F. (2001) „Turizmde Tanıtım ve Reklam Faaliyetlerinin Önemi: Türkiye‟nin Tanıtımında Turizm Bakanlığı‟nın Yurtdışında Faaliyet Gösteren Medya Araçlarında Yaptığı Reklam Harcamaları ile Türkiye‟ye Gelen Turist Sayısı Arasındaki İlişkinin Değerlendirilmesi‟, Anatolia Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, Güz Sayısı; s: 151-161. Drylas, D. & Salamaga, M. (2016) „Applying destination attribute segmentation to health tourists: A case study of Polish spa resorts‟, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10548408.2016.1193102 Dionysopoulou, P. & Katsoni, V. (2014) „Agritourism Marketing Strategy and Typology Investigation‟ Journal Of Tourism Recearch, (Editor in Chief: Laloumis Dimitris, Editor: Marinakos Konstantinos), Athens-Greece: Published by Tourism Research Institu. Fırlar, B. G. (2008) Reklama Rota Çizmek, Konya: Nobel Yayınevi. Gürsoy, M. (20 Ağustos 2004) „Türk Çiniciliği‟, Turkish Daily News Özel Demeç, https://www.iznikcini.com/ Erişim Tarihi: 05.09.2016, Erişim Saati: 23.00. Minasi, M.S. & Etges, V.E. & Simon, E. (2014) „Territory As Basis For Touristic Planning: Paths For Regional Development‟, Journal Of Tourism Recearch, (Editor in Chief: Laloumis Dimitris, Editor: Marinakos Konstantinos), Athens-Greece: Published by Tourism Research Institu. ………………(2016) İkinci Destek Paketi Ekim-Kasımda Bekleniyor. Hedef Kaybını Yüzde 10‟da TutmakTursab Turizm Destek Paketi Raporu (2015), http://www.tursab.org.tr/dosya/12591/turizmdestekraporu2_12591_4934582.pdf. ------------------(2016) „Türkiye Turizminin Pazarlama Hedefleri ve İletişim Stratejileri‟, http://www.tanitma.gov.tr/TR,22914/pazarlama-hedefleri-ve-iletisim-stratejileri.html.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ---------(2016) „Kız Kulesi Hakkında Bilgi‟, https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%B1z_Kulesi. Erişim Tarihi: 30.08.2016, Erişim Saati: 12.00. ---------(2016) „Ortaköy Camii‟, http://gezipgordum.com/ortakoy-camii-buyuk-mecidiye-camii/, Erişim Tarihi 30.08.2016, Erişim Saati: 17.30. ---------(2016) „Kapadokya Peri Bacaları‟, https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapadokya, Erişim Tarihi:30.08.2016, Erişim Saati: 15.15. ---------(2016) „Samazenin Anlamı & Semazen Nedir?‟, http://www.semazenekibi.com/semazenin-anlami.html, Erişim Tarihi: 03.09.2016, Erişim Saati: 23.00. ---------(2016) „Türk Kahvesi‟, https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrk_kahvesi, Erişim Tarihi: 04.09.2016. Erişim Saati: 12.00

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THE PLACE OF KUTNU, ALACA AND MEYDANİYE FABRICS FROM THE GAZIANTEP REGION IN TURKISH CULTURE

Emine ESİRGENLER*

Abstract The fabrics known as kutnu, alaca and meydaniye, which occupied a significant place among the place fabrics during the Otoman era anda re woven today in Gaziantep and the villages around it, have been used by people for daily use and as garments worn during folklore Drawing the attention of contemporary fashion designers, these fabrics are also encountered in daily items of fashion and gfts. Kutnu, alaca and meydaniye fabrics, which are of historical value, bears great significance in the history of Turkish culture in that they reflect the tradition of hand-weaving and fabrics, which have a long-established history. This study, which aims to determine and document the place of kutnu, alaca and meydaniye fabrics within Turkish culturey investigate their potantial use today and thus offer new areas of us efor them, tries to reveal and promote these fabrics in terms of their usage and technical visual and aesthetic properties. Keywords: Gaziantep, kutnu, alaca, meydaniye, culture, traditional weaving.

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH In this study; It is aimed to determine and document the place of Kutnu, Alaca and Meydaniye fabrics of Gaziantep Region and to pass on these fabrics to the future generations. THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH The findings of this study in particular; - That study will provide a source in determining the place of the Gaziantep regions Kutnu, Alaca and Meydaniye fabrics in Turkish culture -Shed light on the works to be done in this area, - It will help future generations to recognize their heritage, history and culture.

*

Öğretim Görevlisi, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Sanat ve Tasarım Fakültesi, Moda Tasarımı Bölümü, Konya [email protected]. 231

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METHOD In this study, the literature reviewed and benefited from published sources, materials and persons. UNIVERSE AND SAMPLE Gaziantep regions Kutnu, Alaca, and Meydaniye fabrics place in Turkish culture constitues the working universe. Within scope of the study, Gaziantep provinces geographic and historical situation, weaving in Gaziantep, introduction of Kutnu, Alaca and Meydaniye fabrics, their place in Turkish culture are taken as sample and examined. FINDINGS Gaziantep is one of the beautiful and historic city of our Southeastern Anatolia Region. Its old name was Ayıntab. As a result of its outstanding achievements in the national struggle it took the title of “Gazi” from the Turkish Parliament in 1921 and Antep name became as Gaziantep. (Karpuz-Esirgenler, 2011: 199). Gaziantep was in a suitable area for occupation since ancient times as its geographical location, became center of the trade because it is built in connection roads which connects east to İskenderun Gulf and Syria to Anatolia and it became on of the biggest cities in Southeastern Anatolia region. (Darkot-Dağlıoğlu, 1979: 64). It is not well known where, how and when the fabric weaving started but the oldest findings are unearthed during excavations in Central Asia, Altai and Sayan mountains. Many of the cities and towns known as the weaving center in history are became the most important centers in this sector today. Gaziantep is lighting us on this issue with samples of weavings and works of permanent elements of weaving culture. (Atalayer, 1993: 41-72).

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Photo-1: From Hasan Süzer Museum (Emine Karpuz Archive) Weaving has became very important in Gaziantep especially in XIX. century. It is stated that in these years there are approx. 4000 weaving looms. The prevalence of weaving in Gaziantep is due to be the crossroads of major caravan routes. (Darkot-Dağlıoğlu, 1979: 66). With the industrialization of Gaziantep hand weaving production which has an important role in hand arts, production of Ottoman era palace fabrics Kutnu, Alaca and Meydaniye became a profession transferred from father to son in Gaziantep center and surrounding villages and it is maintained by masters. (İmer, 2001: 9).

Foto 2-3: Gaziantep Region Weaving Looms (Emine Karpuz Archive)

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN With a long history, hand weavings has great importance in terms of reflecting the fabric culture. Our traditional values which are lack of support for its development are about to be extincted without documented. Progress in various branches of industry shows the rich hand arts characteristics which are made by long working and paintstaking attention as outdated, time consuming and far away from livelihood and it causes to hit a heavy blow to Turkish society's culture and art by ourselves. (Adalılar, 1984: 23).

Description of Kutnu, Alaca and Meydaniye Fabrics Although developments in the weaving industry show itself in Seljuk and principalities period, weaving is also very rich in Ottoman period. Anatolia regions richness in weaving depends on continuing the ongoing traditions for many centruies and because of the Anatolian peasants own clothing needs, most importantly choosing own colors and designs according to their tradition and lifestyle. In Ottoman period many type of fabrics produced such as, sof, broadcloth, velvets, canfes, seraser, kutnu, alaca, kemha, shawls, ehram... and these fabrics fame spilled all over the world, has been a preffered fabric type by both Anatolian folk and palace dress. (İmer, 2001: 9).

KUTNU

Foto-4: Kutnu Fabric (Emine Karpuz Archive)

Until now, definitions related to kutnu found in many studies. Kutnu is a fabric with flower figures which woven with cotton and silk. (Yatman, 1945: 67) 234

The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Koçu is defining as “ In arabic it means cotton and it is a kind of silk fabric mixed with cotton thread and imitation satin”. (1969: 161-162) Ögel also says that kutnu word which is used in Anatolia from past to today came from “kutn” word means cotton in Arabic and “cotton” word in European languages refers to that root. (1991: 365). Three skirt kirtle protected in Gaziantep Archaeology museum recorded with 1180 inventory number is made from kutnu fabric which has wide range of application in Ottoman period. (Karpuz-Esirgenler, 2011: 204). Three skirt kirtle belongs to 19th century in Konya Ethnograpy museum with 1860 inventory number in cream and burgundy color is made from verticaly striped kutnu fabric. (Karpuz-Esirgenler, 2015: 56)

. Foto-5: Three Skirt Kirte Made from Kutnu Fabric (Konya Etnography Museum)

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN We see that kutnu fabric is used in so many clothes and accesories.

Foto 6-7-8: Apparel samples made from Kutnu fabric belonging to different regions (Attila Erden Archive) Kutnu is a fabric consisting of longitudinal color strips many times. Kutnu fabrics adorned with glossy and matte strips also there are types with flower motifs. (Dalsar, 1960: 42)

Foto-9: Gaziantep Hasan Süzer Museum Lecomte says that fabric can not be imitated and he can not hide his admiration for these fabrics. “Kutnu colors are tasteful and harmonious, it is never blatant and used very skillfully; dominated color is yellow with red, black, white and cream. It creates impression of old gold highlight to the fabric. These fabrics patterns are original but simple. These fabrics are made by in weft looms in which weft wires are woven by hand. For weaving this fabrics it requires significant expertise and experience. In the resulting fabric the contribution of artists thoughts and dreams are occured. So each of these fabrics is a work of art.” (Lecompte, undated, 123-125). 236

The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kutnu fabrics are cooked after weaved, it should soften. It is soften by beating with wooden paddles. It is compressed between polishing clamps for a while and polished. Kutnu is kept in a mixture of starch and tragacanth with little moisture and passed from cylinder and that application provides its regular and hard form. (Doğdu, 2010: 15).

Foto 10-11-12: Kutnu Weaving Samples (Akten Köylüoğlu Archive)

ALACA FABRICS

Foto-13: Alaca Fabric (Emine Karpuz Archive)

As in Kutnu fabric, alaca is referred as colored, cotton fabric. Alaca fabrics are used in variety of needs and came to our time and now it is woven according to old samples in Gaziantep. Long ago some official documents are found that alaca fabrics are woven with silk. (Özbel, undated, 18; Yatman, 1945: 66). Alaca fabrics are usually yellow barred on red background. (Koçu, 1969: 255). Alaca fabrics are woven as two kinds cotton and silk, it is hard fabric according to Kutnu. (Özen, 1980/81: 300). 237

The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Foto-14-15: Alaca Fabric Samples (Akten Köylüoğlu Archive)

Meydaniye Fabrics These fabrics are known as meydani and it is made from half silk, barred and for men's clothing. Such types as red, purple, white strips on purple background, guvez and mezemmek can be mentioned. It is thought that it named like that because of wearing in feasts. (Özen, 1980/81: 326).

Foto-16: Meydaniye Fabric Samples (Akten Köylüoğlu Archive)

Production of the Kutnu, Alaca and Meydaniye weaving started at the beginning of 1900s, for the first time made by poeople wgo emigrated from Syria to Anatolia. Evliya Çelebi mentions Kutnu fabric which is the oldest woven of Gaziantep in his travelogue as tawny cloth and tells thousands of camel load fabrics sent to Arabia, Persia and India. Many of fabric types are lost in time and samples of currently known an woven kutnu fabric kinds names and samples are taken from Cevdet Eldemir Archive who is a fabric master and passed away on 2008. (Köylüoğlu, 2009: 126). 238

The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Foto-17: Cevdet Eldemir Workshop (Emine Karpuz Archive)

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS According to the datas obtained from the research, kutnu, alaca and meydaniye fabrics which has an important place in Ottoman period palace clothing and nowadays woven in Gaziantep and near villages are produced by kutnu weavers who are continuing this job and they inherited from their fathers. These fabrics are used in tourism, personal needs, folklore and local clothings. These fabrics attacts attention of contemporary fashion designers and can be seen in current fashion and souvenirs as they attracts the attention of contemporary fashion designers. Lack of customer demand and usage area reduces the production. Kutnu, alaca and meydaniye fabrics which has historical value has importance in Turkish culture history as they reflect our historical hand woven fabrics and fabric culture. Considering these results  For keeping kutnu weaving alive which is continuing as apprenticeship-mastery from father to son, its training and production should be developed by municipalities and educational institutions and its presentation must be provided in national and international markets.  Nowadays our fabrics are attracting world fabric fashion with its usage, technic, visual and esthetic so designers should provide documentatiton and archiving of our fabrics in collaboration not only with producers also with expert scientists and private organizations for keeping these fabrics alive.

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REFERENCES Adalılar, A., “Turizm Kooperatiflerinde El Sanatları”, I. Ulusal El Sanatları Sempozyumu, 9 Eylül Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Yayınları, İzmir, 1984. Atalayer, Günay, “Dünden Bugüne Anadolu’da Kumaş ve Dokuma Sanatı”, Türk Kültüründe Sanat ve Mimari, İstanbul, 1993. Dalsar, Fahil, Bursa’da İpekçilik, İstanbul, 1960. Darkot, B; Dağlıoğlu, H.T., “Ayıntab”, İslam Ansiklopedisi, Cilt II, İstanbul, 1979. Doğdu, Yüksel, Gaziantep Yöresi Geleneksel Erkek Giyimlerinin İncelenmesi, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Konya, 2010. Erden, Attila, Anadolu Giysileri, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara, 1999. İmer, Zahide, Gaziantep Yöresinde Üretilen Kutnu, Alaca ve Meydaniye Kumaşlarının Bazı Teknolojik Özellikleri, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayını, Ankara, 2001. Karpuz, E.; Esirgenler, E., “Gaziantep Müzesinde Bulunan Kadın Kıyafetlerinden Örnekler”, Müjgan Üçer’e Armağan Kitabı, İstanbul, 2011. Karpuz, E.; Esirgenler, E., Konya’nın Kırk Giyimi, Konya Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kültür Yayını, Konya, 2015. Koçu, R. Ekrem, Türk Giyim Kuşam Süslenme Sözlüğü, Sümerbank Kültür Yayınları, Ankara, 1969. Köylüoğlu, Atken, Kadim Şehir Gaziantep, Gaziantep, 2009. Lecomte, Pretextat, “Türkiye’de Sanatlar ve Zenaatlar 19. yy. Sonu”, Tercüman 1001 Temel Eser, İstanbul, Tarihsiz. Nabioğlu, Emine, “Geleneksel Dokumalarımızdan Gaziantep Kutnu, Alaca ve Meydaniye Kumaşlarının Günümüzdeki Durumu ve Kullanım Olanaklarının Arttırılması Üzerine Öneriler”, I. Uluslar arası Yöresel Bez Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, İstanbul, 2012. Ögel, Bahaattin, Türk Kültür Tarihine Giriş, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Cilt 5, Ankara, 1991. Özbel, Kenan, “Eski Türk Kumaşları”, El Sanatları III, Kılavuz Kitapları XI, CHP Halkevleri Bürosu, Ulus Basımevi, 1945. Özen, Mine Esiner, “Türkçede Kumaş Adları”; A.Ü.E.F. Tarih Dergisi, Sayı: 33, Mart 1980/1981, İstanbul, 1982. Yatman, N., Türk Kumaşları, Halkevi Neşriyatı, Ankara, 1945.

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TOURISM DEMAND AND REAL EFFECTIVE EXCHANGE RATE RELATION IN TURKEY: COINTEGRATION AND CAUSALITY ANALYSIS Prof. Dr. Ahmet AY Selçuk University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics

[email protected] Asst.Prof Oktay KIZILKAYA Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics

[email protected] Emrah SOFUOĞLU Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics

[email protected]

Abstract It is generally accepted that one of the most determinant factor of economic growth is tourism revenues. Tourism revenues play an effective role in not only contributing economic growth but also financing current account deficit. The aim of this study is to evaluate the relationship between international tourist arrivals (residing in a foreign country) and real effective exchange rate in Turkey. For this purpose, Johansen-Juselius cointegration analysis method is utilized for the period of 2003:1-2016:1. After employing unit root test, it is seen that all variables are stationary at first difference. According to the cointegration analysis findings, variables are cointegrated in the long term. In this sense, real exchange rate has a positive impact on international arrivals in Turkey. Besides, while there is not a relationship between the variables in the short term, bi-directional relationship is found between international tourist arrivals and real effective exchange rate in the long term. Keywords: Tourism Demand, Real Effective Exchange Rate, Cointegration

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 1. Introduction Tourism recently becomes a fast growing, developing and changing sector. Countries put a premium on this sector because of economic growth, financing current account deficit, creating employment. In addition, they form mechanisms in order to increase tourism volume. For the sake of increasing tourism receipts, countries also advertise their natural, historical and cultural values especially via media. In this context, they try to host scientific, cultural, social, sportive organizations. Democracy culture, security, natural-cultural and historical legacy are the core criteria determining the number of foreign tourists. In fact, prices of tourism products and exchange rate are just as important as the criteria mentioned above. Tourism reveals itself as a fragile sector against any shocks. The number of incoming tourists can fluctuate as a result of shocks in exchange rates, political instabilities, level of security, natural disasters etc. Because economic activities in this sector are mostly depends on foreign exchange, any shocks pose a risk. High exchange rate volatility necessitates protecting against these risks (Kutukız, 2005;199). In spite of the shocks in the World economy, tourism sector grows continuously. International tourist number increased from 25 million in 1950 to 278 million in 1980, 674 million in 2000 and 1,2 billion in 2015. Similarly, tourism incomes across the globe increased from 2 billion $ in 1950 to 104 billion $, 495 billion $ in 2000 and 1,26 trillion $ in 2015. In 2015, tourism directly, indirectly and stimulatingly contributed to the World economy as its %10 (UNWTO, 2016). Tourism constitutes % 7 of World export with 1,5 trillion $. Within the frame of this data, tourism is a driving force for the World economy. Table 1: Incoming tourists to Turkey and Tourism Revenues (2010Q1:2016:Q2) Period

Tourism Revenues (Thousand $)

Number of Tourists

2012Q1

3.524.422

4219161

2012Q2

7.066.015

9323460

2012Q3

11.055.087

15437123

2012Q4

7.361.478

7484177

2013Q1

4.648.816

4773826

2013Q2

8.315.789

10267778

2013Q3

11.579.006

16057651

2013Q4

7.765.380

8126971

2014Q1

4.807.836

5065759

2014Q2

8.975.976

10967100

2014Q3

12.854.373

17084013

2014Q4

7.667.719

8298198

2015Q1

4.868.890

5344575

2015Q2

7.733.677

10751351

2015Q3

12.294.189

17408994

2015Q4

6.568.022

8112611

2016Q1

4.066.384

5107553

2016Q2

4.981.318

7495035

Source: TSI, 2016

In table 1, data about foreign resident tourists visiting Turkey and tourism revenues is given. Generally it can be inferred from Table 1 that the number of incoming tourist has decreasing from 2015Q1 gradually. Recent terrorist attacks, aircraft crisis with Russia and civil war in the Middle East cause a substantial fall in incoming tourist number in Turkey. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between the number of incoming tourist number and exchange rate. In this context, in introductory part, the general view of tourism in the World and

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Turkey is presented. In the second part, the literature review about the relationship between tourism demand and real exchange rate is given a place. In the third part, an empirical analysis about the relationship between tourism demand and real exchange rate is conducted and the results are presented. At last, the results are evaluated and policies are suggested. 2. Literature Studies about tourism are especially focused on the relationship between tourism revenues and economic growth. In this part of study, literature review about the relationship between the number of incoming foreign tourist and real Exchange rate in addition to the relationship between tourism revenues and economic growth. Table 2: Literature Review Author

Period

Method

Findings

5 countries sending tourists to Turkey most

1996Q12013Q4

Panel Data

There is a strong negative relationship between tourism prices, travel costs and tourism demand, a strong positive relationship between exchange rate and tourism demand.

Bozkurt and Pekmezci (2015)

Turkey

1996:12012:9

Causality Analysis

One way relationship from tourism demand shock to exchange rate shock is found as a result of Grange Causality Test.

Dinçer (2015)

et.

al.

Turkey

2002-2014

Cointegration

In the long run there is no Cointegration and causality relationships between real effective exchange rate and tourism revenues.

Panahi (2015)

et.

al.

Turkey

1970-2011

Kalman Filter

There is a positive relationship between tourism revenues and economic growth.

Selim et. (2015)

al.

Turkey

1980-2012

VAR

In the long run, there is a relationship between GDP, tourist number, tourism revenues and real effective exchange rate.

Aydın (2015)

Country Country Group et.

al.

/

One way relationship from GDP to real effective exchange rate is found as a result of Grange Causality Test. Agiomirgianakis et. al. (2014)

Turkey

1994-2012

Cointegration

There is a negative relationship between exchange rate volatility and incoming tourist number.

Aktaş et. (2014)

al.

Turkey

2003:12011:4

EGARCH

Exchange rate volatility has a negative impact on tourism revenues.

Bozkurt Topçuoğlu (2013)

and

Turkey

1970-2011

Causality

There is a two-way Granger Causality relationship between economic growth and the proportion of tourism revenues in export revenues in both long

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN and short run. Çoban and Özcan (2013)

Turkey

1963-2010

Cointegration

In the short run, there is no relationship between variables. In the long run, tourism is an important reason of economic growth.

Erkan (2013)

et.

al.

Turkey

2005:12012:12

VAR

There is a two-way Granger Causality relationship between tourism revenues and number of tourists. Real exchange rate has no effect on tourism revenues.

Zortuk and Bayrak (2013)

Turkey

1999Q12013Q2

Unit Root

As a result of analysis, there is a unit root in incoming tourist number and revenue time series. There is not a unit root in tourism price, transportation costs and exchange rate time series.

Kara et. (2012)

al.

Turkey

1992-2011

VAR, Granger Causality

One way relationship from exchange rate to tourism revenues is found as a result of Grange Causality Test.

Polat and Günay (2012)

Turkey

1969-2009

Cointegration

In the long run there is a relationship between export revenues, tourism revenues and economic growth.

Yamak (2012)

al.

Turkey

1968-2006

Cointegration

In the long run there is no relationship between tourism revenues, sectors and GDP.

Hepaktan and Çınar (2010)

Turkey

1980-2008

Cointegration

Tourism sector has a positive impact on foreign trade, however has not any impact on economic growth.

Katırcıoğlu (2009)

Turkey

1960-2006

Cointegration

Any relationship between exchange rate, foreign tourist number and economic growth is not found.

Öztürk and Acaravcı (2009)

Turkey

1987-2007

Cointegration

The hypothesis that growth depending on tourism is not valid in Turkey.

Demirel et. al. (2007)

Turkey

1994Q12006Q4

EGARCH

Tourists coming from USA, Germany and England are not interested in the change an instability in real exchange rate.

Yavuz (2006)

Turkey

1992:Q12004:Q4

Cointegration

There is no relationship between tourism revenues and economic growth in Turkey.

Gündüz and Hatemi-J (2005)

Turkey

1963-2002

Causality

The hypothesis that growth depending on tourism is supported.

et.

Cointegration

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 3. Empirical Application In this part, the relationship between foreign resident incoming tourist number and real effective exchange rate is examined. Model is defined as below. lntouristt= β0 + β1lnreert + e Here; t is time, lntourist is foreign resident tourist number and lnreer is real effective exchange rate. Data is quarterly and covers 2003Q1-2016Q1 period. In the model, the dependent variable is foreign resident tourist number and the independent one is real effective exchange rate. In order to find the relationship between variables Cointegration method is used which is developed by Johansen-Juselius (1990). Data is seasonally adjusted and natural logarithms are used. Table 3: Variables Variables

Notation

Explanation

Data Source

Period

International tourist number

lntourist

Number of people

TSI

2003Q12016Q1

Real effective exchange rate

lnreer

TL/Dollar

EDDS

2003Q12016Q1

3.1. Stationary Tests For conducting Cointegration test, variables must have unit roots at level and be stationary at first difference. For this purpose ADF test is conducted. As a result, variables are stationary to order 1. As it can be seen in Table-2. Philips (1987) and Philips & Perron (1988), developed a unit root test to identify whether there is autocorrelation and/or heteroscedasticity in residual terms. For a healthier analysis, in addition to ADF test, Philips–Perron test is also conducted. As it can be seen in Table-4, variables are stationary to order 1 according to both ADF and Philips-Perron tests. Table 4: ADF and PP Test Results for Variables Variables ADF ADF (∆) PP

PP(∆)

Lntourist

-9.25

-3.58

Lnreer

-9.38

-3.41

-3.44

-7.17

Critical Value (%1):

-3.41

SONUÇ I(0)

-7.75

I(0)

-4.14

Note: Value in parenthesis for ADF test shows the lag number according to Schwarz Info-Criteria. Maximum lag length is taken as 10.

3.2. Cointegration Tests and Findings Before starting Johansen multi Cointegration analysis, appropriate lag length should be decided. Johansen and Juselius (JJ) decided optimal lag length in info criteria as 2 for Cointegration test. Before Cointegration, diagnostics are checked whether there is autocorrelation and/or heteroscedasticity. There is not any problem about the model. Table 5: Johansen Cointegration Test Results Variable: lntourist, lnreer

Lag Length: 2

Trace Statistics

Maximum Eigenvalue Statistics

Null Hypothesis

Alternative Hypothesis

(H0)

(H1)

r≤0*

r>0

r≤1

r>1

Test Statistics

Critical Value

Null Hypothesis

Alternative Hypothesis

(%5)

(H0)

(H1)

26.51

25.87

r=0*

r=1

18.84

19.39

7.67

12.52

r=1

r=2

7.67

12.52

* reject null hypothesis.

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Test Statistics

Critical Value (%5)

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Trace statistics between variables in the table show that there is only 1 cointegrated vector for the lag length chosen in VAR model. This shows there is a long term relationship between variables. This long term relationship can be examined easier with normalized cointegrating vector estimates. Estimated vector is normalized by multiplying the opposite sign (-1) of the coefficient of the endogenous variable (Sevüktekin, Nargeleçekenler, 2010). Normalized Vector results are shown in Table-6. Table 6: Normalized Cointegration Vector Normalized Coefficients

Coefficients

lntourist

1

lnreer

-1.04*

c (constant)

11.23

t statistics

-5.93

lntourist= -11.23 + 1.04lnreer *, Coefficients are statistically significant at %1 level of significance.

As it can be seen from Table-6 real exchange rate has a positive effect on tourist number coming to Turkey. So that an increase in exchange rate cause an increase the number of foreign resident tourists. Table 7: Granger Causality Test Depending on Vector Error Correction Model Independent Variables

d(lntourist)

d(lnreer)

Short Term Causality

Long Term Causality

d(lntourist) F Statistics

d(lnreer) F Statistics

ECTt-1

-

(0.18)

0.40b [2.76]

(0.19)

-

-0.30b [-2.39]

Values in parenthesis shows ‘prob.’ probability. a shows %10 level of significance, b shows %1 level of significance. Square brackets show t statistics.

In Table 7, statistically significance of error correction term and lagged variable indicates that there is a long term bi-directional causality relationship between real effectice exchange rate and tourism demand. In the short run there is not any causality relationship between variables. 4. Result In Turkey tourism sector has begun to develop especially after 1980. January 24 Decisions are basic reason of this. After January 24 Decisions import-substitution industrialization policies are abandoned and export-led industrialization policies accepted. Export-led industrialization is seen as basic principal of free market economy. Tourism is easy, effective, efficient and relatively cheap by implementing that new policy (Tosun, 2001). Tourism revenues contributes economy in terms of macroeconomics via financing current account deficits, stimulating economic growth, creating employment and arising new sectors related tourism. In addition to this the number of incoming tourists is accepted a serious international socio-economic indicator. In this study the relationship between foreign resident incoming tourist number and real effective exchange rate is examined. Johansen-Juselius Cointegration method is used between 2003Q1-2016Q1 periods. In the long run there is Cointegration relationship between variables. Accordingly, an increase in exchange rate cause an increase the number of foreign resident tourists. According to Causality analysis, there is no relationship between variables in the short run. However, in the long run there is a two-way causality relationship between variables. This results confirm that any increase in exchange rate make domestic goods and services relatively cheaper for tourists and so increase tourism demand. Turkey is an important tourism center with its natural resources, historical & cultural legacy, geographical position and infrastructure & facilities. However, political instabilities in Middle East

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN and terrorism affect Turkey negatively. Tourists take peace and security into consideration while choosing the countries to travel. In this sense, tourism sector of Turkey is negatively affected from chaos environment and terrorist actions. For this reason, empirical studies about tourism and terrorism will contribute literature. References Agiomirgianakis, G., Serenis, D. and Tsounis, N. (2014). Exchange rate volatility and tourist flows into Turkey. Journal Of Economic Integration, 29(4):700-725 Aktaş , A.R., Özkan B., Kaplan, F., Brumfield, R.G. (2014). Exchange rate volatility: Effect on Turkish tourism incomes. Management Studies, August 2014, Vol. 2, No. 8, 493-499, doi: 10.17265/23282185/2014.08.001 Aydın, A.,Darıcı, B., Taşçı H.M. (2015). Uluslararası turizm talebini etkileyen ekonomik faktörler: Türkiye üzerine bir uygulama."Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 45 (2015): 143-177. Bozkurt, K., Pekmezci A. (2015). Turizm talebi ve döviz kuru şokları: Türk turizm sektörü için ekonometrik bir analiz. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, Ağustos 2015, 10(2) , 91- 105. Bozkurt E., Topçuoğlu Ö. (2013). Türkiye’de ekonomik büyüme ve turizm ilişkisi. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Elektronik Dergisi, 7, 92-105 Çoban O., Özcan C.C. (2013). Türkiye’de turizm gelirleri-ekonomik büyüme ilişkisi: Nedensellik analizi: (19632010)”, Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, 1, 243-261 Demirel, B., Güneşer Bozdağ, E. ve İnci, (2007). Döviz kurlarındaki dalgalanmaların gelen turist sayısına etkisi;Türkiye örneği, http://www.deu.edu.tr /userweb/iibf_kongre/dosyalar/demirel.pdf, 5 Ağustos, 1-15. Dinçer, M.Z., Istanbullu Dinçer, F., Ustaoğlu M. (2015). Reel effective exchange rate volatilities ımpact on tourism sector in Turkey: An empirical analysis of 2003-2014. Procedia Economics and Finance, 23 ( 2015 ) 1000 – 1008 Erkan, B., Kara, O., Harbalıoğlu, M. (2013). Türkiye’de turizm gelirlerinin belirleyicileri. Akademik Bakış Dergisi, c.39, 1-20. Gündüz, L. ve Hatemi, A. (2005). Is the tourism-ledgrowth hypothesis valid for Turkey, Applied Economics, 12 (8), 499-504. Hepaktan C.E., Çınar S. (2010). Turizm sektörünün Türkiye ekonomisi üzerindeki etkileri. Celal Bayar Üniversitesi S.B.E., 8(2), 135-154. Kara O., Çömlekçi İ., Kaya V. (2012). Turizm gelirlerinin çeşitli makroekonomik göstergeler ile ilişkisi: Turkey örneği(1992 – 2011). Ekonomik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 8(8), 75-100. Katircioglu, Salih T. Revisiting the tourism-led-growth hypothesis for Turkey using the bounds test and Johansen approach for cointegration. Tourism Management 30(1) 17-20. Kutukız, D. (2005). Turizm sektöründe döviz riski ve korunma yöntemleri. Muhasebe ve Finans Dergisi, 28, ss.198-207 Öztürk İ., Acaravcı A. (2009). On the causality between tourism growth and economic growth: Empirical evidence from Turkey”, Transylvanian Review of Administrative Sciences, 73-81 Panahi, H., Mamipour, S., Nazari K. (2015). Tourism and economic growth: a time-varying parameter approach. Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 26(2), 173-185 Panahi, H., Mamipour, S., Nazari K. (2015). Tourism and economic growth: a time-varying parameter approach. Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 26(2), 173-185

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Phillips, P. C. B. (1987). Time Series Regression With A Unit Root. Econometrica, 55(2), ss. 277-301. Phillips, P. C. B., Perron, P. (1988). Testing for a unit root in time series regression. Biometrika, 75(2), ss. 335346. Polat E., Günay S. (2012). Türkiye’de turizm ve ihracat gelirlerinin ekonomik büyüme üzerindeki etkisinin testi: Cointegration ve Nedensellik analizi. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 16(2), 204-211 Selim, S., Ayvaz Güven, E.T., Eryiğit, P. (2015). Turizmin Türkiye ekonomisindeki yeri: Zaman serileri analizi, Uluslararası Alanya İşletme Fakültesi Dergisi, Yıl:2015, C:7, S:3, s.19-33. Sevüktekin, M. ve M. Nargeleçekenler (2010). Ekonometrik Zaman Serileri Analizi, Nobel: Ankara. Tang, C.F. (2011). Tourism, real output and real effective exchange rate in Malaysia: a view from rolling subsamples. Munich Personal RePEc Archive, MPRA Paper No. 29379, 1-20 Tosun, C. (2001). Challenges of sustainable tourism development in the developing world: the case of Turkey. Tourism Management, 22, 289-303 Yamak N., Tanrıöver B., Güneysu F. (2012). Turizm-ekonomik büyüme ilişkisi: sektör bazında bir inceleme. Atatürk Üniversitesi, İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 16(2), 205-220. Yavuz N.Ç (2006). Türkiye’de turizm gelirlerinin ekonomik büyümeye etkisinin testi: yapısal kırılma ve Nedensellik analizi. Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, 7(2), 162-171 Zortuk, M., Bayrak, S. (2013). Seçilmiş Ülkelere Göre Türkiye’nin Turizm Talebi. Ekonometri ve İstatistik Sayı:19 2013 38-58.

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THE PRESENTATION OF THE IDEOLOGY IN THE CARTOONS IN THE TRIANGLE OF GOVERNMENT-IDEOLOGY AND MEDIA: THE EXAMPLES OF SMURFS AND RICHIE RICH Assoc. Prof.Dr. Enderhan KARAKOÇ Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication [email protected] Research Assistant. İkbal BOZKURT AVCI Fırat University, Faculty of Communication [email protected] Abstract The individuals possessing the government employ some instruments in order to keep their current power, maintain the status quo and spread their ideology to all over the society. Media which is one of the social instruments such as education, religion and family which are employed by the governments play a big role in shaping the modern societies of these days. Media, presents individuals messages which contain ideological elements through various contents beginning in their childhood and the individuals interiorize those ideological codes after a while. Those messages which are taken especially during the childhood affect the entire life of the individual, the world perspective, philosophy of life and lifestyle of the individual are majorly shaped in this direction during the following years. The childhood period of the individual which he soaks everything like a sponge is his portrait which thrown to the following century. When it is considered that the government injects its ideology especially through children-oriented cartoons in media, we may conclude that cartoons are not as innocent as they are assumed and this issue should be discussed in detail. In this study which deals with the presentation of ideologies in cartoons, the way the Marxist and capitalist ideas are imposed on the children is analyzed. As for sampling of the study, “The Smurfs” which employs tracts from Marxist thought and “Richie Rich” which contains capitalist elements were chosen. In the study where the purposive sampling method is applied, 10 episodes of each cartoons were randomly selected and the selected episodes were analyzed through the method of semiotics. The analysis was conducted through providing interrelations with “the indicating instrument, indicator, the indicated person, denotation and connotation” by Roland Barthes. When the data obtained from the study was analyzed, it was found that the basic parameters of Marxism and capitalism such as possession, the use of money, work sharing, equality/inequality and freedom were employed in both cartoons in accordance with the dominant ideology. Keywords: Government, ideology, cartoons, capitalism, Marxism, Smurfs and Richie Rich.

1. Introduction Iocasta: What sort of thing is it? What is so difficult during the exile? Polyneikes: The worst one is that individuals can‟t express their thoughts loudly, Iocasta: But, being unable to express one‟s thoughts is slavery. Polyneikes: Human may have to put up with the foolishness of their masters. The dialogue cited from the book of “The Phoenician Women” by Euripides (cited by Scott, 1995: 42) 249

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN draws attention to a significant point related to the history of political thoughts: The political thought is mostly established on mutual controversies. Although the names describing the controversies – master/slave, landowner/serf, Indic/pariah - differ from society to society, there is an unchanging relationship between the dominant and amenable in the social structure. With reference to the notion that social order is based on the superior-subordinate relationships, this idea justifies the the domination of the dominant one on the amenable one in different forms. The dominant, namely the one who holds the power, repeatedly presents this dominance on the amenables through some instruments. Althusser (2014: 50-51) mentions that the ideology of the dominant class is transferred to the society in two ways. He carefully distinguishes them and classifies them as “The Impressing Instruments of the State” and “the Ideological Instruments of the State”. The Impressing Instruments of the State consists of the government, administration, armed forces, justice, courts, and its mechanisms. The Ideological Instruments includes religion, school, family, law, politics, unions, education and mass communication instruments. Of course, mass communication instruments are the leading ones among those instruments which are efficiently and effectively employed by the dominant class. Nowadays, the babies are born to a world which was surrounded by the mass communication instruments while numerous people spend the final moments of their lives in front of mass communication instruments. Considering tha fact that human beings willingly or unwillingly encounter the messages coming from mass communication instruments throughout their lives, especially childhood period carris rather significant risk factors. Because, this period when the knowledge and experience hasn‟t been formed yet is the period which children are all open to all sorts of effects. Especially, the cartoons blended with various ideologies and sub-meanings attributed to them are the topics worth analyzing. In this study which deals with the presentation of ideology in cartoons, the ways of reflecting Marxist and capitalist ideologies are employed in those cartoons are analyzed. The “Richie Rich” which employs capitalist factors and “The Smurfs” which carries tracks from Marxist thought were chosen as samplings. In the study where purposeful sampling method is employed, randomly 10 scenes from both cartoons and the selected sections were analyzed through semiological method. From the data obtained in the study, it was found that the basic parameters of Marxism and capitalism such as possession, use of money, work sharing, equality/inequality, and freedom were employed in the cartoons in accordance with the dominant ideology. 2. The Theoretical Basis of Ideology The history of Western political and social thought had an otherworldly characteristic before the process of Reform, Renaissance and Enlightenment and it was shaped under the effect of religion and magic. Upon the modernization, thought gained momentum towards the secularization. Religion and magic started to lose its dominance on the individuals who are between the clamps of the capitalist industrialization and a new belief system was needed (Thompson, 2013: 21). When all the substructure of the new belief system was established, “ideology” filled the gap created by the declination of religion and magic. It was almost impossible to see a single and inclusive definition of the ideology which found its place in the social and political thought literature approximately two centuries ago. Ideology which is commonly known as “false consciousness” is defined as “the wrong ideas which serve to the legitimization of a dominant political power” (Eagleton, 2011: 18). Van Dijk (2005: 323) expresses the ideology as “a social cognition shared by a group, class or other social formations”. The Marxist ideology generally grounds on the the proposition of Marx and Engels stating that the administrative ideas in a society, according to “German Ideology”, are the ideas of the class which owns production instruments (Mutlu, 1994: 94). Marx emphasizes that the dominant groups were ideological in terms of representing the values and interests and draws attention to the fact that ideological factors achieved in receiving the general consent of the amenables through some masks (Layder, 2010: 51). Althusser who points out different aspects of the Marxist ideology through reading symptomatic states

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN that ideology had imaginary relationships with own existence conditions of the individuals. According to Althusser who argued against ideology perceived as the false consciousness, ideologies can‟tbe produced by human minds. They are produced by a tangible structure concretized in the institutions such as churches, mosques, schools, unions and media which teach human beings how to think and which he defined as the ideological instruments of the state (Yaylagül, 2006: 102). Althusser (Hall, 2005: 204) points out that ideologies are the cultural objects which are perceived, accepted and encountered and he states that they fuction through a process which is beyond the human beings and escapes from human beings. In the approach of Gramsci (Hall, 2005: 213-214) towards ideology, the concept “hegemony” has great significance. The structures of hegemony which are based on the combination of power and consent functions with ideology. In other words, “the definitions of reality” which are on behalf of the dominant power turned into the “the experienced reality”. The ideology which “protects the unity of an entire social block” by this way provides the “plastering” in the social formation. Sassure, Barthes and Levi-Straus who are in the tradition of British Cultural Reviews focused on the triangle of language, culture and ideology within the context of media. According to them, the media-texts don‟t have a singular and plain meaning. Each text contains ideological and covered factors which aren‟t recognizet at the first glance. The ideology which has been written by numerous people for two centuries and dealt with in all its parts are again shaped in accordance with the ideology of those who make definitions. Of course, two dominant ideology of the previous century are “Marxism” and “Capitalism”. Within this context, it is essential to mention about the basic parameters of Marxism and Capitalism. 2.1. Related to the Capitalist Ideology In the sixteenth century, a new economic system which is called capitalism emerged upon the valuable mines were transferred to Europe from America, the increase in population and the developments in the natural sciences. Capitalism emerged when the current economic organization, developing economy and changing society failed in answering the needs (Güriz, 1993: 195). Capitalism which increasingly rose in line with industrialization in the nineteenth century is specified as the possession of the production instruments and their distribution by the private enterprises and their operation profit-orientedly in the maximum competition conditions. The focusing of wealth on a specific point and rapid growth of the companies accompany it (Soccio, 2010: 631). After capitalism, the desire to possess the power and dominate which exists in human beings shifted to the desire of being capitalist. However, possessing capital should be through rational working and organization on the contrary to the past when those are achieved through conquest, speculations and adventure. Another characteristics of capitalism is the desire to collect in addition to desire of consuming limitlessly. Capitalism which is based on breaucratic rationalism is a continuous organization of cooperation which numerous people executed their own special function (Güriz, 1993: 197). Capitalism which is based on individualism, private property, competition, free market, free foreign trade, and limited governmental intervening brings individuals and individual interests into the forefront. The basis of economic activities in capitalism is capital while its objective is the profit; namely, increasing the personal fortune and capital of the capitalist. In this system, the level of personal benefit is determined according to the general benefit. Every activity is for the market, the benefit of the capitalist organizes the market and the risk is completely on the individuals. The individual increases his own wealth through taking risks and producing more products for the change in the market; in the same time, he increases the quantity of the products and improves the status of everyone. The more he produces the more he increases both his status and the wealth of the nation (Bal, t.y. 5-6). 2.2. Related to the Marxist Ideology Marxism which appeared as the opinion of the age of heavy industry emerged with capitalism, 251

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN industrialization, and the proletariat class as a result of them which rose in the nineteenth century and offered solutions to their problems through revealing the contradicts of the modern society. Marxism which is defined as “The expression of the modern age with all its problems” in the most general sense isn‟t only composed of the works of Karl Marx as well as it isn‟t solely thought of Karl Marx (Lefebvre, 2010: 24). However, Marx has provided a vast amount of contribution to the idea. Because, the age Marx lived in is the age when huge progress was seen in technical fields, human beings were able to dominate the elements in many fields and societies got richer. However, those positive developments were seen to bring along some negative results for individuals. The working masses became impoverished day by day and lost their freedom (Göze, 2005: 272). According to Marx, human beings inevitably enter into definite relations while producing their social lives and they are production relationships. All those production relationships determine the economic structure of the society. Economic structure is the real foundation of the society. Legal and political superstructure rise over the economic structure of the society. There are social consciousness forms which conform to this foundation. The production form of material life conditions general, social, political and intellectual processes (Erdoğan, 2010: 192). According to Marx who drew attention to the fact that economic structures have primary importance, those who possess the indystries and factories producing products and services are strong in terms of economy. They gain their profit through exploiting the labors. Marx points out that this economic exploiting relationship is the basis for capitalist society. Marx enlightens the class decomposition in the society as well as the relationships with infra-structure and superstructure. His modern social class model is the “a model of two classes” which emphasizes that the owners of production instruments use force on the workers who don‟t posses any properties (Layder, 2010: 49). Marx who emphasizes that capitalism is an organization established on inequality and discrepansies points out that its psychological reflection was “alienation”. In capitalism, humqn beings are evaluated according to their labor value and other characteristics are ignored. For that reason, individuals move off from their humanity, become alienated and feel that their ties broke away from other human beings and their own self-respect. Marxism strikes that human beings alienated in terms of economic and social values and also emphasizes that he degenerates in terms of religion. According to Marxism, religion emerged when human beings started to perceive his own power and supremacy and recognize his own power out of him and in the nature (Göze, 2005: 290). According to Marx (2003), one side of capitalism contains the people possessing the production instruments while there are proletariat which conduct production on the other side. Marx who stated that working class was exploited during the final phase of capitalism also predicted that this class would rebel against the oppressive regime. For that reason, the working class abolish the bourgeoisie through a revolutionsit attempt and seizethe government through a communist invasion (Layder, 2010: 50). Upon the working class seizes the government, society without any classes will emerge and freedom will have its real value. Thus, the capitalist elements will be removed from economy, industry will be completely nationalized and agriculture will be collectivized. The state owns the production instruments in communism and they are used to satisfy the needs of all the people. On the other hand, the work-sharing is conducted according to the the abilities of the individuals and it is aimed to prevent the human beings from being exploited by other human beings (Göze, 2005: 293-298). In communism which is the next stage of socialism, the state will be gradually removed. 3. Media as the Ideological Instrument of the Government If we consider ideology as the forms of establishing and maintaining the superiority relations, it may be seen that mass communication has enormous results in terms of the nature and content of the ideological phenomenons of development. With development of mass communication, the circulation of symbolic forms got further away from the sharing of a common physical environments. Thus, it is possible that ideological/mass phenomenons turn into phenomenons with the capacity of influencing numeorus people in the various and dissociated environment in case that mass communication develops (Thompson, 2013: 31). More clearly, mass communication, namely, media turned into the basic instrument of the ideology in modern societies. In the advanced capitalism of the twentieth century, media quantitatively and qualitatively establishes

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN a designatory and fundamental leadership in the cultural field. Mass communication instruments started to influence a bigger group than older cultural channels in terms of economic, social and cultural resources. Rather, modern communication instruments enabled groups and classes establish a meaning, practice and value image on the other groups and classes (Hall, 2005: 224). Gramsci who draws attention to the significance of cultural and ideological instruments as well as physical power when the dominant class establishes its power constructed his thought on the phenomenon of hegemony. Hegemony which is described as the world-view of the class directing the society is related to the terms of culture, government and ideology. According to Gramsci, the idea of the dominant class is the ministers of religion, teachers and especially the workers of mass communication whom he defined as the organic intellectuals. Gramsci who regards media as an instrument to transfer the values of the dominant class to the televiewers/audience/readers points out that media transfers the dominant values and reproduces hegemony (Yaylagül, 2007: 97-98). According to Althusser (2014) who located media into “the Ideological Instruments of the State”, the role of subject is imposed on the individuals by the dominant structure. The social practices both defines the characteristics of the individuals conducting those practices and establishes some aspects which they may posses and conceptualizations related to their limitations (Therborn, 2008: 23). The roles which people play within the society and the activities they conduct are provided to them by the social practices. The social practices of the people are established by education, religion, and especially media (Yaylagül, 2006: 103). The Semiological Analysis of the Cartoons “Richie Rich” and “Smurfs” In this section of the study, the semiological analysis of the cartoons of “Richie Rich” and “Smurfs” which were chosen as the sampling is conducted. 4. Methodology The objective of the study which is grounded on the presentation of ideology in the cartoons is to reveal the presentation methods of Marxist and Capitalist thought in those productions. “Smurfs” bearing the stamps of Marxist thought and “Richie Rich” employing capitalist elements were determined as samplings. The purposive sampling method was employed in the study, randomly ten episodes were from each cartoon and the chosen episodes were analyzed through semiological method. The semiotics deals with the production and change of the meaning rather than transmitting the messages (Fiske, 2003: 239). In this study, thus, it was aimed to reveal the lexical production and changes of the basic parameters of Marxism and capitalism such as possession, use of money, cooperation, social classes, equality/inequality, freedom in the cartoons of “Richie Rich” and “Smurfs”. 5. The Semiological Analysis of the Cartoon “Richie Rich” 5.1. Possession of Properties

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Picture 1

Picture 2

Picture 3

Indicator

Indicative

Indicated

Picture 1

House

Possession of Properties

Picture 2

Safe Box

Picture 3

Car

Richie Rich who owns the capital is not only the owner of the capital but also the solely owner of everything in the cartoon. In the house of Richie who owns a giant and magnificent house, there are gold, dollars and jewels scattered all around the house. Infact, Richie keeps his golds in a secret safe box under the swimming pool in the garden. In addition to his house, the golden car of Richie is also attracting. The cartoon gives the massage that possessing the capital is the way of solely possessing all sort properties. 5.2. Economic Structure

Picture 4

Picture 5

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Picture 6

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Indicator

Indicative

Picture 4

Richie Rich

Picture 5

Richie‟s dog „Dollar‟

Picture 6

Valuable Stones

Indicated

Economic Structure

First of all, we need to mention about the main character who names after the cartoon with his name. The name of the main character in the cartoon is “Richie Rich”; Richie is already rich since he owns the capital. He is so rich that; he calls his dog “Dollar”. The name of Dollar was metaphorically used for dog. In capitalism, money is the dog (slave) of the bourgeous and it is a value that the individual may have everything through it. On the other hand, the capitalist Richie is so rich that his picture is located on the dollar bills. Richie not only economically manages money but also uses valuable stones such as diamonds and brilliants as accessories. Even, the valuable stones are just toys for Richie. Through the economic structure presented in the cartoon, individual desires and pleasures are driven forward and the society is put into the background.

5.3. The Use of Equality or Dual Class Structure

Picture 7

Indicator

Indicative

Indicated

Picture 7

Employee-employer

The Dual Class Structure

The class structure finds its own level in the cartoon in accordance with the capitalist ideology. In addition to the fact that Richie isn‟t equal to the people working for him, there is a hierarchical relationship between them. In terms of both physical status and relationships, Richie is always at the top while the employees are lower. While Richie is on the razzle on the couch, the servant works for him. Thus, the dilemma of bourgeous-prolaterat which is called the capitalist class structure is thoroughly highlighted. 5.4. Co-operation

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Picture 8

Picture 9

Indicator

Indicative

Picture 8

Adventure

Picture 9

Maid

Picture 10

Servant

Picture 10

Indicated

Co-operation

The only thing Richie who owns the capital is to embark on an adventure everyday and sort out the problems he encountered during the adventure through his power and wealth. His professor, servant and maid are obliged to fulfill their duties according to their areas of expertise. Rich possesses the mental labor of the professor and hand labor of his robot maid. There are numerous wage-slaves around Richie so that they provide him all sorts of services. 6. The Semiological Analysis of the Cartoon “Smurfs” 6.1. Possession of Properties

Picture 11

Indicator Picture 11

Indicative

Indicated

The Village of Smurfs

Possession of Properties

In the village of Smurfs having a communal structure, everybody owns a house. Almost all the houses are one and the same, nobody is superior to anybody in the village and the houses in this village aren‟t better or worse than the other houses. The possession wasn‟t given to the dominance of a single person in the village. Vereybody residing in the village are both owners of their own houses and

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN theya are workers according to their abilities. 6.2. Economic Structure

Picture 12

Indicator

Indicative

Indicated

Picture 12

Co-operation

Economic Structure

The village of Smurfs has a covered market economy. In the village where no money or another material value of exchange is used, everybody who needs something may satisfy their needs through interchanging without any payments in the village. Each smurf is both owner and consumer of the economic values. The priority is on society in the smurf economic structure and social life instead of individuals. Activities are conducted for the benefit of society. No smurf selfishly or avariciously intends to own everything. 6.3. The Use of Equality

Picture 13 Indicator

Indicative

Indicated

Picture 13

Uniform

Equality

Throughout the history, the most important cloth symbolizing equality is uniform. In Smurfs, the blue skin color and their white uniforms attributes to the equality. In the cartoon where nobody is 257

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN superior to anyone, everybody is equal. No Smurf is superior or subordinate to the other due to their professions or abilities. The Father Smurf who draws attention with his red uniform is the leadr of the village. 6.4. Co-operation

Picture 14

Picture 15

Indicator

Indicative

Indicated

Picture 14

The Smurfs who work by physical

Co-operation

strength Picture 15

The Smurfs who work according to their abilities

Each member of the Smurf village conducts an activity according to his skills and abilities. There is no discrimination between the professions such as “Farming, Mining, Cooking and Craftsmanship” and qualifications such as “Musicianship, Poesy, Sleepery and Painting” and nobody comes into prominence. Because, everybody has specific capability, skills and capacity and everybody takes place in working life according to their skills.

6.5. The Use of Religion and Ritual of Belief

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Picture 16

Picture 17

Indicator

Indicative

Picture 16

Father Time

Picture 17

Mother Nature

Picture 18

Magic and

Picture 18

Indicated

The Employment of Religious

ve Büyü

Faith and Rituals

In accordance with the Marxist thought in the Smurfs, no religion or God was employed. Only nature has power in the village of Smurs and they are called “the Father Time” and “the Mother Nature”. Moreover, the frequent employment of magic and sorcery in the cartoon supports the atheist structure.

6.6. Symbolization of Good-Bad

Picture 19 Indicator

Indicative

Indicated

Picture 19

Trap

Symbolization of Good-Bad

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The Smurfs who live in a Marxist-communal social structure represent goodness, honesty, and frankness while Gargamel the capitalist who continuously tries to trap them and thinks nothing except fortune and position is the symbol of bad and badness. 7. Discussion and Conclusion In the modern societies of our days, mass communication instruments surrounded the human beings; individuals encounter thousands of media messages everyday in spite of themselves and they make their choices in many fields in accordance with the messages coming from media. The media messages influence almost everyone in various forms and they affect the children who have no knowledge and experience related to the real world more than the others. Because, “childhood is a period which is influenced from the hegemonic power of media but its results may be observed in a very long term” (Akçalı, 2009: 1). Starting from the notion that childhood is an important period in the development of an individual, this study deals with the presentation style of the cxartoons which grab attention of the children through their colorful and animated images. It was concluded at the end of the study that “Richie Rich” symbolizes the Capitalist ideology while “the Smurfs” represents the Marxist idea through reproducing it. Both of the cartoons design a universe in accordance with their ideologies and present to the children who are the adults of the future. In Richie Rich which was organized with the most basic characteristics of the bourgeous ideology, the possession of properties, economic structure, equality, freedom, individualism, co-operation, religion and belief rituals were described in line with capitalist thought. Richie, the owner of everythin in the film, may easily possess everything easily. In Richie Rich, the dilemma of bourgeous-prolaterat which is considered as the capitalist class sturucture ls in evidence at the first sight. In the cartoon, the merely person to use freedom unlimitedly is Richie Rich. Richie who takes place in a new event in each episode survives at each event thanks to his power and wealth. The Smurfs where a Marxist/communal life is described is a self-enclosed society in terms of economy. Each smurf works at a job in accordance with his sekills and abilities nobody classifies the other according to the relationship of superiority-subordinate even if the nature of business changes. In the cartoon where the equality is often emphasized, this is pinned with the same uniform worn by everybody. Everyone is both an employee and an employer. In the Village of Smurfs, no exchanging value such as money or valuable mines are employed, each smurf satisfies his needs through bartering in the village. Gargamel who live out of the village of Smurf which is a communal structure is described as greedy and bad in order to represent the people owning the capital. References Althusser, Louis (2014). İdeoloji ve Devletin İdeolojik Aygıtları. (Çev: Alp Tümertekin). İstanbul: İthaki Yayınları. Bal, Oğuz (t.y.). Ekonomik Sistem Olarak Kapitalizmin Evrimi ve İstihdam. http://akademikpersonel.kocaeli.edu.tr/oguz.bal/bildiri/oguz.bal10.11.2011_15.56.52bildiri.pdf (Erişim Tarihi : 11/10/2015). Eagleton, Terry (2011). İdeoloji. (Çev: Muttalip Özcan). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Göze, Ayferi (2005). Siyasal Düşünceler ve Yönetimler. İstanbul: Beta Yayıncılık. Fiske, John (2003). İletişim Çalışmalarına Giriş. (Çev: Süleyman İrvan). Ankara: Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları. Güriz, Adnan (1993). Kapitalizm ve Hukuk. Anayasa Yargısı. Ankara: Anayasa Mahkemesi Yayınları. Hall, Stuart (2005). Kültür, Medya ve “İdeolojik Etki” (Der. ve Çev: Mehmet Küçük). Medya, İktidar ve İdeoloji. (191-254). Ankara: Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları. Layder, Derek (2010). Sosyal Teoriye Giriş. (Çev: Ümit Tatlıcan). İstanbul: Küre Yayınları. Lefebvre, Henri (2010). Sosyalist Dünya Görüşü Marksizm. (Çev: G. Doğan Görsev). İstanbul: Yordam Kitap.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Marks, Karl (2003). Kapital: 1. Cilt. (Çev: Alattin Bilgi). İstanbul: Eriş Yayınları. Mutlu, Erol (1994). İletişim Sözlüğü. Ankara: Ark Yayınları. Scott, J. C. (1995). Tahakküm ve Direniş Sanatları: Gizli Senaryolar. (Çev: Alev Türker). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Soccio, Douglas J. (2010). Felsefeye Giriş: Hikmetin Yapıtaşları. (Çev: Kevser Kıvanç Karataş). İstanbul: Kaknüs Yayınları. Therborn, Göran (2008). İktidarın İdeolojisi ve İdeolojinin İktidarı. (Çev: İrfan Cüre). Ankara: Dipnot Yayınları. Thompson, John B. (2013). İdeoloji ve Modern Kültür: Kitle İletişim Çağında Eleştirel Toplum Kuramı. (Çev: İdil Çetin). Ankara: Dipnot Yayınları. Van Dijk, Teun A. (2005). Söylemin Yapıları ve İktidarın Yapıları. (Der. ve Çev: Mehmet Küçük). Medya, İktidar ve İdeoloji. (315-376). Ankara: Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları. Yaylagül, Levent (2006). Kitle İletişim Kuramları. Ankara: Dipnot Yayınları.

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THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE SATISFACTION IN HOTEL INDUSTRY ACCORDING TO BOOKING.COM REVIEWS Res. Assist. Engin TENGİLİMOĞLU [email protected]

Abstract This paper analyzes costumer’s positive and negative feedback according to their statisfaction level with their accomodation. Research’s data is collected from booking.com website which serves their customers booking service to any hotel and also serves making positive and negative reviews opportunity to their customers. Quantative methods are used for analyzing data which contains customers answers to multiple-choice questions like accomodation nights, room type and their overal satisfaction levels. And qualitative methods are used for analyzing customers positive and negative reviews which they make after their accomodations. The questionnaire which booking.com implement to their customers consists of two parts. First part is about costumers’ pointing to service quality and the second part is about positive and negative reviews which customers encounter during their accomodations. Content analysis method is used for categorising the customers reviews to generate main themes which they complain or pleased about. Thereby it is examined that which factors influence costumer satisfaction level most. Keywords: Costumer Satisfaction, Complaints, E-wom, Feedback

1. Introduction Marsden defines word of mouth communication (e-wom) as talking about products among people. .Rosen, making a more scientific definition, defines it as verbal communication carried out with the friends, family, and colleagues in the context of consumer behaviors (Heyne, 2009). The case that this communication concerned is realized with internet based instruments in the direction of technological developments is called electronic word of mouth. Electronic word of mouth communication includes every kind of communication of consumers, which contains their experiences about a certain product or service and features of products by means of internet based technologies (Çakmak and Isaac, 2012). Internet, from one aspect, is origin and source of e-wom for consumers (Sarıışık and Özbay, 2012). Word of mouth communication, undergoing evolution in time with the effect of developing technology, has become compatible with the popular instruments of the age and undergone change as online or electronic word of mouth communication (e-wom). E-wom is a limitless communication the customer makes with the potential internet users (Heyne, 2009). The results of the study carried out by Roper Reports Worldwide, a research company, in 25 countries are given below. In the table, the resources consumers trust about supplying information about products are shown (Gülmez, 2011). Table 1 Reliable Source on Internet

Source Reviews İnternet advertisement Editor article on internet Trust on internet

percent %70 %59 %55 %18

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN That customers provide information through internet can actualize in two different ways. First is to provide information by using web page or via internet advertisements about the points such as the features, price, payment conditions etc. of product. The other is that the consumers obtain information from the other consumers using product through the various platforms (forums, shopping sites, complaint sites, etc.) in internet media. Indeed, the latter is word of mouth communication through internet (Gülmez, 2011). Interpersonal interaction and e-wom, while a consumer makes a decision to purchase, are shown among the most important resources These effects are especially very important in the tourism and entertainment industry, in which evaluation before consumption is difficult, and which contains intangible products (Sarıışık and Özbay, 2012). Today, three-fourth of the people having intention to take a vocation, while planning their vocations, feature customer interpretations as online information resource (Aymankuy, Soydaş and Saçlı, 2013). Online organizations (Tripadvisor, Booking.com, Citysearch ) noticing the importance of online interpretations, providing platforms for consumers they can make interpretation, increase their popularities and try to become important information resource in the area of tourism and accommodation (Liu ve Park, 2015). These platforms, besides online interpretations, presenting the possibility to give points for their visitors about the hotels they accommodate, form a perception in the mind of the next potential customers. From this point of view, hotel businesses are intensively affected by consumer originated contents shared in online interpretation sites, online travel sites, and social networks (Philips et al, 2015). Since e-wom is a sharing media, the interpretations and views regarding the product and business can have the positive or negative content. There are significant differences between positive and negative e-wom communication. While positive product interpretations contain good experiences concerning a certain product and recommendation to purchase these products, negative product interpretations consist of disappointed experiences about the product (Gülmez, 2011). Especially exposing negative e-wom communication forms significant difference in ranking the brands taken into consideration and intention to purchase.

2. Booking.com Function Booking.com is an online reservation site, which contains 875,502 worldwide accommodation facilities; covers 87,542 travel points and 224 countries; presents 7/24 custom service in 42 languages, including Turkish; incorporates a total of 82,020,000 confirmed evaluation; and presents the best online reservation price guarantee, reservation cancellation, and change opportunity (booking.com,2016).Booking.com presents accommodation opportunity to both accommodation businesses and its customers. While they do not demand any extra fee in exchange of they make reservation for their customers, in exchange of reservations made through it itself, it receives fee from hotel businesses in the rate of they agree on. In a sense, it undertakes the duty of online agent. Evaluation process of booking.com shortly begins after it invites the customers making reservation through the sites to fill in guest satisfaction form by sending mail to them after a short time from accommodation. Feedbacks carried out in these sites are expressed both as making points and with interpretations written. In the first section of this form, as İpar and Doğan also stated, it is concentrated on satisfaction studies carried out on hotel businesses and customers are asked to make points through the criteria such as cleanness, comfort, position, wi-fi, possibilities , employees, etc. In addition to this, customers are demanded to fill in two boxes under the name of positive and negative for them to express their thoughts. The purpose of this is to enable the expressions to be more easily understood by allowing for customers to write the points they find positive or negative to the separate place. Later, this form is reviewed and added to the sections of the relevant hotels, to which visitor can also access. 263

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The element making this time reliable is to provide an opportunity for people, who make reservation through only booking.com, and accommodate in the facility to make assessment. Thus, the real experiences from the real people are presented to the interest of potential consumers. For sake of that hotel assessments remain actual, booking.com deletes the assessments, older than 14 months, of the facilities, which have assessments more than 30 (booking.com, 2015). Thanks to this application, the facilities have the possibility to change the bad image, which sticks onto them due to the very old bad experiences As a result of the survey, administered by booking. Com to their customers, an average score is calculated for each hotel. What these scores express is published in the page of the relevant hotel and information is given to the potential customers. Scoring system used by booking.com are given below together with the terms, which express the number intervals. Table 2 Sample Distribution

Denomination Poor Disappointing Passable Ok Pleasent Good Very Good Fabulous Superb Exceptional

Review Score

2,5 - 3,9 4,0 - 4,9 5,0 - 5,5 5,6 - 5,9 6,0 - 6,9 7,0 - 7,9 8,0 - 8,5 8,6 - 8,9 9,0 - 9,5 9,6 - 10 Source; Mellinas and others, 2015

Mellinas et al. (2015), in the study they carried out on point scoring system of booking. com, identified that there was no hotel having the points below 2.5. It is generally seen that point distribution. 3. Methodology In this study, 990 interpretations, left by 399 different people, were examined for 48 five stars hotels being in active in Antalya. As also stated above, the interpretations taking place in booking. com consist of two separate sections. In multiple-choice questions taking place in the first section such as number of accommodation night, type of tourist, and general satisfaction scores, while quantitative methods for analysis are used, for analyzing the sections, in which there are open ended stated, qualitative techniques are utilized. Multiple-choice questions such as Type of Tourist, and Average Satisfaction Score, are entered statistics program without subjecting to any analysis. The parts reserved, in which there are (+) and (-) signs, for being stated the positive and negative views, were first subjected to the content analyses and then the main titles, which they are related to, were determined. In this context, the titles formed are “Personnel”, “Foods”, “Possibilities”, “Cleanness”, “Position” , “Rooms”, “Price”, and Everything”

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4. Descriptive Table Table 3 Descriptive Table

Tourist Type Family Couple Group Solo Traveller Total

Avarage Review 2,90 2,79 2,61 2,65 2,81

N 182 150 41 26 399

Std. Dev. 1,199 1,066 1,181 ,846 1,129

In the table above, average number of interpretations are given according to type of tourist, in which the customers are included. According to the table, while the number of interpretations of 182 guests spending their holidays as family is calculated the highest with 2.9, this is followed by the doubles with the number of interpretation of 2.79 on average. While the mean value of 26 people traveling as individual is 2.65, the average interpretation number of those accommodating as group is 2.61. Table 4 Distribution of the Reviews to the Themes

Themes Staff F&B Facilities Cleanless Location Rooms Price Everything Total

Positive Number Percent 134 %13,5 118 %11,9 98 %9,8 37 %3,7 69 %6,9 30 %3 18 %1,9 50 %5 554 %58,8

Negative Number Percent 88 %8,3 79 %7,9 162 %16,3 17 %1,7 17 %1,7 49 %4,9 9 %0,9 15 %1,5 436 %41,2

Total Number Percent 222 %22,4 197 %19,8 260 %26,2 54 %5,4 86 %8,6 79 %7,9 27 %2,7 65 %6,5 990 %100

In the table above, the distribution of criteria related to the positive and negative feedbacks was shown. When the table is examined, it is seen that the criteria receiving the most interpretation is possibilities. While only 162 out of 260 interpretations made about this criterion is negative, 98 of them consist of positive feedbacks. When it is generally interpreted, it can be said that the criterion the customers are interested in the most about feedback is the possibilities presented in the hotel . That this criterion contains so many negative feedback may be resulting from that the possibilities presented to the customers are inadequate. Following the criterion “”possibilities”, the criterion, on which the most feedback is made, is the criterion “personnel” with 222 interpretations. When the general distribution is regarded to, while 134 out of 222 interpretations made the criterion “personnel” is positive, it is understood that 88 of them consist of negative feedbacks. The other criteria interpreted the most are seen as Foods, Position, and Rooms in sequence. These criteria are the subjects hotel customers deal with the most in the feedbacks they made. In the following table, the distribution of 990 interpretation made by 399 people to the main themes formed and average satisfaction scores of the people making these interpretations were presented.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Table 5 Avarage Satisfaction According to the Themes Themes Staff F&B Facilities Cleanless Location Rooms Price Everything Total

Positive Review Avr. Sat. Kişi134 Sayısı 118 98 37 69 30 18 50 554

8,460 7,950 7,940 8,280 7,300 7,400 7,800 9,230

Negative Review Avr. Sat. 88 79 162 17 17 49 9 15

6,280 6,480 7,190 6,140 6,700 7,000 5,650 3,270 436

Mean Difference 2,18 1,47 0,75 2,14 0,60 0,40 2,15 5,96

Total 222 197 260 54 86 79 27 65 990

The following table gives us the ability to compare the mean values of satisfaction scores of the guests making the positive and negative interpretations related to the main themes determined.This case can also give the opportunity to make interpretation about our understanding, to which criteria the guests give more importance. When we examine the table, the theme of everything having the highest and lowest satisfaction attracts attention. There are 65 guests using this expression in its interpretation. While average satisfaction score of 50 people making positive interpretation among these is 9.2, average satisfaction score of 15 using the expression “everything” in negative section is 3.2. While the criterion “everything” has the highest average satisfaction in positive interpretations, in negative interpretations it has the lowest average satisfaction score. In negative section, While that there are 15 people saying “everything” decreases the reliability of the mean, it shows to us that this term is mostly used in the positive interpretations. That the term “everything” is the most remarkable criterion is an expected state. Here, if we consider that the guest acted with the thought of that everything is very bad or everything is very good, we can estimate that he/she will give the point at the highest or the lowest level. But it does not give us the reason for this in detail. Hence, the themes expressing narrower areas can contain more detailed information. When the other themes are examined, the average satisfaction score of 134 people making positive interpretation under the theme personnel is 8.4. This score is also the highest one among average satisfaction score that is present in the positive interpretation in the table out of the theme “everything”. This case states that the average satisfaction scores of the guests expressing that they are satisfied with personnel services are higher. In negative section, when we regard to the average satisfaction score of 88 people making feedback related to the personnel, we see that it has the lowest satisfaction score following the theme “everything” among the negative section with 6.2. This case gives to us that the difference of average satisfaction score between the guest satisfied with personnel and the guest experienced dissatisfaction with the personnel. It can be considered that the criterion “personnel” is the most important theme affecting average satisfaction score, following the theme “everything” . Later, in succession, this is followed by the average satisfaction score of people making interpretation under the theme “cleanness ” and “foods”. When it is also examined according to these criteria, the differences of average satisfaction score making interpretation under the positive and negative areas are high. This case points out that these themes are also important. In average satisfaction scores of the people making positive interpretation and people making negative interpretation on a criterion, that a low values appears can enable us to make an interpretation that those being satisfied and not satisfied with it do 266

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN not mostly give importance to that criterion. When we look at this point of view, the difference between average satisfaction making positive interpretation on the criteria of rooms, position, and average satisfaction scores of those making negative interpretation points.

the table scores of possibilities is below

from those and 0.75

5. Discussion and Conclusion In the study, in general, the interpretations of hotel guests making the positive/ negative feedback were examined. Identifying the themes, on which the positive or negative feedbacks are made, the average satisfaction scores of the guests making positive or negative feedbacks were compared. The theme, on which the guests make feedback the most, is possibilities with 260 interpretation. This is followed by the theme personnel with 222 interpretation and with 197 interpretations The guests, in the interpretations they make, mentioned about these subjects the most. While the theme receiving the most positive interpretation is personnel, the theme receiving the most negative interpretation is possibilities. The average satisfaction scores of customers making positive themes are as follows. Everything > personnel

> cleanness

feedback

according to the

> foods References

Akan, P. (1995). Dimensions of service quality: a study in Istanbul. Managing Service

Quality, 5(6): 39-43.

Akgöz, E., ve Tengilimoğlu, E. (2015). Online Müşteri Değerlendirmelerinin, Tesis Özellikleri Açısından İncelenmesi; Booking.Com Örneği. 16. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, 12-15 Kasım, Çanakkale Aymankuy, E. , Soydaş, E. , Saçlı, Ç. (2013). Sosyal Media Kullanımının Turistlerin Tatil Kararlarına Etkisi: Akademik Personel Üzerine Bir Uygulama. International Journal of Human Science, 10(1), 377-397. Barsky, J.D. & Labagh, R. (1992). A strategy for customer satisfaction. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 35(3): 32-40. Choi, T. Y., & Chu, R. (2001). Determinants of hotel guests' satisfaction and repeat patronage in the Hong Kong hotel industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 20: 277-297. Çakmak, E. , Isaac, R. (2012). What Destination Marketers Can Learn From Their Visitors’ Blogs: An İmage Analysis Of Bethlehem, Palestine. Journal of Destination Mar-keting & Management, 1(2012), 124-133 Gülmez, M. (2011). İnternet Üzerinde Ağızdan Ağıza Pazarlama Uygulama Örnekleri. IUYD, 2(1), 29-36 Heyne, L. (2009). Electronic Word of Mouth - a New Marketing Tool? Düsseldorf: University of Applied Sciences in Neuss Master Thesis. İpar, M. ve Doğan, M. (2013). Destinasyonun Turist Açısından Önem Memnuniyet Modeli İle Değerlendirilmesi: Edremit Üzerine Bir Uygulama. Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 13(6), 129-154 Knutson, B. (1988). Frequent travellers: making them happy and bringing them back. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 29(1): 83-87. Liu, Z. , Park, S. (2015). What Makes a Useful Online Review? Implication for Travel Pro-duct Websites. Tourism Management, 47(2015), 140-151 Mellinas, J. P., Dolares, S. M., & Garcia, J. J. (2015). Booking.com: The unexpected scoring system. Tourism Management, 49, 72-74. Phillips, P. , Zigan, K. , Silva, S. , Schegg, R. (2015) The İnteractive Effects Of Online Re-views On The Determinants of Swiss Hotel Performance: A Neural Network Analysis. Tourism Management, 50(2015), 130-141

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KENTSEL DÖNÜġÜM UYGULAMALARI, MALĠYE POLĠTĠKASI OLARAK KULLANILABĠLĠR MĠ? TEORĠK BĠR DEĞERLENDĠRME Assist. Prof.Dr. Erdoğan TEYYARE1 Abant İzzet Baysal University, Faculty of Economics & Administrative Sciences, Puplic Finance Dept. [email protected] Research Assistant Gökhan GÜRER Abant İzzet Baysal University, Faculty of Economics & Administrative Sciences, Puplic Finance Dept. [email protected]

Özet Artan şehirleşme ve nüfus artışı ile birlikte hızla konut ihtiyacı artmakta, buna bağlı olarak yeni yapıların inşa edilmesi veya eski yapıların yenilenmesi ihtiyacı ortaya çıkmaktadır. Ayrıca afet riski taşıyan alanlar başta olmak üzere, üretim ve ortak kullanım alanlarında, yüksek fayda ve değer üreten, büyüme ve kalkınmaya katkı sağlayan, mekân ve yaşam kalitesini önemli düzeyde artıran dönüşüm projelerine çokça başvurulmaktadır. Kentsel dönüşüm, mevcut kent yapısının yenilenmesi, korunması, düzenlenmesi, daha sağlıklı hale getirilmesi ve yeniden geliştirilip canlandırılması için yapılan uygulamaları içinde toplayan genel bir kavramdır. Kentsel dönüşüm politikaları gerek verilen finansal, vergisel destek ve teşviklerle, gerekse sağlamış olduğu istihdam, büyüme, kalkınma ve gelirin yeniden dağılımı gibi konularla maliye politikası amaçlarına hizmet edebilmektedir. Çalışmada kentsel dönüşüm politikalarının, ilgili mevzuat ve kanunlar çerçevesinde teorik olarak, istatistiki veriler çerçevesinde de uygulamada kullanılabilme ve etkinlik düzeyi tartışılmaktadır. Sonuç olarak kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları, birçok farklı yönü olması nedeniyle ve mevcut konut stoklarının durumu, afet riski ile birlikte değerlendirildiğinde, önemli düzeyde bir maliye politikası potansiyeli oluşturmaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Kentsel Dönüşüm, Maliye Politikası, Yeniden Geliştirme

CAN URBAN TRANSFORMATION PRACTICES BE USED AS FISCAL POLICY? A THEORETICAL EVALUATION Abstract Increase in urbanization and population leads to a rise in housing need. As a result, a need emerges to construct new buildings or to renew old buildings. In addition, transformation projects that create benefit and value, contribute to growth and development, and considerably improve the quality of spaces and life are frequently implemented in production and common use areas, the areas with disaster risk being in the first place. Urban transformation is a general concept that involves practices aimed at renewing, conserving, improving, rehabilitating, redeveloping, and revitalizing the current urban structure. Urban transformation policies may serve fiscal policy purposes through financial and tax-related supports and incentives they offer as well as employment, growth, development, and redistribution of income they provide. This study discusses the theoretical use of urban transformation policies within the framework of related regulations and laws and their practical use within the framework of statistical data as well as their effectiveness levels. To conclude, when many different aspects of urban transformation practices, the current housing stock, and disaster risk are considered together, it can be said that urban transformation practices constitute a considerable fiscal policy potential. Keywords: Urban Transformation, Fiscal Policy, Redevelopment

1

Corresponding Author

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GiriĢ Kentlerde ekonomik, sosyal, kültürel ve yapısal nedenlerle zamanla değişim ve dönüşüm ihtiyacı ortaya çıkmaktadır. Günümüzde kentsel düzeyde yapılan yenileme, koruma, iyileştirme ve canlandırma gibi uygulamalar “Kentsel Dönüşüm” adı altında gerçekleştirilmektedir. Kentlerde meydana gelen hızlı büyümenin veya bozulmanın etkilerini kontrol edilebilme çabaları, kentlerin değişim ve dönüşüme maruz kalmış parçalarının yeniden ele alınmasını gerekli kılmıştır. Endüstriyel alanların kent ve kent çevrelerinde oluşması ile kentlere göç artmış ve zamanla artan kent nüfusu beraberinde altyapı ihtiyacını, sosyo-ekonomik ve kültürel sorunları oluşturmaya başlamıştır. Kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları kentlerin yıkıntı bölgesi haline gelmiş, kentlerin sosyal ve ekonomik açıdan ömrünü tamamlamış alanlarının yeniden canlandırılması ve sağlıklı, yaşanabilir alanlar haline getirilmesi ve olası bir afet sonrasında zarar görme riski olan alanların iyileştirilmesi gibi nedenlerle gerçekleştirilmektedir. Kentsel dönüşümün temelini inşaat sektörü oluşturmaktadır. İnşaat sektörü ekonominin “lokomotifi” olarak adlandırılan bir sektördür. Bu yakıştırma, sektörün özellikle ekonomik büyüme dönemlerinde yarattığı katma değer, istihdam potansiyeli ve çok sayıda sektörle olan girdi-çıktı ilişkisinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Bu bağlamda kentsel dönüşüm, maliye politikasının büyüme, kalkınma ve istihdam amaçlarına hizmet edebilmektedir. Ayrıca kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları sonucu, maliklerin eski yapılarının yenilenmesi neticesinde gayrimenkullerinde değer artışı ortaya çıkaracağı ve bu kesimin servet düzeyinde artışa yol açarak gelir dağılımında değişime yol açabilecektir. Bu çalışmada kentsel dönüşüm politikalarının bir maliye politikası aracı olarak kullanılabilme imkânı tartışılmaktadır. Kentsel dönüşüm politikaları gerek verilen finansal, vergisel destek ve teşviklerle, gerekse sağlamış olduğu istihdam, büyüme, kalkınma ve gelirin yeniden dağılımı gibi konularla maliye politikası amaçlarına hizmet edebilmektedir. Çalışma kapsamında ilk olarak kentsel dönüşüm kavramı, türleri ve yasal dayanakları ele alınmıştır. Sonrasında yapılan kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları ve potansiyeli maliye politikası amaç ve araçları çerçevesinde değerlendirilmiştir. 1. Kentsel DönüĢüm Kavramı Kentsel dönüşüm olgusu ilk kez gelişmiş ülkelerde kentlerin sosyal ve ekonomik açıdan ömrünü tamamlamış alanlarının yeniden canlandırılmasına yönelik müdahaleler yapılmasıyla başlamıştır. Genel olarak kentlerin, nüfusunun iyiden iyiye azaldığı ya da düşük gelir gruplarının kötü ekonomik ve fiziksel şartlarda yaşadıkları ve sosyal dayanışmanın kaybolduğu konut alanlarında, eski boş liman ve sanayi alanlarında kentin ekonomik gelişimine katkıda bulunacak projelerin uygulanması şeklinde ortaya çıkmaktadır (Ataöv & Osmay, 2007, s. 58). Literatürde pek çok tanımı yapılan kentsel dönüşüm kavramı ortaya çıktığı dönem ve yer itibariyle birbirinden farklılaşmakta diğer bir ifade ile tarihsel süreç içerisinde tanım ve kapsamı şartlar çerçevesinde değişmektedir. Bu kavramlardan bazıları örneğin yer bakımından; ABD ve İngiltere‟de çok gelişmiş şehirlerin sürekli rahatsızlık veren kentsel sorunlarının çözümü için geliştirilen hükümet politikaları (Lamb, 2003); olarak ifade edilirken; Roberts (2000), ise kentsel dönüşümün, kentlerin işlevsel etkinliklerini yitirme süreçlerini daha iyi anlama ihtiyacından doğan ve ortaya konulacak dönüşümde elde edilecek sonuçların üzerinde bir uzlaşma olarak ifade etmiştir. Örneğin, bitmiş olan bir ekonomik etkinliğin yeniden geliştirilmesi, işlemeyen bir toplumsal işlevin işler hale getirilmesi; toplumsal dışlanma olan alanlarda, toplumsal bütünleşmenin sağlanması; çevresel kalitenin veya çevre dengesinin kaybolduğu alanlarda, bu dengenin tekrar sağlanması amaçlarıdır. Tarihsel süreç içerisinde değişen kentsel dönüşüm kavramı, zaman süreci içerisinde eskiyen, köhneleşen, yıpranan yapıların ve çoğu kez yaygın bir yoksunluğun hüküm sürdüğü kent dokusunun, altyapısının sosyal ve ekonomik programlar çerçevesinde yeniden tasarlanması olarak tanımlanırken değişen şartlar çerçevesinde günün sosyo-ekonomik ve fiziksel şartlarına uygun olarak yenilenmesi, değiştirilmesi, geliştirilmesi, yeniden canlandırılması ve bazen de yeniden oluşturulması eylemi olarak tanımlanabilir (Özden, 2006, s. 217). Thomas (2003)‟e göre kentsel dönüşüm, kentsel sorunlara çözüm üretmek amacıyla, değişime uğrayan bir bölgenin ekonomik, fiziksel, sosyal ve çevresel koşullarına kalıcı bir çözüm sağlamaya çalışan kapsamlı bir vizyon ve eylem olarak ifade edilmektedir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kentlerde meydana gelen hızlı büyümenin veya bozulmanın etkilerini kontrol edilebilme çabaları, kentlerin değişim ve dönüşüme maruz kalmış parçalarının yeniden ele alınmasını gerekli kılmıştır. Endüstriyel alanların kent ve kent çevrelerinde oluşması ile kentlere göç artmış ve zamanla artan kent nüfusu beraberinde altyapı ihtiyacını, sosyo-ekonomik ve kültürel sorunları oluşturmaya başlamıştır. Günümüzde ise kentler küreselleşmenin rekabet gerektiren süreçlerinin de yardımıyla dünya kentleri içinde yer kazanabilmek için varlıklarını ekonomik, sosyal, kültürel ve modern anlamda sürdürmek ve küresel dönüşüme ayak uydurmak durumunda kalmışlardır. Kentsel dönüşüm ise kentlerin yeniden ele alınmasında, yapılanmasında ve küresel değişimlere ayak uydurmak üzere bir araç olarak kentlerin gündeminde önemli bir yer tutmaktadır (Çakır, 2006, s.17- 37). 2. Kentsel DönüĢümün Kapsamı ve Türleri Kentsel dönüşüm ve gelişim uygulamaları Avrupa ülkeleri ve ABD‟de uzun yıllar önce tartışılıp, yasal ve kurumsal bir yapıya kavuşmasına karşın, ülkemizde 1950 ve 1980‟li yıllardan itibaren kısmen, 2000‟liyıllardan sonra ise yoğun bir şekilde gündemdeki yerini almıştır (Aydınlı ve Turan, 2012, s. 64). Son yıllarda Türkiye‟de sıkça kullanılan bir terim olan kentsel dönüşüm temelinde eskiyen, yıpranan veya çöküntü haline gelmiş kent parçalarının yeniden ele alınarak değerlendirilmesini ifade etmektedir. Kentlerin bu yenilenme ihtiyaçları fiziksel olduğu kadar sosyal gereksinmelerden de doğabilmektedir (Keleş, 2006, s.370). Nüfus artışı veya göçler, kentlerde çok sayıda konut ve kamusal ihtiyaçların giderilmesine yönelik ortak mekânların ve sosyal donatı alanlarının üretilmesini zorunlu kılmıştır (Yasin, 2005, s. 109). Kentsel refah ve yaşam kalitesini artırıcı başarılı bir ekonomik kalkınma yaklaşımını ortaya koymak, kentsel dönüşümün hedeflerindendir. Buna ek olarak kentsel dönüşüm projelerinin, toplumdaki bozulmaların nedenlerini araştırarak, bunları önleyici tedbirler almak, önerilerde bulunmak gibi kentin kültürel mirasının gelecek nesillerle aktarılması, kentin tarihi ve kültürel dokusunun korunması da kentsel dönüşümün amaç ve işlevlerindendir (Aydınlı ve Turan, 2012, s. 64). Fiziksel ve toplumsal bozulmanın yanı sıra, kentsel alanların çöküntü bölgeleri haline gelmelerinin en önemli nedenlerinden birisi, bu alanların ekonomik canlılıklarını yitirmesidir (Aydınlı ve Turan, 2012, s. 63). Bu noktada kentsel dönüşüm, fiziksel ve toplumsal çöküntü alanları haline gelen kent parçalarında ekonomik canlılığı yeniden getirecek stratejileri geliştirmeyi ve böylece kentsel refah ve yaşam kalitesini artırmayı amaç edinmektedir (Akkar, 2006, s. 30). Ayrıca kentsel dönüşüm, kentsel alanların en etkin biçimde kullanımını ve gereksiz kentsel yayılmadan kaçınmaya yönelik stratejilerin ortaya koyulmasını amaçlar. Günümüzde öne çıkan kavramlardan biri olan “sürdürülebilirlik” hedefi ile bağlantılı olarak, kentlerde daha önce kullanılmış ve atıl olan alanların tekrar kullanımını sağlayan ve kentsel büyümenin ve yayılmanın sınırlandırılmasına yönelik kentsel dönüşüm projelerinin geliştirilmesi doğrudan bu amaçla ilgilidir (Akkar, 2006, s. 30). Kentsel dönüştürmenin belli başlı temel uygulama alanları vardır. Bu kentsel dönüşüm alanları şunlardır (Keleş, 2006, s. 374). a) Gecekondu bölgeleri, b) Yüksek yoğunluklu kaçak apartmanların bulunduğu alanlar, c) Doğal yıkım riski yüksek alanlar, d) Kent merkezindeki çöküntü alanlar, e) Tarihsel kent çekirdekleri, f) Ekonomik ömrünü doldurmuş kentsel alanlardır. Kentsel dönüşüm, mevcut kent yapısının yenilenmesi için yapılan uygulamaları içinde toplayan genel bir kavramdır. Ancak bu uygulama biçimlerinin tanımlanmasında kentsel dönüşümün yukarıda ifade edilen uygulama alanlarının çok çeşitli olması, kentsel dönüşümü çeşitli alt bileşenlere ayırmaktadır. Diğer bir ifade ile kentsel dönüşüm uygulama alanı ve uygulama biçimine göre çeşitli alt kavramlarla ifade edilmektedir. Bu durum aslında kentsel dönüşümün kapsamı ve türleri hakkında da bilgi vermektedir. Bütün bu kavramlar farklı içeriklere sahip olmakla birlikte, kentin farklı ölçeklerde ve içerikte dönüşen parçalarına işaret etmektedirler. Bu nedenle bu çalışmada da kente yönelik tüm müdahale biçimlerini içermesi nedeniyle kentsel dönüşüm kavramı kullanılmaktadır. Kentsel dönüşümün içinde barındırdığı farklı uygulama biçimleri aşağıda grafik ile gösterilmektedir. 3 271

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Yenileme (renewal)

Soylulaştırma (Gentrification)

Yeniden canlandırma (revitalization)

Sağlıklaştırma (rehabilitation)

Kentsel Dönüşüm

Koruma (conservation

Yeniden geliştirme (redevelopment)

Düzenleme (improvement)

Entegrasyon (Integration)

Yenileme (renewal); eskime yaşayan kentsel bölgenin yıkılması ve ikinci aşama olarak yapılacak altyapı, kentsel tasarım projeleri, alan düzenlemeleri ile yeniden gelişmesinin sağlanması olarak ifade edilirken, yeniden geliştirme (redevelopment); planlanan alandaki mevcut yapıların yıkılarak, ortaya çıkan arazide yeni projeler üretilmesine ve inşa edilmesi yönünde yapılan uygulamalar olarak ifade edilmektedir. Sağlıklaştırma (rehabilitation); yeniden geliştirmenin tam tersi olan bu uygulama çerçevesinde mevcut yapıların muhafaza edilerek aslına uygun bir biçimde tamir ve restorasyon gibi işlemleri ifade etmektedir. Koruma (conservation): genellikle işlevlerini yerine getirebilmekte olan tarihi ve kültürel değerler taşıyan bölgelerin ve yapıların çevresinde nüfus artışı ve plansız yapılanmanın önlenmesi için yapılan uygulamalar koruma adı altında ifade edilmektedir (Keleş, 2000). Yeniden canlandırma (revitalization): Kentsel alanların ekonomik, sosyal veya fiziksel açılardan fonksiyonlarının bitme süreci içinde olan veya bu fonksiyonların sona ermesi ile terk edilmiş kentsel alanların bu fonksiyonlarını tekrar ortaya çıkaracak biçimde tekrar hayata döndürülmesi adına yapılan uygulamalar bu kavram çerçevesinde değerlendirilmektedir (Gümüşboğa, 2009, s.8-12). Düzenleme (improvement): Islah imar uygulaması, yapılması yasal olmayan bir alanın yasal hale getirilmesi ve o alanda yapılanma hakkı verilerek yaşayanlara güvence verilmesi gibi uygulamalar düzenleme olarak ifade edilmektedir. Entegrasyon (Integration); bu uygulama ile hem kent kimliği (tarihi, kültürel vb.) korunurken, hem de mevcut binaların yanına yeni binaların katılmasıyla çağdaş mimari örnekleri oluşturularak zengin bir çevre meydana getirilmesi ifade edilmektedir. Soylulaştırma (Gentrification); “en basit ve sınırlı tanımıyla, dar gelirlilerin yaşadığı, kent içerisinde köhneleşmekte olan konut alanlarına, daha üst sınıfların yerleşmeye başlaması sürecidir” (Ciravoğlu ve İslam, 2006, s. 37). 3. Türkiye’de Kentsel DönüĢüm ve Yasal Dayanakları 4 272

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Türkiye‟de Cumhuriyet döneminde başlayan, 1950‟lerde sanayileşme ile birlikte ivme kazanan kentleşme süreci beraberinde Ankara, İzmir, İstanbul gibi büyük kentlerin kontrolsüz bir biçimde büyümesini getirmiştir. Bu dönemde en önemli kentsel dönüşüm boş arazilerin gecekondu mahallelerine dönüşmesi ve daha sonra bu mahallelerin sağlıklaştırılması, apartmanlaşarak yeniden yapılandırılması veya temizlenerek farklı nüfus gruplarına yönelik yenilenmesi şeklinde olmuştur(Ataöv ve Osmay, 2007, s. 58). 1960‟ları yıllara gelindiğinde gecekondu yapıların biçim değiştirmeye başlaması, yasadışı yapılanma sonucu ortaya çıkan konut dokusu, 1970‟lerde kentleri tehdit eder hale gelmiştir. Sözü edilen dönemde sık sık çıkarılan imar afları sorunu daha da büyütmüştür. Yoğun göç alan büyük kentlerimizde plansızlık, sağlıksız kent dokularının hızla artmasına neden olmuştur (Özden, 2006, s. 220). 1970‟li yıllarda sanayi tesisleri biraz daha merkezden uzaklaşmaya başlamış ve yeni alt merkezlerin oluşması ile de eski kent merkezlerinde çöküntü alanlarının oluşumu hızlanmıştır (Uzun, 2006, s. 49). 1980‟li yıllarda birçok konuda olduğu gibi kentsel dönüşüm konusunda da önemli değişimlerin yaşandığı bir dönem olmuştur. „Kentsel yeniden yapılandırma‟ politikasının yaygın olarak kullanılması, bu dönemin kentsel dönüşüm projelerinin en önemli özelliğidir. 1980‟li yıllarda temel hedef, kentlerde boşaltılmış, atıl ve çöküntü haline gelmiş alanlarda, ekonomik canlanmayı sağlamak bulunmaktadır (Akkar, 2006, s. 31-32). 2000‟li yıllarda kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları daha planlı ve yasal düzlemde yer almaya başlamıştır. Buna yol açan sürdürülebilirlik, eşitlik ve demokratikleşme gibi kavramları öne çıkartan küresel akımlar, AB‟ye uyum müzakereleri ve uluslararası ortaklıklar kapsamındaki uygulamalar ve kamuda özelleşmenin yoğunluk kazanması önemli rol oynamaktadır. Ayrıca, hızla devam eden göç ve yerleşim alanlarına yansıyan sosyo-ekonomik kutuplaşmalar kentsel dönüşümün gerekçelerini oluşturmuştur (Ataöv ve Osmay, 2007, s. 68). Kentlerin yaşadığı dönüşüm süreçleri birbirinden farklılıklar gösterse de günümüz küresel yeniden yapılanma sürecinde küresel düzeyde etkileşimlerin artması benzer problemleri doğurmuştur. Özellikle aşırı nüfus yığılması, ekonomik şartların değişmesi, sosyal dışlanma gibi nedenler Avrupa‟da olduğu gibi Türkiye‟de de kentlerin çöküşünün temel sebepleri olmaktadır (Çakır, 2006, s. 47). Türkiye‟de kentsel dönüşüm uygulamalarının tarihsel özeti Tablo 1‟de ifade edilmektedir. Tablo 1. Kentsel Dönüşüm Uygulamaları 1950-1980 1980-2000 2000 Sonrası 1. Gecekondu bölgelerinin 1. Yaşam kalitesi düşmüş ve 1. Kentsel alanlarda yenileme; sağlıklaştırılması; riskli alanlarda kentsel 2. Apartman alanlarının 2. Kent merkezinin çöküntü yenileme; iyileştirilmesi; alanına dönüşümü; 2. İyileştirmeye yönelik 3. Yeni siteler ve kapalı 3.Gecekondu alanlarının sağlıklaştırma ve islah-imar yerleşim alanlarının yeniden yeniden yapılandırılması; uygulamaları; geliştirilmesi; 4. Bu alanlarda kentsel 3.Tarihi değeri olan alanların 4. Tarihi konut alanların yenileme. korunması ve soylulaştırılması. soylulaştırılması; Kaynak: (Ataöv ve Osmay, 2007, s. 60) Ülkemizde kentsel dönüşüm konusu 2000‟li yıllardan sonra gündemde daha sık yer etmeye başlarken, 2004 yılı ve sonrasında AB ile uyum yasalarında kentsel dönüşüm/yenileme konusu yoğun biçimde yer almaya başlamıştır. Bu gelişmeler yanında AB adaylık sürecinin de etkisiyle 2000‟li yıllarda yapılan kamu yönetimi reformlarında kentsel dönüşüm konusunu içeren yasal düzenlemeler yapılmıştır (Genç, 2008, s. 118). Günümüzde bir politika olarak kalkınma planlarında yer almaktadır. Türkiye‟de kentsel dönüşüm projelerinin geliştirilmesinde, fiziksel çevrenin dönüşümüyle birlikte, istihdam olanaklarının artırılması; ekonomik canlılığını yitiren alanlara yeni ekonomik aktivitelerin çekilmesi; buna yönelik teşvik programlarının geliştirilmesi; yerel girişimciliği destekleyici kredi programlarının oluşturulması; mekânsal ve toplumsal güvenliği artırıcı önlemlerin alınması; çöken kentsel mekanlarda toplumun eğitim ve sağlık ihtiyaçlarına yönelik projelerin başlatılması; doğal ve enerji kaynakların hem korunması hem de etkin ve verimli kullanılmasına yönelik stratejilerin geliştirilmesi gibi toplumsal, ekonomik ve çevresel değerleri ön plana çıkaran politikalar hedeflenmektedir (Akkar, 2006, s. 35). 5 273

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kentsel dönüşümün yasal dayanaklarını aşağıda belirtilen kanun ve ilgili kanunların maddeleri olarak ifade etmek mümkündür. 5393 sayılı Belediye Kanununun 69.2 ve 73.3 Maddesi 2985 sayılı Toplu Konut Kanununun 4.4 ve ek 7.5 Maddeleri 775 sayılı Gecekondu Kanunu6 5366 sayılı Yıpranan Tarihi ve Kültürel Taşınmaz Varlıkların Yenilenerek Korunması ve Yaşatılarak Kullanılması Hakkında Kanun7 5. 6306 sayılı Afet Riski Altındaki Alanların Dönüştürülmesi Hakkında Kanun ve Yönetmelik8 4. Kentsel DönüĢüm Projelerinin Maliye Politikası Amaçları ve Araçları Çerçevesinde Değerlendirilmesi Kamu Kesimi, yaptığı harcamalar sayesinde geliri artırıcı etki yaparak özellikle yatırım harcamaları ile istihdama katkı sunmaktadır. Devletin istihdam, gelir, fiyat seviyeleri gibi makroekonomik değişkenleri etkileyebilmek için kamu harcamalarını (cari harcamalar, yatırım harcamaları ve transfer harcamaları) ve kamu gelirlerini (vergi gelirleri, vergi dışı normal gelirler, özel gelir ve fonlar) kullanması maliye politikası olarak adlandırılmaktadır. Başka bir ifadeyle maliye politikası, devletin maliye politikası araçlarını (kamu harcamaları, vergiler gibi) kullanarak ekonominin tam istihdama ulaşmasını sağlamak, ekonomik dalgalanmaları en aza indirgemek, adil bir servet ve gelir dağılımını oluşturmak için uyguladığı politikalardır (Öztürk, 2012, s. 245-255). 1. 2. 3. 4.

2

Madde 69: Belediye; düzenli kentleşmeyi sağlamak, beldenin konut, sanayi ve ticaret alanı ihtiyacını karşılamak amacıyla belediye ve mücavir alan sınırları içinde, özel kanunlarına göre korunması gerekli yerler ile tarım arazileri hariç imarlı ve alt yapılı arsalar üretmek; konut, toplu konut yapmak, satmak, kiralamak ve bu amaçlarla arazi satın almak, kamulaştırma yapmak, bu arsaları trampa etmek, bu konuda ilgili diğer kamu kurum ve kuruluşları ve bankalarla iş birliği yapmak ve gerektiğinde onlarla ortak projeler gerçekleştirmek yetkisine sahiptir. 3

Madde 73: Belediye, belediye meclisi kararıyla; konut alanları, sanayi alanları, ticaret alanları, teknoloji parkları, kamu hizmeti alanları, rekreasyon alanları ve her türlü sosyal donatı alanları oluşturmak, eskiyen kent kısımlarını yeniden inşa ve restore etmek, kentin tarihi ve kültürel dokusunu korumak veya deprem riskine karşı tedbirler almak amacıyla kentsel dönüşüm ve gelişim projeleri uygulayabilir.

4

Madde 4:Başkanlık, gecekondu dönüşüm projesi uygulayacağı alanlarda veya mülkiyeti kendisine ait arsa ve arazilerde veya valiliklerce toplu konut iskan sahası olarak belirlenen alanlarda çevre ve imar bütünlüğünü bozmayacak şekilde her tür ve ölçekteki planlar ile imar planlarını yapmaya, yaptırmaya ve tadil etmeye yetkilidir.

5

Ek 7. Madde: Başkanlık gecekondu bölgelerinin tasfiyesine veya iyileştirilerek yeniden kazanımına yönelik olarak gecekondu dönüşüm projeleri geliştirebilir, inşaat uygulamaları ve finansman düzenlemeleri yapabilir.

6

Kanunda mevcut gecekonduların ıslahı, tasfiyesi, yeniden gecekondu yapımının önlenmesi ve bu amaçlarla alınması gereken tedbirler hakkında hükümleri ifade etmektedir.

7

Bu kanun ile mahalli düzeydeki idarelerin, yıpranan ve özelliğini kaybetmeye yüz tutmuş; kültür ve tabiat varlıklarını koruma kurullarınca sit alanı olarak tescil ve ilan edilen bölgeler ile bu bölgelere ait koruma alanlarının, bölgenin gelişimine uygun olarak yeniden inşa ve restore edilerek, bu bölgelerde konut, ticaret, kültür, turizm ve sosyal donatı alanları oluşturulması, tabiî afet risklerine karşı tedbirler alınması, tarihi ve kültürel taşınmaz varlıkların yenilenerek korunması ve yaşatılarak kullanılmasıdır. 8

31/5/2012 tarihinde 28309 sayılı Resmi gazetede yayımlanan 6306 sayılı “Afet Riski Altındaki Alanların Dönüştürülmesi Hakkında Kanun” ile afet riski altındaki alanlar ile bu alanlar dışındaki riskli yapıların bulunduğu arsa ve arazilerde, sağlıklı ve güvenli yaşama çevrelerini oluşturmak üzere iyileştirme, tasfiye ve yenilemelere dair usul ve esaslar belirlenmiştir.

6 274

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Vergiler (Kamu Gelirleri) Kamu Harcamaları

Araçları

Borçlanma Bütçe

Tam İstihdam Fiyat İstikrarı Finansal İstikrar Gelir Dağılımında Adalet

Amaçları

Ödemeler Dengesi Açığının Kapatılması Ekonomik Gelişme

Maliye politikasının amaçları, ülkelerin sosyo-ekonomik gelişmişlik düzeylerine bağlı olarak değişebilmekle beraber genel anlamda tam istihdamın sağlanması, fiyat istikrarı, gelir dağılımında adaletin sağlanması, ödemeler dengesi açıklarının kapatılması ve ekonomik gelişme olarak sıralanmaktadır (Öztürk, 2012, s. 236). Yukarıda belirtilen temel amaçlarının dışında maliye politikasının bölgeler arası dengesizliklerinin giderilmesi, iş gücü verimliliğinin yükseltilmesi, ihracatın artırılması gibi amaçlarından da söz edilebilir (Gürdal, 2015, s. 16).

Kamu, bu maliye politikası hedeflerine ulaşmak için çeşitli araçları kullanarak ekonominin gidişatına yön vermektedir. Bu araçlar ise kamu harcamaları, kamu gelirleri (vergiler), borçlanma ve devlet bütçesidir. Sürdürülebilir çevreci kentler oluşturma hedefini ortaya koyan kamu idaresi maliye politikası araçlarını da bu hedefe göre şekillendirip çeşitlendirebilecektir. Örneğin, ilk olarak altyapı 7 275

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN için yatırım harcamalarını artıracak bunun sonucunda kamu harcamalarının çarpan etkisiyle istihdam ve ekonomik büyümeye dolayısıyla GSMH‟ye katkı sağlanmış olacaktır. İstihdamın artmasıyla birlikte gelir dağılımında adaletin sağlanması konusunda aşama kaydedilmiş olacaktır. 4.1. Kentsel DönüĢüm Projelerinin Maliye Politikası Açısından Değerlendirilmesi Kentsel dönüşüm inşaat sektörü temelinde değerlendirilmektedir. İnşaat sektörü ileri ve geri bağlantıları kuvvetli sektörlerden biri konumundadır. Talep tarafında inşaat faaliyetleri yapı malzemeleri üretimini etkilerken arz tarafında da her tür mal ve hizmet üretimi için gerekli altyapıyı sağlar. Aynı zamanda istihdam yaratma kapasitesi en yüksek sektörlerden biridir. Gelişen teknolojiye rağmen işgücü yoğun bir sektör olarak kentsel alanda vasıfsız işgücü istihdamı en yüksek sektör olduğu söylenebilir. İnşaat sektörü bir ekonomide sürükleyici rol üstlenen önde gelen bir ekonomik dinamik oluşturmaktadır. Bu bağlamda kentsel dönüşüm, maliye politikasının büyüme, kalkınma ve istihdam amaçlarına hizmet edebilmektedir. Ülkemizde sürdürülebilir kentler bağlamında kentsel dönüşümün geleceğine yönelik olarak onuncu kalkınma planında da kentsel dönüşümün amaçlarına yer verilmiştir. Bu plan çerçevesinde kentsel dönüşümün maliye politikası amaçlarına hizmet eden politika aracı olduğu ve nedenli büyük bir önem arz ettiği görülmektedir. Onuncu Kalkınma Planı döneminde, şehirleşme, nüfus artışı, yenileme ve afetten kaynaklanan konut ihtiyacının toplam 4,1 milyon adet olacağı tahmin edilmektedir. Bundan dolayı afet riski taşıyan alanlar başta olmak üzere üretim ve ortak kullanım alanlarında yüksek fayda ve değer üreten, büyüme ve kalkınmaya katkı sağlayan, mekân ve yaşam kalitesini yaygın şekilde artıran dönüşüm projelerine öncelik verileceği belirtilmiştir (TC Kalkınma Bakanlığı, 2013, s. 128). Projelerde yenilikçi ve katma değer yaratan sektörleri, yüksek teknolojili ve çevreye duyarlı üretimi destekleyen uygulamalara öncelik verilecek olması, kentsel dönüşümün inovatif kalkınmaya dayalı büyüme stratejisini esas aldığının bir göstergesi olmaktadır. Dolayısıyla bu durum Ar-Ge harcamalarının artmasına, neticesinde yatırımların hız kazanmasına neden olacaktır. Özellikle altyapı ve gayrimenkul yatırımlarını artırıcı etkisi bölgelerin ve şehirlerin küresel aktörler haline getirmeyi hedeflemektedir. Dolayısıyla bu durum gayrimenkul talebinin, özellikle metropol alanlarda, uluslararası düzeye taşınmasına neden olmaktadır (TC Kalkınma Bakanlığı, 2013, s. 126). Kentsel dönüşümün gelir dağılımında adaletin sağlanmasına yönelik olarak da bir politika unsuru olduğu söylenebilir. Düşük gelirliler başta olmak üzere, halkın temel konut ihtiyacının daha yüksek oranda karşılanması için gerekli önlemlerin alınacak olması, barınma sorununa sağlıklı ve alternatif çözümler getirilecek olması bu kapsamda düşük gelir grubundakilerin refah seviyelerini artırıcı etki yapmış olacaktır. Ayrıca kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları sonucu, maliklerin eski yapılarının yenilenmesi neticesinde gayrimenkullerinde değer artışı ortaya çıkaracağı ve bu kesimin servet düzeyinde artışa yol açarak gelir dağılımında değişime yol açabilecektir. Kentsel dönüşümün sürdürülebilir kalkınmanın bir aracı olarak kullanılabilmesi, ifade edilmesi gereken bir durumdur. Ekonomik büyümenin sosyal ve çevresel unsurlarla uyumunun sağlanması, büyümenin getirilerinin sosyal yapının güçlendirilmesi ve çevre üzerindeki baskıların azaltılması için de kullanılması sürdürülebilir kalkınma anlayışının bir gereği olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. Sürdürülebilir kalkınma anlayışının daha da ileriye taşınması için bu alandaki politikaların uygulanması, izlenmesi ve değerlendirilmesinde ilgili kuruluşlar arasında işbirliği yapılması büyük önem taşımaktadır. Yukarıda bahsedilen kentsel dönüşümün etki ve ilkelerine, ülkemizdeki kentsel dönüşüm uygulama performansıyla (Tablo 3‟de) birlikte bakılarak konunun somutlaştırılması gerekir. Tablo 3. Kentsel Dönüşüm Uygulamaları Performansı Gösterge Adı DönüĢüm sağlanacak toplam alan -haDönüĢümden faydalanacak nüfus -kiĢiDönüĢüm alanlarında yapılan sosyal konut

2013 6.305

2014 7.162

2015 11.500

2016* 14.000

2017* 16.000

2018* 18.500

927.798

1.076.218

1.775.078

2.160.965

2.469.674

2.855.561

18.686

24.331

26.800

31.200

35.600

40.000

8 276

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN sayısı * Tahmini Kaynak: (TC Kalkınma Bakanlığı, 2015) Kentsel dönüşüm kapsamından yararlanacak nüfusun yıllar itibariyle artışı oransal anlamda da göze çarpmaktadır. 2013‟de ülke nüfusunun yaklaşık %1,21‟i kentsel dönüşüm uygulamalarına maruz kalırken bu oran 2014‟de 1,38‟e, 2015‟de 2,25‟e yükselmiştir. Bu trendin artarak devam edeceği tahmin edilmektedir. Ayrıca dönüşüm alanlarında yapılan/yapılacak olan sosyal konut alanlarının yıllar itibariyle artışı hem gelir dağılımında adaletin tesisi hem de istihdam olanaklarını artırarak çeşitlendirecektir. Onuncu Kalkınma Planı kapsamında hazırlanan Rekabetçiliği ve Sosyal Uyumu Geliştiren Kentsel Dönüşüm Programı Eylem Planı ile kentsel dönüşümün maliye politikası amaçları olarak da değerlendirilebilecek hedefleri kategorize edilmiştir. Çarpık şehirleşmenin doğurduğu zararı ortadan kaldıracak, rekabetçi şehirleşme politikası ile marka kent olgusunu oluşturmak ve yerel dinamizmleri harekete geçirmek hedeflenmiştir. Dolayısıyla şehrin yaşanabilirlik endeksini artırarak toplumun refah seviyesi yükseltilecektir. Dönüşümde yerli üreticinin desteklenerek yenilikçi fikirlerin doğması sağlanacaktır. Ayrıca tedariklerde yerli üretimden azami düzeyde faydalanılarak, üretim ve istihdama katkı sağlanıp cari açığın azaltılmasına ivme kazandırılacaktır. Konut sahipliğinin artırılması ile gelir dağılımında adaletin tesisi noktasında ilerleme sağlanacak ayrıca, şehirlerde sosyo-ekonomik anlamda görünen farklılıklar azaltılacaktır. Kentsel dönüşümde maliye politikası amaçlarına hizmet edecek birçok maliye politikası aracı da kullanılmaktadır. Kentsel dönüşümde proje maliyetlerini karşılanmaya yönelik vergi, harç, katkı payı ve idari para cezalarından pay ayırarak, bazı kamu taşınmazlarının satışından sağlanacak gelirden ve idarelerin yürüttüğü bir takım faaliyetlerden elde edeceği kazançların bir kısmından oluşmak üzere bir ödenek (fon) oluşturulmuştur. Söz konusu ödenek, 6306 sayılı Kanun‟a dayanılarak, kentsel dönüşüm projeleri için, Merkezi Bütçede oluşturulan “Afet Riski Altındaki Alanların Dönüşüm Gelirleri” adında özel bir hesabı ifade etmektedir 9 . Bu hesabın nasıl işleyeceği ise yönetmelikle düzenlenmiştir (Yasin, 2013, s. 114). Kentsel DönüĢüm Fonu BileĢenleri (Afet Riski Altındaki Alanların DönüĢüm Gelirleri)

5%

7% Genel Bütçe

7%

Döner Sermaye İller Bankası Kârının %50'si

20%

Faiz Geliri

61%

Diğer

6306 sayılı Kanun‟da öngörülen gelirler kapsamında 2014 yılıyla ilgili olarak bu hesapta toplanan paranın yüzde 60‟ı, 330 milyonu genel bütçeden aktarılmıştır. Yüzde 20‟si döner sermayeden aktarılan, yüzde 6,93‟ü İller Bankasının kârının yüzde 50‟sinden aktarılan, yüzde 5,46‟sı faiz geliri, yüzde 6,77‟si diğer kalemlerden aktarılan kaynaklardır (TBMM Başkanlığı, 2016, s. 154). İlgili kanunun yürürlüğe girmesinden itibaren genel bütçede kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları için oluşturulan fona yıllar itibariyle aktarılan kaynak miktarları Tablo 2‟de gösterilmiştir. Kamu kaynaklarından aktarılan fonun yıllar itibariyle giderek azaldığı görülmektedir. Burada kentsel dönüşüm faaliyetleri için kamu payının büyük bir bölümünün özel sektöre kaydırılmak istendiği 9

13.09.2012 Tarih, 28410 Sayılı R.G., Dönüşüm Projeleri Özel Hesabı Gelir, Harcama, Kredi ve Kaynak Aktarımı Yönetmeliği.

9 277

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN anlaşılmaktadır. Kentsel dönüşüm uygulamalarında bütçe gelirlerinin büyük bir kısmını oluşturan vergilerden ayrılacak payın öneminin azımsanmayacak ölçüde olduğunu belirtmek gerekir. Tablo 2. Yıllar itibariyle Afet Riski Altındaki Alanların Dönüşüm Gelirleri Fonu Yıllar 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017* 2018*

Bütçe Geliri -TL731.574.000 141.700.000 141.400.000 305.531.000 286.463.000 281.492.000

*Tahmini Kaynak: TC Maliye Bakanlığı, Bütçe ve Mali Kontrol Genel Müdürlüğü, Bütçe Kanunu ve Ekleri‟nden derlenmiştir. Kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları için hak sahipleri ve uygulayıcı kurumlar için birtakım vergi avantajları da sağlanmıştır. 6306 Sayılı Kanun kapsamında rezerv yapı alanı ve riskli alan olarak belirlenen yerler ile riskli yapıların bulunduğu yerlerde yapılan inşaatlarda üretilen 150 m2 altındaki konutların satışında KDV oranı yüzde 1 olarak uygulanacaktır. Bu durum, özellikle alt ve orta gelir seviyesinde yaşayan kesimin yaşam kalitesini artırıcı ve gelir dağılımında adaleti sağlamaya yönelik etkisini yansıtmaktadır. Yine bu Kanun kapsamında düzenlenecek gayrimenkul satış vaadi ve arsa payı karşılığında inşaat yapım sözleşmesinin noter ve tapu harçları ile damga vergisinden istisna edilmesi sağlanmıştır (6306 Sayılı Kanunun Uygulama Yönetmeliği, 2012). Bu noktada sağlanan kamu teşviki, kentsel dönüşümde özel sektörün payının artırılmasını hedeflemektedir. Ayrıca İlgili kurum, gerçek veya özel hukuk tüzel kişilerince yapılacak olan işlem, sözleşme, devir ve tesciller, veraset ve intikal vergisi, döner sermaye ücreti ve diğer ücretlerden muaftır. Kullandırılan krediler sebebiyle lehe alınacak paralar ise banka ve sigorta muameleleri vergisinden muaf tutulmuştur. Bütçe açısından bakılacak olursa yapılan kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları kapsamında Kira yardımları, faiz desteği, kamulaştırma, proje, tasarım uygulamaları için 2012 yılından bu yana toplam 2 milyar TL kaynak kullanılmıştır.(TBMM Başkanlığı, 2016, s. 109) Onuncu kalkınma planıyla birlikte kentsel dönüşüm uygulamalarının finansmanında kamu harcamalarını asgariye indiren model ve yöntemlerin kullanılması amaç edinilmiştir. Bu sayede kentsel dönüşümün finansmanında kamu kaynaklarının oranını düşürerek kamunun uygulayıcı rolünden daha ziyade düzenleyici ve denetleyici rolü ön plana çıkarılmış olacaktır. Bu kapsamda öngörülen modeller ise Kamu-Özel İşbirliği (Public Private Partnership), Yap İşlet Devret, Tasarla-Yap Finanse Et-İşlet, Kirala-Sanın Al-Geliştir-İşlet ve Tasarla Yap modelleridir (Solmaz, 2013, s. 123-127). 4.2. Kentsel DönüĢüm Kapsamında Sağlanan Finansal Destekler Kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları çerçevesinde gerek istisna ve muafiyetler gibi vergi ve vergisel araçlar ile gerekse faiz ve nakit akımı desteği gibi kamu maliyesi araçları ile birçok farklı türde destekler sağlanmaktadır. 6306 sayılı Afet Riski Altındaki Alanların Dönüştürülmesi Hakkında Kanunun, 7. maddesinin 9‟uncu bendinde; “Bu Kanun uyarınca yapılacak olan işlem, sözleşme, devir ve tesciller ile uygulamalar, noter harcı, tapu harcı, belediyelerce alınan harçlar, damga vergisi, veraset ve intikal vergisi, döner sermaye ücreti ve diğer ücretlerden; kullandırılan krediler sebebiyle lehe alınacak paralar ise banka ve sigorta muameleleri vergisinden müstesnadır.” hükmü yer almaktadır. Bu madde çerçevesinde vergi ve vergi benzeri birçok maliye politikası aracı ile kentsel dönüşüme destek verilmektedir. Bu maddeye ek olarak 5216 sayılı Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kanunu kapsamındaki büyükşehirlerde, 1319 sayılı Emlak Vergisi Kanunu‟nun 29‟uncu maddesine istinaden tespit edilen arsa birim m²‟si 6306 sayılı Kanun kapsamında rezerv yapı alanı ve riskli alan olarak belirlenen yerler ile riskli yapıların bulunduğu yerler için KDV‟den istisna edilmiştir. 6306 sayılı kanunun 16‟ncı maddesine göre kentsel dönüşüm uygulama alanlarındaki yapılan maliklerine kira yardımının uygulanması öngörülmektedir. Söz konusu maddenin 1‟inci fıkrasına göre; “Anlaşma ile tahliye edilen uygulama alanındaki yapıların maliklerine tahliye tarihinden itibaren Bakanlıkça kararlaştırılacak aylık kira yardımı yapılabilir. Kira yardımı aylık 600 Türk Lirasını 10 278

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN geçemez. Yardım süresi riskli alan dışındaki riskli yapılarda 18 ay ve Kanun kapsamında anlaşma yolu ile kamulaştırılan yapılarda ise 5 ay olarak belirlenmiştir. Riskli alanlarda kira yardımı süresi 36 ayı geçmemek şartı ile ilgili kurumca belirlenir. Aylık kira bedeli, her yıl Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu tarafından yayımlanan Tüketici Fiyatları Endeksi yıllık değişim oranında güncellenir. 10 ” Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı verilerine göre 6306 sayılı kanunun yürürlüğe girmesinden bu yana kentsel dönüşüm kapsamında risk taşıyan ya da riskli alan içinde bulunan konutlardaki 179 bin 442 hak sahibine 811 milyon 218 bin 901 lira kira yardımı yapılmıştır. Riskli alan dönüşüm projelerinin hazırlanmasına yönelik yetki devredilen idarelere bakanlıkça sağlanan kaynak miktarı ise 499 milyon 503 bin 522 liraya ulaşmıştır. Türkiye genelinde 295 bin riskli konut bulunmaktadır. Ayrıca riskli alan ilan edilen bölgelerdeki konut sayısı ise 410 bin civarındadır. Kentsel dönüşüm kapsamındaki konut sayısı ise toplam 700 bini geçmektedir. Tablo 4. 6306 sayılı kanun kapsamında sağlanan finansal destek miktarları 2012-2015 Kasım Riskli Konut ve Riskli Alan İçinde Bulunan Konut

Faiz Destekli Kredi

179.442 hak sahibi

4.449 hak sahibi

811.218.901 TL

8.393.235 TL

Riskli alan dönüşüm projelerinin hazırlanmasına yönelik yetki devredilen idarelere bakanlıkça sağlanan kaynak miktarı

499.503.522 TL

Kaynak: https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ekonomi/kentsel-donusum-vatandasa-kazandirdi/469579 (02.03.2016)‟den derlenmiştir. 6306 sayılı Kanun ile hak sahiplerine bankalardan kentsel dönüşüm kapsamında kullanılacakları kredilere faiz desteği getirilmiştir. Sağlanacak faiz desteğine ilişkin esaslar kanunla belirlenmiştir. Hali hazırda 17 banka ile bakanlık arasında protokol imzanmış durumda olup, destekten hak sahiplerine yararlandırılmaktadır. Kanun kapsamında kredi kullanacak gerçek veya tüzel kişilerin bankalardan kullanacağı kredilere; Hazine Müsteşarlığının bağlı bulunduğu Bakanlığın teklifi üzerine Bakanlar Kurulunca belirlenen oranlarda Dönüşüm Projeleri Özel Hesabından karşılanmak üzere faiz desteği verilmektedir. (http://www.csb.gov.tr/db/altyapi/editordosya/faiz%20destegi%281%29.pdf) (11.02.2016). Sağlanacak faiz desteği aşağıdaki koşul ve limitlere göre uygulanır.

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6306 Sayılı Kanunun Uygulama Yönetmeliği (2012), Resmi Gazete Sayısı: 28498

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Faiz desteği sağlanacak kredilerin anapara geri ödemeleri bu maddede belirtilen azami ödemesiz dönemi aşmamak üzere inşaatın tamamlandığı tarihten itibaren başlamaktadır. Bir hak sahibi adına faiz desteği sağlanacak toplam kredi tutarı 500.000 TL'yi geçemez11. Faiz desteğinden 6306 sayılı kanunun yürürlüğe girmesinden itibaren 2015 yılına kadar 4 bin 449 hak sahibi faydalanmış olup toplamda 8 milyon 393 bin 235 liralık faiz destekli kredi imkânı sağlanmıştır. (http://emlakkulisi.com/bakanlik-kentsel-donusum-icin-811-milyon-kira-yardimiyapti/428604) (11.02.2016) Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı, belediyeler ve Toplu Konut İdaresinin (TOKİ) işbirliği ile devam eden kentsel dönüşüm projelerinden faydalanacak kişi sayısı ise 2 milyon 220 bin olmuştur. 2023 hedefleri doğrultusunda 6 buçuk milyon konutun kentsel dönüşüm kapsamında yenilenmesi hedeflenmektedir. (http://emlakkulisi.com/bakanlik-kentsel-donusum-icin-811-milyon-kira-yardimiyapti/428604) (11.02.2016)  Kentsel dönüşüm kapsamında 2014 yılı içerisinde tüm ülke çapında 41 bin 859 adet binanın risk tespiti yapılmıştır. Tespiti yapılan bu yapıların 11 bin 693 adedi konut, 17 bin 627 adedi dükkân olmak üzere toplam 129 bin 320 adet bağımsız bölümden oluştu. Risk tespiti yapılan bu binaların 12 bin 384 adedinin ise yıkımı gerçekleşti. (http://www.aksam.com.tr/emlak/rakamlarla-kentsel-donusum/haber-399466)  2015 yılsonu itibari ile toplam 311 bin 837 adet bağımsız bölüm içeren 92 bin 833 binada riskli yapı tespiti gerçekleştirildi. Kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları kapsamında bugüne kadar 2 milyar TL'ye yakın kaynak kullanılmıştır. (http://www.sabah.com.tr/ekonomi/2016/02/10/kentsel-donusum-icin-2-milyar-liralik-kaynak) (12.02.2016) Sonuç Kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları; hızlı kentleşme sonucu oluşan niteliksiz ve sağlıksız alanların yeniden yapılandırılması amacıyla yapılmaktadır. Nüfus artışı, hızlı kentleşme, kaçak yapılaşma, gecekondulaşma ve çarpık kentleşme kentsel dönüşümü tetikleyen ana faktörler olmaktadır. Tanımı gereği kentsel dönüşüm kentlerin yaşam standartlarını iyileştirmek amacını taşır. Kent merkezlerinde; kaçak yapılaşma veya hazine arazilerinin işgal edilmesiyle bozulan kent alanları kentsel dönüşüm projeleriyle tekrar kente kazandırılmalıdır. Bu nedenle, bu alanların belirlenmesi ve uygulama sırasına göre kentsel dönüşüm projeleri yapılması gerekmektedir. Ülkemizde her kent aynı kentsel dönüşüm sorunlarına sahip değildir. Her yörenin kendi sorunları ve bu sorunların çözümünde etkili olabilecek kaynakları mevcuttur. Yöresel kısıt ve kaynakların tespit edilmesi; bunlara bağlı yerel dönüşüm strateji ve politikalarının geliştirilmesi şarttır. Bu politikalar, yaşam mekânlarının, ekonomik gelişme ve rekabetçiliğin desteklemesinin yanında afetlere dayanıklı, çevreye duyarlı, kültürel değerleri esas alacak, sosyal dayanışmayı ve kaynaşmayı teşvik edecek şekilde olmalıdır. Görüldüğü üzere belirlenen kentsel dönüşüm politikalarının kamu ekonomisi içerisinde değerlendirildiğinde “domino etkisi” yarattığını söylemek güç değildir. Barınmadan büyümeye, yaşanabilir çevreden bölgesel kalkınmaya kadar etki alanı oluşturan kentsel dönüşüm politikaları, olumlu dışsallıklar doğurmakta ve ilgili sektörleri tetikleyerek reel ekonomi üzerine katkı sağlamaktadır. Kira yardımı, kredi faiz desteği gibi finansal destek araçlarıyla doğrudan katkı sağlanmaktadır. Bu sayede insanların yaşam kalitesi artırılarak sosyal uyum sağlanmaya çalışılmakta ve gelir dağılımındaki adaletsizliği gidermede aşama kaydedilmiş olmaktadır. Kentsel dönüşüm politikalarının dolaylı katkısı ise daha çok inşaat, sanayi gibi sektörlerin paydaş olarak bulunmalarıyla ilgili bir durumdur. Sektörlerdeki canlanmanın istihdam, ihracat ve dolayısıyla ödemeler dengesine yapacağı pozitif katkının ülkenin büyüme ve kalkınma hedeflerine yakınlaştıracağı bir gerçektir. Dolaylı katkıları içinde değerlendirilebilecek bir hususta sağlık alanında görülmektedir. Yaşanabilir çevrenin sürdürülebilir hale getirilmesi sosyal donatı alanlarının yaygınlaşması bunların sonucunda gelir dağılımındaki iyileşme beraberinde eğitim seviye ve kalitesini artırarak, suç ve şiddet oranlarını düşürecek ve neticesinde sağlık harcamalarını azaltacaktır. Kaliteli yaşam alanları bölgesel dengesizlikleri gidermede aracı olabilmekte ve göç olgusunu azaltıcı etki sağlayabilmektedir. Bu da

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6306 Sayılı Kanun Kapsamında Hak Sahiplerince Bankalardan Kullanılacak Kredilere Sağlanacak Faiz Desteğine İlişkin Bakanlar Kurulu Kararı (21.01.2014), Resmi Gazete Sayısı: 28889

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN çarpık kentleşmenin önünü kesecek ve doğurabileceği sosyo-ekonomik ve sosyo-kültürel yozlaşmayı da önleyebilecektir. Ülkemizde iyi planlamayla, kentsel dönüşüm, hem kendi finansmanını üreten, hem de daha kaliteli, güvenli ve sağlıklı yaşam ortamları sunan etkili bir araç olma potansiyeli taşımaktadır. Nitekim kamunun düzenleyici rolü ve özel sektörün yoğun talebi, rekabetçiliği artırmakta ve “senkronize sektörleri” hareketlendirmektedir. Bu aracın son yıllarda ülkemizde ekonomik ve sosyal kalkınmayı hızlandırdığı görülmekle beraber, kişi başına gelir ve refah düzeyinde önemli artışlar kaydedilmiştir. Gelinen noktada kentsel dönüşüm politikalarının görünen (doğrudan) etkileri kadar görülmeyen (dolaylı) etkilerinin de sosyo-ekonomik hayatta önemli olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Kentsel dönüşümün sadece konutların ıslahı, yenilenmesi, restorasyonu demek olmadığı kümülatif düşünülerek sürdürülebilir çevre, istihdam, kişi başına düşen gelir, sağlık, eğitim gibi geniş perspektifte değerlendirilmesi gerektiğidir. Kentsel dönüşümün etki alanına bakılacak olursa politika paydaşlarının yanı sıra ülke nüfusunun yaklaşık %2,25‟i bu politikalardan etkilenmektedir. Bu kadar sektöre dokunan ve nüfusun bu kadarına doğrudan etki eden bir politikanın, kamu ekonomisi içerisinde ki önemi yadsınamaz bir gerçek olduğu görülmektedir. Onuncu Kalkınma Planı döneminde, şehirleşme, nüfus artışı, yenileme ve afetten kaynaklanan konut ihtiyacının toplam 4,1 milyon adet olacağı tahmin edilmektedir. Bu sayıya son yıllarda terörle mücadele kapsamında tahrip olan konut, işyeri ve altyapı dâhil edildiğinde çok daha büyük rakamlar ortaya çıkmaktadır. Kentsel dönüşümün temeli olan inşaat sektörünün ileri ve geri kapsamlı birçok sektörle bağlantılı olması, üretim ve istihdam anlamında bir ekonomide sürükleyici rol üstlenen ekonomik dinamik oluşturmaktadır. Bu açıdan kentsel dönüşüm, maliye politikasının büyüme, kalkınma, gelir dağılımı ve istihdam amaçlarına hizmet edebilmektedir. Bu bağlamda kentsel dönüşüm uygulamaları maliye politikası olarak da uygulanabileceği söylenebilmektedir. Kentsel dönüşüm sonrası artan büyüme, istihdam, gelir ve refah düzeyi beraberinde kamu gelirlerinin artmasına da katkı sağlayacaktır. Artan büyüme ve gelir düzeyi ülke ekonomisinin vergi kapasitesini artıracak ve etkin bir vergileme yöntemi ile kamu kesiminin gelirleri artabilecektir. Ayrıca kentsel dönüşümle birlikte konut ve benzeri alanların değerinin artması ile ortaya çıkacak rant gelirleri vergilendirilebilirse yine önemli bir vergi geliri ortaya çıkabilecektir. Kaynakça Akkar, Z. M. (2006). Kentsel Dönüşüm Üzerine Batıdaki Kavramlar, Tanımlar, Süreçler ve Türkiye. Planlama Dergisi, 2. Ataöv, A, & Osmay, S. (2007). Türkiye‟de kentsel dönüşüme yöntemsel bir yaklaşim. METU JFA, 2, 57. Aydınlı, H.İ., & Turan, H.. (2012). Kuramsal ve yasal çerçevede Türkiye'de kentsel dönüşüm. Theoretical and legislative framework of urban regeneration in Turkey (28), 61. Boyraz, Z, & Hoş, B. Y.. (2014). Türkiye'de Kentsel Dönüşüm Uygulamaları. Urban Renewal Samples In Terms Of City Geography In Turkey., 6(3). Çakır, N. (2006). Günümüz Kent Dinamiklerinin Kentsel Dönüşüme Etkileri. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi), İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, İstanbul Demirkıran, S. (2008). Türkiye'de kentsel dönüşüm uygulamalarında yerel yönetimlerin rolü: Bursa büyükşehir Belediyesi örneği. Genç, F.N. (2008). Türkiye‟de Kentsel Dönüşüm: Mevzuat ve Uygulamaların Genel Görünümü. Yönetim ve Ekonomi: Celal Bayar Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 15(1), Manisa Görgülü, Z. (2009). Kentsel Dönüşüm ve Ülkemiz. TMMOB, İzmir Kent Sempozyumu Bildiriler, 08– 10 Ocak, İzmir Gümüşboğa, B. (2009). Katılım Ekseninde Kentsel Dönüşüm: Altındağ Aktaş Mahallesi Örneği, (Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara Keleş, R. (2006). Kentleşme Politikası. İmge Kitabevi, Ankara Lamb, K. (2003). Revitalisation From The Inside Out: The Attempts To Move Towards An Urban Renaissance In The Cities Of The United States And The United Kingdom. Connectrcut Journal OfInternational Law, 19. Conn J. Int‟l L. 13 281

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Özden, P.P. (2006). Türkiye'de Kentsel Dönüşümün Uygulanabilirliği Üzerine Düşünceler. İstanbul Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi(35). Öztürk, N. (2012). Maliye Politikası, Ekin Yayınevi, Bursa Roberts, P, & Sykes, H. (2000). Urban Regeneration: A Handbook. SAGE Publications Ltd., 336. TC Kalkınma Bakanlığı, (2013). Onuncu Kalkınma Planı, Ankara TC Kalkınma Bakanlığı, (2015). Rekabetçiliği ve Sosyal Uyumu Geliştiren Kentsel Dönüşüm Programı Eylem Planı, Ankara TBMM Başkanlığı, Tutanak Hizmetleri. (2016). Plan Bütçe Komisyonu Tutanakları. Ankara. Thomas. (2003). A Glossary of Regeneration and Local Economic Development. Manchester: Yerel Ekonomik Strateji Merkezi. Uzun, C. N. (2006). Yeni Yasal Düzenlemeler ve Kentsel Dönüșüme Etkileri. Planlama, 49. Yaman, Murat. (2014). Türkiye‟deki Uygulamalar Bağlamında Kentsel Dönüşümün Yeniden Kavramsallaştırılması. Toplum ve Demokrasi Dergisi, 4(8-9-10). Yasin, M. (2005). Kentsel Dönüşüm Uygulamalarının Hukuki Boyutu. Türkiye Barolar Birliği(60), Ankara 6306 Sayılı Kanunun Uygulama Yönetmeliği, Resmi Gazete Sayısı: 28498 C.F.R. (2012). http://www.csb.gov.tr/db/altyapi/editordosya/faiz%20destegi%281%29.pdf http://emlakkulisi.com/bakanlik-kentsel-donusum-icin-811-milyon-kira-yardimi-yapti/428604 http://www.aksam.com.tr/emlak/rakamlarla-kentsel-donusum/haber-399466 http://www.sabah.com.tr/ekonomi/2016/02/10/kentsel-donusum-icin-2-milyar-liralik-kaynak http://www.csb.gov.tr/db/altyapi/editordosya/faiz%20destegi%281%29.pdf https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ekonomi/kentsel-donusum-vatandasa-kazandirdi/469579 http://www.csb.gov.tr/db/altyapi/editordosya/faiz%20destegi%281%29.pdf http://emlakkulisi.com/bakanlik-kentsel-donusum-icin-811-milyon-kira-yardimi-yapti/428604

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ÖRGÜTSEL SESSĠZLĠK: HAVAYOLU ĠġLETMELERĠNDEKĠ HĠZMETLERE ĠLĠġKĠN BĠR DEĞERLENDĠRME

Prof. Dr. Canan ÇETĠN Marmara Universitesi, Ġktisadi ve Ġdari Bilimler Fakültesi, Ġnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi Bölümü [email protected] Prof. Dr. ġermin ġENTURAN Bülent Ecevit Universitesi, Çaycuma Meslek Yüksekokulu, Otel Lokanta ve Ġkram Hizmetleri Bölümü [email protected] Asst. Prof. Dr. Erkan TAġKIRAN Kocaeli Universitesi, Turizm ĠĢletmeciliği ve Otelcilik Yüksekokulu, Konaklama ĠĢletmeciliği Bölümü [email protected]

Özet Örgütlerde ortaya çıkan çatışmalar, stres yaratan ve olağandışı durumlar, gerek çalışanları gerekse örgütün ilişki içinde bulunduğu müşteriler, diğer kurumlar ve çevre üzerinde çeşitli boyutlarda etki yaratmaktadır. Özellikle çalışanların işlerini kaybetme kaygısıyla, oluşan durumlar karşısında sessiz kalmaları, zaman içerisinde örgüt genelinde yanlışların farkına varılamaması ve tekrarlanması gibi olumsuz etkiler yaratabilmektedir. Çalışanların sessizliği, giderek örgüt ikliminin bozulmasına yol açabilir. Bu durum ürün veya hizmet kalitesinin düşmesine, karlılık ve verimliliğin azalmasına, daha da önemlisi örgütün sürekliliğinin riske girmesine neden olabilir. Bu çalışmada örgütsel sessizliğin tanımı ve literatürdeki açıklamalarından sonra, havacılık sektöründe görev yapan çalışanlar ile yapılan görüşmelere yer verilmiş, alınan bilgiler değerlendirilerek öneriler ile çalışma sonuçlandırılmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Örgütsel Sessizlik, hizmet sektörü, havacılık işletmeleri

ORGANIZATIONAL SILENCE: AN EVALUATION IN TERMS OF THE SERVICES AT AVIATION ORGANIZATIONS Abstract Clashes occur in the organization, stressful and unusual situations create the effect of various sizes on both the employees and the other institutions in relation with the organization and the environment as well as the customers Especially employees to remain silent with the concerns of losing their jobs, in the face of situations occur, may have negative effects, such as reaching and repeated failure within organizations to realize the wrong time. The silence of the employees may lead to increasing deterioration of organizational climate. In this case, decreasing of product or service quality, may lead to reduced profitability and

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN efficiency, more importantly, to the risk into the organization's continuity. In this study, after the definition of organizational silence and descriptions in the literature, the interviews making with employees working in aviation organizations are given, then the information received from the interviewers evaluated and the study was concluded with suggestions. Keywords: Organizational silence, service sector, aviation organizations

1. GiriĢ Günümüz modern örgütlerinin temel amacı sahip oldukları çalışanlarda mevcut olan bilgiyi, sundukları ürün ve hizmetlere transfer ederek onları bir bütün haline getirebilmektir. Bunu gerçekleştirebilmek için tüm düzeylerde görev yapan çalışanların katılımı ve desteği sağlanmalıdır. Böylelikle çalışanların bilgi paylaşımı, sorun ve problemlerin dile getirilerek tartışılması ve gelişime yönelik öneriler getirme kapasiteleri ortaya çıkacaktır (Khalid ve Ahmed, 2015). Bu bağlamda bir yandan çalışanların görüş ve önerilerini dile getirmeleri, herhangi bir korku hissetmeden sahip oldukları bilgileri ortaya koymaları beklenirken, bir yandan da açık iletişim, personeli güçlendirme gibi yönetsel araçlar ile bu konuya örgütsel destek sağlanmaktadır. Ancak, tüm bu olumlu ortam ve koşullara rağmen çalışanların mevcut durumlarını etkiletmeme, sorun yaratan biri olarak algılanmama vb. nedenlerle görüş ve düşüncelerini ifade etmedikleri görülmektedir. Dolayısıyla örgütsel ortamda ortaya çıkabilecek muhtemel sorun, konu, problem gibi durumlarda çalışanların sahip oldukları değerli bilgileri açıkça dile getirmeme ihtimalleri oldukça yüksektir. Kötüye giden bir proje hakkında bilinenler, çalışanlarına kötü ve değersiz davranan yöneticilerin varlığı, satışların artırılma yolları, müşteri şikayetlerinin nasıl azaltılacağına yönelik bilgiler, örgütsel operasyonların nasıl iyileştirilebileceğine dair öneriler vb. bilgiler çalışanlar tarafından saklanıyor olabilir (Detert ve Burris, 2016). Bu kapsamda susma, konuşmama ve söz söylememe gibi eylemleri kapsayan sessizlik kavramı iş ortamlarında çalışanlar tarafından iletişim kanallarını kullanmama yönünde kullanıldığında örgütsel sessizlik durumu oluşmaktadır. Esas itibariyle ses çıkarmama anlamında sessizlik tutumu, bireyin karşıdakinin söylediği hakkında bir şey bilmeme ve bilmediğinden dolayı da konuşmama söz konusu olduğunda oluşurken, örgütsel sessizlik tutumunda ise birey belirli bir bilgiye sahip olduğu halde çeşitli nedenlerden dolayı bilinçli olarak sessiz kalma davranışı göstermektedir (Durak, 2012). Dolayısıyla örgütsel sessizlikte çalışanın iş ortamında kasıtlı ve bilinçli olarak sessizliği söz konusudur. Bu kapsamda çalışmanın temel amacı çalışanların örgütsel sessizlik hakkındaki görüşlerini incelemektir. Havayolu işletmeciliğinde çalışan nitelikli personel göz önüne alınarak ekip çalışması zorunluluğu, zaman baskısının hissedilmesi ve çalışanların uzun süre birlikte olması gibi nedenlerden dolayı havacılık sektöründe yapılan bu araştırma sonucunda çalışanların örgütsel sessizlik tutumlarına yönelik tespit ve değerlendirmelerde bulunulmuştur.

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2. Literatür Ġncelemesi 2000’li yıllarda Morrison ve Milliken’in çalışmalarıyla literatürde yer bulan örgütsel sessizlik bu özelliği açısından nispeten yeni bir kavram olarak değerlendirilebilir. Örgütsel sessizlik çalışanların örgütsel durumlarla ilgili konulara ilişkin davranışsal, bilişsel ve duygusal değerlendirmelerini, görev yaptıkları örgüt içinde herhangi bir değişiklik yapabilme veya düzeltebilme yeteneği olduğu algılanan yöneticilerine bilerek ve isteyerek söylememesi durumu olarak tanımlanabilir (Pinder ve Harlos, 2001). Buna göre örgütsel sessizlik çalışanların bilinçli kararına göre oluşmaktadır (Tangirala ve Ramanujan, 2008). Bir diğer anlamda sessizlik; örgüt çalışanlarının işle ilgili sorunlarını kasten üstlerine iletmeyip yorum yapmaktan kaçınması ve suskun kalmayı tercih etmesidir (Çakıcı 2010). Her ne kadar sessizlik kavramı iletişime uzak kalma durumunu akıllara getirse de, aslında önemli bir iletişim aracı olarak görülmelidir. Çalışanlar “sessiz kalarak” çalışma arkadaşları, yöneticileri ya da örgüt hakkında bir çok mesaj iletmek isteyebilir (Acaray ve Akturan, 2015). Dolayısıyla her iletişimsizlik durumu sessizlik demek değildir. Sessizlikten bahsedilmesi için bir konuya ilişkin bilinçli olarak görüş ve önerilerin gizlenmesi gerekir. Bu sebeple konuyla ilgili konuşacak bir şeyi olmayan bireyin sessizliği, örgütsel sessizlik kapsamında değerlendirilmemelidir (Durak 2012). Konuyu literatüre taşıyan Morrison ve Milliken (2000) örgütsel sessizliği kolektif bir tutum olarak değerlendirerek çalışanların örgüt ortamında ortak bir davranış kalıbı olarak ortaya çıktığına vurgu yapmaktadır. Dolaysıyla bireyin çalıştığı ortamda sadece kendi isteğine bağlı olarak sessiz kalması ya da ses çıkarması pek mümkün olmayıp, daha çok bireyin ait olduğu grubun geliştirdiği sessizlik tavrını benimseyerek davranması beklenmektedir.

Bu durumu çeşitli araştırmalar

(Edmondson, 2003; Morrison, Milliken ve Hewlin, 2003; Morrison ve Milliken, 2000) örgüt açısından olumlu bir sonuç olarak değerlendirmektedir. Bir örgütün sağlıklı kararlar alabilmesi esas itibariyle çalışanlarının kararlara katılımında ve yeni fikir ve önerilerde bulunarak gelişimin bir parçası olmalarında yatmaktadır. Tüm bu süreç içinde oluşabilecek sorun, problem vb. olumsuz durum ve konuların, olayları ilk gözlemleyen çalışanlar tarafından paylaşılabilmesi özellikle yöneticilerin söz konusu ortamı sağlamaları ve desteklemeleri ile oluşabilmektedir (Umar ve Hassan, 2013).

Morrison ve Milliken (2000), çalışanların büyük

çoğunluğunun örgüt içinde oluşan sorun ve konularla ilgili gerçekleri bilmelerine rağmen üstlerine bu konularda konuşmaya cesaret edemediklerini belirtmektedir. Diğer taraftan sessiz kalmayıp konuşmayı tercih eden çalışanların diğer çalışma arkadaşlarına ihanet eden çıkarcı ya da muhbir olarak görülme korkusu da sessizliği tetiklemektedir (Nayır, 2012). Nitekim Çakıcı (2007a) yaptığı araştırmada çalışanların sessizliğine neden olan faktörler arasında izolasyon korkusunun yattığını belirlemiştir.

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Yöneticiler örgütsel hiyerarşi içinde açık iletişimi geliştirme amaçlı çalışanlarının sessiz kalmamaları ve görüşlerini açıkça dile getirmeleri için geribildirim seansları, anketler vb. araçlar kullanmalarına rağmen, bu çabaları iki nedenden dolayı genellikle başarısız olmaktadır. İlk neden çalışanların utanç, yalnız kalma, düşük performans notları, terfi alamama ve işten atılma gibi konuşma sonucunda ortaya çıkabilecek muhtemel sonuçlara yönelik korku hissetmelerinden dolayı ortaya çıkmaktadır. İkinci neden ise abesle iştigal etme duygusudur. Buna göre bir şey söylemenin fark yaratmayacağı ve boş bir çaba olduğu inancı ile ilgilidir (Detert ve Burris, 2016). Araştırmalar, her ne kadar yöneticilerin çalışanlarına karşı açık iletişimi destekleyen ortamlar yaratsa da çalışanların büyük çoğunluğunun örgütsel girişimleri sorgulamadığını veya işle ilgili yeni fikirler ortaya atmaktan kaçındığını göstermektedir. Dolayısıyla çalışanlar tarafından bu tip durumlarda tercih edilen durum, konuşmaktansa sessiz kalmaktır (Detert ve Burris, 2016). Örneğin Ryan ve Oestreich (1991) ABD’de yaptıkları araştırmaları sonucunda çalışanların %70’nin sorunlar ve örgütsel konularla ilgili durumlar hakkında görüş bildirmekten kaçındıklarını belirlemişlerdir. Çalışanların bu durumda gösterdikleri sessizlik tutumları aşağıdaki Tablo 1’de sunulmuştur. Tablo 1: Sessizlik Davranış Türleri ve Motive Eden Nedenler DavranıĢ ġekli →

ÇalıĢan Sessizliği İşle ilgili bilgi, fikir ve görüşlerin bilinçli olarak dile getirilmemesi

Motive Eden Nedenler ↓ Ġlgisiz DavranıĢ Kabullenme kaynaklı Fark yaratmayacağı duygusunu hissetme

Kendini Koruma DavranıĢı Korku kaynaklı Korku ve risk altında olma duygusu hissi BaĢkaları Odaklı DavranıĢ İşbirliği kaynaklı Fedakarlık ve işbirliği yapma hissi

Kabullenici Sessizlik Örnekler: Kabullenmeden ötürü görüşlerin dile getirilmemesi Bir fark yaratmayacağı inancıyla kendi yararını gözetme Savunmacı Sessizlik Örnekler: Korku nedeniyle sorunları ifade etmeme Kendini korumak için gerçekleri görmezden gelme Korumacı Sessizlik Örnekler: İşbirliğine dayanarak gizli bilgileri dile getirmeme

Örgüt yararı için bilgileri saklama Kaynak: L. Van Dyne, Ang S. ve I.C. Botero (2003), “Conceptualizing Employee Silence and Employee Voice as Multidimensional Constructs” Journal of Management Studies, 40 (6), s.1363’den uyarlanmıştır.

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Yukarıdaki tabloda da görüldüğü üzere örgütsel düzeyde sessizlik kabullenici, savunmacı ve korumacı olmak üzere üç farklı düzeyde görülebilmektedir. Kabullenici sessizlik; çalışanların mevcut olan herhangi bir durum veya sorunla ilgili gelişmelere razı göstermesi sonucunda, söz konusu durum hakkındaki görüş, öneri ve bildiklerini dile getirmemesidir (Dyne, Ang ve Botero, 2003). Pasif bir davranış olarak kabul edilen kabullenici sessizlikte çalışan konuşsa dahi herhangi bir değişiklik olacağına inanmamaktadır. Bu bağlamda kabullenici sessizlik öğrenilmiş çaresizliğin davranışlara yansımış durumu olarak kabul edilir (Whiteside ve Barclay, 2013). Savunmacı sessizlik; çalışanların örgüt içinde açıkça konuşmaları durumunda ortaya çıkabilecek olası sonuçlardan korkması sonucu tercih edilmektedir. Örgütsel sessizlik kavramı tartışılmaya başlandığından beri ele alınan bu sessizlik türünde çalışan kendini koruma adına görüşlerini kendine saklamaktadır (Khalid ve Ahmed, 2016). Son olarak korumacı sessizlik ise; çalışanların başkalarını düşünme veya işbirlikçi nedenlere bağlı olarak örgüte veya diğer bireylere fayda sağlamak amacıyla, herhangi bir durum hakkındaki fikir, bilgi ve görüşlerini dile getirmemesi durumudur (Dyne, Ang ve Botero, 2003). Örgütsel sessizlik ile ilgili çalışmalar değerlendirildiğinde araştırmaların büyük çoğunluğunun nicel araştırma yöntemleri ile incelendiği görülmektedir. Örgütsel sessizlik ile ilgili yapılan çalışmalara yönelik literatür taramasının detaylı özetlerini içeren Yeşilaydın ve Bayın (2015) ve Taşkıran (2011) çalışmaları incelenebilir. Bunlar dışında araştırılan konulara bakıldığında örgütsel sessizlik ile liderlik (Wang, Hsieh, Tsai ve Cheng, 2012; Zehir ve Erdoğan, 2011; Taşkıran, 2011; Karacaoğlu ve Cingöz, 2009; Detert ve Burris, 2007), örgütsel vatandaşlık davranışı (Acaray ve Akturan, 2015; Çınar, Karcıoğlu ve Alioğulları, 2013, Şehitoğlu, 2010), örgütsel bağlılık (Deniz, Noyan ve Ertosun, 2013; Nikmaran, 2012; Soycan, 2010; Kahveci, 2010; Vakola ve Bouradas, 2005), mobbing ve işten ayrılma niyeti (Hüsrevşahi, 2015; Elçi, Karabay, Alpkan ve Şener, 2014), örgütsel faktörler (Morrison, See ve Pan, 2015; Knoll ve Redman, 2015; Brinsfield, 2013; Moaşa, 2013; Alparslan, 2010; Bayram, 2010; Park ve Keil, 2009; Çakıcı, 2007a; 2007b), örgüt kültürü (Taşkıran, Çetinkaya ve Çetin, 2015; Durak, 2012), örgütsel politika (Khalid ve Ahmed, 2016), kişilik özellikleri (Yaprak ve Taşkıran, 2016; Çetin, Özcan, Taşkıran ve Karabay, 2013), örgütsel adalet algısı (Huang ve Huang, 2016; Whiteside ve Barclay, 2013; Tangirala ve Ramanujam, 2008; Pinder ve Harlos 2001) konularının karşılıklı etki ve ilişkileri incelenmiştir. Konuyu daha çok kavramsal boyutta alan çalışmalar ise nispeten az olup örgütsel sessizlik konusunu ön plana çıkaran yazarların çalışmalarıyla dikkat çekmektedir (Morrison ve Milliken, 2000; Morrison, Milliken ve Hewlin, 2003; Dyne, Ang ve Botero, 2003; Premeaux ve Bedeian 2003; Çakıcı, 2007c). Genel olarak çalışmaların nicel yöntemler yardımıyla yapıldığı görülmüştür. Dolayısıyla bu araştırma konuyu nicel ve nitel yöntemleri birlikte kullanması bakımından nispeten az olan çalışmalara destek vermesi açısında önemlidir. Aşağıda konu ile ilgili yapılmış bazı araştırma sonuçlarına yer verilmektedir:

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Khalid ve Ahmed (2016), algılanan örgütsel politikalar ve çalışan sessizliği arasındaki ilişkiyi ve bu ilişkiye farklılaştırıcı etki yapabilecek üst yöneticiye güven değişkeni arasındaki ilişkileri araştırdıkları çalışmaları sonucunda örgütsel politika ve sessizlik üzerinde anlamlı bir etki yarattığını ancak üst yöneticiye duyulan güvenin bu ilişkiyi farklılaştıran bir etki yaratmadığını saptamışlardır. Morrison, See ve Pan (2015: 547) çalışanların sessiz kalma eğilimlerini azaltacak durumsal faktörleri inceledikleri araştırmaları sonucunda gücün önemli bir etken olduğunu belirleyerek çalışanının güce sahip olmasına bağlı olarak sessiz kalma davranışının etkilendiğini saptamıştır. Çalışanının sahip olduğu güç azaldıkça sessiz kalma tutumu artmakta, diğer taraftan algılanan hedef açıklığının belli olması durumunda ise sessiz kalma ve güce sahip olma arasındaki ilişkinin ılımlaştığını belirlemişlerdir. Huang ve Huang (2016), etkileşim adaleti ve sessizlik arasındaki ilişki üzerinde prosedür adaletin farklılaştırıcı etkisini araştırmak üzere yaptıkları Hüsrevşahi (2015), 312 öğretmen üzerinde yaptığı araştırmada örgüt içi mobbing ile sessizlik tutumu arasındaki ilişkiyi araştırmıştır. Bulgular örgüt içinde kalınan mobbingin sessizlik tutumunun belirleyicisi olduğu saptanmıştır. Mobbing yaşayan öğretmenlerin sessizlik davranışına yöneldikleri sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Acaray ve Akturan (2015), örgütsel vatandaşlık davranışı ve örgütsel sessizlik arasındaki ilişkiyi uluslararası bir örgütte görev yapan 462 kişi üzerinde araştırmışlardır. Çalışma bulguları sonucunda korumacı sessizlik davranışının örgütsel vatandaşlık üzerinde olumlu bir etki, savunmacı ve kabullenici sessizlik tutumunun ise olumsuz bir etki yarattığını saptamıştır. Benzer konuda çalışan Çınar, Karcıoğlu ve Alioğulları (2013) örgütsel sessizliğin örgütsel vatandaşlık davranışı boyutları üzerinde güçlü ve negatif yönlü bir etki yarattığını belirlemişlerdir. Çalışanların örgütsel vatandaşlık davranışları arttıkça örgütsel sessizlik tutumları azalmıştır. Elçi, Karabay, Alpkan ve Şener (2014), mobbing, işten ayrılma niyeti ve örgütsel sessizlik arasındaki ilişkiyi inceledikleri çalışmaları sonucunda örgütsel sessizliğin işten ayrılmayı artırdığını belirlemiştir. Brinsfield (2013: 671) yaptığı araştırmada çalışanları sessiz kalmak için güdüleyen faktörler belirlemeye çalışmıştır. Yaptığı dört farklı araştırmanın sonucunda elde ettiği bulgulara göre çalışan sessizliğinin ilişkisel, savunmacı, etkisiz, şüpheci, ilgisiz ve aykırı olmak üzere altı farklı faktör grubunun tetiklediğini belirlemiştir. Deniz, Noyan ve Ertosun (2013), çalışan sessizliği ve örgüte bağlılık arasındaki ilişkiyi araştırmak üzere sağlık sektöründe yaptıkları çalışma sonucunda savunmacı sessizlik ve örgüte bağlılık arasında negatif yönlü ve anlamlı bir ilişki olduğu görülmüştür. Wang, Hsieh, Tsai ve Cheng (2012) bankacılık sektöründe çalışan 193 kişi üzerinde yaptıkları araştırma sonucunda yöneticilerini grup odaklı dönüşümcü lider olarak algılayan çalışanların, yapılanların doğru olduğu önündeki inançları arttığından sessiz kalma eğiliminde olduklarını

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN saptamışlardır. Özellikle bu araştırmada göstermektedir ki, sessizlik davranışı lider-çalışan arasındaki etkileşime bağlı olarak oluşan karşılıklı inanç, güven ve bağlılık sonucunda bilinçli yapılan ve olumlu olduğu düşünülen bir tutum olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Zehir ve Erdoğan (2011), etik liderlik, örgütsel sessizlik ve çalışan performansı arasındaki ilişkiyi hizmet, bankacılık, finans, otomobil, enerji, telekomünikasyon ve ilaç sektörü gibi farklı sektörlerde görev yapan 714 kişi üzerinde taptıkları çalışma sonucunda etik liderlik ve çalışan sessiz kalma davranışı arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olduğu ve etik liderlik davranışının çalışan sessizliği ve performansı arasındaki ilişkide aracılık etkisine sahip olduğu saptanmıştır. Park ve Keil (2009), örgütsel yapı/ilkeler, yönetsel uygulamalar ve üst düzey yöneticiler ile çalışanlar arasındaki demografik farklılıkların örgüt içinde sessizlik iklimi yaratması üzerindeki etkisini rol oynama yöntemiyle araştırdıkları çalışmaları sonucunda söz konusu üç faktöründe sessizlik iklimi yaratmada etkili olduğu ortaya koymuştur. Tangirala ve Ramanujam (2008), hastanelerde çalışan 606 hemşire üzerinde yaptıkları araştırma sonucunda mesleki bağlılık ile özdeşleşme ve çalışan sessizliği arasındaki ilişkide prosedür adalet algısının farklılaştırıcı etki üstlendiğini saptamıştır. Çakıcı ve Çakıcı (2007a), otelcilik sektöründe 310 çalışan üzerinde örgütsel sessizlik tutumları ile ilgili yaptıkları araştırmalarında, çalışanların çoğunluğunun hayatlarında en az bir kez sessiz kaldıklarını, demografik özelliklerine göre sessizlik tutumlarında farklılık olduğunu ve sessiz kalmayı tercih edenlerin daha endişeli bir tutuma sahip olduklarını ortaya koymuşlardır. Yine Çakıcı ve Çakıcı (2007b), aynı yazarların 508 akademisyen üzerinde aynı konuda yaptıkları çalışmada sessizlik tutumunun yaygın olduğu, genellikle etik konular, sorumluluklar ve çalışma arkadaşlarının performansları hakkında sessiz kalındığı ve izolasyon korkusu ve ilişkileri zedeleme kokusunun baskın olduğu saptanmıştır. Morrison, Milliken ve Hewlin (2003), neden bazı durumlarda çalışanların sessiz kaldıklarını belirlemek üzere 40 çalışanla görüşme metodu ile yaptıkları çalışma sonucunda sessizlik davranışının en temel nedeni sorun çıkaran biri olarak etiketlenme korkusu olduğu ve bu durumun diğer çalışanlar ile ilişkilerin zedelenmesine neden olacağı bir model yardımıyla ortaya konuşmuştur. Perlow ve Williams (2003), çok farklı sektör ve düzeydeki yönetici ve çalışan üzerinde yaptıkları araştırma sonucunda, örgütsel sessizlik tutumunun stres, kin, düşük performans ve iş tatmini gibi olumsuz örgütsel sonuçlara neden olduğunu belirlenmiştir. Dyne, Ang ve Botero (2003), örgütsel sessizlik konusunu kavramsal boyutta ele alarak, sessizlik ve seslilik tutumları üzerinde bir model ve öneriler geliştirmiştir. Yine konuyu kavramsal boyutta ele alan Pinder ve Harlos (2003), sessizlik ve algılanan örgütsel adalet kavramları ilişkilendirilmiştir. Örgüt ortamında algılanan adaletsizliğin sessizlik davranışına neden olduğu saptanmıştır.

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Örgütsel sessizliği ilgili literatürde ön plana çıkaran Morrison ve Milliken (2000) ise örgütsel sessizlik konusunu kavramsal boyutta ele alarak 13 önerme geliştirmiş ve örgütsel sessizliğin nedenleri ve oluşumu bir model üzerinden açıklamışlardır.

3. Metodoloji Nitel araştırma yöntemini esas alan bu çalışma, geçmişteki ya da şu andaki bir durumu var olduğu şekliyle betimlemeyi amaçlayan ve araştırmaya konu olan olayın veya birey(ler)in kendi koşulları içerisinde var olduğu biçimiyle tanımlanmaya çalışıldığı bir araştırma yaklaşımı olan genel tarama modelinde yapılandırılmıştır. Gözlem, görüşme ve doküman inceleme gibi nitel veri toplama yöntemlerinden biri veya birkaçının bir arada kullanılabildiği, durumların veya olayların var olduğu şekliyle gerçekçi ve bütüncül bir biçimde ortaya konmasına çaba gösterildiği nitel araştırmalarda elde edilen sonuçlardan genelleme yapılamamakla birlikte, bu sonuçlar, konuya ilişkin bir bakış açısı sağlaması bakımından önemlidir. Nitel araştırma yönteminin kullanıldığı bu araştırmada; karmaşık kişisel ve duygusal sorunların ortaya çıkarılmasına yardımcı olması, istenilen bilginin eksiksiz olarak ve derinlemesine elde edilebilmesi, değişik ve anında değişebilen koşullara uyabilme esnekliğine sahip olması, soruların sayısı ve sırasını değiştirme serbestliği tanıması gibi özelliklerinden dolayı yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Katılımcı Grubu Araştırmanın katılımcı grubunu, Türkiye’de faaliyet gösteren bir havayolu şirketinde, İstanbul ilinde görev yapan 2 kıdemli amir, 6 amir ve 13 kabin memuru olmak üzere toplam 21 uçucu personel oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmaya katılan kabin memurları ve amirler, rastgele seçimle belirlenen, ölçeği ve görüşme sorularını cevaplamayı kabul eden kişilerden oluşmaktadır. Çeşitli yaş ve çalışma süresi olan katılımcılara ilişkin demografik bilgiler kıdem sırasına göre aşağıda verilmiştir. Tablo 2: Katılımcılara İlişkin Demografik Bilgiler Katılımcının ünvanı Kıdemli amir

Cinsiyeti Kadın

Medeni hali Evli

Havayolunda çalıĢma süresi 13

Kıdemli amir

Kadın

Bekar

11

Amir

Kadın

Evli

9

Amir

Erkek

Evli

8

Amir

Kadın

Bekar

8

Amir

Kadın

Bekar

6

Amir

Erkek

Evli

5

Amir

Kadın

Evli

5

Kabin memuru

Kadın

Evli

5

Kabin memuru

Kadın

Evli

5

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kabin memuru

Kadın

Evli

4

Kabin memuru

Erkek

Evli

4

Kabin memuru

Kadın

Evli

4

Kabin memuru

Kadın

Bekar

3

Kabin memuru

Kadın

Evli

3

Kabin memuru

Kadın

Evli

3

Kabin memuru

Kadın

Evli

3

Kabin memuru

Erkek

Bekar

3

Kabin memuru

Kadın

Evli

2

Kabin memuru

Kadın

Evli

2

Kabin memuru

Kadın

Bekar

1

Tabloda kadın, evli ve 3-5 yıl arasında kıdemi olan kabin memuru katılımcıların çoğunlukta olduğu görülmektedir. Veri Toplama Aracının GeliĢtirilmesi Araştırmada ilk etapta Dyne ve diğ. (2003) tarafından geliştirilen “Örgütsel Sessizlik Ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Ölçekte çalışmanın literatür kısmında konu edilen 3 boyutta 5’er sorudan 15 soru bulunmaktadır. Bu ölçek yardımıyla “kabullenici” ve “savunmacı” sessizlik davranışının varlığı tespit edilen 19 katılımcı, ve örgütte gelişen olumsuz durumlara sessiz kalmadıklarını ifade eden 2 katılımcı ile ayrı ayrı görüşmeler yapılarak, yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme yöntemiyle bilgiler toplanmıştır. Katılımcılardan alınan bilgilerin analiz edilmesine imkan tanıması, katılımcıların verdikleri bilgiler arasında benzerlik ve farklılıkları karşılaştırmaya yardımcı olması açısından aşağıda belirtilen 4 sorudan oluşan yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Bu sorular şunlardır; 1. Bireyde sessizlik davranışı var mıdır? 2. Var ise hangi durumlarda sessiz kalınması tercih edilmektedir? 3. Bu durumlarda neden sessiz kalınması tercih edilmektedir? 4. Bu sessizlik davranışının birey ve örgüt açısından kazanımları veya kayıpları nelerdir? Konuyla ilgili uzmanlardan görüşme sorularının açık ve anlaşılır olup olmaması ve araştırılan konuyu kapsayıp kapsamaması açılarından kontrol etmeleri istenmiştir. Sonuçta uzmanlar tarafından soru maddelerinin geçerliliği saptanmış ve yeterli görülmüştür. Verilerin Toplanması ve Analizi Araştırmaya ilişkin veriler, 21 uçucu personel ile yüz yüze iletişim kurmak suretiyle toplanmıştır. Araştırmada katılımcılara, yapılan çalışmanın amacı ve içeriği hakkında bilgiler verilmiş ve yapılan çalışmanın bilimsel bir çalışma olduğu, tamamen bilimsel amaçlar için kullanılacağı ve katılımcıların kimliklerinin açıklanmayacağı belirtilmiştir. Görüşmelerde katılımcıların dile getirdiği ifadelerin bazılarına çalışmada doğrudan alıntı olarak yer verilmiştir. Bulgular ve Yorum

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Bu aşamada sırayla her bir soru ve buna ilişkin görüşler açıklanacaktır. 1. Kurumda örgütsel sessizliğin varlığı ile ilgili olarak; Katılımcılar örgütsel sessizliğin genel olarak şirkette var olduğu konusunda görüş belirtmişlerdir. Her üç gruptaki (kıdemli amir, amir, kabin memuru) katılımcıların görüşleri incelendiğinde genel olarak, işyerlerinde gerek çalışma sırasında gerekse çalışma saatleri dışında şirketin geliştirdiği politikalar doğrultusunda yapılan uygulamalar karşısında sesssiz kaldıkları, istemeseler de çeşitli nedenlerden ötürü kendilerini buna zorunlu hissettikleri, sessiz kalmadıkları zaman da sonuçta fazla bir değişikliğin olmadığına inandıkları anlaşılmaktadır. 2. Hangi durumlarda sessiz kalınmasının tercih edildiği ile ilgili olarak; Araştırmaya katılanlar tarafından ifade edilen, şirket içinde gelişen olaylara sessiz kalınan durumlardan başlıcaları şunlardır;  Çalışma saatlerinin belirlenmesinde şirketin sivil havacılık kuralları ve toplu iş sözleşmesindeki maddelere uymayan uygulamaları,  Ast-üst ilişkilerinde zaman zaman fiziksel şiddete kadar varan sözlü veya psikolojik taciz (mobbing),  Uçuş personelinin uçuş boyunca üzerine düşen görevleri tam olarak yerine getirmemesi, hizmetin anlık olarak yerine getirilmesi zorunluluğu bulunduğundan diğer çalışanlara daha fazla görev yükü yüklenmesi, amirlerin bu konuda adaletli davranamaması,  Şirketin fazlasıyla müşteri odaklı olması, çalışanların müşteri ilişkilerinde insiyatif kullanmalarına izin verilmemesi,  Olumsuz durumların şirkete rapor edilmesine ilişkin bir sistem olmasına rağmen bu sistemin işlememesi veya çok yavaş işlemesi. Araştırma sırasında görüşme yapılan erkek kabin memurlarından biri: “4 yıldır bu şirkette çalışıyorum. Evliyim, 2 yaşında bir kızım var. Yılda 7 gün mazeret izin hakkımız olduğu halde, çocuğumun veya eşimin hastalığı ya da başka geçerli bir nedenle izin istediğimiz zaman caydırma amaçlı olduğunu düşündüğümüz birçok gereksiz soruya muhatap oluyoruz, bazen izin verilmediği de oluyor. Aslında bu durumu üst makamlara bildirme konusunda geliştirilmiş bir geribildirim sistemi var ama ben ve arkadaşlarım bu sistemi özellikle kullanmıyoruz. Çünkü önerilerimizin dikkate alınacağına inanmıyoruz. Hatta bildirimlerimizin hakkımızda olumsuz bir yargıya neden olup, zarar görmemek için mazeret izni kullanmaktan bile vazgeçiyoruz. Arabamın taksitleri bitti ama konut kredimin ödemeleri nedeniyle iş akdimin feshedilmesinden endişe duyuyorum.”

şeklinde sessiz kalma durumunu açıklamaya çalışmıştır. Bekar bayan bir amir ise farklı bir konuyu dile getirmiştir;

292

The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN “Gerek şirket içinde gerekse yurtta meydana gelen grev, deprem, patlama gibi önemli olaylarda çalışanlar sosyal medyada paylaşım yapmaktan çekiniyorlar. Çünkü kişisel sosyal medya hesaplarının incelendiği düşünülüyor. En azından bu ortamlarda kişiler iletişim kurmamayı tercih ediyorlar.”

ifadesiyle toplu bir sessiz kalma eylemini ortaya koymuştur. 3. Bu durumlarda neden sessiz kalınması tercih edildiği ile ilgili olarak ; Katılımcıların tamamı iş akdinin kurum tarafından tek taraflı olarak feshedilmesi endişesini ifade etmektedirler. Bu da göstermektedir ki, iş kaygısı örgütsel sessizlik açısından en önemli neden olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. Uygulamalara ve tutumlara sessiz kalmadıklarını ifade eden 2 kişi, bu durumu göze aldıklarını, iş akitlerinin feshedilmesi halinde ailelerinin işinde veya başka kurumlarda çalışma imkanları bulunduğunu belirtmişlerdir. Bu konuda görüşme yaptığımız evli bayan bir kabin memuru; “Hamile olduğum dönemde yer görevinde çalıştım. Burada gözlemlediğim konu, çalışanların sahip oldukları niteliklere göre değil, tanıdıkları kişiler vasıtasıyla bir yerlere geldikleri. Bu durum da olaylar karşısında sessiz kalmalarına yol açıyor. Ayrıca kişisel gayretin bir işe yaramayacağı inancı da hakim. Ben kişisel olarak olumsuz gördüğüm tutum ve davranışlara karşı istediğim tepkileri verebildiğimi düşünüyorum. Evli olmam ve bu işi geçici olarak düşünmem bunda en önemli etken sanırım.”

şeklinde açıklamada bulunarak sessiz kalmama durumunda iş akdinin feshedilebileceği beklentisini dile getirmiştir. Bunun yanı sıra şirketin uçuş programlarını düzenlerken belirlediği uygulamalar konusunda konuşan bir erkek kabin memuru ise; “Şirketin sivil havacılık kurallarına ve toplu iş sözleşmesi maddelerine uymaması durumunda ortaya çıkan mesai aşımı vb. gibi olumsuzluklar çalışanın motivasyonunun düşmesine, tükenmesine ve şirkete karşı güvensizliğe neden olabiliyor. Çalışanlar buna karşı çıktıklarında, uçuş programlarının daha yoğun ve yorucu olacağına, şirket içinde mimleneceklerine dair içlerinde bir korku taşıyorlar. Emin olmamakla birlikte şirket içinde böyle bir hava yaratılıyor”

ifadesiyle şirket içinde yaratılan kültürün çalışanları olumsuz etkilediğini öne sürmektedir. Bayan bir kıdemli amir de şu ifadelerle konuya yaklaşımda bulunmuştur. “Havacılıkta kurallar net bir şekilde belirtilir. Çalışan kişi sayısı çok fazla olduğundan insan faktörü göz ardı edilir, olaylar durumlara göre esnetilemez. Yani bir anda yapılan şey hatalı bile olsa kural öyl e olduğu için uygulanır. Çalışanların insiyatif kullanıp hataları anlık olarak düzeltmeleri hoş karşılanmaz. Sorunların üst mercilere raporlanması sonucu gerekli değişikliklerin yapılması beklenir. Bu durumdan ötürü sorunların çözülmesi gecikir ya da kişiler verdikleri geribildirimin sonucunu hemen göremezler. Bu da kişilerin motivasyonunu olumsuz etkiler, olumsuzluklara karşı tepkisiz kalmalarına sebep olur”

4. Şirkette sessizlik olgusunun birey ve şirket açısından kazanımları ve kayıpları ile ilgili olarak; Bu konuda, görüşme yapılan bütün çalışanlar şirkete olan güvenlerinin azaldığını, morallerinin olumsuz yönde etkilendiğini dile getirmişlerdir. Düşük motivasyonla çalışılan bir ortamda şirket açısından verimli sonuçlar alınamayacağı da açıktır.

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

4. Sonuç Türkiye’de havayolu taşımacılığı sektöründe örgütsel sessizlik olgusunun değerlendirilmesi amacıyla, İstanbul ilinde bir havayolu şirketinde görev yapan 21 uçucu personel ile yapılan görüşme sonucunda, 1. Çalışanların çoğunluğunun örgütteki olumsuz tutum ve olaylara karşı sessiz kaldıkları, 2. Bu sessizlik davranışının temel nedeninin iş akitlerinin feshedilmesi sonucunda maddi ve manevi zarar görme endişesi olduğu, 3. Bu endişeyi taşımayan azınlığın sessiz kalmayabildiği ancak sessiz kalmamanın sonuçta yapıcı bir etkisinin olmadığı, 4. Çalışma ortamında işin gereği olarak ast-üst ilişkilerinin yoğun yaşandığından ve işin gereği olarak olumsuzluklara tepkisiz kalmanın öğretildiği, en azından böyle bir kültür yaratıldığı, 5. Şirkette geri bildirim amacıyla kullanılan bir raporlama sistemi olduğu, ancak çalışanlarda bunun sonuç vermeyeceği veya çok zaman alacağı gibi bir izlenimin olduğu, bu nedenle de bu sisteme genellikle başvurulmadığı, gibi örgütsel sessizlik davranışlarının örnekleri görülmektedir. Çalışanların yaşadıkları olumsuz deneyimleri birbirleriyle paylaşmaları sonucunda kişi daha önceden benzer bir deneyim yaşamasa bile çalışma arkadaşlarının deneyimlerinden yola çıkarak sessiz kalmayı tercih etmekte, bu durum da şirkette bir tür öğrenilmiş çaresizliği beraberinde getirmektedir. Kaynaklar Acaray, A., & Akturan, A. (2015). The relationship between organizational citizenship behaviour and organizational silence. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 207, 472-482. Alparslan, A.M. (2010). Örgütsel sessizlik iklimi ve iş gören sessizlik davranışları arasındaki etkileşim: Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi öğretim elemanları üzerinde bir araştırma. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Isparta. Bayram, T.Y. (2010). Üniversitelerde örgütsel sessizlik.Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Bolu. Brinsfield, C.T. (2013). Employee silence motives: Investigation of dimensionality and development of measures. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34, 671–697. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.1829. Çakıcı, A. (2010). Örgütlerde iş gören sessizliği, neden sessiz kalmayı tercih ediyoruz? Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara. Çakıcı, A. (2007a). İşgören sessizliği: konuşmak mı zor, sessiz kalmak mı zor? X.Yönetim ve Organizasyon Kongresi, Sakarya Üniversitesi, 389-400. Çakıcı, A. (2007b). Otel işletmelerinde sessizliğin algılanan sonuçlarına ilişkin bir araştırma. Çeşme Ulusal Turizm Sempozyumu,, 21-23 Kasım, 481-489. Çakıcı, A. (2007c). Örgütlerde sessizlik: Sessizliğin teorik temelleri ve dinamikleri. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 16 (1), 145-162. Çetin, C., Karabay, M.E., Özcan, D.E. & Taşkıran, E. (2013). The effect of personality traits on organizational silence: a research on service industry, 6th International Conference on Service Management, Oxford Brookes University, Cyprus.

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Çınar, O., Karcıoğlu, F., & Alioğulları, Z.D. (2013). The relationship between organizational silence and organizational citizenship behavior: a survey study in the province of Erzurum, Turkey. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 99, 314-321. Deniz, N., Noyan, A. & Ertosun, Ö.G. (2013). The relationship between employee silence and organizational commitment in a private healthcare company. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 99, 691-700. Detert, J.R., & Burris, R.E. (2016). Çalışanlarınız gerçekten de özgürce konuşabiliyor mu? Harvard Business Review Türkiye, Ocak-Şubat, 75-81. Detert, J.R. & Burris, E.R. (2007). Leadership behavior and employee voice: ıs the door really open? Academy of Management Journal, 50 (4), 225-241. Durak, İ. (2012). Korku kültürü ve örgütsel sessizlik. Bursa: Ekim Basım Yayım Dağıtım. Dyne, V. L., Ang, S., & Botero, I.C. 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Perlow, L. & Williams, S. (2003). Is silence killing your company? Harvard Business Review, May, 3-8. Pinder, C.C., & Harlos, K.P. (2001). Employee silence: quiescence and acquiescence as responses to percieved ınjustice. Personal and Human Research Management, 20, 331-369. Premeaux, S. F., & Bedeian, A. G. (2003). Breaking the silence: The moderating effects of self-monitoring in predicting speaking up in the workplace. Journal of Management Studies, 40, 1537–1562. Ryan, K.D., & Oestreich, D.K. (1991). Driving fear out of the workplace: How to overcome the invisible barriers to quality, productivity and innovation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Soycan, Ş.H. (2010). Bankalarda birleşme sonrası örgütsel bağlılık ve örgütsel sessizlik ilişkisi. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Şehitoğlu, Y. (2010). Örgütsel sessizlik örgütsel vatandaşlık davranışı ve algılanan çalışan performansı ilişkisi. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gebze Yüksek Teknoloji Enstitüsü, Gebze. Tangirala, S., & Ramanujam, R. (2008). Employee silence on critical work issues: The cross level effects of procedural justice climate. Personnel Psychology, 61, 37–68.

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The 2 nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Taşkıran, E., Çetinkaya, N., & Çetin, C. (2015). A study to identify the impact of organizational culture on organizational silence. Humanities and Social Sciences Review, 4 (1), 53-60. Taşkıran, E. (2011). Liderlik ve örgütsel sessizlik arasındaki etkileşim: örgütsel adaletin rolü. İstanbul: Beta Basım Yayım Dağıtım. Umar, M., & Hassan, Z. (2013). Antecedents and outcomes of voice and silence behaviours of employees of tertiary educational institutions in Nigeria. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 97, 188-193. Vakola, M. & Bouradas, D. (2005). Antecedents and consequences of organizational silence: an empirical investigation. Employee Relations, 27 (5), 441-458. Wang, A.C., Hsieh, H.H., Tsai, C.Y., & Cheng, B.S. (2012). Does value congruence lead to voice? Cooperative voice and cooperative silence under team and differentiated transformational leadership. Management and Organization Review, 8 (2), 341–370. doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8784.2011.00255.x Whiteside, D.B., & Barclay, J.L. (2013). Echoes of silence: employee silence as a mediator between overall justice and employee outcomes. Journal of Business Ethics, 116, 251-266. doi: 10.1007/s10551- 0121467-3 Yaprak, D., & Taşkıran, E. (2016). Kişilik özelliklerinin örgütsel sessizlik üzerindeki etkisini belirlemeye yönelik bir araştırma, Bartın Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi, 7 (13), 402-434. Yeşilaydın, G., & Bayın, G. (2015). Türkiye’de örgütsel sessizlik ile ilgili yapılan araştırmalara yönelik literatür incelemesi. Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 15 (4), 103-120. Zehir, C., & Erdoğan E. (2011). The association between organizational silence and ethical leadership through employee performance. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 24, 1389-1404.

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TÜRKİYE’DE SÜRDÜRÜLEBİLİR ENERJİ POLİTİKALARI KAPSAMINDA YENİLENEBİLİR ENERJİNİN KONUMU

Yrd. Doç. Dr. Erol KAPLUHAN Ahi Evran Üniversitesi, Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi, Coğrafya Bölümü [email protected] Özet Enerji rezervlerinin dünyanın belli coğrafyalarında kümelenmiş olması ve sürekli artış gösteren dünya nüfusuna paralel şekilde enerji ihtiyacının da artması hususları, enerji politikalarının belirlenmesinde temel faktörler olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. Kaynakların sınırlı oluşu ve insan faktörünün bu noktada çaresiz kaldığı gerçeği dikkate alındığında tüm ülkeler doğru karta oynamak için hukuk kurallarını devreye sokmakta ve geleceğini teminat altına alıcı birtakım önlemleri şimdiden yürürlüğe sokmaktadır. Tüketimi çok yüksek oranlarda seyreden ülkeler, enerji arz güvenliklerini tesis etme amacıyla birçok hukuki metin ortaya koymaktadır. Üretimde kullanılan en önemli girdilerden biri olan enerji, sosyal refahın önemli bir belirleyicisi olarak görülmektedir. Dünya ekonomisinde bir yandan enerji talebi ve tüketimi hızla artarken, diğer yandan petrol rezervlerindeki azalma nedeniyle ülkelerin enerji ithalatına olan bağımlılıkları artmaktadır. Türkiye’de de ithal edilen enerji hammaddelerine ödenen maliyetler bütçede önemli yer tutmaktadır. Sanayi devriminden itibaren enerji ihtiyacının karşılanmasında, petrol, kömür ve doğal gaz ağırlıklı olarak kullanılmış ve günümüzde de kullanılmaya devam etmektedir. Enerji ihtiyacının karşılanmasında kullanılan fosil kökenli kaynaklar, çevrede önemli değişikliklere neden olarak; toprak, su ve hava kirlilikleri oluşturmuştur. Bu kirlilikler sonucunda; doğal dengede bozulma görülmüş, iklimde değişikler gözlenmiş, Dünya’nın normal sıcaklığı yükselmeye başlamıştır. Eğer gerekli önlemler alınmaz ise sıcaklık artışı sürecek, iklim şartlarında başlayan değişiklikler artarak devam edecektir. Dolayısıyla Dünya’da yaşanabilir yerler giderek azalmaya başlayacaktır. Enerji ihtiyacının karşılanmasında günümüzde ağırlıklı olarak kullanılan fosil kökenli yakıtlar yerine, çevreye zarar vermeyen, küresel ısınma ve iklim değişikliğine sebep olmayan, çevre ile dost enerji kaynakları olan yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının (güneş, rüzgâr, biyokütle, jeotermal, hidroelektrik, hidrojen ve deniz kökenli enerji kaynakları) kullanımının artırılması gerekmektedir. Küresel iktisadi ve sosyal kalkınmanın önünü açacak olan sürdürülebilir kalkınma politikaları üretmek yirmi birinci yüzyılın önceliklerinden biri haline gelmiştir. Bu tip politikaların izlenebilmesi için ekonomik, sosyal ve çevresel boyutların dâhil edildiği bütünsel bir yaklaşımın gerekmektedir. Enerji meselesi, tam bu boyutların kesişme noktasında yer almaktadır. Bu çerçevede, düşük karbon salınım değerleri nedeniyle fosil yakıtlara önemli bir alternatif olarak sunulan yenilenebilir enerjinin Türkiye özelinde ne derece sürdürülebilir bir enerji kaynağı olduğu avantajlı ve dezavantajlı yanlarıyla beraber dengeli bir şekilde değerlendirilecektir. Türkiye’nin sürdürülebilir enerji geleceğinin tesisi yolunda yenilenebilir enerjiden elektrik üretmesinin ancak sosyal ve çevresel risklerin asgariye indirilmesi ama hepsinden daha önemlisi sosyal kabulün sağlanması durumunda tercih edilebilir olacağı tartışılacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Enerji İhtiyacı, Sürdürülebilir Enerji, Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynakları, Enerji Politikaları. 297

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 1. Giriş Enerji insan faaliyetinin her alanına nüfuz etmiştir. Bu nedenle dünyadaki bütün ülkeler yurttaşlarına düşük maliyetli, güvenli, sürdürülebilir enerji erişimi sağlamak için çaba göstermekte ve birbirleriyle rekabet etmektedir. Ülke nüfusunun artışına ve ekonominin büyümesine paralel olarak enerjiye olan talep de artmaktadır. Ekonomik büyümenin ve nüfus artışının genellikle daha yüksek olduğu gelişmekte olan ülkelerde, gelişmiş ülkelere göre enerjiye olan ülkelerde, gelişmiş ülkelere göre enerjiye olan talepteki artış oranı çok daha yüksektir. Ülkenin en büyük sorunu olarak gösterilen enerjide dışa bağımlılığın minimum seviyeye indirilmesi, sahip olunan kaynakların doğru şekilde tespit edilmesi, planlama anlayışın yaygınlaştırılması ve doğru enerji politikalarıyla mümkündür (Soydal & Mızrak & Çetinkaya, 2012: 130). Fosil kökenli yakıtlar son iki yüzyıl içerisinde, üretim teknolojilerinin oldukça gelişmiş ve ucuz olması nedeniyle yaygın olarak kullanılmış ancak 1973 Petrol Krizi enerji kaynakları konusunda ilk kez bir güvensizlik ortamı yaratmıştır. Bu güvensizlik ortamı, bütün dünyada yenilenebilir kaynaklara karşı yoğun bir ilgiye yol açmış, 80‟li yılların ortalarında petrol fiyatları düşmesine rağmen petrole dayalı enerjisi kullanımı riskli olarak kabul edilmiştir. Yine günümüzde artan petrol ve doğal gaz fiyatları ve “enerji güvenliğinin sağlanması gerekliliği” nedenleriyle “enerjinin çeşitlendirilmesi” enerji politikalarının vazgeçilmez unsurlarından biri haline gelmiştir. Bu nedenler yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının da enerji yelpazesinde yer almasına yol açmıştır. Yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının gelişimini destekleyen bir başka gelişme de 90‟lı yıllarda çevre bilincinin ortaya çıkmasıdır. Bu bilinç, geleneksel enerji üretim ve tüketiminin çevre ve doğal kaynaklar üzerinde yerel, bölgesel ve küresel seviyede doğrudan olumsuz etkilere neden olduğunun anlaşılmasına ve atmosfere kirlilik yaratıcı emisyon vermeyen yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının “temiz enerjiler” olarak destek görmesine yol açmıştır (Çağlar, 2010: 1). Yine günümüzde artan petrol ve doğal gaz fiyatları ve “enerji güvenliginin sağlanması gereklililği” nedenleriyle “enerjinin çesitlendirilmesi” enerji politikalarının vazgeçilmez unsurlarından biri haline gelmiştir. Bu nedenler yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının da enerji yelpazesinde yer almasına yol açmıstır. Yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının gelişimini destekleyen bir başka gelişme de 90‟lı yıllarda çevre bilincinin ortaya çıkmasıdır. Bu bilinç, geleneksel enerji üretim ve tüketiminin çevre ve doğal kaynaklar üzerinde yerel, bölgesel ve küresel seviyede doğrudan olumsuz etkilere neden olduğunun anlaşılmasına ve atmosfere kirlilik yaratıcı emisyon vermeyen yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının “temiz enerjiler” olarak destek görmesine yol açmıstır. Hidrolik, rüzgar, jeotermal, günes, biyokütle, dalga, gel-git başlıca yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarıdır. Yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarına gösterilen ilgi, ithalat bağımlılığının azaltılmasına, çevrenin korunmasına, kaynak çeşitlendirmesine olan olumlu katkıları, tarım ve imalat sanayii gibi ilişkili oldugu sektörlerde yeni iş alanlarına imkan tanıması, yerel bazda ve modüler olarak istenilen miktarda enerji talebini karşılayacak şekilde kurulabilmesi, daha çok kırsal ve dağınık yerleşim yerlerinin enerji talep yapısıyla uyum gösterebilmesi gibi nedenlerle önem kazanmakta ve AB ülkeleri ve dünyada pekçok ülke 1980‟li yılların sonlarından itibaren yenilenebilir enerji üretimini desteklemektedir. “Sürdürülebilir” kavramı, 1980‟li yıllarda ilk olarak Bruntland Raporunda1 kullanılmıştır ve “var olan kaynaklarımızı gelecek nesillere yetecek biçimde kullanımını” ifade etmektedir. “Sürdürülebilir” veya “sürdürülebilirlik” dünyada yaşanan küresel ısınmanın sonuçlarında var olan kaynakların değişmesi ve tükenmesini baz almıştır. Sürdürülebilirlik, “üretebilme yeteneğinin yakın gelecekte korunması” olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Cumhuriyet döneminden itibaren Türkiye‟nin enerji görünümüne göz atıldığında ise gelişmekte olan 1

Bruntland Raporu: 1987 yılında Birleşmiş Milletler Dünya Çevre ve Kalkınma Komisyonu‟nca hazırlanan ve yoksulluğun

kaldırılması, doğal kaynaklardan elde edilen yararın eşit dağılımı, nüfus kontrolü ve çevre dostu teknolojilerin geliştirilmesi gibi sürdürülebilir kalkınma hedefleri doğrultusunda çözüm arayan rapor.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ülkelerin gerektirdiği ölçüde ekonominin bir numaralı göstergesi olan enerji gereksinimin yıldan yıla arttığı görülmüş, özellikle 1980‟den sonra nüfus ve sanayiye bağlı olarak hızlı bir artış sürecine girmiştir. Tarım önemini yitirmiş, sanayi ve hizmet sektörü ön plana çıkmıştır. Ekonomideki bu değişim daha fazla enerji ihtiyacına sebep olmuş ve petrol, kömür, doğal gaz gibi fosil yakıtların talebi aşırı büyümüştür (Mucuk & Uysal, 2009: 106). Türkiye ekonomisinin enerji ihtiyacının karşılanması fosil yakıtlara ve bu kaynaklar açısında fakir olan ülkenin bu kaynakları ithalatına dayanmaktadır. Bu durum, hem ülke bütçesine ağır bir yük getirmekte hem de ekonominin yapısal cari açık sorununu derinleştirmektedir. Yerli üretimin artırılması ve enerji verimliliğinin geliştirilmesi akla ilk gelen politika seçenekleridir. Ancak zengin kaynaklara sahip bölge ülkeleriyle karşılıklı yarar sağlayacak kalıcı yapılar oluşturulması ve maliyet avantajı doğrultusunda farklı enerji kaynaklarının ikamesine imkan sağlayacak sistem esnekliğinin kazandırılması da, ülke ekonomisinin mevcut yükünü yönetmeye yönelik oluşturulacak uzun dönemli stratejinin başlıca unsurları arasında olmalıdır. Türkiye‟nin enerji politikası, Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlıgı‟nca, “sınırlı olan doğal kaynakları daha akılcı kullanarak, çevreye ve insan saglıgına olan olumsuz etkileri minimum seviyeye indirmek, yeni kaynaklara ilaveten yeni teknolojilerle enerjiyi çesitlendirmek, alternatif enerji kaynaklarını en faydalı şekilde hizmete sunarak ülkenin kalkınması ve refah artısını sağlayacak, daha temiz, daha güvenli, daha verimli, daha ucuz ve ticari açıdan ulaşılabilir ve sürdürülebilir enerji arzını sağlamak” şeklinde belirlenmiştir. Türkiye ve Dünya ülkelerinde sosyal ve ekonomik kalkınmanın temel girdisi olan enerjiye gün geçtikçe daha çok gereksinim duyulması, dünyanın enerji kaynaklarının sınırlı olması ve sürekli azalan yönde artış göstermesi gerçeğinin daha geniş kesimlerce anlaşılması ülkeleri, enerji politikalarını yeniden gözden geçirmeye ve enerjiyi etkin kullanmaya yöneltmiştir. Türk enerji politikası bugün yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarından elektrik üretimi ve enerjinin üretiminden tüketimine kadar her safhasında verimliliğin artırılmasına önem ve öncelik veren, enerji kaynağı ve ithalatta kaynak ülke çeşitlenmesini ön plana çıkartan, enerji koridoru rolüne özel bir vurgu yapan ve olmazsa olmaz olarak serbest piyasa ve rekabet ekonomisini benimseyen bir tutumu yansıtmaktadır. Millilik ve yenilik unsurları ile de bütünleştirilmiş yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarımızın harekete geçirilmesi temiz çevre gereklerinin yerine getirilmesinde ve enerji ihtiyaçlarının yerinden üretim yaklaşımı ile karşılanmasında önemli katkılar sağlayacaktır. Makroekonomik değerlendirmeler kapsamında, ekonomik büyüme ve kalkınmanın önündeki en büyük engellerden birisi de hiç şüphesiz cari açık sorunu olmuştur. Toplam enerji tüketiminde ¾ oranında dışa bağımlı olan Türkiye‟de cari açığın hemen hemen hepsini enerji ithalatı oluşturmaktadır. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Merkez Bankasının 2003-2015 yılları arasındaki cari işlemler dengesi grafiği incelendiğinde, Türkiye‟nin her yıl açık verdiği görülmektedir. Nitekim son verilere göre 2014 yılında 51,6 milyar $ cari açık veren Türkiye‟de enerji hariç cari açık rakamı 2,06 milyar $ olarak gösterilmiştir. 2015 yılının ilk çeyreğinde ise Türkiye 45,7 milyar $ cari açık verirken, enerji hariç 264 milyon $ cari fazla vermiştir (TCMB Cari İşlemler Dengesi, 2015). Ülkenin en büyük sorunu olarak gösterilen enerjide dışa bağımlılığın minimum seviyeye indirilmesi, sahip olunan kaynakların doğru şekilde tespit edilmesi, planlama anlayışın yaygınlaştırılması ve doğru enerji politikalarıyla mümkündür (Soydal & Mızrak & Çetinkaya, 2012: 130). 2. Türkiye’nin Enerji Görünümü Türkiye‟de enerjiyle ilgili tüm uygulamalar, Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı'nca yürütülmektedir. Elektrik piyasası, idari ve mali özerkliğe sahip bir kamu tüzel kişiliği statüsünde olan ve Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı ile ilişki içinde faaliyet gösteren Elektrik Piyasası Düzenleme Kurumu‟nca idare edilmektedir. Araştırma ve geliştirme çalışmaları, Yenilenebilir Enerji Genel Müdürlüğü ve Türkiye Bilimsel Teknik ve Araştırma Kurumu tarafından yürütülmektedir (WWF Türkiye Raporu, 2011: 7 ). 1980‟li yıllara gelindiğinde, enerji tüketimindeki artışın karşılanması için, hidroelektrik santrallerin yapımı hız kazanmıştır. 1990‟lı yıllarda Türkiye petrolün yanı sıra doğal gaz ithal etmeye başlamıştır. Bu yıllarda doğalgazın enerji tüketimindeki payı giderek artmaya başlamıştır. Genel olarak Türkiye‟nin enerji ihtiyacı; 1990‟lı yıllara kadar büyük hidroelektrik santraller ve kömür gibi yerli, 299

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN petrol ve doğalgaz gibi ithal edilen kaynaklardan karşılanmıştır. 1990 yılına kadar yerli kaynaklar öncelikli olarak kullanılmıştır. 1990‟dan sonraki dönemde, kömür kullanan enerji santrallerinde oluşan emisyonların kontrolü, gaz temizleyiciler ve diğer arıtma sistemleri için ekstra sermaye harcamaları yapılması gerekliliği, hidroelektrik santrallerin ise büyük arazi ihtiyacı ve çok güvenilir olmayan yağış düzenine bağılı olması durumları belirtilerek, daha ucuz olduğu için petrol ve doğalgaz ağırlıklı olarak enerji ihtiyacı karşılanmıştır (Güler & Çobanoğlu, 1997: 20-28). Enerji sektöründe uygulanan bu politikalar 1963 yılından beri hazırlanan beş yıllık kalkınma planlarında belirtilmiştir. Genel olarak enerji üretimi devlet tarafından sağlanmış, 1984 yılından itibaren özel sektör ve yabancı sermaye girişimlerinin destekleneceği belirtilmiştir. Günümüz verileri incelendiğinde, fosil kaynakların toplam enerji tüketimindeki oranı % 90‟dır. Doğalgaz ve petrol üreticisi olmayan Türkiye, doğalgaz ihtiyacının % 96‟sını, petrol ihtiyacının ise %90‟ını ithalatla karşılamaktadır. İthal edilen doğalgazın %67‟lik bölümü elektrik üretiminde kullanılmaktadır. İthal edilmesine rağmen doğalgazın elektrik üretiminde yaygın olarak kullanılmasının en önemli nedenlerinden biri, özel şirketlerin yapım maliyeti diğer santrallere göre düşük olan doğalgaz santrallerini kurmayı tercih etmeleridir (Kantörün, 2010: 87). Hızla büyüyen Türkiye‟nin her geçen gün artan enerji ihtiyacının büyük bir oranını dışarıdan aldığı fosil kaynaklardan karşılaması çeşitli olumsuzlukları beraberinde getirmektedir. 2000-2013 yılları arasında Türkiye‟nin birincil enerji tüketimi (2008 yılı hariç) sürekli yükselirken, petrol ve doğal gazın birincil enerji tüketimi içindeki payı % 60‟lar civarında seyretmiştir. 2013 yılında petrol ve doğal gaz tüketiminin birincil enerji içindeki payı % 61 olarak kaydedilmiştir (TP, 2015: 37). Bu durum bize yaklaşık yirmi yıldır uygulanan mevcut üretim sisteminde pek bir değişiklik olmadığını göstermektedir. Artan enerji ihtiyacının karşılanması için yerli kaynaklar yerine ithal edilen enerji kaynakları tercih edilmiştir. Türkiye‟nin son yıllardaki enerji politikasında, yerli, yenilenebilir ve çevre dostu olan enerji kaynaklarının kullanımının arttırılması ve bu kaynakların elektrik üretiminde değerlendirilmesi üzerine önemli çağrılar yapılmaktadır. Enerjide neredeyse %70‟ler seviyesinde dışa bağımlı olan Türkiye‟de yerli ve yenilenebilir kaynakların fosil yakıtlar kadar tercih edilmemesi desteklenir bir durum değildir (Yazar, 2010: 9-10). Türkiye‟nin enerji profilinde son 40 yılda yaşanan değişim yalnızca enerji ihtiyacındaki artıştan ibaret değildir. Toplam birincil enerji arzının kaynaklara dağılımının seyri incelendiğinde, bugün bir problem olarak karşımıza çıkan enerjide dışa bağımlılığın evrimi de izlenebilmektedir. Yer yer enerji politikası tercihleri, yer yer de zorunluluklardan kaynaklanan sebeplerle, enerji ihtiyacındaki artışın giderek daha fazla ithal kaynaklarla karşılanması sonucu ortaya çıkan bu tablo, Türkiye‟nin stratejik pozisyonunu da zayıflatmaktadır. 1970 yılında petrol ihtiyacının % 58‟i dışında enerji ithalatı geçekleştirmeyen Türkiye‟de, 1980‟lere gelindiğinde bu oran % 90‟a yaklaşmıştır. Taşımacılıkta karayolunun ağırlığının sürmesi ve gelişen otomotiv sektörü, petrol ihtiyacındaki artışı desteklemiş ve Türkiye 2011 itibarıyla petrol ihtiyacının hemen tamamını ithal eder duruma gelmiştir. Özellikle 1990‟larla birlikte yerli taşkömürü üretimi gerilerken, yüksek kalorifik değerde ithal kömür kullanılan termik santrallerin yaygınlaşmasıyla taşkömürü ithalatı hızla artmış, taşkömüründe 1980‟de %20 olan toplam arz içinde ithalatın oranı 2011 yılında %92‟ye ulaşmıştır. 1970‟lerdeki petrol krizinin ardından yapılan linyite dayalı termik santral yatırımlarıyla yerli linyit üretiminde önemli gelişmeler sağlanmasına rağmen, bir noktadan sonra bu alandaki yatırımlar yavaşlamış ve yetersiz kalmış; yerli bir kaynak olan linyitte sahip olunan kapasite yeterince değerlendirilememiştir. 1970 yılında toplam birincil enerji arzında hemen hiç payı olmayan doğalgazın ise, konutlarda ve elektrik üretimi sektöründe kullanımı özellikle 1990‟lardan sonra hızla yaygınlaşmış ve toplam birincil enerji arzındaki payı 2011 itibarıyla % 32‟ye çıkmıştır (Demirtaş, 2013: 7, 8). Türkiye enerjide yaklaşık % 80 oranında dışa bağımlı durumdadır. Petrol krizi sonrasında yapılan linyite dayalı termik santral yatırımlarıyla yerli linyit üretiminde önemli gelişmeler sağlanmasına ve büyük hidroelektrik santrali yatırımlarına rağmen, son 40 yıldaki enerji ihtiyacı artışı büyük ölçüde doğalgaz ve petrol, ihtiyacı artışı büyük ölçüde doğalgaz ve petrol, kısmen de taşkömürü ithalatındaki artışla karşılanmıştır. Rakamlara bakıldığında, 1970-2011 arasında enerji ihtiyacında meydana gelen 95,6 milyon TEP‟lik artışın %38,6‟sının doğalgaz, %23,6‟sının petrol, %14,4‟ünün ise taşkömürü arzıyla karşılandığı görülmekte olup tamamına yakını ithalata dayanan bu kaynakların enerji 300

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ihtiyacında yaşanan artış içindeki toplam payı %77‟ye yakındır (Demirtaş, 2013: 6, 7). Türkiye‟de elektrik üretiminde toplam kurulu güç 74.626,7 MW‟tır. Bunun 21.555,5 MW‟ı Doğalgaz + Lng, 6.064,2 MW‟ı İthal Kömür, 9.848,4 MW‟ı Taş Kömürü + Linyit + Asfaltit, 446,0 Fuel Oil+ Nafta+ Motorin, 4.351,1 MW‟ı Çok Yakıtlılar, 19.382 MW‟ı Hidrolik Barajlı, 6.820,8 Hidrolik Akarsu, 4.656,1 MW‟ı Rüzgâr, 647,9 MW‟ı Jeotermal, 409,7 MW‟ı Güneş, 444,7 Yenilen + Atık + Diğer kaynaklıdır (Şekil 1). Şekil 1: Türkiye Elektrik Enerjisi Kurulu gücü (MW 2016 Nisan Sonu)

Kaynak: http://www.emo.org.tr/ekler/93af3b8b4585318_ek.pdf, 2016. Türkiye‟nin 2016 Nisan sonu itibariyle elektrik üretimi 87.006.323.816 kWh (kilowat saat). Bunun 13.251.400.425 kWh‟i (% 15,2), İthal kömür, 13.304.328.292 kWh‟i (%15,3), Taşkömürü+Linyit+Asfaltit, 1.734.016.450 kWh‟i (% 2.0), Fueloil4+Motorin+Lpg+Nafta, 4.479.278.357 kWh‟i,(% 5.1) Rüzgar, 24.408.225.570 kWh‟i, (% 28,1), 1.502.774.968 kWh‟i (% 1.7), Jeotermal, 645.213.596 kWh‟i (% 0.7), Çok Yakıtlı+ Diğerleri oluşturmaktadır (Şekil 2). Şekil 2: Türkiye‟de Elektrik Üretimi (2016 Nisan Sonu kWh)

Kaynak: http://www.emo.org.tr/ekler/93af3b8b4585318_ek.pdf, 2016. Yıllar itibarıyla artan enerji ithalatı, ödemeler dengesine de olumsuz yansımaktadır. Enerjide dışa bağımlılığın jeopolitik açıdan doğurduğu sorunlara ek olarak; ekonomik büyüme ile artan enerji ihtiyacı da, ithalat faturasının katlanarak artmasına neden olmuş ve dış ticaret dengesini negatif yönde etkileyen en önemli kalem haline gelmiştir. Bu yapı aynı zamanda Türkiye‟nin petrol ve doğalgaz piyasasındaki küresel fiyat dalgalanmalarından da doğrudan etkilenmesine neden olmaktadır. 2000‟li 301

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN yıllardan bugüne bakıldığında, dış ticaret açığının kayda değer bir bölümünün, enerji ithalatından kaynaklandığı görülmektedir. 2006 yılı itibariyle Türkiye‟de kullanılan enerjinin %73‟ü ithal edilmektedir Bu oranlar 2009, 2010, 2011 yılında da yaklaşık olarak aynı kalmıştır (Satman, 2007: 2-14). Bu durumun önlenmesi için Türkiye‟nin farklı enerji kaynaklarına yatırım yapması ve artan enerji talebinin karşılanabilmesi için dışa bağımlı olmadığımız yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarına yönelmesi gerekmektedir. 2009 yılında enerjide dışa bağımlılık yaklaşık % 70‟ler düzeyinde gerçekleşmektedir. Özellikle fosil kaynaklar olan petrol ve doğal gazda % 90‟ların üzerindedir. Dışa bağımlılığın yüksek olmasından dolayı, enerji güvenliği ve enerji arzının sürekliliği Türkiye için büyük önem taşımaktadır. Türkiye fosil kökenli enerji potansiyeline sahip olmamasına rağmen, Dünya‟nın bilinen doğal gaz ve petrol rezervlerinin % 70‟nin kendisine komşu ülkelerde olması nedeniyle enerji pazarında önemli bir ülke olma potansiyeline sahiptir. Son yıllarda yapılan ve yapımı devam eden çeşitli petrol ve doğal gaz boru hatları, enerji sektöründe önemli bir konuma gelmek isteyen Türkiye için en önemli enerji politikalarından biri durumundadır (Kantörün, 2010: 88). Enerji tüketiminde önemli paya sahip olan konutların ısıtılması konusunda, verimli ısınma ile ilgili yapılan çalışmaların başarılı olduğu görülmektedir. Yeni yapılan binalarda ısı yalıtımı zorunluluğu getirilmiştir. Eski binaların ise belli bir süre içerisinde ısı yalıtımının yapılması teşvik edilmektedir. Her geçen gün artan enerji ihtiyacının karşılanmasında sağlanan bu tasarrufların önemli bir katkısı olmuştur. Fakat bu olumlu çalışmaların yanında kullanılan elektrik santrallerinin birçoğu düşük verimle çalışmaktadır (Yorkan, 2009: 36). Özellikle termik santraller konusunda önemli bir gelişme sağlanamamıştır. Tablo 1: Türkiye‟nin Elektrik Enerjisi Talep Projeksiyonu

Yıllar

Yüksek Talep (TWh)

Yüksek Talep Artışı %

Düşük Talep (TWh)

Düşük Talep Artışı %

2014

256,46

4,1

255,80

3,8

255,14

3,6

2015

275,14

7,3

268,82

5,1

264,35

3,6

2016

297,01

8,0

284,56

5,9

278,16

5,2

2017

320,47

7,9

301,16

5,8

293,15

5,4

2018

340,58

6,3

318,43

5,7

307,72

5,0

2019

361,81

6,2

336,73

5,7

322,62

4,8

2020

384,22

6,2

355,88

5,7

338,06

4,8

2021

404,92

5,4

374,57

5,3

352,95

4,4

2022

426,61

5,4

393,91

5,2

368,20

4,3

2023

449,32

5,3

413,98

5,1

383,94

4,3

2024

473,10

5,3

435,01

5,1

400,65

4,4

2025

498,01

5,3

456,88

5,0

417,96

4,3

2026

524,08

5,2

479,66

5,0

435,91

4,3

2027

551,37

5,2

503,39

4,9

454,51

4,3

2028

579,93

5,2

528,11

4,9

473,79

4,2

2029

609,81

5,2

553,85

4,9

493,78

4,2

2030

641,08

5,1

580,67

4,8

514,50

4,2

2031

669,11

4,4

606,74

4,5

534,98

4,0

2032

698,23

4,4

633,58

4,4

555,90

3,9

Referans Referans Talep Talep (TWh) Artışı %

302

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2033

728,48

4,3

661,28

4,4

577,45

3,9

2034

763,98

4,9

689,91

4,3

599,70

3,9

2035

802,18

5,0

719,54

4,3

622,68

3,8

Kaynak: http://www.enerji.gov.tr/tr-TR/EIGM-Raporlari, 2016. Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı (ETKB) tarafından makro ekonomik hedeflere uygun olarak yapılan model çalışması sonucunda Referans (Baz), Yüksek ve Düşük Talep Serileri hazırlanmış olup, bu çalışmada arz-talep denge hesaplamalarında Referans (Baz) senaryo kullanılmıştır. Üretim Kapasite Projeksiyonunun çalışma periyodu, 20114 – 2035 yıllarını kapsamaktadır. Mevcut, inşası devam eden, 1 MW‟tan küçük olup lisanssız olarak yapımı kararlaştırılıp TEDAŞ tarafından uygun bulunan projelerin toplamı ve Enerji Piyasası Düzenleme Kurumunca (EPDK) Ocak 2015 Dönemi İlerleme Raporlarına göre iki ayrı senaryo halinde (Senaryo 1 ve Senaryo 2) hazırlanan 2015 – 2035 yılları arasında işletmeye gireceği öngörülen projelerin bu periyoddaki üretim kapasiteleri ve güçleri dikkate alınarak Baz Talep Serisine göre Arz-Talep Dengeleri, güç ve enerji olarak hesaplanmıştır (Tablo 1). Bu senaryolara göre Senaryo 1‟e (yüksek talep) göre Türkiye enerji talebi 2035 yılında 802,18 TWh , Senaryı 2‟ye göre 622.68 TWh‟dir. (düşük talep). Bu rakamlar 2014 yılıyla karşılaştırıldığında Senaryo 1‟e göre 235 yılında Türkiye enerji talebinin 2014 Türkiye enerji talebinin yaklaşık% 546 TWh, Senaryo 2‟ye göre ise bu rakamın yaklaşık 357 TWh olduğu görülmektedir (Tablo 1). Enerjiye artan talep Türkiye‟ye her yıl milyarlarca dolara mal olmakta ve Türkiye ekonomisi üzerinde önemli baskılar yaratmaktadır. Türkiye aynı zamanda artan talebi karşılamak için gelecekte enerji sektörü yatırımlarına büyük miktarda para aktarmak zorundadır. Bu yatırımlar arama ve üretim, rafineri işlemleri, yer altı gaz depolama tesisleri, elektrik santralleri, enerji taşıma, iletim ve dağıtımı gibi birçok sektör faaliyetini kapsayacaktır. Günümüzde enerji üretim ve dağıtımında, devlet kademeli olarak özelleştirme politikaları uygulamaktadır. Özellikle dağıtım konusunda özelleştirme işlemleri tamamlanmak üzeredir. Halihazırda, Türkiye‟nin enerji sektörüne giderek artan yerli ve yabancı yatırımcı ilgisi, Türkiye‟nin enerji piyasasının geleceğine duyulan güvenin bir yansımasıdır. Tamamen işler halde olan, şeffaf ve rekabetçi piyasa atmosferinin oluşturulması yönündeki nihai hedefe ulaşıldığında, sektöre daha fazla özel yatırım çekilebilecektir. Ancak özelleştirme baskıları garanti edilmiş iş olanaklarına yol açmamalıdır. Bir kamu–özel sektör ortaklığı çerçevesinde enerji projelerinin hızlı bir şekilde yapılandırılması, finansmanı ve geliştirilmesi sağlanmalıdır. Bu açıdan, devlet garantileri minimize edilerek, devletin risk alıcı ve garantili iş sağlayıcısı olma imajı silinmelidir. 3. Türkiye’nin Yenilenebilir Enerji Politikaları Türkiye dünyanın 17. Avrupa‟nın ise 6. büyük ekonomisidir. Büyüyen ekonomisi ve artan nüfusu ile birlikte, Türkiye‟deki enerji talebi hızlı bir şekilde artmaktadır ve bu durum hem elektrik hem de diğer birincil enerji kaynakları için olmak üzere enerji arz güvenliğini hükümet gündeminin en üst sıralarına taşımıştır. Türkiye ekonomisi ithal enerji kaynaklarına bağımlı bir ülkedir ve 2012 yılı itibariyle birincil enerji tüketiminin yüzde 90‟ı, ağırlıklı kısmı ithal edilmekte olan fosil yakıtlara dayalıdır. Önümüzdeki yıllarda da Türkiye‟nin ekonomik kalkınma sürecinin devam edeceği öngörülmektedir ve dolayısıyla da enerji talebinin artmaya devam edeceği beklenmektedir (Türkiye Ulusal Yenilenebilir Enerji Eylem Planı, 2014. 8). Yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları ile ilgili, 2005 yılı öncesi dönemde,1984 yılında yürürlüğe konulan beşinci beş yıllık kalkınma planında, yeni ve yenilenebilir kaynaklardan kısa sürede yararlanmak için gerekli girişimlerin desteklenmesi gerektiği belirtilmiştir. Altıncı beş yıllık kalkınma planında başta hidrolik olmak üzere jeotermal ve güneş enerjisi gibi yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarından daha büyük oranda yararlanılması; yedinci beş yıllık kalkınma planında ise, yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının kullanımının yaygınlaştırılması gerektiği belirtilmiştir (Güler & Çobanoğlu, 1997: 20-28). Sekizinci beş yıllık kalkınma planında da yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarından ayrıntılı bir şekilde bahsedilmiş, Dünya‟da ve Avrupa‟da bu kaynakların kullanım durumları, verilen teşvikler, çevre üzerine etkileri vb. özelliklerinden ayrıntılı olarak bahsedilmiştir. Ayrıca bu kaynaklardan yararlanılması için yapılması gerekenler sonuç kısmında özetlenmiştir (DPT, 2001). 303

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Hükümet programlarında da yenilenebilir kaynakların yerli olmaları, çevreye zarar vermemeleri, fosil kökenli yakıtların arz güvenliği olmaması gibi nedenlerle kullanımının gereklilikleri belirtilmiştir. Fakat ciddi anlamda yatırımlar yapılmamış, teşvikler verilmemiştir. Bu nedenlerle de yenilenebilir enerji konusunda küçük ölçekli birkaç çalışma dışında pek bir şey yapılmamıştır. Türkiye‟de yenilenebilir enerji kavramının tarihi çok da eskiye dayanmamaktadır. Türkiye, 2000‟li yıllardan itibaren gelişimiyle orantılı olarak artan enerji talebini karşılamak için tüm enerji kaynaklarını faaliyete geçirmek istemiş, nitekim enerji sektöründe liberalleşme hareketi üzerine atılan ilk adım 2003 senesinde Enerji Piyasası Denetim Kurulu‟nun (EPDK) kurulması olmuştur. EPDK‟nın kurulmasının ardından kamu ve özel sektör yatırımları, büyüme hedefleri doğrultusunda kontrol altına alınmıştır. 2004 yılında, Dünya genelinde hâkim olan enerji yatırımları gözlemlenerek yeni bir rota oluşturulmuştur. Bu yeni rota, Enerji ve Tabi Kaynaklar Bakanlığı ile Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı‟nın da desteklemeleri ile Türkiye‟nin yerli ve yenilenebilir enerji potansiyelinin farkına varması ve bundan yararlanması ölçüsünde başlangıç niteliği oluşturmuştur. 5346 Sayılı Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Elektrik Enerjisi Üretimi Amaçlı Kullanımına Dair Kanunun (Yenilenebilir Enerji Kanunu, YEK) 2005 yılında yürürlüğe girmesi ardından yenilenebilir enerji alanında ilerleme kaydedilmeye başlanmıştır. Ancak, ikincil mevzuatın olmaması ve nispeten düşük sabit fiyat garantisi düzeyleri sebebiyle 2005 ile 2010 yılları arasında yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarına yapılan yatırım sınırlı kalmıştır. Bununla birlikte, Aralık 2010‟da Yenilenebilir Enerji Kanununda yapılan değişiklikle bazı kaynaklar için daha yüksek sabit fiyat garantisi ve çeşitli parasal ve parasal olmayan teşvikler getirilmiştir. Dolayısıyla, 2010‟dan itibaren 2005-2010 dönemi ile karşılaştırıldığında yenilenebilir enerji sektörünün önemli ölçüde canlandığı söylenebilir. Özellikle de sabit fiyat garantilerinin revize edilmesinin ardından, yenilenebilir enerji yatırımları hem yerli hem de uluslararası yatırımcıların ilgisini çekmiştir (Türkiye Ulusal Yenilenebilir Enerji Eylem Planı, 2014: 11). Hidroelektrik santraller, ısıtma amaçlı biyokütle, termal güneş ve jeotermal enerji kullanımı Türkiye‟de enerji üretimine katkıda bulunan başlıca yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları olagelmiştir. Son yıllarda ise, jeotermal ve rüzgar enerjisine dayalı elektrik üretimi gibi teknolojiler de Türkiye‟nin enerji sektöründe etkili olmaya başlamıştır. Türkiye‟nin 1970-2015 arası kurulu gücündeki değişimi gösteren Şekil 3 incelendiğinde yenilenebilir enerji‟nin kurulu güç içindeki artışı net bir şekilde görülmektedir (Şekil 3). Şekil 3: Türkiye‟de Elektrik Enerjisi Kurulu Gücünün Değişimi (1970-2015)

Kaynak: http://www.emo.org.tr/genel/bizden_detay.php?kod=88369#.V1K3lpOLQ6g, 2016.

304

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Türkiye'de yıllardır dile getirilen, kalkınma planlarına konulan, hükümet programlarında belirtilen ve pek bir şey yapılmayan yenilenebilir enerji ile ilgili en önemli gelişmenin 10.05.2005 tarih ve 5346 sayılı Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Elektrik Enerjisi Üretim Amaçlı Kullanımına İlişkin Kanun‟un (YEK) çıkarılması olduğu söylenebilir. Bu kanun ile yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının neler olduğu tanımlanmış ve bu kaynaklara bazı teşvikler getirilmiştir. Zaman içerisinde değişen şartlar nedeniyle YEK kanununda 29.12.2010 tarihinde bazı düzenlemelere gidilmiş ve yenilenebilir enerji konusunda Türkiye‟de yeni bir dönem başlamıştır. Yapılan bu değişiklikle devlet teşvikleri kaynak bazında çeşitlendirilmiştir. Kaynak kullanımında yerli teknolojinin gelişmesini destelemek için ayrıca teşvikler verilmiştir. Yenilenebilir enerji konusunda yerli teknolojinin geliştirilmesi için teşvik verilmesi oldukça önemlidir. Çünkü Türkiye‟nin yenilenebilir enerji potansiyeli oldukça yüksektir. Önümüzdeki yıllarda yenilenebilir kaynakların kullanımının artması, bu kaynakların kullanımını sağlayan teknolojinin önemli bir pazar olması beklenmektedir. Türkiye‟nin Ulusal Yenilenebilir Enerji Eylem Planı (YEEP) 2009/28/EC sayılı Direktif ile uyumlu ve 30.06.2009 tarihli (2009/548/EC sayılı) Avrupa Komisyonu Kararında belirtilen şablon dikkate alınarak hazırlanmıştır (Türkiye Ulusal Yenilenebilir Enerji Eylem Planı, 2014: 9). Yenilenebilir enerji teknolojileri alanında yatırım yapan ve bu konuda öncü olan ülkelerin önemli avantajlar elde edecekleri aşikârdır. Türkiye‟de bu konuda teşviklerin verilmesi önemli bir gelişmedir. Ayrıca çeşitli kuruluşlarca yapılacak araştırma geliştirme projelerinin de teşvik kapsamına alınması önemlidir. YEK Kanun‟unda 2011 yılında yapılan değişiklikle yerli üretim konusunda sağlanan teşvikler, yenilenebilir enerjiden elektrik üretiminin yaygınlaştırılmasını sağlamaya yönelik dolaylı teşvik niteliğindedir. Bu konuda daha etkin desteklerin yapılması gerekmektedir. Daha doğrudan ve etkin teşviklere ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. Bu konuda yapılacak Ar-Ge çalışmaları ve teknoloji üretimi yapacak yerli firmaların gerek vergi indirimleri gerekse uygun finansman kaynaklarıyla desteklenmesi gerekmektedir. Türkiye‟de yerli teknolojiyi geliştirmek ancak doğru devlet politikasıyla gerçekleşebilir. Politikadaki hedefler doğrultusunda araştırmalar için belirli merkezlerin yapılandırılması, üniversitelerdeki enstitü türü birimlerinin, enerji politikasında belirlenen hedeflere göre desteklenmesi gerekmektedir (Satman, 2007: 16). Elektrik Piyasası Kanunu‟nun piyasa aktörlerine yol gösterici olması gerektiği ve piyasa gelişmelerinin önünde yer alması gerektiği aşikârdır. İlaveten, Avrupa Birliği mevcut Kanunun yürürlük tarihi olan 2001‟den itibaren 3 defa yönerge çıkarmış, yeni bir piyasa yapılanmasında karar kılmıştır. Bu hususta, Türkiye‟de belli başlı tereddütlerin giderilmesi, yatırım ortamlarının geliştirilmesi ve çağa ayak uymak amacıyla 6446 sayılı Elektrik Piyasası Kanunu 30.03.2013‟te yürürlüğe girmiştir (ETKB, 2013: 100-102). Yenilenebilir enerji mevzuatında yapılan teşvik ve yatırımlara ilişkin gerekli güncellemeler, yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarına olan ilgiyi yukarı çekmektedir. Yatırımlar için gerekli miktarın edinilmesi noktasında, bankalarla yapılacak kredi anlaşmalarında temel alınan alım ve fiyat garantileri, yenilenebilir enerjilerin elektrik üretimi gayesiyle kullanımını teşvik etmektedir. Buna ek olarak; kaynak çeşitliliğine göre farklılık gerektiren sabit fiyat garantileri, tüm yenilenebilir kaynaklar için eşit fiyat 5 - 5,5 Euro olarak belirlenmiştir. Özellikle güneş enerjisinden elektrik üretimi açısından bu eşit fiyat uygulaması yeterli görülmediğinden çok sık tercih edilmemiştir. Bu konu hakkında meclise iletilen kanun teklifi komisyondan geçse de, yerli katkı payı sebebiyle kuruldan geri gönderilmiştir. Bu gibi olaylar, Türkiye‟nin yüksek oranda ihtiyaç duyduğu yenilenebilir enerji yatırımlarının aksamasına yol açarken, yatırımcıları da olumsuz yönde etkilemektedir (Boşça, 2009: 24). 6094 sayılı bu Kanun, mevcut Yenilenebilir Enerji Kanununa önemli yenilikler ve teşvikler getirmiştir. Destek mekanizması 31.12.2015‟ten önce işletmeye alınan tesisler için işlem görürken (daha fazla uzatılması için Bakanlar Kurulu kararına bırakılmıştır) Aralık 2013‟te çıkan Bakanlar Kurulu kararı ile 31.12.2020 yılına dek uzatılmıştır. Her bir Yenilenebilir Enerji kaynağı için eşit olmamak kaydıyla yeni sabit fiyat garantili plan getirilmiştir. Gerçek ve tüzel kişiler, ihtiyaçlarının üzerinde ürettikleri elektrik enerjilerini dağıtım sistemine göndermeleri halinde I sayılı cetveldeki fiyatlardan 10 yıl süre ile yararlanmaktadırlar. Lisans sahibi gerçek ve tüzel kişilerin, 31.12.2020 tarihinden önce işletmeye giren üretim tesislerinde yararlanılan mekanik veya elektro-mekanik aksamın yurt içinde üretilmesi halinde, bu tesislerden elde edilip iletim ve dağıtım sistemine gönderilen elektrik enerjisi için, I sayılı cetvelde 305

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN sunulan fiyatlara, II sayılı cetvelde yer alan yerli katkı ilavesi eklenmektedir. 2020 yılına kadar Yenilenebilir Enerji kaynaklarına dayalı üretim tesislerinden (Arazi kullanım teşvikleri), yatırım ve işletme dönemlerinin ilk 10 yılında izin, kira, irtifak hakkı ve kullanma izni bedellerine % 85 indirim uygulanmaktadır. Yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının kullanılmasında en önemli yöntemlerden biri de fiyat teşvikleridir. YEK kanununa göre Türkiye, teşvik yöntemi olarak sabit fiyat garantisini uygulamaktadır. Bu teşvik ile 2005-2015 yılları arasını kapsayan on yıllık bir dönem için belirlenmiştir. Bu yöntem, firmalarının ürettiği elektriği belirlenen asgari fiyatlar üzerinden satın almayı zorunlu kılan bir sistemdir. Bu fiyatlar genellikle piyasa fiyatının üzerindedir. Genel olarak değerlendirmelere bakıldığında, kanunda verilen teşvik fiyatlarının Türkiye şartlarında iyi olduğu ve bu fiyatların önümüzdeki yıllarda teknolojide yaşanacak gelişmeler ile daha da iyileşeceği düşünülebilir. Buna karşın YEK Kanunu ile verilen teşvik fiyatları ile ilgili farklı değerlendirmeler de yapılmaktadır. YEK kanunu ile getirilen bir yenilik de, 500 KW altında kurulu güce sahip elektrik üretim tesislerine lisans alma ve şirket kurma zorunluluğunun, Enerji Piyasası Düzenleme Kurumu tarafından hazırlanan, 3 Aralık 2010 tarihinde 27774 sayılı Resmi Gazetede yayımlanan “Elektrik Piyasasında Lisanssız Elektrik Üretimine İlişkin Yönetmelik” ile kaldırılmasıdır (Mavi Kitap, Ankara, 2011: 29). Rüzgâr, su, güneş gibi yerli ve yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının ekonomiye kazandırılması için yapılan bu düzenlemenin büyük ilgi gördüğü EPDK tarafından belirtilmiştir. 500 KW‟lık bir enerji, birkaç ailenin elektriğini karşılayacak kadar elektrik gücüne sahiptir. Bu teşvikten yararlanmak isteyen birkaç aile birleşip küçük ölçekli bir santral kurarak ödediği elektrik faturasından kurtulabilecektir. Bu uygulama çift taraflı sayaç veya net ölçüm sistemi olarak bilinmektedir. Çift taraflı sayaç; Japonya, Tayland, Kanada, ABD gibi bazı ülkelerde uygulanmaktadır. Uygulamada istekliler evlerine veya işyerlerine küçük ölçekli yenilenebilir sistemler kurarak, kullanım fazlası elektriği satabildiği gibi ihtiyaç halinde ulusal sistemden elektrik alabilmeleri imkânı sağlanmaktadır. Kanuna göre üretilen elektriğin, dağıtım lisansı sahibi ilgili dağıtım şirketi tarafından satın alınması zorunlu hale getirilmiştir. Bu uygulamalar ile tüketici, üretici konumuna gelmektedir. Faturalandırma ise üretim ve tüketim arasındaki fark üzerinden yapılmaktadır. Özellikle güneş ve rüzgâr santralleri kurularak bu sistemden faydalanılabilir. Güneş enerjisiyle su ısıtmada dünya üçüncüsü olan ülkemizin güneş potansiyelini düşünürsek, çift taraflı sayaç sisteminin önemli katkısının olması beklenmektedir. Kanunda hidroelektrik üretim tesisleri için su kullanım hakkı verilmesi DSİ‟nin görüşü alınmak koşuluyla İl Özel İdareleri‟ne verilmiştir. Bu düzenlemenin yatırımcı, yerel yönetimler ve yerel halk arasındaki iletişimi güçlendirmeyi amaçladığı düşünülmektedir. Çalışmaların yerel halk tarafından desteklenmesi, bu kaynakların kullanımının yaygınlaşması için önemli bir gelişme olacaktır. Doğu Karadeniz Bölgesinde yaşanan olumsuzlukların diğer bölgelerde de yaşanmaması açısından bu durumun iyi değerlendirilmesi gerekmektedir. İl özel idarelerinin gösterecekleri farklı yaklaşımların bölgeler arasında farklılıklar oluşmasına neden olma ihtimali de bulunmaktadır. Biyokütle kaynaklardan yararlanmanın artırılması amacıyla yapılan düzenlemelerden biri; benzin ve dizel yakıtlara yapılacak %2‟lik biyoyakıt katkı oranında, yerli üretim olması şartıyla Özel Tüketim Vergisi (ÖTV) muafiyeti getirilmesidir. 2013 yılından itibaren ise biyodizel ve biyoetanol için benzin ve dizel yakıtlara katkı zorunluluğu getirilmiştir. Benzin‟de 2013 yılında %2, 2014 yılında %3 biyoetanol; dizel yakıtlarda ise 2013 yılında %1, 2014 yılında %2, 2015 yılında %3 oranında biyodizel kullanım zorunluluğu getirilmiştir (Türkyılmaz, 2012). 2010-2015 yılları arasında hidroelektrik, biyokütle, rüzgâr ve jeotermal enerji kaynaklarından elde edilen elektrik üretimi, genel enerji üretimi içindeki payları, devletin lisans sahibi tüzel kişilere ödemiş olduğu miktarlar, lisans sahibi tüzel kişilerin bu kaynaklara yönelmesi farklı tablolar ve grafikler yardımıyla ele alındığında ortaya çıkan sonuçların olumlu yönde olduğunu söylemek mümkündür. Bu politikaların artan hızda ilerlemesi, yerli ve tükenmez olan enerji kaynaklarına talebin günden güne artması, dışa bağımlılığı azaltmakla kalmayıp, Türkiye ekonomisinin de istikrarlı, güçlü bir biçimde şekillenmesine katkıda bulunacaktır. Türkiyenin gelecek hedefleri arasında 2023 sonuna kadar rüzgar enerjisi kurulu gücünün 20.000 MW‟a arttırılması, 2023 yılı sonuna kadar güneş enerjisinin en az 3000 MW kurulu güce ulaştırılması, 2023 sonuna kadar jeotermal enerji kurulu gücünün 600 MW „a artırılması gelmektedir (Aşker, 2013: 24). Türkiye‟nin gelişmiş bir ülke olması her şeyden önce doğru planlanmış yenilenebilir enerji 306

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN politikalarının belirlenip uygulanması ile gerçekleşebilecektir. Günümüz politikalarının merkezinde yer alan petrol ve doğal gazın yerini bir an önce yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları almalıdır. Yenilenebilir enerji uygulamaları ülkelerde değişiklikler göstermektedir. Bu nedenle Türkiye kendine özgü yenilenebilir enerji politikasını oluşturmalıdır. Yenilenebilir teknoloji alanındaki yeniliklerin yakından takip edilip geliştirilmesi için Ar-Ge çalışmalarının teşvik edilmesi; bu amaçla, kamu ve özel kuruluşlar ile üniversitelerce yürütülmekte olan çalışmaların desteklenmesi gerekmektedir. Özellikle yeni gelişen bir sektör olan güneş ve rüzgâr enerji santrallerinde kullanılacak teknolojik malzemelerin mutlaka yerli sermaye ile üretiminin gerçekleştirilmesi gerekir. Böylece dışa bağımlılık azalacaktır. Yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları ile ilgili faaliyet gösteren kuruluşlar, yatırımcılar, üniversiteler, bilimsel araştırma merkezleri, uzmanlar arasında işbirliğinin artırılmasına yönelik çalışmalar yapılması gerekmektedir. Yenilenebilir enerji sistemlerinin üretilmesinde kullanılan malzemelerin fiyatlarının düşük tutulması, bu ürünlerden alınan vergi oranlarının düşürülmesi gerekmektedir. Kyoto Protokolü gereği karbon emisyonlarının düşürülmesi gerekmektedir. Yenilenebilir enerji üreticilerine bu konuda teşvikler verilebilir. Ayrıca yatırımcıların karbon emisyonu satışı yapabilmeleri için karbon piyasası oluşturulması ve ek gelir sağlamaları açısından faydalı olacaktır. Türkiye'nin 2023 yılı hedefleri doğrultusunda, önemli, temiz ve yenilenebilir enerji kaynağı olan KHES yapımına destek verilmesi, teşvik edilmesi yararlı olacaktır. Güneş enerjisinden sıcak su elde edilmesindeki başarının, elektrik elde edilmesi alanında da yakalanması için elektrik üretimi ve su ısıtma işini aynı anda gerçekleştiren sitemlerin yaygınlaştırılmasının sağlanması gerekmektedir. Bu sistemlerin yaygın kullanımı için çift taraflı sayaç sistemlerinin teşvik edilmesi ve uygun kredilerin verilmesi güneş enerjisinin kullanımı artacaktır. Kırsal alanlarda pişirme ve sıcak su elde etmek için kullanılan güneş ocaklarının yaygınlaştırılması için çalışmalar yapılmalıdır. Güneş enerjisi teknolojileri kullanımı arttıkça bu ürünlerin fiyatları düşecektir. Bu teknolojilerin kullanımının artırılması için Niğde ilinde yapılan “Tarımsal ve Kırsal Kalkınmada Yenilenebilir Yaklaşımlar” projesi gibi projelerin yaygınlaştırılması, halkın bu teknolojileri tanıması ve kullanımının öğretilmesi için bilinçlendirme çalışmaları yapılması gerekmektedir. Yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarından elde edilen elektriğin ulusal şebekeye bağlanma ve sistem dengesi konusundaki sorunlar bir an önce çözülmelidir. Jeotermal enerji kullanımında çok ciddi kontrollerin yapılması zorunludur. Çünkü jeotermal tesislerin birçoğunda reenjeksiyon uygulamasının yapılmaması sonucu, bu sistemler yenilenebilir özelliklerini kaybedebilmektedirler. Yeni kaynak olmalarına rağmen, şimdiden sıcaklık değeri düşen, kaynağı azalan sahalar bulunmaktadır. Ayrıca jeotermal sahalarla ilgili çok sayıda lisans verilmiştir. Bu nedenle jeotermal sahaların bütüncül bir anlayışla yönetilmesine imkân veren düzenlemeler yapılmalıdır. Rüzgâr enerji santrali yapımı son yıllarda hız kazanmış durumdadır. 4. Sonuç Enerji, insanlık tarihinden bugüne önemini katlayarak devam ettirmiştir. O dönemlerde temel gereksinimler için vazgeçilmez bir kaynak olan enerji, 21. yy. temel gereksinimlerin yanında, ülkelerin refah seviyelerinin, gelişmişlik düzeylerinin belirlenmesinde, jeostratejik dengelerin kurulmasında da temel dayanak olmuştur. Fosil enerji kaynaklarının kısa vadede sonsuz ihtiyaçlara cevap verebilmesi ve dünya genelinde en çok tüketilen kaynaklar olmasına karşın bu kaynakların belli bir süre sonra tükenecek olması gerçeği, doğaya verdiği zarar, artan fosil kaynak fiyatları, küresel ısınma ve iklim değişikliğine doğrudan etki etmesi, canlılar üzerinde yarattığı çevresel tahribat ve bu gibi daha birçok neden pek çok devleti yeni alternatif enerji kaynak arayışlarına itmiştir. Fosil kaynakların rezervleri her geçen gün azalmakta, bu kaynaklara ödenen maliyetler ise giderek artmaktadır. Fosil yakıtlarda piyasa fiyatı geçerli olduğundan, bir yandan talep artmakta diğer yandan arzda yaşanan sorunlar, bu yakıtların fiyatlarını yukarı çekmektedir. Küresel ısınmanın en önemli nedeni, enerji ihtiyacının karşılanmasında kullanılan fosil kökenli enerji kaynaklarıdır. Küresel ısınmanın sonucu olan iklim değişikliğinin olası etkileri ile karşılaşmamak veya bu etkileri en aza indirmek için yapılması gereken en önemli şey, küresel ısınmaya sebep olan fosil kökenli enerji 307

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN kaynakları yerine çevre ile uyumlu, güvenilir enerji kaynakları olan yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarını kullanmaktır. Fosil kökenli enerji kaynaklarının çevre üzerinde oluşturduğu olumsuzluklara karşın, yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının böyle bir etkisi yoktur. Ayrıca fosil yakıtların neden olduğu olumsuz çevresel etkileri dengeleyici özellikleri de bulunmaktadır. Çevre dostu yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları gerek ilk yatırım maliyetleri, gerekse üretim ve tesis işletme maliyetleri açısından fosil kaynaklarla rekabet edebilir bir seviyeye gelmeye başlamıştır. Burada şunu da gözden kaçırmamak gerekir; fosil yakıtların maliyetleri düşük görünse de sebep oldukları çevresel kirlilikler, sağlık sorunları, asit yağmurları gibi olumsuz etkilerin maliyetleri hesaplanamayacak boyutlara ulaşmıştır. Yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının hemen her ülkede belirli bir potansiyele sahip olması ve bu teknolojilerin hızla gelişmesi, yakın gelecekte bu kaynaklarının daha ağırlıklı olarak kullanılacağını göstermektedir. Birleşmiş Milletler İklim Değişikliği Çevre Sözleşmesi‟ne taraf olan ve Kyoto Protokolü‟nü imzalayan Türkiye‟nin sera gazı salınımına neden olan fosil kaynakların kullanımını azaltması, enerji üretiminde bu kaynakların yerine çevre ile uyumlu enerji kaynaklarını kullanması karbon emisyonlarının düşürülmesi için zorunlu haline gelmiştir. Yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarından enerji üretimi sırasında, atmosferin kirlenmesine ve sera etkisine neden olan etkiler en az seviyededir. Dolayısıyla asit yağmurlarının yaşanmaması ve iklim değişikliği ile mücadele için temiz enerji kaynakları kullanımının artırılması gerekmektedir. Kyoto Protokolü'nün önerdiği politikalar ve önlemlere baktığımızda Türkiye‟de de, enerji verimliliğinin artırılması, yenilenebilir enerjinin geliştirilmesi, metan salımlarının geri kazanılması, salımların azaltılması, sera gazlarını tutan ve yok edebilen alanların korunması ve yaygınlaştırılmasının gerektiği görülür. Stratejik planlar, kalkınma planları ve hükümet programlarında belirlenen 2023 yılı yenilenebilir enerji hedefleri oldukça sevindiricidir. Bu hedeflerin gerçekleşebilmesi için gerekli düzenlemelerin ve çalışmaların aksatılmadan yapılması gereklidir. 2023 yılı hedeflerin gerçekleşmesinin sadece özel sektör kuruluşlarının eline bırakılması istenen oranların yakalanmasında sorun oluşturabilecektir. Bu konuda devlet olarak da yatırımların yapılması amaçlanan hedeflere ulaşmayı kolaylaştıracaktır. Gelecekte enerji sıkıntısı ile karşılaşmamak için enerji yatırımlarının önceden planlanıp yapılması gerekmektedir. Türkiye‟de bu yatırımlar büyük oranda özel kuruluşlara bırakılmıştır. Bu durum gelecekte enerji krizlerine sebep olabilecektir. Bunun önlenebilmesi için özelleştirilen enerji kuruluşlarının denetimleri mutlaka devlet tarafından yapılmalıdır. Ayrıca, enerji krizi ile karşılaşmamak için devlet tarafından gerekli yatırmaların zamanında yapılması son derece önemlidir. Rüzgâr ve HES alanında yakalanan başarının diğer yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları alanında da sağlanması gereklidir. Güneş enerjisi konusunda önemli bir potansiyele sahip olan Türkiye‟de bu kaynaktan su ısıtma konusunda elde edilen başarının elektrik enerji üretiminde de gerçekleştirilmesi için çalışmaların artırılması zorunludur. Güneş enerjisinden daha etkin yararlanmak için, konutlar inşa edilirken daha çok güneş alacak şekilde yapılması teşvik edilmelidir. Güneş enerjisi ile konutların sıcak su ihtiyacının karşılanması, yeni ısı teknolojileri de kullanılarak yaygınlaştırılmalıdır. Ayrıca, hem sıcak su hem de elektrik enerjisi üreten sistemlerin kullanımı artırılarak güneş enerjisinden daha fazla yararlanma sağlanmalıdır. Bu sayede fosil yakıt kullanım oranı düşeceği için çevreye verilen zararlar da azalacaktır. Son yıllarda kullanımı hızla artan rüzgâr santrallerinin yapımında kullanılan malzemelerin Türkiye‟de üretilmemesi, ülke kaynaklarının dışarıya gitmesine neden olmaktadır. Yenilenebilir enerji teknolojilerinde dünyada yaşanan gelişmeler yakından takip edilmeli, ayrıca bu alanda çalışma yapan yerli kuruluşlar desteklenmelidir. Enerji üretiminde kullanılan yerli teknoloji ve cihaz üretimi teşvik edilmelidir. Bu teknoloji ve cihazların üretimine yönelik çalışmalarda üniversitelerle işbirliği yapılması sağlanmalı ve Ar-Ge çalışmaları desteklenmelidir. Günümüz teknolojileri ile enerji üretimi pahalı olan hidrojen ve deniz kökenli enerji kaynaklarından yararlanmak için Ar-Ge çalışmalarına ağırlık verilmelidir. Özellikle geleceğin enerji kaynağı olarak gösterilen hidrojen enerjisi teknolojilerinin geliştirilmesi Türkiye‟ye önemli bir avantaj kazandıracaktır. Hidrojen depolanarak kullanılabildiği için fosil yakıtların yerini alabilecek alternatif bir enerjidir. Ayrıca diğer yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarından üretilen enerji de hidrojen enerjisine dönüştürülerek depo edilebilmektedir. Hidrojen enerjisi üretiminde kullanılan bor elementinin dünya toplam rezervinin %72‟sinin Türkiye‟de bulunması da önemli bir unsurdur. Karadeniz‟de bol miktarda bulunan hidrojenin yakıt amaçlı kullanımı da hem enerji üretiminde hem de Karadeniz‟in 308

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN temizlenmesi açısından iyi bir gelişme olacaktır. Üç tarafı denizlerle çevrili Türkiye‟de deniz kökenli enerji kaynakları kullanımı konusunda Ar-Ge çalışmalarının desteklenmesi önümüzdeki yıllarda enerji üretimi konusunda birçok avantaj sağlayacaktır. Türkiye‟de enerji politikaları oluşturulurken, yenilenebilir enerji kullanımının artırılması kadar göz önüne alınması gereken önemli bir konu da, verimli enerji kullanım uygulamalarının artırılması çalışmalarıdır. Türkiye‟de kullanılmakta olan enerjinin yaklaşık dörtte biri kadarı, enerji verimliliği yöntemleri ile tasarruf edebilecek potansiyele sahiptir. Bu potansiyelin etkin kullanılması için toplumun enerji verimliliği konusunda bilinçlendirilmesi gerekmektedir. Enerji verimliliği ile ilgili çıkarılan yönetmeliklerin kararlılıkla uygulanması belirlenen hedeflere ulaşılmada etkili olacaktır. Fakat yönetmeliklerin kısa zamanda değişmesi ve enerji verimliliği kanununun yakında değişeceği söylentileri enerji verimliliği uygulamalarının aksamasına ve toplum tarafından kuşkuyla karşılanmasına neden olmaktadır. Türkiye‟de enerji politikaları ve çevre politikalarının uyum içerisinde olması için enerji kullanımında yerli, temiz, çevreyle dost enerji kaynakları tercih edilmelidir. Bu kaynaklar, yapılan teşvik uygulamaları ve alım garantileri ile fosil yakıtlarla rekabet edebilecek seviyelere gelmişlerdir. Ayrıca, bu kaynaklar çok önemli miktarda iş imkânları oluşturmaktadır. Bu kaynaklardan enerji üretimini sağlayan teknolojilerin yerli imkânlarla sağlanması daha çok iş sahası açılmasını sağladığı gibi dış ticaret açığının da kapanmasında yardımcı olacaktır. Bu nedenle yenilenebilir enerji için; vergi indirimleri, finansal teşvikler, arazi kullanım imkânları, alım garanti süresinin uzatılması, bürokratik işlemlerin hızlandırılması, bilgi paylaşımları gibi imkânların çeşitlendirilerek yapılması gerekmektedir. Türkiye‟de yenilenebilir enerji sektörünün gelişebilmesi için, bu konudaki devlet politikaları kadar tüketicilerin devlet politikalarından haberdar olması, desteklemesi ve neden yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarını kullanılması gerektiğini bilmesi de önemlidir. Çevre ile dost, yerli, temiz enerji kaynaklarının halk tarafından desteklenmesi için toplumun bilinçlendirilmesi şarttır. Bu bilinçlendirme ilköğretimden başlamak üzere tüm eğitim kurumlarında çeşitli programlar ve çalışmalarla yapılmalıdır. Yerel yönetimler örnek uygulamalar ile yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının tanıtımını yapmalıdır. Ayrıca basın yayın kuruluşları yoluyla da bu bilinçlendirmeye katkı sağlanmalıdır. 2000-2015 yılları arasında hidroelektrik, biyokütle, rüzgâr ve jeotermal enerji kaynaklarından elde edilen elektrik üretimi, genel enerji üretimi içindeki payları, devletin lisans sahibi tüzel kişilere ödemiş olduğu miktarlar, lisans sahibi tüzel kişilerin bu kaynaklara yönelmesi farklı tablolar ve grafikler yardımıyla ele alındığında ortaya çıkan sonuçların olumlu yönde olduğunu söylemek mümkündür. Bu politikaların artan hızda ilerlemesi, yerli ve tükenmez olan enerji kaynaklarına talebin günden güne artması, dışa bağımlılığı azaltmakla kalmayıp, Türkiye ekonomisinin de istikrarlı, güçlü bir biçimde şekillenmesine katkıda bulunacaktır. Daha yaşanılır ve gelecek kuşaklara daha güzel bir Türkiye bırakmak için, yerli ve yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarına olan yatırımları her geçen gün arttırmak gerekmektedir. Devletin 2005‟ten beri uygulamaya koyduğu kanunlar geliştirilerek, doğru planlamalar çerçevesinde sunulmalıdır. Kaynakça Aşker, M. (Eylül 2013). Türkiye'nin Yenilenebilir Enerji Politikaları, (E.T: http://gensed.org/CF/CD/1346016ef040f9bbf9d2a5517382a30ee4d71387896230.pdf, 14.04.2016). Boşça, S. (2009). Yenilenebilir Enerji Sektöründe Mevzuat Değişikliklerinin Yatırımlara Etkisi ve Hukuki Uyuşmazlıklar, Hukuk Gündemi Dergisi, 12: 21-25. Çağlar, M., (2010). YEK, Dünya ve Türkiye’de Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynakları, http://www.dektmk.org.tr/pdf/enerji_kongresi_10/mehmetcaglar.pdf, (E.T: 12.05.2016). Demirtaş, Ö. (Ekim 2013). Türkiye’nin Enerji Görünümü, Türkiye İş Bankası İktisadi Araştırmalar Bölümü, https://ekonomi.isbank.com.tr/userfiles/pdf/ar_13_2013.pdf, (E.T: 12.05.2016). Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı (DPT) (2001). Sekizinci Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı Elektrik Enerjisi Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, DPT Yayını, Ankara. 309

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı (ETBK) (2011). Mavi Kitap, Ankara. http://www.enerji.gov.tr/File/?path=ROOT%2F1%2FDocuments%2FMavi+Kitap%2FMavi_Kita p_2011.pdf, (E.T. 12.04.2016). Güler, Ç. & Çobanoğlu, Z. (1997). Enerji ve Çevre, Ankara: Aydoğdu Ofset. Kantörün, U. (2010). Bölgesel Enerji Politikaları ve Türkiye, Bilge Strateji Dergisi, 2 (3): 87-114, İstanbul: Bilge Adamlar Stratejik Araştırma Merkezi. Mucuk, M., & Uysal, D. (Temmuz-Aralık 2009). Türkiye Ekonomisinde Enerji Tüketimi ve Ekonomik Büyüme, Maliye Dergisi, 157: 105-115. Satman, A. (2007). Türkiye‟nin Enerji Vizyonu, Jeotermal Enerjiden Elektrik Üretimi Semineri, TESKON2007, VIII. Ulusal Tesisat Mühendisliği Kongresi, İzmir: 25-28 Ekim 2007, Sayfa:2-14. Soydal, H. & Mızrak, Z. & Çetinkaya, M. (Ocak 2012). Makro Ekonomik Açıdan Türkiye'nin Alternatif Enerji İhtiyacının Önemi, Denizli: Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 11:117-138. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Enerji Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı (ETKB) (2013). Büyüyen Ekonomi, Sürdürülebilir Enerji, http://www.enerji.gov.tr/tr-TR/Faaliyet-Raporlari/Faaliyet-Raporlari, (E.T: 23.05.2016). Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı (Aralık 2014). Türkiye Ulusal Yenilenebilir Enerji Eylem Planı, http://www.eie.gov.tr/duyurular_haberler/document/Turkiye_Ulusal_Yenilenebilir_Enerji_Eylem _Plani.PDF, (E.T: 20.05.2016). Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Merkez Bankası (TCMB). (2015). İnteraktif Grafikler - Cari İşlemler Dengesi, http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/, (E.T: 18.05.2016). Türkiye Petrolleri (TP) (Mayıs 2015). Ham Petrol ve Doğal Gaz Sektör Raporu, http://www.enerji.gov.tr/File/?path=ROOT%2F1%2FDocuments%2FSekt%C3%B6r+Raporu%2 FHP_DG_SEKTOR_RPR.pdf, (E.T: 11.04.2016). Türkyılmaz, O. (Nisan 2012). Türkiye’nin Enerji Görünümü Raporu, TMMOB Makine Mühendisleri Odası, Yayın No: MMO/588, Ankara. http://enerji.comu.edu.tr/belgeler/turkiyenin_enerji_gorunum_raporu.pdf, (E.T.26.04.2016). Yazar, Y. (2010, Aralık), Türkiye'nin Enerjideki Durumu ve Geleceği, SETA | Siyaset, Ekonomi ve Toplum Araştırmaları Vakfı, (31): 4. Yorkan, A. (2009), Avrupa Birliği‟nin Enerji Politikası ve Türkiye'ye Etkileri, Bilge Strateji Dergisi, İstanbul: Bilge Adamlar Stratejik Araştırma Merkezi, 1: 29-50. WWF Türkiye Rapor (2011). Yenilenebilir Enerji Geleceği ve Türkiye, http://awsassets.wwftr.panda.org/downloads/wwftr_yenilenebilirenerjigelecegiveturkiye.pdf, (E.T: 05.05.2016). http://www.emo.org.tr/ekler/93af3b8b4585318_ek.pdf, (E.T: 11.03.2016). http://www.enerji.gov.tr/tr-TR/EIGM-Raporlari, (E.T: 28.05.2016). http://www.emo.org.tr/genel/bizden_detay.php?kod=88369#.V1K3lpOLQ6g, (E.T: 18.03.2016).

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THE ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT LEVEL ANALYSIS OF HEALTH FACILITY PERSONNEL: THE CASE OF SILIFKE Prof.Dr. Ahmet AY Selcuk University, Economics and Business Administration Departments, Department of Economics [email protected]

Lecturer Esra AYTEMİR Selcuk University, Silifke Taşucu Vocational School, Local Governments [email protected] Abstract Today, organisations succeed if they meet the requests and requirements of their staff. Organisational commitment provides benefits for both organisations and employees. Employees that have high level of organisational commitment, indigenise the organization and unity their aims and goals with organisations’. Thus, they regard the success of organisation as their success. Organisational commitment means the willingness to be member of organisation and that an individual take up seriously the goals and values of the organization and make an effort for this. Researches show that organizational commitment has positive effect on the organizational performance and in this context it decreases the negative results such as coming to the job late, absenteeism and release. In this study, it is researched the organizational commitment of healthcare personnel working in both private and public hospitals in Silifke comparatively. In this study, it is made survey by using the ‘Scale of Organisational Commitment’ developed by Meyer and Allen (1991). In the content of the study, it is analysed the organisational commitment of healthcare personnel by discussing the three dimensions of organizational commitment; affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. Key words: Organisational Commitment, Helathcare Personnel

Introduction Organizational Commitment is a concept that gains importance and is frequently researched in behavioral sciences, human resources and management sciences. This process has begun with realization of the importance of human skills about organizational success. In health sector, services must be in good quality, satisfactory and trustworthy because of their irrecusability and importance. Increasing the quality of services can be possible with the commitments of employees to their organizations. In this study, it is examined level of commitments of workers in different public and private organizations and how their commitments are affected. Initially, the concept of Organizational Commitment, approaches about it and factors affecting are explained in detail. Besides, Organizational Culture is defined and given information about the relationship between Organizational Culture and Organizational Commitment. In addition, previous studies about this relationship are presented. In the empirical part of the study, in two institutions named Silifke Public Hospital and Private Olbamed Hospital the levels of Organizational Commitment and differences are examined. 311

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 1. Concept of Organizational Commitment and its Importance Scholars working on organizational behavior, organizational psychology and social psychology conduct studies about organizational commitment from their point of views and this cause different definitions to occur. Basically, Organizational Commitment is “the relationship or tie between the individual and organization (Meyer and Herscovitch, 2001:299). Organizational Commitment necessitates to work and behave in parallel with the aims, policies and duties of organization. It is expected from individuals to prefer organizational interests instead of individual interests, work more than scheduled, do their jobs without questioning. Hereby, organization guarantees the workers to stay in the organization (Başaran, 1982:242). Allen and Meyer (1990) defines organizational commitment as accepting and believing the goals of organization, perform more than expected, strong willingness about continuation in the organization. Countless scholars conduct studies about Organizational Commitment and increase importance of this concept. According to Balay (2000), Organizational Commitment became important due to the reasons below. Organizational Commitment is related with;  Activities such as absenteeism, looking for job, disengagement and walkout  Attitudinal, cognitive and emotional conditions such as morality, work commitment, performance  Business oriented characteristics such as sense of duty, participation, autonomy and responsibility  Personal characteristics such as work time, education level, age and gender 2. Organizational Commitment Approaches In literature research about Organizational Commitment, it is seen that commitment is examined as behavioral commitment, altitudinal commitment, multiple commitment and their sub-dimensions (Gül, 2002:50). 2.1. Behavioral Approach According to behavioral approach, organizational commitment is a process about commitment to not only the organization but also workers‟ own activities about job (Cengiz, 2001: 14). This approach is about becoming faithful to the organization considering past experiences and adaptation skills. Implied by faithfulness is continuing the membership and attendance to the activities in job (Yavuz, 2009: 13). 2.2. Attitudinal Approach Attitudinal approach can be defined as a mutual relationship that workers are faithful to the organization in exchange for moral reward and interests. This approach is focused on the relationship between worker and the organization and correspondence between personal aims and goals and organizational targets must be considered (Meyer and Allen, 1991: 62). Allen and Mayer defended that organization commitments is composed of „emotional commitment‟, „attendance commitment‟ and „normative commitment‟ (Yavuz, 2009: 13). 2.2.1. Emotional Commitment Emotional commitment is a fact about factors related to personal characteristics and job. Emotional commitment is based on the basis of willingness of workers about supporting organizational targets (Mir et al., 2002:190). Emotional commitment is the most important type of commitment from the point of organizations. Workers having this type of commitment have a fascination for employers because of their faithfulness and devotion themselves to the organization. This type of workers are disposed to take additional responsibilities (Narimawati, 2007: 553). 2.2.2. Attendance Commitment 312

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Attendance commitment is the situation that workers continue to work because the cost of quitting is too high (Somers and Birnbaum, 2000: 353). It occurs when seniority, career or organizational return of worker is too high. Thereby worker stays at the organization even if he/she does not to stay (Gül, 2002: 45). 2.2.3. Normative Commitment Allen and Meyer define normative commitment as workers are committed to the organization with a sense of moral duty (Allen and Meyer,1997:11). Workers feel themselves obliged to be faithful to the organization. This feeling occurs as a consequence of pressure and organizational culture. Organization members press the individual to stay and belief about staying is strong in this type (Stephens, 2004:398). Feeling indebted as a result of education taken from the organization and thankfulness make the worker stay at organization (Ünler, 2006: 96). 2.3. Multiple Commitment Approach Multiple commitment approach is being examined separately from other two because it proposes different factors in the organization make different types of commitments to occur. Within the context of this approach, commitment corresponds the process of identifying the components of organization with workers‟ targets. These components can be executives, customers, unions and public opinion. In this approach, rather than a commitment definition related to organizational aims and values, specifically it is emphasized that organizational aims and values form a basis for organizational commitment (Balay, 2000: 24-33). According to Reichers, other commitment approaches assume the organization is an entire body which is undifferentiated. On the other hand Reichers says that organizations have differentiated target and value set rather than undifferentiated entire body (Varoğlu, 1993:9). In brief, one reason can be selling qualified goods at an appropriate price another reason can be the close relationship between the organization and worker make members faithful to the organization (Gül, 2002:55). 3. Factors Affecting Organizational Commitment There are two factors affection organizational commitment. They are categorized as personal and organizational factors (Wiener, 1982:419). These factors are examined by separating into groups. 3.1. Personal Factors It is stated in most of the studies about organizational culture and organizational commitment that there are many factors affecting organizational commitment. It is accepted that there is a strong relationship between personal factors and organizational commitment (Şencan, 2011:13). Studies trying to find the relationship between organizational commitment and personal factors use the variables such as age, gender, education level, seniority and marital status. The relationship between these factors and organizational commitment is presented below. 3.1.1. Age There is a positive relationship between age and organizational commitment. Emotional commitments of workers older in age are more because they are more mature and spend more time at work (Allen ve Meyer, 1993:49-61). Furthermore, workers younger in age have more tendency to quit the job because of their low commitments to the organization (Sökmen, 2000:51). 3.1.2. Gender In organizational commitment literature, there is a divergence about opinions whether men or women are more committed to their jobs. A group of scholars defends that men are more committed than 313

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN women, another group defends the opposite (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990:952). As the reason of women are less committed than men to their jobs, researchers say women generally do unskilled works. As another reason, different social roles which men and women have in society is shown. On the other hand, in a research conducted in England, job satisfaction levels of women are more than men because they work conditions are worse than men. As one can see, there is no strong evidence about the relationship between gender and organizational commitment by fixing the job and profession conditions. So, it can be misleading to relate the job satisfaction and gender (Kantar, 2008:59-60). In brief, although general opinion about men and women have a different attitude towards their jobs, some researchers claim that they give similar responses related to their jobs. In society, different roles are provided to and expectations are created from men and women. These roles and expectations affects their behaviors and constitutes a divergence point in their work life. 3.1.3. Education Level In order to provide commitments of individuals, organizations invest their education and spend money and time. In return, workers expectations about wage and work conditions become high. Work life means an environment bringing social status, resource of prestige and developing social relationships in addition to gaining money. Thereby, as education level increases meaning attributed to job and work life is varied (Çakır, 2001:111). General opinion after analyzing the data about education level is if the level of education increase, commitment level of workers to the organization will decrease. While workers less educated and not planning to be educated in the future are more committed, high educated workers are less committed to the organization (Güllüoğlu, 2011: 78). 3.1.4. Seniority Workers have high seniority are expected to be more committed (Dağdeviren, 2007: 18). Workers increasing investigations are shown as a reason for this. Workers investing his/her organization cannot quit easily and do/does not want to sacrifice gains collected over years (Türkoğlu, 2011: 22). Meyer and Allen (1991) expressed that there is a positive relationship between organizational commitment and seniority. They claim that higher seniority or status in job brings more satisfaction. 3.1.5. Marital Status Another personal characteristic affecting organizational commitment is marital status. Research‟s suggest that married workers‟ commitment level is higher than unmarried workers‟. Married workers have responsibilities in their family and are more careful about their jobs. In a study about the relationship between marital status and organizational commitment, a positive relationship is found because married workers‟ financial responsibilities force them to stay at the organization. (Balcı, 2003: 87). 3.2. Organizational Factors Organizational factors affecting organizational commitment are size of organization, organizational structure, and communication and career opportunities. 3.2.1. Organizational Structure and the Size of Organization It is stated that in small size organizations, organizational commitment level is higher than in big scale organizations (Bryson and White, 2008: 10). Because workers in small size have close relationship

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN with their colleagues and employers. They get rewards direct, more open and more satisfying their inner world (Wallace, 1995: 38). Big scale organizations are seen as organizations that are hard to customize and commit. Bryson and White (2008) also indicate that in small size organizations, organizational commitment level is higher than in big scale organizations because they feel safe in terms of job autonomy, job security and general welfare. 3.2.2. Wage Wage given to the workers by their organizations in remuneration for their works (Kaya, 2007:360), occupies an important place in organizational commitment. Because higher wage brings higher social status and means higher organizational status (Gözen, 2007:61). Wage is the most important factor in organizational factors. It increases the attractiveness of the job and higher wage makes workers more committed (Balay, 2000:68). However, in some cases, higher wage cannot be enough to commit the workers to the organization. Wage balance among the workers is an important criteria about commitment. 3.2.3. Communication Another factor affecting organizational commitment is the communication inside the organization. Inner communication is the transfer of information and opinions between employers and workers (Barutçugil, 2004: 146). There is a strong relationship between organizational commitment and communication with leader. It is stated that taking the right orders from the first hand strengthen job environment and commitment to the organization. 3.2.4. Career Opportunitis Existence of the opportunities to step up in job affects organizational commitment strongly and make workers more committed to their job (DeConick ve Dean, 1996: 80). It will be a positive strong reinforcer to know that there are paths to become a senior in job and take more responsibilities with confidence. (Çakır, 2001: 150-151). 4. Concept of Organizational Culture and its Importance Pettigrew (1979) introduced organizational culture to literature and define as “the meaning system shared by a specific group.” He stated that this meaning system composed of language, ceremony, symbol, and myths (Pettigrew, 1979:574). Another definition is done by Edgar Schein who is accepted an authority in this field. Schein defines organizational culture as “a pattern of shared basic assumptions that was learned by a group as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems.” Societies take shape from their cultures. Different cultures cause different management types to occur. Organizations can be assumed as a small society. Thanks to this assumption, it can be said that organizations have their “shared values” and “culture”. These value judgments differs among organizations and affects their managements, successes and activities. Due to this reason, important decisions must be made by considering organizational culture and thinking the organization as a whole (Koçel, 2003:29-30). Organizational culture affects behaviors of workers significantly. In organizations having strong culture, workers know how to work and behave. However, organizations having weak culture there is not any embraced behaviors and workers struggle and waste time by thinking how to act. In organizations an established organizational culture is very important. Organizational culture is 315

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN timesaving and provides a dynamic and social structure from the bottom to management of organization (Şimşek and Fidan, 2005:25). 5. The Relationship between Organizational Culture and Organizational Commitment The concepts of organizational culture and organizational commitment are examined by numerous researchers. Nevertheless these concepts are rarely examined together. These concepts are complements of each other and it means there will be further studies about the relationship between these concepts. It is unquestionable that organizational culture is not main determinant about organizational commitment. However, organizational culture is very important in terms of coherence and developing organizational commitment. Imitability of culture is very low and so differences between organizations can occur. These differences increase competitiveness inevitably. Due to these reasons, managers understand the importance and use organizational culture as a policy tool for the sake of continuum of organization and increasing performance. (Kaya, 2008:136). The more committed a worker to the organization, the more efficient he/she can work and the more embraced he/she feel. Organization managers should motivate workers towards organizational targets, increase workers‟ commitment and constitutes „us‟ notion. In brief, managers should gather individual targets and organizational targets under a single roof in order to constitute an organizational culture. 6. Studies Conducted about Organizational Commitment In a study conducted by Cengiz (2001) in order to find organizational commitment levels of doctors and nurses and factors affecting organizational commitment at Eskişehir. He found that there is not a strong relationship between organizational commitment and demographic characteristics. In addition to this, there is not a significant difference in organizational commitment levees of doctors and nurses. Nevertheless, there are some evidence about that doctors can quit their jobs when they find another job which has better conditions. In 2007. Erdem conducted a study and found that organizational levels of workers in hospitals are medium level. Durna and Eren (2005) studied organizational commitments of workers in education and health sector. They emphasize demographic characteristics such as age, marital status and seniority and found that workers are committed in terms of emotions and faithfulness. Özkaya et al. (2006) found similar results in their studies about managers of organizations. There are substantial studies recently about organizational commitments of public workers. In these studies differences in commitment levels of workers and factors affecting in public and private sectors. Zeffane (1995) and Lyons et al. (2006), workers in private sector have higher commitment levels than public sectors. In all studies it is examined whether there is any relationship between organizational commitment and varied elements. Within this context, high emotional commitment, normative commitment and then attendance commitment is most wanted from workers respectively. (Brown, 2003:41). 7. Purpose and Method of the Study In this study the concepts of organizational commitment and organizational culture are introduced theoretically. Initially, for conceptual and theoretical part of this study, literature research is conducted. Then, organizational commitment scale survey including 3 sub-dimension and 18 questions which is found by Allen and Meyer and applied by S. Arzu Wasti (1999) to public and private hospitals. In this study, it is examined level of commitments of workers in different public and private 316

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN organizations. It is tried to find that whether there is relationship between organizational commitment and workers‟ genders, ages, education levels, working time, duty in organizations, and type of organization. All data needed for analysis is obtained by survey method. The population of this survey composed of personnel of Private Olbamed Hospital and Silifke Public Hospital. Randomly selected 200 workers in population constitutes sample of the study. 7.1. Hypotheses In the scope of this study, the hypotheses below are tested in order to determine the level of organizational commitment levels of private and public hospital workers. 1. There is a relationship between belonging levels (attendance commitment, emotional commitment, normative commitment) of workers in public hospitals 2. There is a relationship between belonging levels (attendance commitment, emotional commitment, normative commitment) of workers in private hospitals 3. There are differences in belonging levels (attendance commitment, emotional commitment, normative commitment) of workers in public hospitals according to gender 4. There are differences in belonging levels (attendance commitment, emotional commitment, normative commitment) of workers in private hospitals according to gender 7.2. The Validity and Reliability of Study In applied KMO test to Organizational Commitment Scale is %84,9. This ratio shows that data is appropriate for factor analysis and can constitute significant groups. After factor analysis and variance percent, the number of variables decrease from 18 to 3 (attendance commitment, emotional commitment, normative commitment). Thanks to the variables %55,391 of the change in variance is explained. 1. Factor explains approximately %11,846, 2.factor explains approximately %14,885 and 3.factor explains approximately %28,660 of total change in variance. 4 expressions (emotional commitment) related to organizational commitment left out of analysis because they are less significant (less than %40) than other expressions. Reliability analysis is a method developed to test the reliabilities of surveys, scales or tests and find characteristics of them. According to reliability analysis related to the answers of workers attending the survey from public and private hospitals, 0,828 Cronbach‟s Alpha number is obtained. This means that the reliability of scale is very high. Table 7. 1. Results of Factor Analysis Factor Load DIMENSION 1 EMOTIONAL COMMITMENT (VARİANCE%11,846) In my organization, I do not feel myself as a part of family. I do not feel any emotional commitment to my organization. I do not feel a strong belonging to my organization. DIMENSION 2 ATTENDANCE COMMITMENT (VARİANCE: %14,885) It is very hard for me to quit my job even if I want to do it.

317

,846 ,852 ,638

,437

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN If I decide to quit my job now, many things in my life will be upside down. For now, the reason for staying in my organization is willingness as well as necessity. There are very few alternatives make me not risk to quit. One of the negative results of quitting this organization is that there are few appropriate alternatives. If I do not contribute to organization from myself, I will take into account to work in another organization. DIMENSION 3 NORMATİVE COMMITMENT (VARİANCE: %28,660) I do not think to quit my organization is right for now even it is advantageous for me. I feel guilty if I quit my job now. This organization deserves my loyalty. I would not quit due to the responsibilities to people in this organization. I am indebted to my organization. Explained Total VARİANCE Value by Factors (%) Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)

,762 ,643 ,626 ,509 ,594

,606 ,677 ,828 ,817 ,823 55,391 0,849

8. Results and Comments

PUBLI C

Variable

Women Men Total

73 30 103

70,8 29,2 100,0

AGE Between 20-29 Between 30-39 Between 40-49 Over 50 Total Between 20-29 Between 30-39 Between 40-49 Over 50 Total LEVEL OF EDUCATION

5 60 28 4 97 70 22 8 3 103

5,2 61,9 28,8 4,1 100,0 68,0 21,3 7,7 3,0 100,0

PRIVATE

PUBLIC

GENDER Women Men Total

Frequency Percent (%) 53 54,6 44 45,4 97 100,0

PRIVA TE

Table 8.1. Frequency Analysis Results Related to Demographic Characteristics

318

PRIVATE

PUBLIC

PRIVATE

PUBLIC

PRIVATE

PUBLIC

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Medical Career College Associate degree Bachelor Master -PhD Total Medical Career College Associate degree Bachelor Master -PhD Total WORK TIME Less than 1 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years Over 16 Total Less than 1 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years Over 16 Total DUTY Doctor Nurse Medical secretary Other Total Doctor Nurse Medical secretary Other Total

0 9 11 77 97 35 40 23 5 103

0,0 9,3 11,4 79,3 100,0 34,0 38,9 22,3 4,8 100,0

1 10 33 30 23 97 38 52 11 1 1 103

1,0 10,3 34,0 31,0 23,7 100,0 37,0 50,4 10,6 1,0 1,0 100,0

77 15 0 5 97 5 36 23 39 103

79,5 15,4 0,0 5,1 100,0 4,9 35,0 22,3 37,8 100,0

The results of frequency analysis related to demographic characteristics of attended health workers is presented in Table 8.1. In public hospital %45,4 of workers are men, %54,6 of workers are women. In private hospital %29,2 of workers are men, %70,8 of workers are women. So It is easy to say that women workers in both hospitals are more than men workers. Workers in private hospital are younger than workers in public hospital according to the answer given by attenders. Level of education is another criteria in this study. According to the results, %79,3 of workers in 319

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN public hospital have a master or PhD degree. In private hospital the ratio is smaller, so that public hospital workers are more educated than private hospital workers. In terms of work time, it is seen that workers in public hospitals are working a long time in their organizations. However, work times of private hospital workers are shorter. Distribution of work or duty is another variable examined in this study. In public hospital, number of doctors are more than private hospital. And diversification of duties in private hospital is more than public hospital. 1. Hypothesis: There is a relationship between belonging levels (attendance commitment, emotional commitment, normative commitment) of workers in public hospitals. Correlation coefficients are used in this type relationships in statistics. 3 variables constituted by 3 sub-dimensions are continuous and normally distributed according to normality test. Kolmogrov-Smirnov is used as normality test. In this test; HO: The distribution of related variable is normal H1: The distribution of related variable is not normal Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Statistics

Degree of Freedom

P-value

Normative commitment

0,234

97

0,000

Attendance commitment

0,164

97

0,000

Emotional commitment

0,127

97

0,001

For all variables Ho is rejected because p<α. And all three variables are not normally distributed at %99 confidence level. As a result of the test all variables are not normally distributed. Kendall‟s Tau should be used because variables are continuous. Hypotheses below will be tested. Hypotheses HO: Attendance commitments and emotional commitments of workers in public hospital are not related H1: Attendance commitments and emotional commitments of workers in public hospital are related HO: Attendance commitments and normative commitments of workers in public hospital are not related H1: Attendance commitments and normative commitments of workers in public hospital are related HO: Normative commitments and emotional commitments of workers in public hospital are not related H1: Normative commitments and emotional commitments of workers in public hospital are related Correlations Normative Attendance Emotional commitment commitment commitment Kendall's Tau

Normative commitment

Correlation Coefficient P-value

320

1,000

-,159*

,152*

.

,024

,030

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Number of Units Attendance commitment

Correlation Coefficient P-value Number of Units

Emotional commitment

Correlation Coefficient P-value Number of Units

97

97

97

-,159*

1,000

,035

,024

.

,620

97

97

97

,152*

,035

1,000

,030

,620

.

97

97

97

*. There is a significant relationship between variables at %95 confidence level. It is needed Ho to be rejected to say there is a significant relationship between two variables. In table, p<α value is important (α=0.05). Meaningful p<α value is between normative commitment -attendance commitment and normative commitment - emotional commitment. As a result, at %95 confidence level, there are statistically significant relationships between normative commitment - attendance commitment and normative commitment - emotional commitment of public hospital workers. 2. Hypothesis: There is a relationship between belonging levels (attendance commitment, emotional commitment, normative commitment) of workers in private hospitals. Kolmogrov-Smirnov is used as normality test. In this test; HO: The distribution of related variable is normal H1: The distribution of related variable is not normal Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Statistics

Degree of Freedom

P-value

Normative commitment 0,085 103 0,062 Attendance commitment 0,077 103 0,148 Emotional commitment 0,072 103 0,200 For all variable Ho is not rejected because p>α. And all three variables are normally distributed at %95 confidence level. As a result of the test all variables are normally distributed. Pearson Correlation Analysis should be used because variables are continuous. Hypotheses below will be tested. Hypotheses HO: Attendance commitments and emotional commitments of workers in public hospital are not related H1: Attendance commitments and emotional commitments of workers in public hospital are related HO: Attendance commitments and normative commitments of workers in public hospital are not related H1: Attendance commitments and normative commitments of workers in public hospital are related HO: Normative commitments and emotional commitments of workers in public hospital are not related H1: Normative commitments and emotional commitments of workers in public hospital are related 321

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Correlations Normative commitment Normative commitment

Pearson Coefficient

Correlation

Emotional commitment

1

Pearson Correlation Coefficient P-value Number of Units

Emotional commitment

-,034

,026

,733

,796

103

103

103

-,034

1

,081

P-value Number of Units

Attendance commitment

Attendance commitment

,733

,415

103

103

103

,026

,081

1

P-value

,796

,415

Number of Units

103

103

Pearson Coefficient

Correlation

103

In table p<α is important (α=0.05). There is not p<α value in table. As a result, at %95 confidence level, there are not statistically significant relationships between normative commitment, attendance commitment and emotional commitment of private hospital workers. 3. Hypothesis: There are differences in belonging levels (attendance commitment, emotional commitment, normative commitment) of workers in public hospitals according to gender. While testing whether the mean of a variable changes among two groups, independent samples t-test is used under normality assumption or Mann-Whitney U test is used when normality is not assumed. It is shown above that the distributions of attendance commitment, emotional commitment and normative commitment of public hospital workers are not normal according to Kolmogrov-Smirnov Test. Hypotheses are below. HO: Attendance commitments of workers in public hospitals do not change according to gender H1: Attendance commitments of workers in public hospitals change according to gender HO: Normative commitments of workers in public hospitals do not change according to gender H1: Normative commitments of workers in public hospitals change according to gender. HO: Emotional commitments of workers in public hospitals do not change according to gender H1: Emotional commitments of workers in public hospitals change according to gender Mann-Whitney Test Results Normative commitment Mann-Whitney U Z P-value

1161,000 -,036 ,971

322

Attendance commitment 1151,000 -,109 ,913

Emotional commitment 1085,000 -,587 ,557

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN a. Group Variable: GENDER At the table above, Mann-Whitney U statistics value, z-values and p-values are shown related to hypotheses. In order to reject Ho, It must be P-valuea. And Ho cannot rejected. At %95 confidence level, it cannot be said that attendance commitments, normative commitments and emotional commitments of workers in public hospitals change according to gender. 4. Hypothesis: There are differences in belonging levels (attendance commitment, emotional commitment, normative commitment) of workers in private hospitals according to gender. While testing whether the mean of a variable changes among two groups, independent samples t-test is used under normality assumption or Mann-Whitney U test is used when normality is not assumed. It is shown above that the distributions of attendance commitment, emotional commitment and normative commitment of private hospital workers are normal according to Kolmogrov-Smirnov Test. Hypotheses are below. HO: Attendance commitments of workers in private hospitals do not change according to gender H1: Attendance commitments of workers in private hospitals change according to gender HO: Normative commitments of workers in private hospitals do not change according to gender H1: Normative commitments of workers in private hospitals change according to gender. HO: Emotional commitments of workers in private hospitals do not change according to gender H1: Emotional commitments of workers in private hospitals change according to gender

Independent Sample T-Test Levene's Test

Normative Under commitment Equal Variance Assumption Under Different Variance Assumption

T-Test for Equal Means

Confidence Interval for Degree Standard Difference in Means of Difference Errors of F P-value t Freedom P-value in Means Differences Min Max 0,13 0,72 -0,24 100,00 0,81 -0,05 0,23 -0,51 0,40

-0,22

45,50

323

0,83

-0,05

0,24 -0,54 0,44

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Attendance Under 0,70 commitment Equal Variance Assumption Under Different Variance Assumption Emotional Under 0,06 commitment Equal Variance Assumption Under Different Variance Assumption

0,41 0,27

100,00

0,79

0,06

0,23 -0,39 0,51

0,26

45,81

0,80

0,06

0,24 -0,42 0,55

0,80 1,72

100,00

0,09

0,20

0,20 -0,05 0,76

1,57

43,47

0,12

0,20

0,22 -0,10 0,80

In order to test this hypothesis, firstly equality of variances should be tested. Levene‟s test will be used to test equality of variances. Levene‟s test p-values for normative commitment is 0,72, for attendance commitment is 0,41 and for emotional commitment is 0,800 according to test result conducted with the help of SPSS. So, it s seen that p-values>a, Ho cannot rejected for three types of commitments. At %95 confidence level, it cannot be said that variances are different. In this case, p-values under equal variances assumption should be examined. As a result of the independent sample t-test under equal variances assumption, p-values for normative commitment is 0,813, for attendance commitment is 0,785 and for emotional commitment is 0,089. So, it‟s seen that p-values>a, Ho cannot rejected. At %95 confidence level, it cannot be said that three types of commitments change according to gender. 9. Conclusion and Recommendations Success of an organization depends on its workers and efforts they make. In the meantime, workers‟ performances are depend on job satisfaction. Searching organizational commitment levels of workers in hospitals, offer managers valuable data and help them to develop appropriate policies. In two institutions named Silifke Public Hospital and Private Olbamed Hospital the levels of Organizational Commitment and differences are examined. In this research, Allen and Meyer‟s organizational commitment scale consisting 18 article and 3 sub-dimensions is used. Questions about demographic characteristics are asked to the participants. Obtained data transferred to computer and different analyses are conducted. Results of these analyses are presented via tables. Conclusions and recommendations are below. Statistically significant relationships between normative commitment - attendance commitment and normative commitment - emotional commitment of public hospital workers are found. For this reason first hypothesis is accepted. In second hypothesis, it is not found any statistically significant relationships between normative commitment, attendance commitment and emotional commitment of

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN private hospital workers. For this reason second hypothesis is rejected. It cannot be said that attendance commitments, normative commitments and emotional commitments of workers in public hospitals change according to gender. Because of this reason hypothesis 3 is rejected. It cannot be said that attendance commitments, normative commitments and emotional commitments of workers in private hospitals change according to gender. Because of this reason hypothesis 4 is rejected. At the present time, firms should have good relationship with their workers in order to have competitive advantage. Unsatisfied workers have problems such as absenteeism, quitting, low life quality. These problems can cause huge financial losses for firms. As a result of this study, workers having attendance, normative and emotional commitments are more satisfied than other colleagues. So that, firms should establish consensus and harmony, provide fair conditions and encourage entrepreneurship. References Akıncı, B., Z.,(1999), Kurum Kültürü ve Örgütsel İletişim, İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul. Allen, J.Natali, Meyer, J. P. (1993), Organizational commitment: Evidence of career stage effects?, Journal of Business Research, vol.26, no.1. Allen, N. J. &Meyer, J. P. (1997). Commitment In The Workplace: Theory, Research, And Application. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication. Balay, R. (2000), Yönetici ve Öğretmenlerde Örgütsel Bağlılık, Yayın No:206,Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara. Balcı, A. (2003). Örgütsel Sosyalleşme, Pegem A Yayıncılık, Ankara. Barutçugil İ. (2004) Stratejik İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Kariyer Yayıncılık, İstanbul s,145-148. Başaran, İ., E, (1982), Örgütsel Davranışın Yönetimi, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Yayını, Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, Ankara. Bayram, L. (2006), Yönetimde Yeni Bir Paradigma: Örgütsel Bağlılık, Sayıştay Dergisi. Sayı: 59. Blau G, J. & Boal K. B (1987). “Conceptualizing How Job Involvement And Organizational Commitment Affect Turnover and Absenteeism”, Academy Of Management Review, Vol:12 No:2. Brown, B.B. (2003), Employees` Organizational Commitment and Their Perception of Supervisors` Relations-Oriented and Task-Oriented Leadership Behaviors, Dissertation, Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia, http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/Employees` Organizational Commitment and Their Perception of Bryson, A. & White, M. (2008). “Organizational Commitment: Do Workplace Practices Matter?”, Central for Economic Performance, No: 881. Cengiz A.A., (2001) Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü “Kişisel Özelliklerin Örgütsel Bağlılık Üzerindeki Etkileri Ve Eskişehir‟de ağlık Personeli Üzerine Bir Uygulama” İşletme Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Eskişehir, s. 14-18 Cengiz A.A., 2001 Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü “Kişisel Özelliklerin Örgütsel Bağlılık Üzerindeki Etkileri Ve Eskişehir‟de ağlık Personeli Üzerine Bir Uygulama” İşletme Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Eskişehir, s. 14-18 Çakır, Ö. (2001). İşe Bağlılık Olgusu ve Etkileyen Faktörler, Seçkin Kitabevi, İstanbul. Dağdeviren E.G., (2007) Atılım Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü “İş Tatmini Ve Örgütsel Bağlılık Sigorta Şirketleri Üzerine Bir Uygulama”, İşletme Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara, s.18 DeConick, D. & Dean, S. C. (1996). “Factors Influencing The Organizational Commitment of Female Advertising Executives”, American Business Review, Vol:14, No.2. Durna, U. ve Eren, V., (2005). “Üç Bağlılık Unsuru Ekseninde Örgütsel Bağlılık”, Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, 6,2, ss:210-219

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Erdem, R., (2007). “Örgüt Kültürü Tipleri İle Örgütsel Bağlılık Arasındaki İlişki: Elazığ İl Merkezindeki Hastaneler Üzerinde Bir Çalışma”, Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, 2, 2, ss:63-79. Gözen, E.D., (2007), İş Tatmini ve Örgütsel Bağlılık Sigorta Şirketleri Üzerine Bir Uygulama ,Atılım Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara. Gül, H.(2002), Örgütsel Bağlılık Yaklaşımlarının Mukayesesi veDeğerlendirilmesi, Ege Üniversitesi Akademik Bakış Dergisi, 2(1), ss. 37-55. Güllüoğlu, Ö. (2011). Örgütsel İletişim İletişim Doyumu Ve Kurumsal Bağlılık, Eğitim Kitabevi, Konya. Kantar, H., (2008), İşletmede Motivasyon, 1.Baskı, Kumsaati Yayıncılık, İstanbul. Kaya, H., (2008), Kamu ve Özel Sektör Kuruluşlarının Örgütsel Kültürünün Analizi ve Kurum Kültürünün Çalışanların Örgütsel Bağlılığına Etkisi: Görgül Bir Araştırma, Maliye Dergisi, Sayı:155, S:119-143. Kaya, İ., (2007), Otel İşletmeleri İşgörenlerinin İş Tatminini Etkileyen Faktörler: Geliştirilen Bir İş Tatmin Ölçeği, Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7: 2, s.358-360. Kaya, N. ve Selçuk, S., (2007). “Başarı Güdüsü Organizasyonel Bağlılığı Nasıl Etkiler?”, Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, 8, 2,ss:175-190. Koçel, T., (2003), İşletme Yöneticiliği, Beta Basım Yayım, Genişletilmiş 9.Basım İstanbul. Mathieu, J. E & Zajac, D. M. (1990). “A rewiev and meta analysis of antecedent, correlates and conseguences of org. Commitment”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol: 108, No:2. Meyer J.P. and Herscovitch, L., (2001). “Commitment in The Workplace Toward A General Model”, Human Resource Management Review, 11, ss:299-326. Meyer, J. P. Ve Allen, N. J. (1991) “A Three-Component Conceptualization of OrganizationalCommitment”, Human Resource Management Review, 1, s.66-86 Mir, A.,Mosca, R. ve Joseph, B. (2002), The New Age Employee: An Explorationof Changing Employee–Organization Relations, Public Personnel Management,31(2), 187-200. Narimawati, U. (2007). “The Influence of Work Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment and Turnover Intention Towards the Performance of Lecturers at West Java‟s Private Higher Education Institution”, Journal of Applied Sciences Research, Vol: 3, No:7. O‟Reill, C., (1991), Socialization and Organizational Culture, Psychological Dimension of Organizational Behaviour, New York, Mc Millan Pub. Obeng, K. & Ugboro, I. (2003). “Organizational Commitment Among Public Transit Employees: An Assessment Study”, Journal Of The Transportation Research Forum, Vol.57, No.2. Özkaya, M.O., Kocakoç, İ.D. ve Kara, E., (2006). “Yöneticilerin Örgütsel Bağlılıkları ve Demografik Özellikleri Arasındaki İlişkileri İncelemeye Yönelik Bir Alan Çalışması”, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Yönetim Ve Ekonomi, 13, 2, ss:77-96. Pettigrew, A., (1979), On Studying Organizational Cultures, Administrative Science Quar. Somers, M. & Birnbaum, D. (2000) “Exploring The Relationship Between Commitment Profiles And Work Attitudes, Employee Withdrawal, And Job Performance, Employees- Attitudes”, Public Personnel Management, Vol: 29, No:3. Sökmen, A., (2000), Örgütsel Bağlılık İle İşgören Performansı İlişkisi: Ankara‟da Faaliyet Gösteren Otel İsletmeleri Üzerine Bir Uygulama. (Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Gazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara. Swailes, S. (2002), “Organizational Commitment: A Critique of the Construct and Measures”, International Journal of Management Reviews, 4(2), 155–178. Şencan, M., N., S., (2011), Türk İlaç Sanayiinde Çalışan Yöneticilerin Örgütsel Bağlılık ve İş Doyumlarına Yönelik Bir Araştırma, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Doktora Tezi, Ankara. Şimşek, N., Fidan, M., (2005), Kurum Kültürü ve Liderlik, Tablet Yayınevi,Konya. Türkoğlu H., (2011). Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü “İş Tatmini, Örgütsel Bağlılık İlişkisi Ve Bir

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Uygulama” İşletme Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara, S. 22-24 Varoğlu, D. (1993). Kamu Sektörü Çalışanlarının İşlerine ve Kuruluşlarına Karşı Tutumları, Bağlılıkları ve Değerleri, Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara Wallace L. E. (1995). “Corporatist Control and Organizational Commitment among Professionals: The Case of Lawyers Working in Law Firm”, Social Foces, Vol: 7 No: 3. Wasti, S.A. (2002), “Affective and Continuance Commitment to the Organization: Test of an Integrated Model in the Turkish Context, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 26(5), 525–550. Wasti, S.A., (2005). “Commitment Profiles: Combinations of Organizational Commitment Forms and Job Outcomes”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67, ss:290–308. Wiener, Y. (1982), “Commitment in Organization a Normative View”, Academy of Management Review, 7(3), 418–428. Yavuz Ş., (2009); Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü “Hacettepe Üniversitesi Erişkin Hastanesi Çalışanlarının Liderlik Algılarının ve Örgütsel Bağlılıklarının İş Tatminine Etkisi” Sağlık Kurumları Yönetimi Programı yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara, S.12-13 Zeffane, R. (1995), “Organizational Commitment and Perceived Management Styles: The Public –Private Sector Contrast,” Management Research News,18(6-7), 9–21.

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IN PROTECTION WORKS IN THE SCOPE OF CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT, APPLICATIONS OF SURVEYING ENGINEERING Lec. Fatih Varol Selçuk University, Faculty of Tourism, Tourism Management Dept. [email protected] Lec.Dr. Ali ULVİ Selçuk University, The Vocational School of Hadim, Map and Cadastre Dept. [email protected] Abstract Cultural heritage is a whole of every kind of works and values, made by human beings and presented by nature, which reaches today and which is wanted to be left as legacy to the future with the various reasons. Today, providing to protect the natural and historical values forming the tourism potential and increasing tourism incomes take place among the prioritized targets of countries. The classical methods, applied in this scope, are no longer enough, but in protection works that will be carried out in the scope of cultural heritage management, utilizing state-of- the art technological possibilities has become an obligation. Especially with the studies of measuring made by the technological instruments, which are used in surveying engineering, it was revealed that much more valuable data toward protecting and recording cultural heritage were obtained . The aim of this study is to emphasize interdisciplinary studies in the protection and management of cultural heritage. In addition, in the study, in the studies toward protecting and developing the values consisting of the natural, archeological, and urban protected areas, the importance of the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and laser scanning technique was presented. Key words: Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage Management, Laser Scanning Technique, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)

1. Introduction That the historical structures were universal heritage was accepted, beginning from 18th century the principles and agreements, which have international validity, could hardly actualize in 20th century (Özaslan, 2010: 13). In Europe, urban protection attempts began in the period after Second World War. The foundations of protection approaches in international meaning were laid in the Conference of Architects and Technicians on Protection of International Historical Monuments, held in Athens in 1931. In Athens Conference, it was suggested that important historical and cultural environments should be protected and these principles became a legal identity as „Carta del Restauro‟in Italy in 1932. Venice Regulation, accepted in 1964, is accepted as one of the most important documents in protection. In 1972, in the conference held by UNESCO, Convention on Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage was signed (Akkuş and Efe, 2014: 316). In the new world order, developed after Industrial Revolution, as in social, economic, political areas etc., a large change was observed. Although this process accompanies many negative factors such as the phenomenon developing globalization, ethnical conflictions, regional wars, and mass tourism, which will lead cultural heritage to be lost, it also brought a positive understaffing in the viewpoints of societies like transfer of cultural values to the future generations with the approach of an universal ownership (Özaslan, 2010: 14). The approach that the values countries have are accepted and protected as a common heritage of all humankind, it makes obligatory to approach to the issue as interdisciplinary understanding. With moving from here, as in every management area, in the plans of area management plans, which UNESCO brought as an obligation in 1999 for World Heritage Areas, a cultural heritage management stands out, which consider the actual, universal, and environmental effects and have long term sustainable targets.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN In the recent years, for being able to transfer the intangible, cultural, and artistic assets to the future generations in healthy way, the theoretical and applied studies such as survey, restitution, restoration, and documentation have been begun to give much more importance. While these studies are meticulously carried out, the last technologies the other disciplines such as architecture and engineering are intensively utilized. Especially, in the recent periods, it is seen that terrestrial laser scanning technique used in surveying engineering and applications of unmanned aerial have been actively begun to be used in protection activities in cultural heritage areas. Thanks to laser beam terrestrial laser scanners send to the object scanned, 3 dimensional coordinates of millions of point can be obtained. This point enables the district surface geometries to be effectively formed (Al-Khederaet al., 2009: 540). Terrestrial laser scanning technologies, especially engineering projects, finds application area in the studies such as registration processes of cultural heritage and map production (Lichtive Gordon, 2004). Since this system has ability to form 3 dimensional model in high precision, detail in high rate related to object, high resolution matching, change follow up, and presentation, it can also be used in the studies of protecting global heritage. Another technology used in the activities toward protecting cultural heritage is unmanned aerial vehicles. In many areas such as documenting cultural heritage areas, monitoring changes occurring on these areas, and mapping the existing situations, unmanned aerial vehicles are used (Avdan et al., 2014: 3). 2. Cultural Heritage and Its Management Cultural heritage is every kind of tangible and intangible assets, which are related to the past of a society, identify it, survive to the present days together with vital continuity, and carry quality of universal value. Together with foundation of nation-states, the approach of protecting, showing the tracks that carry the information of past, and transferring them to the future generations has become widespread all over the world. As a matter of fact, identifying the monuments and historical works, revealing them, and providing their sustainability by protecting were made permanent by international treaties (Aksoy and Ünsal, 2012: 3). 1954). In the preface of Hague Conventions, it is stated that “whichever nation they belong to, aggressions, which will be made against cultural works, will be accepted as an aggression committed against cultural assets of all humankind”; and in the preface of 1972 UNESCO World Heritage Convention, that “disturbance or disappearance of any part of cultural and natural legacy comprise an harmful impoverishment for heritage of the nations of all the world; and that participation of protecting the cultural and natural heritage is the duty of all international society” (İSMEP, 2014: 15). The opinion of cultural heritage management as tourism product emerged in the late 1990s. The concept of cultural heritage management is a quite new concept for the specialists of cultural tourism and those working in this area (Ho and McKercher, 2004: 256). With cultural heritage management, it is aimed to bring an international approach in international standards in the studies of the restoration and reuse, protection and reorganization, and management of historical settlements, protected areas, archeological areas, and museums carrying tourism value. In cultural heritage management, the most important difficulty to be overcome is that tourism and cultural heritage tourism have the different priorities and different structures. While tourism is engaged in more market oriented and economic benefits, cultural heritage in long term protection. Therefore, the most important thing that is necessary to be performed with priority is to be able to provide balance between these two concepts (Abacılar, 2008: 25). Just as, in all areas that are necessary to be protected, also in cultural heritage areas, while tourism function is developed, it is very important to clearly determine managerial planning, effectively protection of areas, and how these will be realized. Otherwise, it should be considered that historical environment may be damaged irrevocably (Hovinen, 2012: 212). 3. Techniques Used In The Protection And Documentation Of Cultural Heritage 3.1. Terrestrial Laser Scanning Technique In parallel with the rapid development experienced in technology, many innovations have also emerged in laser technology. The studies in this area showed a large development and prevalence in the last 25 years. Terrestrial laser scanning is a method enabling both details of land and the object

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN position in close distances to be obtained terrestrial laser scanners, used by utilizing computer technology, thanks to their enabling to make measurement, which is in high accuracy, rapid, and short time, can be used in many areas. Laser technology is used in many areas from medical imaging to industrial design, from impact test to risk mapping, and from the identification of case place to protection of cultural heritage (Öksüz, 2012: 1). This technique presents important easiness in modeling the historical structure in one-to-one closeness and 3 dimensions. It is rather difficult and almost impossible to make this kind of modeling by means of Total Station and GPS methods. In these methods, while individually point measurement is made, by terrestrial laser scanners, measurement of thousands and even millions of point can be made in the short time and in high accuracy. Due to these reasons, for 3 dimensional modeling, in order to make a measurement in high speed and accuracy, terrestrial laser scanning technology has a great importance. Many methods have been developed related to accuracy research of laser scanners and their results were published. According to these results, measurement accuracy of laser scanners is around 10 cm in long distances (more than 1000 m) and around 1 cm in short distances (less than 300 m), although it decreases depending on the structure of laser beam (Altuntaş and Yıldız, 2008: 20-21). Thanks to terrestrial laser scanning technology, measurement can be made without contacting to the object. With this technology, digital land model in high accuracy and real colored image can be produced. Laser scanning method can be used together with the existing measurement methods, and the integration of measure to the other measurement data can be provided. The main magnitude in terrestrial laser measurements is the distance between instrument and point measured. These are the measurements of triangulation, phase difference, and the time of goingcoming of beam (Lichti ve Gordon, 2004). In triangulation method, scanner sends laser beam from a tip of mechanical instrument to the object in increasing and varying angles and by means of one or two CCD (Charge Coupled Device) camera sensing laser points. 3D positions of reflective surface elements are obtained from result triangle. In the method of phase difference measurement, laser transmitted is adjusted by a compatible wave and distance is calculated from the phase difference between the transmitted and received waves. While the measurement is made by means of the going and coming time of laser beam, a laser beam is sent to the object and the distance between the sending surface and receiving surface is measured by travel time between signal transmission and receiving. The data of point cloud obtained by this method are combined on reference coordinate system selected to form 3D model. From the point cloud obtained by the process of laser scanning, basic measurement data, orthophotographic image, 2 or 3 dimensional drawings, 3D animation, solid surface models or textured 3D models can be obtained (Girişken, 2010: 62). Laser scanners that are efficient scanning technique brings important easiness to both surveyors and those using this method. The benefits that terrestrial laser technique provides for its users can be put in order as follows (Waggot et al., 2005).       

Quick measurement and measurement without contacting the object More data collecting for the same measuring area Easy integration of laser measurements into the other kind of measurement available Ability to collect more reliable data Being able DTM in high accuracy Being able to produce Being able to completely measure in certain periods

One of the areas, in which local laser scanning technique is used the most, is also global heritage areas. Especially in this area, the transactions of making the necessary documentations for protecting the cultural and historical legacy, and realizing restoration studies in the future by deriving the reports of damage state have importance. In the cultural heritage areas, in which detail density needed, local laser technology comes to our face as an important data collecting method. Despite modeling historical structures in 3 dimensions (3D) and one-to-one close to the reality and archiving in this way, for being able to establish an information system specific to cultural heritage in national scale, formation of an infrastructure can be provided. Enabling to model one-to-one

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN and in their real color, it makes it possible for the studies to be published in virtual media, and the desired technical information to be received (Yıldız and Altunbaş, 2009: 52).

3.2. Sample Studies Related To Topographic Laser Scanning The application of laser scanning study by Moullouet al. (2008), which takes place in the list of cultural heritage of UNESCO, and which they carried out in the famous Acropolis site in Athens is accepted as a worldwide sample study. Among the prioritized targets of project, there are restoring fortification walls, recording the archeological and architectural remains that emerge, and integrating finds showing the similar architectural features into structures. In the project, various measuring techniques in surveying area and terrestrial laser scanning technique were used; a number of data was obtained regarding working area; and various surface forms were developed. Thanks to surface models developed, in restoration studies of the area, important easiness was provided and important stages associated with using the different techniques in protecting cultural assets were passed (Moullouet al., 2008: 1076).

Figure 1: Terrestrial laser scanning of Erechtheion, Figure 2: High-resolution model of a Caryatid statue showing some of the difficulties (Moullouvd., 2008) (Moullouet al., 2008) In the study, carried out by Alshawabkeh (2006) on world famous Al-Khasneh monuments, in the city Petra of Jordan and written as doctorate thesis, t was aimed, to enhance visual quality, using laser scanning technique in integrated way together with photogrammetric measurement techniques, in identification of linear targets such as the edges and cracks in historical structures.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Figure 3: Al-Khasneh facade (Left), Al-Khasneh 3D model (Right) (Alshawabkeh, 2006: 88). Yastıklı (2007), in a project carried out by Yıldız Teknik University in 2004, revealed that documentation of highly complex geometric and irregular forms, found Istanbul Dolmabahçe Palace, was very successfully provided by means of terrestrial laser technique in his study. In addition, with the use of digital camera and terrestrial laser scanning technique in combined way, RGB values of 3D points obtained were combined with the values of texture and orthophoto. As a result of this, one-toone 3 dimensional model belonging to Dolmabahçe Palace was obtained with its real images (Yastıklı, 2007: 427).

Figure 4: Generated 3D meshes (Yastıklı, 2007)

Figure 5:3D textured model (Yastıklı, 2007)

3.3. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Remote Sensing Techniques also including unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used in determining the current state of physical geography, producing its map, planning, following in a certain periods, identifying destructions that emerge, and managing the resources forming natural environment. Especially in the recent years, in the remote sensing studies carried out toward small areas, unmanned aerial vehicles found highly prevalent use area for themselves. By means of aerial images obtained via these techniques, collecting rapidly actual spatial data needed in a certain region, in which the study is carried out, became possible. That orthophoto images can be assessed in computer medium and integrated to geographic information; that it enables to regularly update and follow the changes that occur; and that with the multiband sensors it can visualize the objects that human eyes cannot see much more increase the importance of unmanned aerial vehicles. Just as orthophoto images and image processing techniques give the chance to be able to quickly obtain many data about earth; it also presents the possibility to carry out a variety of spatial analyses. Processing and storing the data obtained by unmanned air vehicle in an information system designed in appropriate way for the aim provide large opportunities, which cannot be ignored, together with analysis ability the system will present in the stage of planning, deciding, and managing (Koç and Yener, 2001: 22). Today, that terrestrial laser technique used in the protection of cultural heritage areas requires long working time and more labor force increases the cost of the studies carried out. In addition, in the studies carried out by terrestrial methods, since there is a need for walking around the land, in these studies, historical areas can be damaged. Therefore, in the studies of protecting cultural heritage, remote sensing and photogrammetric applications became highly usable. Especially in building based modeling, photogrammetry is widely used and in area based modeling, unmanned aerial vehicles. Thanks to this, both recording the historical, antique, and archeological settlement areas, whose popularities are high, they are documented against the negative effects of time, nature, and human and, eliminating virtual media, they are transferred to broader mass (Asri and Çorumluoğlu, 2014). In many areas such as documenting the structures in cultural heritage, monitoring the changes occurring in these areas, mapping land structure, and identifying archeological remains, unmanned air vehicles are used (Avdan et all., 2014: 2-3). In addition, it is possible to integrate the data based on unmanned aerial vehicles used in the studies toward protecting cultural heritage into the data obtained by the other measurement techniques.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 3.4. Sample Studies Related To Unmanned Aerial Vehicles In the study carried out by Avdan et all. (2014), in Antique City Anavarza, located in the village Dilekkaya of the district Kozan of Adana, the stone plan of Triumphal Arch in antique city were produced by using the data obtained by unmanned aerial vehicle. In the study, with UAV having 16 megapixel RGB camera, flying at 96 m high, the images having earth sampling range of 3 cm were obtained. In order to enhance the accuracy of orthophoto images obtained, before flight, 10 pieces of earth control points, homogenously distributed to working area, were placed and the coordinates of these points were measured by GNSS sensor. At the end of the study, due to high terrestrial resolution (3 cm) and precise coordinate information, in documenting archeological areas and drawing stone plans, it was concluded that UAVs were usable vehicles and, in documenting cultural heritage and for producing the necessary data, were an ideal method (Avdan et all., 2014: 6).

Figure 6: Flight plan ground control point measurement, flight operation, and sample aerial photograph, drawing stone plan belonging to area (Avdan, 2008)

In the study, carried out by Chiabrandoet al(2011) in archeological area, in the region Piedmont, Italy, remained from Rome Era, using the different unmanned aerial vehicles remote controllable, it was tried to be documented the archeological areas and, in addition to it, the positive aspects of applications, compared to the other method, were discussed. As a result of the study carried out, using unmanned aerial instrument, the digital surface models and comprehensive maps of archeological surfaces were obtained until the smallest detail. In addition, it was emphasized that the use of unmanned aerial vehicle was a more and speeder compared to the other geodesic measurement methods.

Figure 7: High altitude flight over the Fontana d‟Ercole: orthophotho (left) and 2D drawing (right).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN In the study, carried out Yakar et al. (2015) in the district Beyşehir, using unmanned aerial vehicle and terrestrial technique together, they aimed at photogrammetrically measuring Historical Bezariye Inn (Bedesten), 3D modeling it, and covering its real textures. As a result of the study, for protecting the historical and cultural heritage and transmitting them to the next generations, in documentation studies carried out, it was seen that using together UAVs and terrestrial photogrammetry techniques brought a breath of fresh air to the works carried out in this area in the meaning of accuracy, speed, and cost (Yakar et all., 2015).

Figure 8: An example for aerial front (left) and roof (right) photographing taken OAV for photogrammetric assessment (Yakar, 2015).

Figure 9: 3D drawing (left) and solid model (right) belonging to cultural heritage Yakar, 2015).

4. Results Cultural heritage and its management constitute the interest area of many scientists in respect with its subject and scope. Therefore, for being able provide an effective cultural heritage management, it is obligatory to deal with the subject an interdisciplinary approach. In this study, in protection of cultural heritage values, survived from the past to the present days accepted that they are common values of humankind in international studies; the role and importance of surveying engineering applications were introduced. Terrestrial laser scanning and unmanned aerial vehicles, frequently uses in the various areas, were presented and some it sample studies were mentioned. The results of the studies carried out in the past revealed that both techniques could be applied in the studies of documentation of complex irregular structures in cultural heritage areas. As a result of the study, it was seen that laser scanning technology could be used in forming 3 dimensional models in cultural heritage areas, in obtaining high rated details related to objects, providing high resolution matching, and following the change in time, etc. In addition, due to the fact that it is quick and practical, that it provides very high resolution image, that it is low cost and it has a ortophoto image modeling having sensitive coordinate information, in documenting archeological areas and drawing stone plans, it was concluded that UAVs were usable instruments and, for being able to be produced in documentation of cultural heritage, that they have a feature to be an ideal technique. In the studies carried out for protection of the historical and cultural heritage and transfer to the next generations, using UAVs and laser scanning techniques together sometimes becomes unavoidable. Especially in imaging of unreachable points of historical objects and roofs of buildings, it

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN is seen that terrestrial laser scanning remains inadequate. In this kind of cases, using unmanned serial instruments, aerial photographs of the points cannot be visualized by laser scanning can be obtained. In addition, it was seen that UAVs brought a new breathe to works in the name organization. Due to 3 dimensional models, obtained using UAV and scanning techniques, are more comprehensive, it was observed that they had qualifications to lead to restoration and documentation projects. We can put in order the advantages use of both techniques commonly and individually provides as follow (Yakar and Ulvi, 2014: 27): 1. It shows an effect reducing cost. 2. In completion of many projects, it provides large saving in terms of time. Projects can be defined in a few days. 3. In the areas and objects that are present in very complex, difficult to reach, and dangerous regions, in which traditional measurement techniques remain inadequate, enables to be able to make measurement. 4. Laser scanning technique can be used independently enlightening and, even middle night, can make scanning. 5. With laser scanning technique, all area can be perfectly scanned and, if there is need for new information, thanks to the existing information, need for again going is eliminated. 6. Thanks to unmanned aerial vehicle, in the regions, where laser scanning technique remains inadequate, measurement can be made aerial photographs. References Abacılar P. (2008). Cultural Tourism And Management In Natural And Urban Heritage Sites BoğaziçiArnavutköy Sample, Istanbul Technical University Graduate School of Science Engineering and Technology, Unpublished Master‟s Thesis, Istanbul. Akkuş, Zafer ve Efe, Tamer (2014). Duties And Authority of The Law Enforcement in Turkey and Italy in Terms Of Protection of Cultural and Historical Environment, Jornal of The Faculty of Law of Inonu University, 5 (2), 313-366. Aksoy, Asu ve Ünsal, Deniz (2012). Kültürel Miras Yönetimi, 1. Edition, Anadolu University Publication No: 2573, Anadolu University Web-Ofset, Eskişehir. Alshawabkeh, Yahya (2006). Integration of Laser Scanning and Photogrammetry for Heritage Documentation, Institute of Photogrammetry, University of Stuttgart, Ph.D. Thesis, Stuttgart. Altuntaş, Cihan ve Yıldız, Ferruh (2008). Survey Principles of Terrestrial Laser Scanners And Combination of 3D Point Clouds, Jeodezi, Jeoinformasyon ve Arazi Yönetimi Dergisi, 1 (98), 20-27. Al-Khedera, S., Al-Shawabkeh, Y. and Haala, N. (2009). Developing a Documentation System for Desert Palaces in Jordan Using 3D Laser Scanning and Digital Photogrammetry, Journal of Archaeological Science, 36 (2), 537-546. Asri, İbrahim ve Çorumluoğlu, Özşen (2014). Close-Range Photogrammetric 3D Modeling of Ancient Settlements: Santa Ruins. 5. Uzaktan Algılama-Cbs Sempozyumu (Uzal-Cbs 2014), 14-17 October, Istanbul. Avdan, U., Gülşen, F. F., Ergincan, F. ve Çömer, R. (2014). Create Stone Planes Of Archeological Areas By Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (Case of Anavarza), 7. Mühendislik Ölçmeleri Sempozyumu, Hitit University, 15-17 October 2014, Çorum. Chiabrando, F, Nex, F., Piatti, D. and Rinaudo, F. (2011). UAV and RPV systems for photogrammetric surveys in archaelogical areas: two tests in the Piedmont region (Italy), Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 697710. Girişken, Mehmet Uğur (2010). Problems Of Cultural Herıtage Preservatıon In Turkey And Geodetıc Approaches, Istanbul Technical University Science Institute, Master‟s Thesis, Istanbul. Ho P. S. Y. and McKercher B. (2004). Managing Heritage Resources as Tourism Products, Asia Pasific Journal of Tourism Research, 9 (3), 255–265. Hovinen, G. R. (2002) Revisiting the Destination Lifecycle Model, Annals of Tourism Research, 29 (1), 209230.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN İSMEP Rehber Kitaplar (2014). Kültürel Mirasın Korunması, İstanbul Sismik Riskin Azaltılması ve Acil Durum Hazırlık Projesi, İstanbul Valiliği, İstanbul. Koç, A. ve Yener, H. (2001). Determining The Spatial And Structural Changes In The Forest Areas Around Istanbul Using Remote Sensing Data, Journal of the Faculty of Forestry Istanbul University, Serial: A, 51(2), 17-37. Lichti, D. D. and Gordon, S. J. (2004). Error Propagation in Directly Georeferenced Terrestrial Laser Scanner Point Clouds for Cultural Heritage Recording, FIG Working Week, Athens, Greece, May 22-27. Moullou, D., Mavromati, D., Tsingas, V., At Al., (2008). Recordıng, Modelıng, Visualisation And GIS Applications Development For The Acropolıs Of Athens, ISPRS Commission V Special Session, Recording And Documenting The Acropolis Of Athens -From Lassical Ancient GREECE To Modern Olympics, Beijing, China, 3-11 July. Öksüz, Mehmet (2012). Durrıng The Applıcatıon Of Terrestrıal Laser Scannıng Technology And Cultural Herıtage Example Of Hıstorıcal Golyazı Church, Bülent Ecevit University Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Master‟s Thesis, Zonguldak. Özaslan, Nuray (2010). “Mimari Koruma Düşüncesinin Tarihsel Gelişimi” Mimari Korumada Güncel Konular, Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayını, No: 2049, Eskişehir. Waggot, S. M., Clegg, P. and Jones, R.R. (2005). Combining Terrestrial Laser Scanning, RTK GPS and 3D Visualisation, Proceedings of the 7th Conference on 3-D Optical Measurement Techniques, s.on CD, Vienna, Austria, 3-5 Oct. Yakar, Murat ve Ulvi, Ali (2014). The Obtaining of Point Cloud of Kızkalesi by Using Terrestrial Laser Scanning Technique And The Sensitivity Study of Laser Scanning Points, Electronic Journal of Map Technologies, 6 (1), 25-36. Yıldız, F. ve Altunbaş C. (2009). Georeferencing Methods for Terrestrial Laser Scanner Point Clouds, Harita Dergisi, Issue: 142, 51-58.

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CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN IRAN IN THE POST-CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD* Research Assistant Gamze Gizem AVCIOĞLU Selçuk University, Department of Persian Language and Literature [email protected] Abstract The history of Children’s Literature in Iran, which has an important place in the literature of Iran, dates back to ancient times. Due to the political conflicts that had continued from past times, a kind of literature specific to the children did not appear in Iran until the Constitutional Period,; however, Iranian literature, which has a vast wealth, was not at all indifferent to the developments in this regard and although stories targeting children had not been written, books that children could read with pleasure were written. During and after the Constitutional Period, when the first movements of modernization began and new approaches were undertaken in the field of education, many important authors and poets emerged and started to write works that were specifically penned for children. In this way, large numbers of stories and novels were written in the field of children’s literature. The influence of Western Literature is observed in the stories and novels that were written. It is a significant shortcoming that not many studies have been published with regard to the importance of Children’s Literature in the literature of Iran and books that have been written have not been introduced to the readers. In this study, mention will be made of the political incidents of the Constitutional period and after that in order to appreciate the place of children’s literature in the literature of Iran. Also, further mention will be made of the emergence of children’s literature as an artistic genre and the changes that took place as a result of this. Key Words: The Constitutional Movement, Iran, Iranian Literature, Children’s Literature.

1. Introduction The Constitutional Movement, which has a significant place in Iran‟s modernization process, emerged as the most prominent Westernization movement of Iran in the 19th century. In this process, Iran became gradually weakened, losing some of its lands to Western powers on the one hand and began to meet Western political concepts and formations on the other (Dilek, 2007, p. 50). The Constitutional Era in Iran was declared by Muzafferuddin Shah. With Constitutional Movement, a constitutional period began in Iran and a national assembly was established where people could have themselves represented but the Constitutional Era in Iran was not as long-lasting as it was expected. Although Iran remained totally impartial during the First World War, it became an area of conflict among the Turks, Russians and the English (Üstün, 2009, p. 402). This war caused many cities of Iran to be destroyed and led its people to fall into destitution and ignorance (Kanar, 1999, p. 37). Ahmed Shah was sent to Europe in 1923 and was never allowed back to Iran (Kanar, 1999, p. 39). Rıza Shah was made prime minister the same year and the Kadjar Dynasty was brought to an end in the year 1926 (Anbarcıoğlu, 1985, p. 3). Political and social issues were handled in this period. The effects of Western ideas on language and literature can be seen clearly in the works written. One of the important reasons behind Iran‟s cultural and social change was the introduction of the printing press into Iran (İsti‟lâmî, 1998, p. 31). The newspapers and magazines that appeared in this period helped increase the literacy rate of the people of Iran and caused all kinds of problems in the country to be discussed (Anbarcıoğlu, 1985, p. 8). Novel writing, which initially began as imitation of Western works, gradually gave way to original novels written by Iranian authors. *

This study was supported by Selçuk University Scientific Research Projects Coordinatorship.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) August, 23 – 25, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Short story writing emerged after novels. Cemalzâde‟s work entitled “Yekîbûd Yekînebûd” was the most important work penned in this period. The books written by Sadık Hidâyet were extensive in terms of number and theme. “Three drops of blood”, “Twilight”, and “Wayward Dog” were the best works written in this period. As can be understood from what has been described so far, the changes brought about by the Constitutional Era, when many political events took place, and the years following it in literature were extensive. In this paper, an attempt was made to bring to the attention of the Turkish readers the effects of children‟s literature from the Constitutional era until 1960 on Iranian literature. 2. Political Life in Iran during and after The Constitutional Era The Constitution was declared by Muzafferuddin Shah and the only action by Muzafferüddin Shah that caused him to be remembered as a good leader was the fact that he had declared Constitution shortly before his death (Tecrübekâr, 1995, p. 27). With the declaration of Constitution, a national assembly was established where the people of Iran could be represented. However, a lukewarm period arose between the Assembly and Muhammed Ali Shah, who had succeeded Muzaferrudin Shah upon his death in 1907. Moreover, Muhammed Ali Shah was opposed to the Constitutional administration although he completed the Constitution by ratifying the supplementary constitution in 1907 (Garthwaite, 2011, p. 196). In the meantime, a deal was signed between England and Russia in 1907. According to this deal, these two countries would freely exploit the areas they had occupied in Iran (Furon, 1943, p. 163). However, proponents of freedom in Iran opposed this deal. The assembly also raised an objection to this deal. On the other hand, Muhammad Ali Shah, relying on Russian support, intensified his hostility and pressure on the assembly. This behavior on the part of the Shah further exacerbated the conflict between those loyal to the palace and the constitutionalists. Appealing to the Russians following this incident, the Shah invited the Cossack forces. These forces laid siege to the assembly and bombed it (Kanar, 1999, p. 29). In this period, Russia began to interfere in the internal affairs of Iran more and a deal that divided Iran into two areas of influence, namely Russian and English, was signed. The negative policies of the Shah thus affected the people (Anbarcıoğlu, 1985, p. 3). As a consequence of all these, Muhammed Ali Shah was removed form the throne and succeeded by Ahmet Shah (Browne, 1376, p. 307). During the reign of Ahmet Shah, who was the last of the sultans of the dynasty, the assembly was reopened a year later. The period of minor oppression ended and the movement of national conquest took place (Anbarcıoğlu, 1985, p. 3). We can divide the last twelve years of the reign of Ahmet Shah into two periods. The Iranian National Assembly managed the affairs of the country in a totally independent way for six years and the Shah did not attempt at anything negative other than allowed by the constitution. On the other hand, during the next six years, which could be called a period of stagnation, Ahmed Shah lacked the efficiency and the resolve to run the country effectively although he did not engage in anything contrary to the sovereignty of the state. He maintained the honor of the state at the expense of losing his personal prestige and did not take any steps violating national interests (Tecrübekâr, 1995, p. 28). Although Iran stayed totally impartial during the First World War, in reality, it became a battleground for three countries. This war caused many cities of Iran to be destroyed. In 1923, Ahmet Shah was banished to Europe and was never allowed to return to the country again. Rıza Shah was appointed as the prime minister in the same year and the reign of the Kadjar dynasty was ended in 1926 (Anbarcıoğlu, 1985, p. 3). Rıza Shah took the state mechanism under his total control and conducted radical reforms and changes to modernize and westernize the country in a way similar to the ones implemented by Ataturk in Turkey. The secularization process, which involved judicial reforms and restriction of sharia courts, caused the ties between him and the religious authorities to be strained (Kurtuluş, 2009, p. 67). During The Second World War in 1941, the USA and England demanded a corridor from Iran to run to the aid of Russia. Rıza Shah did not allow this and thus the country was invaded by these three states. Upon this, Rıza Shah abdicated the throne in favor of his son Muhammed Rıza Pehlevî. As a result of this, many social and economic problems arose in Iran. In 1943, Iran entered the Second World War to declare war on Germany. The presence of the allied forces in Iran in 1945 endangered national sovereignty. The changes which the Second World War caused in the minds and ideas of

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) August, 23 – 25, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Iranians are important because the consecutive series of events entirely altered people‟s way of thinking (Anbarcıoğlu, 1985, p. 4). In 1949, Muhammed Rıza Shah declared martial law following a failed assassination attempt targeting him and ordered the closure of the Tudeh Party, which he was suspected of being behind the assassination attempt. Muhammed Rıza Shah followed an anti-English policy together with Musaddiq (Kurtuluş, 2009, p. 565). A National Front led by Musaddiq was founded. Musaddiq nationalized oil. Iran was devoid of its oil revenues for about three years due to the embargo imposed by Western companies and as a result the country faced an economic crisis. When Musaddiq began to act like a dictator, he was impeached and after he was deposed, the oil crisis ended (Üstün, 2009, p. 402). On the other hand, the most important deed implemented by the Shah was a land reform. The purpose of the Shah, who had declared a White Revolution, was to upset the feudal structure in the Iranian society and facilitate a rapid modernization within the society. However, the clergy, who had a significant place in the Shia society, opposed the land reform (Taflıoğlu, 2013, p. 638). While all these events were taking place, Âyetullah Humeynî became quite an influential figure in Iran. Iranians began to take sides with Âyetullah Humeynî in large masses. Muhammed Rıza Shah attempted to restore law and order as well as his control over the country, but he failed. Âyetullah Humeynî returned to Iran from France and Islamic Republic was declared in 1979 (Üstün, 2009, p. 403). 3. The Children’s Literature in the Constitutional Era and After Although its literary tradition goes deep into the past and possesses a rich cultural heritage, the history of Iran‟s children‟s literature does not date as much back. Stories targeting children specifically were not written but given the folk stories, myths and tales, it can be argued that works that children could understand and read with pleasure were written (Yıldırım, 1998, p. 1). In the classical period, children shared the same living conditions as their elders from the early years of their childhood on, worked with them in the forests and fields and read the Quran with them. The social, political and economic events of the time were recounted to the children. Seen from this perspective, it can not be argued that authors of the classical period in the Iranian literature did not make an effort to develop children‟s imagination and enhance their abilities (Yâhakkî, 1377, pp. 238239). Irec Mirza is considered to be the first poet writing poetry in the Persian language during the Constitutional era that could be understood by children. Irec Mirza learned Arabic, Persian and French apart from Azeri Turkish. The best poem written for children by Irec Mirza, who established a unique school in Iranian poetry, is Nasihat be Ferzend. This poem is composed of two parts. In the first part, the poet addresses his son, inviting all children to bodily cleanliness and proper clothing whereas in the second section he advises children to be well-behaved, ethical and respectful (Yıldırım, 1998, p. 8). Children‟s literature in Iran in a modern sense began with Talibof‟s (1834-1911) work Kitâb-i Ahmed.. Tâlibof‟s Kitâb-i Ahmed was written with the idea that children‟s stories, plays and poems were an important factor in order to equip future generations with adequate scientific and cultural capital and train them at an early age (Kanar, 1999, p. 87). In addition to this, Tâlibof wrote numerous didactic stories. Having completed his education in Europe, pedagogue Dr. Muhammed Bâkır-i Huşyâr (19031957) penned more than fifty stories for children aged 7-12 (Kanar, 1999, p. 163). Commonly known folk stories, myths, legends, lullabies, riddles, puzzles and adages were all recounted for children. While official literature appealed mostly to adults and aged people, a large portion of the folk literature consisted of works which were penned in a language more appealing to children and young people (Yıldırım, 1998, p. 4). Iranian folk literature functions as a mirror, as can be seen in many literatures of the world, reflecting cultures, moral, social and traditional structures and features of long-established civilizations. In olden times, children‟s myths appear in certain works with their unique concepts and in the divans (collected poems) of some poets such as Abbâs-i Mervezî. Publications targeting children began in Iran in the early years of the 20th century. Sâdık-i Hidâyet, who compiled folk tales, also wrote works for children. Agâ Mûşe, Şengûl u Mengûl is among the most important of his works (İsti‟lâmî, 1998, p. 190). 339

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) August, 23 – 25, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Initial efforts in Iran about new children‟s literature began with the works of Cabbâr Bağçebân of Azerbaijan in this field. Bağçebân was born in 1885. His most important characteristic and the most prominent feature of his art was that he watched the world through the eyes of children and evaluated it through their eyes and points of views (Yıldırım, 1998, p. 8). Bağçebân began to write poems and plays for children in a way they could read in the 1920s because he knew children well and understood them well, too. Although many of Bağçebân‟s works were published during his lifetime, compilations of poems were published posthumously under the titles of Men Hem Der Dünyâ Arzû Dârem and Efsâne-yi Bâbâ Berfî (Neseb, 1371, p. 22). An author who contributed to the creation of a children‟s literature in Iran, Cebbar Bağçebân dedicated himself to Iranian national culture and to the raising of a forward-minded generation. Throughout his lifetime, he tried hard to invent new methods and teach new things to Iranian children. Stories such as Gorg u Çûpân, Bîr u jurb, Erûşân-ı kûb, and Bâdkonek and the book Zindegî-yi Kûdekân are among his prominent works. Bağçebân also wrote simple and beautiful poems for children (İsti‟lâmî, 1998, p. 200). Samed-i Behrengî, one of the most outstanding writers of the Iranian children‟s literature in the 20th century, also penned his works for children and young people. Âdet (Habit), Pûst-i Nârenc (Orange Peel) and Peserek-i Lebûfurûş (Beetmonger Child) are a product of the impressions of a teacher who could never get used to anywhere and explained scourges of poverty and ignorance through a new and brave point of view. Some of the stories which Samed-i Behrengî included in his works appeared when he adapted and rewrote parables told among people for centuries to today‟s Persian. Samed-i Behrengî recounted his stories to readers like an outsider. He had readers feel the social and political structure of the era he lived in indirectly. His stories resemble tales in terms of their shortness and plot and to the novel in terms of the characters created, and the implementation of the acts. In this respect, most of Samed-i Behrengî‟s stories were written in the style of tales because he wanted to demonstrate the truths to readers indirectly in the style of a tale. Telling readers of the realities of life through events which were products of imagination, Samed-i Behrengî wrote his stories generally in Chekov‟s style. All of his stories are formed according to the struggle between conflicting social powers. As in his stories Kel Güvercinci (The Bald Pigeon) and Sevgi Masalı (A Love Tale), destitute villagers fight against oppressive feudal leaders and overcome them through their prudence. In Behrengî‟s Bir Şeftali Bin Şeftali (A Peach, A Thousand Peaches), villagers‟ struggle against a feudal leader is reflected in the resistance of a peach tree in the feudal leader‟s garden which does not bear fruit. Presenting children with pioneering attitudes and behaviors could be implemented by stimulating their desire to know the true reasons behind natural and social phenomena and improving their thinking abilities and imagination. Children overcome persecution and ignorance in their imagination by the help of animals and baby dolls ( Âbidînî, 2002, pp. 114-115). All heroes of Behrengî‟s works negate the existing situation, deviate from the current living conditions and pursue a different lifestyle. Talhun fights the atmosphere of peace in which he lives in order to attain true happiness in a dangerous situation. In his story entitled Küçük Kara Balık (The Little Black Fish), the author describes the revolutionary people through the example of a fish trying to reach the sea. Emphasizing the importance of courage, Behrengî recommends being open to innovation via the example of a fish which is bored of doing the same things and as a result attempts to reach the sea, bracing for all kinds of dangers involved. Indeed, this book is considered to be the reason behind Behrengî‟s death. Behrengî wrote his works in a way that excited his readers. In his stories, which he occasionally adorned with imaginary elements, he dealt with all kinds of incidents that could happen in real life. We see a perfect example of this in his story entitled Pancarcı Çocuk (Beetmonger child). Here, the story is told of a child who sells beets to earn bread for his family whereas he has to go to school. In his story entitled Bir Günlük Düş ve Gerçek (A Day‟s Dream and Reality), he presents a day from the lives of a father and a son who struggle to earn their bread, having left their town due to a lack of employment. In these stories, Samed-i Behrengî reveals how the reform which the Shah named White Revolution changed socio-economic structure because millions of landless villagers who left their villages gathered around slums on the outskirts of cities. While the newly emerging industrial bourgeoisie is getting rich on the one hand, the destitute and the unemployed are ostracized politically

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) August, 23 – 25, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN as well as economically on the other. What the author wants the readers to see in these stories is the high hopes of a poor child despite all the troubles encompassing him. Science and technology, which were developing rapidly in various parts of the world in the early 20th century, required some circles of power in Iran to direct their attention to children‟s literature. Especially, with the spread of education to large masses and people in accordance with the requirements of the period laid the foundations for the emergence and growth of such a literature, and Iranian folk literature, with its lullabies and real and imaginary stories, took its place in the country‟s cultural and educational life, helping improve children‟s education and their world of thinking and meeting their need to read (Yâhakkî, 1377, p. 240). Another development observed in the children‟s literature of this period was that illustrated books also took their place among the books intended for children. Works like Kedû-yi Kalkazen and ‘Arûsek-i MûTelâyî were published in illustrated form in the late 1950s. A huge interest arose when such books met a readership of children (Yâhakkî, 1377, p. 242). Radical and extensive changes occurred in the history of publication in Iran from 1951 on. Large numbers of newspapers and magazines representing different and diverse views began to reach large masses. These newspapers and magazines had pages dedicated specifically to children. Some of the newspapers and magazines also began to publish reviews and researches concerning children and young people. In this respect, a magazine by the name of Sepîde Ferdâ began to be published in 1953, and pioneered significant developments in the history of education in Iran. This magazine included children‟s literature in addition to scientific and technical articles about education, and tales and stories appealing to children and young people were published. It was this magazine again that published a catalogue of books appropriate for those ages in an attempt to find answers to children‟s and young people‟s questions on various topics, solve their problems and help them choose and read books (Yıldırım, 1998, p. 9). Bongâh-i Tercüme ve Neşr-i Kitâb, too, translated a book consisting of simple and beautiful stories into Persian and published it This two-volume book, which contained stories for young ages, is one of the best of the story books published so far in Iran and is called Kıssahâyı Andersen. These stories, whose translators‟ names are not known, were taken from Hans Christian Anderson, a world-famous author from Denmark in this field (İsti‟lâmî, 1998, p. 201). One of the common points of almost all of the works published in those years in the field of children‟s literature is the translation of important works of world children‟s literature into Persian language to benefit the children and encouragement of young Iranian authors to write books appealing to children, which could be considered progressive steps. In particular, the encouragement of Iranian authors had a positive impact in that it helped young writers to write original books for Iranian children in their own language. These efforts began to bear fruit in the subsequent years and outstanding works emerged. Illustrated and color books such as Kedû-yi Galgalezen, Nergis u ‘Arusek-i Mu Telayî were prominent ones among them. It must also be pointed out that a series of books by Emîr Kebîr Bookstore published under the title of Golden Books were among the best books that could be read by children and young people. The books from this series were written by eminent authors and translators (Yıldırım, 1998, p. 10). Books that could be read by children and young people were not limited to these only, of course. A few of the contemporary authors wrote plays for today‟s generation. Mu‘allim-i Kemazâr written by Mes„ûd-i Ferzâd and Rûz-i Pezîrâyî written by Alinaki Vezîrî are among these plays. Dr. Ebû‟l-Kâsım Cennetî penned plays like Ali Bâbâ and Çihil Düzd-i Bağdâd, Gurûr-i Millî and Beççe-yi Şeytân, and he also converted Ubeyd-i Zâkânî‟s story entitled Mûş u Gurbe into a play without changing its verse form (İsti‟lâmî, 1998, p. 201). 4. Conclusion In our study, we first described the political life during and after the Constitutional Era in order to be able to deal properly with the Post-Constitutional children‟s literature. Development of children‟s literature is very important for the literature of Iran. The fact that children‟s literature was not regarded as a literary genre is a huge shortcoming in terms of literature. In this respect, the political incidents that took place during and after the Constitutional Era and the reflections of them on literature are important in that they will help us understand the literary process of the children‟s literature. 341

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) August, 23 – 25, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN This study attempted to shed light on the political events of the period and tried to reveal the literary development of the children‟s literature.

References Âbidînî, H. M. (2002). İran Öykü ve Romanının Yüz Yılı. çev. Derya Örs, Ankara: Nüsha Yayınları. Anbarcıoğlu, M. (1985). Çağdaş İran Edebiyatında Nesir. Doğu Dilleri Dergisi, C.4, Sayı 1, Ankara. Browne, E. (1376). İnkılab-i Meşrutiyet-i İran. çev. Mihrî Kazvinî, Tahran. Dilek, K. (2007). İran‟da Meşrutiyet Hareketi ve Dönemin Siyasi Gelişmeleri. Akademik Orta Doğu Dergisi, Sayı 3. Furon, R. (1943). İran. çev. Galip Kemali Söylemezoğlu, İstanbul: Hilmi Kitabe. Garthwaite, G. R. (2011). İran Tarihi. Çev. F. Aytuna, İstanbul: İnkılap Kitabevi. İsti‟lâmî, M. (1998). Berresî-yi Edebiyât-i İmrûz-i İrân. çev. Mehmet Kanar, Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları. Kanar, M. (1999). Çağdaş İran Edebiyatının Doğuşu ve Gelişmesi. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Kurtuluş, R. (2009). Muhhammed Rızâ Şah Pehlevî. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi. İstanbul: İSAM: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Araştırmaları Merkezi, Cilt. 30. Kurtuluş, R., (2009). Rızâ Şah Pehlevî. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi, İstanbul: İSAM: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Araştırmaları Merkezi, Cilt. 35. Neseb, S. H. (1371). Kûdekân ve Edebiyât-i Resmî-i Îran. Tahran: İntişârât-i Surûş. Taflıoğlu, M. S.(2013). II. Pehlevi Dönemi İran Dış Siyaseti Üzerine Bir Deneme. Turkish Studies, Ankara: Vol 8/7. Tecrübekâr, B. N. (1995). İran Edebiyatında Şiir Kaçarlar Dönemi, İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları. Üstün, İ. S. (2009). İran. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi, İstanbul: İSAM: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Araştırmaları Merkezi, Cilt. 22. Yâhakkî, M. C. (1377). Çûn Sebû-yi Teşne Edebiyât-i Muâsır-i Farsî, Tahran: İntişârât-i Câmî. Yıldırım, N.(1998). Fars Edebiyatı Tarihinde Çocuk Edebiyatının Yeri. EKEV Akademi Dergisi, Sayı 2.

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OKUL ÖNCESİ DÖNEMDE MÜZİK VE DANS Araş. Gör. Gamzegül TETİK Uşak Üniversitesi, Okul Öncesi Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı [email protected] Özet İnsanın hayatında gelişimin en hızlı olduğu dönem 0-6 yaş olarak belirtilen okul öncesi dönemdir. Bu dönemde çocuk; dil, bilişsel, sosyal, fiziksel gelişim alanlarında çok hızlı bir gelişim süreci içerisindedir. Çocuğun bu süreçte aktif olarak kendini ifade edebilmesi, gelişim alanlarının bütününü kuşkusuz pozitif olarak etkileyecektir. Müzik ve dans eğitimi, çocuğun bu sürecini olumlu yönde yönde etkilediği düşünülmektedir. Müzik ve dans yolu ile çocuk sosyalleşebilir, duygularını ifade edebilir, böylece dil becerileri olumlu yönde gelişir. Bunun yanında duygularını kontrol etme ve duygularını yönetme becerisi kazanabilir, akranları ile etkileşimde bulunarak psikososyal gelişimine de olumlu katkılarda bulunabilir. Müzik ve dans eğitiminin okul öncesi dönemde çocuğun diğer gelişim alanlarında da olumlu daha birçok etkisi olduğu düşünülmektedir. Buradan hareketle bu çalışmada; okul öncesi dönemde müzik ve dansın gelişimi, çocuğun gelişimindeki önemi ve etkileri, bu çerçevede ilgili literatürde yer alan çalışmalar sonucunda elde edilen bulgulara ve önerilere yer verilmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Okul öncesi dönem, müzik, dans, çocuk gelişimi.

1. Giriş Müzik, ortaya çıkışından bu yana sürekli gelişmeler kaydederek günümüze kadar gelmiştir. Bugün müzik; yemek yemek, su içmek, nefes alıp vermek kadar doğal bir ihtiyaç olarak kabul edilmektedir. Anne karnında yedi aylık bir bebek bile sese, müziğe tepki vermektedir. Yeni doğan bebekler anne sesi ile rahatlamakta, ninni ile uykuya geçmektedir. Bebeklikten itibaren işitsel algı eğitimi ile başlayan müzik eğitimi, çocukların konuşmayı birçok kavram ve konuyu öğrenmesinde, vücudunu koordineli bir şekilde kullanmasında etkili olmaktadır. Müzik eğitiminde önemli bir yer tutan işitsel algı eğitimi ile çocuk dikkatini bir konuya yoğunlaştırmakta, sesleri dinlemekte, tanımakta ve ayırt etmektedir. Müzik, çocukların bütün alanlarda öğrenmesine katkı ve yeni bir bakış açısı sağlamakta, müzik çalışmalarına katılan, yaratan, üreten çocuk kendisi ile gurur duymakta, başarı duygusunu tatmaktadır ve böylece çocukların kendilerine güvenleri ve özsaygıları artmaktadır (Lazdauskas 1996). Çocuğun müziksel özellikleri genellikle çocukluk döneminin ilk yıllarından başlayarak belli olmaya başlar. Çocuklarda 2-6 yaşları arasında görülen özel müziksel belirtiler, en yüksek noktasına 10-11. yaşlarda ulaşır. 1 yaşında, hareketli bir müziğe, elleri ve sesleriyle katılmaya çalışır. Aynı müzik parçası tekrarlandığında, tanıyıp aynı hareketleri yapmayı ve aynı sesleri çıkarmayı öğrenir. Birinci yıldaki en belir‐gin gelişme, müziği seslendirmedir. 2 yaşında, müziği dinlemeyi sever ve kendi hareketlerini müziğin ritmine uydurmaya çalışır. Ritmlere sözlü olarak ve motor davranışlarla eşlik edebilir. 3 yaşında, şarkıların nakarat bölümlerini, kendi başına söylemeye başlar ve şarkılara alkışla eşlik eder. 4 yaşında, ses, ton ve ritmleri üretmeye başlar. Çocuk 5 yaşına geldiğinde, şarkı söyleyebilir. 3‐5 yaşları arasında, müziği, hareketlerle tepki vermekten çok oturarak dinleme eğiliminde oldukları görülmektedir. Bu özellik, okulöncesi çocuğuna dinleme ve sessiz kalma alışkanlığını da ka‐zandırmaktadır. Çocukların, müziğe verdikleri tepkileri artan bir şekilde içselleştirmeleri ve bunu yaratıcı oyun ve arkadaşlarıyla sosyal ilişkiler kurma (örneğin dans etme) şeklinde, geniş bir bağlamda kullanmalarıyla okulöncesi dönemde müzik etkinliği zenginlik kazanır. Okulöncesi dönem çocuğu için müzik ve dans, kendini ifade etme aracı olmanın ötesinde, onun sosyal gelişimi için de önemli bir etkinliktir. Çünkü çocuk, müzik eşliğinde arka‐daşlarıyla daha kolay bir iletişim kurabilmektedir. 6 yaşında, sesleri ayırabilir, tonlama ve şarkıda diksiyon gelişir. Çocukların ses genişliği ve alanı, 6 yaşına kadar daha çok aşağıya, 6 yaşından başlayarak hem aşağıya hem 343

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN yukarıya doğru genişle‐yen bir gelişme gösterir. Ancak bu, her yaşta, her çocukta aynı değildir. Çocuğun içinde yaşadığı doğal, toplumsal ve kültürel ortama göre değişir (Ekici, 2010). Müzik ve bununla paralel olarak dans eğitiminin hedefinin çocukların duygularının ve izlenimlerinin en yoğun olduğu okul öncesi dönemde duyusal ve ritmik sezgilerinin uyarılması olduğu vurgulanmaktadır. Müzik ve dans çocuğa aktif bir şekilde duymayı ve dinlemeyi öğretmekte, günlük yaşamdan uzaklaşarak, çok daha geniş olan hayal dünyasını yansıtma fırsatı vermektedir. Diğer taraftan müzik ve dans; çocuğun hayal gücünü harekete geçirerek beslemekte ve yaratma yeteneği için everişli bir zemin hazırlamaktadır (Yavuzer, 1993). 2. Literatür Çalışmaları Müziğin insanoğlun varoluşuyla birlikte ortaya çıktığı ve sürekli gelişerek devam ettiği bilinmektedir. Bebekler anne karnından itibaren müziğe tepki vermektedirler. Doğumdan itibaren de müziğe olan ilgi ve yeteneklerini gözlemlemek mümkün olmaktadır. Müzik yaratıcı hareket ve dans çalışmaların kalbidir. Müzik ve dans birbirleri ile çok sıkı bir şekilde ilişkilidirler. Uygun seçilen bir müzikle bazen hiçbir yönergeye bile ihtiyaç kalmadan çocukların yaratıcı hareketler üretmelerine ve dans etmelerine yardımcı olacaktır. Okul öncesi dönemde çocuklar için dans ve hareket etkinlikleri; bedensel farkındalığını geliştirmek, konsantrasyon ve odaklanmalarını sağlamak, etrafındakilerine saygı duyması ve özgüven gelişimi için oldukça önemlidir (Sığırtmaç, 2014). Havinghurst (1952) sosyal çevreleri ile daha sık iletişim kuran çocukların akranlarına göre daha fazla ve zengin deneyimler elde ettiklerini belirtmiştir. Çocukların fiziki özellikleri ve gelişmiş motor becerilerine sahip olması onların çevre ile iletişimlerini arttırmaktadır. Kazanılan bu özellik ve beceriler özellikle bebeklik ve çocukluk dönemlerinde yaşanılan dans, hareket, oyun ve fiziksel etkinliklerle yakından ilişkilidir. Çocuklara hareket imkanı verildiğinde daha sağlıklı gelişim göstermektedirler. Dans ve hareket çalışmaları çocukların belli hareket becerilerini kazanmasını amaçlamaz. Bu çalışmalar onların sosyal, zihinsel ve psikolojik yönden gelişimleri için önem taşır (Çağlak, 2005). Dans ve hareket çalışmaları sırasında kazandırılmaya çalışılan beceriler çocuk tarafından öğrenilmektedir. Öğrenme süreci içerisinde çocuk; problem çözme, karar verme, algılama, model alma, yaratıcı düşünme, dikkat becerisi gibi bilişsel becerileri kazanmaktadır. Bu kapsamda; Ceylan ve Malkoç (2011) “Okul Öncesi Dönem İşitme Engelli Çocukların Müzik Eğitimi Etkinliklerinde Dikkat Eksikliğini Geliştirme Becerisine Ait İnceleme” isimli deneysel çalışmasında dikkat eksikliği zerinde müziğin olumlu etkilerinin olduğu sonucuna ulaşmıştır. Yine Yazıcı (2013) ve Küpana (2016); müzik eğitiminin problem çözme becerisine etkisi isimli literatür taraması niteliğindeki çalışmalarında müzik eğitimi ve problem çözme becerisi arasındaki ilişkinin önemini vurgulamaktadır. Müziğin insan hayatına çok erken girmesi ve hep varolması birçok araştırmanında yapılmasına sebep olmuştur. müzik eğitiminin çocuklar üzerideki etkilerinin incelendiği bir çok araştırmada farklı yöntem ile yada çalgı eğitimi alan çocukların sosyal, dil, motor ve bilişsel becerilerinde daha yüksek başarılar elde ettikleri görülmüştür. Eğitim almanın yanı sıra 10 dakika Mozart eserlerinin dinletilmesinin ardından uzaysal algı testi uygulanan çocukların daha başarılı oldukları bulunmuştur. Buna literatürde “Mozart Etkisi" denilmektedir. Ritim çalışmalarının matematikle ilişkilendirildiği uzaysal ilişkiler ve şekil kavramlarının kazandırılmasında müzik deneyimlerinin çok önemli olduğu, müziğin temelinde matematiksel ilişkiler ve düşüncenin yattığı vurgulanmaktadır. Kısaca erken yaşlarda Müzik ve dans ile iç içe olunması çocuğun sosyal-duygusal, bilişsel, psikomotor ve dil becerilerine olumlu yönde etkileyebilmektedir. 2.1. Müzik ve Dansın Dil Gelişimine Etkisi Erken çocukluk döneminde ritim çalışmaları çocukların dili öğrenmelerini, okuma ve yazma becerilerinin gelişimini desteklemektedir. Çocuklar dili öğrenirken öncelikle kendi dillerinin melodisini fark ederler. Sorarken, itiraz ederken, seslenirken, severken, kızarken sesin tınısı, temposu ve perdesi farklı Bu kapsamda Dege ve Schwarzer (2011) yaptıkları çalışmada; okul öncesi dönemde müzik eğitimi programları uygulamanın fonolojik farkındalık üzerindeki etkisi ile ilgili deneysel bir 344

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN çalışma yapmış ve fonolojik dil becerilerini olumlu yönde etkilediği sonucuna ulaşmışlardır. Yine Modiri (2010) 5 yaş çocukları ile müzik eğitimi ile yabancı dil öğretimi üzerine bir çalışma yapmıştır. Müzik ve dans eğitiminin bireyler üzerindeki etkileri düşünüldüğünde okul öncesi eğitim programında mutlaka yer alması gerektiği söylenebilir. Müzik ve dans öğretimde bir araçtır ve çocukta estetik özellikleri geliştirir, çeşitli kültürlerle ve farklılıklarla karşılaşmasına olanak verir. Hareketli şarkılar ve yaratıcı hareket ve dans çocuklarda enerjinin boşalmasını sağlar. Aynı zamanda motor becerilerinin gelişimini sağlar. Müzikli oyunlar, danslar, şarkı sözleri çocukların yaratıcı düşünme becerilerini destekler, işitsel hafızalarının gelişmesini ve dikkat sürelerinin desteklenmesini sağlar. Kısaca müzikal deneyimler, yaratıcı hareket ve dans deneyimleri çocuklar için bir köprü görevi görmektedir ve erken çocukluk döneminden itibaren eğitimde yer almalıdır (Eliason ve Jenkins, 2003). 2.2. Müzik ve Dansın Bilişsel Gelişime Etkisi Okul öncesi çocukları dış dünyayı keşfetmekten büyük zevk alır. Bu dönemdeki çocuklar büyük bir merak ve enerji ile sürekli hareket halindedirler. Bu neden ile dans bu enerjiyi atmak, dengede kalmayı öğrenmek, bedensel koordinasyonu geliştirmek için etkilidir. Ayrıca çocuklar dans ile kendi bedenlerini ve sınırlarını tanır. Müzik ve dans çocukların zihinsel kapasite ve anlama becerilerinin gelişimi için çok önemlidir. Piagetin bilişsel gelişim aşamaları ile müzik yeteneğinin gelişimi arasında bir ilişkinin olduğu, müziğin uygun ve doğru bir şekilde kullanılmasının çocuklar üzerinde olumlu bir etki yaratacağı düşünülmektedir. Bu sebeple okul öncesi dönemde yapılan müzik ve dans etkinlikleri çocukların bilişsel gelişimini etkilemektedir (Van Der Linde, 1999). Ezbere sayma yerine şarkılarda yer alan ritim ve melodilerin kullanılması saymanın hafızada kalmasını kolaylaştırır. Hızlı-yavaş tempolar, sesin yüksekliği-alçaklığı, uzunluğu-kısalığı gibi ses ve ritm etkinlikleri çocukların matematikte karşılaştırma becerileri için kullanılabilir (Church, 2001). Karmaşık ritimleri çalabilen öğrencilerin akademik ve fiziksel durumlarda daha hızlı ve daha doğru tepkiler verdikleri dolayısı ile ortaya çıkabilecek problemleri daha kolay çözebildikleri tespit edilmiştir. Aldıkları müzik eğitimlerine paralel olarak ritim becerileri olan öğrencilerin diğerlerine oranla günlük hayatlarında daha iyi plan yaptıkları, daha hızlı organize oldukları ve süreçleri daha iyi takip ettikleri yapılan çalışmalarda ispatlanmıştır (Cassily Column, 2000). Yapılan bir araştırmaya göre de, okul öncesi çocuklara piyano dersi vermek, çocukların fen ve matematikte üstün özellikler göstermelerinde gerekli olan zihinsel yapıyı olgunlaştırmanın en etkili yolu olmuştur (Gondon, Shaw ve Rauscher, 1995). Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology (1999) dergisinde, erken dönemde çocuklara verilecek müzik eğitiminin faydalarını anlatan bir çalışmaya yer verildi. Bu çalışmaya göre Plato, Aristotle, Boethius, Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, René Descartes, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Edison, Albert Einstein, Robert Oppenheimer, Stephen Hawkin gibi dünya tarihine paha biçilmez katkıları olan kişilerin ortak bir noktaları olduğu ve tesadüfen başarıyı yakalamadıkları belirtilmektedir. Bu ortak özellik hepsinin müzisyen veya hayatlarının erken dönemlerinde müzik ile uğraşmış olmalarıdır. Çalışmanın ortaya koydu sonuç şöyledir; zekâ tek başına genler tarafından belirlenmez, aileler ile beraber geçirilen zamanın kalitesi ve müzik ile dolu olması zekâ üzerinde genlere oranla daha büyük rol oynamaktadır. Müzik eğitimi verilen ve verilmeyen çocuk gruplarında; çocuğun zekâ gelişiminde ve başarısında ailenin çocuğa ayırdığı zaman çok önemli bir faktördü. Altmışaltı ço- cuk üzerinde yapılan bir başka çalışmada, önce bütün çocuklara Stanford-Binet zekâ testi ile müzik testi uygulandı. Sonra deney grubundaki öğrenciler 30 hafta boyunca haftada 75 dakika müzik eğitimi aldılar. Sonunda müzik eğitimi alan çocukların düşünme ve üretici-bilimsel düşünme testlerindeki başarılarında belirgin artış gözlendi. Kelime ile alakalı zekâ testlerinde ise her iki grupta da önemli bir farklılık bulunamadı. Müzik eğitimi alan çocuklarda standart zekâ testlerinde başarı yüzdesi, % 50′den % 87′ye çıkarken, müzik eğitimi almayan çocuklarda bu başarı % 78 seviyesinde kalmıştır (Bilhartz, 1999). Kanadalı araştırmacı, müzisyen E. Glenn Schellenberg 2006 yılında müzik ve zeka ilişkisi ile ilgili Kanada’daki okulda çocuklar üzerinde iki farklı grup oluşturarak yaptığı deneyde müzik dersi alan çocukların IQ testi puanlarının almayanlara oranlar oldukça yüksek olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Müziğin özellikle matematik, zekâ ve dünyayı algılama yetilerindeki olumlu etkilerini gözlemlemiştir. Schellenberg deneyinde müzik derslerinin soyut zekâyı geliştiren çalışan hafıza, işlem hızı ve algısal organizasyon gibi beceriler kazandırdığı bulgusuna varmıştır (Schellenberg, 2012). Müzik çocuğun hayal gücünü ve yaratıcılığını desteklemektedir. Müziğin hayal gücü ve yaratıcılık üzerindeki etkilerini araştıran deneyler göstermiştir ki; klasikten modern döneme 345

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN kadar çeşitli müzik türlerinin çocuklara dinletilerek ve onlara aynı anda resim yaptırılarak uygulanan testlerde müzik dinleyen çocukların dinlemeyenlere oranla daha renkli ve daha karakteristik çizimler yaptıkları gözlemlenmiştir (Afsin, 2009). Kısacası, müziğin IQ gelişiminde etkili olması tabii ki müzik eğitiminin doğru biçimde ve doğru zamanda uygulanmasından geçmektedir. Özellikle okulöncesi dö-nemde (3-6 yaş grubu) verilen müzik eğitimi, çocuklara bazı kavramların ve değerlerin kazandırılmasında oldukça etken bir yoldur. 2.3. Müzik ve Dansın Sosyal-duygusal gelişime Etkisi Müzik ve dans bireyler ve kültürler arasında birlikteliğin gelişmesini sağlayan sosyal bir etkinlik ve evrensel bir dildir. Çocukların kendilerini bir grubun parçası olarak hissetmelerini aynı zamanda grubun diğerlerine saygı göstermeyi öğrenmelerini sağlar. Bu sayede çocuğun sosyal becerileri gelişir. Müzik ve dans yoluyla çocuklar beklemeyi, işbirliği yapmayı ve paylaşmayı öğrenirler. Ayrıca müzik ve dans yoluyla çocukların sosyal duygusal gelişimleri sorumluluk alma, özdenetim, paylaşma, özsaygı gelişimleride desteklenebilir (Turner, 1999). Müzik ve dans yoluyla çocuklar taktit ederek, rol yaparak yetişkinlik rollerini öğrenirler. Örneğin çocuk kimi zaman bebeğe ninni söyleyerek, kimi zaman orkestrayı yöneterek toplumdaki çeşitli rolleri öğrenebilir (Van Der Lİnde, 1999). Kirschner ve Tomasello (2010) da yaptıkları bir çalışmada; müzik aktivitelerine katılmanın çocuğun olumlu sosyal davranışları üzerindeki etkisine yönelik çalışma gerçekleştirmişlerdir. Çalışmayı 4 yaş grubundaki 96 çocuk ile gerçekleştirmişlerdir. Aktiviteler kapsamında müzik,dans etkinliklerine, hareket etkinliklerine, şarkı söyleme, görsel, işitsel aktivitelere yer verilmiştir. Çalışma sonucunda; sosyal ve dilsel aktivitelerin yakından ilişkili olduğu, müzik aktivitelerinin olumlu sosyal davranışları geliştirmede etkili olduğu görülmüştür. Çocuğun sosyalleşme sürecinde müzik ve dansın önemi büyüktür. Müzik etkinliklerinde yapılan grup çalışmaları çocuklarla birlikte işbirliği yapma, uyum sağlama, grup arkadaşlarına saygı gösterme, düzenli ve disiplinli olma gibi sosyal davranış ve disiplinleri kazandırır ve çocuğun sosyalleşmesine olumlu katkı sağlar. Dans etkinliklerinde grupça hareket edilir. Bu aynı zamnada genel oyun kurallarını anlamak, kendinden beklentileri anlamak, sorumluluklarını anlamak ve grup ile beraber hareket etmek demektir. Çocuğun kendi sosyal çevresini tanıması ve rol dağılımlarını anlaması açısından dans eğitimi önemli bir adımdır. Okul öncesi dönemde çocuk bütün duygularını deneyimleyerek öğrenmeye başlar. Müzik ve dans bu dönemde çocuğun duygusal gelişimini de etkilemektedir. Müzikli dans etkinliklerine katılmaları onlara grup içi gözlem yapma ve iletişim kurma fırsatı tanır. Sahip oldukları becerileri kullanır ve kendilerine güvenleri gelişir (Terekli, 2009). 2.4. Müzik ve Dansın Psikomotor Gelişime Etkisi Çocukların motor gelişiminde dans etkinliklerinin olumlu etkisi vardır. Aktif bir etkinlik olan dans etkinlikleri sayesinde çocukların kuvvet kapasiteleri gelişir ve fiziksel uygunluğu artarak algısal-motor gelişimi desteklenir. Dans etkinliği içerisinde çocuk süreç boyunca o davranışı göstermede uzmanlaşır. Müzik, çocukların beden koordinasyonunda, fiziksel gelişiminde ve ve kas gelişiminde etkilidir. Müzik ve dans aracılığı ile sallanma, el çırpma, çeşitli şekillerde hareket ederek beden farkındalığını kazanır ve çocuk bedenini daha uyumlu kullanabilir (Van Der Linde, 1999). Zachopuolou, Tsapakidoup, Derric (2004) 4-6 yaş çocukları ile yaptıkları deneysel çalışmada; 50 çocuğa müzik ve hareket eğitimi programı uygulamıştır. Müzik ve hareket eğitimi alan çocukların yönergelere ve modellere göre hareketin ritmini gözleme, ayırt etme ve ritmin hızına göre vücudunu hareket ettirebilmede oldukça başarılı olmuşlardır. Bu eğitimi almayan çocukar ise aynı başarıyı gösterememişlerdir. 3. Araştırmanın Modeli Bu araştırma okul öncesi dönemde çocuğun gelişiminde müzik ve dansın rolünün, ilgili kuramsal açıklamalar ve araştırma bulgularına dayalı olarak incelendiği bir literatür taraması niteliğindedir. Bu amaçla betimsel bir araştırmadır. Çalışmada müzik ve dansın çocuk gelişimine katkısı ile ilgili önceki araştırmalar incelenerek irdelenmiş ve yorumlanmıştır. Sonuç olarak bu araştırma ile müzik ve dansın çocuk gelişimindeki önemi bilişsel, sosyal-duygusal, psikomotor dil gelişimimlerine önemi açılardan bir kez daha ortaya konmuştur. 346

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4. Sonuç ve Tartışma Çocuk gelişiminde ve çocuğun bir birey olarak kendini ifade edebilmesinde müzik ve dans önemli bir yere sahiptir. Müzik ve dans daima içe içe olmuştur. Eğitimde müziğin kullanımı çocuğun gelişiminde başarılı sonuçlar vermektedir. Başta dil, zihin ve duygusal gelişim olmak üzere, sosyal gelişim ve kişilik gelişimine önemli katkılar sağlamaktadır. Kendini ifade edebilen, kendine güven duyan, sosyal, yaratıcı bireyler yetiştirmek için okul öncesi eğitimde dans ve müziğe yer verilmelidir. Kalıcı öğrenmeyi sağlayabilmek ve öğrenmeyi daha zevkli hale getirebilmek amacıyla müzik ve dans eğitimin her basamağında kullanabilir. Çocukların içlerinde var olan enerjiyi boşaltmaları için müzik ve dans en etkili yöntemlerden biridir. Müzik ve dans ile yapılan etkinlikler esnasında çocuk yeni deneyimler kazanır. Eğitimcinin de bu esnada çocukta var olan yetenekleri keşfedebilir ve çocuğu yetenekleri doğrultusunda yönlendirebilir. Kaynaklar Afsin, K. (2009).Psychopédagogie de l’écoute musicale .Bruxelles :Editions De Boeck Université. Bilhartz T.D. : Bruhn R.A. :, Olson J.E. (1999). “Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,” (22), 615-636. Churc, E. B. (2001). The match in the music and movement. Early Childhood Today, 15(4), 38-45. Column, C. (2000). “10 Reasons Kids Benefit from Music Intruction” Study of University of Colombia. Çağlak, S. (2005). 0-6 yaş çocuklarda hareket gelişimi ve eğitimi. Bilim Aklın Aydınlığında Eğitim Dergisi. s:62, pp.43-46. Dikici Sığırtmaç, A. (2014). Müzik ve Gelişim. İsmihan Artan, Gökhan Duman (Ed.), Her Yönüyle Okul Öncesi Eğitim (15-23). Ankara, Hedef. Degé, F., & Schwarzer, G. (2016). Der Einfluss von musikalischem Training auf die Entwicklung der phonologischen Bewusstheit im Vorschulalter. Frühe Bildung. Ekinci, H. (2010). Öğretmen adaylarının özyeterlik algıları: müzik, resim ve beden eğitimi. International Periodical For The Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, 8(3), 189-196. Eliason and Jenkins (2003).A practical guide to early childhood curriculum (7th Ed.) New Jersey: Prentice hall. Kirschner S., Tomasello M. (2010). Joint music making promotes prosocial behavior in 4-year-old children Evol. Hum. Behav. 31 354–364 Lazdauskas, H. (1996). Music makes the school go round. Young Children, 51(5), 22-23. Malkoç, T. ve Ceylan, F., (2011). Okulöncesi dönem işitme engelli çocukların müzik eğitimi etkinliklerinde dikkat eksikliğini geliştirme becerisine ait inceleme, 2nd International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications 27-29 Nisan, Antalya. Modiri, I.G., (2010). Okul Öncesinde Müzik Aracılığı ile Yabancı Dil Öğretimi. Uludağ Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt: 23, Sayı: 2, ss. 505-516. Rauscher, H. : , Gordon L. : , Shaw, : , Katherine N. (1993). “Music and Spatial Task Performance.” Nature Dergisi, 400, 365 - 611. Schellenberg, G, E. (2012). Music Lessons, Emotional Intelligence, and IQ. Music Perception, 29(2), 185-194. Terekli, S. (2009). Okul öncesi çocuklar için beden eğitiminin ve oyunun önemi. Çocukta oyun gelişimi, Beden Eğitimi ve Oyun Öğretimi (Ed. Ümran Tüfekçioğlu). AÖF Yayını, Eskişehir. Turner, M.E. (1999). Child-centered learning and music programs. Music Educators Journal, 86(1), 30-35. Van Der Linde, CH: (1999). The Relationship between play and music in earlychildhood education insight. Education, 119(4), 610-616. Yavuzer, H. (1993). Resimleriyle Çocuk, İstanbul, Remzi Kitabevi

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Yazıcı, T. (2013). Piyano öğretiminde karşılaşılan sorunların piyano öğretmenleri tarafından değerlendirilmesi. Sanat Eğitimi Dergisi, 1 (2), 130-150. Zachopoulou, E., Tsapakidoub, A., Derric, V. (2004). The effects of developmentally appropriate music and movement program on motor performance. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19(4), 631-642.

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RUMI AND TURKISH MUSIC Öğr. Gör. Gökhan ALGAN Selcuk University Dilek Sabanci State Conservatory Traditional Turkish Music, Konya, Turkey [email protected] Abstract Rumi‟s philosophy is based on the works called “elegized rituals” (originally mukabele), which are supposed to be performed during the whirling dervishes „s dances. Music is seen as a vehicle to search for truth and it becomes an indispensable part of sema (whirling dervishes „s dances) as it adds colour and brings harmony to it. Rumi mentions some musical instruments such as drum, clarion, rebap/rebec???, kemancha, a small double drum, tambourine, mouth-harp, reed flute in his works. “We are inspired by the stars and the way they whirl in the sky during the composition of these lovely musical notes/melodies” declares Rumi. “These voices performed by the tambourine and by word of mouth by folk are all actually derived by the objects whirling in the sky”. Rumi becomes the voice of many faithful people by expressing that “with the mystical and spiritual effect of the Paradise, all the ugly voices are turned into beautiful voices. We, all human beings, are descendants of Adam and therefore have been to Paradise once upon a time and have heard all the beautiful melodies in the Paradise. Later, having the knowledge that we have been created out of mud lead us to have suspicions. Though, we have lost the Paradise, we still remember some bits and pieces from the heavenly melodies we have heard there. In relation to these heavenly melodies and beautiful voices, Rumi makes interesting analogies and states that listening to beautiful voices or melodies create images related to meeting, union and the ultimate union in the minds of lovers as they see the reflection of these concepts in beautiful voices/melodies. Rumi also believes that music is a window looking towards a rose garden and men of heart tend to be waiting over this window for spiritual improvement and maturity. Thus, in this study, the importance given by Rumi to Turkish music and musical instruments in his works will be illustrated by giving examples from his works. Key words: Rumi, Turkish music, sema (whirling dervishes „s dances), Mevlevi (whirling dervishes).

Introduction His Holiness Mevlana‟s interest in music and sufi whirling (sema) contributed to the becoming of music a culture in the Mevlevi order which is continuing his spirit. They performed whirling which is remebrance of Allah (zikir) accompanied by music and they composed in many maqams for the musical rites of the Mevlevi order. Mevlevi rites consist of four parts symbolizing the divine love path from beginning to the end. It is because His holiness Mevlana attached great importance to music that music has become mingled with zikir in Mevlevi order.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN As we mentioned above, musis was used during the zikir as a stimulant for divine joy and a factor nurturing the soul. Musical instruments is an important place in the thoughts of Mevlana. Mevlana, the saz lute and drums and flutes whirling fiddle Kududu def Tanburî're talking about that those instruments It is known to have come from Central Asia.[1] Mevlana; listen to Ney the great work that he began. All works have been important in the lives and music. [2] For Tanbur, Mevlana says: “When tambur started as „ten-tenten‟, soul without hands and feet starts to break its chain, as someone‟s sound is hidden beyond its moonlight saying Ay! Exhausted companion, come!” [3] In one of his odes (ghazals): “ Play the three string saz. I reached the unity. Don‟t act in duality, eaither play in rehâvî tune or sing from salvation tune .” “Without your zîr, bem ( high and low pitched) tunes and unless you hit those tunes we fall into grief; find nevâ maqam in the reed flute and blow that sound: Our cry is from silence from tuneless-ness.” “Tone in Iraqi maqam is the remedy of this separation; you take the soul away without telling a word, but where, how far you take it?” “Ay! The beauty known and recognized by the sultans, caress our spirit in the ısfahân tune, ask after us with familarity.” “Go to the parliament of our drunk friends by singing melodies in zengûle maqam, bring it to the end, what is this delusion this severity for?” “Play from rast maqam if you are a trustworthy friend, a secure friend so you can come to the hejaz. Collect in the Uşşakı hüseyni tune, open the souls in bûselik, mâye maqams.” [4] “ They want dügâh from you, play in chargah; you are the candle, the light of this place this land, Ay Beauty. How pleasant you play, how pleasant you sing.” „‟ Ney and Rebab constantly yelling increasing fire in the hearts‟‟ [5] It is quite interesting that he tells about maqams like rehavî, nevâ, ırak, ısfahân and zengûle and that he finds suitable adjectives fo the effects of these maqams in this ghazal. The caressing effect of ısfahan maqam and the distance between starting and injunction frets of ıraqi maqams in terms of maqam taste can be regarded as an example.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Moreover, it is rather impressive that he chooses, regarding the burning quality of this maqam, zengûle to describe the parliament of love drunks. It is known by people involved in musical theory that rast maqam is one of the forms of the hijaz. In other words we say that rast is on the way up hicaz maqam. (Maqams consists of two or more forms. The way up fret is in the middle of the maqam and can change according the to the type of the maqam and also forms unite at this part ). Also a maqam starts from the way up fret. Thus, for this maqam, the performance starts with the rast, the way up form and then the way down formsa re performed until the hijaz. That is, first rast comes and then the hijaz when playing. At this point, is it only a coincidence that his Holiness Pir‟s line saying play from rast maqam and then come to the hijaz”? It is also remarkable that he started with uşşâk maqam then hüseyni, a closely related one, and then buselik maqam which has the same the way up forms and maye maqam whose route is rather easy with this order. Did he know that dügah maqam has chargah forms in it when he said that “they want dügah from you, play chargah”? Let the debates whether Mevlana (Rumi) blew the flute or played rubab (a three stringed saz) put aside it is very obvious that His Holiness Mevlana was someone who had knowledge about maqam, sound and instrument as a true music lover has. He didn‟t need to train music doctrine. Since he knew music not to perform but to use in the path of divine love. Music is a blessing. Thus, music should be used appropriately just as the other blessings should be. We know that all the things are in the form of a constant moving in the whole universe and this movement is whirling. If we notice that the vibration formed by touch of a flute player‟s breath and hitting of a rubab, tambur or other sazes player‟s plectrum to the strings is a result of this constant movement and the creator of thşs vibration is Cenab-ı Hakk, it becomes easy to understand that every single being perform dhikr (zikir) for Cenab-ı Allah by the movements created by Cenab-ı Allah. Do music instruments also act dhikr for Cenab-ı Allah? For those who knows how to listen, the answer is yes. The poem says:

Sufi, come and listen to the saz See how is the strings‟ prayer for Allah. By starting with the addresiing saying “listen” in Masnawi, Mevlana emphasize that sounds especially music is a factor which should be listened and inspired and it is also very significant that he did that

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN from the language of the reed flute. He likened human being to the reed flute. As it is seen in the examples given he stated that music and whirling are symbols of divine love. In the present compilation we talked about Mevlana‟s opinions about music. Further studies should be conducted for sure in this field. References [1] Halıcı, F. (1986). „‟ Türk Musikisinin Dünü Bugünü Yarını‟‟, Sevinç Matbaası. Ankara [2] İnançer,Ö,T.(2002), „‟Mevlevi Musikisi ve Semâ Âdâbı‟‟, Konya‟dan Dünya‟ya Mevlana ve Mevlevilik‟‟ İstanbul [3] Songar, A. (1987), „‟ Hz. Mevlana ve Musikimiz‟‟, 2. Milli Mevlana Kongresi, Konya [4] http://akademik.semazen.net/article_detail.php?id=150 [5] Volkan, S. (2002) „‟ Mevlana ve Mevlevi Musikisi‟‟, Mevalana ile ilgili yazılardan seçmeler, İstanbul

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ANALYSIS OF THE DIFFERENCE IN INSTRUMENT TONE OF STUDENTS WHOSE PROFESSION INSTRUMENT IS TAMBUR IN TRADITIONAL TURKISH MUSIC DEPARTMENT OF DİLEK SABANCI STATE CONSERVATORY, SELÇUK UNIVERSITY

Öğr.Gör. Gökhan ALGAN Selcuk University Dilek Sabanci State Conservatory Traditional Turkish Music, Konya, Turkey [email protected] Abstract Each nation has its own music helping to express feelings and thoughts that are shaping identity in the world of sounds. ‘Tanbur’ is the most important stringed and plucked instrument expressing the Turkish identity in Turkish Music with a wide sound which is both elegant and soulful. Tanbur is ranked first in the authentic instrument of Turkish music. It is an assistant instrument in voice training and performance, and it is the pioneer instrument with its webbed structure and tone of voice in authentic instruments. When compared to other instruments especially the timbre obtained by shaking the handle is just special to tanbur. The way the instrument is hold, the thickness of the plectrum and the shortness or length of the keys, angle of beats, timbre features in rapid performances and right-left hand techniques, the use of the upper strings, affect the timbre, depth and the quality of the sound and is different for each musician playing the tanbur. The most influential factor on the quality of the sound during performance is the plectrum. Because knowing what the plectrum is made of and knowing which angle and where to play on the string will affect the timbre of the tanbur. Traditional Turkish music students who are studying at Selçuk University in Dilek Sabancı State Conservatory participated in the present empiric study and analysis are made in terms of finding out the timbre differences between the musicians and the instruments. It is considered that teaching how to play tanbur and popularizing it might be helpful in terms of Turkish music and culture. Keywords: Tanbur, Timbre, Turkish Music , Instrument , Plectrum.

Introduction and Objective: Every nation has its own music which is shaping and personalizing its emotions and thoughts used by its people to express themselves in the world of sounds. Tambur, an elegant and touching saz, has the wide sound field of traditional Turkish music personalizing Turkish culture and it is the most significant string instrument played with plectrum. Tambur has the first place among authentic sazes (string instruments) of traditional Turkish music. It is a helping instrument in voice training and performance and is also a lead saz with its fretted and tone among other authentic string instruments. The tone created especially by the swing of the handle during performance is heard only in tambur among other string instruments. For Tambur, Mevlana says:

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN “When tambur started as „ten-tenten‟, soul without hands and feet starts to break its chain, as someone‟s sound is hidden beyond its moonlight saying Ay! Exhausted companion, come!” .[1] Handling the instrument, fret pres, plectrum thickness (being thick), length of clefs (being short or long), hitting angel, tone features in fast performance and right or left hand techniques, using of upper strings differ for every tanburi and affect the tone, depth and quality of sound. The most significant factor on the quality of sound created during the performance is the plectrum. Since the material used in the plectrum and knowing where and which angel to hit the string affect the tone of tambur. The plectrum is made from buffalo horn, plastic and tortoiseshell (called bağa), but the high quality characteristic tambur sound is obtained from bağa. The length of plectrum which is made from a rather hard material ranges between 9.5-13.5 cm. As it is an inelastic bone, two points of the plectrum are used. However, two points are made different from each other in order to obtain different tones. After plectrum hits the string, the sound created by the vibrating string starts to fade. Yet, if vibrato is practised, the sound continues for a long time in balance. It becomes more musical. Some tamburis want the sound tol ast with the natural resonance in the tambur itself. Others move the neck (sap) up and down and they make the resonance swirl in the soundboard (gövde) to get a waving sound. Index finger moves back and forward on the string without being raised. Everyone has a specific taste, colour. [2] In other words, each tanburi can get different sound from the same tambur and every tambur and plectrum also have different sounds. Musician (performer) has to work for a lifetime in order to get the most beautiful sound from the instrument. When the clef on the point of the plectrum is held long, that is when a long part of plectrum is put in the strings, a strong sound is obtained, but this time acelite becomes hard to perform. The secret in Tanburi Cemil Bey‟s tecnique was that he achieved both to get a strong sound and to perform acelite. The more inclined the plectrum is put in the string the higher the pitch of the sound becomes and a metal sound comes out of the instrument. If the plectrum is put in with an angle less than 45 degrees, the pitch of the sound increases and becomes metallic. [3] The pelctrum which is held thumb, index and middle fingers of right hand is hit tightly between the metal and copper strings with an oblique angle [4] This hit provides a deep (rich) sound. “The ratio between the lower part by which the strings are hit and the upper part is one-third.” This evaluation is the hitting style of Tanburi Cemil Bey and is told to Necdet Yaşar by Mesud Cemil bey .[5] This type of grip of the plectrum makes the muscles between elbow and wrist of right arm flex and loosen and we should make our hand stay soft and free and then we should hit the plectrum into the strings. Besides the muscles from shoulder to the wrist of left arm should be flexen and hardened and the neck of tanbur should be swung only by our left hand‟s vibration .[6] The Muscles moving our Wrist, Hand and Fingers

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The muscles moving wrist, hand and fingers are placed in front and back part of the fore arm. From these muscles, the ones placed in the front part are wrist, hand and fingers flexors and the ones placed at the back are extensors. Sampled muscles are responsible fort he movements of hand and fingers. Lumbrical and Interosseous muscles starting between metacapal bones and ending phalanges of fingers are examples of these muscles. Muscles forming extrinsic group make fingers opening and closing movements and help them bend. As there are eight muscles of the thumb, this finger has much more to do than other fingers. Opponens Pollicis muscle is specially important for the thumb. This muscle enables thumb to touch at the tips of each other finger and has an important value for various works. In the figure given above, places and junctions of wrist, hand and finger spesific muscles are demostrated.[7] In the present study, it is aimed to determine the tone difference among the Tambur students of Traditional Turkish Music department of Dilek Sabancı State Conservatory, Selçuk University before and after practising some hand and wrist muscle building exercises. Method: Research Model: Observational research Research model is observational inductive analysis method of qualitative study techniques. Data Collection: Hand and wrist muscles building exercises like gripping and grasping are practised twice a week by one female and four male students among the students whose profession instrument is Tanbur in

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Traditional Turkish Music Department Of Dilek Sabancı State Conservatory, Selçuk University and how these exercises helped and changed the students‟ plectrum tecniques is revealed. Data Analysis: How can students whose profession instrument is Tanbur in Traditional Turkish Music Departments get a more clear and rich sound from the plectrum by which they hit their sazes? Where the difference among their hit of the plectrum come from? What kind of exercises can be done to strengthen hand and wrist muscles? In the workshop part of the study, the differences of plectrum hitting before and after the students did exercises have been determined by filling a weekly observation form. Findings: It has been observed in the studies conducted that students who did gripping and grasping exercises hit their plectrum more strongly, preserved the hitting angle of the plectrum and got a high quality sound from their sazes. Especially, one of the students who uses hoe had a rapid improvement of the hand and wrist muscles and achieved a rather beautiful sound, which means that exercises had a positive effect. Discussion and Conclusion: In this study conducted among the Tanbur students in Traditional Turkish Music Department Of Dilek Sabancı State Conservatory, Selçuk University, it is revealed that exercises done before playing the instrument have significance to strengthen the hand and wrist muscles. They had a powerful influence on the students‟ hitting of the plectrum appropriately. It is also deduced that these exercises are not only useful for Tanbur players but it also effective to strengthen hand and wrist muscles for the students who play other sazes played with plectrum. It is useful to come close to achieve Tanburi Cemil Bey‟s strong and high quality hitting of plectrum with acelite. References: [1]Halıcı, F. (1986). „‟ Türk Musikisinin Dünü Bugünü Yarını‟‟, Sevinç Matbaası. Ankara [2] Bardakçı, M. (1995). „‟ Refik Fersan ve Hatıraları‟‟, Pan Yayıncılık, İstanbul [3] Gülses, N. (1995). „‟Mızraplı Öğrenme Tanbur Klavuzu‟‟ [4] Fonton, C. (1987). „‟18. Yüzyılda Türk Müziği‟‟ Çeviren; Cem Behar, Pan Yayıncılık, İstanbul [5] Özel, Ö. (1997). ‟‟Tanbur Tekniği Üzerine Bir deneme‟‟, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek lisans Tezi). [6] Aksüt, S. (1994). „‟ Tanbur Metodu‟‟, İnkılâp Kitabevi, İstanbul. [7] http://www.fztozdemir.com/el-bilegi-el-ve-parmaklari-hareket-ettiren-kaslar/

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PRESENTATION STEREOTYPES OF POVERTY IN TURKISH PRESS: AN EXAMPLE ABOUT REFUGEES FROM SYRIA Assistant Prof. Dr. Abulkadir GÖLCÜ Usak University, Faculty of Communication, New Media Department [email protected]

Research Assistant Emre Osman OLKUN Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Journalism Department [email protected] Abstract Media is one of the most effective vehicles affecting and shaping perception of people in modern times. In this process, people's ideas about others generally are formed or shaped by media because of people's trust about media content and easy way to reach information. beside this, media has become one of the most reliable and expeditious information provider in every moment of daily life for people. However, media is not the best and right way to reach reliable information. With its manipulation power, media plays a crucial role to force people to accept some kind of stereotypes produced by media about others. That is why, presentations of others, different groups, minorities, marginal people, poor people or people from different religions have become so important for measuring or showing stereotypes of media. In this study; presentation stereotypes of refugees from Syria in Turkish press will be analyzed. Especially stereotypes highlighted in news structures will be taken in hand and what kinds of stereotypes are used in news structures. In sampling, four different mainstream newspapers will be taken in hand in terms of stereotypes usage about presentation of refugees from Syria. These newspapers will be scanned for a month and news structures will be analyzed by using a specific program which is used to come into picture the keyword density analysis of news texts. Keywords: Stereotypes, Poverty,, Refugees, Presentation

1. Introduction In the modern life structure media has gained a huge importance for supplying daily information needs of people and in this process it has also become the most reliable and expeditious information provider in every moment of daily life for people who want to know about the events realizing their social environments. This has simplified the collecting and gathering process of information about every events from political decisions to social activities for people who are so busy because of modern life stream. Reaching information within this way has caused another problem about the perception and understanding of every events in terms of accepting mediated perceptions or biased attitudes for people. Without having checking mechanism, modern people have developed an unexpected confidence about media and its outlets. At this point a critical question appeared in the minds of scholars that whether media reflects the realities as they are or not and what is the confidence level of people against media. The answers of these questions have not been given so far but it is clear that there are so many mediated realities shaping or affecting perception of people and canalizing them to accept general behaviors about daily life. From looking this perspective; today media has become a 357

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN crucial power on formation of opinions and especially with the invention of these technologies and also the power of media has grown in wide range of modern people's life stream. Consequently, today it can be easily said that the media shapes our perceptions and views of social reality by presenting only some aspects of reality and by continuation repetition of images and messages. It can be also said that the role and content of media has changed dramatically, playing decisive role in reinforcing stereotypes used frequently in media contents and patriarchal culture by constructing new images and meanings by setting agendas for public opinion through selective themes and views. Scholars in social psychology, mass communications, and popular culture have used the term differently and often approach different areas in their research: the audience, for social psychologists; television in general, for mass communications researchers; and specific texts and genres, for popular culture critics. In each case, the definition of a stereotype and the kinds of assumptions employed raise political and pedagogical questions (Seiter, 1986: 14-15). Stereotypes play an important role in today's modern and complex social structure particularly in media contents. Stereotype is a biased assessment of a person, group, or idea. The term is applied typically to describe the expectations that people have of others according to their age, gender, physical appearance, ethnic group, race, or occupation. Stereotypes are oversimplified assessments applied as generalizations, constituting a form of biased prejudgment (Danesi, 2009: 277). Stereotypes are social beliefs learned from other sources such as public opinions, gatekeepers, family and mass communication vehicles. That is why; it can be easily said that stereotypes are rarely neutral and they are generally evaluative which divide people into groups or out of groups. They are part of a wider picture of social prejudice against people, social groups, minorities or other in general structure of societies. According to McGregor and Gray (2002: 163) stereotypes are not fixed mental states, and redefinition and abandonment of stereotypes are part of the process of social change and of social progress. For example, stereotypes against women, ethnic minorities, poor people, low-class groups or disabled people are less pervasive today than they were a century ago. However, this means that stereotypes do not lose their importance because they are often renewed and substituted by new ones produced by social actors. With developing communication technologies, stereotypes production and distribution have become so easy than it was before. 2. Stereotypes and Media Before the introduction of printing, virtually all human communication was realized with using face to face communication methods. But in the last two centuries, the media and more broadly the mass media have come to play an increasingly central role in shaping social reality. People act in the world on the basis of the pictures and meanings, stereotypes, and symbols which are inside their heads and minds. These stereotypes, images and meanings are a synthesis of our own direct experience and mediated experiences of events that occur in another place and time and are communicated to us by other individuals or through the mass media (Iggers, 1999: 117). According to scholars working in the area of social cognition, the information that we gain from the media results in the production of stereotypes that help us simplify our environment. The media may act as a socio-cultural agent or source of stereotypical information about other social groups, ethnic minorities, poor people, low-class groups or disabled people. We might view the media as a source of social learning that essentially teaches and reinforces certain ideas about these groups or others. Because of this, today the news and mass media have come to play a rapidly increasing role in shaping the contents of the pictures in our heads. At this point the relation between media and stereotypes have to be taken in hand critically and carefully in terms of media outlets and their effects on people. People have learned so many things about many of the images of African-Americans, Hispanics, Indians, natives or other minorities from media stereotypes because media often perpetuates stereotyping in its function mentality. Beside this, images and definitions which we use so commonly today are based on stereotypes produced in media. Because of this reason, stereotypes have so many social responses in people's life and this makes its usage in media so important for analyzing. A stereotype produced in content production process of media is today almost always a term of abuse. This stems from the wholly justified objections of various groups -in recent years, blacks, women and minorities, immigrants in particular -to the ways in which they find themselves stereotyped in the mass media and in everyday speech. Consequently, stereotypes should be understood as a classification process taking place on media and its outlets. Accordingly modern mass communication researches 358

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN have shown that these mediated “facts” often rely on stereotypes and that, more importantly, long-term exposure to such content can lead to the development of stereotypic memory traces, which, in turn, can influence individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Arendt and Northup, 2014: 2370). According to the nature of media, every event, topic or subject should have some classification for presentation of media because perception of these contents or topics could not be left to the only audiences or media consumers. If such a situation can happen, all media contents and outlets would lose their effects on people and social conscious. This means that media can become a standard mechanism working for well-being and democracy of society under these circumstances. Contrary to this, media produces specific characters, definitions and stereotypes for realizing its aim to shape or affect social reality in the mind of people. As for the role of media in production, distribution and acceptance of stereotypes; media has become a well-known place for production and legitimization of every kinds of propaganda and propagandist messages. Moreover, stereotypes intensifying the dominant ideas or perceptions in social conscious such as nation, family, heroism, responsibilities, masculinity, poverty etc. are distributed or brought to public opinions through media and its various content (Oktay, 1997: 35). These stereotypes can produce prejudice and because of this communication processes turn into a manipulation process on behalf of society and public opinions. According to Nkosi Ndlela (2005: 3), by selecting and shaping news, media represent the world rather than reflect it, leading to stereotyped frames: Media representations reduce, shrink, condense and select/repeat aspects of intricate social relations in order to represent them as fixed, natural, obvious and ready to consume (Quoted by Jorgensen and Hanitzsch, 2009: 163). For James Curran and Jean Seaton (2003: 336), news values allow journalists to translate untidy reality into neat stories with beginnings, middles, and denouements, and in the process such values tend to reinforce conventional opinions and established authority. Furthermore, they argue that many items of news are not events at all, that is in the sense of occurrences in the real world which take place independently of the media. Taking a certain ironic distance on their subject, none the less lays out very clearly both the absolute necessity for, and the usefulness of, stereotypes, as well as their limitations and ideological implications: A pattern of stereotypes is nor neutral. It is not merely a way of substituting order for the great blooming, buzzing confusion of reality. It is not merely a short cut. It is all these things and something more. It is the guarantee of our self-respect; it is the projection upon the world of our own sense of our own value, our own position and our own rights. The stereotypes are, therefore, highly charged with the feelings that are attached to them. They are the fortress of our tradition, and behind its defenses we can continue to feel ourselves safe in the position we occupy. 3. Presentation Stereotypes in Media All mass communication vehicles and media such as television, radio, films, large-circulation magazines, newspapers, large-scale advertising have often relied on stereotypes. Two decades ago, stereotypes still were common in the mass media, but progress had been made toward the eradication of stereotypes. Media portrayals of ethnic groups, minorities, disabled people, poorness etc. have been the focus of many research studies. According to the findings of these studies; a media stereotype is an oversimplified picture that, when combined with prejudiced views toward ethnic groups, minorities, gender, disabled people treats whites as the desirable reference point. These stereotypes have given rise to many inaccurate and disparaging media portrayals of people from all over the world (Shoemaker and Reese, 1996: 50). Stereotypes contain assumptions that affect how society perceives a particular group; members of groups have protested, with varying degrees of success, stereotypical portrayals in the media. The number and varieties of stereotypes in the media is myriad and is not limited to stereotypes of ethnic or racial groups. Beside this, media generally presents information and knowledge through the eyes of middle class professionals or upper class owners. For example; news images of the working classes are often framed or shaped in term of conflict. Beside this; words, titles or subtitles used in news structures are generally selected from a middle class language and this force the readers or audiences to accept middle class a definer about others. Consequently, different approaches in communication theories have stated that automatic perceptions or stereotypes are learned through repeated exposure to certain groups via firsthand experience with group members who have certain characteristics or via mediated exposure from the mass media and information learned from press or other mass communication vehicles. Consequently, researchers studying about mass 359

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN communication vehicles and media have often used the term stereotype to mean representations of reality that are false and, by implication, immoral, and have proceeded without further clarification to document their frequent appearance in the mass media (Noelle-Neuman, 1984: 149). Similarly, conducted studies about media content and their findings showed that there were some specific differences of the frequency with which women, different faiths, different cultures and minorities appear on media. These results have been startling in their indictment of media as a medium overwhelmingly dominated by white males (Busby, 1975: 37-38). This suggests that positive, “majority” stereotypes are somehow more realistic and do not warrant the kind of examination “minority” stereotypes deserve. To understand the ideological aspect and differences of stereotypes in the mass media, it must be looked at their evaluative as well as their descriptive aspects. For example, stereotypes usually describe all minority groups, women, poor people in terms of their personal relationships to people or other structure and in terms of their poverty, being minority and sexuality, while white men are rarely described in this way. Important findings of media studies about presentation stereotypes in media show that media generally use specific shapes or pattern for presentation of specific groups in social diversity (Schaffner and Gadson, 2004; Brooks and Hebert, 2006; Kumari and Joshi, 2015). For example Media always create stereotypes of beauty, poorness, smartness and which are then imitated by citizens, like fashion and hairstyles, for instance. Media can also create sensations of gender, identity, class, sex, violence, and horror which may be popular with the audience by using its commonly accepted presentation stereotypes. A long line of research has showed that African Americans are more likely to be depicted as criminals than whites in television news in United States (Dixon & Linz, 2000). In Austria, the social category “foreigners” is overrepresented as criminals much in the same way as African Americans are in the United States on local television news (Arendt, 2010). However, this was found to be the case in a highly circulated tabloid-style daily newspaper. It is important to note that the presentation of minority groups as criminals has been documented in other countries as well. Because of this, a powerful stereotyping in media, especially in news media, have been turned in a normal manner for production process of media outlets. For example, the news media bring images and information about the world to millions of people daily. If we simply perpetuate stereotypes of ethnic groups and individuals created in news media coverage, we do a disservice to ourselves by giving permission to news media for shaping our perceptions with its presentation stereotypes. As for the production and distribution of stereotypes in media, almost every media content and outlets can be used very beneficially but these stereotypes are largely reinforced and legitimized by the news media. It is believed that news media is commonly used by people to learn something about the events realizing on their socio-political environment. Because of this, reliability level of news media has a high point in the eyes of news consumers. However; news media generally prefers to reflect reality within a biased perspective or frame which was subjected to society by dominant social order. At this point news media chooses to reinforce the stereotypes which are suitable to the frames and perspectives of dominant social order. In this study; presentation stereotypes of refugees from Syria in Turkish press will be analyzed in terms of their classification. Especially stereotypes highlighted in news structures will be taken in hand in terms of their stable meaning and intimation and what kinds of stereotypes are used in news structures. 4. Method Stereotypes provide an opportunity to connect theory and practice in teaching about ideology and they can be used to demonstrate to people and public opinions in a dramatic way the various forms of racism, classism, sexism, and homophobia that circulate in original culture (Seiter, 1986: 24). Because of this, searching ideology and class struggle or legitimization of dominant upper-classes in news texts could be difficult for researchers. Consequently, in the method selection of this study; although there are some alternative methods to analyze the stereotypes formed in news texts such as content analysis, discourse analysis or etc., a digital program which can analyze news texts in terms of usage frequency and density of words and specific definitions seems suitable for the analysis of news texts1. For this 1

http://tools.seobook.com/general/keyword-density/

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN study, keyword density analysis program was selected to analyze stereotypes in news texts because program could make a deep and detailed analysis of news texts in terms of word selection, usage frequency of these words, adjectives and definitions used in news texts. Especially words and definitions which has turned into stereotypes highlighted in news structures will be taken in hand and what kinds of stereotypes are used in news structures. In sampling, four different mainstream newspapers which are Sabah, Hürriyet, Milliyet and Star will be taken in hand in terms of stereotypes usage about presentation of refugees from Syria. Only the news texts published in first pages of these newspapers were taken in hand to analysis and these newspapers will be scanned for two months which are May and June of 2016. In addition to this, news texts will be analyzed to come into picture stereotype density of news texts and a classification of these stereotypes will be added to the finding parts of the study. 5. Findings Four different national newspapers from Turkish Press were scanned for two months which May and June of 2016 in order to make a general classification of stereotypes in news media. In this content, it was found that 71 different news stories about refugees from Syria were published on the first pages of these newspapers. Stereotypes used in these news stories have a wide variety of topic background including every aspects of social and political life. For example, social integration and integration problems of Syrian refugees to Turkish social life have become one of the main news topics in this process. In addition to this, shelter problems of refugees, dramatic stories from refugees life such as losing every family member or leaving all the thing behind, their struggles for survival, earning money for vital requirements are also different frequently encountered news topics of media about Syrian refugees in Turkey. All these topics have been turned into news stories by using specific stereotypes suitable with the nature of news media. After keyword density analysis of news texts, it was seen that there are so many different definitions used in news stories but these definitions were categorized 5 general and specific stereotype groups used and highlighted in news structures. These classification groups of the stereotypes can be listed and explained below: 5.1. Dramatic Stories Stereotype News stories generally tend to be structured to resemble drama or more specially melodrama. In order to do this, events and their details are selected according to the suitability of dramatic necessaries. Because of this, sometimes an important detail or explanation of news sources cannot find place to themselves in news structures. Instead of this, details of events which can be turned into dramatic topics can easily find place in the news structure and an important detail can be out of news structure. According to these explanations, news stories of Syrian refugees extremely include dramatic details and readers cannot find a satisfying explanations of why they had to leave their country and live in Turkey. As for readers of these news stories; controlling for various background differences, exposure to the dramatic news stories significantly decreased topics' recall of the information in the stories and reduced the complexity with which individuals thought about the events reported. Moreover, limited or no information was given to place in these news stories about context and background of refugees' life. News structures were fixed and shaped according to dramatic factors and stereotypes used in news stories reinforced this stability. 5.2. Non-Human Conditions Stereotype Another commonly used stereotype about Syrian refugees is about their sheltering problems. With using this stereotype, newspapers generally prefer to highlight shelter problems of Syrian refugees in their news structure without discussing the specific reasons of becoming refugee. To strengthen this stereotype, photos showing the bad shelter conditions were frequently used in news stories and news titles were designed to make more visible this topic. In addition to this, newspapers and newsmakers tried to make a comparison current rental amounts in some cities of Turkey with before Syrian refugees' coming. This implies that Syrian refugees have caused an intolerable increase about rental

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN amounts and inevitably news stories legitimized that Syrian refugees have responsibility high rental amount some specific cities of Turkey. This intimation implicitly blames Syrian refugees in news stories without discussing renters who are generally Turkish citizens. This biased approach in news stories was especially hidden behind the general news stereotype. 5.3. Social Disharmony Stereotype Social changes create so many social problems in a functional society. The norms, values, customs, traditions, mores and law of the society get chances as the changes are occurring inside the society. It means that the society distributed by external or internal forces of social change. Because of this a changing society inevitably develops problems, either the conditions themselves change and become unacceptable. Under these circumstances, Turkey has experienced a refugee crisis which includes almost 2 million people escaping civil war in Syria. Because of this, social harmony of Turkey has been subjected to new and different cultural experiences. News published in this process can light to fallow the reasons and results of this refugee crisis. News stories about Syrian refugees living in Turkey have come into picture another stereotype emphasizing social disharmony caused by refugees. This stereotype generally defines Syrian refugees as disrupting actors to social harmony and structure of Turkey. Especially this stereotype implicitly blames Syrian refugees to be citizens of an underdeveloped country and this perception automatically make Syrian refugees responsible for damaging social harmony in Turkey. Under these circumstances, news stories represented Syrian refugees within a problematic frame and they were charged with failing to comply social conditions of Turkey. Although so many news stories defined Syrian refugees as coreligionist and brother, a specific discrimination between refugees and Turkish citizens was legitimized in news narrative with using this stereotype. 5.4. Bagger Stereotype The most important social and personal problem of refuge crisis in which Turkish society has to face is bagger problem. Although Turkish society has been used to this problem for a long time, this problem has increased rapidly in social and personal life of Turkish citizens with coming of Syrian refugees. News media used this rapidly increase in their news contents frequently as a social problem. Generally news structures were designed to highlight a specific stereotype presenting refugee crisis as a social problem in terms of baggers. This stereotype is shaped to influence and canalize readers to minimize main problems of Syrian refugees only a simple problem. Stereotyping generally hides some aspects of social events and in this situation reflecting a big and international problem within a limited and standard stereotype proves that stereotyping in news media is used to distort social reality. In modern societies media presents baggers and begging as emotional pressure and it reflects these people as experts for convincing people to give something to them. At this point, Syrian refugees were presented in Turkish newspapers so many times with using bagger stereotype. Usage of bagger stereotype generally situated them the bottom level of social pyramid. This caused a problematic presentation of these persons in news stories and this usage also legitimized a discriminative news structures in the eyes of its readers. 5.5. Cheap Labor Stereotype Turkish newspapers have represented Syrian refugees using a specific stereotype which highlighted them as cheap labor. Especially employment of refugees in Turkish economy was reflected as not only a supporting process but also economic success of Turkish investors. In this process, refugees from Syria were defined as labor but their working conditions and salaries were not taken in hand in news stories. Because of this, news structures was forced to experience a semantic closure according to stereotype used frequently in news stories of Turkish press. Although employment of refugees has not been legally arranged, all newspapers defined working conditions of refugees as normal and suitable. Moreover, commonly used stereotype of Syrian refugees does not reflect their working conditions, salaries and rights. Contrary to this, this process has already legitimized working of refugee child as normal an legal. At this point, stereotype of cheap labor used for definition and presentation of Syrian refugees living in Turkey in Turkish press showed that Turkish press preferred not to mention positive 362

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN effects of Syrian refugees on labor market. In some news stories cheap labor stereotypes were used to blame refugees to deprive of Turkish workers and this situation were highlighted on news structures. 6. Conclusion and Discussion In modern societies media has become the most important stereotype legislator for societies. Because of this it can produce and shape so many kinds of stereotypes which can be used every categorization processes. However, it should not be forgotten that all stereotypes used by media were not created equal results. It cannot be afforded to see media stereotypes defined primarily in psychological or politically neutral terms, nor can they be seen as merely a symptom of our debased cultural life. They must be considered carefully in terms of the relationship of stereotypes to the legitimization of social power. Everybody must distinguish between their descriptive and their evaluative aspects, analyzing their history and content as well a s their frequency. Finally, people must ask themselves how different social groups will understand stereotypes, believe in them, laugh at them, embrace them, or despise them. In this study, presentation stereotypes of Syrian refugees living in Turkey were taken in hand in order to show how these people were presented and what kinds of stereotypes were used to presentation of these people. In this content, four different mainstream newspapers which are Sabah, Hürriyet, Milliyet and Star were taken in hand in terms of stereotypes usage about presentation of refugees from Syria. According to the findings, 5 different stereotypes groups were detected which were used by Turkish newspapers for the presentation of Syrian refugees living in Turkey in their news structures. Generally these stereotypes have discriminative aspects reflecting negative features, situations or behaviors of the refugees in news stories. Instead of reflecting their personal features, newspapers tried to categorize refugees as talented, educated, worker, bagger, etc. Stereotypes were also used by Turkish press to legitimization of these people as refugee living another country but contrary to this, some friendly definitions can be used in news stories such as friend, visitors, brothers, coreligionist etc. However; when it is carefully looked to general stereotype usage and presentation of refugees in Turkish media, it will be seen that a problematic and biased stereotype formation were supported. These stereotypes affected the formation of news stories and they also implicitly affected the perception process of their readers. References Arendt, F. (2010). "Cultivation Effects of a Newspaper on Reality Estimates and Explicit and Implicit Attitudes, Journal of Media Psychology, 22, pp. 147–159. Arendt, F., & Northup, T. (2015). Effects of Long-Term Exposure to News Stereotypes on Implicit and Explicit Attitudes, International Journal of Communication Volume 9, pp. 2370-2390. Brooks, D. E., & Hebert, L. P. (2006). Gender, Race, and Media Representation, in B. J. Dow & J. T. Wood (Eds.), Handbook of Gender and Communication, (pp. 297–317). London: Sage Publication. Curran, J., & Park, M-J. (2000). Beyond Globalization Theory, in J. Curran & M.-J. Park (Eds.), De-Westernizing Media Studies (pp. 3–8). London: Routledge. Danesi, M. (2009). Dictionary of Media and Communications, New York: M. E. Sharpe. Dixon, T., & Linz, D. (2000). "Overrepresentation and Underrepresentation of African Americans and Latinos as Lawbreakers on Television News, Journal of Communication, 50, pp. 131–154. Iggers, J. (1999). Good News, Bad News: Journalism Ethics and Public Interests, Colorado: Westview Press. Jorgensen, K. W., & Hanitzsch, T. (2009). The Handbook of Journalism Studies, London: Routledge. Kumari, A. & Joshi, H. (2015). "Gender Stereotyped Portrayal of Women in the Media: Perception and Impact on Adolescent", Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Volume 20, Issue 4, Ver. II, pp. 44-52. McGregor, J., & Gray, L. (2002). "Stereotypes and Older Workers: The New Zealand Experience", Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, Issue 18, (pp. 163-177). Noelle-Neuman, E. (1984). The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion-Our Social Skin, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Oktay, A. (1997). Türkiye'de Popüler Kültür, İstanbul: Yapı ve Kredi Yayınları. Schaffner, B. F., & Gadson, M. (2004). Reinforcing Stereotypes? Race and Local Television News Coverage of Congress, Social Science Quarterly, Volume 85, Number 3, pp. 605-623. Seiter, E. (1986). "Stereotypes and the Media: A Re-evaluation", Journal of Communication, Volume 36, Issue 2, pp. 14-26. Shoemaker, P. J., & Reese, S. D. (1996). Theories of Influences on Mass Media Content, New York: Longman.

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FEMALE LABOR PARTICIPATION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH: RE-EXAMINATION OF U-SHAPED CURVE FOR TURKEY1 Assist.Prof. Dr. Gülbahar ÜÇLER Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences [email protected] Abstract The female labor participation plays a very important role in the economic growth of countries. The structural shifts from subsistence agriculture sector to industry and labor intensive in economy decrease the female employment rate in the developing countries such as Turkey. However, following this, the female labor participation rate starts to increase due to the increase in their educational level. This paper investigates the nexus between economic growth and female labor participation for Turkey’s economy over the period of 1985-2014. For this purpose, the relationship between economic growth and female labor participation is analyzed via cointegration test with structural breaks developed by Hatemi-J (2008) and dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) methodology. The findings of the study indicate that the U-shaped hypothesis is valid for Turkey.

1. Introduction Many empirical studies in economic literature show that females play a big role in the economic development of countries. Examining its history from past to present, female labor participation rate firstly has a decreasing and then an increasing course in the transition process from agricultural society to industry society for the developing countries. The female labor participation’s firstly decreasing and then increasing again with the economic developments is explained by U-shaped hypothesis. Several researches such as Goldin (1995), Durand (1975), Psacharopoulos and Tzannatos (1989), Shultz (1990; 1991), Pampel and Tanaka (1986), Kottis (1990) and Tansel (2002) have alluded to a U-shaped, long-term relationship between female labor participation rate and economic developments. Declining part of U-shaped curve explains shifts from subsistence agriculture economy to industry and labor intensive where more male compared to female input is demanded. It suggests existence of trade-off between economic growth and women’s equal access to labor market in early stages of development. However, such trade-off partly disappears particularly as development proceeds and next transition-from industrial sector to services-reveals (Olivetti, 2013). Decreasing rates of female labor participation paralleled with industrialization and urbanization increase in parallel with the increase in the educational level in the ongoing process. Depending on economic growth and urbanization the women’s accessing to educational opportunities easily provides them with facilities to reach career opportunities with more well-paid jobs. The women supporting contribution to economy in the status of unpaid family worker in agricultural societies are started to be employed in the fields with higher-income. Increasing the educational level of women makes them more competitive in labor. Beyond economic benefits, women’s participation in the labor can be seen as a signal of declining discrimination and increasing empowerment of women (Mammen and Paxson, 2000). Gender equality and economic growth strengthen each other. Especially, in addition to being a good investment for national income growth women education is effective for having other social, political and legal rights. High income is effective for gender equality (Dollar and Gatti; 1993:3). As Timothy and Adeoti (2006; 428) stated, while gender inequality in education decreases the labor efficiency today it will cause a decrease in national income in the future. The literature points to essentially five factors explaining the U-shaped hypothesis: 1) the economic transformation of societies from agriculture to industry; 2) the increasing share of the female educated population; 3) long-term demographic changes including falls in fertility rates; 4) cohort effect and 5) evolving gender norms and culture (Verme; 2015). 1

This paper is supported by Scientific Research and Project Coordinator of Ahi Evran University. (Project Number: IIB.E2.16.010)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Female participation to business life increases in parallel with industrialization in Turkey as it is in the world. Female participation to business life rates in Turkey started to decrease in 1950s and that decrease continued until 2008. The main reason for the decrease is said to urbanization. Turkey has witnessed high levels migration from rural to urban areas since 1980. The share of urban population rose from 51.1 percent in 1988 to 76.8 percent in 2011 (TUIK, 2012). In the period 19882012 while female participation to business life decreased from 50.7% to 36.9% in rural area, it increased from 17.7% to 26.1% in urban (TUIK, Women in Statistics, 2012; 78). These rates clearly show the effects of migration from rural to urban on female participation to business life. In Turkey, while female labor participation rates were 44.3% in 1985 it decreased to 23.6% in 2007. In 2015 female labor participation rates in Turkey was 30.3 (TUIK, Women in Statistics, 2016). Female labor participation rates in Turkey have started to increase from the year 2008. However, compared to OECD countries it is quite a low rate. Turkey is the last among OECD countries with the rate of 29.5% by the end of 2012. Depending on 2012 data, female labor participation rates in OECD countries are 62.3%. The main obstacles for female labor participation can be separated into two groups as economic and social reasons. It can be summarized that low-income and being deprived of social insurance are among the economic factors, and low educational level, social gender perception and male-dominated mentality are social factors. Especially the educational level affects female labor participation seriously in our country. Examining the labor participation rates in terms of educational level, it is seen that females participate in labor more as their educational levels increase. According to 2014 data in Turkey female labor participation rates of illiterate females were 16%, lower than high school education female rates were 25.8%, high school graduated female rates were 31.9% and university graduated female rates were 71.3% (TUIK, 2015). The purpose of the paper is to test the relationship between female labour participation and the level of economic growth of Turkey for the period of 1985-2014. The paper is organized as follows. The next section reviews theoretical and empirical evidences of the U-shaped hypothesis. The following third section describes models and data. Section 4 presents methodology and results respectively.

2. Theoretical and Empirical Review of Literature There are a great number of theoretical and empirical studies examining the relationship between female labour participation and economic growth. Psacharopoulos and Tzannatos (1989), Shultz 1990; 1991), Kottis (1990), Goldin (1995) and Bloom and et al. (2009) explain the relationship between female labour participation and economic growth in the long term with the U curve hypothesis. Goldin (1995) researched the validity of U curve hypothesis by using the numbers of real GDP per capita of 180 countries as a criterion for economic growth for the period 1985. While the wealthy nations are in the area above the curve and middle income nations are in the area below the curve, the falling portion of the curve shows the presence of the poorest countries. Muammen and Paxson (2000) researched the presence of U-shaped curve by using the data of 90 countries for the years 1970, 1975, 1980 and 1985. In the study the authors found out that female labor participation rates in the richest and poorest countries were more than 50% and in the middle income countries it was about 35%. Tansel (2002) examined the relationship between economic growth and female labor participation for Turkey with panel data analysis both with time series and for 67 provinces and for the years 1980, 1985 and 1990. The author reached the results supporting the U-shaped hypothesis between female labor participation and economic growth. Onzur Çakır (2008) examined the effects of female labor participation on economic growth in the time series analysis done by using the data of 1980-2000 for Turkey. The author stated that Turkey was in the area below the U-shaped curve but would progress towards the area above the curve in the future. Fatima and Sultana (2009) used the data of 4 provinces with the data of 1992-93, 1996-97 and 2000-2001 periods in the analysis done to test the validity of U-shaped curve. In the study in which fixed effect method was used the results supporting the validity of U-shaped curve for Pakistan was reached. Sanjuka (2010) examined Ushaped hypothesis for the period 1990-2007 with the data of 172 countries for South Asia and South East. In the study it was found that South East countries were slightly above the curve and South Asia countries were below the curve. Mujahid and Zafar researched the relationship between female labor participation and economic growth with ARDL method by using the data of 2012. At the end of the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN study the results supporting U-shaped hypothesis in the long term were obtained. Besides, it was found that an increase in education and dynamics of economic activities would increase female labor participation in the next phase of economic growth. Tsani, Leonidas, Fragiadakis, Ioannis and Pantelis (2012) examined the relationship between female labor participation and economic growth for 19602008 by using data series of 160 countries including Southern Mediterranean countries, and estimated for 2030. The first result of the study supported the accuracy of U-shaped relationship for the countries included in the model. The second hypothesis estimation proved the presence of obstacles special to the region hindering female labor participation in the countries. Moreover, it was stated at the end of the study that removing the regional obstacles in order to increase female labor participation could result in economic growth. Because empirical findings of the study suggested that lower female labour participation rates might lead to lower economic growth in the region. In the study by Lahoti and Swaminathan (2013) researched the relationship between female labor participation and economic growth at state-level in India for 1983-1984 and 2009-2010 by using dynamic panel models. At the end of empirical result no significant relationship was found between female labor participation and economic growth level. The results of the paper suggest that growth by itself is not sufficient to increase women’s economic activity but the dynamics of growth matter. In the study done for 162 countries by using 1990-2012 data Eva Lechman (2014) obtained the results supporting U-shaped hypothesis in the long term. Paolo Verme (2015) tested the presence of U-shaped hypothesis for MENA countries by using 1990-2010 data. In Verme’s study, the factors like female education, fertility rates, economic transformation away from the agricultural sector were included in the analysis. These facts were consistent with nonparametric evidence that showed countries in the region were distributed over a U-shaped curve. However, no evidences explanatory enough for U-shaped hypothesis were found in parametric test results. Besides, concerning to parametric results the findings supporting that there was a reverse U relationship in the region were obtained. Chapman (2015) examined the relationship between female employment and economic growth with the data set obtained by using 1990-2012 data sets of 20 MENA countries. Education, urbanization, unemployment and fertility rates were included into model as independent variables. At the end of the study, the results supporting U-shaped hypothesis for MENA countries were obtained. However, it was emphasized that the countries in the region were towards the bottom of the U-shaped curve. Finally, in the study done to examine the presence of U-shaped hypothesis for 162 countries Lechman and Kaur (2016) separated the countries into four groups as low-income, lower-middle-income, uppermiddle-income and high-income. The empirical part of the study included the period of 1990-2012. The study findings supported the U-shaped hypothesis for the countries representing the economies of high-income and upper-middle-income. However, there was a reverse U curve relationship for the countries representing the economies of low-income.

3. Data Set and Model The model that will be estimated in order to test the validity of U curve in the long term in Turkey is;

lnF

t

lnGD

t

ln

(1)

t

where the dependent variable in the model lnFLP represents female labor participation rate2, and lnGDP represents GDP per capita (constant 2010 US$). The data used in the model are annual and include 1985-2014 period. All the data are obtained from World Development Indicator and model estimation is done by taking natural logarithm of all the variables. In literature, a lot of empirical study quadratic (Tansel; 2002, Nooreen and Naeem; 2012, Lenchman; 2015, Verme; 2015) models are used to test the validity of U curve. In the quadratic model it was found that in case of β1 < 0, β2 > 0

there was a U relationship between female labor participation rates and economic growth. 4. Methodology and Findings

2

Labor participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN In time series analysis, firstly, stationarity of variables must be examined. Granger and Newbold (1974) state that spurious regression problems may occur in the estimations done by using nonstationary series. In the study done by using 1985-2014 data for Turkey, Narayan and Popp (2010) focusing on the structural diffractions of that period used unit root test. 4.1. Narayan Popp (2010) Unit Root Test with Structural Breaks Narayan and Popp (2012) propound a unit root test with two structural breaks endogenously determined. They propose two models allowing for two structural breaks. The first model, namely M 1, allows for two structural breaks in intercept while the second model, namely M 2, allows for two structural breaks in intercept as well as trend. The two components yt = dt + ut that Narayan and Popp (2010) define in the process of generating time series data present deterministic component (dt) and stochastic component (ut) AR(1) process. Models are demonstrated as follows:

dt

1

=

+ βt +

*

dt

2

= + βt +

*

( )(

1

U1,t +

( )(

1

U1,t +

2

2

U2,t ) U2,t +

(2) 1

T1,t +

2

T2,t )

(3)

Where; Ui,t = 1(t > T ,i ), Ti,t = 1(t > T ,i )(t - T ,i ), i=1,2. T ,i, i=1,2 in the model is break dates. i and i parameters respectively represent magnitude of intercept and trend breaks. According to Narayan and Popp, including * ( ) into the model enables structural breaks to occur in time slowly. Test regressions that are reduced forms of the corresponding structural model. They are showed as follows:

yt

1

= yt-1 +

yt 2 = yt-1 + +

* 2

1+

*

β* t +

+ β* t +

(T )1,t +

1

1

(T )1,t +

(T )2,t +

2

2

1

(T )2,t +

U1,t-1 + * 1

2

U1,t-1 +

T2,t-1 ∑kj=1 βj yt-j + et

U2,t-1 + ∑kj=1 βj yt-j + et * 2

U2,t-1 +

* 1

(4)

T1,t-1 (5)

Where; break dates are determined by using a sequential procedure. Null hypothesis3 = 1 are tested with the alternative hypothesis < 1. t statistics of ̂ given in equation 4 and 5 are used. The critical values are defined by Monte Carlo simulation and Narayan and Popp (2010) is given in Table 3. If the calculated test statistics are bigger than critical value, null hypothesis is rejected.

Table 1: Narayan and Popp Unit Root Test Results 3

For the details of respective procedure look at Narayan and Popp (2010).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Test Statistics

Variables lflp lgdp lgdp

2

M1

M2

M1

M2

-3.701

-3.040

1990, 2003

1990, 2004

-2.788

-4.469

2000, 2003

2000, 2002

c

-4.380

2004, 2008

2000, 2008

-7.368a

-6.523a

1992, 1998

1992, 2002

-6.645

a

-6.136

a

1994, 2003

1996, 2003

-6.646

a

-6.168

a

1999, 2003

1994, 2003

-4.440

lflp lgdp lgdp2 Critical Values

Break Date

1%

-5.26

-5.94

5%

-4.51

-5.18

10% -4.14 -4.79 Note: Critical values are obtained from Table 3. in Narayan ve Popp (2010). a, b, c represent significance levels of 1%, 5% and 10%, respectively.

According to unit root test results given in Table 1, it is seen that all the series used in the model are stable in the first difference. In this case, stability levels of series are I (1).

4.2. Hatemi-J (2008) Cointegration Test Hatemi-J (2008) cointegration test is the developed type of cointegration test that allows an internal break between the series of Gregory and Hansen (1996). Hatemi-J (2008) cointegration test allows two structural breaks in long term regression relationship. The model that Hatemi-J (2008) developed to test the effects of structural break both on stable and curve is:

∑(

)

( )

Where while represents the stable term before structural changes, because of the first structural refraction and because of the second structural change represent the change occurring in the intercept. , and parameters represent slope parameter before the structural change, the effect of the first structural change on slope, and the effect of the second structural change on slope, respectively. While  (0,1) and  (0,1) represent unknown parameters that show timing of the related regime change point, latent variables including the effects of structural breaks into model are defined as (Yılancı and Öztürk, 2010):

{

[ [

] ]

{

[ [

] ]

Hatemi-J (2008) has developed three test statistics as ADF*, Z and Zt in order to test the null hypothesis of no cointegration between the variables. ADF* statistic is obtained by the method of applying unit root test statistics to residuals of the 6th equation. Z and Zt statistics concerning two structural breaks are defined depending on the calculation of unbiased first degree autocorrelation coefficient. Z and Zt statistics are:

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

)

Z = n( ̂

(7)

( ̂ ( ̂( )

) (

∑

)̂ ( )) ∑

( )

̂

calculated by this equation. ̂ term in the formula that represents the first degree autocorrelation coefficient is calculated by the formula below (Hatemi-J, 2008; 499):

∑

(̂ ̂

∑

(

)( ∑

̂

∑

(̂

̂̂

)( ̂

̂̂

))) ( )

̂

The test statistics assuming at least two structural breaks by Hatemi-J (2008) are the test statistics that get the least two values for all the and coefficients while T = (0.15n, 0.85n),  ( ) and  ( ). The reason for choosing the least values for each test statistics is that the least values show empirical evidence in contrast to the null hypothesis (Tuğcu, 2015; 26). Critical values are showed in Hatemi-J (2008).

Table 2: Hatemi-J Cointegration Test Results Test Statistic ADF* Zt Z

Estimated Test Value -5.378 -6.724b -33.331

Critical Values 1% 5% 10% -6.928 -6.458 -6.224 -6.928 -6.458 -6.224 -99.458 -83.644 -76.806

Break Dates 2004, 2005 2000, 2003 2000, 2003

Note: Critical values are obtained from Table 1 in Hatemi-J (2008). b Illustrates %1 statistical significance.

Table 2 shows cointegration test results. According to these results, by rejecting the null hypothesis with the significant level of 5% for Zt test, it is accepted that there is a long-term cointegration relationship among the series. In the next stage, the estimation of long-term cointegration coefficients between series is done. Break dates that are obtained from the cointegration test are included into the model that is used for the estimations of long-term coefficients.

4.3. Estimation of Long-Term Coefficients After determining that the series are long-term cointegrated, dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) method developed by Stock-Watson (1993) is preferred in order to have long term cointegration coefficients. DOLS method developed by Stock-Watson (1993) can be employed in small samples and includes independent variables along with leads and lags of the first differences of independent variables. Besides, this method can make robust estimations in case of internality and autocorrelation (Esteve and Requena, 2006; 118). In Johansen method, parameter estimations in an equation are affected by any wrong determinations in other equations. Contrarily, DOLS method is a strong single-equation approach. While it is solving internality in explanatory variables by including the leads and lags of the first differences of independent variables into the model, it solves autocorrelation problem with GLS (Generalised Least Square). It is necessary that there is a cointegration relationship between the dependent variable and explanatory variables for DOLS estimators to be used. While all the variables that will be used in the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN analysis can be I(1), they can be higher degree of I(d) as well. This test enables effective estimations for cointegration vector even in circumstances of different and high integration degrees of variables as well. DOLS model can be written as below: q

yt =

0+

1t

+

2 xt

+ ∑

i

xt-i +

(

t

)

i=-q

In the equation, q represents the number of the optimum leads and lags and terms. DOLS results are reported in Table 3.

t

represents error

Table 3: DOLS Long Term Coefficient Estimated Results Variable

Coefficient

t-statistic

prob

lgdp

-0.0239

-7.770

0.000

lgdp2

1.3136

7.244

0.000

d2000

0.2034

0.084

0.933

d2003

0.4238

0.176

0.861

C

13.309

10.566

0.000

2

R : 0.88

F statistic 12.384 (0.000)

DW: 0.98

According to long term coefficients reported in Table 3, lgdp is negative and statistically significant. lgdp coefficient represents the falling part of the U curve. The coefficient of lgdp2 is as expected, positive and also statistically significant. The coefficient of lgdp2 represents the rising part of the U curve. In quadratic model, the condition β1 < 0, β2 > 0 shows the validity of the U-shaped hypothesis. In this case, considering the obtained long term coefficients, we can say the U-shaped hypothesis is valid for Turkey. Analyzing the female labor participation rates in Turkey, while there is a continuous decrease until 2008, it is seen that there is an increase after 2008. Therefore, female labor participation rates in Turkey start to increase and Turkey takes place in the rising part of the U curve. 5. Conclusion and Policy Implications This paper aims to re-examine the evidence on U-shaped curve combining female labor participation and economic growth in Turkey over the period 1985-2014. Through this aim, in determination of long term relationship between series Hatemi-J (2008) cointegration test focusing on two structural break was used. After determining that the series were long term cointegrated, DOLS method was used for estimation of long-term coefficients. The results obtained are such supporting Ushaped hypothesis for Turkey. Also, examining the female labor participation rates it is seen that Turkey is in the rising portion of U curve. The most important determinant for female labor participation is educational level especially in the developing countries like Turkey. Analyzing the numbers about the developments of educational level in Turkey, while illiterate female rates were 90,2% in 1935 the rate regressed to 9.2% in 2014. In 1980 while graduated female rate from high schools and their equivalents was 3.5; graduated female rate from college and faculty was 1.6%. According to 2014 data, graduated female rate from high schools and their equivalents was 15% and graduated female rate from college and faculty was 11.7%. Analyzing labor participation rate in terms of educational level it is seen that females participate in labor more as their educational levels increase. According to 2014 data, labor participation rate of illiterate females was 16%, labor participation rate of females lower than high school education was 25.8%, labor participation rate of graduated females from high school was 31.9%, labor participation rate of graduated females from vocational and technical high schools was 39.8% and labor participation rate of graduated females from higher education was 71.3%. These numbers are essential in terms of showing the effects of educational level on female labor participation

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN rates. However, although female labor participation rates increase in parallel with their educational level, when compared to males it is quite a low level. In 2014, while male employment rate was 64.8% the female rate was 26.7%. Female employment is quite important for sustainable economic growth and a balanced social development. Females’ more participation into labor has a lot of macroeconomic and social effects such as gender equality, poverty, health, fertility, child deaths, and savings. Therefore, it is essential that especially the developing countries should produce policies that increase female employment.

REFERENCES Arelano, M. (2003), Panel Data Econometrics Advanced Texts in Econometrics, Great Britain: Oxford University Press. Ambreen, F. and Sultana H.(2009), Tracing out the U-Shape Relationship Between Female Labor Force Participation Rate and Economic Development for Pakistan, Applied Economics Research Centre, University of Karachi. Bloom, D.E.D. Canning, G. Fink, and J.E. Finlay. (2009), Fertility, Female Labor Force Participation, and the Demographic Dividend, Journal of Economic Growth 14:79-101. oserup, E. (1967), Women’s Role in Economic Development. New York: St. Martin’s ress. Cameron, C.A, and Trivedi, P.K. (2005), Supplement to Microeconometrics: Methods and Applications, New York, Cambridge University Press. Chapman, K. A. (2015), Economic Development and Female Labor Force Participation in the Middle East and North Africa: A Test of the U-Shape Hypothesis, Gettysburg Economic Review: Vol. 8, Article 3. Dollar, D. and Roberta G. (1999), Gender Inequality, Income, and Growth: Are Good Times Good For Women, Policy Research Report on Gender and Development Working Paper Series, No: 1, The World Bank. Granger, C.W., Newbold, P. (1974). Spurious Regressions in Econometrics. Journal of Econometrics, 2(2), 111-120. Gregory, A.W. and B.E. Hansen. (1996). Tests for Co‐integration in Models with Regime and Trend Shifts, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 58, 555‐560. Hatemi-J, A., (2008), Tests for Cointegration with Two Unknown Regime Shifts: With An Application to Financial arket Integration,” Empirical Economics, 35, s. 497-505. Hood, M.V., Kidd, Q. and Morris, I.L. (2008), Two Sides Of The Same Coin: Employing Granger Causality Tests İn a Time Series Cross-Section Framework, Political Analysis, 161, 324-344. Holtz- Eakın, ., Newey, W. and Rosen, S. (1988), Estimating Vector Autoregression With Panel Data, Econometrica, 56, 1371-1395. Lahoti, R. and Swaminathan, H. (2013), Economic Development and Female Labor Force Participation in India, IIM Bangalore Research Paper, No:414. Lechman, E. (2014), Female Labor Force Participation and Economic Growth – Re-examination of UShaped Curve”, GUT Faculty of Management and Economics Working Paper Series A, No:3/2014(21).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Lechman, E. and Kaur, H. (2015), Economic Growth and Female Labor Force Participation – Verifying the U-Feminization Hypothesis: New Evidence For 162 Countries Over the Period 1990-2012, Economics and Sociology, Vol.8, No:1, pp.246-257. ammen, K., and C. Paxson, (2000), “Women’s Work and Economic Economic Perspectives, Vol. 14, No. 4: 141-64.

evelopment,” The Journal of

Mujahid, N. and Zafar N.U. (2012), Economic Growth-Female Labour Force Participation Nexus: An Empirical Evidence for Pakistan, The Pakistan Economic Review, Vol:51, İssue:4, 565-586. Narayan, P.K. and Popp, S. (2010), Size and Power Properties of Structural Break Unit Root Tests, Applied Economics, 45:6, 721-728. Olivetti, C. (2013), The Female Labor Force and Long-run Development: The American Experience in Comparative Perspective, NBER Working Paper, 19131. Tımothy, Awoyemi t. and Adetola I. (2006), Gender Inequalities and Economic Efficiency: New Evidence from Cas-sava-based Farm Holdings in Rural South-Western Nigeria, African Development Review, Vol: 18, Number 3, 428-443. Goldin, C. (1995), The U-Shaped Female Labor Force Function in Economic Development and Economic History, in T.P. Schultz (ed.), Investment in Women’s Human Capital. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Durand, J.D. (1975), The Labor Force in Economic Development, Princeton: Princeton University Press. Psacharopoulos, G. and Z. Tzannatos. (1989), Female Labor Force Participation: An International Perspective, World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 4, No. 2: 187-201. Schultz, T.P. (1990), Women’s Changing Participation in the abor Force: A World Perspective, Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 38: 457-488. Schultz, T.P. (1991), International Differences in Labor Force Participation in Families and Firms, Economic Growth Center Working Paper , 634. New Haven: Yale University. Stock, J.H. and Watson, M.W. (1993), A Simple Estimator of Co‐integrating Vectors in Higher Order Integrated Systems, Econometrica, 61, 783‐820. Pampel, F.C. and Tanaka, K. (1986), Economic Development and Female Labor Force Participation: A Reconsideration, Social Forces, 64(3): 599-619. Kottis, A.P. (1990), Shifts Over Time and Regional Variation in Women’s abor Force Participation Rates in a Developing Economy, Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 33: 117-132. Tansel, A. (2002), Economic Development and Female Labor force Participation in Turkey: TimeSeries Evidence and Cross-Province Estimates”, epartment of Economics, Middle East Technical University Working Paper, Ankara, Turkey. Tsani, S., Paroussos, L., Fragiadakis, C., Charalambidis, I. and Capros, P. (2012), Female Labor Force Participation and Economic Development in Southern Mediterranean Countries: What Scenarios for 2030?, Social Science Research Network Publishing, http://ssrn.com/abstract=2187297

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Tuğcu, C.T. (2015), Testing the Neutrality of oney Hypothesis: Cointegration Analysis with Structural Break for the Turkish Economy, Journal of Economic Policy Researches, Vol: 2, Issue:1, 17-31. Turkish Statistical Institute, (2012), Women in Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.tuik.gov.tr. Verme, P. (2015), Economic Development and Female Labor Participation in the Middle East and North Africa: a Test of the U-shape Hypothesis, IZA Journal of Labor & Development, Springer, 4:3. Yılancı, V. and Ozturk, Z.A. (2010), Türkiye ile En üyük eş Ticaret Ortaının Hisse Senedi Piyasaları Arasındaki Entegrasyon İlişkisinin Analizi: Yapısal Kırılmalı irim Kök ve Eşbütünleşme Analizi, Erciyes Universitesi Iktisadi ve Idari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, Vol:36, 261-279.

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CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF FAILED STATE CONCEPT Prof. Dr. Gülise GÖKCE Selçuk University Konya, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Department of Public Administration [email protected] Abstract Several states that cannot fulfil its functions efficiently were kept alive and continued its existence artificially with political purposes in the period before Cold War. However, these states faced with serious problems in fulfilling their functions effectively after the Cold War ended and therefore, subsequently the interest of the blocs was decreased. While some of these states came to the fore of downfall rapidly, and consequently fell, some others could complete founding a state partially and continue their existences. Most of works are related to description of case studies. Although there has been a visible increase in the number of the studies associated with theoretical and methodological basics of the concept in the recent period, it is still limited. The fundamental cause of this is interactive quality of failure and/or downfall period of the states. Causes, provoking and accelerating factors and results are nested in failed or fallen states. The purpose of this study is to explain the concept of failed statemore clearly and to make theoretical attempts to define its object much better. After a short glance of the history of the concept, that is to say, reasons for emergence and its purpose, the fact of failed stateis tried to be defined. State and its functions are mentioned to categorize the concept. The study reveals that numerous factors play an active role in the formation of failed stateand a failed state enters in the process of downfall in the events that political system is late to apply preventive policies. 1. Introduction The interest on the subject has rapidly increased together with the fall of states in Africaand Middle East and terrorist organizations‟ coming into prominence. Correspondingly, there are a great number of studies and publications available on the issue. Majority of the studies on the issue of failed state begins with a reference to September 11. In this respect, it can be said that September 11is a milestone in terms of the concept of failed state as well as in many other senses. The reason for that is both the issue was not an issue limited to African countries and therefore moved to international political platform and the way of the issue‟s being problematized has changed together with September 11. Explicit indicator of this is the fact that the concept of failed stateentered in the security concept of USAand EU and extraordinary increase in the number of literature. In this respect, if there September 11had not occurred; it is probable that the interest on the issue would have been quite low and the concept of failed state would not have overreached being a research question of development. September 11 provided thatthe concept of failed state‟s being perceived as an element not only threatening profits of the west but also security of the west (Lambach, 2015:2). Such that, USAand EU classified the states fell as a result of process of failed state as a threat on their sides rather than invasion of a foreign country. Therefore, the concept of failed state has become the focus of interest of security policies of global principal states. This interest opened a road for deeper research of the relationship between failed statesand terrorism.At this point, the idea that 375

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN there is a symbiotic link between failed statesand terrorism is quite common. For that reason, it is observed that the studies on failed stategenerally handle the subject mainly in terms of the potential of threat for western states (Schneckener, 2004:5) and hence, the studies have the characteristics of suggestion on how this problem will be coped with for global decision makers. Put it differently, failed state is started to be used politically. Naturally, the definition of failed statein these studies is quite limited and narrow; related to this, borders of the concept have not been determined in depth yet. In this study, it will be tried to clarify the concept of failed statein theoretical terms, and with this purpose, current approaches will be dealt with and discussed critically and the reasons for emergence of the concept of failed state, characteristics of it and the factors that lead a state to downfall will be handled comparatively and then various failed statecategorizations will be subjected to a critical analysis. In the last section, the study will be concluded by mentioning how failed state can be determined or measured. As the concept of failed stateis defined as a contrast of concept of a (successful) state, we will explain the concepts of (successful or active) state or stateness here at first. This is because, definition of stateness functions as both a measure/benchmark and ideal. However, a short glance shall be taken on the use of failed state concept in the literature before passing on to this issue. 2. History of the concept of Failed State The concept was expressed by Gerald B. Helman and Steven R. Ratner, two bureaucratsretired from USA Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in 1992 for the first time. Helman and Ratner stated that a new disturbing fact, concept of failed nation state revealed after Cold Warperiod ended and they defined this concept as a state which is fully insufficient to be a member ofinternational community (1992:3). Even though the concept was started to take place in the literature in post-cold war era, it found an intense usage area after September 11, mainly. Accordingly, the concept of failed stateis one of the most important issues discussed in the field of politics in the recent years. It seems that the interest on the issue will increase gradually considering the developments in the worlds. In this respect, well determination of the theoretic frame of meaning and the scope of the concept is significant. This study focuses on this point primarily. However, it will be suitable to look through how and with which purpose the concept is used before analyzing it for its better understanding. The concept is defined under ''failed state'' concept in general under the areas such as politics and public administration, sociology, international relations, economics (Lambach, 2015:1). It is observed that different concepts such as fragile state, quasi state, weak state, state failure, failing state are also used besides the concept of failed state which is generally accepted in the discussions concerning the issue and settled in the literature. These concepts are not synonyms of the concept of failed state; but the concept of failed state provided the integration of those all under a single upper roof. The term of failed state is used as unsuccessful or weak state in Turkish. We preferred using the concept of weak state in our previous studies (Gökçe, 2006a, 2006b and 2007); however, it is observed that the concept of failed state is preferred in Turkish in the recent years. Indeed, we chose this expression in our later studies (see Gökçe and Gökçe, 2012; Gökçe and Gökçe, 2015). We prefer using the term of failed state in this study. The concept of failed statein daily language is used to indicate a situation that the governmental institutions (army, security, judgement, education, health, infra structure, transportation, Finance etc.) in a state lose their capacity to perform their functions to a great extent and consequently, have the risk 376

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN of losing their legitimacy (Helman/Ratner, 1992; Migdal, 1998; Rotberg, 2004; Schneckener, 2004). It is seen that a process is in question here when its progress is considered. It is not always necessary that this process results in collapse. It is possible for the states to overcome this situation. That is to say, some states can manage this process well and thus turn the state into a functional system, but some cannot manage this process and lose their legitimacy before public; however those states preserve their status of being state in the international arena. For instance, Somali, Tanzania, Republic of the Congo, Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria etc.lost their characteristics of stateness to a large extent but still ranked in the list of states. As the term of failed stateis used as opposition of a (successful) state and as stateness is considered both as a measure/benchmark and ideal,the concept of (successful or active) state is briefly emphasized in the following. 2.1. The concept of modern state Present understanding of state was built on the fact of state formed in Europe in 17 th and 18th century (Schneckener, 2006:17). However, it cannot be said that there is a consensus on what state is and what state should be. The features of the state differ according to ideological position. It is not deemed necessary to mention about different conceptualization of state as it will go beyond the purpose of the study. Max Weber and Georg Jellinekis generally based on in western literature in the conceptualization of modern state. Max Weber defines state as its monopoly to use legitimate violence, being the most important feature of the state. According to this, state is 'a community keeping the monopoly of using physical force legally on a certain piece of land‟ (1964:822). Two of the most important features in the conceptualization of state of Weber are monopoly of using violence and legitimacy. Those two characteristics are the fundamental conditions for a state to fulfil its functions. It is possible to infer from the definition of Weber that basic functions of the states are “providing the sustainability of monopoly of legal violence” and “preserving the integrity of state/land”. And legitim acyremains as problematic (Seidl, 2007:34). The reason for that islegitimacy is evaluated as a feature of democratic states or communities and therefore as an indicator of failed states in most instances (State Failure Task Force, 1999: 14-16). Whereas, not only democratic states but also authoritarian regime can be legitimate (see Gökçe, 2016). In this sense, states‟ capacity of performance of their functions play more important role than other elements in the legitimacy of the states. Another concept referred in the conceptualization of state is “three elements doctrine” developed by Georg Jellinek. These three elements are: State territory, state sovereigntyand people. These three elements are the must conditions for generation of the status of state. Different from Max Weber, the thing which is significant, as per Jellinek, is not the legitimacy of state sovereignty but the efficiency of the state. The state sovereigntyand consequently the state is concrete on that condition when state sovereignty is really and continuously successful (1960:174-185). The monopoly of using legal violence is stated as constituent element both in Hem Weber‟s and Jellinek‟s definition. Preserving territorial integrity of state and providing security are in the foreground as functions of the states according to both philosophers. In addition to this, providing financial sources comes next in the opinion of Jellinek. The states that cannot fulfil these functions derived from this ideal concept of state, adequately or not at all are deemed and classified as failed 377

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2.2.

The concept of failed state

There is not a definition available which is generally accepted in the literature concerning the term of failed state. As it was specified previously, failed statesness is a situation that comes out when a state loses its administrative capacity and cannot perform its fundamental functions (Schneckener, 2004; Rotberg, 2004). In this perspective, failed state is used to explain a “negative case” (Lambach, 2015). Therefore, it is confronted that basing on understanding of a functional state in the definition of failed stateis the most correct method. In this regard, Schneckener‟s functions category can be adopted. Schneckener systematized the functions of the state as security, welfare and legitimacy-state of law(2004:15-16). The most important function of the state is ensuring territorial integrity against internal and external threats and safety of life and property. Internal security is a little bit complex as it contains a set of activities and shall be classified within itself. These are: providing the monopoly of legal violence, providing superiority of law and justice, maintaining the order, fight against crimes and offenders, counter terrorism etc. As for the function of welfare; service and transfer performance of the state is expressed in welfare, politics of the state (education, health, economy, communication and transportation, employment, infrastructural investments etc.). The thing meant with the function of legitimacyand state of lawis states‟ providing political participation of its citizens by means of elections or encouraging formation of political parties and guaranteeing their political rights (speech, assembly, freedom to form association etc.). It is required for the states to establish an administrative capacity, high security, public administration, economy (revenue, finance) system and an independent legal order. According to Schneckener, an active and stable state is only possible when its functions in the aforementioned fields are fulfilled adequately and a state needs an active security system to perform all its functions above all. This is because, it is not that much possible for a state to perform its functions in other two main areas and to make those sustainable when stability in the field of security cannot be provided (Rotberg, 2004; Schneckener, 2004 and 2006). In this context, partial existence or no existence of monopoly of violence is the basic indicator and characteristic sign of failed state (Küpeli, 2015).This approach to conceptualization of failed state is common (Weinmann, 2011:16). 2.3. Categorization/typology of failed Ideal types that will reveal the progress from a functional state to failed state are needed to classify the state. With this purpose, there are four stateness typology most frequently used in the literature (Rotberg, 2004:2; Schneckener, 2004:15-16). These four types of state are: 1) consolidating/strong state, 2) weak state, 3) failing state, 4) failed/collapsed state.

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1)

Consolidating/strong state: This state has a strong security capacity that will preserve national unity, territorial integrity and borders of the state and has the capacity and power to perform fundamental functions in basic areas. Furthermore, this type of state has high administrative capacity and union between state and citizens, therefore different ethnical groups and religious groups feel themselves integrated and depend on the dominant culture and therefore do not set off on a quest of disintegration (Holsti, 1996; Schneckener, 2004; Rotberg, 2004).

2)

Weak state: The function of security is performed to a great extent in this type of state; however, serious malfunctions are in question for other functions. Therefore, while these states are carrying out the security function successfully to a point, a functional legal and judicial system almost non-existing, in the same way, there are significant troubles also in the delivery of basic public services. Moreover, the period of becoming a nation has not been completed and hence, ethnics and religion-based disintegrations and polarizations are common and turn into conflicts mostly. To be brief, administrative capacity of this type of state is quite limited in general sense (Holsti, 1996; Rotberg, 2004; Migdal, 1988; Schneckener, 2004; Seidl, 2007).

3)

Failing state: This type of state is insufficient to fulfil both its internal and external security (eliminating the threats directed on the state and controlling the borders). Mostly, state only has control and administrative capacity in certain parts of the country; correspondingly, public order and individual safety of life and property is not in question. Terrorist organizations, crime syndicates, mafia and that kind of illegal organizations are powerful within the country and they are continuously in conflict with both security forces of the state and among themselves. Economy and finance systems operate very slowly but black economy is high and smuggling is prevalent. Basic functions such as electric, water and health, and communication and transportation are limited. As the states are in difficulty with performance of their functions, particularly the security function, citizens do not feel themselves bound to the state or the community and seeks security and solidarity in community,tribes, and ethnics-based separatist organizations. As a result of this, these kinds of organizations see people as their property and exploit them (Zartman, 1995). If a civil war is in question in the consequence of all those developments, it means that the last phase is reached, that is to say that the state has collapsed. However, very few states have collapsed completely and ceased to exist in the history. Most of the time, states end the internal conflicts with the help of external powers and turn the state of being weak state and continue their existence.

4)

Failed/collapsed state: This is the last phase. The state is finished actually and collapsed in real sense. The structures comprised of non-state actors take the place of the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN state. These structures provide order through violence and oppression. Schneckener stated that a distinction is required to be made here on these two issues (2004:16). First of these is the situation of states‟ dismissal of themselves without any conflict as in Soviets Union (Zartman, 1995). The other one is states‟ division and disintegration as a result of intense ethnics or religion-based civil war and leaving their places to new small or artificial states.

After categorization of the states on the basis of their functionalities, now we can address failed stateness or the factors that lead to the collapse of the state. 2.4.

The factors that weaken the state and result in its collapse

There are several approaches to explain the collapse or failure of the state (see Lambach/Bethke, 2012:13). Each of these approaches handles and views the issue from a certain point of view. To repeat it again, failed statesness is a process that comes out as a result of the fact that states lose the administrative capacities of their agencies and thus cannot fulfil functions in the core fields and that interaction of different factors and takes place after certain phases (Schneckener, 2004:12). The weight of these factors may vary according to situation and condition that is to say from country to country (Schneckener, 2004:17). Schneckener systematized and tabulated the factors causing failed stateness under certain categories. This table is given in the following. The factors causing failed stateness Structural factors Processual factors Triggering factors -the level of being integrated -the countries having civil -foreign military with economy of the world war/conflicts in the territory intervention instability in the - activities of international effects of territory/instable/failed violence networks (crime exterior economic neighboring states syndicates/mafia) crisis -breaks in petrol, International - effect of big and powerful - economic crisis and civil war in mine and raw or territorial international states - dependency of economic neighboring-borderlands material prices platform assistance on international - regional ecological collapse - refugee influxes institutions weapon, munitions entrance -acts of god and drought -structural heritages (political - rapid decrease in standards -rapid handover of and executive traditions) of living the government -ethnic structure of the - instrumentalization of social (military coup, riot, community unrest with political purposes regime shift) National demographic factors - politization of ethnic -exclusion of platform (natality, child mortality, identities/differences opposition and youthful population) - increase in ideological keeping it under -shortage of resources or separation/polarization in the oppression

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Local platform

imbalanced distribution of resources -rentier economy prone to crisis -effects of traditional power forms (patrimonial structures, tribe structures) - the lessons taken from the conflicts occurred in the past -level of trust on government bodies -level of satisfaction about public services -corruption -capacity to collect tax -struggle for power among institutions and actors -center-periphery gap (escape, migration from rural area etc. ) -different levels of development of the regions - regional or local identities

society - exclusion of certain groups in the society - increase in corruption and favoritism - increase in violence in the society and individuals‟ and towards defensing themselves -failure of democratization attempts - increase in ecological problems (drought etc.) -decrease in the income of the state -resource output/leak -deficiencies in public services -rapid increase in violence rate in cities - increase of organizedcrime syndicates on local basis -increase in local nationalism/ethnic discrimination movements - struggle for power on local basis

-quick deterioration of economic status (social unrests/explosions/ plunderage) -hunger, epidemics -occurrence of civil war -hyperinflation and economic recession -power vacuums -increase in protests against political power

-local rebellions -power struggle/conflicts between local among -increase in congregational structures and power struggles on local basis

Source: It is the form of Schneckener’s table adopted into Turkish (see 2004:19) As it is observed in the Table, Schneckener made a conceptual distinction between structural, processual and triggering factors with the objective of analyzing the features, reasons and consequences of the states entered into the period of collapse as a result of failed statesness. According to this, it is revealed that political, cultural and economic structural factors and regional factors are the actors that lead to the collapse of a state. The effects of these factor groups are briefly mentioned in the following. Political-cultural structural factors:These factors are the political, social, cultural and structural characteristics and conditions specific to the country. We can see these characteristics ascolonial or empire heritage, understanding of patrimonial management, multi-ethnic, demographic development (rapid increase of youthful population, population density). Especially, if national identity is not in question in the communities having multi-ethnic structure, it will be hard to integrate these groups within a state. As ethnics and cultural differences are instrumentalized with political purposes by the prominents of the groups, polarizations and divisions occur and this brings conflicts and collapses of 381

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN the states most of the times (Seidl, 2007:38). In this same direction, colonial or empire heritage also negatively effects generation and institutionalization of the idea of new state, and construction of a new community in the axis of national identity (Englebert, 1977; Buzan, 1991; Lambach/Bethke, 2012:14). The fact that the rate of youthful population is dense within total population and extreme overpopulation also cause inner unrest and therefore, have an accelerating influence on weakening of a state (Goldstone et al., 2005). In general, there is a consensus on the hypothesis that understanding of patrimonial management empties the inside of state agencies and causes a demolishing effect on stateness (see Büttner, 2004; Erdmann, 2003; Rotberg, 2004; Schneckener, 2004). It is one of the opinions that are set forth in some studies that authoritarian regimes erode the agencies deliberately (Howard, 2008; Kraxberger, 2007). Therefore, power‟s and/or political elites‟ having favoring attitude and behavior has an efficient role in weakening and collapse of states (Schenckener, 2004:18). Economic factors: According to Schneckener, rentier economy, resource shortage, lack of competition, economy‟s not integrated with economy of the world, structural reforms‟ not being carried out and suchlike factors cause inequality in income distribution, impoverishment of people, pillaging of resources and pessimism and struggle for resource share particularly in youths and hence constitute a substantial risk for the collapse of the states (2004). International and territorial factors: political crisis and conflicts in neighbor-borderlands negatively affect the stability of neighboring countries. As per Schneckener, global risks and threats reveal out of local problems and conflicts (2003:11). Civil war or conflict take place in neighbor state has a negative influence on the commerce and economy of neighbor state and result in mass migration/immigrant problem, and capital flight. As a result of that, political stability of a state is suffers from erosion, its economic and social structure is distorted and thus the state enters in the period of collapse. Furthermore, sectors such as international capital and weapon industry show interest to failed states in these kinds of situations. This may have various reasons: for instance, to interfere in the internal affairs of neighbor country, to receive lands, to reach underground sources are just some of these. They can achieve their purposes by several means but most frequently used ones are inciting and arming religious and ethnic minorities, and supporting opposition groups materially and morally (Seidl, 2007:46). Collapse of the state due to civil wars or external interferences in neighbor countries constitutes a great risk for other states. Together with the collapse of the state, triggered by emergence of terrorist organizations and the groups fighting one another, migration weakens economic, political and social structures of the neighbor countries and the potential of conflict between local people and immigrants increase. Furthermore, terrorist organizations portrayneighbor countries as target of their terrorist actions when they cannot take adequate financial and human resource support from them. These kinds of incidences are generally intrumentalized by certain groups in the community. All in all, those are all the factors that trigger the collapse of a state. 3. Measurability problem of failed stateness It is observed that there are two different approaches used to determine failed stateness in general. First one of those is quantitative approach in indexes instance. And the other one is qualitative approach in typology instance. Quantitative approach: the issue of failed statesness is not only the subject of scientific studies. Great numbers of institutions, such as Fund for Peace (FFP) being in the first place, The World Bank, 382

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN and OECD do researches on the issue. Since 2005, FFPrates on basis of certain indicators, based on the information acquired from interviews with certain people and the data coming from certain international and local media resources of 178 states of that year, and publishes reports on this (Öğüt, 2013: 168). Describing itself of USA origin independent research and training institution, FFP‟s definition indicates that when government of a state loses physical control in the country or deficiency in the monopoly of legal force arises, failure of the state is in question. With this purpose, FFPcreated twelve indicators to determine the status of stateness of the state and divided these indicators into three groups under which there are four social indicators, two economic indicators, six political and military indicators. Aforementioned indicators are listed as in the following taking group titles into consideration: I. Group: Social Indicators 1. Demographicoppressions (acts of god, environmental problems, pollution, food deficiency…) 2. Refugeesand displaced persons 3. Problems of group (Discrimination, denominational-religious-ethnic violence…) 4. Human and brain drain II. Group: Economic Indicators 5. Unstable economic development 6. Poverty and economic fall III. Group: Political and Military Indicators 7. Legitimacyof the state (Corruption, effectiveness of government, drugstrade, level of democracy…) 8. Public services (crime rate, literacy rate, infrastructure, energy reliability, roads, internet service…) 9. Human rights and state of law 10. Security systematic 11. Fractionized

elites

(struggles

for

power,

political

competition,

rigged

poles,

asylum-seekers) 12. External intervention (existence of UN powers, non-state assistance, armed intervention coming out of state, sanctions…)

FFP specifies over 60 countries as failed state on basis of these 12 indicators. Quantitative approachis open to criticism in several perspectives. A great part of these critics are related to compilation and quality of data. It is not certain according to what extent the data are assessed and how the data are acquired. Furthermore, it is another question how the data are acquired in unstable countries with violence. It can be stated in general that the data are based on subjective perceptions and evaluations rather than objective methods (Lambach, 2015:4; Weinmann, 2011:17). Therefore, the data do not fulfil reliability and validity criteria.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN On the contrary, qualitative approaches are seen failed stateness as a process including different phases and try to explain the fact with state typology. Primary representatives of this model are Rotberg (2003 and 2004) and Schneckener (2004). As typologies of both philosophers, particularly, of Schneckener is given above, these models are not mentioned here to avoid repetition. To be brief, this model developed by Schneckener is assessed as one of the successful and most suitable methods for description and analysis of failed state; the fact that there have been several comparative empirical researches carried out thanks to this model is the indicator of this (see Weinmann, 2011:21-22). However, borders are among the criteria in state typology are interlocked, that is, making an exact discrimination from one another cannot be provided. 4. Conclusion It is clearly seen that scientific researches concerning failed stateare grounded on concept of modern state based on western ideation. In this regard, a deduction from “required to be” ideal state to “present situation”is made and it is explained how a successful state should be or should be formed with the eye of west. In other words, level of stateness of the state is tried to be determined on the basis of western understanding of state. From the point of ideal state envision, a state function model is formed and other states are classified on the basis of this model. It is for certain that the requirements that the states shall fulfil are turned into universal norms gradually. However, evaluating all states with functions derived from west-indexed ideal state understanding without taking historical and social heritage, experience and conditions into consideration, is of no use but rendering service to orientalist point of view. As modern is seen as normal condition politically, political pressure is applied to other communities by international institutions in the direction of its transfer to other states. A policy transfer undertaken as a result of oppression has a significant role in the collapse of states. In this sense, neoliberal state understanding transferred by the World Bank to developing and underdeveloped countries plays an important role among the factors that drive many failed state into the period of collapse in the recent years (Gökçe, 2011; Gökçe and Gökçe, 2015). The researches have such an understanding that failed state will absolutely evolve into a fallen state. Indeed, it is required to distinguish these both phases from one another. The life is not roseate in failed states but an environment where everyone is in fight with everyone is not in question. The term of failed state symbolizes misgovernment, constant crisis situation, and internal conflict situation. Failed statesness refers to the fact that the state cannot fulfil its functions sufficiently in some fields but continues its legitimacy. Therefore, numerous failed states better their position and pass on to an upper category or at least keeps their positions. On the contrary, fallen statemeans state‟s being disappear, but although those fallen states lose their existence in itself, their existence is not deemed to end in terms of international law but these states lose their capacity of movement in international law. Either new artificial states are formed in the place of these states or legal existence of these states is continued with international aid and support. Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and Libya are the most apparent examples of this case. If new states are founded instead of these states, then existence of these former ended in terms of international law. As for failed states, state exists both in domestic and abroad. That is to say, those states also have the capacity to move in international politics. This example of Zartman 384

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN in metaphoric sense obviously shows this: the process of collapse of the states can be compared with an object. If a ladder is considered, the object descends to lower step of the ladder, experience all processes there and it‟s getting change. In this process, the object either keeps its balance and hence stabilizes or cannot keep its balance and falls down to one lower step and repeat the process (2001:20). When the states reach to the lowest step of the ladder, it means that they are collapsed. As it can be understood from this example, the problem of failed state is quite complex. New empirical studies to be carried out within the scope of current qualitative approaches in this field will contribute significantly to better understanding of the issue.

References

Buzan, Barry (1991), People, States and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War Era. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. Büttner, Annette (2004), Staatszerfall als neues Phänomen der internationalen Politik. Theoretische Kategorisierung und empirische Überprüfung, Marburg. Englebert, Pierre (1997), The Contemporary African State: Neither African nor State, Third World Quarterly 18, No. 4, ss. 467-475. Fund For Peace (2014), Fragile States Index 2014, http://ffp.statesindex.org/rankings-2014 Goldstone, Jack A., Ted Robert Gurr, Barbara Harff, Marc A. Levy, Monty G. Marshall, Robert H. Bates, David L. Epstein, Colin H. Kahl, Pamela T. Surko, John C. Ulfelder, Jr., and Alan N. Unger, in consultation with Matthew Christenson, Geoffrey D. Dabelko, Daniel C. Esty, and Thomas M. Parris (2000), State Failure Task Force Report: Phase III Findings. McLean, VA: Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), September 30, Gordenker, Leon. Refugees in International Politics. New York Gökçe, Gülise (2007), Güçlü ve Zayıf Devlet Tartışmaları Bağlamında Türkiye, Çizgi Kitabevi, Konya. Gökçe, Gülise and Gökçe, Orhan (2012), Suriye Sorunu: „Başarısız veya Çöken Devlet Modeli Türkiye İçin Suriye Politikasında Uluslararası Kamuoyunu Harekete Geçirmenin Bir Aracı Olabilir mi?, Selçuk Üniversitesi İİBF Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, Sayı 23 (2012), ss. 179 – 200. Gökçe, Gülise (2006a), Devlet Sınıflandırmaları ve Zayıf Devletlerin Karakteristik Özellikleri, Selçuk Üniversitesi İİBF Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, S. 11, Y. 6 (2006), ss. 343- 359. Gökçe, Gülise (2006b), Devleti Yeniden Keşfetmek: Devlet Gücünün Göstergesi Olarak İdari Kapasite, Gazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, C. 8, S. 3 (2006), ss.203-230. Gökçe, Gülise and Gökçe Orhan (2015), Devlet Kapasitesi: Kavramın Kuramsal Çerçevesi, Bileşenleri ve Türkiye‟nin Görünümü, Gazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, C. 17, S. 2 (2015), ss.1-34. Gökçe, Orhan (eds.) (2016), Siyaset Sosyolojisi, Konya, Çizgi Kitabevi. 385

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Helman, Gerald B./Ratner, Steven B. (1992), Saving Failed States, Foreign Policy, 1992 (89), ss. 3-20. Holsti, Kalevi J. (1996), The State, War and the State of War, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Studies in International Relations, 51), Cambridge/New York/Melbourne. Howard, Tiffany O. (2008), Revisiting State Failure: Developing a Causal Model of State Failure Based upon Theoretical Insight, Civil Wars 10, No. 2 (2008), ss. 125-146. Jellinek, Georg. 1929: Allgemeine Staatslehre.

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Kraxberger, Brennan M. (2007), Failed States: Temporary Obstacles to Democratic Diffusion or Fumdamental Holes in the World Political Map?, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 28, N. 6 (2007), ss.1055-1071. Küpeli, İsmail (2010), Die Rede vom „gescheiterten Staat‟-Legitimierung neoliberaler Weltordnung und militaerischer Interventionen, Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung, Online Publikation. Lambach, Daniel and Bethke, Felix (2012), Ursachen von Staatskollaps und fragiler Staatlichkeit, Eine Übersicht über den Forschungsstand, INEF-Report, 106/2012, Universitaet Duisburg-Esen. Lambach, Daniel (2015), Fragile Staaten in der Vergleichenden Politikwissenschaft, Handbuch Vergleichende Politikwissenschaft, ss. 1-10. Migdal, Joel S. (1988), Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World, Princeton. Öğüt, Selman (2013), Başarısız Devlet Kavramının İncelenmesi, MÜHF-HAD, C. 19, ss. 163-177. Rotberg, Robert I. (ed.) (2004). When States Fail: Causes and Consequences, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ss. 1-45. Rotberg, Robert I. (ed.) (2003), State Failure and State Weakness in a Time of Terror. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Schneckener, Ulrich (2003), Staatszerfall als Bedrohung-Fragile Staaten und transnationaler terrosimus, Internationale Politik, H. 11, ss. 11-19. Schneckener, Ulrich (2004a), State at Risk. Fragile Staaten als Sicherheits- und Entwicklungsproblem. SWP-Studie 43, Berlin. Schneckener, Ulrich (2004b): Transnationale Terroristen als Profiteure fragiler Staatlichkeit, Berlin: SWP-Studien. Schneckener, Ulrich (2005), Staatlichkeit als Globales Sciherheitsrisiko, APuZ, Nr. 28-29, ss. 26-31. 386

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Schneckener, Ulrich (2006), States at Risk, Zur Analyse fragiler Staatlichkeit Schneckener, U. (Hrsg.), Fragile Staatlichkeit “Staat at Risk”, Zwischen Stabilitaet und Scheitern, Baden-Baden, ss. 9-40. Seidl, Bernhard (2007), “Failing States, Der Kollaps staatlicher Institutionen und sozialer Regelsysteme”, Strassener, Alexander and Klein, Margrete (Hrsg.), Wenn Staaten scheiten, Weisbaden, ss. 31-50. State Failure Task Force (1999), State Failure Task Force Report: Phase II: Findings, Environmental Change & Security Project Report 5, www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/stfail/SFTF%20Phase%20III%20Report%20Final.pdf. Weber, Max (1964), Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Köln-Berlin. Weinmann, Nico (2011), Somalische Piraten von der Küste eines Failed State? Eine kritische Auseinandersetzung mit dem Konzept des Staatszerfalls, Hans Böckler Stiftung, Working paper 02/2011. Zartman, I. William (Ed.) (1995): Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority. Boulder: Lynne Rienner. Zartman, I. William (2001), Zerfall und Wiederherstellung legitimer staatlicher Strukturen, Von Arnim, Gabriele et. al. (Hrsg.), Jahrbuch Menschenrechte 2002, Frankfurt, ss. 17-27.

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COLLAPSED STATES IN MIDDLE-EAST AND THE ROLE OF THE FOREIGN INTERVENTION - ANALYSIS OF SYRIA EXAMPLE Prof. Dr. Gülise GÖKCE Selçuk University Konya, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Department of Public Administration [email protected] Abstract Border neighbors of Turkey have collapsed one by one. This process has severe influence on Turkey in every sense. Failed states are turned into ideal places for international terrorist organizations; because, civil war chaos and anarchy become common, that is to say efficient and determinant, in these states as means for using violence have collapsed in the states entering in the process of collapse or failed states and correspondingly lose their control, administration and action capacity. As this process brings with violation of human rights, popularization of criminal incidents, collapse of basic public services, and collapse of economy, local people face with hunger, violence, rape, civil war, genocide, and suchlike cases and consequently, are forced to abandon their houses and homelands, in other words, immigration. Hence, this is exactly what neighbors of Turkey face. This process triggered an intense migration wave to Turkey and approximately about three million immigrants have come to Turkey from neighbor countries in a short period of time. For that reason, states’ being weak, entering into the process of collapse and/or collapse influence regional peace deeply. Therefore, collapsing states or failed states is one of the most important reasons for both regional and international instability. This study focuses on what can be done and how this can be done about fallen states as a result of failed statesness. In this respect, the question of how a potential external interference may play a role in ceasing the period of collapse and establishment an order again is discussed.

1.

Introduction

Being one of the outstanding philosophers in the issue of failed state, Schneckener (2006:98) states that the state in modern world of our age performs bilateral order function theoretically at the same time. According to this, state maintains the public order of the community within its territorial borders on one hand, and all states form international system together and are in the position of primary carrier of global order, on the other hand. Different types of stateness (weak, non-functional, in the period of collapse and fallen states) are not able to perform these two functions that are required to be fulfilled by the state. Hence, failed states result in problems not only in regional or national but also international dimensions. Nowadays, various states cannot perform their most fundamental functions and liabilities toward its public and responsibilities towards the international state system as a member due to the fact that the lost their administrative capacities in the fields of security, wellness and law. The issue of failed statewas considered as a local and regional problem requiring military intervention of external powers, for a long time. This point of view has changed to a great extent with September 11. After September 11, the opinion that failed states are elements that directly threaten the security of international system has gained importance. In other words, the idea that the threats and dangers that failed states generate are not in local or regional level any more, and affect international order 388

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN (refugeeinflux, arms smuggling, terrorism, human calamities) has started to spread rapidly. Basic reason of this is that radicals, terrorists and criminals start to penetrate in and use these areas as base as the governments of failed states cannot establish authority in large part of the country. This case directed the global powers such as USA and EU to problematize the failed states in terms of their own security. As a consequence, USA and EUtried to adapt their security strategies to changing conditions.It is frequently specified in the literature that USA and EU do this on purpose and conscious, that is instrumentalize the concept of failed state with political purposes (see Öğüt, 2013:172). There may be some truth to these opinions. But it is a fact that the threats and dangers that the countries cause when they are in the period of collapse or collapsed and fallen statesas a result of failed statesness, as in the example of Syria, have reached to dangerous extent notably the countries of the region and then the EU countries. These short explanations point out that fallen statesare a threat on regional and international level independent from the thesis of that those are instrumentalized by global dominant powers. In this sense, fallen states‟ having a serious potential brings forward the question of how the problem of fallen stateswill be coped with unavoidably. To put it more explicitly, these kinds of questions await replies: what kinds of risks, threats and dangers come up from a collapsed state to the neighbor countries? How can neighbor and other external countries affected from the collapse of a state can maintain their security? What are the strategies and methods that directly affected neighbor countries may apply to protect themselves? This study tries to find answers to these questions based on the current studies, primarily.Samplesin the past have shown that there are different methods and ways in seeking solution to these kinds of questions. These methods can be divided into two as internal and external interventions. Before passing to this subject, the concepts of fallen state and the states in the period of collapse, forming the end points of failed statesness and the results caused by fallen state shall briefly be explained. 2.

The concept of failed state

There is not a definition available which is commonly accepted for the term of failed state. For that reason, our conceptual explanations will be based on the typology of failed stateness developed by Rotberg and Schneckener, who are the leading scholars with their studies in the field of failed states. developed four different stateness typologies such Rotberg (2003) and Schneckener (2004a), assecurity, welfare, stateness of law over the main functions that a state is required to fulfil. These are: Consolidatingor strong state, weak state, failing state and failed/collapsed state. As our subject is failed state, we will only define the characteristics of falling state and failed/collapsed state. Failing state is inadequate to perform both its internal and external security functions (controlling its borders and eliminating the external threats directed on the existence of the country). Mostly, state has only the capacity of administration of control in certain parts of country‟s lands; depending on this, public order and individual safety of life and property is not in question. Terrorist organizations, crime syndicates, mafia and that kind of illegal organizations are powerful within the country and they are continuously in conflict with both security forces of the state and among themselves. Economy and finance systems operate very slowly but black economy is high and smuggling is prevalent. Basic functions such as electric, water and health, and communication and transportation are limited 389

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN (Zartman, 1995; Rotberg, 2004; Schneckner, 2004a). Failed/collapsed staterefers to the last phase, end point in the level of failed.The state is finished actually and collapsed in real sense. In collapsing or fallen states, the monopoly of using violence and based on this, maintaining safety of property and life has become limited to a large extent. State has completely lost its control outside of the center. Therefore, the structures comprised by non-state actors have taken the place of state (Schneckener, 2004a). 3.

Effects of failed states

The results of a failed states come with some problems as it is in the issue of its reasons. For instance, internal conflict or civil war can both be a reason and result at the same time. Thus, common points of the researches will be stated herein. The factors specified in the literature can be grouped under two in terms of conclusions in term of socio-economicresults and security policy (Büttner, 2004:17). These factors will be shortly mentioned in the following. i)

Socio-economicresults

A fallen state is incapable to meet the needs of its public, is about to be dismember and forms the basis for several problems (flesh and drugs trade, organized crimes, refugee transfer and spread of weaponry of mass destructions as well as terrorism and civil wars ) as it cannot maintain its territorial integrity (Büttner, 2004; Schneckener, 2004a; Rotberg, 2004; Weinmann, 2011). The society, and especially the youth are extremely criminalized in fallen states. This is because, economic system has also collapsed in a collapsed state. The collapse of economic system brings with increasing unemployment, devaluation, recession, revenue loss, serious cash outflow etc. the consequence of these is poverty, and in this context, not providing the most basic daily needs (food, health etc.). And this causes some adverse events in the society such as hungerand communicable diseases and civil war. The community seeks solution to get rid of this situation by migrating to cities or neighbor countries. Collapse of economic system particularly influence the youth in negative manner. The youth loses their dreams and envisions on future. This case triggers youth to tend to terrorist organizations, crime syndicates engaged with drugs, organize crime syndicates, and separatist terrorist organizations on ethnicor communion base (Büttner, 2004:17). International terrorist organizationsand crime syndicatesmake hard efforts to provide their human resources they need, from the young people of fallen states. However, it is an important issue that is to be emphasized that human resources of internationalterrorist organizations comprise of the youth living in developed countries. ii)

Results in terms of security policy

Violence becomes common and routine in a fallen state. Therefore, ethnicwars and political groups that are in fight with one another are observed in collapsing or collapsed states (Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria etc.). Another significant result of fallen state is that chemical and weaponry of mass destruction belong to the army, fall into the hands of terrorist organizations, organizedcrime syndicates, separatist terrorist organizations on ethnic or communion base. There is a wide reconciliation on the fact that internationalterroristgroups generally come up in falling states and these states (Iraq, Syriaetc.) become a base for extreme terrorist networks (see Büttner, 2004; Rotberg, 2004; Schneckener, 2005).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Therefore, the wars among the states leave the place to internal conflicts and paramilitary actors, warlords, criminal groups, child soldiers, terrorists or mercenaries substitute for the regular armies (Büttner, 2004:17-18). It is also stated that government groups directly or indirectly support terrorist groups in country‟s land in falling states to thrust themselves to the forefront in local and internationallevel and to create the sense of their being irreplaceable (Seidl, 2007:49). Civil wars and conflicts arising from a state‟s being non-functional and collapse result in a set of problems such as gross human rights violations, ethnic cleansing, drugsand flesh trade, and arms trade. This negative life conditions caused by civil war lead to people‟s abandoning their countries and escaping to neighbor countries or refugee influx to neighbor countries. This case, necessarily, threatens and endangers security, political and economic stability in neighbor countries. In this process, it is stated that it is frequently encountered case that members of terrorist organizations also cross the border as refugee as if ordinary citizen with the purpose of make the neighbor country focus on its inside rather than outside of its country, and providing that they are dealing with their own countries rather than the country they use as a base (Büttner, 2004; Schneckener, 2005). It is a known fact that ethnic-basedseparatist terrorist organizations make hard efforts to draw neighbor countries into a civil war, particularly, if people of the same ethical group live in two different regions of the border. This can be called as “strategy of implication”. “Strategy of ditch” implemented by PKK terrorist organization in southeastern part of Turkey recently is nothing buta reflection of “strategy of implication”. 4.

Struggling methods for failed states

If failed statesstart to incline to collapse and cannot maintain security of life and property of their people in this period of time, and cannot save its people from gross human rights violations and war crimes, and if these incidents gain continuity, then internationalcommunity has to right to intervene in these states in two different ways. One of these ishumanitarian intervention and the right to military quality armed intervention,in the event that not any result can be got of humanitarian intervention (Ulusoy, 2013:274). As a result of the fact that the concept of humanitarian interventionwas subjected to intense critics in 1990s, the term of responsibility to protectwas developed and got into circulation alternatively. The concept expresses states‟ protecting their citizens from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansingand crimes against humanity in large general sense. States have two different responsibilities here as internal and external responsibility. Internal responsibility refers to state‟s taking on the responsibility of protection of people‟s right to live, security of life and property and external responsibility means state‟s respecting to other states‟ sovereignty rights. In the event that states cannot fulfil these responsibilities thoroughly, internationalcommunity come into play and take on the responsibility and will be able to use all rights that international law gives it (see Ulusoy, 2013: 274-276; Aksoy, 2016:1-3). Responsibility to protect hascomplementary quality and foresees a three-phase responsibility model. First one of these phases is prevention; second isresponse/reaction and third is reconstruction (Ulusoy, 2013:275). “Responsibility of response/reaction” means taking action and using violence. As per this, when economic sanctions, cooperation with inland opposing groups that is to say that preventive measures not including violence are unsuccessful, internationalcommunity assumes the responsibility and take action and intervene in an effective way. 391

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN There is not one well-accepted concept concerning reconstruction process. For instance, EU subscribes to intervening in with the aim of preventing the collapse of failed stateness and its chief purpose is to reconstruct stateness; it assess the reconstruction of stateness as a part of policy of development. On the contrary, USA sees construction of a state as a part of military intervention (Bürger, 2007:22). In this respect, it is observed that the terms of construction of state and construction of nation are used in different meanings. In general, USAmentions about construction of nation while EU mentions about the construction of state. However, it is almost impossible to construct nation in multi-ethnic communities; or at least, it is far long-termed process. On the contrary, construction of state is easier; because the construction of state is an activity that can be conducted within a plan (Fukuyama, 2004:141). Construction of state refers making state institutions that will fulfil fundamental functions, notably security function functional to prevent the collapse of states showing tendency to collapse as a result of failed statesness. It is required for successful process of construction of a state that internationalcommunity shall have strong military existence and strong consultant army presence in the aforementioned country. The opinion that this way is more common in a bipolar world, and could not achieve the desired success with the end of bipolar world is quite common. The reason for that is the states acting humanitarian interventiondo not support allocating much material and nonmaterial resource and generally, prefer using local power stand up for change with this purpose. This both extends the process and limits the likelihood of success. This is because humanitarian intervention foresees disarming warring internal powers and integration with the society again, at the same time. But, theory and practice disaccord at this point. Warring inland internal armed groups do not want to hand in their weapons thinking that heavy weapons and technological opportunities they have provide themselves a power domain. But, laying down the arms and passing into reconstruction process is not possible without building consensus among warring groups. This consensus can only be possible with the attempts of internationalcommunity. Internationalcommunity‟s managing the process within cooperation with near neighbor countries is quite significant for ending internal conflicts and maintaining peace and tranquility environment. However, in such case, the necessity of that neighbor states shall not pursue any imperial goal, and shall treat all ethnic groupsequally and respect to territorial integrity and social structure all of the country intervened in is emphasized; otherwise, it is specified that an international intervention containing neighbor countries will not end but deepen the conflict (Büttner, 2004:21). It is also highlighted that power holders/ruling class (king, prince, president of republic, prime minister, dynasty, political party members etc.) in collapsing states shall leave the country to facilitate the process for successful achievement of the process of construction of the state (Bürger, 2007:23-26). Although the civil war in Syria affected its near neighbors which are Turkey, Iraq, Lebanon, Jordanand Europe in negative manner,internationalcommunity still has not made a decision on a military intervention within the framework of responsibility to protect aimed at cease of civil war. This case resulted in serious non-recoverable problems both inSyria and in the territory. From this point, the circumstance in Syriais seen as it has reached to a dimension that internationalcommunity is required to perform military intervention. Turkey, ArabLeague and suchlike territorial countries‟ efforts to apply responsibility to protect individually are not sufficient. Security Council‟s not applying the responsibility to protect on time, which it assumes one of its important responsibilities caused the civil war in Syria deepen and worsening gradually and the problem‟s acquiring an international dimension rather than a territorial problem. 392

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN At this stage, can Security Council‟s or Turkey‟s, being affected by this situation most, military intervention on its own or together with the other neighbor countries provide the desired effect? A short glance shall be taken on the status in Syria primarily to give a satisfactory answer to this question. 5.

Status of State of Syria

Civil war has continued in Syria since March, 2011 and has intensified day by day. The monopoly of legal violence of the state is quite limited; and the state can continue its existence only in certain parts of the country. Likewise, state can either not or in quite limited way perform its basic fields countrywide. Correspondingly, health, law, education, and economy systems have been collapsed. In this respect, if we are to make a general assessment; it can be easily said that the state in Syria has reached to the status of falling state, which is next phase to the last of failed stateseness (see Gökçe, 2006 and 2007; Gökçe and Gökçe, 2012). If a state has the following characteristics, it is defined as failed state in general (Rotberg 2003 ve 2004; Migdal 1988; Schneckener 2004a ve 2004b; Patrick 2006; /Bethke 2012; Gökçe 2006 ve 2007; Gökçe ve Gökçe, 2012). It is possible to summarize these features: 1) if it has started to lose its legitimacy both inside and outside, or administration of a state is not accepted by both its people and internationalsystem; 2) if it has started to lose its administrative capacityand if it cannot fulfil or having difficulty in fulfilling its fundamental functions such maintaining security of property and life, protecting personal rights, accommodation, water, health, justice; 3) if it cannot protect its borders; 4) if it is comprised of ethnicor religious groups and social solidarity, spirit of union and solidarity is not ensured among these groupsand if state cannot prevent the thought and sense of exclusion in one of these groups by others and thus if generation of parallel state/society cannot be prevented; 5) if state pursues its power forcefully or oppression policies on its people; 6) if it cannot produce a solution for poverty and corruption and top it all off, ifit protects some groups in allocation of resources and especially, it encourages so; 7) if it cannot protect its people against mafias, organize crime syndicates having powerful heavy weapons and terrorists and cannot perform its most basic function, which is “ensuring security of life and property”; 8) if it threatens or started to threaten or disturb environment of tranquility and economic stability of neighbor countries.According to this, it can be said that the term of failed statenot only covers Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Somali and suchlike countries, but also the states which possess certain institutions (army, policeetc.) and ensured the stability partially, but again, are doomed to system of exploitation for long time, the borders of which are determined virtually by external powers, and embodying various ethnicgroups but cannot complete the nation building process and pass to democracy as those have a structure that can be qualified as “fragile” or “knife-edge”, such as (Sudan, Yemen, Iraq, Syria, Indonesia, Lebanon, Iran, Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Georgia, North Koreaetc.). In other words, the concept of failed statecovers all countries except the states having administration and state system qualified as modern state or staying on this course (“consolidated and consolidating states”) (America, dominant countries of EU, Japan, Switzerlandetc.).If it is desired to intervene in early or effectively struggle against the collapse of the failed states and furthermore, the states, candidates of being failed statesdue to their fragility, then it will be beneficial to keep the list of failed states wide. If it is required to look through on the basis of these features, it is obvious that the state in Syria had already had the feature of failed stateness before the civil war started. There had been an authoritarian 393

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN regime in Syria; and different groups in ethnicand denominationalsense continued their lives side by side without being integrated. Therefore, it was not possible to make reference to a nation of Syria. The state was able to fulfil its functions in the fundamental fields even partially and could ensure security of property and life. As of March 2011 and particularly the midst of 2012,state in Syria became far from performing these functions of it. Syria got its share from Arab Spring started in 2010 and took hold of almost all Arab world in short period of time, in March,2011 and anti-Bashar al-Assadyoung people and especially, university students took action with protests for changing the regime in Syria. Trying to squash these protests by using disproportionate force, Assadregime caused the increase in these protests and spread throughout the country. From March, 2011 when the protests started, until the beginning of 2012, Assadforces did not use air force much in the attacks. In June, 2012 this case changed and Assadstarted air strikes against its people. After that, both the course of civil war and the approach of internationalcommunity have changed (Aksoy, 2016:5). This has also become the trigger of starting an armed civil war at the same time. Since 2013, political conflict, of which denominationaldiscourse remains in the forefront, is dominant in Syria and the country was divided by numerous armed warring factions,putting up bitter struggle against one another. Political, economic and social fragmentation encountered as a result of civil war resulted in a large refugeemovement and millions of peoples‟ falling in gutter. Approximately about more than 300.000 people lost their lived in the past five years and 4.6 million people migrated to neighbor countries, Turkeybeing in the first place, and fallen into the position of asylum-seekerand about 7 millions of people had to move in the lands of Syria (see Ulusoy, 2013:283; Aksoy, 2016:9). A chaos and misery, literally, is dominant within the country. About 14 millions of Syrians need protection and humanitarian aid today. This makes the military intervention in Syria unavoidable. 6.

Conclusion

The clarifications reveal that the status in Syriahas all required conditions for a military intervention, it has reached to the dimension that internationalcommunity shall take precautions, and even overreached. The collapsed state in Syria cannot fulfil its functions in all areas, particularly in the field of security. As a natural result of these developments, there is chaos, massacre, slaughter, torture, rape, misery and hungerin Syria. Hunger, violence, rape, civil war, genocideand suchlike cases that Syrian people are subjected to cause gross human rights violations. Refugee influx constitute a threat for territorial and international security in various areas such as drugstrafficking, organize crimes, internationalterrorism, summary execution and notably, gross human rights violations.Particularly, the fact that the number of refugeesincrease day by day has distorted the social fabric and balances in Middle East and has reached to a dimension that threatens peace and security. This case is clear indicator of that it has reached to a dimension that responsibility to protect shall be applied. However, internationalcommunity could not apply responsibility to protect until today due to vetoes of some countries as Russia and China. Internationalcommunity is not abstained from attempts to legitimization of unilateral intervention of French army to Mali in January, 2013 despite Russia and China‟s oppositions. This case one more time reveals that internationalcommunity does not react all the developments occurred in the world equally. The example of Syriabrings to light that the policies made over national interests are still effective rather than humanitarian values. 394

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN It is concluded from the explanations that it is quite significant to intervene in the failed states, showing tendency to collapse in advance before the conditions become heavier, before the society is divided and separated and the institutions lose legitimacy. The interventions to be carried out afterwards will not be sufficient enough to solve the problem completely. As Debiel specified, the interventions not done on time serve only to take the visible aspects of crisis in hand an under control (2005:3). For that reason, internationalcommunity, that is UN shall intervene in within the scope of responsibility to protect making a decision on that “internationalpeace and security is disturbed”. The work of Ulusoy (2013) on how this can be carried out is a guiding light. Al the delays happed until today and to happen after today in the issue of Syriaresulted and will result in non-recoverable outcomes both in Syria and in the territory. For that reason, Syria shall be taken out of the position of being playground of some countries and groups and the phase of military intervention shall be passed on. Furthermore, it is almost impossible to rebuild a state after it is completely collapsed. This is because only building of the state will not be adequate at this stage but building of the society is also required. And it is quite difficult and long-termed process to build a society from the groups divided and separated in the period of civil war. Moreover, it is also impossible to overcome this financially. References Aksoy, Merve (2016), 6. Yılında Suriye İç Savaşı ve „Koruma Sorumluluğu‟nun Başarısızlığı, INSAMER İnsani ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Merkezi, İstanbul, ss. 1-12. Büttner, Annette (2004),

Staatszerfall als neues Phänomen der internationalen Politik. Theoretische

Kategorisierung und empirische Überprüfung, Marburg. Bürger, Alexandra (2007), Nation-buildung and State-builing, Strassener, Alexander and Klein, Margrete (Hrsg.), Wenn Staaten scheitern, Weisbaden, ss. 13-30. Fukuyama, Francis (2004), State-Building, Governanace and World Order in the 21st Century. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Gökçe, Gülise (2007), Güçlü ve Zayıf Devlet Tartışmaları Bağlamında Türkiye, Çizgi Kitabevi, Konya. Gökçe,

Gülise and Gökçe, Orhan (2012), Suriye Sorunu: „Başarısız veya Çöken Devlet, Modeli Türkiye İçin

Suriye Politikasında Uluslararası Kamuoyunu Harekete Geçirmenin Bir Aracı Olabilir mi?, Selçuk Üniversitesi İİBF Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, Sayı 23 (2012), ss. 179 – 200.Gökçe, Gülise (2006), Devlet Sınıflandırmaları ve Zayıf Devletlerin Karakteristik Özellikleri, Selçuk Üniversitesi İİBF Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, S. 11, Y. 6 (2006), ss. 343- 359.Lambach, Daniel and Bethke, Felix (2012), Ursachen von Staatskollaps und fragiler Staatlichkeit, Eine Übersicht über den Forschungsstand, INEF-Report, 106/2012, Universitaet Duisburg-Esen. Migdal, Joel S. (1988),

Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the

Third World, Princeton. Öğüt, Selman (2013), Başarısız Devlet Kavramının İncelenmesi, MÜHF-HAD, C. 19, ss. 163-177. Rotberg, Robert I. (ed.) (2004). When States Fail: Causes and Consequences, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ss. 1-45. Rotberg, Robert I. (ed.) (2003), State Failure and State Weakness in a Time of Terror. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Schneckener, Ulrich (2004a), State at Risk. Fragile Staaten als Sicherheits- und Entwicklungsproblem. SWP-Studie 43, Berlin. Schneckener, Ulrich (2004b): Transnationale Terroristen als Profiteure fragiler Staatlichkeit. Berlin:

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN SWP-Studien. Schneckener, Ulrich (2005),

Staatlichkeit als Globales Sciherheitsrisiko, APuZ, Nr. 28-29, ss. 26-31.

Schneckener, Ulrich (2006), States at Risk, Zur Analyse fragiler Staatlichkeit, Schneckener, U. (Hrsg.), Fragile Staatlichkeit “Staat at Risk”, Zwischen Stabilitaet und Scheitern, Baden-Baden, ss. 9-40. Seidl, Bernhard (2007), Failing States, Der Kollaps staatlicher Institutionen und sozialer Regelsysteme, Strassener, Alexander and Klein, Margrete (Hrsg.), Wenn Staaten scheitern, Weisbaden, ss. 31-50. Ulusoy, Hülya Halatçı (2013), Uluslararası Hukuk Açısından Libya ve Suriye Örneğinde Koruma Sorumluluğu, TAAD, Yıl 4, Sayı 14 (Temmuz 2013), ss. 269-297. Weinmann, Nico (2011), Somalische Piraten von der Küste eines Failed State? Eine kritische Auseinandersetzung mit dem Konzept des Staatszerfalls, Hans Böckler Stiftung, Working paper 02/2011. Zartman, I. William (Ed.) (1995): Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority. Boulder: Lynne Rienner

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WHY AND FOR WHOM IS SCIENCE IMPLEMENTED? AN ASSESSMENT FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIOLOGY OF SCIENCE* Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gürcan Şevket AVCIOĞLU Selçuk University, Department of Sociology [email protected]

Abstract Science is defined as a methodological activity that has been developed by people to know about nature and protect themselves by the help of science. What lies at the core of scientific activities is curiosity and a fear on the part of people about their survival. Accumulation of objective knowledge is essential for the development of this activity. Human beings and society, which are parts of nature, are involved in the activity of people’s learning about and knowing nature. The efforts aimed at knowing nature, human beings and society led to the emergence of science as a profession in the process of historical development. As science developed as a profession, this profession needed to get organized. Such an organization causes intertwinement with other social organizations in fields such as economy, politics and religion. Professional organization, at the same time, generates the concept of scientism. This concept contains ideological senses. A professional organization that includes ideological senses renders scientific activities vulnerable to manipulation. Moreover, implementing scientific activities within the professional boundaries restricts the ability to generate objective knowledge about nature, human beings and society. Furthermore, professional deformation also begins to play its part. Based on these assumptions, this article discusses why and for whom science is implemented. It is argued that as science has become a profession and a means of social organization, the act of knowing has gone beyond being a mere activity of objectively getting to know nature, people and society and begun to serve the interests of scientific organizations and those who have chosen science as a career. Key Words: Science, sociology of science, scientism.

1. Introduction The purpose of this study is not to define science, or to make a new definition of science, or to develop or criticize the research methods by which scientific information is obtained. Nor is it to define sociology of science, or to designate the scope of this field or develop a methodology for it. The purpose of the study is to draw attention to the professional, social, political and ideological connections of science as an inclusive phenomenon. An effort was made to evaluate science as a phenomenon which people and society shape and which conversely shapes people and society rather than evaluating it as a phenomenon outside of people and society. In order to conduct this evaluation, some questions encountered in the literature were handled. For example, how is science defined or can a definition of science be made? Is science only a way of obtaining information? How can scientific progress be achieved? How is this progress related to society? Is scientific information a way of seeking universal truths or is it a way for society to progress? Do scientists and institutions of science conduct their scientific activities for science, for humanity or for themselves? It is difficult to find answers to such questions in a theoretical study. Or, these questions can be answered in the form of both this and that or neither this nor that. What is intended here is that one should not conceive science as a phenomenon that is independent of everything. 2. How Is Science Defined and How Is Scientific Progress Achieved? If making a definition of science is held to be equal to making a definition of information, then the situation may become inextricable because information is as diverse as the number of beings existing in the universe. Therefore, rather than making a definition of science, it would be more useful to make definitions involving why science is conducted, in what environments and by which people it is conducted, how it is conducted and what are its methods *

This study was supported by Selçuk University Scientific Research Projects Coordinatorship.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Some definitions respond to the question why science is conducted as follows: it is conducted to know all beings, nature and universe. Will science be content with knowing these or does a scientific activity end when information is obtained about the topic of investigation? Or does it attempt to make changes to the object about which it has information? History of science shows that in the act of knowing, people make changes to the objects they have information about in order to use them to their benefit because the first and foremost collocutor of information about other objects is people. People endeavor to continue their lives thanks to the information they have obtained about other objects. To this end, they try to acquire more information and change their environment thanks to that information. For example, having information about plants does not only pave the way for their being consumed as foodstuff but at the same time provides an answer to how they can be stored for long periods and ensures that they can be used in making medicine after being changed appropriately. Information about plants helps people continue their existence at all events. The more information people have about plants, the better it is for them. Knowing their own existence is not enough for people. Information about people as a living organism is used for changing people. In order to be in a better state physiologically and psychologically, an effort is made to change people by using information about them. For example, people’s biological defects or diseases are tried to be eliminated or cured. Making people better biologically and psychologically is the objective of scientific information. Likewise, it is not enough only to know society, how society is formed and how it continues its existence. Detailed information about society is a tool used to change society. It is believed to be necessary that society should change to be a better functioning society and a more developed one. In what environment and by which people science is formed can be explained as follows. Society is composed of people and unions which people form these unions are established to meet certain needs of people Basic needs such as nutrition, accommodation and protection are met by groups formed within society. Within these groups, there are people who collect and process information and make it useful for people or there are groups composed of people doing these tasks. These people naturally perform their deeds with a view to doing good for social unions within which they live. However, their acts are at the same time to their benefit, too. For example, these acts raise their social status. Some individuals or groups in both smaller social unions and complex societies specialize in collecting and processing information. These people are sometimes healers, sometimes administrators and sometimes scientists. The subject of how science is done, on the other hand, is more complex. This subject contains the method by which information is obtained. A common belief which is known by everyone and to which not many people will object about what scientific information is and how science is done is as follows; Scientific information is verified information. Scientific theories are derived from experimental phenomena through painstaking methods, observations and experiments. It is built on things that we can see, hear and touch. There is no place for personal opinions or preferences and speculative thoughts. Science is objective. Scientific information is reliable information because is it is verified objectively (Chalmers, 1997, p. 29). It is necessary to consider scientific activities, scientists and scientific environments as an intertwined whole. Hence, a scientific structure emerges. Discussing the activities of scientific structure and the scientists in this structure within the scope of Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of field (2015) could be useful. Scientific structure is at the same time used to explain scientific progress. Alan Chalmers discusses scientific structure in a different way. Chalmers (1997, pp. 177-180) dwells on three approaches about the structure of science. One of these approaches is the subjective approach. According to this approach, scientific information is a series of specific beliefs adopted by scientists. These beliefs are of course scientific beliefs. Scientists verify phenomena through scientific instruments in accordance with the theory they adhere to and this is a scientific activity. Therefore, scientific information is a product of scientists. Chalmers calls the second approach as the consensus approach. According to this approach, scientific beliefs of scientists are dependent on the beliefs of the scientific society, which is a unique society. Scientific information emerges when theories adopted by the scientific society are verified. The value of any theory is determined by to what extent this society adopts and believes in it. Since there is a society existing, one of the conditions to join this society is that those who want to join the society need to know or learn the adopted theories through education. The third approach that Chalmers mentions is the objectivist approach. According to this approach, scientific information is not, unlike the first two, scientific beliefs adopted by scientists individually or as a group. Scientific theories and hence scientific information possess an autonomous entity

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN independent of scientists or scientific societies. In other words, science is a process of generating information without having a subject. Chalmers thinks that objectivist approach is a more appropriate approach in explaining science and therefore adopts it. The argument of this approach concerning scientific progress is that scientific progress is not the task of a scientist or a scientific community. Both scientists and scientific communities have a part to play in the progress of science. Science is a complex social activity. Scientific activity of each scientist or scientific community on a certain topic cumulatively increases and multiplies information. Max Weber, one of the pioneers of sociology, explains the idea of scientific progress through intellectualism: “Scientific progress is a mere fraction of the process of intellectualism through which we have been undergoing for thousands of years” (Weber, 1998, p. 13). Weber uses the concept of intellectual rationalism in order to understand science. The most striking explanation of Weber’s concept of intellectual rationalism is that the magic of the world has been spoilt. The spoilage of the magic of the world destroys the idea that there is a world beyond this world and that one has to win it. Progressing in this world instead of progressing towards another one seems more appropriate. Understanding the world through worldly concepts and understanding the world through experiments enable science to progress as a profession (Weber, 1998, pp. 214-217). Weber’s explanation regarding science at the same time involves a positivist understanding of science. The positivist understanding of science proposes a subjectless and universal activity of knowing. Regarding science, through a different approach, as an activity of obtaining information by means of special methods and tools renders it necessary that science is an independent profession. In the meantime, one needs to ask this question; what kind of a progress is scientific progress? And does science really exhibit a linear progress? The core of science is to investigate a phenomenon through experiments and observations and prove the consistency and validity of claims made about a situation or an object. If one can achieve verification as a result of these activities, then this is the first step for science on the way to arriving at general rules. However, verification holds only until otherwise is proven. In other words, a scientifically proposed conclusion may be abandoned one day. Therefore, an approach to a scientific question or problem has to be multi-dimensional. This multidimensionality can at times break the chains of progress. As far as the understanding of progress is concerned, the idea that verified information forms the foundations for the findings of the next information may not always be true. Therefore, searching for a universal conclusion and in some cases forcing for a universal conclusion may lead to epistemological problems (Mannheim, 2016; Demir,1997; Sombart, 2004; Wallerstein, 2005). 3. Transformation of Science into a Vocation and Its Relationship with Other Social Institutions The meanings attached to knowing in the historical process of development and the methodological development of ways of obtaining information have caused science to emerge as a vocation. Yes, science is a vocation, “today science is a vocation organized as specific disciplines serving clarification and knowing interrelated truths” (Weber, 1998, p. 231). This vocation is acquired through education. The way to get a vocation has been through education not only today but throughout ages as well. Education is a prerequisite for science as it is for all vocations. However, vocational education cannot exist on its own. It is invariably related to other social institutions. Politics and economy are among these institutions. (Rosovsky, 2003; Sombart, 2004). The qualities of both these institutions can have a determining effect on science sometimes individually and sometimes together. Max Weber explicitly demonstrates the relationship between science and economy; Recently, it has been seen clearly that German universities develop in line with the American system in sciences. Large graduate schools of medicine and natural sciences have become enterprises of state capitalism. They cannot fare well without getting extensive funds. Here, we meet a condition that exists everywhere where there is a capitalistic business. This concerns estrangement of workers from means of production. Workers, in other words assistants, are dependent on the means allocated by the state. Therefore, just as workers in a factory are dependent on a factory director, so are assistants on the head of institute. Hence, the state of an assistant is as shaky as the state of a semi-proletariat is and as devoid of security as an assistant at an American university is (Weber, 1998, p. 203). Science is a vocation just as politics is. The way to implement both as well as many other vocations today is rationality as was conceptualized by Weber. In other words, whatever job we do, we need to do it in a rational way. The degree of the relationship between science and politics as independent and 399

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN rational vocations is as strong as the relationship between science and economy (Habermas, 1997; Sombart, 2004) because bureaucracy as an instrument of politics is also influential in the organization of the vocation of science. Again, according to Weber (1998, p. 319), “Bureaucratization of all kinds of sovereignty very strongly affects rational realism and the personality type of a professional expert. Institutions of education in continental Europe, especially institutions of higher education, have entered into the sphere of influence and sovereignty of a necessity for a type of education generating expertise education and a special testing system that have become indispensable to contemporary bureaucracy” (Weber, 1998, p. 319). Under the influence of rational bureaucracy and at the same time with the intellectual bureaucracy it has developed within itself, science tries to be a determining factor for all. This is so much so that it endeavors to have the only say in all fields of life thanks to the generation of rational information. Weber admits that science is based on intellectual rationalism but argues that one cannot derive a belief or a prophet that confirms that belief; in other words, science is not a religion, nor is the scientist a prophet (Weber, 1998, pp. 234-235). Scienticism is fraught with such a danger and Weber reminds us of this danger. Scientists who have attained economic and political power and undergone vocational degeneration or institutions of science may attempt to derive a religion from science. One wonders if they do this for themselves or for the sake of humanity? 4. Science and Ideology The relationship between science and ideology is one of the topics that philosophy of science and sociology of science dwell on. Science can be reviewed in two ways, namely philosophically and sociologically. The former, that is philosophical and methodological one, is concerned with its own internal formation, its postulates and existential nature (Demir, 1997; Foucault, 2016; Russell, 2015). The latter, that is sociological one, is concerned with the relationship of science as an institutionalized structure with the culture and civilization in which it exists, its relationship with ideology and authority and its socio-political dimensions (Aron, 1979; Habermas, 1997; Mannheim, 2016; Wallerstein, 2000). The positivist and progressive understanding of science, scienticism and vocational degeneration bring the activity of knowing closer to ideology. For example, the understanding of progress of scientific information and the progressive-evolutionist explanation of social change are in harmony with one another. The concept of social change is a concept that contains some visible and concrete qualities within practices of social change but is ascribed values in a transcendental sense and intends to strengthen Western value judgments. The approach that every social change needs to take place as it does in the West is considered to be correct. Science is right in the middle of these ideological debates because a one-to-one relationship is established between positivist science and social progress (Feyerabend, 2000, pp. 129-207). If science does not remain as just science and instead, as it is claimed, ensures social change, development and progress, then can it be isolated from the socio-political areas it interacts with? If the purpose of science is to reach universal truth, how can the power which states try to acquire through science be explained (Foucault, 2016; Habermas, 1997; Althusser, 2008). Francis Bacon argued in the early seventeenth century that the purpose of science is to set right the destiny of mankind on earth (Chalmers, 1997, p. 25). However, we know that chemical, biological and industrial weapons have been developed through scientific efforts. The destructive and deterrent power of these weapons outweighs functions such as demonstrating universal truths and straightening the destiny of mankind on earth. This power is more worrisome when compared with coping with hunger, misery and diseases through science and disillusion people’s expectations of a more peaceful and prosperous world thanks to science. In addition, are the aims of scientifically underdeveloped countries to develop science intended to pursue universal truths? Or, are they intended to prevent their countries from being overcome or exploited by other countries’ scientific and social development? The claim by science to reach universal truths refers to discovering the qualities of these truths using scientific methods. This means there is nature outside of mankind which even science cannot interfere in, and a universal truth. However, human beings have been active, not passive, vis-à-vis nature (thanks to science) since the Enlightenment (Goldmann, 1999). This state of being active involves knowing nature and dominating it thanks to this knowing. Domination at the same time provides an ability to change its structural characteristics if need be. At this point, the following question arises: are active people and science of the Enlightenment as well as today in quest for a truth independent of themselves or do they seek to build a truth? 400

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN According to thinkers like Paul Feyerabend, science does not contain any unique properties that will enable us to distinguish it from activities such as poetry or astrology. The grand respect felt for science is regarded as respect felt for a modern religion similar to the role played by Christianity in Europe in earlier periods (Chalmers, 1997, p. 25). According to Chalmers (1997, p. 229), the coming into being of physics during the scientific revolution can be attributed to the rise of capitalism and technology and conversely to the fall of religion as a social power. Practices of modern physics may be at stake today due to abuses by large industrial monopolies financing various researches in Western societies. Consequently, transformation of science into a belief through positivism and close interaction of this belief with politics and economy lead to criticisms such as that science no longer remains as pure science and that its ideological nature is more in the foreground. Therefore, criticism of science has a significant accumulation of knowledge and critical literature is gradually expanding. 5. Conclusion Human beings need to know in order to solve their problems concerning life, secure themselves and meet their vital needs. One of the ways of knowing is scientific information. What makes scientific information important is that it is systematic, progressive and inclusive. These qualities and its importance for human beings have turned it into a vocation. Science as a vocation is a social institution and is in interaction with other institutions. Then, the question of for whom and why science is done can be answered as follows: it is done for those who engage in the vocation of science for scientific institutions and states. Which of these, namely for science itself, for humanity or for society, is more beneficial could be the topic of another discussion. References Althusser, L. (2008). Yeniden Üretim Üzerine. Çev. A. I. Ergüden, A. Tümertekin, İstanbul: İthaki. Aron, R. (1979). Aydınların Afyonu. İ. Tanju, İstanbul: Tur Yayınları. Bourdieu, P. (2015). Bilimin Toplumsal Kullanımları Bilimsel Alanın Klinik Bir Sosyolojisi İçin. Çev. L. Ünsaldı, Ankara: Heretik. Chalmers, A. (1997). Bilim Dedikleri. Çev. H. Arslan, Ankara: Vadi. Demir, Ö. (1997). Bilim Felsefesi. Ankara: Vadi. Foucault, M. (2016). Entelektüelin Siyasi İşlevi. Çev. I. Ergüden, O. Akınhay, F. Kesin, İstanbul: Ayrıntı. Feyerabend, P. (2000). Anarşizm Üzerine Tezler. Çev. E. Altınsöz, Ankara: Öteki Yayınevi. Goldmann, L. (1999). Aydınlanma Felsefesi. Çev. E. Arslan, Ankara: Doruk Yay. Habermas, J. (1997). İdeoloji Olarak Teknik ve Bilim. Çev. M. Tüzel, İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yay. Mannheim, K. (2016). İdeoloji ve Ütopya. Çev. M. Okyayuz, Ankara: Nika Yayınevi. Rosovsky, H. (2003). Üniversite Bir Dekan Anlatıyor. Çev. S. Ersoy, Ankara: Tübitak Popüler Bilim Kitapları. Russell, B. (2015). Bilimsel Bakış. Çev. F. Sezer, İstanbul: Say. Sombart, W. (2004). Dünya Görüşü Bilim ve Ekonomi. Haz. T. Akgemci, Konya: Çizgi Kitabevi. Wallerstein, I. (2000). Bildiğimiz Dünyanın Sonu. Çev. T. Birkan, İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Wallerstein, I. (2005). İlim Adamları Sınıfının Ana Akımı ve Gerçeklik: Bir Dönüm Noktasında mıyız? Modern Küresel-Sistem, Der. I. Wallerstein, Çev. M. K. Atalar, İstanbul: Pınar Yayınları. Weber, M. (1998). Sosyoloji Yazıları. Çev. T. Parla, İstanbul: İletişim.

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YEREL GAZETELERİN SİYASAL İLETİŞİMDEKİ ROLÜ-2002 GENEL SEÇİMLERİNDE EDİRNE YEREL GAZETELERİ ÖRNEĞİ

Assoc. Prof.Dr.H.Hale BOZKURT Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Communication, Public Relations and Advertisement Dept. [email protected]

FULL PAPERS IN TURKISH MUST ALSO BE WRITTEN ACCORDING TO THIS FORMAT Abstract From the early 1980s on, when political communication began to be widely used across the country, studies regarding this issue focused particularly on election periods. Up till 2002, there was no such work as to how political communication actors made use of the local media. Therefore, being the first in its field, this research also aims to improvise and shed light on future studies.The study examines political marketing strategies followed by political communication actors, political parties, and parliamentary candidates intending to take advantage of Edirne’s local newspapers in 2002 general elections. It also scrutinizes the relationship between the political communication system and newspapers in order to reveal the transformations in this field; thus determining the attitude of newspapers with regard to political communication. The aim of the study is to determine the transformations experienced in this field in 2002 and to scrutinize how politics was performed and how political marketing was utilized by political parties in terms of political communication with an investigation of the news stories published prior to 2002 November elections in local Edirne newspapers Hudut, Sonhaber, Edirne, Edirne Haber and Vatandaş. In the study, the aim was to lay out how political parties were presented in local newspapers of Edirne city center and the corresponding attitudes of those newspapers in November 3rd, 2002 General Elections. News, editorials, columns, published pictures, announcements, and general information on research findings related to advertisements concerning the elections within Edirne Province were included. Five local newspapers in the study were assessed with content analysis between October 1st and October 2nd, 2002. The study proceeds on the assumption that politics is built and presented through the connections in the triangle of media, politics, and capital. Results of the research show that local newspapers in Edirne were biased and far from being objective. They failed to maintain a balanced communication between the political actors and the voters in the elections; nonetheless, the local newspapers manipulated by political actors did not seem to have any effect on the voters. In the research, it was seen that beginning from the 1990s, voters in Turkey exhibit greatly varying attitudes and they were likely to be influenced by the national media; as such, Edirne voters appeared to have a disregard for local news agencies. Keywords: Political Communication, Newspapers, Edirne Özet Siyasal iletişimin ülkemizde yoğun olarak kullanılmaya başlandığı 1980’li yılların başından bu yana bu konu ile ilgili çalışmalar özellikle seçim dönemlerine yoğunlaşmıştır. Siyasal iletişim aktörlerinin yerel basını kullanımı konusunda 2002 yılına kadar yapılan herhangi bir araştırma bulunmamaktadır. Alanında ilk olan böyle bir araştırmanın sonraki dönemlere de ışık tutması amaçlanmıştır. Siyasal iletişim aktörleri siyasi partilerin ve milletvekili adaylarının Edirne’de 2002 Genel Seçimlerinde yerel gazeteleri kullanırken izledikleri siyasal pazarlama yollarını araştıran, siyasal iletişim sistemi ile gazetelerin ilintisini irdeleyen ve bu alandaki dönüşümleri göz önüne seren bu çalışma gazetelerin de siyasal iletişim açısından tavrını belirler. Çalışmanın amacı, 2002 yılında bu alanda yaşanan dönüşümleri 402

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN belirlemek, siyasetin nasıl yapıldığı, siyasal pazarlamanın siyasi partilerde nasıl kullanıldığı ve Kasım 2002 Seçimleri öncesinde Edirne merkezindeki Hudut, Sonhaber, Edirne, Edirne Haber, Vatandaş Gazetelerinin haberlerini siyasal iletişim açısından irdelemektir. 3 Kasım 2002 Genel Seçimlerinde siyasi partilerin Edirne İli Merkezindeki yerel gazetelerde nasıl temsil edildiğini ve yerel gazetelerin siyasal partilere ilişkin tutumlarını ortaya koymayı amaçlayan araştırmada Edirne İli genelinde seçimle ilgili, haberler, köşe yazıları yayınlanan fotoğraflar, ilanlar ve reklamlarla ilgili araştırma bulgularına ait genel bilgilere yer verilmiştir. Araştırmaya konu olan beş yerel gazete 1 Ekim-2 Ekim 2002 tarihleri arasında içerik analizi ile değerlendirilmiştir. Çalışma, siyasetin medya-siyaset-kapital üçgenindeki bağlantılar aracılığı ile inşa edilip sunulduğu tezinden hareket eden bir Doktora Tezi çalışmasıdır. (Bozkurt, 2002). Araştırma sonuçları Edirne yerel gazetelerinin taraflı bir habercilik içinde olduğunu göstermektedir. Edirne’deki yerel gazeteler seçim döneminde siyasal aktörler ve seçmenler arasındaki iletişimi dengeli bir biçimde sağlayamamıştır. Ancak siyasal aktörler tarafından kullanılan yerel gazetelerin seçmen üzerinde herhangi bir etkisi de oluşmamıştır. Araştırmada 1990 yılından itibaren Türkiye’deki seçmenlerin çok değişik tavırlar sergilediği, siyasal iletişim kampanyalarında yaygın medyanın etkin olduğu ve yerel medyanın Edirne seçmenini etkilemediği görülmüştür. Anahtar Kelimeler: Siyasal İletişim, Gazeteler, Edirne

1. Giriş Günümüz modern toplumlarında siyasal aktörlerin seçmenleri ile birebir iletişim kurması olanaksızlaşmıştır. Karmaşık modern toplum içinde iletişim biçimlerindeki değişiklikler gelişen teknoloji ile farklı bir yapıya dönüşen kitle iletişimini de etkilemektedir. 1980’ler ile birlikte sembolik politika ve imgelerin gücü Türk toplumu üzerinde yoğun bir biçimde kendini göstermiştir. Siyasal aktörler, halk ve seçmenler arasındaki iletişimi sağlayan kitle iletişim araçları 1990’larda yeniden yapılanmış, Türkiye’deki siyasal gelenekler ve siyasi ortam şekil değiştirmiştir. Bu çalışma, siyasal iletişim aktörlerinden siyasi partilerin ve milletvekili adaylarının 2002 Genel Seçimlerinde Edirne yerel gazetelerini kullanırken izledikleri siyasal pazarlama iletişimlerini araştırarak, gazeteler ve siyasal iletişim sistemlerinin birbirleri ile olan ilintisini irdeleyip, bu alanda gelinen noktaları saptar, yerel gazetelerin de siyasal iletişim açısından tavırlarını belirler. Ayrıca, günümüzden yaklaşık 14 yıl önce siyasetin nasıl yapıldığını, siyasal pazarlamanın siyasi partilerde nasıl kullanıldığını irdeler ve Kasım 2002 seçimleri öncesinde Edirne merkezindeki, Hudut, Sonhaber, Edirne, Edirne Haber, Vatandaş Gazeteleri haberlerini siyasal pazarlama iletişimi açısından araştırır. Çalışmada, siyasal iletişimin pazarlama iletişimi ile bağlantısı, ülkemizdeki gelişimi, propaganda olarak algılanmasının doğurduğu sonuçlar tartışılmıştır. Gazetelerin siyasal iletişimdeki rolü üzerinde durulmuştur. Özellikle yerel gazetelerin siyasal iletişimde kullanılış biçimleri, yapıları, kitle gazeteleri ile fikir gazeteleri açısından konumları irdelenmiştir. Siyaset ve medya ilişkilerinin ele alındığı çalışma, Türkiye’deki seçimler, Edirne’deki seçimler ve seçmenlerin tavrını ele almaktadır. Gelişmiş ülkelerde siyasal iletişim kampanyalarında yerel gazetelerin yanı sıra yerel medya organlarının büyük etkisi olduğu bilinmektedir. Günümüzde, yerel basın haberlerinin hedef kitlelere sosyal medya aracılığı ile ulaştırıldığında, ulusal haber etkisini gösterip göstermediğini tespit etmek önemli bir araştırma konusu haline gelmiştir. Siyasal iletişimin planlı bir çalışma haline geldiği ülkelerde politikacılar, seçmenin isteklerini anlayarak, eğilimlerinden fikir alarak kampanya oluştururlar. Gelişmiş ülkelerde siyasal yaşamın vazgeçilmez bir aracı olan siyasal iletişim siyasi aktör ve hedefler arasında karşılıklı iletişimi kurmak üzere yapılan uygulamaları içerir. Siyasal iletişim seçmenin algısını etkileyerek, kimi seçmesi gerektiği ve yönetim sürecine nasıl katılabileceği konusunda bir düşünce oluşturmasına yardımcı olur, ardından seçilenin seçenle 403

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN arasında hoşnutluğu arttırması üzerinde çalışır. (Taluk, 1999, p.10). Gelişmiş ülkelerde, milletvekili adayları açısından seçim bölgelerindeki yerel yayın organlarının seçmen üzerindeki etkisi büyüktür. Ancak; yerel basının ülkemizdeki genel durumundan da yola çıkarak, bu etkiyi sağlayamadığı düşüncesi araştırma bulgularında da net olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. 2. Literatür Taraması Siyasal iletişim kavramı, belli ideolojik amaçlarını, toplumda belli gruplara, kitlelere, ülkelere ya da bloklara kabul ettirmek ve gerektiğinde eyleme dönüştürmek, uygulamaya koymak üzere siyasal aktörler tarafından çeşitli iletişim tür ve tekniklerinin kullanılması ile yapılan iletişim olarak tanımlanabilir. Bu tanımda zorluk, hangi siyasal örgütün ne zaman ve nasıl bir siyasal iletişimde bulunacağı ve bunun uygulamaya dönüşümünün nasıl olacağında farklılıkların bulunmasıdır. Burada önemli olan, hangi örgütlerin, aktörlerin iletişiminin siyasal iletişim olacağı ve bu örgütlerin hangi mesajlarının gerçekten siyasal iletişim sayılıp sayılmayacağıdır. Bu bakımdan siyasal iletişim ile ilgili, yukarıda yapılan genel tanımın dışında, özel dar anlamlı tanımlar, yapılan siyasal iletişimin tür ve aktörlerine bağlı olarak yeniden yapılabilir. (Aziz, 2003, p.3). Politik iletişimin kapsamlı bir tanımı, sözel ve yazılı kamusal söylem biçimlerini, beden dilini, giyim tarzlarını; makyaj, saç şekli, logo dizaynı, politik gösteri vb gibi politik amaçlı tüm göstergeleri kapsamaktadır. Bunun içine şu unsurlar da dahil edilebilir. (Oktay, 2003, p.5). Belirli politik amaçlara ulaşmak için politikacılar ve diğer politik aktörler tarafından girişilen tüm iletişim biçimleri; Bu politik aktörlere seçmenler ve medya tarafından yöneltilmiş bulunan iletişim (Eleştiriler, uyarılar, talepler vs) Politik aktörler ve bunların eylemleri hakkında, medya haberlerinde, köşe yazılarında politikayla ilgili tüm programlarda ve politika hakkındaki tüm söylem biçimlerinde ve medya içeriğinde yeralan iletişim. Bu çalışmada tanıma eklenen yeni unsurlardan özellikle üçüncüsü araştırma konusu edilmiştir. Edirne yerel basın organlarından merkezdeki 5 gazetede 3 Kasım 2002 Seçimlerindeki politik aktörler ve eylemleri hakkında medya haberleri, köşe yazıları, seçim programlarıyla ilgili söylem biçimleri irdelenmiştir. Politik aktörlere seçmenler ve Edirne yerel gazeteleri tarafından yöneltilmiş iletişim de araştırma kapsamına konulmuştur. Araştırma için hazırlanan kod formu seçmenlerin ve gazetelerin eleştiri ve uyarılarını analiz edecek biçimde tasarlanmıştır. Sosyal bilimlere bağlı alanlarda tanım yapmanın güçlüğü bu alanlardaki tarihsel gelişmelerin meslekleri farklılaştırmasına ve sürekli yeni yöntemlerin geliştirilmesine bağlıdır. Özellikle pazar oluşturmaya ve pazarda payı arttırmaya yönelik bir amaç belirlendiğinde, bu konudaki çalışmalar, (ki bugün artık siyasal iletişim, siyasal pazarlama iletişimi olarak yönetilmektedir) sistem analizi yaklaşımından bağımsız hareket edemeyeceği için mesajların pazardaki hedef kitlelere duyurumu konusunda geliştirilen yöntemler, kitle iletişim araçlarındaki gelişmeler, araçlara sahiplik öğesindeki değişiklikler ve toplumsal değişimler göz önünde bulundurularak gerçekleştirilir. Siyasal iletişimin amacı, tasarlanan mesajın istenilen etkiyi hedef kitle üzerinde bırakmasıdır. Mesajların tasarımı tıpkı pazarlamada kullanılan bileşenler (Kişisel satış, Reklam, Halkla İlişkiler, Promosyon) aracılığı ile yöntem ve şekil açısından çeşitlendirilerek hedef kitleye ulaştırılır. Kullanılan bütün yöntemlerin birbiriyle eşgüdümlü çalışması ve eksiksiz yerine getirilmesi gerekmektedir. Türkiye’de uzunca bir dönem siyasal iletişime yönelik çalışmalar reklam üzerinde kurgulanmış ve hedef kitleler reklam aracılığı ile kazanılmaya çalışılmıştır. Ancak günümüzde reklamın yanı sıra diğer pazarlama bileşenlerinin siyasal iletişime yönelik kullanılması, istenen etkiyi arttırmaktadır. Pazarlama bileşenlerinden “kişisel satış”ta; daha çok yüzyüze iletişim yöntemi, diğerlerinde ise yüzyüze iletişimin yanı sıra kitle iletişim yöntemleri kullanılmaktadır. Kişisel satış, promosyon ve reklam çalışmalarının hedef kitleler üzerindeki etkileri hemen görülüyor iken, halkla ilişkiler

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN çalışmalarının sonuçları uzun dönemlerde değerlendirilebilmektedir. Siyasal iletişimde halkla ilişkilerin amaca dolaylı bir katkısından söz etmek mümkündür. Siyasal iletişim amaçlarında kullanılan kitle iletişim çalışmalarındaki en önemli araç medyadır. Dolayısıyla siyasal iletişim çalışmalarında medya organlarının kullanımları ve niteliklerinin bilinmesi önem taşır. Bu çalışmada; yerel bazda yayın yapan gazetelerin siyasal iletişim aracı olarak rolü belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Gazetecilik haber malzemesi sayılan enformasyonun toplanması, yazılması, düzenlenmesi ve dağıtılmasını içeren bir işlemdir. Gazeteci ise erişmek isteği kitle için en önemli diye nitelendirdiği enformasyonu toplayarak, haber yapan, kişileri bilgi alarak düşünmeye sevk edendir. (Tokgöz, 1994, p.34). Gazeteciliğin temel ilkelerinden bir tanesi, haber ile yorum arasında belirgin bir ayrımın çizilmesi ve bunların karıştırılmasının önlenmesidir. Haber gerçeklere ve verilere dayalı bilgilendirmedir. Buna karşılık, yorum ise, yazarın, yayımlayanın veya yayın şirketlerinin düşüncelerini, inançlarını, işitsel yargılarını içerir. Haber yayını, gerçeklere dayandırılmalı ve doğruluğu kanıtlanır olmalıdır. Yorumlar, genel düşünceler veya günlük olaylar üzerinde yapılabilir. Yorum subjektif olduğundan, doğruluğu üzerinde eleştiri yapılamaz. Gazeteci ve gazetecilik kavramları, haber verme bakımından tek yönlü bir iletişim akımına işaret ederler. İşte gazetecilik yapan araçlar yoluyla “haber alma”, eriştikleri kitleler yönünden haber olur diye seçilmiş, ayrılmış, düzenlenmiş, haber olarak yazılmış olay ve olayların okunması, dinlenmesi, izlenmesi sonunda gerçekleşebilmektedir. Bu düzenleme içinde de toplumda gazetecilik yapan kitle iletişim araçlarınca, çeşitli görüşler gündeme getirilmekte, gündemde tutulmakta, kamuoyu oluşmaktadır. Daha doğru bir deyişle, gazetecilikte toplumda üzerinde konuşulan gündem saptanma yoluna gidilmektedir. (Tokgöz, 1994, p.34). Gazetecilik, kitle iletişim araçlarının yapılarına göre bazı farklılıklar gösterir. Araçların bu farklı yapısal özellikleri nedeniyle günümüz gazeteciliği, basın, radyo, televizyon, internet arasında farklı bir yarış içinde gerçekleştirilmektedir. Kitle iletişim araçlarının gücünün anlaşılması ile medyaya sahip olmak isteyenlerin sayısı artmaya ve medya çeşitliliği aritmatik olarak coğalmaya başlamıştır. Bu da medya organları arasında rekabeti beraberinde getirmiştir. Medyanın etkileme stratejilerini dolayısıyla içeriğini belirleyen tek şeyin sahiplik yapısı olduğunu düşünmek oldukça eksik bir resim çizmek olur. Çünkü medyayı tamamen medya dışı güçlerin de çeşitli yollarla etkilediği bilinmektedir. Siyasal iktidarların baskı kurarak medyayı etkilemeye çalıştıkları bir gerçektir. Aynı şekilde medya dışı güç odakları (örneğin belli bir holding) ekonomik gücü sayesinde medyayı etkilemeye ve çıkarları doğrultusunda kullanmaya yeltenebilir. Öte yandan bu amaçla oluşturulmuş özgül düzenleme/denetleme kuruluşlarının da (RTÜK gibi) medyanın işleyişine doğrudan müdahale edebildiklerini biliyoruz. Bu arada, doğrudan medyadan gelen Gazeteciler Cemiyeti, Basın Konseyi gibi meslek örgütlerinin etkilerini de atlamamak gerekir. Bu güç ilişkileri ağının merkezinde duran ve kendisini yaptığı haber, yazdığı yorum ya da köşe yazısı ile tanımlayan medya profesyonellerinin işlerinin çok zor olduğunu söylemek mümkün. Zira bu kişiler bir yandan tiraj ya da reyting baskısı ve dışsal politik baskıları göğüslerken, diğer yandan da doğru, güvenilir, etik açıdan tutarlı ürünler ortaya koymak durumundadırlar. (Alankuş, 2003, p.55) Türkiye’de Turgut Özal ve kadrolarının sıklıkla ifade ettikleri “vizyon belirleme” sürecinde medyanın yeniden yapılanması büyük yer tutmuştur. “Dinamizm”, “yeni trendler” ve “oyunda yer almak” söylemiyle çıkan 1980 sonrası yeni sağ kadroları, medya endüstrisini yeni dünya düzenine uydurma aşamasında görevlerini başarıyla yapmışlardır. 1990’lara kadar radyotelevizyon yayıncılığında varolan devlet tekelinin kırılmasıyla, yaygın olmayan iletişim ağının genişlemesi bağlamında gerekli altyapı kurulmuş ve yeni dünya düzeninin iletmek istediği mesajları alımlamaya hazır bir toplumsal yapının temelleri atılmıştır. (Arsan, http://www.medyakronik.com/akademi/makaleler/makaleler32.htm) Bütün bu çıkarımları zenginleştiren bir örnek 1995 Ekim ayının politik atmosferinde patlayan ve Aralık ayında barış ilanı ile sona eren, Doğan Grubu’na ait gazetelerle Sabah ve Akşam grubu arasında yaşanan kavgadır. Bu dönem politik liderler arasındaki kavgaların, hükümet krizlerinin 405

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN politik sahnenin en birincil tarafları ve aktörleri olan medyanın gündemine tümüyle hakim olduğu dönemlerden biridir. Bu ortamda medya sektörüne hakim olan ve şiddetli rekabet içinde bulunan iki büyük grup, iktidardaki DYP ile muhalefetteki ANAP arasında tercihlerini belirlerken, birbirlerini hükümetle olan ekonomik ilişkilerine göre hareket etmekle suçlarlar. Böylece politik taraf ya da muhalif olmanın, iktidarı belirleme çabalarının temelinde hükümetlerle olan ekonomik ilişkilerin yattığı iddialarından kalkılarak, ticari rekabet ve kıskançlıkların doğurduğu sert bir kavga yapılır. Medya gruplarının sözcüleri birbirlerine, politik tavır alışlarında, politikacılara yönelik davranışlarda parasal ilişkilerin belirleyici olduğu suçlamalarını yöneltirken, aynı suçlamaları bir parti lideri daha önce çok iyi ilişkiler içinde olmakla eleştirirken, tüm bunları medya sahibi olmanın olanaklarını kullanmaya bağlayacaklardır. Nitekim etik ilkelerin, kamu yararı gibi kavramların kalkan olarak dahi işlev göremediği, medya gruplarının tümüyle ekonomik ve politik güç olmak için giriştikleri, her silahın kullanıldığı bir kavga yaşanır. (Alemdar, 1999, p.48). Siyaset ve medya ilişkilerinin habercilik ve yorumlar boyutunda, siyasetçiye olan katma değeri, iki biçimde kendisini göstermektedir. Birincisi, bütün başarısızlığına ve yanlışlarına rağmen siyasetçinin hâlâ umut vaad ettiği, ondan başkasının başarma şansının olmadığı, varolan hata ve başarısızlıkların tamamıyla dışsal faktörlerin etkisiyle gerçekleştiğidir. Dolayısıyla, böyle bir ortamda siyasetçinin kolaylıkla parti içi rakiplerinden ve muhâliflerinden sıyrılması, en azından şiddetli eleştirilerden kurtulması mümkün olmaktadır ve siyasetçi işine devam etmektedir. İkincisi ise, başarılı rakip ve başarılı veya başarısız olsun muhâliflerin ezdirilmesi, seslerinin duyurulmamasıdır. (Erciyes, 2001) Gazetecilik kitle iletişim araçlarında tamamen siyasi taraflar adına yapılır bir nitelik kazanmıştır. Sonraki yıllarda kitle iletişim araçları arasına katılan internet üzerindeki haber portallarında da aynı tavrın devam ettiği görülür. Türk medyası, bu anlamda da çok kötü örneklere sahiptir. Hatırlanacağı üzere, 1995 seçimleri öncesinde, Doğan Grubu kayıtsız şartsız Mesut Yılmaz’ın ANAP’ını desteklerken, Bilgin Grubu da en büyük rakibi Tansu Çiller için seferber olmuştu. Aynı kamplaşma 1999 seçimlerinde de yaşanmış, fakat bu sefer Tansu Çiller’i destekleyen grup Enver Ören’in İhlas’ı olmuştur. Kanal 7, Yeni Şafak, Millî Gazete, Akit gibi yayın organları da bütün güçleriyle Fazilet Partisi’nin yanında yer almış, tıpkı büyük medyanın yaptığı gibi, başta MHP olmak üzere birçok partiye neredeyse hiç şans tanımaz bir yayın politikası izlemişti. Seçim sonuçları, büyük medya tarafından yelkenine her zaman su verilen partilerin hezimetini ortaya koymasına rağmen, medyada ciddî bir özeleştiri mekanizması da ne yazık ki çalışmamıştır. (Erciyes, 2001) Televizyonun siyasi amaçlar doğrultusunda gazetecilikte kullanılması için üç seçenek bulunuyor, haber özetlerinin yer aldığı haberler, haber bültenleri ve haber programları. Medya dünyasının önemli isimlerinden Bedii Faik’in medya ile ilgili önemli saptamaları var, “Türkiye’de medya terör unsurudur. Medya terörü o kadar var ki, her şeyin üzerine baskı yapıyor. Politikacının üzerinde baskısı var. Halkın üzerinde baskısı var, iş aleminin üzerinde baskısı var her şeyin üzerinde baskısı var. Bugün Türkiye’de gazete ve TV patronları herhangi bir fikri yaymak veya Türkiye’nin noksanlarını tamamlamak için değil, yeni iş imkanları hazırlamak, bir silah gibi kullanmak üzere yayıncılığa başlıyorlar”. Medya tartışmaları, özellikle seçim dönemlerinde yeniden alevlenir. Medyanın tarafgirliği, bir silah olarak kullanılması, yozlaşması yeniden tartışılır. Medyada kimsenin karşı çıkmadığı bir erozyon var ve bu erozyonun da elbette ki, ekonomik bir temeli var. Ticari bir alan gibi görünmekle beraber, medyanın “kar elde etmekten çok, bir silah olarak kullanılmakta olduğu” ve askeri harcamalarla benzer özellikler gösteren medya harcamalarının, önümüzdeki dönemde ilginç gelişmelere gebe olduğu söylenebilir. (Sönmez, 2004) Türkiye’de 1980 sonrası geleneksel sahiplikten yeni sahiplik yapısına geçiş sonunda; bankalar, müteahhitlik firmaları, sigortacılık, turizm, sağlık sektörü gibi, gazetecilikle hiç ilgisi olmayan her türden sektör ile gazete, TV ve radyoların iç içe geçtiğini görüyoruz. Bu durumda medya kamuya doğruyu söylemekten çok, iktidara mesaj vermenin ve patronların kendi ticari mesajlarıyla iktidarın mesajlarını da halka taşımanın aracı haline geliyor. (Doğan, 2001, p.70). Gazetecilik siyasal iletişimin vazgeçilmez araçlarından biridir. Ancak gazetecilik mesleğinin etik 406

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN kurallarının dışına taşarak siyasal iletişim aracı olarak kullanılması, toplumsal gelişimi ve bilinci engelleyici bir silah haline dönüşmektedir. 3 Kasım 2002 Genel Seçimleri, Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi'nin (AKP) zaferi ile sonuçlandı. AKP, seçimlerden yüzde 34.28 oy oranı ve 363 milletvekili ile çıktı ve "tek başına iktidar" oldu. Hakkındaki kapatma davası süren AKP, Cumhuriyet tarihinde başbakan adayı belli olmamasına karşın iktidarı kazanan ilk parti oldu. 1999 seçimlerinde parlamento dışı kalan Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi (CHP), bu kez yüzde 19.39 oy oranı ile 178 milletvekili çıkardı. 3 Kasım Seçimlerine katılamayan AKP Genel Başkanı Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, 9 Mart 2003 Siirt Milletvekili Yenileme Seçimi'nde, Parlamento'ya girdi.(http://www.konrad.org.tr/secim/, 1 Mayıs 2006) Türkiye’de 1987 genel seçiminden beri ilk kez bir parti tek başına iktidara geldi ve parlamentoya 1946'dan sonra ilk kez iki parti girebildi. Türkiye’de 1950’den sonra tek başına iktidara gelen 4. parti AKP oldu. Demokrat Parti 3 kez, Adalet Partisi 2 kez, ANAP da 2 kez tek başına iktidara gelmişti. AKP kimlik olarak Milli Görüş çizgisinden yola çıkmış bir partiydi. Türkiye’de bu kimliği taşıyan bir parti ilk kez iktidar olmuş oldu. Siyaset bilimcilere göre, AKP’nin başarısının nedeni; merkez sağdaki partilere duyulan tepkiydi. Seçime katılım oranı yüzde 79.14 oldu. 1999 seçimlerinde katılım oranı yüzde 87.9 olarak gerçekleştir. 3. Metodoloji Seçimlerin hemen öncesine denk gelen bir aylık süre içerisinde (01 Ekim-02 Kasım 2002) yapılan medya izleme araştırmasının amacı; Edirne Yerel Basınının seçimlerde üstlenmiş olduğu rolün belirlenmesine yöneliktir. Yerel gazetelerin bu dönemdeki yayınları içerik analizine alınmıştır. Yerel basının üstlenmiş olduğu rol; üç ayrı konuya odaklanmıştır; -Partilerin Edirne’deki yerel gazeteleri siyasal iletişim aracı olarak nasıl kullandıkları, -Yerel gazetelerin seçmen üzerindeki etkisi, -Yerel gazetelerin seçmene ve partilere karşı tutumları. Araştırmada eleştirel medya yaklaşımlarının, medya sektörüyle siyasal, ekonomik iktidar merkezlerinin karşılıklı olarak bağımlılığını vurgulayan yaklaşımdan yola çıkılarak, bu yanlılığın Edirne’deki yerel basının seçimler sırasındaki tavrına da yansıyacağı varsayılmıştır. Nitekim gazete sahiplerinden biri YTP I. sıra milletvekili adayıdır. Yine bir gazetenin sahibi CHP milletvekili aday adayı olmuştur. Bu kişiler bizzat gazete sahipleri oldukları için siyasal iletişim aracı olarak gazetenin yayın politikasına etki etme olanağına sahip olmuşlardır. Araştırmada Edirne’deki yerel basın organlarının seçimler öncesinde doğru/tarafsız haberlerle seçmenleri bilgilendirme işlevini dengeli bir biçimde yerine getirip getirmediği anlaşılmaya çalışılmıştır. Araştırmada Edirne yerel gazetelerinde siyasi içerikli haberlerin yanısıra, siyasal iletişimde kullanılan reklamlar, ilanlar, köşe yazıları, fotograflar, halkla ilişkiler çalışmalarına dayalı haberler, bulunduğu dönemdeki siyasal gelişmeler ve yerel gazete ile ilişkisi olan siyasi aktörler çerçevesinde değerlendirilmiştir. Medya izleme araştırmasına 01 Ekim 2002 tarihli gazetelerden başlanmış, 02 Kasım 2002 gününün gazeteleri de çalışmaya dahil edilmiştir. Edirne’nin merkezindeki 5 yerel gazetede Pazar günü gazete yayınlanmadığı gözönünde bulundurulduğunda 1 aylık sürede Pazar günlerine denk gelen 4 günlük süre içerik analizine dahil edilmemiştir. 2002 Genel Seçimlerinde Edirne’deki yerel gazetelerin siyasal iletişim açısından tutumları ve seçime etkisinin ölçümlenmeye çalışıldığı araştırmada içerik analizi yapılabilmesi için bir içerik formu hazırlanmıştır. Bu forma girilen veriler SPSS istatistik programı kullanılarak değerlendirilmiştir. Araştırma kapsamına alınan gazetelerin günlük tirajları 2002 Ekim ayı ortalamasına göre yaklaşık 650 dolayındadır. Araştırma; -768 Seçimle bağlantısı olan doğrudan ve dolaylı haberler, 407

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN -81 Köşe yazısı, -360 Siyasi parti reklamı, -34 İlan üzerinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Böylece toplam (doğrudan veya dolaylı haber, ilan, reklam, köşe yazısı) 1279 metin içerik analizine tabi tutulmuştur. Gazete haberleri, köşe yazıları, siyasi parti reklamları ve ilanları için ayrı kod formu hazırlanmıştır. Gazete haberleri için hazırlanan kod formu 11 soruluktur. Haberlerin tematik öğelerinin sınıflandırılması amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaçla kod formunda haberlerin her bir parti için olumluluk ve olumsuzluk kriterine göre öncelikle seçimle ilişkisi (doğrudan/dolaylı), aktörleri (Başbakan veya hükümet, gazeteci ve uzman, işveren, lider ve ailesi, Yüksek Seçim Kurulu, parti, kamuoyu şirketi, Milli Güvenlik Kurulu veya Ordu, seçmen, yargıç, milletvekili veya parti sözcüsü, diğer), aktörlerin öne çıkardığı seçim temaları (adalet, demokrasi ve insan hakları, eğitim ve kültür, ekonomi, laiklik ve din, yolsuzluk, oy talebi, seçim düzenlemeleri, terör, siyasi yasaklar, diğer), taraflılığı (partiler arası karşıtlık/yandaşlık), parti sloganı içerip içermediği incelenmiştir. Ayrıca, her bir haberin manşette yer alıp almadığı yada hangi sayfada yer aldığı dikkate alınmıştır. Konrad Adenauer Vakfı tarafından yapılan yaygın medyaya yönelik kapsamlı araştırmaki (Adenauer, 1999) benzer içerik tanımlamaları ve sınıflandırmaları kullanılmıştır. Ancak haberlerin içerik analizinde ayrımlaştırma gücünü yerel adaylara yönelik değerlendirebilecek şekilde değişiklikler de yapılmıştır. Haberler “Seçimle Doğrudan Bağlantılı” veya “Seçimle Dolaylı Bağlantılı Haber” olarak iki gruba ayrılmıştır. Her iki gruba ait haberler ayrıca daha spesifik olarak alt gruplara ayrılmıştır. Buna göre haberler aşağıdaki gibi sınıflandırılmıştır; Seçimle doğrudan bağlantılı haberler Parti geçmişi ve icraatlarını konu alan haberler Liderin görüş ve programlarını konu alan haberler Adayın görüş ve programlarını konu alan haberler Parti görüş ve programlarını konu alan haberler Liderlerin ve adayların seçim kampanyaları etkinlikleri (miting) Liderlerin ve adayların seçim kampanyaları etkinlikleri (basın toplantısı) Liderlerin ve adayların seçim kampanyaları etkinlikleri (diğer) Genel seçimle ilgili düzenlemeler Diğer (Seçim kampanyalarının neden olduğu çevre kirliliği vb.) Seçimle Dolaylı Bağlantılı Haberler Protokol etkinliklerini konu alan haberler Liderlerin özel hayatları ile ilgili haberler Adayların özel hayatları ile ilgili haberler Liderin güncel siyasal tartışmaları ile ilgili haberler Adayların güncel siyasal tartışmaları ile ilgili haberler Diğer (Eski siyasilerin açıklamaları, geçmiş siyasal tartışmalar vb. ) Köşe yazıları ile ilgili bir başka kod formu hazırlanmıştır. Bu formda köşe yazıları partilere göre olumlu veya olumsuzluk yönünden değerlendirilmiştir. İlanlar için hazırlanan ayrı formda ilanlar partilere göre, gazete sayfalarında yer alış biçimine göre ve konuları açısından, liderlerin ve adayların seçim kampanyası etkinlikleri, parti görüş ve programlarını konu alış biçimlerine göre iki ayrı açıdan incelenmiştir. Özel ilan gelirlerinin seçim dönemlerinde arttığı gözönüne alındığında bu dönemdeki dağılımların siyasal iletişim açısından ayrıca irdelenmesi gerektiği düşünülmüştür. Gazetelerde yayınlanan siyasal reklamlar için oluşturulan kod formu, hangi partinin reklamının hangi gazetede kaç kez, hangi sayfada yayınlandığını belirleyecek biçimde hazırlanmıştır. Reklamlar 408

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN konularına göre; -Partiyi ön plana çıkaran görüş ve programlarını anlatan, -Liderleri tanıtan veya görüş ve programlarını konu alan, -Adayları tanıtan veya görüş ve programlarını konu alan, içerikte tasnif edilmiştir. Amaç; özellikle yerel gazetelerde İlin milletvekili adayları reklamlarının gazetelere dağılım oranlarını tespit etmek, reklam geliri ile en fazla beslenen gazeteleri partiler açısından belirlemektir. Çünkü; yerel basını ayakta tutan resmi ilanların dışında, seçim dönemlerinde verilen özel siyasi reklamların gazetelerin gelirlerinde normal dönemlerden fazla artış sağlamaktadır. Kodlama sırasında, birden fazla siyasi partinin konu edildiği haberler, her parti için ayrı bir haber birimi olarak kabul edilmiş ve her parti ayrı sütunlarda kodlanmıştır. 2002 Genel Seçimlerine katılan 18 partiden oy sıralamasına göre % 10 barajının üzerinde kalanlar ve daha önceki genel seçimlerde milletvekili çıkarmış partiler (AKP, CHP, DYP, GP, MHP, DEHAP, ANAP, SP, DSP, YTP, BBP) araştırma kapsamına alınmış, kalanlar diğer şıkkı altında kodlanmıştır. Kodlamada 5 gazete (Son Haber, Hudut, Vatandaş, Edirne, Edirne Haber) sayfa sayılarına göre ayrı ayrı kodlanmıştır. 4. Sonuç 2002 Genel Seçimlerinde Edirne yerel gazetelerinin siyasal iletişimdeki rolü araştırması ile partilerin Edirne merkezindeki beş yerel gazetede nasıl temsil edildiği, temsil biçimlerinin genel seçim sonuçlarına etkisi ve partilerin hangi temsil biçimini tercih ettikleri ile bu gazetelerin siyasal partilere ilişkin tutumlarının araştırıldığı çalışmada, bu amaca yönelik olarak 1 Ekim 2002-2 Kasım 2002 tarihleri arasındaki bir aylık dönemde yerel gazeteler içerik analizine tabi tutulmuştur. Araştırma yerel gazetelerin yapısal bir taraflılık ve yanlılık içerisinde olduğunu kabul ederek yola çıkmıştır. Yerel gazeteler gelişmiş ülkelerdeki örneklerinde, genellikle fikir yayıncılığı yapmaktadırlar. Kitle yayıncılığı yapan yayın organları yaygın gazeteler arasında yer almaktadır. Türkiye’de ise yerel gazeteleri fikir yayıncılığı ve kitle yayıncılığı ayrımından herhangi birine sokmak genellikle mümkün olmamaktadır. Zira yerel gazeteler genellikle resmi ilanların dağıtımında paylarına düşecek miktarla ilgilenmekte ve bunu sağlayacak asgari koşullar dışında yayıncılık anlamında herhangi bir kaygı duymamaktadırlar. Oysa, Türkiye dışındaki pek çok ülke örneğinde, yerel gazeteler bölgenin sorunlarını dile getirmek, bölge insanın sesi olmak görevlerini kusursuz bir biçimde yerine getirmektedir. Türkiye’deki yerel gazetelerin bütün sorunlarına, mali yetersizliklerine rağmen, bölgenin sesi olarak, toplumsal sorunları yerine getirmenin yansıra; özellikle seçim dönemlerinde, -Bölgedeki siyasal aktörlerin seçmenlerle doğrudan iletişim kurmasını sağlamak, -Bölgedeki siyasi aktörleri tanıtarak, yönetimde söz sahibi olmaya aday kişileri yerel halkla buluşturmak, -Seçmenleri seçimlere katılma, yeni düzenlemelerle ilgili gelişmeleri aktarma konularda bilgilendirmek şeklindeki işlevlerini gazetecilik mesleğinin etik kodları içinde gerçekleştirdiği taktirde doğru yayıncılık yapabileceği kabul edilmiştir. Bunun için özellikle seçimlere girecek partiler ve adaylar konusunda dengeli bir habercilik anlayışının yerine getirilmiş olması gerekmektedir. Dengeli haber dağılımına etki edecek bir başka faktör; partilerin hazırladıkları siyasal iletişim kampanyalarıdır. Çünkü; artık siyasal iletişim kampanyaları, siyasal iletişim pazarlamasına dönüşmüş, pazarlama çalışmalarında reklama ek olarak, kişisel satış, promosyon ve gazetelerde çıkan haberleri incelerken göz önünde bulundurulması gereken halkla ilişkiler çalışmalarının yansıması olan haberler gündeme gelmiştir. İncelemede, özellikle haberler başta olmak üzere haber temaları, köşe yazıları gazetelerde yer aldıkları sayfalar açısından çözümlemelere tabi tutulmuştur. Özellikle tarafsız haber oluşumlarının yanı sıra, köşe yazıları ile yoruma dayalı, okuyucuya yorum bırakmayı engelleyici, yorumu hali hazırda yapmış olan haberler üzerinde durulmuştur. Edirne yerel gazetelerinde gerçekleştirilen içerik analizi bulguları şu şekildedir; 1. 2002 Genel Seçimlerinde Edirne yerel gazeteleri arasında en fazla seçim haberi yayınlayan gazetenin Hudut Gazetesi olduğu görülmüştür. Seçim haberlerinin %30’unu yayınlayan Hudut Gazetesi’nin 409

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN %29 ile Sonhaber Gazetesi takip etmektedir. Bu gazetelerden Hudut Gazetesi’nin yayın kimliği fikir gazeteciliği çizgisindedir. Ayrıca bu iki gazetenin sahipleri seçimlerde milletvekili adaylığı için yarışmıştır. Sonhaber Gazetesi’nin sahibinin YTP I. sıra milletvekili adayı olması ve Hudut Gazetesi sahibinin CHP milletvekili aday adayı olması bu iki gazetenin partilerine destek vermesiyle de ilintilidir. Ayrıca Edirne yerel gazeteleri içinde Sonhaber Gazetesi 2 Ekim-7 Ekim 2002 tarihleri arasında “Türkiye’nin Seçimi 2002” başlıklı ikinci sayfada yer alan köşede seçimle ilgili genel haberlere yer vermiştir. 2. Seçim haberlerinin haftalara göre dağılımlarında, yoğunluğu seçimden iki hafta önceki zaman dilimi almıştır. Bunun nedeni; tamamen yerel faktörlere bağlıdır. Edirne Trakya’daki üç ile yayılmış Trakya Üniversitesi’nin merkezinin bulunduğu Trakya Üniversitesi’ne ev sahipliği yapan bir ildir. Üniversite bünyesinde Önlisans eğitim programı çerçevesinde Halkla İlişkiler, Radyo Televizyonculuk eğitimi verilmektedir. Siyasal iletişim derslerinin de yer aldığı programlar tarafından ildeki milletvekili adayları ve öğrencileri buluşturmaya yönelik bir panelde çıkan tartışma ve panelin iptali ildeki yerel gazetelerin haberlerinde sayısal bir artışa neden olmuştur. Seçime gidilecek son haftada haber yoğunluğunun en az seviyede olması, ise Yüksek Seçim Kurulu’nun getirdiği seçim yasaklarına bağlanabilir. 3. Edirne’de 2002 Genel Seçimlerinde yayın yapan beş yerel gazetede en fazla SP ile ilgili haberin, en az ise GP ile ilgili haberin yayınlandığı tespit edilmiştir. Her iki partinin 2002 Seçimlerinde aldıkları oy oranlarına baktığımızda; GP’nin Edirne İli seçim sandığından ikinci parti olarak çıkması, yerel gazetelerin siyasal iletişim kampanyalarında kullanılmasına rağmen, yerel halk üzerinde etkilerinin olmadığının göstergesidir. Bunun yanı sıra SP en fazla haberi yayınlanan parti olmasına rağmen %10 barajını geçememiştir. Tirajları 300-500 arasında değişen yerel gazetelerin kurum ve hatır aboneliği ile bu rakama ulaştığı bilinmektedir. Dolayısıyla okuyucu açısından baktığınızda bu rakamların daha da aşağıya çekilerek düşünülmesi gerekmektedir. Gazetelerin abone olmadan bayilerden satın alınması için ulusal gazetelerin fiyatlarından daha yüksek ücretler ödenmesi gerekmektedir. 4. Araştırmada seçim haberleri olumsuz-olumlu açıdan da değerlendirilmiştir. Seçim haberleri içinde en fazla olumlu haberi yayınlana SP, en fazla olumsuz haberi yayınlanan parti DSP olmuştur. Olumluolumsuz haber oranı yönünden en avantajlı parti CHP olurken, sıralamayı, YTP, SP, DYP, MHP, DSP, DEHAP, ANAP, BBP takip etmektedir. Edirne’de 2002 Genel Seçimlerinden birinci çıkan parti CHP’dir. 5. Yerel gazetelerde seçimle ilgili doğrudan haberlerde yer alan konuların adayların yaptığı siyasal iletişim kampanyalarının yansımalarından oluştuğu görülmüştür. Seçimler ilgili toplam haberin %30’luk kısımı, adayların yerel basın kuruluşlarını ziyaret, halkı ve işyerlerini ziyaret, basınla kahvaltılı toplantıları ile ilgili haberleri oluşturmaktadır. %17’lik ikinci kısım ise yine adayların görüş ve programlarının yer aldığı haberlerden oluşmaktadır. Yerel gazeteler, milletvekili adaylarının yerel halka ulaşabilecekleri en önemli siyasal iletişim araçlarından biridir. Adayların siyasal iletişim açısından yerel gazeteleri kullandıkları söylenebilir. Ancak; yerel gazetelerin halk üzerindeki imajı güvenilir olmadığı için ve okunurluluk oranı düşük olduğu için gazete haberlerinin yerel halkı etkilemediği görülmektedir. Çünkü; bu konuda iyi bir çalışma yürüten SP ve adayı Edirne’de %10 barajını aşamamıştır. 6. Seçimle dolaylı ilgisi olan haberleri büyük çoğunluğunun genel haberlerden oluştuğu görülmektedir. Seçimle dolaylı ilgisi bulunan haberlerin konuları; adayların ve liderlerin özel hayatları, çeşitli konulardaki görüşlerinin yer aldığı haberler ve protokol etkinlikleri kapsamında incelenmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlar; siyasal iletişim kampanyalarında artık önemi gittikçe artan imaj çalışmalarının Edirne milletvekilleri tarafından kullanılmadığını göstermektedir. 7. Seçim haberleri haber aktörleri açısından değerlendirildiğinde; haber aktörü olarak ön plana partinin çıktığı görülür. Haberlerde en az yer alan aktörün ise, lider ve ailesi olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Edirne milletvekilleri ve parti liderleri seçim kampanyalarında ailelerini ön plana çıkarmamıştır. Oysa gelişmiş ülkelerdeki siyasal iletişim kampanyalarında başta eşler olmak üzere, aile bireyleri seçim haberlerinde haber aktörü olarak geniş yer bulmaktadır. 8. Sahiplik açısından özel konuma sahip olan Sonhaber ve Hudut Gazeteleri, siyasi taraflılıklarını yayınladıkları haberlerde açıkça ortaya koymuşlardır. Edirne yerel gazelerindeki köşe yazıları incelendiğinde en fazla olumlu köşe yazısının CHP ile ilgili olduğu görülür. En fazla olumsuz köşe yazısı ise 2002 Genel Seçimlerinde Edirne’de bir milletvekili çıkaran AKP hakkındadır. En fazla köşe 410

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN yazısı yazılan yerel gazete Sonhaber Gazete’si olmuş, onu Edirne Haber Gazete’si takip etmiştir. 9. Gazetelerin manşetlerinde öne çıkan haber aktörleri partilerdir. Ancak; parti olarak kodlanan bu parametreye, milletvekili adayları da işaretlenmiştir. Seçmenlerin aktör olduğu seçim haberlerinin oranı %12’dir. Bu orana göre; gazetelerin bölge halkını oluşturan seçmenlerin mesajlarını siyasi partilere iletmediği görülür. Bu araştırma bulgusu, siyasal ileşitim açısından yerel gazetelerin yerel sorunlar ve bu konuda halkın görüşlerini yansıtma görevi taşıdıkları bilinciyle hareket etmediklerini göstermektedir. 10. Seçimle ilgili bir aylık sürede yayınlanan haberlerde sadece DSP, ANAP, YTP ve SP nin parti sloganı içeren haberlerinin yer aldığı görülmektedir. SP ile ilgili slogan içeren haberler diğer partilerin iki katıdır. Ancak SP ile ilgili olumlu haberlerin yanı sıra olumsuz slogan içeren haberler de yer almaktadır. Adaylardan YTP birinci sıra milletvekili adayı Ali Soydan’ın seçim kampanyası sloganı “Gencim, Gençlerin Oylarına Talibim”, ANAP birinci sıra milletvekili adayı Faruk Yılmaz’ın sloganı ise; “Bizim Faruk” olmuştur. 11. Siyasi aktörlerin en fazla öne çıkardığı haber temaları sırasıyla; ekonomi, seçim düzenlemeleri ve adalettir. Partileri temsil eden aktörlerin tümü ekonomiyi gündeme getirmiştir. Yerel gazetelerde yer alan haberlere göre; oy talebinde bulunan partiler, DYP, AKP, SP ve YTP’dir. 12. Seçimle ilgili haberlerin %82’si fotoğrafla desteklenmiştir. Fotoğrafların çoğunluğunu aday milletvekillerinin fotoğrafları oluşturmaktadır. Ardından sırasıyla liderlerin fotoğrafları, parti amblemi veya afişi, miting ve seçim kampanyaları görüntüleri gelmektedir. 13. En fazla fotoğrafı yayınlanan parti SP’dir. SP’nin ve adaylarının yürüttüğü siyasal iletişim kampanyasının başarısı fotoğrafların sayısında da ortaya çıkmaktadır. Ancak, hiç fotoğrafı yayınlanmayan GP ve adaylarının Edirne’nin ikinci partisi olması yine yerel basının Edirne yerel halkı üzerinde hiçbir etkinliğinin olmadığının net ifadesidir. 14. Reklam gelirlerinin yerel gazeteler için önemi, araştırmadaki reklamların içerikleriyle incelenmesinin ana nedenidir. Yerel gazetelerin halk üzerinde oyları değiştirmeyi sağlayacak bir etkisinin olmadığı tespit edilmesine rağmen, siyasal iletişim kampanyası çerçevesinde, partilerin yerel gazetelere önemli oranlarda ilan verdikleri görülmektedir. Yerel gazetelerin tirajları ile ilgili rakamlar da bu etkinin sağlanamayacağının göstergesidir. Yerel gazetelerin özellikle miting günlerinde verilen reklamlara bağlı olarak baskı sayısını 2000-3000’e çıkardığı, baskı finansmanının reklam veren tarafından sağlandığı ve gazetelerin miting alanında el ilanı şeklinde dağıtıldığı (Gönensin O., Sabah Gazetesi, 2001) tespit edilmiştir. 15. Yerel gazetelerde çıkan reklamların çoğunluğunu YTP ve SP tarafından verilen reklamlar oluşturmaktadır. YTP’nin ilk sırayı alması sahiplik öğesi açısından olağan bir sonuçtur. Lideri tanıtan reklamların sadece YTP’de olduğu, partiyi ön plana çıkaran reklamların ise SP ve DYP tarafından kullanıldığı tespit edilmiştir. Araştırmaya konu olan dönemde, kamuoyu araştırma şirketlerinin seçim sonuçlarını tahmine yönelik anket sonuçları, DYP ve SP’nin %10 barajının altında kalacağını öngörmüştür. Bu iki partinin özellikle kararsızların oyunu alabilmek için parti merkezinden yürütülen siyasal iletişim kampanyası çerçevesinde, adaylarına destek vermek adına, yerel basına da reklam verdikleri görülmektedir. 16. Gazetelere verilen ilanların çoğunluğunu SP’nin ilanları oluşturmaktadır. Onu DYP, AKP takip etmektedir. Olumsuz ilana rastlanmamıştır. Gazetelerdeki ilanlarda, milletvekili adaylarının karşılıklı diyaloglarına da rastlanmamıştır. Gazetelerde siyasi partilerin biçimsel temsiline ilişkin analiz sonuçları siyaset ve medya sahipliği açısından da irdelenmiştir; Edirne Gazetesi’nde yayınlanan haberlerin, fotoğrafların, reklam ve ilanların dağılımına baktığımızda öne çıkan partinin SP olduğu görülür. Gazetelerin yayın politikası hakkında fikir veren köşe yazılarında ise siyasi bir taraflılık gözlenmemiştir. Edirne Haber Gazetesi’nde yayınlanan seçimle ilgili en fazla haberin SP hakkında olduğu görülür. Edirne Gazeteleri arasında Sonhaber Gazetesi’nden sonra en fazla köşe yazısının yayınlandığı gazete Edirne Haber Gazetesi’dir. Hakkında en fazla olumlu köşe yazısı yazılan parti DYP’dir. En fazla fotoğraf yayınlanan parti de DYP olmuştur. Her ne kadar DYP ile ilgili reklamlar diğer partilere göre yoğun görünmese de, Edirne Haber Gazetesi’nin DYP’yi destekler bir yayın politikası güttüğü

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN görülmektedir. Hudut Gazetesi Sahibi’nin 2002 Genel Seçimlerinde CHP’den milletvekili aday adayı olması, gazetenin yayın politikasına da yansımıştır. Gazete’de SP haricindeki tüm sol merkezli partilerin haberlerinin daha fazla olduğu görülür. SP’nin her gazetede yüksek oranda haber konusu olmasının nedeni; bu partinin ve milletvekili adayının başarılı sayılacak bir siyasal iletişim kampanyası yürütmesine bağlanabilir. Hudut; başta köşe yazıları olmak üzere, CHP’yi desteklediğini yayınladığı haber sayıları ve fotoğraflarla açıkça belli etmekte, bunun yanı sıra desteklediği partinin dışındaki tüm partilerin haberlerine tarafsız bir biçimde yer vermektedir. Nitekim; yayın politikasındaki açık tavrına rağmen, ANAP dışındaki sağ eğilimli bütün partilerin gazeteye ilan ve reklam verdikleri görülür. Sonhaber Gazetesi, Edirne’nin muhalif gazetesidir. Gazete sahibinin YTP Edirne birinci sıra milletvekili adayı olması, yayın politikası YTP lehine oluşturmasını kaçınılmaz kılmıştır. SP’nin başarılı siyasal iletişim kampanyasına rağmen, Sonhaber Gazetesi haberleri içindeki oranı, diğer gazetelere göre çok düşüktür. SP’nin gazeteye hiç ilan vermediği görülür. Gazetede en fazla YTP’nin ilanı yayınlanmıştır. Sahibi gazeteyi siyasal iletişim aracı olarak etkin bir biçimde kullanmıştır. Fotoğraf sayılarının ve manşetteki olumlu haberlerin yoğunluğu da yine YTP’de toplanmıştır. Vatandaş Gazetesi ve Edirne Gazeteleri’nin sahibi aynı kişidir. Gazete haberleri dağılımlarında, tıpkı Edirne Gazete’sinde olduğu gibi SP’nin gündeme taşındığı bir tutum görülür. Yine en fazla reklamın olduğu parti SP’dir. Bu iki gazetedeki köşe yazılarının sayıları çok azdır. Nitelikleri açısından da yayın politikasını belirleyici bir tavır görülmemektedir. Manşetteki haberlerine bakıldığında gündemin seçimle ilgili oluşturulmadığı görülür. SP’yi destekler tavrı, fotoğraf sayılarında da görülmektedir. Gazetelerde yayınlanan haberlerin tarafsız habercilik iddialarını kanıtlar görünümü özellikle haberlere olumlu-olumsuz açıdan bakıldığında görünenin aksine taraflı bir tutum sergilediğini göstermektedir. İncelenen beş yerel gazetede 2002 Genel Seçimlerinde iddialı partilere yönelik bir destek CHP haricinde görülmemektedir. Araştırma sonuçları Edirne yerel gazetelerinin taraflı bir habercilik içinde olduğunu göstermektedir. Zaten işlevlerini gereğince yerine getirmediği gözlenen yerel gazetelerin seçim döneminde, siyasi partileri ilan ve reklamlarla doğru orantılı olarak destekler bir tavır sergilemiştir. Yerel gazeteler aynı zamanda sahiplik öğesi bulunan siyasi adaylar tarafından habercilik etik ilkelerini aşacak bir biçimde siyasal iletişim aracı olarak kullandıkları izlenimi oluşturmaktadır. Edirne’deki yerel gazeteler seçim döneminde önem kazanan işlevlerinden siyasal aktörler ve seçmenler arasındaki iletişimi dengeli bir biçimde sağlama işlevini yerine getirmediği gibi, sahiplik öğesi ve reklam gelirlerine bağlı lehte bir yayıncılık anlayışı benimsemiştir. Ancak, siyasal aktörler tarafından kullanılan yerel gazetelerin seçmen üzerinde herhangi bir etkisi de oluşmamıştır.

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GENERAL PROFILE OF PROFESSIONAL ACCOUNTANTS AND THE ROLE OF DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERICTICS ON THEIR LEVEL OF WORK ENGAGEMENT* Assist. Prof. Dr. H. Pınar KAYA Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Business Administration [email protected] Abstract The aim of the study is to have knowledge about the general features, financial status, problems about the professional activities and level of work engagement of professional accountants in Kırşehir and Nevşehir provinces. If the work engagement level of the profession members showed significant differences according to demographic characteristics was analyzed in the scope of study. Work engagement level of the profession members was evaluated by using Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-17) developed by Schaufeli and Bakker (2003). With the result of the analysis of data obtained by the surveys done it was found out that in both provinces three problems which the profession members complained mostly were respectively; excessive professional liability, frequent legislative change and not being able to collect accounting fee in time. It was revealed that the members of the profession working in Kırşehir were more engaged to their work than the ones in Nevşehir. According to the study findings title, gender and graduated high school type did not cause any significant differences on the work engagement of professional accountants. It was revealed that according to the variables of marital status, age, educational level, licensed working year, number of taxpayers and monthly average net revenue, work engagement level of professional accountants showed significant differences statistically. Key Words: Work engagement, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), Professional Accountants.

1. Introduction Every profession has its own specific features and these features have the potential to leave positive and/or negative effects on the employees doing it in terms of physiological and/or psychological aspects. Most of the researches done in the periods before the emerging of “positive psychology” approach that focused on the strengths of people dealt with negative aspects of employees such as disease and burnout. With the positive psychology approach studies focusing on the positive aspects of the employees such as job satisfaction and motivation have been started to be done [1]. Being the scope of study, the point to determine the level of work engagement of professional accountants is one of the researches that takes into consideration the positive effects the profession leaves on employees. It is seen that work engagement term is confused with some terms such as job involvement, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, job engagement and some mistakes are done about the scales used to measure these terms. For instance, a researcher using a scale to measure job engagement tries to explain the results with the terms such as work engagement, organizational commitment, or in measuring job engagement he uses scales of such similar attitudes as work engagement or organizational commitment [2]. As the mistakes cause the results of analysis to be incorrect it is very essential these terms are understood well. Engagement can be defined as an attitude that people feel about the psychological objects which they think important in their life and performing how the relationship with this psychological object requires eagerly and willingly. Engaged psychological object can be a friend, a director as well phenomenon as such as a political party, a union, an organization like a workplace or work and profession [3]. Work engagement can be defined as entire positive thoughts that employees feel about the work they do. Work engagement definitions made by different authors are these: “Work engagement is a person’s being connected with the work roles physically, cognitively, and emotionally while working” [4]. *

This study is supported by Scientific Research and Project Coordination Office of Ahi Evran University under the project number IIB.E2.16.008)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN “Work engagement is a psychological construct that consists of energy and identification” [5]. “Work engagement is people’s feeling themselves vigorous while working, being connected with their work roles or being satisfied and focused on their works” [6]. “Work engagement is an important indicator of occupational well-being for both employees and organizations” [7]. “Work engagement is a person’s regarding his work as essential and seeing it as an important part of life” [8]. “Engagement is defined as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigour, dedication, and absorption” [9]. Engaged employees have a sense of energetic and effective connection with their work activities and they see themselves as able to deal completely with the demands of their job [9]. Engaged employees work hard, are involved and feel happily engrossed in their work [10]. While work engagement of a employee is a desired and expected positive attitude excessive work engagement could lead to undesired results. An employee’s putting his work into center of life and dedicating himself to work may cause difficulties in performing his other roles [11]. Therefore, it is necessary that the balance between the roles are set well. Work engagement concept is involved in an interaction with some negative attitudes and thoughts of work such as burnout, workaholism and dissatisfaction of work. Work engagement is among the organisational factors that affects job burnout [12]. And work engagement is the assumed opposite of burnout [1]. In contrast to workaholics, engaged employees lack the typical compulsive drive. For them work is fun, not an addiction [10]. And, dissatisfaction of work is a factor that causes employees’ work engagement to decrease [5]. In addition to identifying which term is to be used to for the positive and/or negative attitudes that people feel about their work, it is also crucial to identify which factors cause these attitudes. With regards to accounting, the surplus existence of factors with the potential to affect the members of profession’s wok engagement level is remarkable. Demographic characteristics of the professional accountants, their work income, the main reason of choosing the profession and the problems they face when working can be said to be among these factors. There are some studies confirming that the professional accountants working in Turkey face with the sense of dislike for their profession such reasons as the changes and uncertainties occurring in work conditions over time, changing their attitudes towards their taxpayers and the short of income opportunities [13]. In aspect of the future of accounting it is very important that the problems of profession members are solved immediately and by defining the factors affecting their level of work engagement their work engagement are to be increased. Therefore, in this study firstly the general features of profession members, financial status, main reasons to choose the profession, the fields they feel insufficient most in their professional activities and main problems they have are defined. Then, by measuring the work engagement level of professional accountants it is analyzed if there is any significant differences in work engagement level of profession members according to demographic characteristics. 2. Review of Literature It is remarkable that in literature the studies done for the members of accounting are generally about the topics such as burnout, stress, job satisfaction, role conflict and professional problems. The studies analyzing the relationship between job burnout level and work engagement of the accounting members are found. However, in these studies it has been seen that the scale used in measuring work engagement level is different from the scale of this study. Although there are small number of studies analyzing the relationship between the demographic characteristics of different profession groups and work engagement level it is striking that there is not any kind of study for the members of accounting like this. In the study done on the members of other professions except from accounting Schaufeli and Bakker (2003) analyzed if there was a relationship between work engagement level and age, gender and burnout. At the end of the study, it was found out that there was a very weak positive relationship

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN between work engagement and age, males had higher work engagement level than females and there was a negative relationship between burnout and work engagement [1]. According to the study done on the health professionals Karacaoğlu (2005) defined that gender, education and income level caused differences on the work engagement of health professionals but in terms of age, marital status and licensed working year variables there was not a significant differences on their work engagement levels [3]. In the study done on the Information Communication Technology consultants in Sweeden Hallberg, Johansson and Schaufeli (2007) concluded that both work situation and Type A behaviour was correlated with work engagement and burnout; however, there was not any interactions between Type A behaviour and work situation. And, the final conclusion was that the achievement striving aspect of Type A behaviour appeared as “non-toxic” and it was only related to work engagement [14]. According to the study done in order to compare the work engagement of self-employed and salaried employees Gorgievski, Bakker and Schaufeli (2010) found out that self-employed individuals had more work passion than salaried employees. They worked more and had higher work engagement, which was related to better self-reported performance. They did not work more compulsively. And, for both groups work engagement had positive relationship with task performance and innovativeness [15]. According to the study done on the members of accounting working in Kayseri province Doğan and Nazlıoğlu (2010) concluded that 72% of profession members gave positive respond to the statement “I choose accounting willingly” and 68% of them to the statement “I do the profession with pleasure” [16]. In the study done in order to specify the relationship between the job burnout level and work engagement of the accounting members working in Ankara province Öztürk, Koçyiğit and Bal (2011) found a negative relationship between the job burnout level and work engagement level of the accounting members. In defining the work engagement level of the accounting members “Job Involvement Scale” developed by Kanungo was used and it was found that 59% of the profession members gave a positive respond to the statement of the scale “I am very engaged to my work” [12]. Yılmaz (2014) analyzed the relationship between the job burnout dimensions (emotional exhaustion, indifference, the feeling of personal success) of certified public accountants working in Samsun province and their work engagement level. At the end of the study it was found that there was a negative relationship between emotional exhaustion and work engagement; a positive relationship between the feeling of personal success and work engagement. No significant differences was found between indifference and work engagement [8]. According to the study done to analyze the effects of work engagement, emotional exhaustion and work stress level of the accounting members working in Denizli province on the level of work-family conflict Gürel (2016) discovered that there was a positive relationship between emotional exhaustion, work stress and work-family conflict; a negative relationship between work engagement and workfamily conflict [11]. It is possible to see a great number of academic studies analyzing the problems of accounting members working in different provinces of Turkey. A summary information of some of these studies are below: According to the study done on the members of accounting working in Kayseri and Nevşehir provinces Uzay and Güngör (2004) defined that the occupational problems the profession members were faced with were unfair competition between the members of profession, the difficulties of taxpayers’ paying accounting fee, heavy workload- not enough time for private life, not enough payment for the work done, more responsibility than authority, not being able to follow the frequent legislative change [17]. In the study done to specify the problems of professional accounting members working in Burdur province Tuğay and Tekşen (2014) discovered that the problems profession members faced with were; according to society the best accountant was the accountant making people pay less tax, frequent changes in law, profession members’ keeping the accounts lower than the wage scale decided by the room, heavy workload of the profession, not enough payment for the work done, because of taxpayers’ excessive financial obligations and payments no turn for the payments of accountant fees, frequent observation and control and lack of time [18].

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN In the study done to specify the problems the members of accounting faced with and their expectations across Turkey, Aydemir (2015) found that nearly 56% of the participants were pleased to be the member of the profession and the main reason for this was because the profession was open to improvement. The problems profession members were most frequently faced with were defined respectively as “heavy workload”, “some of the profession members’ keeping cheap accounts”, “taxpayers’ not paying or paying irregularly” [19]. In the study done to analyze the problems and professional satisfaction of professional accountants working in Uşak province Gündüz and Özen (2016) discovered that accounting members complained about heavy workload and not enough time for private life, not enough payment for the work done and other colleagues’ keeping the accounts lower than current wage scale. 59% of the profession members claimed they chose the right profession. Besides, it was found that the profession members getting enough payment for the work done and not having payment problems had higher professional satisfaction level [20]. 3. Methodology 3.1. Aim There are two main aims of the research. The first one is to define the general features, financial status, main reasons to choose the profession, the fields they feel insufficient most in their professional activities and the problems about the professional activities of the professional accountants. The other aim of the research is after setting the general profiles of the profession members, analyzing if demographic characteristics have a significant differences on work engagement level. 3.2. Method The professional accountants working in Kırşehir and Nevşehir provinces compose the main universe of the research. According to the information obtained from the web pages of Kırşehir and Nevşehir CPA rooms, by May 2016 there are totally 196 PA and CPA working independently in city centers and districts of Kırşehir and Nevşehir. Within the scope of research, by reaching 53 profession members out of 59 working in Kırşehir and 88 profesion members out of 137 working in Nevşehir in total they were made to fill the survey form with face to face interview method. The error margin of the research resulting from the number of sample with the 95% of reliability level was found as 4,33% in Kırşehir and 6,27% in Nevşehir [21]. The data obtained from the scope of study was analyzed with SPSS software and all hypotheses were tested with 95% of reliability level. In testing normality hypothesis of data distribution KolmogorovSmirnov test, in defining the homogeneity of variances Levene statistics were used and with the research results it was found that data had normal distribution and variances had homogeneous distribution. For data analysis descriptive statistics, unrelated samples t-test and one way variance analysis were used. The work engagement of the professional accountants was measured by Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) developed by Schaufeli and Bakker (2003) [1]. The scale has a long form with 17 items and a short form with 9 items. The reliability and factor validity of the Turkish version of the scale adapted from English to Turkish was tested by Turgut (2011) [22], Eryılmaz and Doğan (2012) [6], Özkalp and Meydan (2015) [23]. According to the findings, the scale was found adequately reliable and valid with the whole scale, each dimension and both forms (UWES-17 and UWES-9). In this study UWES-17 was used and five point likert rating alternatives was given. With the reliability analysis done within the scope of research Cronbach alfa coefficient of work engagement scale in Kırşehir was found as 0,915 and 0,910 in Nevşehir. As a result, the scale can be said to be statistically “very reliable” [24]. Research models and hypotheses for the model created within the general framework of the study were below: Şekil 1. Research Models DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Title Gender

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Marital Status Age Educational Level Graduated High School Type Licensed Working Year Number of Taxpayers Monthly Average Net Revenue

WORK ENGAGEMENT

H0: There is not significant differences in work engagement level of professional accountants in terms of demographic characteristics. H1: There are significant differences in work engagement level of professional accountants in terms of demographic characteristics. 3.3. Analysis and Findings Analysis results and findings of the research are summarized below: 3.3.1. Identifying Data Set In this part of the study, the general features, financial status, main reasons to choose the profession, the fields they feel insufficient most in their professional activities and work engagement level of the public accountants participating in the survey are presented with frequency distribution. Table 1. Frequency and Percentage Distribution about the General Features of Professional Accountants PROVINCE GENERAL FEATURES Title Public Accountants (PA) Certified Public Accountants (CPA) Gender Male Female Age 30-35 36-41 42-47 48 and more Educational Level High school Foundation degree Bachelor’s degree Master’s degree Graduated High School Type General/Normal High school Science/Anatolian/Super High school Vocational High school Marital Status Married Single Licensed Working Year 0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21 and more Number of Taxpayers

KIRŞEHİR (n=53) Frequency (f) Percent (%)

NEVŞEHİR (n=88) Frequency (f) Percent (%)

4 49

7,5 92,5

6 82

6,8 93,2

50 3

94,3 5,7

79 9

89,8 10,2

3 14 11 25

5,7 26,4 20,8 47,2

9 24 21 34

10,2 27,3 23,9 38,6

10 5 35 3

18,9 9,4 66,0 5,7

19 11 53 5

21,6 12,5 60,2 5,7

19 2 32

35,8 3,8 60,4

27 4 57

30,7 4,5 64,8

47 6

88,7 11,3

81 7

92,0 8,0

5 3 5 9 31

9,4 5,7 9,4 17,0 58,5

2 10 19 10 47

2,3 11,4 21,6 11,4 53,4

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 0-15 16-30 31-45 46-60 61 and more TOTAL

0 6 2 8 37 53

0 11,3 3,8 15,1 69,8 100

4 10 11 24 39 88

4,5 11,4 12,5 27,3 44,3 100

In Table 1 the general features such as title, gender, age, educational level, graduated high school type, marital status, licensed working year and number of taxpayers of the public accountants in Kırşehir and Nevşehir participating in the survey are presented. It is remarkable that in both provinces most of the Certified Public Accountants are male and more than half of the participants are graduated from Vocational High school and with Bachelor’s degree. Examining in terms of age variable, it is seen that in Kırşehir 47% and in Nevşehir 38% of the participants are in the range “48 age and above”. In both provinces the profession members working for 21 years and more, and having 61 and more taxpayers are more in number. Table 2. Frequency and Percentage Distribution about the Financial Status of Professional Accountants PROVINCE FINANCIAL SITUATION Monthly Average Net Revenue 0-1.500 TL 1.501-3.000 TL 3.001-4.500 TL 4.501 and more Car Ownership Yes No Home Ownership Yes No Saving Ability Yes Savings Vehicles (37) Time Deposit Account (TL) Current Account (TL) Gold Realty Mattress Saving Equity No TOTAL

KIRŞEHİR (n=53) Frequency (f) Percent (%)

NEVŞEHİR (n=88) Frequency (f) Percent (%)

10 20 23 0

18,9 37,7 43,4 0

5 31 27 25

5,7 35,2 30,7 28,4

45 8

84,9 15,1

84 4

95,5 4,5

43 10

81,1 18,9

79 9

89,8 10,2

29

54,7

37

42,0

9 6 2 7 0 5 24 53

17,0 11,3 3,8 13,2 0 9,5 45,3 100

10 2 5 17 3 0 51 88

11,4 2,3 5,7 19,3 3,4 0 58,0 100

In Table 2 information about monthly average net revenue, car/home ownership and saving ability status of professional accountants are presented. While there is not a profession member with 4.500 and more monthly average net revenue in Kırşehir, the monthly average net revenue of nearly 28% of the profession members in Nevşehir is above this amount. In both provinces most of the profession members have houses and cars. While in Kırşehir the profession members who are able to save choose time deposit account as the saving vehicle, the ones in Nevşehir prefer to invest in realty. Table 3. Frequency and Percentage Distribution about the Reasons to Choose the Profession of Professional Accountants KIRŞEHİR (n=53) Frequency Percent (f) (%)

PROVINCE MAIN REASON TO CHOOSE PROFESSION The ability and skill that I have are suitable for the accounting The employees with accounting knowledge will always

419

NEVŞEHİR (n=88) Frequency Percent (f) (%)

14

26,4

36

40,9

5

9,4

16

18,2

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN be needed in working life The pressure from my family and friends Accounting is a science with dynmic features The wish to follow family profession It is a sector about the field I graduated It has a high income The career opportunuties of accounting sector are attractive Other TOTAL

5 3 7 13 2

9,4 5,7 13,2 24,5 3,8

11 5 5 5 3

12,5 5,7 5,7 5,7 3,4

2

3,8

2

2,2

2 53

3,8 100

5 88

5,7 100

As it is seen in Table 3, the first reason of the profession members in Kırşehir and Nevşehir to choose accounting is “the ability and skill that I have are suitable for the accounting”. Table 4. Frequency and Percentage Distribution about the Fields the Professional Accountants Feel Insufficient Most PROVINCE THE FIELD FELT INSUFFICIENT MOST Information Technologies Law Audit Cost Accounting Financial Statements Analysis Accounting Standards Construction Accounting Management Accounting Corporate Accounting TOTAL

KIRŞEHİR (n=53) Frequency (f) Percent (%) 18 8 5 10 1 5 6 0 0 53

NEVŞEHİR (n=88) Frequency (f) Percent (%)

34,0 15,1 9,4 18,9 1,9 9,4 11,3 0 0 100

26 19 13 10 8 6 3 2 1 88

29,5 21,6 14,8 11,4 9,1 6,8 3,4 2,3 1,1 100

According to the information in Table 4, the profession members in Kırşehir and Nevşehir feel themselves insufficient most about the field of information technologies in their professional activities and they have the idea of getting help about this field. Table 5. Mean and Standart Deviation Values of Professional Accountants’ Level of Agreement for the Problems about Professional Activities KIRŞEHİR (n=53) s.d.

Mean

1,55 1,32 1,25 1,33 1,40 1,29 1,39 1,49 1,36 1,29

3,70 3,98 3,74 3,87 3,13 4,06 4,08 3,60 3,40 3,28 3,68

PROVINCE STATEMENTS 1. Incresing of unfair competition about taxpayer/fee 2. Not being able to collect accounting fee in time 3. Not being able to get a satisfying fee from the taxpayer 4. Not being able to find a qualified accounting personnel 5. The communication’s getting difficult with public institutions 6. The legislation’s changing frequently 7. Excessive professional liability 8. The necessity of taxpayers to do procedures apart from accounting 9. The prestige of the profession’s getting lower in the eyes of taxpayers 10. The prestige of the profession’s getting lower in the eyes of society

NEVŞEHİR (n=88) Mean

s.d.

4,27 4,42 4,39 4,28 2,90 4,43 4,44 4,33 4,07 3,57 4,11

1,12 0,90 0,86 1,00 1,32 0,89 1,02 1,05 1,23 1,37

(1. Strongly Disagree, 2. Disagree, 3. Neutral, 4. Agree, 5. Strongly Agree)

Examining the means of profession members’ answers for the statements in Table 5, it is seen that the profession members in Nevşehir have higher level of agreement for the problems than the ones in Kırşehir (4,11>3,68). In both provinces three problems which the profession members complained

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN mostly are respectively; excessive professional liability, the legislation’s changing frequently and not being able to collect accounting fee in time. Table 6. Mean and Standart Deviation Values of Professional Accountants’ Work Engagement Level KIRŞEHİR s.d. 1,090 0,910 0,799 1,020 0,922 1,149 0,978 1,079 1,384 0,992 1,005 1,018 1,114 0,975 1,067 1,272 1,175

NEVŞEHİR

PROVINCE

Mean 3,75 4,43 4,53 4,19 4,36 3,60 3,92 3,91 3,68 4,45 4,09 3,96 3,91 4,17 3,53 2,81 3,75 3,94

STATEMENTS 1. At my work, I feel bursting with energy 2. I find the work that I do full of meaning and purpose 3. Time flies when I'm working 4. At my job, I feel strong and vigorous 5. I am enthusiastic about my job 6. When I am working, I forget everything else around me 7. My job inspires me 8. When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work 9. I feel happy when I am working intensely 10. I am proud on the work that I do 11. I am immersed in my work 12. I can continue working for very long periods at a time 13. To me, my job is challenging 14. I get carried away when I’m working 15. At my job, I am very resilient, mentally 16. It is difficult to detach myself from my job 17. At my work I always persevere, even when things do not go well

Mean 3,70 4,16 4,58 3,82 4,36 3,31 3,75 3,97 3,33 4,11 3,99 3,82 3,59 3,97 3,61 2,23 3,56 3,75

s.d. 1,243 1,183 0,690 1,170 0,899 1,226 1,167 0,976 1,275 1,129 0,965 1,078 1,256 1,066 1,245 1,182 1,276

(1. Never, 2. Rarely, 3. Sometimes, 4. Often, 5. Always)

In Table 6, mean and standard deviation values of professional accountants’ answers to each statement of work engagement scale are presented. The general mean of work engagement level of profession members participating in the research is found as 3,94 in Kırşehir; 3,75 in Nevşehir. This result means that the profession members working in Kırşehir are more engaged to their work than the ones in Nevşehir. Also, the means of work engagement being above 3 in both provinces can be interpreted as the profession members have positive feelings for their profession. It is remarkable that the work engagement scale statement “It is difficult to detach myself from my job” has the least mean in both provinces. The statement that the profession members in Kırşehir and Nevşehir have the highest level of agreement is the same as well. For the statement “Time flies when I'm working” the profession members have positive opinions with the level of 4,53 in Kırşehir; 4,58 in Nevşehir. The profession members state that even if they think time flies when working because they are focused on the work, they want to leave the work after some time. This situation can be interpreted as the work engagement of the profession members has a time limit. 3.3.2. The Findings of the Research In this part of the study, t-test and ANOVA results about the situation if there are any significant differences in work engagement level of profession members according to demographic characteristics are presented. 3.3.2.1. The Results of Independent Sample T-Test T-test results of professional accountants’ work engagement level according to title, gender and marital status are presented in Table 7, 8 and 9. Table 7. T-Test Results of Professional Accountants’ Work Engagement Level According to Title KIRŞEHİR TITLE PA CPA

Mean 3.75 3.76

NEVŞEHİR

t

Sig.

-0.009

0.993

STATEMENTS 1. At my work, I feel bursting with energy

421

Mean 3.33 3.73

t

Sig.

-0.756

0.452

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA PA CPA

4.75 4.41 4.50 4.53 4.00 4.20 4.25 4.37 2.75 3.67 4.00 3.92 4.25 3.88 4.00 3.65 4.25 4.47 4.25 4.08 3.50 4.00 3.75 3.92 4.50 4.14 3.50 3.53 3.00 2.80 3.25 3.80

0.719

0.475

2. I find the work that I do full of meaning and purpose

-0.073

0.942

3. Time flies when I'm working

-0.382

0.704

4. At my job, I feel strong and vigorous

-0.243

0.809

5. I am enthusiastic about my job

-1.567

0.123

6. When I am working, I forget everything else around me

0.159

0.874

7. My job inspires me

0.660

0.512

8. When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work

0.479

0.634

9. I feel happy when I am working intensely

-0.422

0.675

10. I am proud on the work that I do

0.319

0.751

11. I am immersed in my work

-0.943

0.350

12. I can continue working for very long periods at a time

-0.288

0.774

13. To me, my job is challenging

0.701

0.487

14. I get carried away when I’m working

-0.055

0.957

15. At my job, I am very resilient, mentally

0.306

0.761

16. It is difficult to detach myself from my job

-0.892

0.377

17. At my work I always persevere, even when things do not go well

4.00 4.17 4.50 4.59 4.00 3.80 4.33 4.37 3.67 3.28 4.00 3.73 4.33 3.94 2.67 3.38 4.00 4.12 3.33 4.04 3.67 3.83 3.83 3.57 3.67 3.99 3.50 3.62 2.17 2.23 3.50 3.56

-0.339

0.735

-0.291

0.772

0.392

0.696

-0.085

0.932

0.743

0.459

0.541

0.590

0.955

0.342

-1.325

0.189

-0.254

0.800

-1.744

0.085

-0.355

0.724

0.488

0.627

-0.710

0.480

-0.230

0.818

-0.129

0.897

-0.112

0.911

As it is seen in Table 7, work engagement level of professional accountants does not have any significant differences according to title. Title does not cause any significant differences on work engagement of professional accountants in both provinces. Table 8. T-Test Results of Professional Accountants’ Work Engagement Level According to Gender KIRŞEHİR Gender

Mean

Male

3.78

Female

3.33

Male

4.46

Female

4.00

Male

4.58

Female

3.67

Male

4.24

NEVŞEHİR

t

Sig.

STATEMENTS

0.496

1. At my work, I feel bursting with energy

3.67

0.686

0.400

2. I find the work that I do full of meaning and purpose

4.20

0.849 1.976

0.054

3. Time flies when I'm working

1.514

0.136

4. At my job, I feel strong and

422

Mean 4.00 3.78 4.57 4.67 3.82

t

Sig.

-0.751

0.455

1.021

0.310

-0.398

0.692

0.109

0.914

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Female

3.33

Male

4.40

Female

3.67

Male

3.60

Female

3.67

Male

3.96

Female

3.33

Male

3.96

Female

3.00

Male

3.74

Female

2.67

Male

4.48

Female

4.00

Male

4.08

Female

4.33

Male

3.96

Female

4.00

Male

3.90

Female

4.00

Male

4.18

Female

4.00

Male

3.54

Female

3.33

Male

2.82

Female

2.67

Male

3.82

Female

2.67

vigorous

3.78 4.39

1.349

0.183

5. I am enthusiastic about my job

-0.097

0.923

6. When I am working, I forget everything else around me

1.080

0.285

7. My job inspires me

0.136

8. When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work

4.01

1.515

0.195

9. I feel happy when I am working intensely

3.35

1.314 0.812

0.421

10. I am proud on the work that I do

-0.421

0.676

11. I am immersed in my work

-0.065

0.948

12. I can continue working for very long periods at a time

-0.150

0.882

13. To me, my job is challenging

0.760

14. I get carried away when I’m working

3.99

0.308

0.748

15. At my job, I am very resilient, mentally

3.62

0.323

0.842

16. It is difficult to detach myself from my job

2.22

0.201

0.099

17. At my work I always persevere, even when things do not go well

3.51

1.680

4.11 3.28 3.56 3.78 3.44 3.56 3.11 4.11 4.11 4.00 3.89 3.78 4.11 3.59 3.56 3.78 3.56 2.33 4.00

0.888

0.377

-0.640

0.524

0.827

0.410

1.337

0.185

0.540

0.590

0.007

0.994

0.326

0.745

-0.859

0.393

0.089

0.930

0.556

0.579

0.147

0.884

-0.283

0.778

-1.101

0.274

According to analysis results in Table 8, gender variable does not cause any significant differences on work engagement statistically. Mean value of the answers for the work engagement scale statements of profession members with different genders being close to each other supports this finding. Table 9. T-Test Results of Professional Accountants’ Work Engagement Level According to Marital Status KIRŞEHİR Marital Status Married

Mean 3.17

Single

3.83

Married

4.33

Single

4.45

Married

4.17

Single

4.57

Married

3.50

NEVŞEHİR

t

Sig.

STATEMENTS

0.163

1. At my work, I feel bursting with energy

3.86

-1.416

0.777

2. I find the work that I do full of meaning and purpose

3.86

-0.285 -1.182

0.243

3. Time flies when I'm working

-1.793

0.079

4. At my job, I feel strong and

423

Mean

3.69 4.19 4.71 4.57 3.71

t

Sig.

0.337

0.737

-0.702

0.485

0.536

0.593

-0.244

0.808

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Single

4.28

Married

3.83

Single

4.43

Married

3.67

Single

3.60

Married

3.17

Single

4.02

Married

3.67

Single

3.94

Married

3.00

Single

3.77

Married

4.17

Single

4.49

Married

4.33

Single

4.06

Married

4.33

Single

3.91

Married

4.33

Single

3.85

Married

4.50

Single

4.13

Married

3.50

Single

3.53

Married

3.00

Single

2.79

Married

3.50

Single

3.79

vigorous

3.83 4.57

-1.500

0.140

5. I am enthusiastic about my job

0.141

0.888

6. When I am working, I forget everything else around me

-2.080

0.043

7. My job inspires me

0.570

8. When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work

3.57

-0.572

0.205

9. I feel happy when I am working intensely

3.14

-1.285 -0.747

0.458

10. I am proud on the work that I do

0.615

0.541

11. I am immersed in my work

0.947

0.348

12. I can continue working for very long periods at a time

0.999

0.323

13. To me, my job is challenging

0.384

14. I get carried away when I’m working

4.57

0.879

0.946

15. At my job, I am very resilient, mentally

4.00

-0.068

0.704

16. It is difficult to detach myself from my job

2.57

0.383

0.578

17. At my work I always persevere, even when things do not go well

3.43

-0.560

4.35 4.29 3.22 3.71 3.75 4.00 3.35 4.43 4.09 4.57 3.94 4.14 3.79 3.29 3.62 3.91 3.58 2.20 3.57

0.635

0.527

2.253

0.027

-0.084

0.933

-1.116

0.268

-0.402

0.689

0.768

0.445

1.683

0.096

0.829

0.409

-0.668

0.506

1.580

0.118

0.854

0.395

0.802

0.425

-0.276

0.783

In Table 9, it was discovered that in Kırşehir the statement “my job inspires me” and in Nevşehir the statement “when I am working, I forget everything else around me” cause a significant difference statistically according to marital status of professional accountants. Comparing mean values of marital status it can be said that the single profession members in Kırşehir work more eagerly than the married (4.02>3.17). The other result understood from the table (4.29>3.22) is that the married profession members in Nevşehir are more focused on their work when working than the single. The other statements of scale show that marital status does not have a significant effect on work engagement. All in all, as there are not any significant differences on the work engagement levels of professional accountants according to title and gender HO hypothesis is accepted, H1 hypothesis is rejected. As it is found that there is a statistically significant difference between marital status and two statements of work engagement scale, H1 hypothesis is accepted. H1 hypothesis is rejected except for these two statements. 3.3.2.2. The Results of Variance Analysis The variance analysis results about the statements of work engagement scale having significant differences according to age, educational level, graduated high school type, licensed working year, number of taxpayers and monthly average net revenue of professional accountants are presented

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN below. The statements and variables not having any significant differences between each other are not in the table. Table 10. ANOVA Results of Professional Accountants’ Work Engagement Level According to Demographic Characteristics NEVŞEHİR

STATEMENTS

F

Sig.

0.160 0.217 0.109 0.167 Homogenite (Sig.)

2.942 3.728 3.258 4.220

0.038 0,008 0.026 0.008

F

Sig.

7. My job inspires me

0.092

3.959

0.013

9. I feel happy when I am working intensely 17. At my work I always persevere, even when things do not go well 3. Time flies when I'm working 11. I am immersed in my work 12. I can continue working for very long periods at a time

0.073

6.716

0.001

0.728

2.836

0.048

0.235 0.088

5.214 2.919

0.003 0.043

0.230

3.192

0.050

Age

15. At my job, I am very resilient, mentally

Licensed Working Year

15. At my job, I am very resilient, mentally 4. At my job, I feel strong and vigorous 9. I feel happy when I am working intensely

Monthly Average Net Revenue KIRŞEHİR Age Educational Level Number of Taxpayers Monthly Average Net Revenue

Homogenite (Sig.)

STATEMENTS

According to analysis results in Table 10, the status of feeling themselves resilient mentally at work of the professional accountants working in Nevşehir shows significant differences according to age and licensed working year variables. Tukey test was done in order to find between which groups the difference is. It is discovered that the difference because of age groups results from 36-41 and 48 and above in the scale. In other words, the status of feeling themselves resilient mentally at work of the professional accountants has a significant difference between the age groups 36-41 and 48 and above most. In terms of licensed working year, significant differences are found between the means of profession members working for 6-10 years and 11-15 years together with 21 years and more. Feeling themselves strong and vigorous and feeling happy even when working intensely at work of professional accountants working in Nevşehir change according to their monthly average net revenue. It was found out that this difference is mostly significant between the profession members with 1.5013000 TL and 4.501 and more monthly average net revenue. The answers for the statements in Table 10 and showing the work engagement levels of professional accountants working in Kırşehir have significant differences in terms of age, educational level, number of taxpayers and monthly average net revenue variables. Accordingly, the results of Tukey test are:  The answers of professional accountants for the statement “my job inspires me” have significant differences according to age groups 42-47 and 48 and above.  It is found that the status of feeling themselves happy when working intensely at work of professional accountants has significant difference between the age group 48 and more and all other age groups.  It is found that the difference between the answers of professional accountants with master degree and the answer of them with foundation and bachelor’s degree to the statement “at my work I always persevere, even when things do not go well” is significant.  In terms of the number of taxpayers variable, the professional accountants’ answers to the statements “time flies when I'm working” and “I am immersed in my work” have significant differences between the professional accountants having 16-30 and 61 and more taxpayers in total.  It is found that the significant difference between the professional accountants’ status of continuing working for very long periods at a time and monthly average net revenue is between the ones with 1.501-3.000 TL and 4.501 TL and more monthly average net revenue.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4. Conclusion and Discussion In most parts of the study done on the professional accountants the problems they face are examined and some suggestions for the solution of these problems are offered. However, looking at the current situation it is seen that the problems of professional accountant are still the same. With the result of this study it is found out that the main problems which the public accountants in Kırşehir and Nevşehir provinces stated about professional activities are relatively; excessive professional liability, the legislation’s changing frequently and not being able to collect accounting fee in time. In order to reduce professional liability it can be suggested that the description of accounting is done clearly and no profession members do the works except from this description. Legislative change is under the control of authority and not making changes frequently will lessen the burden on profession members. For the collection problems, it can be suggested that conditions are set for the contracted taxpayers to pay until a certain day of each month and in case of paying late new regulations with sanction power of interest accrue are made. In case legislative regulations are not made it is possible that the same problems of professional accountants will be in the next studies. With this study aiming to analyze the general profile of professional accountants it is discovered that most of the profession members are male, with CPA title, married, graduated from vocational high school and have a bachelor’s degree. The profession members working in Nevşehir and Kırşehir stated that the main reason for choosing the accounting is “the ability and skill that they have are suitable for the accounting”. Their training of accounting that they had in vocational school can be thought to have effects on their choice. Examining the financial status, it is found out that most of the profession members in both provinces have a house and car. It is discovered that the ones in Nevşehir have more power to save than the ones in Kırşehir and as for the saving vehicle they mainly prefer realty. Analyzing the professional problems and general profiles of professional accountants may be essential in terms of explaining their work engagement levels better. Within the scope of study analysis it can be said that in both provinces the profession members feel themselves engaged to their work but when compared, the engagement level of the ones working in Kırşehir is higher than the ones in Nevşehir. It is striking that the professional members in both provinces have the positive and negative level of agreement towards the same statements in the work engagement scale. The scale statement “It is difficult to detach myself from my job” has the lowest mean and the statement “Time flies when I'm working” has the highest mean in Kırşehir and Nevşehir. As for the reason it can be explained that because of excessive professional liability the profession members work intensely, which is also defined as their main problem in the study, time flies when they are working but they want to leave the work after some time. Their wish of leaving profession may result from the situations such as fatigue, boredom and distractibility. It can be said that reducing the professional liability of profession members will increase their work engagement level indirectly. In the analysis results about the situation if there is significant differences in the work engagement levels of professional accountants in terms of demographic characteristics it is found that title, gender and graduated high school type do not have any significant differences statistically on the work engagement levels of professional accountants. Some significant differences are found in the work engagement levels of professional accountants in terms of marital status, age, educational level, licensed working year, number of taxpayers and monthly average net revenue variables. However, examining the study in general it can be said that demographic characteristics of professional accountants do not have any significant differences statistically on their work engagement levels. The most important limitation of this study is that it is done on the profession members with the title PA and CPA working independently in only Kırşehir and Nevşehir. The work engagement scale used in this study can be applied to other profession members working in other provinces of Tukey. Therefore, by analyzing work engagement levels of professional accountants and various factors affecting this level across the country their work engagement can be increased. As a result, accounting can turn into an outstanding profession that is composed of the employees working eagerly and willingly. References [1]

Schaufeli, W. & Bakker, A. (2003). Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, Web Page: http://www.beanmanaged.com/doc/pdf/arnoldbakker/articles/articles_arnold_bakker_87.pdf Accessed: May 2016, 1-58.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN [2] Öngöre, Ö. (2013). Job Engagement Scale Turkish Form's Validity and Reliability Study, Kastamonu University, Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences Faculty, Vol:2, Issue:1, 57. [3] Karacaoğlu, K. (2005). An Investigation of Relations Between Attitudes to Job Involvement and Demographic Features of Healthy Staff: An Application in Nevşehir Province, Istanbul University, Journal of Management, Year:16, Issue:52, 54-69. [4] Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement and Disengagement At Work, Academy of Management Journal, Vol:33, No:4, 694. [5] Bakker, A. B., Albrecht S. L. & Leiter, M. P. (2011). Key Questions Regarding Work Engagement, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Issue:20, No:1, 9. [6] Eryılmaz, A. & Doğan, T. (2012). Subjective Well-Being at Work: Investigating of Psychometric Properties of Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, Vol:15, No:1, 49-55. [7] Bakker, A. B. (2011). An Evidence-Based Model of Work Engagement, Current Directions in Psychological Science, Issue:20, 268. [8] Yılmaz, E. (2014). The Relation Between the Level Of Job Burnout And Job Involvement Of Certified Public Accountants: A Study In Samsun, Journal of Accounting and Taxation Studies, Vol:7, No:3, 4967. [9] Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., Gonzalez-Roma V. & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The Measurement of Engagement and Burnout: A Two Sample Confirmatory Factor Analytic Approach, Journal of Happiness Studies, Issue:3, 73-75. [10] Bakker, A. B., Schaufeli, W. B., Leiter M. P. & Taris, T. W. (2008). Work Engagement: An Emerging Concept in Occupational Health Psychology, Work & Stress, Vol:22, No:3, 190. [11] Gürel, E. B. (2016). Impact of Emotional Exhaustion, Work Stress and Job Involvement On Work-Family Conflict: An Empirical Evidence, Dumlupınar University, Journal of Social Sciences, Issue:48, 349355. [12] Öztürk, V., Koçyiğit, S. Ç. & Bal, E. Ç. (2011). A Study into The Relation Between The Level of Job Burnout And Job Involvement of The Practitioners of Accountancy: Ankara Case, The Journal of Doğuş University, 12 (1), 84-97. [13] Hacıhasanoğlu, T. & Karaca, N. (2014). A Field Study On Determination of The Burnout, Job Satisfaction And Stress Levels of Independent Accounting Professionals, Suleyman Demirel University, The Journal of Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Vol:19, No:4, 153-154. [14] Hallberg, U. E., Johansson, G. & Schaufeli, W. B. (2007). Type A behavior and Work Situation: Associations with Burnout and Work Engagement, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, Issue:48, 135142. [15] Gorgievski, M. J., Bakker, A. B. & Schaufeli, W. B. (2010). Work engagement and Workaholism: Comparing the Self-Employed and Salaried Employees, The Journal of Positive Psychology, Vol:5, No:1, 83-96. [16] Doğan, Z. & Nazlıoğlu, E.H. (2010). A Research On Burnout Syndrome in Accounting Employees, “Is, Guc” Industrial Relations and Human Resources Journal, Vol:12, No:3, 106. [17] Uzay Ş. & Güngör, Ş. (2004). The Problems and Expectations of Accounting Professionals: Application in Kayseri and Nevşehir Province, The Journal of Accounting and Finance, Issue:22, 94-104. [18] Tuğay, O. & Tekşen, Ö. (2014). The Problems Of Accounting Professionals: A Research In The City Of Burdur, Suleyman Demirel University, The Journal of Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Vol:19, No:1, 223-232. [19] Aydemir, O. (2015). The Problems of Professionals in the Accountancy and Their Expectations, The Journal of Accounting and Finance, Issue: 67, 77-78. [20] Gündüz, M. & Özen, E. (2016). The Analysis of the Issues and Satisfaction of Accounting Professionals: Uşak Case, The Journal of Accounting and Finance, Issue: 70, 88-89. [21] The Sample Size Calculation, Web Page: http://sosbil2.usak.edu.tr/dokuman/orneklem.xls Accessed: July 2016.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN [22] Turgut, T. (2011). Work Engagement: Relations with Work Overload, Time Flexibility, Supervisor Support and Work-to-Family Conflict, Atatürk University, The Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Vol:25, No:3-4, 159,171. [23] Özkalp, E. & Meydan, B. (2015). Analysis of the Reliability and Validity of Work Engagement Scale, which is Developed by Schaufeli and Bakker, in Turkish, “Is, Guc” Industrial Relations and Human Resources Journal, Vol:17, No:3, 4-6. [24] Nakip, M. (2013), Research Techniques in Marketing and SPSS Applications, Seçkin Publications, Ankara, 3rd Edition, 205.

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AN ANALYSIS ON PK (PEEKAY) FILM WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION AND CONCEPT OF IRONY Research Asistant Hacer Aker Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Radio Television and Cinema Dept. [email protected] Abstract The relationship between the cinema and socialization is seen as a two-way relationship based on virtualization and actualizing. This analysis is not limited with social phenomenon; it also includes virtual self which goes beyond the empirical area. The most crucial experience of this dialectical relationship can be expressed as the cinema creates psychological and physical awareness; in other words, it makes possible for individuals to be different ones by varying from the self. In this sense, analysis of Rajkumar Hirani‟s PK (Peekay) film which was made in 2014 should be seen as an analysis beyond social one. The film which is Bollywood production touches upon prejudices, dogmatic ideas which are accepted unquestioningly, the concept of religion, superstitious religions and individuals who exploit religion for personal benefits ironically. For this reason, the film will be analysed within the context of sociology of religion and the concept of irony. Keywords: Bollywood,, sociology of religion, concept of irony, PK (Peekay) film.

1. Introduction The religion as a life style in India is an inseparable part of all Indian traditions. The religion penetrates into every steps of the life from daily tasks to education and politics for many Indians. Secular India hosts Hinduism, Islam, Christianism, Jainism, Sikhism and other numerous religious traditions. There are common practices which are accepted by all religions in India and various music and dance festivals are celebrated by all communities in every year. Each of them has unique pilgrimage, heroes, legends and even kitchen habits and they melt in the same pot within unique difference characteristic of the society. This diversity shows itself in Indian film industry, too. Indian film industry is an industry which produces and sells the highest number of the films in every year. However, this does not move whole of the society in a tolerant position against films various issues are mentioned. This is also a problem for PK which has the highest revenue in all times. The film of Bollywood was shot in direction of Rajkumar Hirani in 2014. The name of the film comes from PK which is abbreviation of Peekay. And it is a nickname used for people who drink alcohol too much in India. The main character of the film is not drunk. However, being from a different world and questions which he asks in his efforts in seeking the god pave the way for calling him with this name. This satirical comedy is based on challenge against superstitions which are tagged as religious satirics in Indian society. In this context the aim of the study is to make fictional side of the reality sensible for us and to describe socio-fictional structure of the cinema through religion and belonging themes at the point of experiencing the epitome of reality. The study is seen as significant in terms of its possible contributions on studies about relations between the cinema and the religion. 2. Review of Literature The Cinema as a Socio-Fictional Area and Religion as a Cinema Narrative The cinema as an art which influences from perceptions of individuals to throughout the society addresses to one part from the society in a dark room, in other words, in a cinema hall. Scenes on the cinema screen has many influences on people who watch. One of these influences can be described as keeping given values as a part of the film alive and taking part of these values in a way of life. In a 429

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN sense, the audience becomes a part of other life which they look from a dark hall. In this context, the cinema not only carry values from our lives, but also produce new values by depending on artistic manner of reading. The cinema which address to our great numbers of senses provides an insight for social scientist in reading the society and also has an opportunity to reflect social problems and contradictions (Karakaya; 2008: 15). The cinema as a social medium is formed on the basis of its original cultural environment and this characteristic reinforces its “social phenomenon position” composed of “intentionally selected phenomenon” (Yenen: 2011: 14). It is possible to consider relation among the cinema and social life and the history as “a discursive ciphering process” (Ryan and Kellner, 2010: 35). In this sense, a cinema film is a completely cultural object which is open to social symbols, artistic productions, instructions of producer and director, and social mobility. In other words, it a part of social and cultural life (Büker; 1985: 49). The cinema film as a sociological object tries to release relation between the cinema and collectivism as “non-actualized, but real phenomenon” (Diken and Laustsen; 2014: 22). In other words, the cinematic and the social looks like twins who separates when they come together and unites when they separate. Films which are useful tools for the sociology because of dependence on imagination, sense and creativity make possible to experience intensities and emotions which cannot be conceptualized or analyzed empirically. As it is seen that, films include two dimensions as the virtual one with their fictional structure and social one with cultural resources of told story. The religion phenomenon is seen in various cinema films with its belief and practical sides as a founding component of historical cultural life, in other words, main mind-constructer (Akyüz and Çapcıoğlu; 2012: 45) At least half-dozens of films about the life of Jesus were shot in ten years after the first film screening accessibly to the public in 1895 by Lumiere Brothers. The only religious figure seen on the screen was not Jesus certainly; religious topics, practices, characters and conflicts are handled in numerous time in the world cinema. Andre Bazin who is one of the most important names of the world cinema expresses this situation with his speech as “the cinema has always been interested in the God”. PK as analysis object of the study is one of them. The Comedy and Laugh Action Being critical is the main characteristic of the humour which is the name of approaching on social reality with a ridiculous, extraordinary, entertaining and satirical language. The concept of “humour” is evaluated with its social function and includes questioning and destructiveness when making people laugh. Traditions, rituals, social system and governments, inequalities created by the power are subjects and basic critical objects of the humour. By this way the humour is one of the praxis which keeps passion of liberalization, conscious of being subject and being possible/holistic person alive. The humour is used near-synonymously with various concepts like “comic”, “ridiculous”, “comedy”, “laughing”. John Morreal handles laughing in his study named as “Taking Laughter Seriously” in two different contexts as “humorous one” and “nonhumorous one”; and he emphasizes that it not easy to agree on descriptions of laughing in even basic points of laughing theories (Morreal, 1997: 5). Charles Baudelaire says that the laughing action is not in happiness heaven; it is the son of misery like crying (Baudelaire, 1997: 5). According to him, the laughing action is damnable thing which descends from devil. He says that some diabolicals things are engaded in the process and the sensual one seduces the spirit and makes it impure and also says that “let you show your response to everything you dislike, let you do what you like” (Baudelaire, 1997: 8). According to Bergson, the meaning of laughing to the something with another/other person is to decrease restrictions in your relations and to develop an intimacy with him/her. To laugh implies longing for an integration in all “me”s transforms into “us” (Bergson, 1997:25). During the history, to laugh, the humour and the comedy has kept longing for the conscious of being a subject of humanity and being possible people alive. Its liberatory and stress relieving side has clerished political liberalization hopes of the mass. Laughing as a residual of an irregular and uncontrolled age prevents to take current world as it comes; abolish the fear; make the life easier. Owners of the power during the history has an opposite position against laughing action. As Kundera expresses that although the history is seen as a serious area, there is always a humorous which is 430

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN unknown. The history has always given documents under the supervision of ruling class including well-educated male authors. However, by the help of laughing action, “propertyless people can try to erase the history despite the fact that they cannot take part in its writing” (Sanders, 2001: 45). Indeed, the people and power without sense of humour believe that the thing which is described as true is quietely clear and all people should think in the same way. It is very clear that a laughter which is “an underground movement and voice of people who cannot make themselves heard” frustrates their divine plans. Because the power cannot use the laughter for its benefit. As Bakhtin expresses that “the laughing has not been a tool for suppressing and blinding people; it is always a weapon for liberty during the history” (Bakhtin, 2001:38). 3. Methodology The religion phenomenon in relation between the cinema and religion is handled with three basic approaches in conducted studies in the West. The first approach is named as “Religion in the film” and has an aim to analyze religious components in content of the films. The second approach is “Films as the religion” gives importance on parallelism between aesthetics of the film and religious practices. And the last one is “cinematic experience” and “ritual” approach and it analyzes relation between the audience and religious rituals (Lüleci; 2007: 3, Yenen; 2012: 429). This study alternates between sociological concepts and cinematographic images with reference to the approach of “religious in the film”. This can be thought as reversing of the discrimination between the reality and fiction; on the contrary, it provides us to realize fictional side of the reality and to experience the epitome of the realityas if it is a fiction (Zizek, 2001:77). Thus, the films are not fictions which are “only films” and they do not aim to entertain us or detract us from problems and struggles related to our rocial reality. As Deleuze says that, the cinema as a “modern art of the mass” (1989:157-62) has the characteristics of an experiment conducted with changing social forms (Diken and Laustsen, 2014:24). As Brecht says that PK as a comedy film has ironic components as responsive to the demand of “distorting and wresting until it becomes describable”. In analysis of socio-fictional structure of the film, determinations through the visibility of what is humorous will be made. As Kristeva says that, bewiching consternation and seduction of the cinema can be broken with only “breaking the laughter and supreme” and obtained sense of distance from these two forms (in Arslan, 2010:314). 4. Results

Figure 1: Official poster of PK (bollywoodlife.com, 2014).

The Poster Aamir Khan leads to many discussions before the movie come to the theaters by the poster of PK. Naked body of the actor in the poster achieves to attract audience’s attention at first and ass joke 431

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN creates a mania in Twitter. However, Aamir Khan says addressed to audience that “you will understand the idea behind the poster after you watch the film. However, I can say about the director of the film (Rajkumar) that he always tries to offer something related to his ideas. By this way, I am a massive fan of him”. This is the carriage return of the discussions on the film. The Story of the Film The film starts with landing of a stranger comes from a distant planet on a desert in India. The alien who came to the world does not have other thing than a little control necklace which provides communication with the people from his planet and he does not know anything where he was left. PK who gets his control necklace stolen in the desert runs after the thief, but he can not have caught him. PK achieves to take the radio from the hands of the thief, but he misses the thief due to thrown sand grains to his eyes. PK cannot call the space ship and return to his home without the necklace. PK neither speaks in a language, nor has a friend. He goes on a journey to explore the worlds from that moment on. He meets with both good and bad people where he visits and learn languages. He meets with people with different ideas during his difficult travel. He asks everyone to the tracker and all of them say “only the god knows the place which you try to find”. By this way he tries to find the god. It is a difficult process for him to learn the god is changeable in each religion. So, PK visits the mosques, churchs, and temples. He follows the recommendations of religious leaders and priests and then tries to persuade the gods of each religion. However, PK starts to learn (see) religious frauds and religious men who use superstitions to deceive people gradually. Jagat Janani Sahn (Aushka Sharma) called as Jaggu who works as a reporter in a television channel has an influential role in being popular of PK’s rational approach towards the god. Jaggu provides to meet PK with Baba (a significant religious man in India) in a TV program. Godman Tapaswi Baba (Saurabh Shukla) who alleges that he can talk with the god and he is followed by thousands of people including Jaggu’s father (Parikshit Sahni). However, he shows himself as an inventor of remote control apparatus and this lie is revelaed by PK. PK also disproves Baba’s previous foresight in regard to Jaggu. Baba says to Jaggu that she will be left alone by his Pakistani Muslim boyfriend and Jaggu interprets this situation on the basis of this foresight. This revealed miseunderstanding in the live broadcast opens many people’s eyes including Jaggu’s father. Reading PK and Its Religious Cinematic Presentation “There are two many stars at the sky. Can you try to count them? If you start now, counting the stars only in our galaxy takes 6000 years and there are many galaxis. Scientists say that there are more than 2 milliards. Is not it possible there are humans like us in milliards of galaxis? Maybe, they try to reach us like our life seeking in the Mars and the moon” PK film starts with these words. And like in these narratives PK is a stranger comes from a different planet in order to explore how the world looks like. In his planet, people are naked and they do not wear anything. They do not use any language, and talk. They communicate mentally. This text which is developed through the main character of the film supports the idea of “the language which was created by originating in the words as a cover to hide or reveal the meanings of speech what it said” (Haldun, 1996:149). In other words, words which are always impure and non-objective become essential tools of power apparatus and games. Likewise, Africans know this well: “the chief is the one who has a say” .1 The speech which gives people power is rooted in the owners of the speech and owners of words’ power and traps. This kind of introduction for PK is thought-provoking and meaningful because in this film, the discourse which is developed through the religion phenomenon and used language problematizes the power games and trapps. PK’s journey starts with losing his necklace which is necessary to return his home from this planet where he comes for exploring. He is as innocent as new born baby and he needs to learn the world and eartmen like a new born baby. The character is called by earthmen as PK, in other words, drunk and this can be explained by existence of “social type”. 1

An African proverb…

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Figure 2: “PK as a social type” Official poster of PK (bollywoodlife.com, 2014). The social type is the conscious which has subjective life experiences, emotions, intuitions, and ideas which are emerged in specific historical periods, extensions and middle of social, politic and economic conditions according with them. And by this way, the reality of social type is a multilateral, clear and tangible existence. In literature, officers of Gogol, poor people of Turgenyev, fools of Dostoyevski; in sociology aliens-poor people of Simmel, classes/lumpens of Marx, neurotics of Freud and mads of Mills and Foucault are examples of social types. The significance of looking at the society and politics in social type level is that emotions and intuitions can not directable by contrast with opinion and conscious and by this way they can keep people from public opinion and images (Baker, 2010). PK film is established on a narrative which prioritizes sociology of emotions instead of opinions through the main character. Another significant character of the film is Jaggu. She realized PK in distributing the poster to seek the god. Jaggu is a reporter in a television channel and thinks the news what she seeks is found. Her father hinges upon the religion rigorously. Actually, he hinges on a guru who directs his beliefs. This guru who is named as Tapasvi Maharaj deceive people and use their beliefs and hopes for his benefit. Jaggu is aware of this, but ot the contrary, her father and family is one of the biggest followers of this guru. Jaggu wants to reveal falsities of this man despite her family and takes joint action with PK who heard his stolen apparatus is with Tapasvi. The first problem must be solved is clothing issue for PK who comes to the world nakedly. PK gets clothes in different ways and he is treated in different ways in each clothes. For instance, when he dresses in civilian clothes, he has to eat foods with money but when he wears police uniform, he does not pay money for eating. Making sense of dressing takes his time and he solves dressing paradox with trial-and-error way. These scenes make an ironic reference to today’s world which is shaped through the signs. PK who has not talked until that moment holds someone’s hand and transfers his/her knowledge to himself as he does in his planet. By this way, he learns a language and starts to speak. PK learns that the thief who stole his necklace may go to Delhi and he goes to Delhi. He goes to the police and receive an answer that “2 millions of people live here. The police are human, not the god”. PK has heard similar sentences frequently until that moment. So, who is the god and why do people pray for the god? He started to make efforts to find the god gradually. Firstly, he goes to pagan Hindu temples and seeks the god there and learns how to pray. However, the god does not reply to his prays in no way. He believes that “if this much people believe the god, this means that there is a god really. If there is a god, why he does not reply my prays. So the god must have got lost”. Then, he prepares posters including “the god got lost” and distributes them to the people. And then he sees people who glorify the cows. He thinks that these people waste tens-of-thousands liter of milk for the gods and he cannot make sense of this. According to him, if the god talked with people really, he would say people that “instead of wasting so much milk, let you distribute them to children who starve, sleep on the streets and die of starvation in India”. He visits a stand. The price of gods what he wants to buy is between 20 rupees and 500 rupees. He asks the reason of this difference. He is replied as “functions of all is the same, only difference is the size” and he bought a god for 20 rupees. He asks itself to find his necklace. He does not get any result and 433

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN goes to the seller. “The seller says that “how does this god find you necklace with its small foots? Let you go in the temple, there is a bigger god in that place. Let you ask him”. PK enters into the temple by giving coconut and paying money and he does not find what he expected. Then he goes to the church at the recommendation. In the church, he tries to give something as votive for the god based on the tradition that he learned in Pagan temple, but Christians who conducts a religious ceremony prevent him. PK learns wine to the god or drink wine for worship here. He starts to think that the god is bored with the cocnut and wants to wine. He collects the money, buys the wine and asks whether is there any near house of god or not. In given address, there is a mosque. PK goes to the mosque with the wine in his hands and he is pursued with kicks. At the end of these pursuits, PK starts to think that people have more than one god and all gods have unique rules and community. He thinks why does the god exist broadly. Why does the god of someone like wine and another of them hate? Why do some people slaughter the cows and another of them glorify them? Why someone wear in white when they mourn another of them wear in black? This kind of questions are increasing in PK’s mind. Accordingly, he cannot know which is the best one to appeal for the help and which community is the best to be a member. PK decides that the last resort is to pray for the gods of all religions: one of them must have be my god. He must have listen my sayings”. After all is said and done, PK sees his necklace on the stage in an organization which was organized by Tapasvi. He wants to take his apparatus, but Tapasvi’s bodyguards prevent him. Jaggu is influenced by the reason and process pf PK’s god seeking. Jaggu asks to PK “how long have you thought that you are from a different planet?”. Convincing to Jaggu does not takes a long time for PK. Then struggle of PK and Jaggu with Tapasvi is seen. By this way, PK will regain his necklace and Jaggu will show the true face of Tapasvi. The most important meeting of PK and Tapasvi is in the course of a ceremony. PK puts five persons who wear various clothes which represent different religious symbols up against Tapasvi. And asks him who is the member of which religion. The answers of Tapasvi is wrong. Because PK interferes in appearances. PK who says that all of these differences cannot be explained by appearances paints Tapasvi into a corner.

Figure 3: A snapshot of the scene, where PK tries to minimize differences between different faiths. One of the friends of PK catch the thief. And the thief confesses that he sells the device to Tapasvi for 40.000 rupees. However, Tapasvi presents the device as a gift of the god. This is the time of encountering of PK and religious men who use the religion for their benefits and exploit people’s beliefs. PK understands that the mistake is not made by the god, it is made by Tapasvi who speaks for the god. He turns him upside down with his questions. An awareness starts to be created for people who believe the god for only their fears or benefits. They ask questions and react. Tapasvi who is deeply uncomfortable with this situation accept to come face-to-face with PK in live broadcasting. Misunderstanding of Jaggu’s relation with Sarfaraz is also revealed in live broadcasting and PK’s words which make their marks as follows: “You continuously say that „there is an only god‟. I say no, there are two gods. One of them is the one who creates us and another one is the one you create. I do not know anything about the one who creates us, but your creation is just like you. He is a small, liar, obsessed, and gives empty promises; gives priority to rich people; makes poor people 434

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN wait in a line; becomes happy when he is praised; scares people with small things. The thing should be done is simple: let you believe and trust the god who creates us. Let you destroy fake gods which you create”. 5. Discussion and Conclusion Indian society is majorly religious society. The religion is practiced in different ways and it is an extension of a belief beyond personal lives in social order. Although the film portrays this religious variety, coming the character from a different world has a deep message about this world. What happens is the basic problem of today’s world. Actually, the film does not present the current one to the audience in a fictional manner. On the contrary, it says that the reality which we experience is fictional. This descriptive manner takes advantage of the humour. Because the religion is a sensitive component. And specific to this component, it is a risk to say people that this reality which you experience is a fiction. The success of the film derives from creating awareness by the character named as PK with his objectivity and querier manner. References Akyüz, N. & Çapcıoğlu, İ. (2012). “Din ve Toplum İlişkileri”, Akyüz, N. ve Çapcıoğlu, İ. (Eds.), Din Sosyolojisi El Kitabı. Ankara, Grafiker Yayınları. Arslan, U. T. (2010). Mazi Kabrinin Hortlakları Türklük, Melankoli ve Sinema, İstanbul, Metis Yayınları. Baker, U. (2014). Kanaatlerden İmajlara - Duygular Sosyolojisine Doğru. Harun Abuşoğlu (Trans.)., 3. Baskı. İstanbul, Birikim Yayınları. Bakhtin, M (2001). Karnavaldan Romana. Cem Soydemir (Trans.). İstanbul, Ayrıntı Yayınları. Baudelaire, C. (1997). Gülmenin Özü. İrfan Yalçın (Trans.). İstanbul, İris Mizah Kültürü. Bergson, H. (1997). Gülme. Mustafa Ş. Tunç (Trans.). İstanbul, Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları. Büker, S. (1985). Sinema Dili Üzerine Yazılar. Ankara. Dost Kitabevi Yayınları. Deleuze, G. (1989). Cinema 2: The Time-İmage. Londra, The Athlone Press. Diken, B., & Laustsen, B. C. (2014). Filmlerle Sosyoloji. Sona Ertekin (Trans.). İstanbul, Metis Yayınları. Haldun, İ. (1996). Mukaddime III.. Zakir Kadiri Ugan (Trans.). İstanbul, Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları. Karakaya, H. (2008). "Türk Sinemasında Din Adamı Tiplemesi", Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Elazığ, Fırat Ün. SBE, Felsefe ve Din Bilimleri ABD. Kristeva, Julia (1986). “Ellipsis on Dread and the Specular Seduction.” Philip Rosen (ed.). Narrative, Apparatus, Ideology: A Film Theory Reader. New York: Columbia University Press. Lüleci, Y. (2007). “Sinema ve Din: Türk Sineması Örneği”, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul, MÜSBE. Morreal, J. (1997). Gülmeyi Ciddiye Almak. Kubilay Aysevener, Şenay Soyer (Trans.). İstanbul, İris Mizah Kültürü. Ryan, M., & Kellner, D. (2010). Politik Kamera. Elif Özsayar (Trans.). 2. Baskı, İstanbul, Ayrıntı Yayınları. Sanders, B. (2001). Kahkahanın Zaferi-Yıkıcı Tarih Olarak Gülme. Kemal Atakay (Trans.). İstanbul, Ayrıntı Yayınları. Yenen, İ. (2011). “Toplumsal Tezahürleri Bağlamında Türk Sinemamsında Din Dindarlık ve Din Adamı Olgusu”, Yayınlanmamış Dr. Tezi, Ankara, A.Ü. SBE. Yenen, İ. (2012). “Medya ve Din”, Akyüz, N. ve Çapcıoğlu, İ. (Eds.). Din Sosyolojisi El Kitabı. Ankara, Grafiker Yayınları. Zizek, S. (2001). Gülünç Yücenin Sanatı: David Lynch‟in Kayıp Otoban‟ı Üzerine. Savaş Kılıç Trans.). İstanbul, Om Yayıncılık.

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WHAT İFFET (CANNOT) SAYS: REFRACTIONS AND BREAKING POINTS IN THE RAPE NARRATIVE Research Asistant Hacer Aker Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Radio Television and Cinema Dept. [email protected] Abstract Although Turkey met 1980‟s wearily, feminism has begun to develop. The discourse will also exactly take a place in the cinema. In these years, the „other‟ has been fictionalized in the cinema through violence and rape narrative. Atıf Yılmaz emphasizes “other”ness of women with Müjde Ar in a similar way with Metin Erksan‟s expression of the previous period. Türkan Şoray said about Müjde Ar in her book which includes her memories that „she led the way for us by her brave attempt‟. The actress personates the „İffet‟ character in a Kartal Tibet Film and name of the character recalls her surname1. Feminist discourse is new in Turkey and similarly, İffet puts „other‟ in the center of violence, but it cannot get rid of being a victim of popular cinema. „İffet‟ film refers to analysis object of the study because of emphasis on patriarchal ideology and women representation as a sexual commodity. Narrative of the film will be analysed in the frame of poststructuralist feminist analysis method. Keywords: Marginalized, gender, patriarchal ideology, rape, İffet.

1. Introduction The influences of cinema in society have been discussed since the first years as well as the starting point of cinema which initiated the story telling to large mass rather than being a fun fair or technical initiative. When it is looked within the framework of Ryan and Kellner‟s conceptualisation, the relation between cinema, social life and history can be considered as “a discursive coding process” (Ryan and Kellner, 1997:35). Thus, it is possible to say that changes occurred in social and cultural structures shall influence the position of woman simultaneously in social structure. Therefore, periodical facts and social changes should be considered in searching for the relation between cinema and woman. Along with the increasing number of studies related to the position of woman in patriarchal structures, the relations between sexes initiated to be searched in terms of hierarchical classifications rather than roles and representations. Within this context, as a result of the hierarchical classification between sexes, violence against woman, rape fact and the reflection of these facts on mass media have been an attractive subject for studies in woman. This situation has also been the starting point of the research. The research question of the study, within this context, is to examine the reasons of violence against woman, the relation between rape, violence against woman and sexual meta narration and perception, and is to research whether the movie‟s message which are settled in sample group carry a traditional and masculine values or not. The aim is to consider the violence and rape facts against woman and analysis of these facts in terms of sexist patriarchal order which suppressing woman, and the position of woman and man within this order. 2. Review of Literature The concept of Other Other as a concept or term defines the specific position, status, opposite area of the entity, and invaluable side of binary opposition (Philosophy dictionary, 10.b.). Georg Simmel who was the first 1

Ar and İffet words have similar meanings in Turkish Language. The meaning of these words can be expressed as honest and modesty.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN person used this term in his work The Stranger evaluated the term in terms of social interactions; “other” is nonlocal and has possibility to leave at any moment (Simmel 2002: 63). As to Simmel, trade is the natural occupation of other. The other who is not the owner of a land has no definite place in group. This indefiniteness provides other an objective perspective. The other is like a port which is worth to be trusted and people can share secrets. Simmel states that it is undeniable that this trust may cause a doubt and jealousy within the group. Likewise, this jealousy can be concluded with the enemy perception against the other and sacrifice of it (Simmel 2002:67). Robin Wood is another name that can be consulted about how representations are processed. Wood emphasis on the operation of the things that bourgeois ideology do not accept or disclaim, yet have to overcome them, deny or demolish or assimilate and make secure. The scope of the other concept of Wood includes other people, proleteria, other cultures, ethnic groups in culture, alternative ideologies, homosexuality, bisexuality, children and so on (Wood 2004: 27-28). Stuart Hall in his „The Spectacle of the Other‟ titled writing that was the editor of the book discusses the reason of why binary opposition causes a problem and focuses on the arguments of structuralist Saussure and other linguistics. They state that the meaning cannot exist without differences; black means only if it is contrasted with white (Hall 1997: 234). (Hall includes the thoughts of post-structuralist Derrida on binary oppositions stated that one pole of this binary opposition is mostly the dominant part, and penetrates the other one. As to Derrida binary oppositions exist within an absolute power relation. Within this perspective Hall points out the white/black, man/woman, masculinity/femininity, higher class/lower class, British/stranger and so on by highlighting other concept (Hall 1997: 235). Except for Saussure and Derrida, Hall included the thesis of Bakhtin and DuGay on “differences” and do not neglect to mention about psychoanalytic explanations of the role of „ego and other‟ (Hall 1997: 237). As the study put woman in its centre, the thoughts of Freud and Lacan on „ego and other‟ should be considered. “Ego” and the “Other” in Freud and Lacan Freud interprets the ego/personality formation of the “other” with psychological perspective, and Lacan interprets it with psychoanalytic perspective. Freud is not the first person that realize the unaware tendencies and thoughts of an individual with castration fear and Oidipus complex concepts. Spinoza, for example, stated that free will fallacy is the result of awareness of our activities –we know the reasons of them- which trigger us (Tura 2005:53). However, the theory of Freud related to developmental period of childhood has been a significant stage in psychoanalysis. According to Freud, males in specific periods, as to Oidipus myth, feel erotic attractiveness towards to mothers unconsciously, and see their fathers as an obstacle to achieve a satisfaction. When women understand that they do not have penis, they think that mother is punished with castration, and if they insist on this subconscious desire, they assume that they will be punished, too. They turn to their identities to old competitor -father- with fear. Father, therefore, has become the initiation of an identity related to masculinity. Daughter identifies herself with father antithetically. She understands that she cannot be like her father as does not possess a penis. The daughter, unconsciously, will gain father by carrying the child of a male with feminizing, that is, by identifying the role of mother (Tura 2005: 44). According to Creed (1993:7) as woman is emasculated, the castration anxiety theory awakens in man by woman strengthen the male dominance, and sacrifice woman. In the implementation of structuralism became popular with Ronal Barthes in 1960s and 1970s in cinema, the adoption of Freud approaches and the searching of Father in all story of the movie (Türkoğlu 2011: 144) can be understood as the eliciting of the explanation of Creed. The journey of Lacan is to unconscious; the map is under the guidance of Freud. „The subjects start a continuous journey following their desires, the paradigm of this journey is determined by Big Other (phallus). It takes millions miles to reach the unconscious centre of subject... following the Other lost in the mirror... new journeys start in a linguistic game... to show itself to subjects...‟ (Çoban 2005: 294). The presence and absence of Big Other is pertained to “subject”. Not possessing „phallus‟ which making woman object, that is incomplete, loss and absence. And woman tries to define her absence (deficiency) against the symbolical order by structuring over the “other”. Feminist ecole stood against this idea which stated phallus as the main determinant between gender relations and drew a long bow

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN (Çoban 2005: 294). The resentment of feminist critics that see Freud and his theory as the most powerful representative of patriarchy did not last for a long time as to Büker (2010: 208). In 1975, Laura Mulvey‟s article „Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema‟ is the turning point for feminist critics. That period‟s research movie texts have firstly passed to this Lacanian psychoanalysis (Öztürk 2000: 89). Mulvey used psychoanalysis to understand the fascinating Hollywood cinema. This fascination can be explained with scophilia and desire to see fact. This fact, according to Freud, is a fundamental drive. Hegemonic sense of cinema which is shaped within patriarchal system constructs the visual shape and pleasure in viewing successfully. Observation evaluated as a kind of pleasure looks at a supervisor perspective by taking other people in pattern of objects actively. This active drive gains an erotic base with the pleasure provided with looking other people as objects. Cinema, in a dark environment, satisfies the viewing pleasure of spectators with actors that pretend to be not observed in specific conditions. According to Mulvey, psychoanalytic theory is a political weapon that structure the film formation of patriarchal society‟s unconscious (Mulvey 2010: 213-215). Within the concept of „woman‟ fact stated above and the fictionalization in cinema shall be considered as patriarchal ideology and masculine perspective context at the rest of the study. Reading the story of rape penetrating bodies with violence and the reproduction of violence necessitates a nutshell review at that period‟s Turkey. Turkey in the 1980s „Prudish‟ years of Turkish cinema demonstrates the 1980s Turkey. Eighties are anticipated to see the feminist attitudes in Turkish cinema. At the end of the 1960s while the increasing opposition wave all over the world has multiple identities (feminists, homosexuals, anarchists, etc.), it could not find its reflection in Turkey and political arena witnessed conflicts between right and left organizations. Therefore, following 1980 the withdrawal of the actors in these movements from political arena has caused the formation of opposition groups that have different problems. One of the most powerful of new formed opposition groups is woman movement. Woman who (can) live independently or alone are started to be represented in films against the new woman types formed by social dynamics. However, the name independent in these representations are presented as a bad development. Woman who started to work to be independent and leave from the protection of man faces many evil things outside world, and they are on the ropes and in despair. Moreover, particularly in eighties the limits in the representation of woman body are exceeded and exposed to peeping. Therefore, woman is objectified over her body and punished after exploitation visually all the way (Abisel 2005: 310-312). Along with eighties, the liberation of woman sexuality and woman struggle against rape and violence have found a place at cinema. As being the figure of woman liberation, particularly Müjde Ar has come into prominence in movies which represent a struggle at symbolic level in eighties against male dominant society (Çavdar and Dalyanoğlu). The movie İffet (it is a name and meaning is prude, pudicity) is among the first Müjde Ar centred movies at that period. Müjde Ar was raped by Cemil –a taxi driver- that the man she loved at a picnic with neighbours. When the father of İffet learned she was raped, she beat her daughter at the street with a whip and throw her out of the house. Ar is under both masculine perspective and violence of patriarchal ideology. Patriarchy defined as society structure depending on male dominance, according to Millet (1987:109), is a hegemonic ideology that has no similar. Patriarchy is such a rooted order that the identity structure in both sexes is a thought and life style rather than being a political system. In fact; aggression, intelligence, power and activity are accepted for men; ignorance, weakness, pudicity and passivity are accepted qualities for women. While Ruken Öztürk focuses on patriarchy and violence in private area, she also states the woman are put on probation for all behaviours and attitudes as above; ... the clothing and accessories are supervised by men. She is always guilty or ashamed instead of others. “If you do not wear like that, they won‟t look at you”, If you do not sit that way, you won‟t be disturbed”. Women face these warnings. To cap it all, they are punished with all kinds of violence. The number of women who are not beaten by father, other men at home or her lover is very less, and most of the cases cannot be seen in statistics. It is quite 438

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN possible to see the internalization or rationalization of these bad behaviours by woman. “If I do not wear this way, he won‟t get mad at me, I exaggerated, I behaved that made him angry...” The heaviest of the violence is -no doubt- rape that disregard the body, emotion and conscious of woman (Öztürk 2000: 133-134). Main point that Öztürk focused on „what matters in the implementation of sexual violence is not sexuality, but it is sexuality-looking violence (Öztürk 2000: 134). Segal reads the above to feminists understand extensive rape as the presence of patriarchal order: “...rape is not the product of libido, but rather a product of a culture that promotes men to see sexual activity as a way to “conquest” women, and a product of a society that let men to exploit women in terms of sexuality and use physical violence as a habit mostly without mastigophobia” (Segal 1992: 287). This kind of society also allow the owner of power to oppress the weak and use violence to do this. The rest of the study shall include the sample film examination of theoretical ground. 3. Methodology The aim of the study is to consider the violence and rape fact against woman and analysis of this fact over the sexist patriarchal order oppressing woman by objectifying and the position of woman and man within this order. Following the 1980s when the feminist movements in Turkey started to develop, this study takes movies which rape fact is in the centre story to its environment to demonstrate how this movement is perceived at cinema. Choosing „İffet‟ movie as sample is to meaningful in terms of being the first rape thematic movies at that period and the representation to viewers with the name İffet. The movie will be resolved with concepts about gender roles and relations between sexes within the direction of feminism, patriarchal order and masculine interests. While the movie is examined, important points shall be as above: hegemonic ideas in the movies (the point of view against woman), social and personal relations, representation of sexes, factors composing milestone of the chain of events, characteristic features of the actors, the position of violence and reproduction of violence (rape) in movie narration. The questions to be resolved are as below: - How are the representation of stereotypes related to gender within the narration of movie, what kind of mentality shape them, and ıs masculine-oriented representation effective? - What is the contribution of intrigue structure of movie into representations? Is there a legitimization aim in movies related to violence and rape against woman to provide the continuity of male dominant ideology? - How the discourse of movies about gender discrimination contributes to hegemonic social perception? Does it support to this perception? - What are the reasons of violence and rape acts against woman in movie? How the body of woman is used as a pornographic consumption material within the logic of consumption idea engrained in capitalist order? How the use of pornographic material reveal sexually-explicit violence fact? - What is the context of violence and rape acts in movie? Do rape and violence have cultural and class context? What kind of cultural and class representation is for the women who are raped? - How the explicit or implicit aim of violence against woman in the movie is presented? Do this violence and rape representations reveal with instinctive reasons or do they have an aim to control the woman ideologically? -What is the contributions of movie into the formation of perspective against rape and violence against woman? Are rape and violence represented as a fact within social life by naturalizing or are they criticized with contrast perspective? What kind of positioning against rape and violence is presented to viewers in this movie? 4. Results The film starts with honor lessons of Mr. Necdet to women of the neighbourhood. The character of 439

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN „father who exemplifies the social structure in his youth period uses the expression of “let you hang them on the street” for women who is described by the character as loose woman with reference to their clothes. Patriarchal ideology of Eastern societies which unchastity is punished with the death is started to be fictionalized at the beginning of the film. The profession of the father is butchery and he is unkind, dictator, and normative. His messages do not target his congeneric. Mr. Necdet who does not criticize his congeneric respond to someone who makes a pass at him with a smile. This is an important scene in terms of showing duplicity of patriarchal ideology. Father‟s pressure on his daughters has influenced their existence process as an individual deeply. The only chance of İffet to go out is to go shopping in the bazaar. When daughters ask for money from their father to go shopping in the bazaar, he says “shopping is your pretext, you walk on the streets”. Patriarchal ideology of the father who reminds their special spheres to his daughters at every turn can be read as a photography of Turkey in its own time. It is not wrong to think about before and after period of 12th September Turkey‟s coup d‟etat that it stimulates social fears and supports conservative family control on young individuals. When İffet gets near to the greengrocery, she is on probation of Cemil who is handsome womanizer of the neighborhood. Masculine look is processed in these scenes that the camera focuses on İffet‟s looks with love and Cemil‟s looks with pleasure. İffet who crosses the special sphere border without her father‟s permission in order to participate picnic of the neighborhood and meet with Cemil take for her sister by persuading her. Iffet who meets with Cemil in festival area is met with the rape of masculine look. He jams İffet‟s head in the window of the car and challenges in a masculine way against the woman who look himself with love despite all shouts of her. This state of the woman creates a joy of winning in Cemil‟s mind because he thinks that İffet responds to his demands by feigning reluctance. The audience await İffet‟s response impatiently. What will İffet say against this illimitable masculine manner? İffet with her speech as follows “I love you, I do not want to upset you, but I imagined this on white sheets in our home” is besieged under patriarchal ideology. Young woman who is punished with the rape because of crossing the borders of her father is a slave to irrational view. Supremacy of the love over the mind becomes dramatic with İffet‟s solacement of Cemil; when she falls herself into Cemil‟s arms…. Since ancient times, sex relations on biological basis with the influence of cultural basis have led to gender stereotypes. These stereotypes provide female and males various roles, representation types, dressing and behavior codes on the benefit of the society. This masculine view which was strengthened via all of the ideological apparatus is influential mechanism in formation of point of view towards women and controlling the women. In this kind of structure, the benefits, desires and wants of the male one is precedence; the power of the male is approved, blessed and his actions includes force using is legitimated. In narrative of the film, power, money, and desires have primary importance. Cemil changes his desires‟ direction in return for a car which was promised if he marries with someone‟s daughter and he engages with neighbours‟ daughter of İffet. Another significant aspect is that future mother-in-law knows the relationship between İffet and Cemil and she does not matter. This stolid manner which is attributed to mother role functions over other „mother‟ characters of the neighborhood. These gossipmonger mother character who play the intervening variables roles inform Mr. Necdet about the relationship between İffet and Cemil with the speech of „Cemil is engaging, they buy a car for Cemil as a wedding gift. What a pity for your daughter due to extramarital affairs of them. Fortunately, the boy got rid of and she is not held responsible for the boy…‟. The film is thought-provoking with the portrays of envying and giving a bad name for who is beautiful. Her father has flogged her daughter on the street time repeatedly and İffet is slapped by patriarchal system. Female mothers and youth of the neighborhood watch these happenings with smiling expression on their face and this supports the perception that they have carrier and provider position in the system. Women with men eyed... Hence, there is no place for women in public sphere which is imaged symbolically in patriarchal order in patriarchal order. There are only men and their desires and concerns in this sphere. In Iffet‟s world, the only thing that matters is men‟s desires and women exist to satisfy these desires. To show that, there is no place for ordinary women or mothers in this world. Because woman who became a mother is not responsible for satisfying the desires of the man. This duty is assigned to other women on behalf of them. 440

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN In that moments, İffet who is walking on the railroad sees the death as a salvation way. What she has is a drama of young girls who are killed because she was raped. Her father killed İffet. He refused and threw her out of the house. The man is who refuses. Given surname to the woman create identity for her. If this is taken away, the woman must fall off the face of the earth in the railroad. However, these do not happen. Iffet shouts that she is not defeated against the order. She appeals for the help from her aunt to find a job and work. The aunt character has a modest life and opens the doors of a new life. She is no longer a character which is decisive in challenging the order in all languages which the it understands. When the order welcomes her, it is obligation to make some changes. The first step is her name. İffet‟s life is ignored for money and she tries to regain her life with the money as Demet instead of İffet. The order takes place in the narration with its structure contains impurities within itself. Transition from “mother” hood to “prostitution” becomes an obligation for İffet in order to try to be a part of capitalism. The money which requires for the power is earned via offering body to the man in the film. The body breaks up into pieces recurrently in the film… Another rule for the woman is about clothes. It is not surprising that determinant role of masculine order which sees itself as sole arbiter over female body. This order which separates women within binary structure of prostitution-mother in a certain way indicates unique dress codes of both two groups. According to this, dress and appearances of a mother and prostitution will be different from each other. According to this point of view, the woman deserves all behaviors oriented to her through her appearances. Because women give messages to the environment about her chasteness with her appearances. If appearances and behaviors of the woman is not compatible with being a chastity, she is marked as a prostitution. In a sense, the character named as İffet loses her chastity by taking the name of Demet instead of İffet. İffet removes her scarf from her head and her tight and halter dress and court shoes takes attention. She has intensive make-up and she is shown in bikini so she is rigged with patterns of sexual meta narration. Haluk Akman who is one of the most popular businessmen of the high society feel pleasure on İffet at first. The rich businessman is a part of an order where the pleasure knows no bounds. He is in the grip of alcohol. He spends his patrimony for his pleasures. However, his pleasure towards İffet transforms into the love. He envies her. He persuades her and they start to live together in his villa with pool. The pool metaphor is significant because creates a basis for application of sexual meta narrative. She serves for female audience looks with her visual body presentation with bikini in these moments. With Mulvey‟s determination there are three looks within the filmic process; „camera, character and audience (Mulvey 2010:214). The director of the film is male and this supports camera‟s „masculine‟ point of view. Also, looks of male characters which provide offering women to men looks and degrading women into a sexual object. In addition to this, there is a look of male audience which seeks satisfaction for their pleasure by identifying with the male characters in the film. As it is seen that, İffet is exposure to three types of „masculine‟ look. The film serves for the men who adopt and activate the look within patriarchal judges with its sexual meta narration. And it is time to blow out of İffet‟s revenge fire. Iffet who persuades Cemil to work with her as a driver and then she continuously attacks pleasures of him. When the times she develops intimacy with Akman who live together are the moments both İffet takes revenge –against the order and masculine look- and play to the audience. The camera moves in the woman‟s body with man‟s look. The problem of Cemil can be expressed as his pleasure is experienced by another male character. This is the pain for losing his power against another male character. Cannot share the power… İffet took her revenge. She resists in main story and disagrees being crushed or destroyed. At the same time, heavy cost of her resistance is shown to the audience frame by frame. Maybe she would not have experienced these, if she was successful in being a daughter of her father. İffet forgets the past with Cemil‟s speech of “I love you” on bended knees. Although she decides to marry with Haluk, İffet is in Cemil‟s arms in Haluk‟s home when he goes to hunting. This portrays İffets transformation from „angel‟ to „devil‟. She was cheated and now she cheats... „İffet‟s life will be changed when her sister comes back from summer school. Her sister is not surprise when she looks Cemil and her sister and also she makes go with this unfavorableness with female point of view. To accompany with Cemil in Akman‟s home. Iffet goes out of the home for a job and this initiates events between Cemil and the sister. The sister in bikini shouts to Cemil „let you take me to your back‟ and the camera focuses on stimulating look of the sister in these moments. Cemil is drunk and this 441

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN stimulation forces him to rape. The film supports patriarchal ideology and finds the woman guilty in the rape because of stimulating reasons. In the final of the film, İffet fires a bullet to the order against what happens. 5. Discussion and Conclusion The cinema which has a close relation and interaction with social and cultural structures makes its significance and penetration on wide mass appearance again. Efforts of woman for liberalization in social life and efforts of man for pressing them make its presence felt in the cinema. Especially from 1980‟s, there are representations of woman who are exposed to violence and rape actions in the cinema. Young woman who is punished with the rape because of crossing the borders of patriarchal order show her resistance without committing suicide. The cost of this resistance is to live rest of her life as a part of the order. By this way, liberalization movement of the woman in the real life is tried to be punished in symbolic area by cinema narrations. In this context, desire for bringing liberalization movements of women under control by coming into use of social transformation feature of the cinema manifests itself. References Abisel, N. (2005). Türk sineması üzerine yazılar. Ankara, Phoenix Yayınevi. Büker, S. ve Topçu, Y. G. (2010). Sinema: tarih-kuram-eleştiri. İstanbul, Kırmızıkedi Yayınları. Creed, B. (1993). The monstrous-feminine: film, feminism, psychoanalysis. London, Routledge Press. Çoban, B. (2005). “Lacan”. Nurdoğan Rigel, Gül Batuş, Güleda Yücedoğan ve Barış Çoban (Eds.), Kadife karanlık (pp. 277-294). İstanbul, Su Yayınevi. Felsefe Sözlüğü. (2003) 10.b.

Ankara, Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları.

Hall, S. (1997). The spectacle of the other. Stuart Hall (Ed.), Representation: cultural representations and signifying practies, (pp. 223-291). Britaian, British Library Catalouging in Publication Data. Millett, K. (1987). Cinsel politika. Seçkin Selvi (Trans.). İstanbul, Panel Yayınevi. Mulvey, L. (2010). Görsel haz ve anlatı sineması. Nilgün Abisel (Trans.), Sinema: tarih-kuram-eleştiri, İstanbul, Kırmızıkedi Yayınları. Öztürk, R. (2000). Sinemada kadın olmak. İstanbul, Alan Yayınları. Ryan, M. ve Kellner, D. (1997).

Politik kamera. Elif Özsayar (Trans.). İstanbul, Ayrıntı Yayınları.

Segal, L. (1992). Gelecek kadın mı?, Suğra Öncü (Trans.), İstanbul, Afa Yayınları. Wolff, K.H. (2002). The sociology of Georg Simmel. New York, Routledge. Tura, S. M. (2005). Freud'dan Lacan'a psikanaliz. İstanbul, Kanat Yayınları. Türkoğlu, N. (2011). Psikanaliz ve sinema üzerine. Murat İri (Ed.), Sinema Araştırmaları. İstanbul, Derin Yayınları. Wood, R. (2004).

Hitchcock sineması. Ertan Yılmaz (Trans.). İstanbul, Kabalcı Kitabevi.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 13 – 15, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

FROM CARRIER PIGEONS TO TWITTER İbrahim Hakan GÖVER Abdullah Gül University, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Political Science and International Relations Dept. [email protected]

Abstract Humans are social beings and communication is at the heart of their social identity. Without communication, humans wouldn’t have evolved from primitive communities to the complex and civilized societies of today. In the past, communication was limited to the spaces and distances, which humans could physically reach. But, today dramatic advances in modern technology and the Internet have removed all physical barriers to communication. Technologies and the Internet have not only changed the forms and content of the communication but also led to a new process called globalization and internationalization. Global communication tools such as Facebook, Twitter And Instagram have come into our lives in addition to mass communication tools such as TV, radio and newspaper. Face to face communication is slowly being replaced as the preferred choice, with online communication via mobile phones, tablets and PCs. Traditional approaches to social relations in society have been altered by global communication tools, which continues to gain influence in the global marketplace. Developments in the Internet and related technologies are changing social relations just as the mechanization from the industrial revolution had changed the relations of production. In order to symbolize all these changes and developments that have occured in communication and social relations, the title “from carrier pigeons to twitter” was especially chosen. In this context, the importance and evolution of communication within society will be emphasized, the developments in communication technologies and their effects on social relations and society will be examined in this paper. Keywords: Communication, Society, Social Media, Globalisation

1. Introduction Communication is critical to both individuals and societies. In fact, the founders of modern civilization are not only identifited as “homo sapiens” or “homo erectus”, but also be credited to “homo communicus”. It is true that without intelligence and suitable limbs, such as the opposable thumb, humans would not be very different from other species. However, another fundamental distinguishing feature that humans possess are its complex systems of language and communication. Animals also communicate with each other for the purpose of surviving, but humans are the masters of communication (Tomecek, 2009, p.8). Historically, humankind has organized various social structures and evolved from primitive communities to the modern societies of today through effective communication. So, it wouldn‟t be wrong to assert that the social evolution of humans heavily depends on the technological evolution of their communication. In this context, in the beginning, the communicative capacity of humans was limited to their own physical capabilities. The maximum distance of their communication was the point where he could run or his voice could travel. A typical example of this kind of communication is the example of the Ancient Greek soldier, Pheidippides, who ran a 25 mile-road from Marathon to Athens to convey the news of victory (“Pheidippides”, 2016). Humans eventually started to use various tools and objects such as drums, mirrors, fire, smokes and even carrier pigeons to communicate with one another in a more effective way and to reach further distances (Chakravarthi, 443

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 13 – 15, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 1992, p.30-33). Following the industrial revolution, various electronic devices were introduced into our lives such as the telegram, radio, telephone and television. Even with the advent of modern technology, humans were still subjected to certain limitations in terms of availability and cost. All these limitations were overcome with the introduction of the Information Age via the use of the Internet. With today‟s social media platforms (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and etc.), mobile communication devices (smart phones and tablets) and the Internet, we have more effective communication in terms of time and place. The point of all of this is that these new communication devices have led to some dramatic changes in our lives. Direct communication via face-to-face interaction was replaced with indirect social relations via machine communication. A new process termed globalization and internationalization have emerged as a result of increasing communication and mobilization around the world. In brief, while physical distances among nations have been eliminated, social distances between people have increased in our electronic or digital communication era. In this paper, we would like to stress the significance of communication in society and discuss the impacts of new type of communication on social relations and society under the title of “from carrier pigeons to Twitter”. The title itself tells a transformation from primitive modes of communication to advanced ones. But, more than this, it also carries a hidden meaning behind the text : transformation of society and social relations. In this context, in the first part of the study, we will clarify the meaning of communication, its importance and evolution within society. Then, we will focus on the impact of digital communication on society. 2. The Definition and Evolution of Communication Whether we realize it or not, communication plays an important role in our daily lives: speaking, talking, singing, crying, smiling, listening, reading, dancing, painting, writing, drawing, composing and so many other things. All these things are routine communication activities we do everyday. If we took these daily routines out from our lives, we would turn into beings that only pursue primitive instincts. So, communication is the thing that turns a biological being into a social one. As a matter of fact, the origin of communication comes from a latin word “communis” which means gathering, coming together and socializing (İnceoğlu, 2011, p.199). Although communicative activities are daily routines for us, they are highly complex and comprehensive concepts involving various biological, sociological, psychological, cultural and informative processes. For example, if a man says “but, she is a woman”, this simple sentence carries cultural codes which accepts the dominance of men in a society (Oskay, 2007, p.2). Moreover, communication is not limited to verbal interaction, contrary to popular belief. Non-verbal communication or body language, which consists of facial mimics, gestures, tone of voice and body posture is also a way of communication we frequently use in our lives (Navarro & Karlins, 2010, p.4). But, basically, it can be said that communication is an information sharing process between two individuals (Velentzas & Broni, 2014, p.117). According to Lasswell, communication is the answers of these questions: (1) who (2) says what (3) in which channel (4) to whom (5) with what effect (Lasswell, 2007, p.216). That means, technically, a communication process consists of a sender, a receiver, a message, a channel and a feedback. This is called the communication model. In this model, channel or the means of communication has utmost importance since it determines the effectiveness and speed of communication. Overtime, humans have discovered various materials and used animals in order to send messages farther and farther away in a short time. In that sense, we can say that the history of communication is the history of the „means‟ of communication. Today, two people living in the farthest points of the world can easily engage in a video-conference and send text messages to each other. But, this was not the case previously. For example, in the 16th century, sending an important message from one country to another took lots of time. This was about 40 days from Cyprus to Italy; 50 days to Spain and 16 days to Istanbul (Oskay, 2007, p.95). So, the availability of advanced communication tools of today was possible with a long and hard process taking thousands of years. In this process, the most striking means of communication that exemplify a primitive and developed form of communication, are carrier pigeons of old in contrast to today‟s electronic pigeon (Twitter). In the old times, carrier pigeons were used to convey messages due to the fact that they could fly long distances up to 1.000 kilometers a day at a high speed (Chakravarthi, 1992, p.31). Today, the electronic 444

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 13 – 15, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN pigeon (twitter), launched in 2006, has been used as a popular online microblogging tool characterized by 140 characters long tweets on various topics. (Java, Song, Finin & Tseng, 2007, pp.1-3). This is the transformation of communication from primitive means to more advanced ones. At the same time, this is the transformation of society via network communication. 3. Digital Communication and its Impacts on Society In the last hundred years, some important developments were observed in the fields of technology and politics. These are dramatic advances and developments in the information and communication technologies (ICT‟s) and the end of the Cold War between the USA and the USSR following the fall of Soviet Union. All these developments prepared a suitable ground or atmosphere for digital or electronic communication and changed the world thoroughly. This way of communication is characterized with the use of microchips, computers, wireless devices and the Internet, which increased the rate, speed and intensity of communication tremendously. Developments in ICT‟s introduced us with some new applications such as Facebook, Twitter, Instragram, Pinterest, Linkedln, Myspace, Tumblr And Youtube or briefly what we refer to as social media. The number of the Internet, social media and cellular phone users is getting bigger by the day (Table 1). Table 1. User numbers of Internet, social media and mobile phone (2015) Category

User Number

Population

Penetration

Active Internet Users

3.010 Million

7.210 Million

42%

Active Soc. Media Accounts

2.078 Million

7.210 Million

29%

Unique Mobile Users

3.649 Million

7.210 Million

51%

Active Mobile S.Media Acc.

1.685 Million

7.210 Million

23%

Source : EPC Global Social Media Trends, 2015, p.4

The point is that digital communication, social media and the Internet usage have introduced new concepts, changes and practices to our everyday life as described bellow: a) They led to new social trends, named globalization and internationalization, b) They affected social movements and made them transnational, c) They changed the nature of social relations in society throughouly. a. Globalization and Internationalization

Globalization and internationalization have become popular terms recently. This is mainly due to increasing communication among people and enhanced mobilization between countries thanks to radical advancements in technology and positive developments in the world of politics. Globalization has been a process making the world a single sociocultural system (Arslantürk & Amman, 2013, p.458). This process led to various outstanding social, cultural, political and economical effects on society. Economically, financial flows and trade between countries have been increased, along with financial capital, human capital have also become important, international companies have replaced with national companies; socioculturally, mobilization of students and people have increased, English has become a lingua franca; local and national cultures have been increasingly undermined; politically, national states lost their importance, instead, international and supranational political formations have emerged. Canadian professor McLuhan referred to “global village” as the world affected by advanced means of communication (Maggio, 2008, p.32). In this regard, some authors assert that network societies refer to globalization (Castells, 2005, p.5). However, integration of different cultures and nations towards a common system has received harsh criticisim from some authors. According to these authors, globalization is nothing but the diffusion of global capitalism or modern culture, which is homogenized, rationalized and standardized (Arslantürk & Amman, 2013, p.461).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 13 – 15, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Internationalization is another process we have been faced in recent times along with globalization. The point is that these are intermingled terms and their borders are blurred due to the fact that it is frequently used with globalization. In fact, internationalization is somewhat different than globalization. According to Göver, the most distinctive feature between these two terms is that while globalization is an integration process towards a common and upper system, internationalization is a movement process between/among nations. His proposal for the definition of internationalization is “an ongoing dynamic process adding human or nonhuman elements which are mostly international into the activity or structure of an institution/organization with either an outward or inward movement” (Göver, 2015, p. 228). Since globalization and internationalization are the macro scale effects of communication and not our main concern in this paper, we will proceed towards the micro scale effects of it in the next part. b. Social Movements

Social movements on various issues such as feminism, worker‟s rights and slavery date back more than four hundred years, but the speed and the number of such transnational social movements have dramatically increased in the world following novalties in communication and availability of the internet usage (Costanza-Chock, 2006, p.3). This is due to the Internet‟s tremendous advantage making possible to reach lots of people at the same time (Laer & Aelst, 2010, pp.1146-1149). Therefore, today‟s protests and social movements are organized under the origin or assistance of the Internet. These are the ones which are generally organized against free trade, economic domination, international democracy, unequal north-south distribution, sustainable development, human rights, labour, civil society, participated democracy, decentralization and cultural homogenization (Aelst & Walgrave, 2005, pp.97-98). Such an Internet based and supported action was seen in Turkey during the Gezi Park protests which took place in 2013. These protests were started by a group of people against the government to protest the constructing a shopping mall and a mosque in gezi park, which is one of the only green spaces left in Taksim, İstanbul (Amnesity International, 2013, p.5-6). Following the police intervention to disperse a small group of protesters in the park on the night of May 30 th, the number of protesters and their supporters increased with a call made on social media (Taştan, 2013, p.31). Protests, which continued for one month, spread to most cities in Turkey (total 77 cities) and 2.4 million citizens were involved in Turkey‟s biggest social movement (Uzgel, 2012, p.199). According to a study conducted by KONDA Research and Consultancy in 2014, the main news source of communication for protesters was social media with a rate of 69%, whereas TV had only a small share with 7%. Unlike the protesters, Turkish people learnt the news and followed the developments from TV, not from social media, with a rate of 71%. The overwhelming share and role of social media in the protests is possibily due to the protesters‟ trust in their own personalized communication channels through social media accounts (KONDA, 2014, pp.74-77). Other than the Gezi Park protests, the January 25th revolution in Egypt is another example of Internet based and internet assisted social movements. Egyptian ruling class relied on traditional media as a means of controlling the masses since the 1950‟s when the counry gained independence from Britain. Therefore, the rulers used this media as a propaganda tool until satellite broadcasting and the Internet were introduced to the country. In the new electronic communication era, Eyptians became accustomed to the Internet and watched the international channels such as CNN and Al-Jazeera. With the availability of these channels and the Internet, the Egyptian governmnent started to lost their control over the masses since people learned the news from CNN and Al-Jazeera and informed themselves via the Internet instead of learning from state-controlled media (Abdulla, 2014, pp.3-7). In 2014, Rasha Abdulla summarized the impact of the Internet and social media regarding to the revolution in his report named “Egypt‟s media in the midst of revolution” as follows: “The January 25th revolution was an Internet-based or Internet-assisted revolution. The Internet was not the cause of the revolution, but it acted as a catalyst and helped facilitate, organize, and expedite matters. The Internet, and social media in particular, played an important role in preparing particular sectors of society for this moment and in organizing them and helping them mobilize once the moment was right” (Abdulla, 2014, p.7).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 13 – 15, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Due to this role of the Internet and social media on the revolution, the government blocked access to Twitter, Facebook, mobile phones, the internet and messaging services respectively (Abdulla, 2014, p.13). This shows how important the role the Internet and social media have been on the masses. The effect of social media and the Internet can also be observed in blocking the military coup, which was attempted in various countries in the past year, most notably, in the July 15 (2016) military coup attempt in Turkey. Turkish democracy has been subjected to military coups and memorandums since the Turkish Republic was founded in 1923. These are the coups made in 1960 and 1980; coup attemps made in 1962, 1963 and 2016; military memorandums in 1971 and 1997 (postmodern coup attempt). The Turkish army has played an important role in the independence war of Turkey and in establishing modern Turkey. Therefore, they have a prestigious status in the country and they intervene the regime whenever they see a threat to the regime by politicians and/or political parties (As cited in Akıncı, 2014, p.68). In the 1960 military coup made against the Menderes government, Adnan Menderes, Prime Minister, Hasan Polatkan, Minister of Finance and Fatin Rüştü Zorlu, Minister of Foreign Affairs were executed by the National Unity Committee. People were amazed at the executions, but they did not react since they were intimitaded and helpless against these exections (As cited in Akıncı, 2014, p.63). But, people showed their reaction to the soldiers in the general elections arranged one month later after the executions. The Justice Party (AP), a political follower of Democrat Party (DP), took as much votes as Republican People‟s Party (CHP) in spite of the pressure and intimidations of the army (As cited in Akıncı, 2014, p.64). However, unlike previous military interventions, the July 15 military coup attempt failed due to the resistance of people who wanted to protect democracy and the government along with Turkish police. The turning point of the coup was with president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan‟s appearance on CNN Türk via FaceTime video chat app and his call for citizens to resist the putschists (Yeşiltaş & Özçelik, 2016, p.13-14). The basic distinction with July 15 coup and previous coups is the use of Internet and social media among the people extensively. In previous coups, army took control of the state run TV and radio (TRT), which are the unique communication channels in the country. But, that‟s not the case for the last coup attempt. A SETA report prepared by Yeşiltaş and Özçelik in 2016, this fact was outlined with the following statement: “Indeed, such a power proved critically instrumental in mobilizing the people; showing the power of the small street activism that has eventually triggered the ongoing mass protests. For example, the feeds fol- lowing hashtags such as #DarbeyeHayır (No to the Coup) and #MilletçeMeydanlardayız (The whole nation is at the maidans) were already trending for hours. According to the data provided by Somera, the number of tweets increased by 223 percent and a total of 34.818.329 interactions was shared, reaching to a staggering of 15 million people. After 10:00 PM on July 15th, the buzz regarding the attempt started to rise, as President Erdoğan did a FaceTime on CNN Türk the first peak occurred. The next morning, the attempt failed and the second peak happened”(Yeşiltaş & Özçelik, 2016, p.17).

All these things indicate that todays‟ social movements are highly affected by digital communication. c. Social Relations In society, our daily lives heavily rely on social interactions carried out through face to face communication. But, that‟s not the case anymore. Modern communication means, such as the Internet, smart phones and social media radically changed our way of life and the structure of ordinary social interactions. Currently, we are in a point that “screen to screen interactions” are replaced with “face to face interactions” among people. One of the first authors who realized the profound effect of media on society is Marshall McLuhan, a famous Canadian professor who systematically studied on media theory and the creator of the famous aphorisms “the medium is the message” and “global village”. According to him, the „medium‟ is not only the carrier of a message, but also a determiner of people‟s perceptions and thoughts. In other words, not its content but the medium itself has an effect on people (Altay, 2005, pp.15-16). In the period which MacLuhan lived, only mass communication media (books, newspapers, magazines, TV, Radio, analog telephone, faximile) and a partial use of the Internet were available. Currently, almost all people use the internet, smart phones and social/digital media other than mass media. And there is one important difference between these two types of media: people who use digital media can respond 447

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 13 – 15, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN to messages in real time. In other words, there is a one-way communication in mass media, whereas there is a two-way communication in social/digital media (Sheedy, 2011, p.23). So, digital media has made more profound effect on people and their way of communication than that of mass media. With the advantages of digital media and the internet, people have started to make most of their daily routines in the internet instead of real life: shopping, schooling, banking, dating/matchmaking, gambling, researching, chatting, blogging, gossiping, photo sharing, gaming, consulting, messaging and so on. Even illegal activities and crimes shifted to web (namely deep web or dark web). That means we created a virtual life, consisting of a direct reflection of the real life with its good and bad sides. All these things restructured our social life and led to replacement of face to face relations with screen to screen relations in society. Emily Drago reviewed the literature and made an empirical study with Elon University students in his study “The effect of technology on face to face communication”. According to Drago, various studies conducted between 2005 and 2014 on the issue showed that digital communication affected face to face communication negatively (Drago, 2015, pp.14-15). In short, humans started to live in a world of their own as a result of being object to digital screens instead of real humans, which led to individualism, fragmentation, disintegration, alienation and social apathy among people. 4. Conclusion Communication, or information sharing between at least two people is essential for man to survive in the nature and to keep evolving. This is also a critical feature distinguishing humans from animals and turning them from biological beings into social ones. Humans were able to evolve from primitive communities to modern societies of today thanks to cumulative advancements in communication. Though making video conferences and sending text messages are daily routines for us, it took lots of time to carry communication from cave drawings to smart mobiles. The main factor underlying today‟s advanced communication are studies, which have been conducted on the means of communication for a long time. Now, we are living in a digital or electronic era providing a tremendous increase in the use of modern communication tools such as smart mobiles, PCs, tablets, and social media. But, the point is that modern communication tools not only affected the speed and rate of communication, but also they transformed society and changed social relations together with the people who use them. Globalization and internationalization are the two changes affected by modern communication tools and positive political atmosphere. Along with these changes, social movements in society are affected from modern communication tools and social media. On one side, with the assistance of social media and the Internet, people have become a live shield in front of the military coup as in the example of the july 15th attempt. On the other side, modern communication tools facilitate the protests of any activist groups who demonstrate in the streets as in the examples of 2013 Gezi Park protests (Turkey) and the January 25th revolution (Egypt). As a result, social media usage has both pros and cons in terms of impact on governments and political regimes. Lastly, modern communication tools changed social relations tremendously. Regular face-to-face relations were replaced with screen-to-screen relations among people. That leads to disintegration and fragmentation of people. In sum, while nations, organizations, companies and groups are being integrated under the process of globalization, internationalization and social movements associated with the facilities provided by modern communication tools, individuals are being disintegrated under the process of alienation associated with the use of Internet and social media. References Akıncı, A. (2014). Türkiye‟nin darbe geleneği: 1960 ve 1971 müdahaleleri. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İİBF, 9(1), 55-72. Altay, D. (2005). Küresel köyün medyatik mimarı: Marshall McLuhan. in N. Rigel (Ed.), 21.yy iletişim çağını aydınlatan kuramcılar, (2nd ed. pp.9-74). İstanbul, Turkey: Su Yayınevi.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 13 – 15, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Amnesity Intrenational (2013). Gezi park protests. Index: EUR https://www.amnestyusa.org/sites/default/files/eur440222013en.pdf

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Arslantürk, Z. & Amman, T. (2013). Sosyoloji :kavramlar, kurumlar, süreçler, teoriler. İstanbul: Çamlıca yayınları. ISBN: 978-975-8646-42-5. Castells, M. (2005). Understanding social transformation. In M.Castells & G.Cardoso (ed.). The network society: from knowledge to policy (pp.3-22), John Hopkins Center for transatlantic relations, Washington D.C., USA. Chakravarthi, P. (1992). The history of communications from cave drawings to mail messages. IEEE AES Magazine, 45(2), 30-35. DOI: 10.1037/1061-4087.45.2.10 Costanza-Chock, S. (2006). Anaylitical note: horizontal communication and social movements. 1-35. Retrieved fromhttp://web.mit.edu/schock/www/docs/horizonal%20communication%20and%20social%20movements. pdf Drago, E. (2015). The effect of technology on face to face communication, The Elon journal of undergraduate research in communications, 6(1), 13-19. Göver, İ. H. (2015). Internationalization and Turkish universities. International Conference on Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences (SHSS-2015) Nov. 25-26, 2015 Paris (France), 227-233. DOI: 10.17758/ERPUB.E1115079 Kılıç, N. S. (2012). Toplumsal ilişkiler alanı olarak sanal alem üzerine Schutzcu bir çözümleme. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 13 (4), 139-150. ISSN: 1302-3284 E-ISSN: 1308-0911 KONDA Araştırma ve Danışmanlık. (2014). Public perception of the Gezi protests, who were the people at Gezi Park. Retrieved from http://konda.com.tr/en/raporlar/KONDA_Gezi_Report.pdf İnceoğlu, M. (2011). Tutum, algı, iletişim. Ankara, Turkey: Siyasal kitabevi. Java, A., Song, X., Finin, T. & Tseng, B. (2007, August). Why we Twitter: understanding microblogging usage and communities. Paper presented at the Joint 9th WEBKDD and 1st SNA-KDD Workshop 0‟7, San Jose, California, USA. Laer, j. V. & Aelst, P. V. (2010). Internet and social movement action repertories. Information, communication and society, 13(8), 1146-1171. DOI: 10.1080/13691181003628307 Lasswell, H. D. (2007). The structure and function of communication, İletişim, kuram ve araştırma dergisi, 24, 215-228. Maggio, N. (2008). “The whole earth as village”: a chronotophic analysis of Marshall MacLuhan‟s “global village” and Patrick McGoohan‟s the prisoner. Master thesis in popular culture, Faculty of Social Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, USA, October 2008. Navarro, J. & Karlins, M. (2010). Beden Dili. İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları. Oskay, Ü. (2007). İletişimin ABC’si. İstanbul, Turkey: DER Yayınları. Pheidippes. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved September 11, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pheidippides Rasha, A. (2014). Egypt‟s media in the midst of revolution. Carnegie endowment for international peace, Washington DC. Retrieved from http://carnegieendowment.org/files/egypt_media_revolution.pdf Sheedy, C. S. (2011). Social media for social change: a case study of social media use media in the 2011 Egyptian revolution, A
Capstone
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Feldman
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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 13 – 15, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Van de Donk, W., Loader, B. D., Nixon, P. G. & Rucht D. (2005). Cyberprotest new media, citizens and social movements, Taylor & Francis e-library. ISBN 0-203-67501-0 (Adobe eReader Format) Velentzas, J. & Broni, G. (2014). Communication cycle: definition, process, models and examples. Proceeding of the 5th International Conference on Finance, Accounting and Law (ICFA‟14). 17, 117-131. Retrieved from http://www.wseas.us/e-library/conferences/2014/Istanbul/FINANCE/FINANCE-17.pdf World Newsmedia Network. (2015). The EPC Global Media Trends Book-Series. Volume 2: Global Social Media Trends 2015. Chicago, Illinois, USA. Retrived from http://epceurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/epc-trends-social-media.pdf Yeşiltaş, M. & Özçelik, N. (2016). Turkey‟s stillborn junta coup attempt: process, responses and prospects. SETA-Foundation for political, social and economic research, no 19. Retrieved from http://setadc.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/20160723004021_turkeys-stillborn-junta-coup-attempt-pdf.p df

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGILITY AND BODY COMPOSITION Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halil TAŞKIN Selcuk University, Sport Sciences Faculty, Konya, Turkey. [email protected] PhD student. Tuba GÖRGÜLÜ Ankara University, Institute of Health Sciences, Ankara, Turkey. [email protected] Assis. Prof. Dr. Mine TAŞKIN Selcuk University, Ali Akkanat School of Applied Sciences, Konya, Turkey. [email protected] Abstract The aim of this research is to investigate the relationship between body composition and agility.18 football player volunteers participated in this research by age average 22.39±2.893, height average 1.82±0.053 meters, body weight average 76.06±4.412 kg and sporting age average 11.72±2.218. Their skin curl thickness measured by ±0.2 mm precision and by 10 g/sq mm pressure in 7 different parts (biceps, triceps, supscapula, suprailiac, chest, thigh, abdominal). By using these measured skin thickness in DurninWomersly formula, body densities are determined and by using this densities in Siri formula, their body fat percentages are calculated. Their perimeter measurement is taken from waist, hip, forearm, femur, scapula, chest, calf. Volunteers’ agility performances evaluated by T test. Between agility performance with body perimeter measurements and skin curl thickness, no significant difference (P˃0,05) is determined. As a consequence, when you take into consideration the volunteers are professional football players, their exercise levels are the same, their physical characteristics are similar, it is been thought that this situation renders meaningless the relationship of their body composition with agility. Key words: Agility; football; body measurement; sportive performance.

INTRODUCTION In sports such as soccer, in which numerous bursts of explosive activity are required, explosive strength, physical fitness, and agility determines high-level performance (Manolopoulos et al. 2006). The contribution of physique and body composition in soccer performance was recognized and body composition is a key consideration in the physical make-up of professional soccer players (Sutton et al. 2009). Body composition, anthropometric dimensions, and morphological characteristics play a vital role in determining the success of all athletes (Wilmore and Costill, 1999; Keogh, 1999; RecoSanz, 1998). Body composition is an important aspect of fitness for soccer as excess adipose tissue acts as dead weight in activities where the body mass must be lifted repeatedly against gravity (Reilly1996; Rico-Sanz 1998). The physical composition of the body (body fat, mass and fat-free mass) is also relevant in the preparation of players for competitive performance (Carling and Orhant 1 451

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2010). High-speed actions during soccer competition can be categorized into actions requiring acceleration, maximal speed, or agility. Agility does not have a global definition, but it is often recognized as the ability to change direction and start and stop quickly (Little and Williams 2005). Agility is very important when it comes to soccer players. Not only do they use it to outmaneuver the opposition but it also helps in preventing injuries (Jovanovic et al. 2011). The most interesting aspect of agility ability, so much a feature of the very short time is put forward in coordinated and whole body unities. Soccer players have concentric and eccentric contractions in agilty and this situation are closely related with body composition. Therefore, the aim of this research is to investigate the relationship between body composition and agility for professional soccer players. METHOD Experimental Approach to the Problem To test our hypotheses, 18 soccer players from Turkey were assessed. These professional soccer players were from third league levels. To determine the relationship between body composition and agility for eighteen professional soccer players, agility test (T test) was used. This test was chosen because it carries similar characteristics to that of a soccer game. The test was performed on a soccer field during the competitive season and conducted on a single day for each test soccer players. Subject Soceer players’ characteristics were as follows: age=22.39±2.893 years, height=1.82±0.053 m, and weight=76.06±4.412 kg and soccer experience 11.72±2.218 years. The sample included 18 professional male soccer players at the third in Turkey. Before data collection, all participants signed a university approved consent form. After receiving a detailed explanation of the study’s benefits and risks, each subject signed an informed consent document that was approved by the local ethics committee. Procedure T test for Agility T test is an agility test. The test protocol consisted. Subjects began with both feet behind the starting point A. At their own discretion, each subject sprinted forward 9.14 m to point B and cone with the right hand. They then shuffled to the left 4.52 m and cone (C) with the left hand. Subjects then shuffled to the right 9.14 m and cone (D) with the right hand. They then shuffled to the left 4.57 m back to point B and touched with the left hand. Subjects then ran backward, passing the finishing line at point A (figure 1). Two test trials were performed, and times were recorded to the nearest onehundredth of a second using an electronic timing system (Smart Speed) electronic timing sensors mounted on tripods were set approximately 0.75 m above the floor and were positioned 3 m apart facing each other on either side of the starting Iine. The fastest trial was used for statistical analyses. 2 452

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Skinfold thickness and body circumferences Skinfofd thickness was measured to the nearest mm, except for low values (usually 5 mm or less) when it was taken to the nearest 0.5 mm. These readings were made at seven sites on all soccer players, at the biceps, triceps, subscapular and supra-iliac, chest, thigh, and abdominal areas. These were usually done on the right side of the body with the soccer players standing in a relaxed condition. The instrument used was the Harpenden caliper (Holtain Ltd). The circumference at the upper arm, upper thigh, waist, hips, shoulders and calf were obtained using a flexible steel tape. Skinfolds and circumferences were metered by the standard technique described by Weiner and Lourie (1969), except that the subscapular skinfold was always taken at an angle of about 45" to the vertical and the position of the suprailiac skinfold was just above the iliac crest in the mid-axillary line. Total Body Fat Percentage Body density was calculated using Durnin-Womersley formula with triceps, biceps, subscapular and suprailiac SF Total body fat percentage was calculated applying Siri equation to this body density. The Durnin and Womersley equation (Durnin and Womersley 1974) was used to assess body fat percentage, i.e. % Body Fat = [(4.95 / Body Density) – 4.50] X 100 (Siri 1956), where density = 1.1765–0.0744 × log (bicipital + tricipital + subscapular + suprailiac skin-folds).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Body mass index Weight and height were measured in a mobile examination center using standardized techniques and equipment. Body mass index was calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared and rounded to the nearest tenth. Body mass index = weight (kg) / height (m2). Statistical Analyses The relationships between Agility and body composition were evaluated using Pearson Product Moment Correlation analysis. All analysis was executed in SPSS IBM 22 and the statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

RESULTS Table 1. Relationship between agility and body characteristic Variables

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

R

P

Age (years)

18

22,39

2,893

-0,176

0,486

Height (m)

18

1,82

0,053

-0,033

0,898

Weight (kg)

18

76,06

4,412

-0,060

0,814

Sport age (yıl)

18

11,72

2,218

As shown table 1, we didn’t found relationship between agility and body characteristic (age, height, and weight) (P>0.05).

Table 2. Relationship between agility and body circumference Variables

N

Mean

Std. deviation

R

P

Upper arm (cm)

18

30,28

1,817

0,412

0,090

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Shoulders (cm)

18

111,56

4,176

0,137

0,587

Chest (cm)

18

97,19

4,716

0,255

0,307

Waist (cm)

18

80,89

3,407

-0,055

0,828

Hip (cm)

18

98,94

3,338

-0,113

0,654

Upper thigh (cm)

18

55,81

2,408

-0,181

0,473

Calf (cm)

18

37,69

1,526

-0,348

0,158

As shown table 2, we didn’t found relationship between agility and body circumference (upper arm, shoulders, chest, waist, hip, upper thigh, and calf) (P>0.05).

Table 3. Relationship between agility and skinfold thickness Değişkenler

N

Ortalama

Std. Sapma

R

P

Biceps (mm)

18

3,41

0,745

0,008

0,974

Triceps (mm)

18

7,09

1,755

-0,034

0,894

Chest (mm)

18

5,83

2,023

-0,062

0,808

Suprailliac (mm)

18

6,73

1,764

-0,006

0,980

Supscapular (mm)

18

9,58

2,098

0,346

0,159

Abdominal (mm)

18

11,85

3,182

0,180

0,476

Thigh (mm)

18

9,49

2,905

-0,023

0,929

As shown table 3, we didn’t found relationship between agility and skinfold thickness (biceps, triceps, chest, suprailliac, supscapular, abdominal, and thigh) (P>0.05).

Table 4. Relationship between agility with BMI and % body fat Değişkenler

N

Ortalama

Std. Sapma

r

P

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Body mass index (kg/m2)

18

22,86

0,724

% body fat (%)

18

18,86

2,819

Agility (sn)

18

9,68

0,395

-0,030

0,236

0,906

0,345

As shown table 4, we didn’t found relationship between agility with BMI and % body fat (P>0.05).

DISCUSION The aim of this research is to investigate the relationship between body composition and agility. This study investigated body composition, body densities, body mass index, circumference thickness, and agility. There were no relationship between body composition values and agility for professional soccer players (P>0.05). First all, we can say that it is very limited of the researches examining the telationship between body composition and agility. Direct correlations between change of direction speed and body fat were not performed in the previous studies (Gabbett, 2002; Meir et al., 2001; Reilly et al., 2000; Rigg and Reilly, 1987). The one study that did involve correlations of body fat and change of direction speed in rugby players, there were not strongly correlated (r = 0.21) between body fat and change of direction speed in rugby players (Webb and Lander, 1983). Fifty-three football players were evaluated to determine the contributions of speed, agility and body composition to anaerobic power output. Agility was measured from a specifically designed pattern requiring change of direction. Body composition was estimated from skinfolds using general and sportsspecific equations. The MargariaKalamen power test appeared to be related to size and strength in college football players, moderately dependent on speed and relatively unrelated to agility (Mayhew et al. 1989). In theory, factors such as body segment lengths and body fat may contribute to agility performance. In comparing two athletes of equal total body mass, the fatter athlete will have less lean mass to contribute to the speed requirements of agility performance (Sheppard and Young 2006). Height and body mass were not significantly related to standing throw velocity. No significant relationship was found between bench press force or peak power and throwing ability. There was a significant relationship between peak power in the squat and standing throw velocity (r = 70.57; P = 0.01) (Chaouachi et al. 2009b). Chaouachi et al. (2009a) reported in a survey study conducted the relationship between squat 1 repetition maximum (1RM) and basketball relevant tests and the variables that influence agility (T-test) in elite male professional basketball players (n = 14, age 23.3 ± 2.7 years, height 195.6 ± 8.3 cm, body mass 94.2 ± 10.2 kg). They found that T-test performance was significantly related to body mass (r = 0.58, p = 0.03) and percent body fat (r = 0.80; p < 0.001). Stepwise correlation analysis showed that percent body fat was 6 456

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN the best single predictor factor (p < 0.05) of agility (Chaouachi et al. 2009a) Significant correlations were found between body composition and physical performance ranging from -0.38 to 0.61 for weight, vertical jumping, speed, total body power production, and VO2max. Body fat showed a positive correlation with speed (r = 0.60) and a negative correlation with VO2max (r = -0.67). The values for body composition and physical performance were similar in starters and nonstarters with only total body power production showing a significantly greater value in starters (Silvestre et al. 2006). In conclusion, In studies examining the relationship between agility and body composition, some studies observed a significant relationship. On the other than, some studies were no observed significant relationships. This research also showed that there was no significant relationship between body composition and agility. Considering that the professional level of the soccer players participating in this research, have the same level of training of athletes have similar physical properties are thought to render meaningless the relationship between agility and body composition.

REFERENCES Carling, C., & Orhant, E. (2010). Variation in body composition in professional soccer players: interseasonal and intraseasonal changes and the effects of exposure time and player position. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 24(5), 1332-1339. Chaouachi, A., Brughelli, M., Chamari, K., Levin, G.T., Ben Abdelkrim, N., Laurencelle, L., & Castagna, C. (2009a) Lower limb maximal dynamic strength and agility determinants in elite basketball players. J Strength Cond Res, 23(5), 1570–1577. Chaouachi, A., Brughelli, M., Levin, G., Boudhina, N. B. B., Cronin, J., & Chamari, K. (2009b). Anthropometric, physiological and performance characteristics of elite team-handball players. Journal of Sports Sciences,27(2), 151-157. Durnin, J.V.G.A., & Womersley, J. (1974). Body fat assessed from total body density and its estimation from skinfold thickness: measurements on 481 men and women from 16 to 72 years. Br J Nutr, 32, 77–97. Gabbett, T. J. (2002). Physiological characteristics of junior and senior rugby league players. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36, 334 – 339. Jovanovic, M., Sporis, G., Omrcen, D., & Fiorentini, F. (2011). Effects of speed, agility, quickness training method on power performance in elite soccer players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 25(5), 1285-1292. Keogh, J. (1999). The use of physical fitness scores and anthropometric data to predict selection in an elite under-18 Australian rules football team. J Sci Med Sport, 2, 125–133. Little, T., & Williams, A. G. (2005). Specificity of acceleration, maximum speed, and agility in professional soccer players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 19(1), 76-78.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Manolopoulos, E, Papadopoulos, C, & Kellis, E. (2006). Effects of combined strength and kick coordination training of soccer kick biomechanics in amateur players. Scan J Med Sci Sport, 16, 102–110. Mayhew, J. L., Piper, F. C., Schwegler, T. M., & Ball, T. E. (1989). Contributions of Speed, Agility and Body Composition to Anaerobic Power Measurement in College Football Players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 3(4), 101-106. Meir, R., Newton, R., Curtis, E., Fardell, M., & Butler, B. (2001). Physical fitness qualities of professional rugby league football players: Determination of positional differences. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 15, 450 – 458. Reilly, T. Fitness assessment. In: Reilly T, editor. Science and Soccer. London: E & FN Spon, 1996, 25-49. 7. Reilly, T., Williams, A.M., Nevill, A., & Franks, A. (2000). A multidisciplinary approach to talent identification in soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 695 – 702. Rico-Sanz, J. Body composition and nutritional assessments in soccer. Int J Sport Nutr, 1998, 8, 113-123. Rigg, P., & Reilly, T. (1987). A fitness profile and anthropometric analysis of first and second class rugby union players. In P. Rigg (Ed.), Proceedings of the First World Congress on Science and Football (pp. 194 – 200). London: E & FN Spon. Sheppard, J.M., & Young, W.B. (2006). Agility literature review: Classifications, training and testing. Journal of sports sciences, 24(9), 919-932. Silvestre, R., C. West, C.M. Maresh, & W.J. (2006). Kraemer. Body composition and physical performance in men’s soccer: A study of a National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I team. J. Strength Cond. Res. 20(1), 177–183. Siri, N.E. Advances in biological and medical physics. Lawrence JH, Tobias CA, editors. London and New York: Academic Press; 1956. Sutton, L., Scott, M., Wallace, J., & Reilly, T. (2009). Body composition of English Premier League soccer players: Influence of playing position, international status, and ethnicity. Journal of Sports sciences, 27(10), 1019-1026. Webb, P., & Lander, J. (1983). An economical fitness testing battery for high school and college rugby teams. Sports Coach, 7(3), 44 – 46. Weiner, J. S. & Lourie, J. A. (1969). In Human Biology: A Guide to Field Methods. I.B.P. Handbook no. 9. Oxford : Blackwell Scientific Publications. Wilmore, J.H., & Costill, D.L. (1999). Physiology of Sports and Exercise. 2nd ed. Human Kinetics, Champaign, 490–507.

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ANALYZE OF TECHNICAL PARAMETER DURING SIMULATED COMPETITION ON TENNIS PLAYERS

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halil TAŞKIN Selcuk University, Sport Sciences Faculty, Konya, Turkey. [email protected] Graduate student, Nadide Aslıhan PEKTAŞ Selcuk University, Institute of Health Sciences, Konya, Turkey. [email protected] PhD student. Cemalettin BUDAK Dumlupınar University, Institute of Health Sciences, Kütahya, Turkey. [email protected] Abstract The aim of this research is to analyze of technical parameter during simulated competition on tennis players. 16 male tennis player volunteers participated in this research by age average 24.38±5.536, height average 1.77±0.064 meters and body weight average 74.13±15.024 kg. The research consists of 2 phases which are competition conditions and normal conditions. First of all, technical levels of the players are determined by International Tennis Number (ITN) test. Then, to determine their technical levels during competitions, they had single matches. During the matches players were examined and their shots were recorded. Video camera was used to determine those shots results truly. In competition and out of competition ITN points comparison about forehand shot technique, backhand shot technique, volley shot technique, serving technique it is determined that out of competition ITN points were significantly more higher. As a result, in competition, players could not show their 100% technical performances. It is thought because of the tiredness of the competition. Besides, while forehand shot errors are examined frequently, backhand, volley, serving shot error levels were the same. This is thought because forehand shot is used more frequently. Key words: competition; tennis; technical; ITN

i 459

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN INTRODUCTION Tennis is one of the most popular sports worldwide and a complex sport requiring a mixture of physical, technical/tactical, and psychological skills; however, relatively few studies have investigated the activity profile and physical demands during play (Bergeron et al. 1991; Christmass et al.1998; Elliott et al. 1985; Fernandez-Fernandez et al.2009). Tennis involves intermittent high-intensity efforts interspersed with periods of low-intensity activity in which active and passive recovery periods take place (Kovacs 2007). Tennis has an important technical component; poor sport-specific skills can prevent less skilled practitioners from deriving sufficient health benefits out of tennis match play (Marks 2006). The functional testing of tennis players’ performance can involve evaluation through both laboratory and field tests, and several tests have been developed in the last few years to determine the exercise capacity and technical performance of athletes with acceptable accuracy and under standardized conditions (Ferrauti et al. 2011; Girard et al. 2006). Technological advances in recent times allow getting information instantly during training and matches in order to improve the performance of athletes. Thus obtained data supporting the formalization of the game with the computer system are provided. Coaches can create a system for a database and feedback with video system in performance improvement assessment (Liebermann et al. 2002; Armatas & Yiannakos 2010). Regular analysis is required to determine what is deficiently and the technical, tactical, physical and mental level of tennis players. Time motion analysis is important to quantify the physiological, technical/tactical responses and requirements of a particular sport (Reilly & Palmer 1994; Spencer et al. 2005). Match analysis are monitored and required significant technical and tactical elements in athletic performance and both coaches from the data obtained can benefit both athletes. Match analysis was first used in Australian Football in 1963 by Nettleton and Sandstrom (1963) who, in their discussion of skill and conditioning, commented ‘‘the content of training will depend upon intelligent analysis of the individual performance of players during a large number of games.’’ Aspects of game analysis (5%), fitness attributes (5%), performance/ ergogenic aids (6%), skill acquisition/decision making (5%) and sociology (5%), made up the remaining body of available literature. It could be observed that play field plays the fundamental role in analyzing many sports video such as soccer, tennis, and basketball (Jiang & et al. 2004). International Tennis Number (ITN) was used to determine the tennis playing level of the participants. Under this system, players are rated from ITN 1 to ITN 10. ITN 1 represents a high level play and ITN 10 indicates a player who is new to the game (Crespo et al., 2003). Competitive success in modern tennis requires high technical. Therefore, the aim of this research is to analyze of technical parameter during simulated competition on tennis players.

METHOD Experimental Approach to the Problem

1 460

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN This study was designed to evaluate technical parameters for sixteen male tennis players. To evaluate technical parameters for male tennis players, ITN test was used. This test was chosen because it used previous studies technical characteristics to that of tennis players. The experimental design was divided into 2 parts: (a) technical level of players with ITN test in noncompetitive and (b) technical level of players with camera record singles competition. Subject For sixteen male tennis players’ characteristics were as follows: age=24.38±5.536 years, height=1.77±0.064 m, and weight=74.13±15.024 kg and tennis experience 7.13±4.978 years. Before testing began, the aim and procedures of the study were explained to the participants and informed consent was obtained. To reduce the interference of uncontrolled variables, all the subjects were instructed to maintain their habitual lifestyle and normal dietary intake before and during the study. The subjects were told not to exercise on the day before a test and to consume their last meal at least 3 hours before the scheduled test time. The research committee of the local university approved the study. Procedure On-Court Testing (ITN test) International Tennis Number Test. The ITN on Court Assessment is an objective on-court assessment based on a set number of tennis-specific tasks (i.e., ball control, accuracy, power), developed as a tool to enable players to benchmark their tennis level against themselves and others around the world. We used Groundstroke Depth Assessment - includes a power aspect (10 alternate forehand and backhand ground strokes), Groundstroke Accuracy Assessment - includes a power aspect (6 alternate forehand and backhand down the line and 6 alternate forehand and backhand cross court), Volley Depth Assessment - includes a power aspect (8 alternate forehand and backhand volleys), and Serve Assessment - includes a power aspect (12 serves in total, 3 serves in each target area) (Olcucu & Vatansever 2015). We used them during competitive and uncompetitive. We recorded with camera all competitive for technical levels. The test was performed on an outdoor tennis court (i.e., Green Set surface, Green Set Worldwide S.L., Konya, Turkey in competitive and noncompetitive. Temperature ranged from 15 to 25 C with a stable environmental and wind conditions. Measurements began after an 15-minute standardized warm-up, which consisted of 10 minutes of jogging around the court, dynamic flexibility, forward, sideways, and backward running, and acceleration runs; 5 minutes consisting of ground strokes (players were asked to hit the balls to the center of the court).

Statistical Analyses To analyze of technical parameter during simulated competition on tennis players were evaluated using independent sample T test. All analysis was executed in SPSS IBM 22 and the statistical

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN significance was set at p < 0.05. RESULTS Table 1. Physical characteristic data for the male tennis players Variables

N

Mean

Std. deviation

Age (years)

16

24.38

5.536

Height (m)

16

1.77

0.064

Body weight (kg)

16

74.13

15.024

Experience (years)

16

7.13

4.978

The data summary of the physical characteristics is shown in Table 1. The mean ages were 24.38±5.536 years, mean height were 1.77±0.064 m, mean body weight were 74.13±15.024 kg, and mean experience were 7.13±4.978 years for male tennis players

Table 2. Comparison technical levels for tennis players in competitive and noncompetitive Variables competitive

N

Mean

Std. deviation

16

8,06

1,289

Forehand shot noncompetitive

16

52,31

11,013

competitive

16

9,19

2,786

Backhand shot noncompetitive

16

47,13

10,595

competitive

16

7,50

4,195

Vole shot noncompetitive

16

41,06

8,790

competitive

16

41,75

7,335

Service shot noncompetitive

16

65,44

T

P

15.962

0.000*

13.852

0.000*

13.784

0.000*

3.638

0.001*

24,988

*P<0.05

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN As shown table 2, in comparison, forehand, backhand, vole and service technical levels in competitive and noncompetitive; we found differences between competitive and noncompetitive technical levels that measured with ITN test. Noncompetitive technical levels were higher than competitive technical levels (P<0.05).

Table 3. Comparison technical error levels for tennis players in competitive and noncompetitive Variables competitive

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

16

1,38

1,088

Forehand error noncompetitive

16

0,31

0,479

competitive

16

1,25

0,447

Backhand error noncompetitive

16

1,00

0,894

competitive

16

1,38

1,408

Vole error noncompetitive

16

0,88

0,806

competitive

16

1,50

1,155

Service error noncompetitive

16

1,81

T

P

3.576

0.001*

1.000

0.325

1.232

0.227

0.613

0.546

1,682

*P<0.05 As shown table 3, in comparison of forehand error score, we found differences between competitive and noncompetitive. Noncompetitive forehand error levels were lower than competitive forehand error scores (P<0.05). On the other hand, we didn’t found differences between competitive and noncompetitive for backhand, vole and service error scores (P>0.05). DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to analyze of technical parameter during simulated competition on tennis players. This study investigated technical parameters during tennis match play and technical parameters without competitive. The main finding of the present study was that singles tennis match play can satisfy the technical parameters which were forehand shot, backhand shot, vole shot and service technical. There were differences between ITN scores for all technical parameters in competitive and without competitive. ITN scores for without competitive is higher than ITN scores for competitive (P<0.05).

4 463

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Olcucu and Vatansever (2015), when correlation investigated between physical fitness and ITN for children tennis players, there was no relationship between ITN total scores with anthropometric and body composition. On the other hand, there was positive relationship between ITN scores with throw ball, vertical jump, horizontal jump, and pull leg to abdomen. There was negative relationship between ITN scores and hearing reactions. Previous studies have been made to develop field tests in tennis in order to determine the exercise capacity or technical performance of athletes with an acceptable accuracy under standardized conditions (Davey et al. 2002; Vergauwen et al. 2004; Davey et al. 2003). Three differentiated phases were identified in the evolution of the technical effectiveness in a study of Baiget et al. (2014). Technical effectiveness was 63.1±9.1%, with 3 identified phases throughout the test (adaptation, maximum effectiveness, and steady decline). A first phase of the testing load was lowest (9 and 11 shots per minute), the technical effectiveness level was not the highest (i.e., percentage of successful hits around 62–67%). A second phase of maximum technical effectiveness was also observed, in which the moderate intensity (13 and 15 shots per minute) did not affect the technical performance. A third and final phase was identified in which there was a progressive decrease in technical effectiveness. Performance during match situations requires a fine interaction between the tactical, technical, psychological, and physical components (Kovacs 2007). In conclusion, competition conditions arising is seen unable to put one hundred percent of the technical level of the players is thought to result from fatigue due to the events of this case. In addition, levels of tennis players forehand error occurs while more backhand volley errors in the shot, such as service levels remain the same. This is due to the more frequent use of forehand.

REFERENCES Armatas, V., & Yiannakos, A. (2010). Analysis and evalution of goals scored in 2006 world cup. Journal of sport and health Research, 2(2), 119-28. Baiget, E., Ferna´ndez-Ferna´ndez, J., Iglesias, X., Vallejo, L., & Rodrı´guez, F.A. (2014 . On-court endurance and performance testing in competitive male tennis players. J Strength Cond Res 28(1), 256–264. Bergeron, M.F., Maresh, C.M., Kraemer, W.J., Abraham, A., Conroy, B., & Gabaree, C. (1991). Tennis: a physiological profile during match play. Int J Sports Med, 12, 474–479. Christmass, M.A., Richmond, S.E., Cable, N.T., Arthur, P.G., & Hartmann, P.E. (1998). Exercise intensity and metabolic response in singles tennis. J Sports Sci 16, 739–747. Crespo, M., Reid, M., & Miley, D. (2003). Applied sport science for high performance tennis. The International Tennis Federation, ITF Ltd, 2003. Davey, P.R., Thorpe, R.D., & Williams, C. (2002). Fatigue decreases skilled tennis performance. J Sports Sci, 20, 311–18.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Davey, P.R., Thorpe, R.D., & Williams, C. (2003). Simulated tennis matchplay in a controlled environment. J Sports Sci, 21, 459–67. Elliott, B., Dawson, B., & Pyke, F. (1985). The energetics of single tennis. J Hum Mov Stud 11, 11–20. Jiang, S., Ye, Q., Gao, W., & Huang, T. (2004). A new method to segment playfield and its applications in match analysis in sports video. In Proceedings of the 12th annual ACM international conference on Multimedia (pp. 292-295). ACM. Fernandez-Fernandez, J., Sanz-Rivas, D., & Mendez-Villanueva, A. (2009). A review of the activity profile and physiological demands of tennis match play. Strength Cond J, 31, 15. Ferrauti, A., Kinner, V., & Fernandez-Fernandez, J. (2011). The hit & turn tennis test: An acoustically controlled endurance test for tennis players. J Sports Sci, 29, 485–494. Girard, O., Chevalier, R., Leveque, F., Micallef, J.P., & Millet, G.P. (2006). Specific incremental field test for aerobic fitness in tennis. Br J Sports Med, 40, 791–796. Kovacs, M. (2007). Tennis physiology: Training the competitive athlete. Sports Med, 37, 189–198. Libermann, D.G., Katz, L., Hughes, M.D., Bartlett, R.M., Mc Clements, J., Franks, I.M, (2002). Advanced in the application of information technology to sport performance. Journel of Sports Sciences, 20,755-69. Marks, B.L. (2006). Health benefits for veteran (senior) tennis players. Br J Sports Med, 40, 469–476. Nettleton, B., & Sandstrom, E.R. (1963). Skill and conditioning in Australian Rules Football. Aust J Phys Educ, 29, 17-30. Olcucu, B., & Vatansever, S. (2015). Correlation Between Physical Fitness and International Tennis Number (ITN) Levels Among Children Tennis Players. anthropologist, 21(1-2), 137-142. Reilly, T., & Palmer, J. (1994). Investigation of exercise intensity in male singles lawn tennis. In: Science and Racket Sports. T. Reilly, M. Hughes, and A. Lees, eds. London: E & FN Spon, pp. 10–13. Spencer, M., Bishop, D., Dawson, B., & Goodman, C. (2005). Physiological and metabolic responses of repeated-sprint activities: specific to field-based team sports. Sports Med 35, 1025–1044. Vergauwen, L., Madou, B., & Behets, D. (2004). Authentic evaluation of forehand groundstrokes in young lowto intermediate-level tennis players. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 36, 2099–3006.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF OPERATING PERFORMANCE OF ENERGY SECTOR COMPANIES TRADED ON BORSA ISTANBUL* Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hasan UYGURTÜRK Karabük University, Faculty of Business, Entrepreneurship Dept. [email protected]

Abstract The need of energy has shown a continuously increase. Continuously growing demand driven by population and industrial growth in global markets and also input characteristics of energy for the other sectors positioned in the country's economy increase the importance of businesses operating in the energy sector. All of these elements make the businesses act more carefully about their energy investments and activities. In this study, operating performance of 6 businesses listed in the energy sector and traded on Borsa Istanbul (BIST) were analyzed with MOORA method (Multi-Objective Optimization on the basis of Ratio Analysis) for the period 2013-2015. Primarily, in order to demonstrate the operating performance of the businesses, financial ratios were calculated by using data from financial statements for the analysed period. Secondly, the operating performances of businesses were compared using MOORA method. Keywords: Energy sector, MOORA method, operating performance.

1. Introduction Used to represent heat and power, energy plays a crucial role in the development of social life and economy. Energy demand constantly boosts as a result of the increase of urbanisation and modernisation; that is the increase in services, dwellings, and transportation. The primary factors affecting energy demand are population increase and gross domestic product (GDP) growth. Global energy demand increased at a percentage of 48% between the years 1990 and 2010. In line with this increase, the rate compound annual growth of global primary energy demand is predicted to be 1.64% by the year 2030. The prediction that the world population will rise to 8.8 billion until 2035 and the expectation that global economy will increase by 107% points out that demand for energy will also increase. Developing countries among which is Turkey have an important role in terms of the increase in energy demand and are expected to compose 93% of this growth (Invest, 2016, BP, 2016). Turkey being located in regional energy transition centre and having a growing consumer mass raises its significance in the world energy market. The interest and the number of investments in energy sector augment as a result of demand increase. All these factors lead to a competition in the sector, which forces businesses operating in the energy sector to be more active. This study aims to analyse comparatively the activity performances of businesses which operate in the energy sector in Turkey and of which shares are traded on Borsa Istanbul (BIST) using MOORA ratio method and reference point theory. An encouraging factor to carry out this study was businesses operating in energy sector having a significant and strategic importance for Turkish economy and increasing importance of the energy sector. 2. Review of Literature MOORA methods have numerous application areas such as energy, finance, project selection, transportation, personnel and supplier selection, and military. Brauers et al. (2008), applied MOORA method to evaluate contractor’s alternatives. Gadakh (2011) used MOORA method for solving multiple criteria (objective) optimization problem in milling process. *

This work was supported by Research Fund of the Karabuk University. Project Number: KBÜ-BAP-16/1-YD-217

466

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Baležentis and Baležentis (2011) focused on evaluating Lithuanian transport sector through out 1995– 2009 by applying the methods of MULTIMOORA and data envelopment analysis (DEA). To solve different decisionmaking problems as frequently encountered in the real-time manufacturing environment Chakraborty (2011) used MOORA method. Karande and Chakraborty (2012a) used multi-objective optimization on the basis of ratio analysis (MOORA) method to solve some of the common material selection problems. Karande and Chakraborty (2012b) applied MOORA methods to solve two real-time supplier selection problems. Aktepe and Ersöz (2014), used the AHP, VIKOR and MOORA methods to solve warehouse site selection problem. Özçelik and Atmaca (2014), considered the supplier selection problem and used MOORA method for the solution of problem. Özbek (2015), aimed at selecting the administrators of academic units with MOORA method. İlkuçar and Çifçi (2016) aimed at evaluating the financial performance of 6 electricity generation companies whose shares are traded on the BIST with multi decision making analysis by using financial ratios. 3. Methodology 3.1. MOORA Method The MOORA Method (Multi-Objective Optimization on the basis of Ratio Analysis) is the process of simultaneously optimizing two or more conflicting attributes (objectives) subject to certain constraints (Gadakh, 2011:743). The MOORA method, first introduced by Brauers (2004) is such a multi-objective optimization technique that can be successfully applied to solve various types of complex decision making problems in the manufacturing environment (Mandal and Sarkar, 2012:302). Current production setting makes decision-making processes harder for authorized individuals with different values and interests. Attributes in the decision-making problem must be measurable and attribute results must be calculated for each alternative. Some of the attributes determined for alternatives are referred as beneficial attributes (desired to have a high value) and some are referred as non-beneficial attributes (desired to have a low value). MOORA method regards both beneficial and non-beneficial attributes for choosing one or more alternatives from the available alternative heap and for ordering between each other (Karande and Chakraborty, 2012:318). MOORA method is composed of two main parts, namely ratio method and reference point theory. 3.1.1. MOORA Ratio Method Information regarding application of MOORA method is stated below (Brauers and Zavadskas, 2006:447; Mandal and Sarkar, 2012:302-303; Zavadskas et al., 2013:109; Karande and Chakraborty, 2012a:318-319). MOORA ratio method starts with creating a matrix where alternatives describe rows and attributes (objectives) describe columns. This matrix is named decision matrix and shown in eq. 1.  x11 x12 ....x1n    x 21 x 22 ....x 2 n  X  ... ... ... ...     x m1 x m 2 ....x mn  xij is the performance measure of ith alternatives, and n is the number of attributes.

Here

(1)

alternative on

jth

attribute, m

is the number

of

After decision matrix is created, the matrix is normalised dividing performance value of each alternative per attribute into square root of the sum of squares of performance values using eq.2. x ij* 

x ij

(2)

m

x

2 ij

i 1

*

Here i= 1, 2,…, m is the number of alternatives, j= 1,2,…, n is the number of attributes. x ij ith is the 467

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN normalized performance value of the alternative by jth attribute. It might be in between xij*  0,1 or in some cases in between xij*   1,1. Indeed, for example, in the case of productivity growth some sectors, regions or countries may show a decrease instead of increase in productivity, i.e. a negative dimensionless number (Brauers et al., 2008:248). After normalization process, normalised decision matrix is obtained. Attributes in the normalised decision matrix are determined and gathered with respect to their objectives as maximum or minimum. The sum of minimum attributes is subtracted from the sum of maximum attributes using eq.3. g

y i* 



xij* 

j 1

n

x

* ij

(3)

j  g 1

Where j=1, 2, …, g is the attributes to be maximised, j= g+1, g+2, …, n is the number attributes to be minimised, y i* is the normalised value of ith alternative with respect to all attributes. After all these operations are completed, y i* values are ranked. The first alternative after y i* s ranking is the best alternative. 3.1.2. MOORA Reference Point Theory The already normalised ratios defined in the MOORA ratio method are taken in the reference point. For each attribute of the alternatives, maximum points are defined as reference points if the aim is maximisation and minimum points are defined as reference points if the aim is minimisation (rj). Eq. 4 is used to calculate the distances of these points to each xij* (Brauers and Ginevicius, 2009:123). (r j  xij* )

(4)

Here i= 1, 2,…, m is the number of alternatives, j= 1,2,…, n is the number of attributes, xij* is the normalised value of ith in jth attribute, and rj is the reference point of jth attribute. “Tchebycheff Min-Max Metric” formula in eq.5 is applied to the new matrix (Brauers and Ginevicius, 2010:188-189).



min i max j r j  xij*



(5)

The values of alternatives obtained using eq.5 are ranked and the first alternative is the best alternative. 3.2. Businesses Included in the Study and Analysis Period 6 businesses which operate in the energy sector and of which shares are being traded on Borsa Istanbul were included in this study. The data used for calculating the 3-year financial ratios -between 2013 and 2015- were obtained from the annual financial statements publish in the official website of Public Disclosure Platform (PDP) (KAP, 2016). The businesses included in the study are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Businesses Traded on Borsa Istanbul BIST Code

Business Name

AKENR

Akenerji Electricity Generation Inc.

AKSEN

Aksa Energy Generation Inc.

AKSUE

Aksu Energy and Trade Inc.

AYEN

Ayen Energy Inc.

ODAS

Odas Electricity Generation Industry and Trade Inc.

ZOREN

Zorlu Energy Electricity Generation Inc.

3.3. Financial Ratios Used in the Study

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The financial ratios were chosen from the ratios that could inform the activity performances of the businesses. Table 2 shows the financial ratios and calculation methods used to determine activity performance. Table 2. Financial Ratios Used in the Study Code

Ratio Name

Contribution to Performance

Definition

C1

Receivables Conversion Period

Receivables / (Net Sales/360)

(-)

C2

Inventory Conversion Period

Inventory / (Cost of Sales /360)

(-)

C3

Payables Conversion Period

Accounts Payables / (Cost of Sales /360)

(+)

C4

Operating Profit Margin

Operating Profit / Net Sales

(+)

C5

Operating Cost Margin

Operating Costs / Net Sales

(-)

C6

Asset Turnover Ratio

Net Sales / Total Assets

(+)

Evaluation attributes (financial ratios) in Table 2 were grouped as beneficial attributes (+) and non-beneficial attributes (-) in terms of their contributions to activity performances of the businesses. Accordingly, C3, C4, and C6 attributes defined as beneficial attribute (+) contribute to activity performance positively, so these values are desired to be high. C1, C2, and C5 attributes -non-beneficial attributes (-)- contribute to activity performances negatively and therefore are desired to below. 4. Results Activity performance ratios of the 6 businesses were calculated separately for 2013, 2014, and 2015. The ratios were used as inputs for MOORA ratio method and MOORA reference point theory for comparative analysis of activity performances of the businesses. The businesses were ranked with respect to the analysis values and performance comparison was completed. Firstly, 6x6-dimension Decision Matrix shown in Table 3 was created. Alternatives of which activity performances are to be compared are in the rows and evaluation attributes to be used for decision-making are in the columns. The data of 2015 was shown in tables as an example. Table 3. Decision Matrix (Year 2015) Attributes Contribution to Performance

(-)

(-)

(+)

(+)

(-)

(+)

Alternatives

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6

AKENR

21,132

3,840

29,826

0,078

0,045

0,338

AKSEN

28,338

74,704

71,968

0,124

0,015

0,571

AKSUE

12,298

0,000

4,031

0,040

0,285

0,061

AYEN

33,416

0,000

108,823

0,176

0,094

0,167

ODAS

49,447

8,843

44,384

0,073

0,045

0,749

ZOREN

44,619

0,000

212,021

0,204

0,070

0,102

Normalised decision matrix was created after the decision matrix was created and shown in Table 4. Normalised decision matrix was calculated using eq. (2) making use of the elements of the decision 469

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN matrix shown in Table 3. Table 4. Normalized Decision Matrix and MOORA Ratio Method Results (Year 2015)

y i*

Rankings

Attributes

0,331

0,247

4

0,046

0,559

-0,146

5

0,125

0,905

0,060

-0,852

6

0,427

0,554

0,298

0,164

0,446

2

0,117

0,174

0,230

0,141

0,733

0,285

3

0,000

0,833

0,642

0,222

0,100

0,818

1

Contribution to Performance

(-)

(-)

(+)

(+)

(-)

(+)

Alternatives

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6

AKENR

0,253

0,051

0,117

0,245

0,141

AKSEN

0,340

0,992

0,283

0,390

AKSUE

0,147

0,000

0,016

AYEN

0,401

0,000

ODAS

0,593

ZOREN

0,535

y i* values were calculated using eq. 3 considering the attributes to be maximised and minimised. y i*

values and the ranking with respect to these values were shown in Table 4. The alternative with the highest y i* value has the ranking privilege; therefore, y i* values were ranked and their places in the ranking were found. y i* values of the businesses between 2013 and 2015 and their performance rankings were shown in Table 5. * Table 5. y i Values and Performance Rankings of Businesses (Period 2013-2015) 2013

2014

2015

y i*

Rankings

y i*

Rankings

y i*

Rankings

AKENR

-0,411

4

-0,622

5

0,247

4

AKSEN

-0,549

5

-0,159

4

-0,146

5

AKSUE

0,084

3

-1,451

6

-0,852

6

AYEN

0,746

2

1,036

2

0,446

2

ODAŞ

0,945

1

1,091

1

0,285

3

ZOREN

-0,701

6

0,028

3

0,818

1

Alternatives

ODAŞ ranked first in 2013 and 2014; however, it fell to third rank in 2015 as seen in Table 5. AYEN showed a stable performance ranking as the second in each year of the analysis period. One remarkable point here is the fact that ZOREN increased its performance during these years. It ranked at the sixth as of year 2013, ranked at the third in 2014, and was placed on the top in 2015. AKSUE could not maintain its performance of the year 2013 and ranked at the bottom in 2014 and 2015. Activity performances of AKENR and AKSUE did not show a significant change during these years. Reference Point Theory Solution

Reference points were chosen from the normalised decision matrix shown in Table 4. To define the reference points (rj), operations are done according to the attributes desired to be minimum or maximum. Reference points which were calculated were shown in Table 6.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Table 6. Reference Points of Attribute (Year 2015) Min

Min

Max

Max

Min

Max

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6

0,147

0,000

0,833

0,642

0,046

0,733

Attributes Reference Points

After reference points were defined, Table 7 was created based on the matrix values in Table 4 using eq.4. Then the values which were obtained using eq.5 were ranked and performance rankings of the businesses were found. Table 7. Reference Point Matrix and Ranking Values of Businesses (Year 2015) Min Alternatives

Min

Max

Max

Min

Max Max

Rankings

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6

(Min)

AKENR

0,106

0,051

0,715

0,397

0,095

0,402

0,715

4

AKSEN

0,192

0,992

0,550

0,252

0,000

0,174

0,992

6

AKSUE

0,000

0,000

0,817

0,517

0,859

0,673

0,859

5

AYEN

0,253

0,000

0,405

0,088

0,252

0,569

0,569

1

ODAŞ

0,446

0,117

0,658

0,413

0,095

0,000

0,658

3

ZOREN

0,388

0,000

0,000

0,000

0,175

0,633

0,633

2

Reference point theory values and performance rankings by these values of the businesses between 2013 and 2015 were shown in Table 8. Tablo 8. Reference Point Theory Values and Rankings (Period 2013-2015) 2013

2014

2015

Alternatives

Max

Rankings

Max

Rankings

Max

Rankings

AKENR

0,803

3

1,040

6

0,715

4

AKSEN

0,988

6

0,993

5

0,992

6

AKSUE

0,898

5

0,881

4

0,859

5

AYEN

0,765

2

0,806

3

0,569

1

ODAŞ

0,726

1

0,750

1

0,658

3

ZOREN

0,875

4

0,805

2

0,633

2

ODAŞ was placed at the top in years 2013 and 2014, but fell to third rank in 2015 with respect to reference point theory results. AYEN showed an overall good performance during the analysis period and was placed at the top in 2015. Although ZOREN was ranked at the fourth in 2014, it increased its performance in 2014 and 2015 and ranked as the second in both 2014 and 2015. Overall performances of the remaining businesses did not change significantly during the analysis period. 5. Conclusion Permanency of energy demand and its importance for other sectors have made it a significant sector for economies. Thus, businesses' in this sector maintaining their activities is of great significance both for the sector and the countries' economies. This study analysed comparatively the activity performances of businesses which operate in the energy sector in Turkey and of which shares are traded on Borsa Istanbul between 2013 and 2015. Attributes (financial ratios) revealing activity performances of the businesses were found in the first part of the 471

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN analysis, and these attributes were defined separately for each business. In the second part MOORA ratio method and reference point theory were used to rank activity performances of the businesses. According to the results of both MOORA analysis, ODAŞ was placed on the top in 2013 and 2014, and ranked as the third in 2015, which is a remarkable success. According to the results of both methods, ZOREN showed an increase in its performance and AYEN was placed near the top. Overall, MOORA ratio method and reference point theory yielded similar or close results. It should be regarded that in an analysis to be carried out using different attributes and time period, there might be a change in the rankings of the businesses. Also, it should be remembered that study results might change when the number of attributes are increased or decreased. References Aktepe A., & Ersöz, S. (2014). AHP-VIKOR ve MOORA yöntemlerinin depo yeri seçim probleminde uygulanması. Endüstri Mühendisliği Dergisi, 25(1-2), 2-15. Baležentis, A., & Baležentis, T. (2011). Assessing the efficiency of Lithuanian transport sector by applying the methods of multimoora and data envelopment analysis. Transport, 26(3), 263-270. BP

(2016). BP energy outlook 2016 edition, http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/ energy-economics/energy-outlook-2016/bp-energy-outlook-2016.pdf, (Access Date: 01.05.2016).

Brauers, W. K. M., & Zavadskas, E. K. (2006). The MOORA method and its application to privatization in a transition economy. Control and Cybernetics, 35(2), 445-469. Brauers, W. K. M., Zavadskas, E. K., Turskis, Z., & Vilutiene, T. (2008). Multi‐objective contractor's ranking by applying the MOORA method. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 9(4), 245-255. Brauers, W. K. M., & Ginevičius, R. (2009). Robustness in regional development studies. The case of Lithuania. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 10(2), 121-140. Brauers, W. K. M., & Ginevičius, R. (2010). The economy of the Belgian regions tested with multimoora. Journal of Business Economics and Management,11(2), 173-209. Chakraborty, S. (2011). Applications of the MOORA method for decision making in manufacturing environment. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 54(9), 1155-1166. Gadakh. V. S. (2011). Application of MOORA method for parametric optimization of milling Process. International Journal of Applied Engineering Research, Dindigul, 1(4), 743-758. Invest (2016). The energy sector: a quick tour for the investor. http://www.invest. gov.tr/en-US/infocenter/publications/Documents/ENERGY.INDUSTRY.pdf, (Access Date: 01.05.2016). İlkuçar, M., & Çifci, A. (2016). Performance Evaluation of Electricity Generation Companies Traded on BIST According to the Financial Parameters through the Application of TOPSIS Method. International Journal of Social Sciences and Education Research, 2(3), 1010-1021. KAP (2016), http://www.kap.gov.tr/ (Access Date: 20.04.2016). Karande, P., & Chakraborty, S. (2012a). Application of multi-objective optimization on the basis of ratio analysis (MOORA) method for materials selection. Materials and Design, 37, 317–324. Karande, P., & Chakraborty, S. (2012b). Decision making for supplier selection using the MOORA method. The IUP Journal of Operations Management, XI(2), 6-18. Mandal, U. K., & Sarkar, B. (2012). Selection of best intelligent manufacturing system (IMS) under fuzzy MOORA conflicting MCDM environment. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, 2(9), 301-310. Özbek, A. (2015). Akademik birim yöneticilerinin MOORA yöntemiyle seçilmesi: Kırıkkale üzerine bir uygulama. Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 38, 1-18. Özçelik, G., & Atmaca, H. E. (2014). Satın alma süreci için MOORA metodu ile tedarikçi seçimi problem. III. Ulusal Lojistik ve Tedarik Zinciri Kongresi,15-17 Mayıs, Trabzon, Türkiye. Zavadskas, E. K., Antucheviciene, J., Šaparauskas, J., & Turskis, Z. (2013). Multi-criteria assessment of facades’ alternatives: peculiarities of ranking methodology. Procedia Engineering, 57, 107 – 112.

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DETERMINING OF TRAIT EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OF STUDENTS STUDYING IN FACULTY OF SPORTS SCIENCE Assoc. Prof.Dr.Erkan Faruk ŞİRİN Selçuk University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Sports Management Dept. [email protected] Dr.Hatice DEVECİ ŞİRİN Selçuk University, Vocational School of Health, Child care and youth services [email protected] Abstract The objective of this study is to reveal whether determining of trait emotional intelligence of students studying in Faculty of Sports Sciences differentiates according to gender, age and class level or not. The study is descriptive survey model. Study group of consists of totally 152 students including 68 females and 84 males, who are studying in Selçuk University, Faculty of Sport Sciences in 2015-2016 academic year and are volunteer to take part this study. In this study, Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire–Short Form (TEIQue-SF) was used as data collection tool in order to determine emotional intelligence characteristics of students and Personal Information Form was used as data collection tool in order to determine personal characteristics of students. In this study; percentage and frequency calculations, differentiation of total and subscale scores of TEIQue-SF according to gender, independent sample T-Test, differentiation according to age and class level and One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were examined in order to personal characteristics. According to study findings, TEIQue-SF total and subscale scores of students studying in Faculty of Sports Sciences no significant difference according to gender (p>0,05). According to age, and meaningful significant differences were found in dimension of Self-discipline (p=,041<0,05) and Emotionality (p=,028<0,05). When differentiation according to class level was examined, significant differentiation according to class level was observed in dimension of Self-discipline (p=,036 <0,05) and Emotionality (p=,005<0,05). According to study results, while trait of emotional intelligence of students studying in Faculty of Sports Sciences do not vary according to their genders, Self-discipline and Emotionality, which are trait of emotional intelligence, vary according to age and class level. Keywords: Trait Emotional Intelligence, students studying in Faculty of Sports Sciences, gender, age, class level

1. Introduction Discussions about Emotional Intelligence-EI concept have started after the concept of intellectual intelligence There are two dominant approaches aiming to explain emotional intelligence. One of these approaches is "Trait IE" (trait emotional self-efficacy) and the other is "Ability EI (Cognitive-emotional ability)". There are certain differences between these two approaches. In measurements, trait IE bases on self-evaluation tests, Ability IE on maximum performance tests; cpnceptually, Trait IE bases on personality traits and Ability IE bases on cognitive ability (Petrides, 2011). Emotional Intelligence was identified by Salovey and Mayer (1990) as individuals' ability to monitor their and others' feelings and emotions so that these emotions and feelings guide their behaviors and thoughts. Slovey and Mayer (1990) deal emotional intelligence as ability in their 473

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN conceptualization. In the approach that deals emotional intelligence as a personality trait, namely trait EI , Emotional Intelligence ability (trait EI) is defined as emotional self group localized in lower level of personality hierarchy. (Petrites, Pita& Kokkinaki, 2007). The most distinctive difference between these two approaches is; while ability EI emphasizes on cognitive competencies, trait EI emphasizes on the relation of emotions with personality traits The most significant criticism towards ability EI is whether emotional intelligence is an ability that can be measured with objective performance tests; for emotional experiences are subjective. Behaviroal decisions of invidiuals base on their emotional experiences. Individual's previous experiences and future expectations affect his emotions and choices. It can be said that emotional intelligence in this case is more of a personal emotional evaluation dominated by individual differences rather than an ability. Sports is another field where decision-making and emotional evaluation heavily affect the performance. Personality traits of athletes have become research subject. Among these researches, there are studies such as agression (Erşan, Doğan & Doğan, 2009), self-auditing and anxiety (Peker, 2012), assertiveness level (Bavlı, 2009). There are close relations between emotional intelligence and performance (Lane et al., 2010; Parker, Duffy, Wood, Bond, & Hogan, 2005; Parker, Summerfeldt, Hogan, & Majeski, 2004). This research will describe Selçuk University, Faculty of Sports Sciences (FSS) students' emotional intelligence features. 2. Review of Literature Emotional intelligence is a variable that has been researched multi-dimensionally. Reviewing the studies concerning emotional intelligence as ability EI and trait EI will be an understandable effort. When some of the studies dealing emotional intelligence as an ability were reviewed, it was seen that they analyzed its relation with attachments styles (Hamarta, Deniz&Sartalı, 2009) academis success (Parker et al., 2005; Parker et al., 2004) alexithymia (Parker, Taylor & Bagby, 2001), leadership style (Mangell & Pherwani, 2003), difficulty of decision-making on carrier and personality traits (Di Fabio & Palezzeschi, 2009), coping with stress and stress indications (Hisli Şahin, Güler, & Basım, 2009), emotional manupulation applied by people with narcissism, machiavellianism and psychopathy on others (Nagler, Reiter, Furtner, & Rauthmann, 2014). Having reviewed the primary studies dealing emotional intelligence as personality trait, it was observed that there was a relation between emotional intelligence and various variables. These studies examined relation of Trait EI with genetics and environmental aspects (Vernon et al., 2009), social behavior, cognitive skills and emotional perception during late and middle childhood (Mahroveli, Petrives, Sangareau, & Furhnam, 2009) self-efficacy in stressful situations and threat appraisals (Mikolajcz & Luminet, 2008), emotional contagion and evaluation of emotion-related skills (Papousek, Freudenthaler & Schulter, 2008), self-determination, psychological well being (Perreault, Mask, Morgan & Blanchard, 2014). There are studies in the literature conducted with athletes, exercising people and university students studying in the area of sports (FSS or School of Physical Education and Sports). When these studies were reviewed, it was seen that they focused on relation of emotional intelligence with stress level (Laborde, Brüll, Weber, & Anders, 2011; Laborde, Lautenbach, Allen, Herbert, & Achtzehn, 2014) with non-functional athletic performance (Lane et al., 2010) and social psychological anxiety and performance (Chakarvarti & Lal, 2016), comparison of emotional intelligence abilities basing on gender (Thanemozhi & Darling Margaret, 2015; Zekioğlu, Tatar, & Türkmen, 2015) and relation of emotional intelligence with personality traits (Karademir, Döşyılmaz, Çoban, & Kafkas, 2010; Zekioğlu, Türkmen, Tatar, & Göral, 2014). Moreover, there are interesting studies; whose study group consists of sports teachers and trainers and which examine emotional intelligence abilities. These can be exemplified by (Dodeman, Panah, Zinali & Nejad, 2016) its relation with organizational commitment, (Türksoy, Yancı & Güder, 2014) meta-program and (Karademir Çoban, 2011) organizational justice. As it is seen, emotional intelligence is a significant variable that has been and will be discussed in relation to sports and athletes. By means of interpretation in the light of relevant literature, findings of this research are thought to provide contribution in the body of literature concerning emotional intelligence ability.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

3. Methodology 3.1. Research model The research was conducted in descriptive research model, a quantitative research model, in order to identify emotional intelligence abilities of Faculty of Sports Sciences students basing on their gender, age and grade level. Descriptive researches define given situation in a cautious and thorough way (Karasar, 2012). Information concerning students' emotional intelligence abilities were analyzed, described and presented in the research. 3.2. Study Group Study group of the research consists of 68 female and 84 male students chosen with random assignment method. Participants were determined basing on voluntariy basis among the students who studied in Selçuk University in 2015-2016 academic year. 13,2% of students (n=20) were in first grade, 17,8% (n=27) were in second grade, 19,7% (n=30) were in third grade and 49.3% were in fourth grade. 27% of students (n=41) were between 18-20 age range, 51.3% (n=78) were between 21-23 age range and 21,7% (n=33) of them were between 24-26 age range. 3.3. Data Collection Tools The Trait Emotional İntelligence Questionnaire-Short Form (TEIQue-SF).Objective of the scale was to detal emotional intelligence as "personality trait" and evaluate individual's self-perception level concerning his/her emotional competencies. Original scale has 30 items, is 7-point Likert type and consists of 4 sub-scales. These were stated as "Subjective well-being", "Self-control", "Emotionality" and "Sociability" (Petrides, 2009) Scale's adaptation to Turkish culture was performed by Deniz, Özer and Işık (2013). As a result of explanatory factor analysis, 16 items were distributed into four factors as "Subjective well-being", "Self-control", "Emotionality" and "Sociability". Factors explain 27%, 10%, 8% and 7 respectively and 53% in total. According to Confirmatory Factor Analysis (χ2/df= 2.46, GFI=.95, AGFI=.92, CFI=.91, RMSEA=.056 ve SRMR=.060 ) model is at acceptable level. In order to reveal criterion-dependent validity of TEIQue-SF, its correlations with Personality Test of Adjectives (PTA) were analzyzed. Negative significant correlations were found with neurotic personality trait for well-being, self-control, emotionality and sociability sub-dimensions; positive significant correlations were found with extroversion, opennes to experience, tender-mindedness and responsibility sub-dimensions. Scale's internal consistency reliabiltiy Cronbach alpha coefficient was found .72 for well-being factor, 70 for self-control, 66 for emotionality, 70 for sociability and 81 for the entire scale. According to the findings obtained by re-test method, Pearson Moments Multiplication correlation coefficient between two implementations was calculated .86 (p<.001). Scale is a reliable and valid measuring instrument that can be used in Turkish culture. Personal Information Form prepared by researchers. It was used so as to collect information from study group pertaining to variables such as gender, age and level of grade. 3.4. Data Analysis In order to describe personality traits in the research, percentage and frequencies calculations were made; so as to describe TEIQue-SF total and sub-scale scores, minimum-maximum scores, average and standard deviation were calculated. Differentiation of Faculty of Sport Sciences Students' scores in TEIQue-SF basing on their gender was examined with Independent-Samples T-Test; differentiation basing on age and grade level was examined with one-way variance analysis (ANOVA). 4. Results Analyses concerning scores of Students of Faculty of Science from TEIQue-SF are presented in this section. Descriptive statistics of TEIQue-SF total and sub-dimension scores of Faculty of Sport Sciences Students are presented in Table 1. Table 1. TEIQue-SF sub-scale and total scores of students of Faculty of Sports Sciences 475

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN N

Min.

Max.

X

sd

Well-being

152

4

28

20.42

4.69

Self-discipline

152

4

26

15.93

4.20

Emotionality

152

4

26

13.77

4.71

Sociability

152

7

26

16.24

3.51

TEIQue-SF

152

51

108

83.19

9.87

The dimension where FSS students obtained the highest average in terms of emotional intelligence abilities is well-being dimension (X=20,42;sd=4). This dimension is followed by sociability (X=16,24; sd=3,51), self-control (X=15,93;sd=4,20) and lastly emotionality (X=13,77; sd=4,71) dimensions. When FSS students' DZOO total scores are reviewed, it is seen that their general emotional intelligence scores are high (X=83,19; sd=9,87). Whether FSS students' TEIQue-SF total scores and sub-scale scores differentiate depending on gender were analyzed with independent sampling t-test and are presented in Table 2. Table 2. Difference between Faculty of Sport Sciences Students' TEIQue-SF sub-scale and total scores depending on their gender

Well-being Self-discipline Emotionality Sociability TEIQue-SF

Gender

N

X

sd

Female

68

19.76

5.01

Male

84

20.95

4.38

Female

68

15.96

4.37

Male

84

15.92

4.09

Female

68

14.03

4.52

Male

84

13.56

4.89

Female

68

15.93

3.71

Male

84

16.50

3.33

Female

68

82.04

9.83

Male

84

84.12

9.87

df

t

p

150

-1.558

.121

150

.057

.955

150

.610

.543

150

-1.003

.318

150

-1.291

.199

According to research findings, TEUQue-SF sub-dimension and total scores of FSS students do not differentiate depending on gender. Whether FSS students' TEIQue-SF total scores and sub-scale scores differentiate depending on age were analyzed with one-way variance analysis. Tukey, HSD and Scheffe tests were applied to determine the source of difference. Results are presented in Table 3. Table 3. Difference between Faculty of Sport Sciences Students' TEIQue-SF sub-scale and total scores depending on their age Age

Well-being

Self-discipline

N

X

Sd

A

18-20

41

19.76

4.85

B

21-23

78

20.62

4.52

C

24-26

33

20.79

4.97

A

18-20

41

17.12

4.35

B

21-23

78

15.85

4.18

C

24-26

33

14.67

3.74

476

Mean

F

P

.576

.564

-

3.254

.041

A>C

Differance

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Emotionality

Sociability

TEIQue-SF

A

18-20

41

15.44

4.68

B

21-23

78

13.10

4.66

C

24-26

33

13.27

4.49

A

18-20

41

15.98

4.22

B

21-23

78

16.45

3.33

C

24-26

33

16.09

2.98

A

18-20

41

20.62

4.52

B

21-23

78

20.79

4.97

C

24-26

33

20.42

4.69

3.660

.028

A>B

.282

.755

-

.783

.459

-

It was not found a difference in FSS students' TEIQue-SF total scores and well-being and sociability sub-scale scores depending on age. On the other hand, it was observed that self-control (p=0.041<0.05; F=3.254) and emotionality (p=0.028< 0.05; F=3.660) sub-scale scores significantly differentiate depending on students' ages. When the source of the difference was examined, it was found that students of 18-20 age group (X=17,12; sd=4.35) have higher self-control average score compared to students of 24-26 age group (X=14.67;sd=3.74) and; students of 18-20 age group (X=15,44; sd=4.68) have higher emotionality average score than students of 21-23 age group (X=13,10;sd=4.66). Whether FSS students' TEIQue-SF total scores and sub-scale scores differentiate depending on their grade level were analyzed with one-way variance analysis. Tukey, HSD and Scheffe tests were used to analyze the source of difference. Results are presented in Table 4. Table 4. Difference between Faculty of Sport Sciences Students' TEIQue-SF sub-scale and total scores depending on their grade levels

Well-being

Self-discipline

Emotionality

Sociability

TEIQue-SF

Class

N

X

Sd

A

1st grade

20

19.70

3.51

B

2nd Grade

27

19.93

5.43

C

3rd Grade

30

20.57

4.38

D

4th Grade

75

20.73

4.86

A

1st grade

20

16.05

4.52

B

2nd Grade

27

18.00

3.84

C

3rd Grade

30

15.57

4.34

D

4th Grade

75

15.31

4.02

A

1st grade

20

15.35

4.55

B

2nd Grade

27

15.96

4.67

C

3rd Grade

30

13.63

5.03

D

4th Grade

75

12.61

4.32

A

1st grade

20

16.25

4.19

B

2nd Grade

27

15.89

3.87

C

3rd Grade

30

16.10

3.27

D

4th Grade

75

16.43

3.32

A

1st grade

20

83.65

8.98

B

2nd Grade

27

87.04

11.58

C

3rd Grade

30

82.77

10.34

477

F

P

Mean Differance

.373

.773

-

2.925

.036

B>D

4.504

.005

B>D

.174

.914

-

1.890

.134

-

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN D

4th Grade

75

81.85

9.05

It was not found a difference in FSS students' TEIQue-SF total scores and well-being and sociability sub-scale scores depending on their grade level. On the other hand, it was observed that self-control (p=0.036<0.05; F=2.925) and emotionality (p=0.005<0.05; F=4.504) sub-scale scores significantly differentiate depending on students' grade levels. When the root of the difference was examined, it was found that 2nd grade students (X=18.00; sd=3.84) have higher self-control average score compared to 4th grade students (X=15.31;sd=4,02) and; 2nd grade students (X=15.96; sd=4.67) have higher emotionality average score than 4th grade students (X=12.61;sd=4.32). 5. Discussion and Conclusion According to research findings, the dimension where FSS students obtained the highest average in terms of emotional intelligence abilities is well-being dimension. This dimension is followed by sociability, self-control and emotionality dimensions (See Table 1). Relations between sports and well-being were reviewed in the body of literature. It was revealed that sports reduce level of stress, depression and rage and make significant contribution in general well-being (Hassmén, Koivula, & Uutela, 2000; Salmon, 2001; Singh, 2016). Sports is a significant element of lives of students of Sports Sciences Faculty. Within this respect, it is a significant finding that their well-being point averages are high. Their subjective well-being point averages are followed by sociability averages. It was revealed in previous studies that there is a significant positive relation between subjective well-being and social competency (Özbay, Palancı, Kandemir & Çakır, 2012). Within this respect, it is a significant finding that students' well-being point averages are similar and high. On the other hand, it is thought that sports make significant impact on individual's socialization and tha the obligation of constantly interacting with other individuals both in team sports and individual sports affects FSS students' sociability average. Although point averages in self-discipline and emotionality dimensions were lower than the other dimensions, it was observed that point averages of all four dimensions are similar. The reason for this is thought to be related to the field of education since individual should be disciplined psychologically and physiologically and have psychological robustness that can cope with the stress created by success and failure so as to display a significant performance in sports areas. In the study conducted by Özer and Deniz (2014), it was observed that self-discipline and emotionality dimensions are significant indicators of psychological robustness. This information is consonant with the research finding. According to research findings, TEIQue-SF sub-dimension and total scores of FSS students do not differentiate depending on gender (See. Table 2) Results similar to this finding were also observed in different studies. In the study conducted by Kong, Zhao and You (2012) on Chinese University students, it was not found a differentiaion depending on gender. In another study examining emotional intelligence levels of female and male volleyball players, it was established that emotional intelligence does not differentiate basing on gender (Thanemozh & Darling, Margaret, 2015). These findings show parallelity with the research findings. On the other hand, significant differences were observed between emotional intelligence scores of female and male students in the study conducted by Zekioğlu et al. (2015) in order to compare emotional intelligence levels of students Studying in Physical Education and Sports College in terms of gender. Zekioğlu et al., (2015)'s work base on the structure where emotional intelligence is conceptualized as an ability (ability EI). Current research, however, is based on the structure that conceptualizes emotional intelligence as personality trait (trait IE). Different findings in these two studies might contribute in discussions concerning conceptualization of emotional intelligence. Parallel findings were observed when the differentiation in TEIQue-SF sub-dimension and total scores of FSS students were examined basing on their gender and grade levels (See Table 3 and Table 4). Differentiation was observed between self-discipline and emotionality scores basing on gender and grade level. In general, it can be stated that students who are younger and at the beginning of their education have higher self-discipline and emotionality scores than students who study in higher grades and are older. The fact that students focus more on academic success in first years of education is thought to affect their self-discipline scores. On the other hand, students who newly started education 478

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN and are younger than higher grades might have difficulties in adapting to new social relations. Therefore, it is thought that their emotionality scores are different from other groups. According to study results, students, who study in Sports Sciences, have high emotional competency. This research was conducted with limited participation of students studying in Selçuk University. Future studies might evaluate features of FSS students in different regions. FSS students' features might be evaluated basing on the program they are studying in. Emotional competency perception of students might be dealt as a variable that affects their level of performance. References Bavlı, Ö. (2009). Gelişim çağındaki sporcuların atılganlık düzeyleri ile yaralanma durumu ilişkilerinin incelenmesi. [Investigation of relation of between assertiveness and injury condision of adolescent players]. Fırat Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Tıp Dergisi, 23(1), 7-19. Chakarvarti, D., & Lal, M. (2016). Emotional Intelligence and Its Association with Social Physique Anxiety and Performance among Sprinters. Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, 8(2), 71-78. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v8n2.08 Deniz, M. E., Özer, E., & Işık, E. (2013). Duygusal Zekâ Özelliği Ölçeği–Kısa Formu: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik Çalışması. [Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire–Short Form: Validity and reliability studies]. Education, 38(169), 407-419. Di Fabio, A., & Palazzeschi, L. (2009). Emotional intelligence, personality traits and career decision difficulties. International

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The mediating role of self-esteem and social support. Personality and Individual Differences, 53(8), 1039-1043. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.07.032 Laborde, S., Brüll, A., Weber, J., & Anders, L. S. (2011). Trait emotional intelligence in sports: A protective role against stress through heart rate variability? Personality and Individual Differences, 51(1), 23-27. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.003 Laborde, S., Lautenbach, F., Allen, M. S., Herbert, C., & Achtzehn, S. (2014). The role of trait emotional intelligence in emotion regulation and performance under pressure. Personality and Individual Differences, 57, 43-47. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.09.013 Lane, A. M., Devonport, T. J., Soos, I., Karsai, I., Leibinger, E., & Hamar, P. (2010). Emotional intelligence and emotions associated with optimal and dysfunctional athletic performance. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 9(3), 388-392. Mandell, B., & Pherwani, S. (2003). Relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style: a gender comparison. Journal of Business & Psychology, 17(3), 387-404. Mavroveli, S., Petrides, K. V., Sangareau, Y., & Furnham, A. (2009). Exploring the relationships between trait emotional intelligence and objective socio-emotional outcomes in childhood. The British Journal Of Educational Psychology, 79(Pt 2), 259-272. doi:10.1348/000709908X368848 Mellers, B., Schwartz, A., & Ritov, I. (1999). Emotion-based choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128(3), 332-345. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.332 Mikolajczak, M., & Luminet, O. (2008). Trait emotional intelligence and the cognitive appraisal of stressful events: An exploratory study. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(7), 1445-1453. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.12.012 Nagler, U. K. J., Reiter, K. J., Furtner, M. R., & Rauthmann, J. F. (2014). Is there a “dark intelligence”? Emotional intelligence is used by dark personalities to emotionally manipulate others. Personality and Individual Differences, 65, 47-52. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.025 Özbay, Y., Palancı, M., Kandemir, M., & Çakır, O. (2012). Üniversite öğrencilerinin öznel iyi oluşlarının duygusal düzenleme, mizah, sosyal özyeterlik ve başaçıkma davranışları ile yordanması. Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 10(2), 325-345. Özer, E., & Deniz, M. E. (2014). Üniversite öğrencilerinin psikolojik sağlamlık düzeylerinin duygusal zeka açısından incelenmesi. [An investigation of university students’ resilience level on the view of Trait Emotional EQ]. İlköğretim Online, 13(4), 1240-1248. doi:DOI: 10.17051/io.2014.74855 Papousek, I., Freudenthaler, H. H., & Schulter, G. (2008). The interplay of perceiving and regulating emotions in becoming infected with positive and negative moods. Personality and Individual Differences, 45(6), 463-467. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.05.021 Parker, J. D. A., Duffy, J., Wood, L., Bond, B., & Hogan, M. (2005). Academic Achievement and Emotional Intelligence: Predicting the Successful Transition from High School to University. Journal of The First-Year Experience & Students in Transition, 17(1), 67-78. Parker, J. D. A., Summerfeldt, L. J., Hogan, M. J., & Majeski, S. A. (2004). Emotional intelligence and academic success: examining the transition from high school to university. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(1), 163-172. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00076-X Parker, J. D. A., Taylor, G. J., & Bagby, R. M. (2001). The relationship between emotional intelligence and alexithymia.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 11(21), 39-48. Perreault, D., Mask, L., Morgan, M., & Blanchard, C. M. (2014). Internalizing emotions: Self-determination as an antecedent of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 64, 1-6. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.056 Petrides, K. V. (2009). Psychometric properties of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire (TEIQue). In C. Stough, D. Saklofske, & J. Parker (Eds.), Assessing emotional intelligence (pp. 85-101). New York: Springer. Petrides, K. V. (2011). Ability and Trait Emotional Intelligence. In T. Chamorro-Premuzic, A. Furnham, & S. von Stumm (Eds.), The Blackwell-Wiley Handbook of Individual Differences (pp. 657-678). New York: Wiley. Petrides, K. V., Pita, R., & Kokkinaki, F. (2007). The location of trait emotional intelligence in personality factor space. British Journal of Psychology, 98(2), 273-289. doi:10.1348/000712606X120618 Salmon, P. (2001). Effects of physical exercise on anxiety, depression, and sensitivity to stress: A unifying theory.

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EXAMINATION OF PREDICTIVE POWER OF ROMANTIC BELIEFS AND SELF ESTEEM UPON LOVE ATTITUDES1 Dr. Hatice DEVECİ ŞİRİN Selçuk University, Vocational School of Health, Child care and youth services [email protected]

Abstract The objective of this study is to reveal relationships between romantic beliefs, self esteem and multidimensional love styles of Lee. The study was carried out in correlational base in quantitative research model. Working group of the study consists of totally 136 participants including 101 females and 35 males who are studying in Selçuk University in 2015-2016 semesters. In this study, Love Attitude Scale- Short Form-LAS, Romantic Beliefs Scale and Rosenberg Self Esteem Subscale were used. In this study, Multilinear Regression Analysis was used in order to determine predictive power of independent variables in dependent variables. According to research findings, romantic beliefs and self esteem in styles of eros ( R2=.244, p=0,00< .05), ludus (R2=.084, p=0,041< .05), pragma (R2=.104, p=0,013< .05) and agape (R2=.241, p=,00< .05), styles a meaningful model. Syles including storge (p=0,068> .05) and mania (p=0,60> .05) do not styles meaningful model statistically. According to this, meaningful contribution in predicting of love styles is coming from the one and only romantic belief and self esteem in case of eros, is coming from idealization belief in case of ludus, is coming from idealization romantic belief in case of pragma and is coming from romantic belief regarding that love finds a way in case of agape. As a result, unrealistic romantic beliefs and self esteem of the individual explain attitudes regarding agape, ludus, pragma and agape styles. Keywords: Love styles, Romantic beliefs and Self esteem.

1. Introduction A close romantic relationship is one of the kinds of close relationships in which an intensive interaction is experienced between two people. These differences can vary according to the person‟s approach to his/ her partner, to himself / herself and to the concept of romantic relationship. One of the concepts which is analysed importantly and tried to be defined by psychologists within the scope of close relationships is „‟love.‟‟ One of the most comprehensive definitions about love is Lee‟s multidimensional classification of love (Lee, 1973, 1977). In this classification, six styles of love are defined as eros, mania, ludus, storge, pragma and agape. Eros, in other words passionate love was associated with physical attractiveness, feeling safe in relationships and passion. Mania, in other words possessive love is defined as the obsessive love which is dominated by jealousy, obsessions and intensive feelings. Ludus, in other words love like a game is the style of love in which sexuality and passion are in the forefront and commitment is low, it is a short-term relationship in which a selection of an ideal type of person does not exist. A person who has Ludus style can have relationships with two or more partners at the same time. Storge, in other words companionate love is the kind of love in which friendship, common interests and likes are in the forefront and which develops in time. Pragma, in other words, logical love considers compatibility in personal and social characteristics in 1

This research was supported by Selçuk University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit with the

project number 16701681.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN relationships. Individuals who are in love in the style of pragma focus on running a successful relationship suitable for their criteria. Agepe, in other words, the selfless (alturistic) style of love is to think that only one of all people deserve one‟s love; a person who loves in the style of agepe starts a relationship without expecting reciprocity, he / she is supportive and forgiving (Büyükşahin & Hovardaoğlu, 2004; Galinha, Oishi, Pereira, Wirtz, & Esteves, 2013). The individuals‟ orientations about love also vary like the variety in the styles of love. In this research, the romantic beliefs and self esteems of the individuals are approached in order to explain the variety. Beliefs about romantic relationships make another variable of the research. Romantic beliefs start to form much before the beginning of a romantic relationship. Individuals previously schematize various rules about how should a romantic relation be, how should the partners treat each other, what will satisfy them and what is worth doing (Sprecher & Metts, 1999). Thus, some idealized images form in the mind of the individual. The individuals‟ styles of love are thought to be influenced by these ideals. Self esteem, which is another variable of the research, is the most important personal characteristic affecting the individual‟s social, personal, professional and romantic relationship. Self esteem is the individual‟s whole positive or negative evaluations about himself or herself. Beside the individual‟s evaluations about himself / herself, it also includes his / her evaluations about the others and the world (Bordens & Horowitz, 2008). Evaluations about the self and the others are intensively made in close relationships. In this research, how effective is self esteem in explaining the individuals‟ attitudes of love is propunded. 2. Review of Literature The individuals‟ attitudes about love were approached with their numerous aspects in the literature about close romantic relationships. Styles of love were analysed with their dimensions of gender (K. L. Dion & Dion, 1993; Neto, 2001; Walsh, 1993), characteristics of personality (Arnold & Thompson, 1996; Le, 2005; Mallandain & Davies, 1994; Rohmann, Neumann, Herner, & Bierhoff, 2012; Sophia et al., 2009; Taraban & Hendrick, 1995; White, Hendrick, & Hendrick, 2004), variables about family (Inmanamos, Hendrick, & Hendrick, 1994; Waller & Shaver, 1994), sexuality (S. S. Hendrick & Hendrick, 1987; Hensley, 1996; Lacey, Reifman, Scott, Harris, & Fitzpatrick, 2004; Russell & Oswald, 2002) and attachment (Davis, Kirkpatrick, Levy, & O'Hearn, 1994; Feeney & Noller, 1990; Galinha et al., 2013; Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Williams & Schill, 1994) in various cultures (Büyükşahin & Hovardaoğlu, 2004; Kanemasa, Taniguchi, Daibo, & Ishimori, 2004; Neto, 2007; Philbrick & Opolot, 1980; Rohmann, Führer, & Bierhoff, 2016; Sprecher et al., 1994). Romantic beliefs, which make another variable frequently analysed in the literature of close romantic relationships, were analysed with romantic relationship ideals and variables like gender, ethnical group and age differences (Choukas-Bradley, Goldberg, Widman, Reese, & Halpern, 2015). They were also analysed with variables like their influence on romantic relationships (Sprecher & Metts, 1999) emotional disloyalty (Cann, Mangum, & Wells, 2001), attachment, styles of love and beliefs about love (Sprecher, Cate, & Levin, 1998). Self esteem, which is another variable of the research, is approached with different variables about close relationships. Among them, self esteem and its relation with romantic partner feedback and attachment (Brennan & Bosson, 1998; Brennan & Morns, 1997; Marigold, Holmes, & Ross, 2007), partner choice (Kaznatcheev, Brown, & Shultz, 2010), pursuit of security (Murray, Holmes, & Griffin, 2000), the partner‟s mood (Bellavia & Murray, 2003), body image and the partner‟s criticization (Befort et al., 2001) was analysed. As is seen, it is observed that there has been no study in which self esteem and beliefs about romantic relationships are approached together in determining the attitudes about love. The gap in the literature will be tried to be filled with this research.

3. Methodology

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 3.1 Research model

The research was conducted in the correlation design in order to prove the relation between romantic beliefs, self esteem and styles of love. Correlational design are the design in which relational statistics is used in order to explain the complicated correlation between two or more variables (Creswell, 2013). 3.2 Study Group

Total 136 participants, 101 women and 35 men, who study at Selçuk University in 2015-2016 academic year and who were determined using the random sampling method make the study group of the research. There are 52 people in the 18-22 age range (%38.2), 76 people in the 23-26 age range (%55.9) and 8 people in the 27-35 age range (%5.9). 3. 3. Data Collection Tools

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Subscale (RSS). RSS is a widely used self-report instrument for evaluating individual self-esteem. The Rosenberg‟s Self Esteem subscale is a 10 item likert type instrument. The scale is measures self-worth by measuring both positive and negative feelings about the self. All items are answered using a 4-point Likert scale format ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The scores from RSS are between 0 and 6. Scores 0-1 show “high”, scores 2-4 show éintermadiate” and score 5-6 show “low” self esteem. Coefficient alphas for this study was found .56. According to the results of standardization of RSS for Turkish population; The test retest reliability was found to be .75 and .82. The correlation coefficient for RSS was found to be .71 between psychiatric interviews, .56 between semantic self esteem scale.And RSS correlated .66 with “depression” subscale of SCL-90, .70 “psychosomatic symptoms” subscale and .45 with “interpersonal threat” subscale (Çuhadaroğlu, 1986; Kartal, 1996). Romantic Beliefs Scale (ROMBEL). ROMBEL was devoloped by Sprecher and Metts (1989). Orginal ROMBEL contained 15 items with Likert scale responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The scale is measures romantic beliefs that individual have. The scale consists of four subscales that were labeled Love Finds a Way, One and Only, Idealization, and Love at First Sight. Cronbach‟s alpha coefficients for the original samples have been reported as .81 for the entire scale with ranges of .57 to .80 for subscales(Sprecher & Metts, 1989). According to the results of Exploratory factor analysis of ROMBEL for Turkish population;, the scale was reduced to 13 item. Coefficient alphas for the total scale was .84 (Total score) and it for subscale were .79 (Love Finds a Way), .69 (One and Only), .50 (Idealization), and .67 (Love at First Sight) (Küçükarslan & Gizir, 2013). Coefficient alphas for this study was found .86. Love Attitude Scale-LAS. LAS was devoloped by C. Hendrick, Hendrick, and Dicke (1998). Orginal LAS contained 24 items with Likert scale responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). LAS making up 6 different subscales (each with 4 items) that represent 6 different love styles eros (passionate love) ludus (game-playing love) storge (friendship love) pragma (practical love) mania (possessive, dependent love) agape (altruistic love). Cronbach‟s alpha coefficients for the original samples have been reported as ranges of .57 to .80 for subscales. According to the results of Exploratory factor analysis of RBS for Turkish population;the scale was reduced to 24 items and making up 6 subscales. Coefficient alphas for the subscale were, .66 eros,.39 ludus, .77 storge, .62 pragma, .52 mania, .82 agape (Büyükşahin & Hovardaoğlu, 2004). Coefficient alphas for this study was found .82. The personal information form was developed by the researcher to determine the participants‟ gender, ages and relationship status. 3.4 Data Analysis As for data analysis, Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to determine the correlations between the data. In addition, Multiple Linear regression analysis was used in the study in order to determine to what extent the independent variables predicted the dependent variables.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4. Results 4.1 Results of the Correlation Analysis Correlation coefficents were calculated in order to determine the relations between the dependent and independent variables of the research. According to this, the relations between the attitudes about love and the predictive variables are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Binary Correlation Results Between the Independent Variables and the Dependent Variable

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Variables Eros Ludus Storge Pragma Mania Agape Love finds a way One and only Idealization Love at First Sight Self esteem

1 1 ,151 ,400** ,391** ,237** ,397** ,355**

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1 ,108 ,178* ,364** ,263** ,067

1 ,318** ,271** ,232** ,119

1 ,406** ,368** ,246**

1 ,350** ,242**

1 ,470**

1

,415**

,083

,178*

,168

,200*

,334**

,590**

1

,369** ,192*

,221** ,195*

,215* ,180*

,289** ,083

,246** ,188*

,351** ,287**

,636** ,487**

,488** ,396**

1 ,496**

1

,203*

,110

,120

,085

-,014

,096

-,027

,084

,040

-,0 46

11

1

According to the findings, a middle level linear correlation is observed between Eros and Love finds a way (r=.36), One and only (r=.42) and Idealization (r=.37). A low level linear correlation is observed between Love at First Sight (r=.19) and Self esteem (r=.20) variables. A low level linear correlation is observed between Ludus and Idealization (r=22) and Love at First Sight(r=20). A low level linear correlation is observed between Storge and One and only (r=18), Idealization (r=.22) and Love at First Sight (r=.18). A low level linear correlation is observed between Pragma and Love finds a way (r=.25) and Idealization (r=29). A low level linear correlation is observed between Mania and Love finds a way (r=.24), One and only (r=.20), Idealization (r=.25) and Love at First Sight (r=.19). A middle level linear correlation is observed between Agape and Love finds a way (r=.47), One and only (r=.33), ve Idealization (r=.35) and a low level linear correlation is found between Love at First Sight (r=.29) and it. 4.2 Results of the Regression Analysis Predictive power of the romantic beliefs and self esteem to predict the individuals‟ attitudes about love is analysed with regression analysis and it is shown in Table 2. Table 2. Results of the regression analysis about the predictive power of the variables of romantic beliefs and self esteem to predict the love attitudes Dependent variable

Eros

Predictors

B

Std.Error

(Constant)

3,976

1,849

Love finds a way

,088

,090

One and only

,296

Idealization

β

t

p

2,150

,033

,109

,976

,331

,109

,265

2,720

,007

,251

,138

,189

1,815

,072

Love at First Sight

-,086

,152

-,052

-,563

,575

Self esteem

,142

,063

,173

2,244

,027

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Multiple R= .494 R2=.244

Adj R2 = .214 F (5,130) = 8,371, p=0,00< .05

Table 2. Results of the regression analysis about the predictive power of the variables of romantic beliefs and self esteem to predict the love attitudes (Continuation) Dependent variable

Ludus

Predictors

B

(Constant)

6,463

1,734

Love finds a way

-,104

,084

One and only romantic

-,017

İdealization Love at First Sight Self esteem 2

Multiple R= .291 R =.084

Storge

Std.Error

β

t

p

3,728

,000

-,151

-1,233

,220

,102

-,018

-,169

,866

,273

,130

,242

2,105

,037

,227

,143

,160

1,591

,114

,074

,060

,105

1,239

,218

2

Adj R = .049 F (5,130) = 2,380, p=0,041< .05

(Constant)

5,699

2,278

Love finds a way

-,089

,111

One and only romantic

,125

İdealization Love at First Sight Self esteem

2,502

,014

-,098

-,799

,426

,134

,100

,934

,352

,252

,171

,170

1,479

,142

,201

,188

,108

1,070

,287

,098

,078

,107

1,257

,211

2

2

Multiple R= . ,274 R =.075 Adj R =.040 F (5,130) = 2,114, p=0,068> .05 (Constant) Love finds a way One and only romantic Pragma

İdealization Love at First Sight Self esteem 2

Multiple R= .322 R =.104

3,713

,000

,108

,093

,142

1,170

,244

-,002

,112

-,001

-,014

,989

,311

,142

,248

2,189

,030

-,166

,157

-,106

-1,059

,292

,058

,065

,075

,887

,377

Adj R = .069 F (5,130) = 3,014 8,682

1,794

Love finds a way

,071

,087

One and only romantic

,060

İdealization Love at First Sight Self esteem 2

Multiple R= .278 R =.078

p=0,013< .05 4,840

,000

,099

,808

,421

,105

,061

,565

,573

,149

,134

,128

1,113

,268

,075

,148

,051

,506

,614

-,014

,062

-,019

-,220

,827

2

Adj R = .042 F (5,130) = 2,185, p=0,60> .05

(Constant) Agape

1,899

2

(Constant)

Mania

7,052

3,977

1,818

Love finds a way

,303

,089

One and only romantic

,057

İdealization

,062

486

2,188

,030

,382

3,426

,001

,107

,052

,533

,595

,136

,048

,455

,650

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Love at First Sight Self esteem 2

Multiple R= .491 R =.241

,102

,150

,062

,680

,498

,083

,062

,103

1,331

,186

2

Adj R =.212 F (5,130) = 8,267 p=,00< .05

According to the research findings, the Eros dimension makes a meaningful model with the romantic beliefs and self esteem variables. The romantic beliefs love finds a way, one and only, idealization and love at first sight explain the 24,4 % of the total variance of the eros dimension together with self esteem (R= .494 R2=.244, F (5,130) = 8,371, p=0,00< .05).While it is observed that the romantic belief one and only and self esteem make a significant contribution to the model, the romantic beliefs love finds a way, idealization and love at first sight make significant contributions to the model alone. The romantic beliefs Love finds a way, one and only, idealization and love at first sight explain the 8,4 % of the total variance of the ludus dimension (R= .291 R2=.084, F (5,130) = 2,380, p=0,041< .05). Only idealization has made the significant contribution to the model. The Storge dimension does not make a statistically significant model with the romantic beliefs and self esteem variables (p=0,068> .05). The romantic beliefs Love finds a way, one and only, idealization and love at first sight explain the 10,4 % of the pragma dimension together with self esteem (R= .322, R2=.104, F (5,130) = 3,014, p=0,013< .05). Only the romantic belief of idealization has made a significant contribution to the model. The mania dimension does not make a statistically significant model with the romantic beliefs and self esteem variables (p=0,60> .05.) The romantic beliefs love finds a way, one and only, idealization and love at first sight explain the 24,1 % of the total variance of the agape dimension together with self esteem (R= .491, R2=.241, F (5,130) = 8,267, p=,00< .05). Only love finds a way has made the significant contribution to the model. According to these findings, the regression equalities are as follows: Eros=3,976+0,09 X love finds a way +0,30 X one and only +0,25 X idealization + (-0,09) X love at first sight + 0,14 X self esteem Ludus=6,463+(-0,10) X love finds a way+(-0,02) X one and only +0,27 X idealization+0,23 X love at first sight+0,07 X self esteem Pragma =7,052+0,11 X love finds a way + (-0,002) X one and only +(-0,31) X idealization +(-0,17) X love at first sight +0,06 X self esteem Agape=3,977+0,30 X love finds a way +0,06 X one and only +0,06 X idealization +0,10 X love at first sight +0,08 X self esteem 5. Discussion and Conclusion According to the research findings, one and only romantic belief explains the eros style of love at a significant level. The ideal partners of the individuals with eros style of love is defined in their minds. They know what they want (Lee, 1973). The existence of an ideal soulmate is believed in the one and only romantic belief in a parallel way. The mental image between these two variables is thought to explain the relation between the one and only romantic belief and the eros style of love. It was observed that the romantic belief of idealization which holds beliefs about the perfection of the individual‟s romantic relationship and the partner (Sprecher & Metts, 1999) predicted the ludus and pragma styles of love at a significant level. Individuals who have the pragma style of love regard their relationships as businesses to be done successfully. There is already a pattern for a perfect relationship in their minds. This cognitive situation is thought to explain the relation between idealization and the pragma style. On the other hand, individuals with the ludus style do not have an ideal partner choice. They are inclined to relationships without emotional depth, sexuality is emphasized in an intensive way in their relationships (Hensley, 1996). When the finding about the relation between ludus and the belief of idealization is discussed, it is thought that the relation between the style of ludus and

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN romantic beliefs should be studied more deeply approaching the latent and mediating variables. It has been found that the romantic belief love finds a way which contains beliefs about a romantic relationship that will overcome every kind of difficulties and obstacles is a significant predictor of the agape style of love. This romantic belief is related to the relationship‟s beginning, development and time (Sprecher & Metts, 1999). The time of the romantic relationship is related to the partners‟ relationship and attitudes about each other. Individuals with agape style of love show an interest in each other without expecting reciprocation. It is logical besides being emotional (Whang, Allen, Sahoury, & Zhang, 2004). It has been found that the agape style has a linear correlation with romantic relationship satisfaction (Yancey & Berglass, 1991). It is thought that these information in the literature enlightens the finding about the relation the agape style and the love finds a way romantic belief. The romantic belief of one and only and self esteem make significant contributions to explain the style of eros. In romantic relationships, self esteem is also the determiner of the eros style of love, physical attractiveness, pursuit of security and sexual attitudes (Adler & Hendrick, 1991; K. K. Dion & Dion, 1975; C. Hendrick & Hendrick, 1986; Kaznatcheev et al., 2010). This finding of the research can be interpreted as a new evidence which propounds the relation between the two variables. In subsequent studies, styles of love in Turkish culture can be described tackling the variable of gender. The structural relation between the styles of love and variables such as adult attachment, romantic beliefs, relationship diagrams and narcissism can be discussed. The relation between the styles of love and exhaustion in relationships can be studied. References Adler, N. L., & Hendrick, S. S. (1991). Relationships between contraceptive behavior and love attitudes, sex attitudes, and self-esteem. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70(2), 302-308. Arnold, M. E., & Thompson, B. (1996). Love style perceptions in relation to personality function. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11(3), 425-438. Befort, C., Kurpius, S. E. R., Hull-Blanks, E. E., Nicpon, M. f., Huser, L., & Sollenberger, S. (2001). Body image, self-esteem, and weight-related criticism from romantic partners. Journal of college student development, 42(5), 407-419. Bellavia, G., & Murray, S. (2003). Did I do that? Self–esteem related differences in reactions to romantic partners‟ moods. Personal relationships, 10(1), 77-95. doi:10.1111/1475-6811.00037 Bordens, K. S., & Horowitz, I. A. (2008). Social Psychology. USA: Freeload Press. Brennan, K. A., & Bosson, J. K. (1998). Attachment-Style Differences in Attitudes toward and Reactions to Feedback from Romantic Partners: An Exploration of the Relational Bases of Self-Esteem. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24(7), 699-714. doi:10.1177/0146167298247003 Brennan, K. A., & Morns, K. A. (1997). Attachment Styles, Self-Esteem, and Patterns of Seeking Feedback from Romantic

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Ankara: Eğiten. Çuhadaroğlu, F. (1986). Adolesanlarda benlik saygısı. (Master Master Dissertation), Hacettepe Universty, Ankara. Davis, K. E., Kirkpatrick, L. A., Levy, M. B., & O'Hearn, R. E. (1994). Stalking the elusive love style: Attachment styles, love styles, and relationship development. In R. Erber & R. Gilmour (Eds.), Theoretical frameworks for personal relationships (Vol. 11, pp. 179-210). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Dion, K. K., & Dion, K. L. (1975). Self-esteem and romantic love. Journal of Personality, 43(1), 39-57. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.ep8970069 Dion, K. L., & Dion, K. K. (1993). Gender and ethnocultural comparisons in styles of love. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17(4), 463-473. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1993.tb00656.x Feeney, J. A., & Noller, P. (1990). Attachment style as a predictor of adult romantic relationships. Journal of personality and social psychology, 58(2), 281-291. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.2.281 Galinha, I. C., Oishi, S., Pereira, C. R., Wirtz, D., & Esteves, F. (2013). Adult attachment, love styles, relationship experiences and subjective well-being: cross-cultural and gender comparison between Americans,

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doi:10.1007/s11205-013-0512-7 Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of personality and social psychology, 52(3), 511. Hendrick, C., & Hendrick, S. S. (1986). A theory and method of love. Journal of personality and social psychology, 50(2), 392-402. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.2.392 Hendrick, C., Hendrick, S. S., & Dicke, A. (1998). The love attitudes scale: Short form. Journal of Social and Personal relationships, 15(2), 147-159. doi:10.1177/0265407598152001 Hendrick, S. S., & Hendrick, C. (1987). Love and sex attitudes and religious beliefs. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 5(3), 391-398. Hensley, W. E. (1996). The effect of a ludus love style on sexual experience. Social Behavior & Personality: an international journal, 24(3), 205. Inmanamos, J., Hendrick, S. S., & Hendrick, C. (1994). Love attitudes - similarıties between parents and between parents and children. Family Relations, 43(4), 456-461. doi:10.2307/585378 Kanemasa, Y., Taniguchi, J., Daibo, I., & Ishimori, M. (2004). Love styles and romantic love experiences in Japan. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 32(3), 265-281. Kartal, Ş. (1996). Obesity and its psychological correlates: Appearance-esteem, Selfesteem and Loneliness. (Master Master Dissertation), Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi, Ankara. Kaznatcheev, A., Brown, K., & Shultz, T. R. (2010, 11-14 August 2010). Self-esteem and the matching effect in mate selection. Paper presented at the 32nd Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society Portland, Oregon, USA. Küçükarslan, M., & Gizir, C. A. (2013). Romantik İnançlar Ölçeği‟nin uyarlanması: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmaları. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(2). Lacey, R. S., Reifman, A., Scott, J. P., Harris, S. M., & Fitzpatrick, J. (2004). Sexual‐moral attitudes, love styles, and mate selection. Journal of sex research, 41(2), 121-128. Le, T. N. (2005). Narcissism and immature love as mediators of vertical individualism and ludic love style. Journal of Social and Personal relationships, 22(4), 543-560. doi:10.1177/0265407505054522

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Lee, J. A. (1973). The color of love. New York: New Press Lee, J. A. (1977). A typology of styles of loving. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3(2), 173-182. doi:10.1177/014616727700300204 Mallandain, I., & Davies, M. F. (1994). The colours of love: Personality correlates of love styles. Personality and Individual Differences, 17(4), 557-560. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90092-2 Marigold, D. C., Holmes, J. G., & Ross, M. (2007). More than words: Reframing compliments from romantic partners fosters security in low self-esteem individuals. Journal of personality and social psychology, 92(2), 232-248. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.232 Murray, S. L., Holmes, J. G., & Griffin, D. W. (2000). Self-esteem and the quest for felt security: How perceived regard regulates attachment processes. Journal of personality and social psychology, 78(3), 478-498. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.3.478 Neto, F. (2001). Love styles of three generations of women. Marriage & Family Review, 33(4), 19-30. doi:10.1300/J002v33n04_03 Neto, F. (2007). Love Styles: A Cross-Cultural Study of British, Indian, and Portuguese College Students. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 38(2), 239-254. Philbrick, J. L., & Opolot, J. A. (1980). Love style: Comparison of African and American attitudes. Psychological Reports, 46(1), 286. doi:10.2466/pr0.1980.46.1.286 Rohmann, E., Führer, A., & Bierhoff, H.-W. (2016). Relationship Satisfaction Across European Cultures The Role of Love Styles. Cross-Cultural Research, 50(2), 178-211. doi:10.1177/1069397116630950 Rohmann, E., Neumann, E., Herner, M. J., & Bierhoff, H.-W. (2012). Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism: Self-construal, attachment, and love in romantic relationships. European Psychologist, 17(4), 279-290. doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000100 Russell, B. L., & Oswald, D. L. (2002). Sexual coercion and victimization of college men the role of love styles. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17(3), 273-285. doi:10.1177/0886260502017003003 Sophia, E. C., Tavares, H., Berti, M. P., Pereira, A. P., Lorena, A., Mello, C., . . . Zilberman, M. L. (2009). Pathological love: Impulsivity, personality, and romantic relationship. CNS spectrums, 14(05), 268-274. doi:10.1017/S1092852900025438 Sprecher, S., Aron, A., Hatfield, E., Cortese, A., Potapova, E., & Levitskaya, A. (1994). Love - Amerıcan style, Russıan

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doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.1994.tb00070.x Sprecher, S., Cate, R., & Levin, L. (1998). Parental divorce and young adults' beliefs about love. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 28(3-4), 107-120. Sprecher, S., & Metts, S. (1989). Development of theRomantic Beliefs Scale'and examination of the effects of gender and gender-role orientation. Journal of Social and Personal relationships, 6(4), 387-411. Sprecher, S., & Metts, S. (1999). Romantic beliefs: Their influence on relationships and patterns of change over time. Journal of Social and Personal relationships, 16(6), 834-851. doi:10.1177/0265407599166009 Taraban, C. B., & Hendrick, C. (1995). Personality perceptions associated with 6 styles of love. Journal of Social and Personal relationships, 12(3), 453-461. doi:10.1177/0265407595123008 Waller, N. G., & Shaver, P. R. (1994). The importance of nongenetic influences on romantic love styles: A twin-family study. Psychological Science, 5(5), 268-274. Walsh, A. (1993). Love styles, masculinity/femininity, physical attractiveness, and sexual behavior: A test of evolutionary

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095(93)90015-A Whang, Y.-O., Allen, J., Sahoury, N., & Zhang, H. (2004). Falling in love with a product: The structure of a romantic consumer-product relationship. Advances in Consumer Research, 31, 320-327. White, J. K., Hendrick, S. S., & Hendrick, C. (2004). Big five personality variables and relationship constructs. Personality

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FORBIDDEN OPERATIONS IN TERMS OF THE BOARD MEMBERS IN THE INCORPORATED COMPANIES Ass. Prof. Dr. Hediye BAHAR SAYIN Anadolu University, Law Faculty, Commercial Law Department [email protected] Abstract There are two mandatory organs in the incorporated companies including the General Assembly and the Board of Directors (executive board), the Board of Directors is an authorized body about the company's management and representation. The indifference of small shareholders to the company management in this type of company has increased the power and the importance of the board of directors. The limitation of this power in terms of company, shareholders and creditors is necessary for the protection of the company's assets. Various restrictions and sanctions are mentioned in the law for the acts and actions of the board of directors for protection of shareholders, company and creditors in the presence of the power of the board of directors. Also fulfilling the duties ideally by the board of the directors, to use the power in their hand for the company and legally prohibited actions and operations that the member cannot make in the prevention of conflicts of interest were determined. Prohibited operations aim to ensure that the authorized members cannot use this authority against the company, shareholders and creditors; they act in accordance with the principle of loyalty. The purpose serves to realize the corporate governance of companies with share capital by providing protection of company interest accordingly shareholders and creditors. In this study, the determination of what's prohibited foreseen in the TCC in terms of board of directors, the disclosure ,interpretation, determining the scope of these regulations, establishment whether the legal consequences of the conflict in this process are aimed. In this framework, the prohibition on participation to the negotiations, the prohibition on transaction with the company, the prohibition on borrowing and on competing constitute work item, arrangements relating to this prohibitions were examined in comparison with the Swiss and German law. Comparative law studies have importance in terms of the determination of the appropriateness of the regulations Key Words: Board members, Forbiden Operations, Incorporated Companies

1. Introduction Incorporated companies, contribute to the small depots composing huge capitals. But the owners of these small depots are irrelevant to the management of the company. This irrelevancy, cause the domination of big share holders over the company. In the Incorporated companies, the principle of essence body is being refused and there is not an obligation to choose members of the executive board among the shareholders. All kinds of businesses and transactions that are necessary for the management of the company that are not left to the jurisdiction of duties and authorities of general council in competence with Law and main agreement, are considered within the jurisdiction of executive board (TCC Article 358). This jurisdiction strengthened importance and authority of the executive board. Limitation of this power by company, shareholders and creditors, will serve the principles of protection of capital1 and institutional management2. For the protection of several interest groups and protection of assets of the company against the authority of executive board, there are several limitations and sanctions in the Law related with the actions and transactions of the executive board. This study aims to determine forbidden transactions for the members of the executive board in TCC, to identify and interpret these regulations, to determine their scope, the legal results of possible violation of these transactions. Within this framework, prohibition for attending negotiations, prohibition on making transactions with the company, prohibition on borrowing to company and prohibition of competing with company are the main subjects of the study and regulations related with these transactions will be evaluated in comparison of Swiss and German laws in order to determine their convenience.

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2. Prohibition of Attending to Negotiations The interests of members of executive boards may not always coincide with the decisions taken by the board. According to Article 393/1 of Turkish Commercial Code, in case of intersection of out of company personal interests of the members or their relatives' 3 out of company personal interests defined in the Article intersect with the interests of the company, the member will not attend to the negotiations of the board. In the article it is defined that in case attendance of member of executive board is against good faith, this principle will be valid and thus the scope of the jurisdiction has been extended. The executive board will decide in case of hesitation. The member with buch interest is not allowed to vote as well as being prohibited from attending to negotiations. In case other members of the board are not aware of the conflict of interest, related member is obliged to expose the situation to other members (Pulaşlı: 2014, 478 ; Üçışık /Çelik: 2014, 508; Bahtiyar: 2016, 242). Decisions taken without considering this prohibition are valid and the member that act against the prohibition and other members who do not raise objection even they know the situation of member, are reshonsible of the possible damages deriving from such decision (TCC Article 393/2). With this arrangement, the Law has extended the scope of responsibles in case of damage. The violation of prohibition on attending negotiations will not affect the validity of decisions taken (Bilgili /Demirkapı: 2013, 402; Bozkurt: 2014, 160) 4. Decision taken without in compliance with prohibition on attending to negotiations, may be removed and new decision can be taken in another meeting where such member does not attend (Güney: 2016 ,208 and after). Furthermore, except from the failure in quorum, in case the decision had been taken whiri such member had been misguided or threatened, rules of deception (Article 36) or intimidation (Article 37) may be applied (Çamoğlu/Tekinalp/Poroy: 2014, 377). In order to determine whether the prohibition has been properly applied, the reasons why such phohibition decision has been taken and related transacions should be added to the decision of executive board (TCC Article 393/3). In Swiss Law, there is not a clear regulation related with prohibition on attendance to meeting. Within the scope of liability of loyalty, the members are obliged not to be the source of conflict of interests with the company. The subject has been arranged in ZGB related with associations. Some autors claim that this regulation can not be implemented for companies (Forstmoser/ Meier-Hayoz./Peter Nobel: 1996, § 28 Rn. 32), while some authors consider it may be implemented in the existence of intense clash of interests (Böckli: 2009, § 13 Rn. 633). 3.

Prohibition on making transactions related with company

Members of the executive board are subject to make transactions on their or someone else's behalf (TCC Article 395/1). The reason of this rule is to prevent misuse of power of executives in line with their interests (Üçışık/Çelik, 2014, 498; Akdağ Güney: 2016, 218). Members being a party of a transaction executed with company will be considered enough for the implementation of prohibition and they don't need to be authorized for the representation of company (Akdağ Güney: 2016, 224). In case of existence of membership of the executive board is valid for a legal entity, it will also be valid for real entity (Şener: 2014, 394). In case the authority of representation has been transferred to directors, the prohibition is also valid for trensferee directors (Üçışık/Çelik: 2014, 498; Akdağ Güney: 2016, 224). In the new arrangement including prohibition on making transactions with company, “commercial transaction within the scope of objective of company” term in ETTK article 334 has been removed, interpretations on whether transactions are within the scope of company and whether they are commercial or not are hindered (Pulaşlı: 2014, 478). Thus, the prohibition is not limited with activity area of the company but includes all kinds of transactions (Akdağ Güney: 2016, 220). Prohibition on making transactions with company is not mandatory. The prohibition may be withdrawn with decision of general board or with the rule of main contract (Bilgili/Demirkapı: 2013, 395; Üçışık/Çelik: 2014, 49)5. It should be accepted that, the cases which do not include the possibility of any damage to the company, considering the basis of the prohibition is to protect the interests of the company, are not considered within the scope of prohibition (Akdağ Güney: 2016, 219). Not all the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN transactions of members of board are considered within the scope of prohibition. Within this framework, cosumer contracts of members for their personal needs, legal transactions related with goods which have current prices and registered in the market and voluntary earnings for companies should not be considered within the scope of prohibition (Şener: 2015, 411; Bilgili/Demirkapı: 2014, 394 and after; Akdağ Güney: 2016, 220). In case of violation of prohibition, related transaction will not be considered invalid. If the company prefers not to be bound by the transaction, the company may claim invalidity of transaction, on the other hand member who undertook the transaction may not (TCC article 395/1)6. Here it should be clarified whether general board or executive board is meant. Although there are contrary opinions (Mimaroğlu: 1967, 89 and after.; Akdağ Güney: 2016, 226)7, since general board has the authority to determine whether the company is bound with the transaction, executive board should not be in the position to announce invalidity of transaction (Üçışık/Çelik: 2014, 500; Ulusoy: 2005, 206 and after). There are authors who claim prohibition on making transactions can be lifted by certain members (Çamoğlu /Tekinalp/Poroy: 2014, 371) as well as authors who claim the opposite8. If the company gets harm due to a transaction even the company declares it is not bound with the decision, the related member may be asked for compensation due to TCC article 553/1(Pulaşlı: 2014, 479; Bilgili/Demirkapı: 2013, 395; Çamoğlu/Tekinalp/Poroy: 2014, 372). In Swiss law, there is not a clear arrangement on the subject but, in doctrine, members of the board are allowed to make transactions unless such transactions do not compose an harm against the interests of the company and special guarantees are foreseen on the subject. In the Amandment of Limited Companies realized in 2008, in OR Art 718b, it is foreseen that, in case the transactions undertaken by members of the executive board surpass a certain amount, transactions have to be undertaken in written form (Honsell/Vogt /Watter/ Wernli: 2008, Art. 717 Rn. 17). In German law, it was clearly defined in AktG § 112, the company had been represented inside and outside the court by the inspection board. The purpose is to maintain the indifference of the company representation before foreign evaluations for the company. Because for making transactions with company, in case the company is represented with executive board, the clash of interests with company is inevitable (Henssler/ Strohn: 2016, §112 I)9. 4.

Loaning Prohibition to Company

Members of the executive board which are not shareholders and relatives of members defined in article 393 who are not shareholders can not become indebted cash to the company10. For these individuals company may not give guarantee and assurance, may not take over their debts (TCC Article 395/2)11. Prohibition does not only contain cash transactions but also mortgage, guarantee and assurance agreements for these members and their relatives and other debt takeovers (Akdağ Güney: 2016, 234). The purpose of regulation is to protect the assets of the company (Pulaşlı: 2014, 1169; Bozkurt: 2013, 161)12. In case of violation 2 different types of sanctions are foreseen13. First, creditors of company may directly monitor the individuals that violate prohibition, at the amount the company authorizes14. Furthermore, about individuals violating TCC Article 395/1,2 will be subject to penalty fines (TCC article 562/5,c)15. Members of the executive board who are shareholders and their shareholder relatives are not subject to prohibition16. Rules of Article 358 of TCC will be applied to shareholder members of the executive board. According to this, unless shareholder members of the executive board fulfill their overdue debts, the profit of the company including free reserves are able meet the debts of previous year, they may not be indebted to the company. Within this framework, shareholder members may meet their reasonable and term needs from the reserve of the company, but using long term high amounts will be against the essence of this regulation (Üçışık/Çelik: 2014, 500). In the cotinuity of regulation, it is declared that, companies mutually may be grantors for each other and give guarantee and the special rules in the banking law are restricted (TCC Article 3953, 4)17. In Swiss and German judicial systems, which compose the basis of TCC, there is not any arrangement related with subject. In both two systems, the misuse of company sources and interests is protected within the current framework and principles (Akdağ Güney: 2016, 238).

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5.

Prohibition on Competition with Company

Members of the executive board are under obligation of loyalty to the company. As a reflection of this, the members are subject to competition propibition. According to TCC Article 396, members of the executive board, without consent of general board, mal not undertake a commercial characteristics transaction (Çamoğlu/Tekinalp/Poroy: 2014, 373) on their own as well as they can not be limited liable partner of another company operating on the same business area. The subject of prohibition are clearly members of the board. In case of transfer of administrative authority, people to whom authorities are transfered should also be subject to prohibition (Akdağ Güney: 2016, 240). The term of subject of management should be narrow interpreted. Not the subject written in the company agreement but the actual activities the company is dealing with should be taken within the scope of prohibition and members are free to deal with commercial activities that are not considered within the business subject of the company (Üçışık/Çelik: 2014, 504 after; Çamoğlu /Tekinalp/Poroy: 2014, 373). Within this framework, members, within the working area of the company, are not allowed to be a commercial representative in another management, acting as trade attorney, deputy, agent or director in another management. Members are also not allowed to be partners of collective companies, limited companies, ordinary partners. Although members may be partners to companies or cooperations operating in the similar activity area18, they are not allower to be directors or member of executive board (Bilgili/Demirkapı: 2013, 399; Çamoğlu/Tekinalp/Poroy: 2014, 374; Bozkurt: 2014,162; Akdağ Güney: 2016, 240). Furthermore, the subject of commercial business should be interpreted in limited meaning. Since incorporated companies companies do not have simple transactions, all businesses will be considered within the scope of commercial business. This will preven unintentional extention of the rule (Akdağ Güney: 2016, 240). Since prohibition of competition is not an obligatory rule, the prohibition of competition can be withdrawn by general board and rules may be added to main contract on this subject (Çamoğlu/Tekinalp/Poroy: 2016, 373; Bilgili/Demirkapı: 2013, 400; Üçışık/Çelik: 2014, 504) with the amendment of main contract or decision of general board, it is possible to extend the scope of prohibition (Üçışık/Çelik: 2014, 506). In case of violation of this prohibition, the compensation of transaction deriving from prohibited actions, the company may claim one of three options such as accepting the transaction as it has been done in name of company, compensation of transaction undentaken against prohibition or transferring of benefits deriving from transaction to the company. Company term here refers to executive board. The executice board gather excluding buch member. These demands are not limited with the damages of the company. The company may ast for transferring in case the personal benefits of the member with sucn transaction is over the amount of damages (Çamoğlu/Tekinalp/Poroy: 2014, 375). In order to exercise these right, the decision of executive board is needed. The member who violates the prohibition may not attend to negotiation and voting (TCC article 393)19. Related member may be dismissed by general board without compensation based on reasonable factors, but if suc member is also a partner, partnership relation remains (Bozkurt: 2014, 163). In some cases, violation of prohibition may be interpreted as a reasonable ground for termination of company. Company mal also demand from the related member to end its actions against the prohibition of competition, to inform the company about developments and leave the company which the member has become a member as a violation of prohibition (Üçışık/Çelik: 2014, 507). These three demand rights of the company should se used within three bonths following the occurance of violation or at latest within a year. Furthermore, addition to the members of the board's demands related with violation, liabilities deriving frol law or main contract are reserved (Pulaşlı: 2014,482; Çamoğlu/Tekinalp/Poroy: 2014, 375). Law, with this approach, is close to German law. In Swiss law, different from other types of companies, there is not any clear arrangement related with prohibition of competition for the members of the executive board. In OR Art. 717, the liability of loyalty is taken into account while determining the limits of prohibition of competition (Honsell/ Vogt/Watter/ Wernli: 2008, Art 717 Rn. 18). According to doctrine, acting in a competitive way, may be interpreted as violation of competition. It is also defended that, apart from acting competitive against company, taking information from rival company or making sifnificant contribution to such companies should also be considered as violation. There may be exceptions in case the general board selects or re selects such member even being aware

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN of such violation (Honsell/ Vogt/Watter/ Wernli: 2008, Art 717 Rn. 18; Krneta: 2005, Rn. 1912). Any transactions within the scope of management of the company are possible unless these transactions are considered in competence with loyalty principle20. In German Law, in AktG § 88 Abs. 1, the subject is clearly arranged and competitive transactions are subject to the permission of survellience board. In case of violation of prohibition, paying compensation to company, considerin the transaction has been undertaken on behalf of company should be used in 3 mohths and 5 years time periods relatively (Akdağ Güney: 2016, 238). 6.

Conclusion

Prohibition on attendance to negotiations, prohibition on making transactions with the company, prohibition on owing debts to company and prohibition on making competition with company, are the prolongations of arrengements in TCC related with debts and loyalty of members of the executive board.These arrangements aim to prevent members using assets and management of the companies for their own benefits. These kinds of transactions do not cause the invalidity as a rule, in case of any damage occurs for the company due to these transactions, the comany may ast from the member to compansate such loss or damage. With this method, rights of the company are protected directly while rights of shareholders are protected indirectly. Swiss law does not foresee a clear arrangement for the prohibited actions for the members of the executive board and evaluates the issue within the framework of general principles. In German law, there are arrangements related with competition and transaction prohibitions. The issue has been evaluated in Turkish Law in detail. We believe the current arrangements in Turkish law are appropriate. The main purpose of aforementioned arrangements is to protect the interests of the company. Making accurate and detailed arrangements is a positive approach. Trying to solve the issue within the scope of general rules and principles as it has been in other jurisdictions, may cause disputes in the implementation phases. Thus, the clear arrangement method in TCC, is an appropriate approach even it can be critisized as it serves to the protection of company and shareholders' and creditors benefits. References Akdağ Güney, N. (2016). Anonim şirket yönetim kurulu (2. Baskı). İstanbul: Vedat Bahar Sayın, H. (2015). Pay sahibi haklarının korunması kapsamında yönetim kurulu kararlarının butlanı. İstanbul: XII Levha. Bahtiyar, M. (2016). Ortaklıklar hukuku (11. Bası). İstanbul: Beta. Bilgili, F. /E. Demirkapı (2013). Şirketler hukuku (9. Bası). Bursa: Dora. Bozkurt, T. (2014). Şirketler hukuku (Ticaret Hukuku-Özet- C. II). İstanbul: XII Levha. Böckli, P. (2009). Schweizer Aktienrecht. (4. Auflage). Zürich: Schulthess Verlag. Caspar von der Crone, H. (2014). Aktienrecht. Stämpfli Verlag: Bern. Forstmoser, P.; Meier-Hayoz, A.; Nobel, P. (1996). Schweizerisches Aktienrecht. Bern: Stumpfli. Henssler, M.; Stroh, L. (2016). Geselschaftsrecht. (3. Auflage) München: Verlag CH. Beck Honsell, H.; Vogt P. N.; Watter, R.; Wernli, M. (2008). Obligationenrecht II Art. 530-1186 OR Basler Kommentar. (3. Auflage). Zürich: Helbing Lichtenhahn Verlag. Karahan, S./ Çeker, M. (2013). Şirketler hukuku (2. Bası). Konya: Mimoza. Krneta, G. (2005). Praxiskommentar Verwaltungsrat Art 707-726, 754 OR und Spezialgesetze. (2. Auflage). Bern: Stämpfli Verlag AG. Mimaroğlu, S. K. (1967). Anonim Şirketlerde İdare Meclisi Azalarının Hukuki Mesuliyeti. Ankara: Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi. Özkorkut, K. (2012). 6102 sayılı Türk Ticaret Kanunu’nda şirkete borçlanma yasağı, finansal raporlama ve bağımsız denetime ilişkin değişiklikler. Batider 28 (3), s. 54 vd. Paslı, A. (2004). Anonim ortaklık kurumsal yönetimi (Corporate Governance). İstanbul: Beta. Poroy, R. /Tekinalp, Ü./Çamoğlu E. (2014). Ortaklıklar hukuku I. İstanbul: Vedat. Pulaşlı, H. (2014). Şirketler hukuku şerhi (2. Bası). Ankara: Adalet.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14-16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Pulaşlı, H. (2015). Şirketler hukuku genel esaslar (3. Baskı). Ankara Adalet. Şener, O. H. (2014). Teorik ve uygulamalı ortaklıklar hukuku kitabı (2. Bası). Ankara: Seçkin. Ulusoy, E. (2005). Anonim şirketlerde işlem yasağı ve çifte temsil. Ankara: Yetkin. Üçışık, G./ Çelik, A. (2014). Anonim ortaklıklar hukuku C. I. Ankara: Adalet. Yanlı, V. (2007). Kurumsal yönetim ilkeleri açısından Türk Ticaret Kanunu Tasarısı’nın değerlendirilmesi. Türkiye ve Avrupa Birliği’nde Sermaye Şirketleri Reformu. İstanbul: İstanbul Ticaret Odası Yayın No:55, s. 45 vd.

1

The principle of protection of capital, is the principle deriving from the fact that incorporated companies are limited liability companies (TCC general justification Nr. 57). This principle is based on protection of interests of company creditors (Pulaşlı: 2015, 275). Protection of capital literally means the protection of capital, what is protected is exactly the amount of capital promised. This principle is interpreted in a lager scope the whole assets of the company. (Poroy /Tekinalp/ Çamoğlu: 2014, 287). 2 In case the individuals who undertake the management activities of the company differ than the shareholders, problems may rise as in the case of dispute of interests where the abuse of power of management for personal interests is necessary. "Institutional management" aims to prevent formation of such problems and aims to find solutions to the current problems (Yanlı: 2007, 45 and after). Within this context, institutional management is a special management system that aims to minimize the problems deriving from ownership-control distinction in public incorporated companies, based on equity, transparency and accountability and responsibility principles, grounding company's administration and inspection to basic principles, considering incorporated company as an important economic unit from establishment to termination, even differs from one country to another, which includes internationally approved certain rules. Paslı : 2004, 25 and after). 3 Blood relatives and affinity by marriage of the member's lineal kinship to third degree including third degree. 4 Rule of ETCC Article 332, there have been many arguments in literature on the sanctions that will be imposed in case of violation of prohibition on attendance to negotiations (For opinions on the subject, please refer to Bahtiyar: 2016, 242). 5 For reapplying of prohibition which was removed with main contract, change of main contract is needed (Akdağ Güney: 2016, 219). If the prohibition is lifted with the rule of main contract, all members should get benefit from these arrangements (Çamoğlu/Tekinalp/Poroy: 2014, 371). 6 The term void should be interpreted as “invalid” from the beginning. This term should be understood as “may be cancelled”. Because prohibition can be removed with the decision of general board. In case of violation, the company may claim the invalidity of transaction in terms of company (Pulaşlı: 2014, 479; Üçışık/Çelik: 2014, 499; Bahtiyar: 2016, 240; Bilgili/Demirkapı: 2014i 395; Bozkurt: 2014, 161; Çamoğlu/Tekinalp/Poroy: 2014: 371; Akdağ Güney, 2016: 233). 7 Güney, points out that, if the transaction has been undertaken by whole of the executive board, the authority to approve is at general board. 8 The principle of equal transaction is valid among members of the executive board (for detailed information please refer to Bahar Sayın: 2015, 227). As stated by Güney, lifting of prohibition of making transaction for only some certain members, will be against the principle of equity (Akdağ Güney: 2016, 230). 9 This situation is similar to BGB 181 (Making transactions with its own is only possible if the transactions have prior consent and they are used in order to fulfillment of a debt). Since AktG §112 does not involve double representation, limited with this situation, BGB §181 may be applied to members of the executive boards of the corporations (Akdağ Güney: 2016, 214). 10 We believe that limitation of prohibition only with debts but not for collateral loans is not in competence with the essence of the arrangement. 11 The conditions of being indebted of shareholder members of the executive board are regulated in article 358 of TCC. In article 395 of TCC, collateral debts of members of the executive board who are not shareholders and their non shareholder relatives are not prohibited. In terms of directors that are not partners of limited companies, prohibition is not necessary (Özkorkut: 2012, 54 and after). 12 (For criticals please refer to Bilgili/Demirkapı: 2013, 398; Çamoğlu/Tekinalp/Poroy: 2014, 372 and after). 13 The prohibition of being indebted to company will not cause the invalidity of transaction but will cause responsibility before creditors of the company (Bilgili/Demirkapı: 2013, 398). 14 For critics claiming that the arrangement did not consider company law and rules of responsibility (Akdağ Güney: 2016, 235).

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This rule violates the legality principle of penal law since it does not clarify who have penal responsibilities (Bilgili/Demirkapı: 2013, 398). 16 This type of arrangement is against principle of protection of capital. Since there are not accurate rule on the amount ard duration for the money indebted, this may cause abuse (Pulaşlı: 2014, 480). 17 CMB Serial IV, Nr 56 numbered Circulation article 4.6.5, state that, the company is not allowed to give loans to any of the members of the executive board or any high level of executives, to make use of credits or to extend the duration of the already given debts and credits. Circlation on Determining and Implementing Institutional Administration Principles (30.12.2011 dated and 28158 numbered Official Gazette). 18 Çamoğlu claims that members being dominant partners of companies is not in competence with loyalty liability. (Çamoğlu/Tekinalp/Poroy: 2014, 373). 19 If the number of violator members are much and executive board can not be gathered, in this case general board takes the decisions on right of choice (Pulaşlı: 2014, 1170). 20 But on this subjects, two issues have to be takin into consideration. In case activity of the member of the executive board cause damage to the country, they are not allowed to use the information they obtained for their own commercial activities. Besides, if the member of the executive board is in concrete competition with the company, interests of corporation should be given priority (Crone: 2014, 287).

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ÇOCUĞUN SOSYALLEġMESĠNDE OYUN VE OYUNCAĞIN ÖNEMĠ: AYDIN ĠLĠ ÖZELĠNDE BĠR DEĞERLENDĠRME Yrd.Doç.Dr. Aynur ÖRNEK Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi, ĠletiĢim Fakültesi, Radyo Televizyon ve Sinema Bölümü [email protected] Yrd.Doç.Dr. Hicabi ARSLAN Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi, ĠletiĢim Fakültesi, Gazetecilik Bölümü [email protected] Yrd.Doç.Dr. Mustafa ASLAN Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi, ĠletiĢim Fakültesi, Radyo Televizyon ve Sinema Bölümü [email protected] -

Özet: İnsanoğlunun var olduğu her dönemde varlığını devam ettiren oyun, kültürel aktarımın en önemli araçları arasında sayılmaktadır. Çocuğun hem fiziksel hem de bilişsel gelişimine katkı sağlayan oyun ve oyuncak, çocuğun toplumla bütünleşmesine yardımcı olmaktadır. Çocuk yaşam için gerekli olan bilgi, beceri ve davranışları oyun ortamında öğrenme olanağı bulmaktadır. Bilim insanları, oyunun önemine farklı boyutlardan açıklık getirmeye çalışmış bu konuda araştırmalar yapmışlardır. Piaget, oyun ve bilişsel gelişim arasında temel bir ilişki olduğunu savunarak oyunun bilişsel gelişime dayalı üç evresini ( Alıştırmalı Oyun, Sembolik Oyun, Kurallı Oyun ) incelemiştir. Freud, oyunun çocuğun ruhsal ve kişilik gelişimi üzerindeki etkilerini araştırarak oyunun evrelerini değerlendirmiştir. Mildred Parten ise oyunun çocuğun gelişimindeki sosyal yönünü incelemiş, oyunu altı kategoriye ayırarak ( Ugrassız Davranış, Seyirci Oyun, Tek Başına Oyun, Paralel Oyun, Birlikte Oyun ve İşbirlikçi Oyun ) oyun davranışlarının çocuğun gelişimine bağlı olarak sıra ile oluştuğunu savunmuştur. Ehrmann’a göre oyunu yaşanan dış gerçeklikten soyutlamak doğru değildir. Toplumsal yaşamda oyun olarak kabul ettiğimiz olguları çıkardıktan sonra geride kalan gerçeklik, oyunun karşıtı olarak değerlendirilmemelidir. Bu nedenle oyun, kültür ve gerçeklik birbirinden ayrılmayan, karşılıklı etkileşim içinde olan olgulardır. Araştırmalar oyunun kültüre geçiş, çocuk oyunlarının da çocukların yetişkinlerin dünyasına katılmalarına yardımcı olan bir yol olduğunu göstermektedir. Bir başka deyişle oyunu ait olduğu toplumun kültürel bir ifadesi olarak kabul etmek mümkündür. Bu çalışmada da geçmişte Aydın ili ve çevresinde oynanan çocuk oyunlarından Dokuz Taş, Topaç, Sek Sek ve Mendil Kapmacanın(yaş ve cinsiyete göre belirlenen örneklem çerçevesinde ) çocuğun sosyalleşmesine olan katkıları araştırılmıştır. Çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Nitel araştırma, gözlem, görüşme, doküman analizi ve nitel veri toplama yöntemlerinin kullanıldığı araştırma yöntemidir. Çalışmada yazılı ve görsel dokümanların yanı sıra kaynak konumundaki kişilerle görüşmeler yapılmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Çocuk, Oyun, Oyuncak, Kültür, Sosyalleşme, Aydın

THE IMPORTANCE OF PLAY AND TOYS IN SOCIALIZATION OF THE CHILD: AN EVALUATION IN THE PROVINCE OF AYDIN

Abstract Play, which has existed through all ages of humanity, is considered to be one of the most important tools of cultural transfer. Play and toys, which contribute to both physical and cognitive development of the child,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN help in the integration of the child into the society. In play environment, the child finds the opportunity to acquire knowledge, skills and behaviors required in life. Scientists have conducted studies and attempted to reveal the importance of play from different perspectives. Piaget has argued that there is a fundamental relationship between play and cognitive development and studied three three stages of play based on cognitive development that (Practice Play, Symbolic Play, Games with Rules). Freud studied effects of play on mental and personality development of the child and assessed stages of play. Mildred Parten studies the the social aspect of play in the development of the child. She split play into six categories (Unoccupied, Onlooker, Solitary, Parallel, Associative and Co-operative) and has argued that play behaviors are formed in order depending on the development of the child. According to Ehrmann, play should not be isolated from the reality experienced. The reality that is left after removing phenomena considered as play in the social life should not be contrasted to play. For this reason, play, culture and reality are inseparable phenomena that interact with each other. Studies show that play is a tool that allows for the transition to culture and children’s games are tools that help them to join the world of adults. In other words, it is possible to consider play as a cultural expression of the society to which it belongs. This study investigates the contribution of some children’s games played in and around the province of Aydın on the socialization of the child (using a sample formed according to age and gender). The study utilizes the qualitative research method. The qualitative research method makes use of observation, interview, document analysis and qualitative data collection techniques. In addition to analysis of written and visual documents, the study includes interviews with people as resources. This study investigates the contributions of children’s games like Nine Rocks, Peg-Top, Hopscotch and Handkerchief Grabbing that used to be played around Aydın province to socialization of children (within the scope of the sample determined according to age and gender). Using methods like observation, interview, document analysis and qualitative data collection; qualitative research method was used in the study. As well as using written and visual documents; interviews were conducted with individuals providing resource in the study. Keywords: Child, Play, Toy, Culture, Socialization, Aydın

1. GiriĢ Çocuk oyunları ile ilgili yapılan çalışmalar çok eskilere dayanmamaktadır. Ülkemizde Onur ve Güney (2004:7) ‘’Türkiye’de Çocuk Oyunları: Araştırmalar‘’ adlı çalışmalarında oyunun günümüze kadar olan kuramsal gelişimine şu şekilde yer vermişlerdir: Friedrich Froebel, geliştirdiği kuram ile oyunun eğitsel değerine ilişkin görüşler ileri sürerken Herbert Spencer, oyunda uygulama kuramını geliştirmiştir. Stanley Hall ise Gross’un egzersiz kuramını yetersiz bularak oyunu özünü yineleme kuramına bağlayarak açıklamıştır. Jean Piaget de bilişsel gelişim kuramında Gross’un oyunun ön egzersiz olduğu ve öğrenmede önemli olduğu görüşünü eleştirerek oyunda özümlemeye dikkat çekmiştir. Piaget’e göre, oyunun temel işlevi tekrar yoluyla mevcut becerileri geliştirerek çocuğa egemenlik duygusu kazandırmaktır. Sigmund Freud ise oyun konusuyla doğrudan ilgilenmemesine rağmen psikanalitik kuram, oyun terapisi yaklaşımında etkili olmuştur. Freud’a göre oyun, gerçek yaşam içinde ortaya çıkması tehlikeli olan cinsel ve saldırgan dürtülerin güvenli biçimde ifade edilmesini sağlamakta, rahatlamaya yardımcı olmaktadır. Susan Isaacs ise oyunun duygusal, fiziksel, toplumsal ve bilişsel yararlarını birleştiren bir görüş geliştirerek oyunu çocuğun işi olarak değerlendirmiştir. Lev Vygotsky da oyun kuramında gelişimin duygusal ve bilişsel yönlerini birleştirmiştir. Oyun kuramları klasik ve modern olmak üzere iki kategoride incelenmektedir:

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN A. Klasik Oyun Kuramları a. Fazla Enerjiyi Harcama Kuramı: Kurama göre organizmada bulunan fazla enerji, amaçsız etkinlikler çerçevesinde oyun yoluyla harcanmaktadır. b. Dinlenme Kuramı: Fazla enerjiyi harcama kuramının tersine oyun, harcanan enerjiyi kazanmak bir başka deyişle enerji açığını kapatmak amacıyla oynanmaktadır. c. YetiĢkinlik YaĢamına Hazırlık Kuramı: Kuramın temsilcisi olan Gross’a göre oyun, çocuğun yaşamında ona yardımcı olacak, onu yaşama hazırlayacak doğal yeteneklerin ortaya çıkmasıdır. d.Tekrarlama Kuramı: Oyun, kalıtım yoluyla geçen bazı davranışların organizmadan uzaklaşması ve bireyin çalışmaya hazırlanmasıdır. e. Ġçgüdü Kuramı: Kuram, içgüdülerin gelişmesine yönelmiş davranışları oyun olarak değerlendirmektedir. B. Dinamik Oyun Kuramları a. Psikoanalitik Oyun Kuramları: Freud’a göre çocukların oyunları rastgele değildir. Oyunlar çocukların farkında oldukları ya da olmadıkları duyguları ifade eder. Denetimden uzak olan oyunda çocuğun duyguları, hayalleri ve fantezileri ortaya çıkmaktadır. Oyun gerçekliğin baskısında, geriliminde ve çatışmalarından çocuğun bir süre uzaklaşmasına ve güç kazanmasına yardımcı olmaktadır. Feud’dan farklı olarak Erikson ise oyunu yalnız psikoanalitik değil aynı zamanda fiziksel ve kültürel olgu olarak değerlendirmiştir. b. Piaget’in Oyun Kuramı: Piaget, oyunu insan davranışlarında var olan ve çocuğun zihinsel gelişimini destekleyen önemli bir öge olarak açıklamıştır. Piaget’e göre oyun zihinsel gelişimde olduğu gibi çeşitli dönemlere ayrılmaktadır. Bunlar b.1. AlıĢtırmalı Oyun (ĠĢlevsel Oyun-Duyu Motor Dönem): Çocuklar 0 – 2 yaş döneminde bedenlerini ve çevrelerini öğrenme aşamasındadır. Bu dönemde Piaget’in alıştırmalı oyun olarak tanımladığı oyun, çocuğun bedenini, nesneleri ve bunların fonksiyonlarını öğrenerek tekrarlaması, bu durumu oyun haline getirmesidir. b.2. Sembolik Oyun (Taklit Simgesel Oyun): Bu dönem 2 – 12 yaş arasını kapsamaktadır. Çocuk bu dönemin başlarında çevresinde bulunan kişileri, yaşadığı olayları, nesneleri ve hayvanları taklit etmeye başlar. Çocuk at gibi davranabilir, yalancıktan su içebilir yemek yiyebilir. Dönemin sonuna doğru çocuğun oyunu gerçeğe daha uygun olmaya başlar. Örneğin 7- 8 yaşlarından sonra oyunun gerçeğe uygun oynanması, kurallarının ve amaçlarının önceden belirlenmesine neden olmaktadır. b.3. Kurallı Oyun: Piaget’e göre kurallı oyun 12 yaşından sonra başlamaktadır. Somut işlemler döneminde çocuk, daha mantıklı, daha sosyal ve zihnindeki gerçekler daha kesindir. Bu dönemde kesin ve bazen karmaşık kuralları olan oyunlar oynanmaktadır. Saklambaç, sek sek ya da organize spor oyunları gibi beceri oyunları ve satranç, dama gibi zeka oyunları bu dönemin popüler oyunları arasında yer almaktadır. Bu oyunlar zeka, beceri ve kural bilgisi gerektiren oyunlardır. Yapısal oyunlar olarak da adlandırılan bu oyunlarda, oyunun temel kurallarını bilmeyen ya da bu kurallara uymayan çocuklar cezalandırılır ya da oyun dışı bırakılırlar.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN J.Huizinga, insanın kültürü oluştururken kullandığı oyunu ‘’Homo Ludens: Oyunun Toplumsal İşlevi Üzerine Bir Deneme ‘’ adlı kitabında şu şekilde açıklamıştır (Huizinga, 1995: 16): ‘’Oyun, özgürce razı olunan ama tamamen emredici kurallara uygun olarak belirli zaman ve mekan sınırları içinde gerçekleştirilen bizatihi bir amaca sahip olan, bir gerilim ve sevinç duygusu ile ‘ alışılmış hayattan başka türlü olmak’ bilincinin eşlik ettiği, bir eylem ve faaliyettir…’’. Huizinga, oyunun oyun olmayan başka bir şey karşısında ortaya çıktığını, bazı biyolojik beklentilere yanıt verdiğini savunmuştur. Huizinga’da oyun ‘’ Kendisinden başka bir şeye indirgenemeyen bir olgudur’’. Oyun, sadece biyolojik bir olgu da değildir. Aynı anda fazla enerjinin boşaltılması, dinlenme ve boşalma gereksiniminin karşılanması, hayata hazırlanmak, toplumun dolaysız doyumlarını yasakladığı içgüdülerin doyumlandırılması, kişinin kendi üstünlüğünü sınamak ve göstermek için toplumun diğer üyeleri ile yarışmaya girmesi vb.dir (Oskay, 2000:146). Huizinga, oyuna ilişkin açıklamalarında oyunun biçim açısından özgür, kurmaca ve olağan hayatın dışında yer aldığı bilinen ancak oyuncuyu özümleme yeteneğine sahip bir eylem olduğunu savunur. Ona göre oyun her türlü maddi çıkardan ve yarardan arınmış bir eylemdir. Bu eylem sınırlandırılmış zaman ve mekanda gerçekleştirilmektedir. Belirli kurallara uygun olarak düzen içinde gerçekleşen oyun, kendilerini gönüllü olarak çevreleyen ya da alışılmış dünyaya yabancı olduklarını kılık değiştirerek vurgulayan grup ilişkileri oluşturmaktadır. And, ‘’ Oyun ve Büyü ‘’ adlı kitabında Huizinga’ya göre oyunun önemli niteliklerini şu şekilde sıralamıştır (And, 2012: 28): 1.Oyun öncelikle isteğe bağlı gönüllü bir eylemdir. Ismarlama ya da zorlama ile yapılan oyun, oyun değildir. Bu nedenle genellikle boş zamanlarda gerçekleştirilir. 2. İkinci nitelik, oyunun özgürlüğü ile ilgilidir. Bu durum oyunun gerçek yaşam ya da günlük yaşamdan farklı olmasıdır. Oyun gerçek yaşamdan bire süre uzaklaşarak kendi düzeninin içine girmektedir. Çocuk oyun oynarken gerçek yaşamın dışında olduğunun farkındadır. 3. Oyun aynı zamanda günlük yaşamdan yer ve süre açısından da farklılaşır çünkü kendine özgü yer ve süre ile sınırlanmıştır. Oyun başlar ve belli bir süre sonra sona erer. Gelenek gibi sürekli ve tekrarlanma özelliği bulunmaktadır. Yalnızca süre bakımından değil yer bakımından da sınırlandırılmıştır. Oyun alanı fizik, uygunluk ve oyun kuralları bakımından belirlenmiştir. Araştırmalar sonrasında oyunun kültüre bir geçiş, çocuk oyunlarının da çocukların yetişkinler dünyasına katılmalarını sağlayan bir yol olduğu görüşü benimsenmiştir (And,1979). Bu nedenle oyunu açıklamak bir bakıma kültürü açıklamakla eşdeğer sayılabilir.

2. Oyun ve Kültür İnsanoğlu var olduğu günden itibaren ailesi, yakın çevresi ve içinde bulunduğu toplum ile etkileşim içinde bazı değerler kazanmaktadır. Bu değerler bütünü ise kültürü oluşturmaktadır. Kültür, tanımlanması en zor kavramlardan birisidir. Kavramın çok yönlü olmasının yanında tanımı yapan kişinin içinde bulunduğu disiplin ve yetişme tarzı da yapılan tanımın hem içeriğini belirlemekte hem de sınırlarını çizmektedir. Bilim adamlarından bazılarının kültürün farklı yönlerine dikkat çeken açıklamaları şu şekildedir: A.L.Krober ve T.Parsons’a göre kültür, ‘’İnsan davranışına ve davranış yolu ile meydana getirilen eserlere şekil veren değer, fikir ve sembolleşmiş mana sistemlerinin devredilen ve yaratılan muhteva ve örnekleridir’’ (DPT Milli Kültür, 1984:2).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN P. Sorokin ise kültürü ‘’ Sosyo-kültürel evrendeki açık seçik eylemlerin ve araçların ortaya koyduğu ve nesnelleştirdiği anlamlar, değerler ve kurallar, bunların etkileşim ve ilişkileri, bütünleşmiş grupları ‘’ olarak tanımlamaktadır ‘’ (Güvenç,2002:100). Ralp Linton’un yaptığı tanım ise şöyledir: ‘’Bir kültür, öğrenilmiş davranışlar ve bu davranışların sonuçlarından oluşan bir bileşimdir. Onu oluşturan ögeler belli bir toplumun üyelerince paylaşılır ve aktarılır ‘’ (Tezcan, 1984: 22). A.Schweitzer ise kültürü ‘’Bireyin kendisini gerçekleştirmesine ve bizzat gelişmenin gelişimine katkıda bulundukları ölçüde tüm alanlarda ve her bakımdan insan ve insanlığın ortaya koyduğu ilerlemelerin bütünü ‘’ biçiminde açıklamıştır ( Moles, 1983:17). Kültür, insanlığın ortak mirasıdır. Her millet dil, kültür ve tarih mirasıyla dünyadaki yerini almaktadır. Bireyin toplumsallaşmasını sağlayan kültür mirası aynı zamanda geçmişin tanığı sayılır ve geleceğin şekillenmesinde etkin bir rol üstlenir. Toplumsal yapı ise ait olduğu toplumun kültür ögeleriyle şekillenir. Toplumsal yapı, değerler ve kurumlar bütününün oluşturduğu, gelişme özelliği gösteren, bireyleri ortak noktalarda birleştiren sosyal yaşam biçimidir (Tural,1992). Fransız folklor uzmanı Caillois’ya göre oyunun öz havası kültüre gereklidir çünkü oyunlar tarihin akışı içinde kültürün kalıntılarıdır. Bir kültürün zaman aşımına uğraması ya da aşınması, başka bir kültürün etkisiyle değişime uğraması sonucunda kalıntılar anlamlarını kaybetmezler. Oyun, çocuğun içinde bulunduğu toplumda kendisine tanınan yer içinde kimliğini araştırmasıyla yakından ilişkilidir (Öğüt,2010). Çocuklar oyun aracılığı ile içinde yaşadıkları kültürün yapısal özelliklerini tanımaktadır. Farklı alanlarda çalışan araştırmacılar tarafından oyun olgusu kapsamlı bir şekilde incelenmiştir. Bu çalışmaların ortak sonucu, çocukluk döneminin ana aktivitesini oyun olduğudur. Peki oyun kavramı nasıl açıklanmaktadır?

3. Oyun kavramı Oyun, birçok araştırmacı tarafından araştırılarak çeşitli tanımlar yapılmıştır. Fromberg, oyunun düşünme ve sembolik, anlamlı, aktif, zevk veren, gönüllü, kurala ve olaylara dayanan bir etkinlikle karakterize edildiğini ifade etmektedir. Froebel ise oyunun önemine dikkat çekerek oyunun ciddi ve derin bir öneme sahip olduğunu çocukluk dönemindeki oyunun daha sonraki yaşamın tohumlarını attığını vurgulamaktadır. Piaget ise oyunu çocukların kendi çevrelerini anlamlı hale getirme, bu çevre içinde nasıl yer alacaklarını öğrenme yolu olarak değerlendirmektedir (Tuğrul, Ertürk, Altınkaynak, Güneş, 2014). Oyun, kültürel aktarımın en önemli araçlarındadır. Bu açıdan bakıldığında bireyin toplumsal kültürle birleşmesini ve içinde yaşadığı toplumla uyum sağlamasını mümkün kılan bir mekanizma olan toplumsallaşma ile oyun arasında güçlü ilişkilerin olduğu söylenebilir (Dönmezler 1994:141). Oyun, sağlıklı bireylerin gelişiminde önemli bir araçtır. Çocuğun isteyerek ve zevk alarak katıldığı fiziksel, zihinsel, dilsel, duygusal ve sosyal gelişiminin temeli olan oyun, geçmişten günümüze yaşamın ayrılmaz bir parçası ve etkili bir öğrenme aracıdır. Çocuklarla iletişim kurmanın, onların dünyasını anlamanın çeşitli yolları bulunmaktadır. Bu yolların en doğal olanı, en sık kullanılanı ve en sağlıklı sonuç vereni oyundur (Öğüt, 2010: 26). Oyun, bireylerin günlük uğraşlarının dışında kalan zamanlarında eğitim, eğlence gibi fiziksel ve zihinsel becerilerle sınırlandırılmış yer ve zamanda kendine özgü kurallarla oynanan, gönüllü katılım yoluyla grup oluşturan, sosyal uyum ve duygusal olgunluğu geliştiren beceri, zeka, dikkat ve rastlantıya dayanan, katılanları etkisi altında tutan, gerilim duygusunun eşlik ettiği, maddi çıkar sağlamayan zevk veren etkinliklerdir (Özdenk,2007: 53). Çocuk için sosyal, fiziksel ve kavramsal gelişim açısından en iyi eğitim programı oyun oynamaktır. Çocuk çeşitli malzemeleri kullanarak, diğer çocuklarla iletişim kurarak çevresini kontrol etmeyi,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN rekabet ve eğlence duygusunu birlikte yaşar. Yapılan araştırmalar beyin fonksiyonları ile öğrenme arasındaki bütünleşmenin çocuğun gelişimi açısından önemli olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Oyun oynamak aynı zamanda çocukların dünya ile ilgili temel bilgileri kazanmalarının bir yoludur. Bu bilgiler daha sonra öğrenecekleri dil, sanat, sosyal bilimler, matematik ve fen bilimleri ile ilgili tüm bilimlerin yolunu açmaktadır (www.planlama.org ). Oyun, çocuğun kendini tanımasına ve kendini başkalarından ayıran özelliklerinin bilincine varmasına yardımcı olmaktadır. Özellikle evcilik oyunları, hayal ve taklit oyunları ve çeşitli meslekleri dramatize etme gibi oyunlar çocuğa sosyal gelişimi açısından önemli katkılar sağlamaktadır. Çocuk oyun oynarken diğer insanlarla iletişim kurmayı, paylaşmayı, işbirliği ve yardımlaşmayı, birlikte problem çözmeyi öğrenmektedir. Oyun oynamak başkalarının haklarına saygı gösterme, oyun sırasını bekleme, sorumluluk alma, haklı haksız, doğru yanlış gibi değer ve kuralların öğrenilmesini desteklemektedir. Oyun oynayan çocuk diğer çocuklar ile birlikte olmanın zevkini tadarken onlarla oyun oynamak istiyorsa onlarla geçinmenin yollarını keşfetmesi gerektiğini anlar. Ayrıca oyun ile yapılan çeşitli etkinlikler hem el-parmak gibi küçük kasların hem de bacak-kol gibi kasların hareketlerindeki gelişimi desteklemektedir. Özellikle fizik gücü gerektiren koşma, atlama ve tırmanma gibi oyunlar vücudu çalıştırarak büyümeye katkı sağlamaktadır (Cirhinlioğlu, 2001). Vygotsky’e göre gerçek oyun 3 yaş dolaylarında, sosyodramatik oyundan ayrı tutmadığı –mış gibi oyunla başlamaktadır. Ona göre oyun daima toplumsal sembolik biçimde bir etkinliktir. Oyun tek bir çocuktan fazlasını kapsamakta ve oyun parçalarındaki konular, öyküler ve roller çocukların kendi toplumlarının sosyokültürel malzemelerini, kavrayışlarını ve oyun amacıyla kullanımlarını ortaya koymaktadır. Küçük bir çocuk yalnız oynadığında bile Vygotsky bu tür oyunların da oyunun konuları ve parçaları sosyokültürel ögeleri ifade ettiği için önemli ölçüde toplumsal olduğunu düşünmektedir (Nicolopoulou, 2004:146). Bu çerçevede kültürümüz içinde geçmişten günümüze kadar gelen süreçte kız çocuklarının daha çok bebeklerle, erkek çocuklarının ise arabalarla oynadığını görmekteyiz. Geleneksel oyuncaklar arasında yer alan ve çeşitli malzemelerden yapılan gelin bebekler ile arabalar, çocukların küçük yaşlardan itibaren toplumsal rollerini belirlemeye yardımcı olan önemli bir etken olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır.

Fotoğraf 1: Süpürgeden Gelin

Fotoğraf 2: Kağnı Arabası

Kaynak: Erkan Atalı

Kaynak: Erkan Atalı

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Fotoğraf 3: Tahtadan Araba Kaynak: Erkan Atalı

Vygotsky oyunun öğrenmede ve bilişsel gelişimde önemli bir role sahip olduğu görüşünü savunur. Çocuk, imgesel ortamı gerçekleştirmenin, ortamdaki kurallara bağlılığı gerektirdiğini öğrenmektedir. Bu gönüllü bir kabullenmedir. Hiç kimse çocuklara bu kuralları kabul ettirmez ancak çocuklar kurallara uymazlarsa oyun oynayamayacaklarını öğrenirler. Üstelik oyun her zaman bir öğrenme etkinliğidir. Öğrenmeyi, kuralları kavramayı, onların bir sistem oluşturduğunu görmeyi, onları inceleyerek biçimlendirmeyi ve oluşturdukları çeşitli alıştırma biçimlerinde ustalaşmayı gerektirmektedir. Basit –mış gibi oyun bile örneğin küçük bir kızın anneymiş gibi yapması, anne rolünün içerisindeki normalde dolaylı olan kuralları açığa çıkarmayı ve bunlara dikkat etmeyi gerektirmektedir. Bu gerekliliklere toplu olarak oynanan kurallı oyunlarda daha güçlü biçimde uyulmaktadır (Nicolopoulou, 2004:156). Çocukların oyun oynamaya başladıkları ilk günlerden itibaren kendi içlerine bir tiyatro oluşturduklarını düşünmek mümkün. Piaget’e göre bir uyum olan oyun, genellikle çocuklar arasında bir rol dağılımı ile tiyatro aşamasına gelmeden içsel diyaloglarla sürdürülebilir. Birkaç çocuğun birlikte oynadığı durumlarda ise her çocuğa düşen rol farklılaşıp bu rollerle özdeşleşmeyi gerçekleştirdikleri takdirde çocuklar oyunlarını kendileri yazan, doğaçlama oynayan tiyatro oyuncularına benzetilebilir. Uyum burada daha ön plana çıkmaktadır. Bu durumda çocuklar hem kendi oyun güçlerine hem de karşılarındakilerin oyununa etkide bulunma olanağına sahip olmaktadır. Bu tür oyunlar bazen oyuncaklarla zenginleştirilmiş diyaloglar biçiminde olabileceği gibi bazen de kas sistemini geliştiren aktif oyun biçimine de dönüşerek çocuğun enerjisini harcamasına yardımcı olur (Öcel, 2002:167). Toplu gerçekleştirilen oyunlarda çocuğun davranış biçimi aile içinde aldığı eğitimi yansıtmaktadır. Bu tür oyunlarda evde her istediği yapılan çocuk başlangıçta bazı zorluklar çekebilir. Oyun arkadaşlarına karşı bencil davranabilir ya da paylaşımdan uzak durabilir. İstediği olmadığında aile büyüklerine sığınır, ağlar, oyundan ayrılır. Oyun dışında kalan ya da kendi kendine oynamayı tercih eden çocuk uyum sorunu yaşar. Oyun sırasında saldırgan davranışlarda bulunan çocuk ise ya anne ve babasının tutumunu oyuna yansıtmakta ya da aile içinde sürekli bastırılmakta kısıtlanmaktadır. Oyunda sürekli arka planda kalan, arkadaşlarını izleyen çocuk ise başkalarına bağımlı bir kişilik özelliği göstermektedir. Kısaca ifade etmek gerekirse olumlu ve olumsuz kişilik özellikleri oyunda kendini göstermektedir. Oyun, kazanılan olumlu özelliklerin pekiştirildiği, geliştirildiği, olumsuz özelliklerin de değişime uğradığı bir ortamdır. Bu nedenle çocuk için oyunun eğitici, düzeltici bir işlevi

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN bulunmaktadır. Kendi hakkını korumak, başkalarının hakkına saygı göstermek, işbirliği ve paylaşım evde değil oyun ortamında kazanılan önemli toplumsal özelliklerdir (Yörükoğlu, 1998: 71). Yaş ile birlikte gelişen olgunlaşma, çocuğun diğer çocuklarla birlikte oynadığı oyunların sayısını artırırken yetişkin denetimine olan ihtiyacının da giderek azalmasına neden olur. Başlangıçta belirsiz hatta keyfi sayılabilecek oyun kuralları çocuk sosyalleştikçe grubun kabul ettiği ortak kurallara dönüşmektedir (Oktay, 2001: 45). Yavuzer’in de belirttiği gibi 2 yaş çocuğu ‘’sembolik oyunlar‘’ oynamaktadır. Oluşan istekleri karşılanmadığında ise oyun denen ‘’gerçekleştirilemeyen arzuların gerçekleştirildiği‘’ bir hayal dünyasının içine girer. Örneğin arabaya ya da ata binme isteği yerine getirilmediğinde odasına gidip ata ya da arabaya biniyormuş gibi davranabilir. Çocuk oyun oynarken hayal ürünü bir durum yaratmakta, bir at hayal edebilmek için bir sopayı at olarak kullanabilmektedir.

Fotoğraf 4: Geleneksel Oyuncaklar İçinde Yer Alan At Kaynak: Erkan Atalı

Çocuk evcilik oyunu oynarken anne rolünde ise anneliğe ait davranış kurallarını oyununa yansıtmaktadır. Annesinin kendisine söylediklerini o da taklit oyununda gerçekleştirir. Örneğin zorlayarak yemek yediren anne modelini bebeğine uygulayabilmektedir. Çocuğun oyunda uyguladığı rol ve onun nesneyle olan ilişkisi kurallardan kaynaklanmaktadır. Bu nedenle çocuğun dünyasında oyun hem gelişimi hem de eğitimi açısından önemli rolü olan bir etkinlik haline gelmektedir (Yavuzer, 1999: 139). Önder, oyun oynama davranışının gelişimini bireysel, paralel ve sosyal oyun dönemi olarak birbirini izleyen üç dönemde açıklamaktadır (Önder, 2001: 48-49). Bireysel ya da tek başına oyun döneminde 2 yaşından küçük çocuklar genellikle kendi kendileri ile oynamayı tercih etmektedir. Bu dönemde çocuklar çevrelerinde bulunan nesneleri itme, çekme, atma, iç içe koyma, yuvarlama, vurma gibi davranışlar gösterebilir, bir yetişkinle birlikte küpleri üst üste dizebilirler. Bununla birlikte çocukların bu dönemde yaptığı bu tür davranışlar sosyal oyun olma özelliğinden uzaktır. Çocuklar 2 yaşından itibaren ise paralel oyun döneminde başka çocuklarla oynamaya başlamakta ancak genellikle kendi oyunları ile meşgul olmayı ve kendi oyunları ile baş başa kalmayı tercih etmektedir. Bu dönemde de bireysel oyun döneminde olduğu gibi çocukların sosyal

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN etkileşime dayalı oyun oynadıklarını söylemek zordur. Üç yaş dolaylarında ise çocukların sosyal oyun dönemi başlamaktadır. Başka çocuk ya da çocuklarla grup halinde oyun oynamaya başlayan çocukta oyun grubu önem kazanmaktadır. Grup oyunları sosyal etkileşim gerektirdiği için çocuğun sosyalleşmesinde önemli bir rol üstlenmektedir. Bu dönemde oynanan oyunlar az çok kurallı, sözlü ve sözsüz iletişime dayalı, işbirliği ve rol oynamayı gerektiren oyunlardır. Gönen ve Dalkılıç, grup oyunlarını çocukların yetişkin yaşamına hazırlanmasında en önemli unsur olarak değerlendirmektedir. Çocuklar öğrenmeye, sevmeye ve sevilmeye, başkaları tarafından kabul edilmeye, bir grubun üyesi olmaya gereksinim duymaktadır. Bütün bunlar çocuğun temel ruhsal gereksinimleridir. Bu nedenle grup oyunları (Gönen, Dalkılıç, 2000) ; 1. 2. 3. 4.

Çocuğun çevresiyle ilişkisini sağlamaktadır. Çocuğun bilinci ve duygusal deneyimi arasında köprü görevi görmektedir. Çocuğun duygularını dışa yansıtmasına yardımcı olmaktadır. Çocuğa dinlenme ve eğlenme olanağı vermektedir.

Çeşitli kaynaklar çocukların oyun aracılığı ile gerçek dünyayı, toplumsal yaşamı tanımaya başladığını belirtmektedir. Bu nedenle çocuk, oyun oynarken iyi-kötü, haklı-haksız gibi kavramları anlamakta, duygusal tepkilerini denetim altına almayı, kendisine güvenmeyi ve disiplini öğrenmekte ve sevgi gereksinimini karşılamaktadır. Geleneksel oyunlar çerçevesinden baktığımızda arkadaşları ile oyun oynarken büyüklerinden ilgi beklemeyeceği için benmerkezcilikten uzaklaşmakta büyüklere olan bağımlılığı giderek zayıflamaktadır. Oyun içinde işbirliği, yardımlaşma, paylaşma, kurallara uyma gibi değerleri kazanan çocuğun özellikle sosyal iletişimi gelişmektedir. Bu nedenle bireysel, sosyal ve ruhsal gelişimde oyunun önemli bir etkiye sahip olduğunu kabul etmek mümkündür (Fırat, 2013:886). Oyunun etkileri türlerine göre farklılık gösterirken genel etkileri şu şekilde sıralamak mümkündür (Özer, Gürhan, Ramazanoğlu,2006): 1. 2. 3. 4.

Oyunu fiziksel açıdan etkisi. Oyunun sosyal açıdan etkisi. Oyunun psikolojik ve duygusal açıdan etkisi. Oyunun zihinsel açıdan etkisi.

Oyun çocuğun fiziksel açıdan gelişimine önemli katkılar sağlamaktadır. Koşma, kovalama, taş vb. şeyleri fırlatma, atlama, tırmanma gibi fiziksel gücü gerektiren oyunlar çocuğun vücudunun düzgün ve orantılı gelişimine yardımcı olmakta, kemik ve kas yapısının güçlenmesine destek sağlamaktadır. Sekerek oynanan sek sek ve çizgi türü oyunlar vücudun denge unsurunu geliştiren hareketli oyunlardır. Toplumsal yaşamın sürekliliğini ve düzenini sağlayan kurallar yaşantımızda davranış alışkanlıkları sağlamaktadır. Çocuk da yaşadığı sosyal çevre içindeki görev ve sorumluluklarını oyun içinde yaşayarak öğrenmektedir. Aile içinde anne, baba ve kardeşleri arasındaki rolü, çevresindeki büyüklerine ve arkadaşlarına yönelik tutum ve davranışları oyun içinde belirginleşmektedir. Oyun bir grup çalışmasıdır ve kendi içinde kuralları bulunmaktadır. Bu kurallara uymayanlar oyun dışında kalmaktadır. Oyunun bu özelliği çocuğa kurallara uymayı öğretmektedir. Çocuklar oyun içinde başkalarının haklarına saygı göstermeyi, yenilgiyi kabullenmeyi öğrenmek zorunda kalırlar. Hemen hemen bütün oyunlarda çocuğun sosyal açıdan gelişimine yararı olacak davranışlar bulunmaktadır. Oyunda edinilen kendi hakkını savunma, arkadaşlarına karşı saygı, hoşgörü, işbirliği, kurallara uyma, doğru-yanlış ayrımı yaparak iyiyi-doğruyu özümseme ve üyesi olduğu grubun çıkarlarını koruma, toplum kültürünü öğrenme gibi bazı özellikler toplumsal yaşamı öğreten sosyal değerlerdir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Psikolojik gelişim ile sosyal gelişim aslında birbirinden ayrı gelişmemektedir. Çocuk toplum kurallarını, gelenek ve görenekleri, iyiyi ve kötüyü, doğruyu ve yanlışı öğrenirken bir başka ifadeyle sosyal olarak gelişirken öğrendikleri onun kişiliğini de şekillendirmektedir. Arkadaşları ile oyun oynayan çocuk, karşısındakine saygı duymaya, disiplinli olmaya ve kurallara uymaya çaba göstermek zorundadır. Bu kurallar yalnızca çocuğu sınırlandırmamakta aynı zamanda mesafeli özgürlüğünü sağlamasına da yardımcı olmaktadır. Bu durum çocuğa kendi karakterini gerçekleştirme olanağı sağlamaktadır. Oyun, çocuğun kendini ifade edebilme ve anlatma gelişimine de önemli katkılar sağlamaktadır. 2-3 yaş döneminde bebeği ile oynayan çocuk, bebekle konuşur ona ninni söyler. 4-5 yaş döneminde arkadaşları ile oynarken oynadığı role uygun konuşmaya çalışır. 5 yaşından sonra ise oynanan oyunların genelinde çocuklar birbirleriyle diyalog kurmakta, bazı oyunlarda şarkı, tekerleme söylemektedirler. Masallar ve hikayeler, tekerlemeler, şarkılar, türküler çocuğun dil gelişimine olumlu katkı sağlamakta, topluluk karşısında sıkılmadan konuşmasına, düşüncelerini düzgün biçimde ifade etmesine yardımcı olmaktadır (www.gelenekseloyun.org / ). Çocuğun zihinsel gelişimi ise fiziksel, sosyal ve psikolojik gelişiminden ayrı olarak düşünülememelidir. Söz konusu gelişim alanlarının tamamı birlikte gelişmekte ve birbirini tamamlamaktadır. Oyun çocukların zeka gelişimine de katkı sağlamakta oyun oynarken karşılaşılan sorunların çözümü, çocukların sorunları çözme becerilerinin bir başka ifadeyle zekalarının gelişimine yardımcı olmaktadır. Pek çok oyun düşünceye dayanmakta ve rakibi akıl yöntemleriyle yenme kuralına dayanmaktadır. Örneğin mangala, üçtaş ve dokuztaş gibi oyunlar ağırlıklı olarak zekaya dayanan oyunlardır. Bu oyunlarda çocuk kendi oyununu oynarken rakibinin nasıl hamle yapacağını da bilmek durumundadır. Bu nedenle oyuna dikkatini vermek, rakibini izlemek oyunun vazgeçilmezleri arasındadır. Kaynaklar, zeka oyunlarının çocuklarda mantık yürütme, merak, yaratıcı düşünme, algılama ve anlama becerilerini geliştirerek zihinsel ve bilişsel gelişimine önemli katkılar sağladığını belirtmektedir. Özetlemek gerekirse çocuk oyun oynayarak; 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Düşünmeyi ve kendi başına karar vermeyi öğrenir. Sorumluluk almayı, işbirliği yapmayı ve paylaşmayı öğrenir. Hayal gücünü, becerilerini ve yaratıcılığını geliştirir. Dikkatini bir noktaya toplamayı ve becerilerini organize etmeyi öğrenir. Kendini tanımayı öğrenir. Saldırganlık dürtüsünü bastırmayı öğrenir. Farklı sosyal roller deneme ve duygularını dışa vurma olanağını bulur. Kas gelişimini güçlendirir. Çevresini araştırma, objeleri tanıma ve sorun çözme olanağını bulur. Kendisini ifade etmeyi, ifade edilenleri anlamayı öğrenir. Toplu yaşam için gerekli olan sosyal kuralları öğrenir.

Bu çalışmada geleneksel oyunlar içinde yer alan mangala, sek sek, topaç ve mendil kapmaca oyunları, genel özellikleri, yapıları, oynandığı mekanlar, kuralları ve çocuk üzerinde etkili olduğu gelişim alanları üzerinde durulmuştur. Geçmişte birçok bölgede olduğu gibi Aydın ili ve çevresinde de oynanan bu oyunların özellikle çocukların sosyalleşmesine olan katkıları araştırılmıştır. Mangala Dünyanın birçok bölgesinde oynanmış olan mangala ülkemizde dolayısıyla Aydın ili ve çevresinde de oynanan geleneksel oyunlar içinde yer almaktadır. Yaş ve cinsiyet farkı gözetilmeden oynanabilen mangala, zeka ve strateji oyunu olarak kabul edilmektedir. Oyun, çocukların zeka kapasitelerinin zihinsel, sosyal ve duyuşsal becerilere dönüşmesini sağlamakta, bu beceriler günlük yaşamda

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN karşılaşılan sorunlara yaratıcı çözümler bulmayı kolaylaştırmaktadır. Oyunun iki, dört ya da başka sıralarda oynanmasına göre farklı adları ve oynanma biçimleri bulunmaktadır. Geçmişte Türklerin oynadığı mangala oyununu diğer mangala türü oyunlardan ayıran bazı özellikleri bulunmaktadır.

Fotoğraf:5 (Mangala Oyunu ilk Uygulama Örneklerinden, Fotoğraf Onur Tatar)

Farklı ülkelerde oynanan mangala oyununda taşlar genellikle ‘’ tohum ‘’ adını almaktadır. Taşları hareket ettirme ise ‘’ tohum saçma ‘’ olarak bilinmektedir. Bu durum söz konusu kültürlerin ziraat ile uğraşan toplum olduklarını göstermektedir. Türk Mangalası’ nda ise taşlar ‘’ asker ‘’ olarak kabul edilmektedir. Ayrıca günümüze ‘’ hazine ‘’ olarak geçen bölüme Türkler ‘’ orda ‘’ yani ‘’ karargah ‘’ adını vermişlerdir. Bu durum oyunun bir çiftçilik oyunu değil savaş oyunu olduğunu göstermektedir. Türk Mangalası’nın bir diğer farkı ise alınan taşlardan bir tanesinin oyuncunun kendi otağına bırakmasıdır. Oysa diğer mangala oyunlarında kendi otağına taş bırakma kuralı bulunmamaktadır. Kendi otağına taş bırakma kuralı Türk sosyal yaşamında baba ocağına sahip çıkma geleneğinin bir sonucudur. Bir başka fark ise rakibin taşlarını çift yapma kuralıdır. Bu durum Türk inanç ve devlet sistemi yapısındaki ikili anlayışı sembolize etmekte, Türklerin geleneksel dünya görüşünü yansıtmaktadır. Eski Türklerin göğü baba, yeri ana olarak kabul etmesini, Türk devlet sistemindeki töles-sol ve tardus-sağ ile idari yapıdaki yabgu ve şad sistemi gibi çiftleri bu duruma örnek göstermek mümkündür. Yaş ve cinsiyet farkı gözetilmeden oynanan mangala kabul etmesini, Türk devlet sistemindeki töles-sol ve tardus-sağ ile idari yapıdaki yabgu ve şad sistemi gibi çiftleri bu duruma örnek göstermek mümkündür (www.mangala.com.tr). Araştırmacı Philip Townshend’e göre bir toplumda insanlarda en çok beğenilen ve örnek alınan özelliklerden yedi tanesi mangala oyunu ile ilgilidir: 1. Kurnazlık: Oyunun stratejisini planlayarak, oyunun kurallarını kendi çıkarları doğrultusunda kullanabilmek. 2. Uyanıklık: Karşısındakinin kurnazlığına karşı savunma ve çeşitli önlemler geliştirebilmek. 3. Esneklik: Beklenmedik durumlarda tepki gösterebilme yeteneği geliştirebilmek. 4. Önceden Görme: Hazırladığı oyun stratejisine karşı rakibinin tepkisini tahmin edebilme yeteneği geliştirmek.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 5. Direnme: Rakibin tüm manevralarına karşın kendi planını sonuna kadar devam ettirebilme yeteneği geliştirmek. 6. Sağgörü: Rakibinden plan ve gücünü gizleyebilme yeteneği geliştirmek. 7. Bellek: Rakibinin sağgörüsüne rağmen onun durumunu ve gücünü tahmin edebilme yeteneği geliştirmek (And, 1979:9). Aydın ili ve çevresinde geleneksel oyuncaklar konusunda çalışmalar yapan, ürettiği oyuncakları farklı mekanlarda sergileyerek kültürel değerlerimizin tanıtımına önemli katkılar sağlayan Erkan Atalı ile yapılan görüşme sonrasında oyun hakkında edindiğimiz bilgiler şunlar: ‘’Anadolu’nun çeşitli bölgelerinde farklı isimler altında oynanan Mangala, Aydın ili ve köylerinde ‘’Malak‘’ , Denizli ili ve köylerinde ‘’Yalak‘’ adı ile oynanmaktadır. Oyun ,Arapça taşıma anlamına gelen ‘’Nakil‘’ adı ile bilinmektedir. Taşların bir kuyudan diğerine aktarılmasına dayanan bir oyun olduğu için bu ad uygun olabilir ancak başka değerlendirmelerde yapılabilir. Yapılan araştırmalarda 101 tane mangala oyun çeşidinin olduğu tespit edilmiştir ‘’.

Fotoğraf 6: (Fotoğraf Onur Tatar, Erkan Atalı ile Yapılan Görüşme)

Oyunun Kuralları: 

Oyunda 14 ya da 12 çukur kullanılmaktadır. Ayrıca her oyuncu oyunda kazanacağı taşlarını koymak için bir kale çukuruna sahiptir.

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Her iki oyuncu oyun başında kendi tarafındaki 6 çukura 4 taş koyarak oyuna başlar.

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İlk oyuncu kendi tarafındaki çukurlardan birini seçer. Çukurun içindeki taşları, saatin tersi yönünde ilerleyerek sıradaki çukurlara birer birer bırakarak ilerler.

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Dağıtılan son taş ile çukurdaki taş sayısı 2 ya da 4'e ulaştığında çukurdaki taşlar çukurun kimin tarafında olduğuna bakılmaksızın kazanılmış olur ve oyuncunun kalesine katılır.

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Bu çukurdan önceki çukurlarda da 2 veya 4 taş bulunuyorsa bu taşlar da kazanılmış olur.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 

Oyuncular sıra ile bir kez oynar. Bir oyuncunun o anda kendi tarafındaki çukurlarda taşı kalmamışsa oyuncu o oyun için sırasını geçirmiş sayılır.

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Bütün çukurlar boşaldığında oyun sona erer. Oyun sonunda kalesinde en çok taş biriktiren oyuncu oyunu kazanır ( https:// tr.wikipedia.org ).

Fotoğraf 7: Mangala Oyuncuların Taşları İle Bir Sıra Oluşturmaya Çalıştığı Bir Oyundur (Fotoğraf: Onur Tatar, Erkan Atalı’nın Yaptığı Mangala)

And, yalnız iki kişinin değil iki takımın da oynayabileceği mangala oyunlarının olduğunu, bu oyunlarda çukur sayısının her sırada 36 ve üzeri olabileceğini belirtmektedir. Toplumların durumuna göre mangala oyununun olumlu ve olumsuz etkilerinin olabileceğini belirten And, dengeli ve barış içindeki toplumlarda oyunun toplumsal birliği ve dayanışmayı sağladığını, bunalım içindeki toplumlarda ise ters bir etki yarattığını belirtir (And, 1979).

Topaç Genellikle köşeleri yuvarlatılmış koni şeklinde, sivri ucu üzerinde ve dikey bir eksen etrafında dönen topaç, tek ya da birkaç kişi ile oynanabilen geleneksel bir oyundur. Anadolu’nun farklı bölgelerinde farklı isimlerle tanınan topaç, geçmişte meşe palamudu, fındık, ceviz gibi meyvelerin arkalarına kibrit çöpü takılarak yapılırken günümüzde topacın yapıldığı malzemeler ahşap, plastik, cam, boncuk ve seramik gibi malzemelerdir. Topaç, genellikle dış mekanlarda oynanan bir oyundur. Uzmanlara göre, dış mekanlarda oynanan oyunlar çocukların öğrenme becerileri artırmakta, fiziksel ve sosyal gelişimlerini olumlu yönde etkilemektedir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

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Fotoğraf 8: Topaç Kaynak: Erkan Atalı Genel olarak iki türlü topaç oyunundan söz etmek mümkündür: 1. Yere bir daire çizilir ve topaçlar dairenin içine yerleştirilir. Oyunculardan biri, topacını bu dairenin içine döndürerek bırakır ve dairenin içindeki topaçları dairenin dışına çıkarmaya çalışır. Dairenin dışına çıkan topaçlar oyuncunun olur. 2. Zaman yarışı yapılarak, aynı anda döndürülen topaçlardan hangisi daha fazla dönerse yarışmayı o oyuncu kazanır. Erkan Atalı, topaç ile oynanan oyunları üç grup altında toplamaktadır: 1. Elle Döndürülen Topaç: İki parmak arasına alınan topaç, döndürme hareketi verilerek yere bırakılır.

Fotoğraf 9: Elle Döndürülen Topaç Kaynak: Erkan Atalı 2.Ġple ( Kaytanla ) Döndürülen Topaç: Topaca ip sarılır. Başparmak ile işaret parmağı arasına alınan topaç, hızla ileri atılırken topaca sarılı ipin diğer ucu hızla çekilir. İpten kurtulan topaç dönmeye başlar.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Fotoğraf 10: İple Döndürülen Topaç Kaynak: Erkan Atalı 3.Kırbaçla Döndürülen Topaç: İple döndürülen topaca göre daha büyüktür. Topaca sarılı ipin diğer ucuna 50 cm kadar ince sopa bağlanmaktadır. Sopanın ucundaki ip topaca sarılır ve sopa aniden çekilir. İpten kurtulan topaç dönmeye başlar. Oyuncu dönme sırasında kırbaçla topaca vurur. Topaca vurulan kırbaç darbeleri topacın dönmesini sağlar

Fotoğraf 11: Kırbaçla Döndürülen Topaç

Çocukların fiziksel ve sosyal gelişimlerine olumlu katkıları olan topaç, şarkılı bir oyun olması nedeniyle çocukların dil gelişimlerini de olumlu yönde etkilemektedir. Topaç ile ilgili şarkılardan birisi şu şekildedir: Ne de güzel topacım var, Ucu süslü kırbacım var, Gel bu Pazar bizim eve, Döndürelim döve döve.

Sek Sek Oyunu

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Genellikle kız çocuklarının oynadığı seksek oyununda yere bir şekil çizilir. Elinde yassı bir taş bulunan oyuncu sıra ile önce birinci kareye taşı atar. Taşın bulunduğu kareye basmadan tek ayak ile sekerek iler. 4 ve 5 numaralı kareye iki ayak ile basılır. 6. karede yine tek ayak ile sekilir. 7. ve 8. kareye iki ayak birden basar ve geri dönülerek aynı şekilde sekmeye devam edilir. Taş bulunduğu kareden alınır ve bir sonraki kareye taşın atılması ile oyun devam eder. Oyunun kuralı gereği oyuncular sıra ile bütün karelere taşı isabet ettirmek durumundadır. Taş çizginin üzerine gelirse ya da oyuncu yanlışlıkla dengesini kaybedip karelere çift ayak ile basarsa oyunu kaybeder ve sıra diğer oyuncuya geçer. Kaybeden oyuncu, sıra tekrar kendisine geldiğinde taşı kaldığı kutuya atarak oyuna devam eder. Oyunun tamamlanmasını zorlaştırmak için oyuncular karar alarak yanlış yapan oyuncuya en başa yani birinci kareye dönme cezası verebilirler. Bu durumda oyun hem uzun sürer hem de hiç hata yapmadan tüm karelere taşı isabet ettirerek eksiksiz seken oyuncu oyunu kazanır.

Şekil 1: Sek Sek Oyun Çizgisi

Çocuk Oyunları Kulüpleri Konfederasyonu’na bağlı faaliyet gösteren Çelik-Çomak Federasyonu Başkanı Tamer Tunç ile yapılan görüşmede Tunç şu açıklamalarda bulunmuştur: ‘’ Çocuklar, liderlik ve kurallara uyma gibi özellikleri geleneksel oyunlarla kazanmaktadır. Bu oyunların çocukların bedensel ve sosyal gelişimlerine olumlu katkıları bulunmaktadır. Oysa günümüz çocuklarının hızlı kentleşme süreci içinde kendilerini sosyalleştirecek alanları bulunmamaktadır. Çocuklar genellikle evde oturup internette zaman geçirmektedir. Bu durum hem bedensel hem de zihinsel olarak çocukları olumsuz yönde etkilemekte sosyalleşme açısından sıkıntılar yaratmaktadır’’. Düzenledikleri çeşitli seminer ve yarışmalarla geleneksel çocuk oyunlarını hem yurt içi hem de yurt dışında tanıtmayı amaçladıklarını belirten Tunç, okullarda da öğretmenlere bu oyunları öğreterek ders aralarında çocukların öğretmenler eşliğinde geleneksel oyunları oynamalarına yardımcı olduklarını ifade etmiştir. Newcomb, sosyalleşmeyi ‘’Bireyin çocukluğundan itibaren toplumdaki sosyal ilişkilere girerek elde ettiği tutum ve davranışlar‘’ olarak tanımlamaktadır. Sosyalleşme yaşam boyu devam eden bir süreçtir. Bu süreç içinde öğrenme duygusu ön plana çıkmakta, birey aktif öğrenen rolünü üstlenmektedir. Sosyalleşme etkenleri arasında ilk grubu aile ve arkadaşlar, ikinci grubu okul, toplumsal dernek ve örgütler, üçüncü grubu da kitle iletişim araçları oluşturmaktadır. Oyunun genellikle bireyin diğer insanlarla gerçekleştirdiği bir eylem olması nedeniyle oyun sırasında kurulan etkileşimler başkalarından yeni şeyler öğrenmeyi, başkalarına da yeni şeyler öğretmeyi kapsamaktadır (Arslan, Bulgu, 2010: 8-22). Oyun sırasında çocuk ile yetişkin arasında kurulan iletişim, örneğin anne-baba ya da okullarda öğretmenler ile çocuklar arasında oluşan iletişim ortamı karşılıklı olumlu duyguların

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN gelişmesine olanak sağlamaktadır. Bununla birlikte çeşitli oyun etkinlikleri ve oyuncaklar, yalnızca geleneksel değer ve tutumların kuşaklararası aktarımı gibi sosyalleşme amaçlarına katkı sağlamakla kalmamakta değişim ve yeniliğe de olanak sağlamaktadır. Sek sek oyununda da çocuklar sıraya girmekte, kimse kimsenin sırasını almamaktadır. Böylece çocuklar sabretmeyi, birbirlerinin hakkına saygı göstermeyi, bu duruma uymayanlara karşı tavır alarak kendi haklarını korumayı öğrenmektedir. Bir başka ifadeyle bu oyun da çocukların sosyal gelişimine yardımcı olarak onları sosyal yaşamın kurallarına hazırlamaktadır.

Mendil Kapmaca Hem kız hem de erkek çocukların oynadığı bir oyun olan mendil kapmaca oyununda oyun aracı olarak da mendil kullanılmaktadır. Oyun, eşit sayıda oyuncudan oluşan iki takım arasında oynanır. Takımlar aralarında 20-25 m aralık bırakacak biçimde karşılıklı birer sıra halinde dizilir. İki sıranın ortasındaki alanın ortasına bir çizgi çizilir ve oyunu yöneten bir kişi elinde mendili tutar. Mendili tutan kişinin komutu ile birlikte grubun ilk sırasında olan oyuncular hızla koşarak mendili almaya çalışırlar. Mendili alan oyuncu diğer oyuncuya yakalanmadan kendi grubuna ulaştığı zaman oyunu kazanmış olur. Mendili alamayan oyuncu, mendili alan oyuncu grubuna ulaşmadan ona dokunmaya çalışır. Oyuncu, mendili alan oyuncuya dokunursa oyunu dokunan grup kazanır. Kazanan grup bir sayı elde eder. Oyun, tüm oyuncular oynayıncaya kadar bu şekilde devam eder. Hangi grup daha çok sayı alırsa o grup oyunu kazanmış olur.

Mendil kapmaca oyunu, tüm oyunculara hem oyun alanı içinde (hücum ve savunma) hem de oyun alanı dışında (sıralanma ve arkadaşını destekleme) oynama hakkı vermektedir. Oyunun özelliklerini şu şekilde açıklamak mümkündür:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Sıralanma. Kazandıkça yeniden yarışma hakkı. Hücum. Savunmada rakibi takip. Mendil kapma. Oyuncuların hücum ya da savunmada diğer oyuncuları dikkatli gözlemeler ve izlemeleri.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Fotoğraf 12: Mendil Kapmaca

Mendil kapmaca oyununda sırasını bekleyen oyuncu, iki heyecanı birlikte yaşamaktadır. Öncelikle kendisinden önce yarışan oyuncunun başarısı ya da başarısızlığı onun performansını etkilemektedir. Ayrıca oyun sırası kendisine geldiğinde tüm gücü ile koşarak mendili kapmaya çalışacaktır. Oyunculardan birisinin başarısının diğerlerini etkilediği oyun alanında yardımlaşma ve görev sorumluluğu artmaktadır. Oyunda oyuncu sıralaması, rakip takımı tanımakla daha doğru gerçekleştirilir. Bu durum oyun liderliğini oldukça önemli hale getirmektedir. Sıralama kavramı, ilk yarışta oyuna müdahale etme hakkını oyun liderine veren mendil kapmacanın kuralları, ikinci sıralamanın galibiyet ve yenilgi esasına göre oluşacağı için tüm oyuncuların birbiri ile yarışmasına olanak sağlamaktadır. Bu nedenle oyunun içinde dışarıdan müdahale ortadan kalkmaktadır ( www.coskf.org.tr / ). Mendil kapmaca oyununda bireysel başarı yerine grubun başarısı ön plana çıkmakta, çocuklar oyunu kazanabilmek için uyum içinde çalışma, işbirliği yapmak ve yardımlaşmak durumundadır. Grup içinde aynı amaç için mücadele etmek çocuğu ben duygusundan biz duygusuna yöneltmekte bencillikten uzaklaştırmaktadır. Her çocuk oyunu kazanmak adına üzerine düşen sorumluluğu yerine getirmek için çaba sarf etmektedir. Özetlemek gerekirse geleneksel oyun ve oyuncaklar sayesinde çocuklar; 1. Paylaşma, yardımlaşma, sorumluluk alma, işbirliği yapma, sırasını bekleme, kurallara uyma gibi sosyal becerilerini geliştirmektedir. 2. En güçlü dürtülerinden biri olan saldırganlık dürtülerini azaltmaktadır. 3. Değişik sosyal rolleri deneme, duygularını dışa vurma olanağı bulmaktadır. 4. Oyun sırasında sevinç, mutluluk, korku, kaygı, dostluk, sevme, sevilme, güven duyma gibi birçok duygusal tepkiyi öğrenebileceği gibi bazı duygusal tepkilerini de kontrol etmeyi öğrenmektedir. 5. Başladığı bir işi devam ettirebilme ve sonuçlandırma gibi becerilerini geliştirmektedir. 6. Kurallara uyma alışkanlığı kazanıp, başkalarına saygılı davranmayı ve dinlemeyi öğrenmektedir.

Karsten, 1950, 1960 ve 2003 yıllarında çocukların oyun alanlarını incelediği araştırmasında, 1950 ve 1960 yıllarında çocukların günlük yaşamlarında büyük benzerlikler olduğunu tespit etmiştir. Bu kuşakta oyun oynamanın ‘’dışarıda oyun oynamak‘’ anlamına geldiğini ifade eden Karsten, çocukların özgürce hareket ettiğini, arkadaşlık kurduğunu ve halka açık mekanları oyun alanı olarak kullandıklarını belirtmiştir. 2003 yılında ise çocukların günlük yaşamına bakıldığında, bulguların 1950 ve 1960 yıllarındaki bulgulardan farklı olduğu görülmüştür. Günümüz çocuklarının hareket alanı sınırlanmış, arkadaş sayısı azalmış ve dış mekandan çok iç mekan oyunlarına yönelmişlerdir. Karsten,‘’dış mekan çocukları‘’, ‘’iç mekan çocukları ‘’gibi farklı kuşaklarda oluşan çocuklar dışında literatüre farklı tanım getirerek günümüzdeki çocukların ‘’arka sıradaki çocuklar ‘’olduklarını belirtmiştir. Bu çocuklar büyükleri tarafından sürekli izlenen ve genellikle büyüklerinin yönlendirdiği çeşitli etkinlikler katılan çocuklardır (Tuğrul, Ertürk, Altınkaynak, Güneş, 2014). Yavuzer ise günümüzde geleneksel oyun ve oyuncakların yerini legoların, barbie bebeklerin, robotların, uzaktan kumandalı oyuncaklar ve bilgisayar oyunlarının aldığını belirtmekte, çocukların özellikle bilgisayar oyunlarına yönelmeleri sonucunda arkadaşlarıyla yüz yüze iletişim kurabildiği dış mekan oyunlarının azaldığını vurgulamaktadır. (Yavuzer, 1999)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4. Sonuç Geleneksel oyunlar çocuğun zihinsel, fiziksel, psikolojik ve sosyal gelişiminde önemli bir etkinlik olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. Günümüzde yaşanan hızlı teknolojik gelişmeler, toplumsal yaşam içinde bireylerin birbirine duyduğu güven eksikliği, uygun oyun mekanlarının yeterince bulunmaması çocukların evlere kapanmasına neden olmaktadır. Evlerinde televizyon ve bilgisayar karşısında tek başına vakit geçiren çocuklar toplumsal yaşamdan uzaklaşarak yalnızlaşmakta, yardımlaşma, paylaşma, kurallara uyma gibi değerleri öğrenemedikleri için sosyal gelişimlerinde sorunlar yaşamaktadır. Geleneksel oyunlar bir toplumun yaşam biçimini ortaya koymakta, çocuğun toplumsal değer ve tutumları kazanmalarına yardımcı olmaktadır. Bu nedenle çocukların milli kimliklerini edinmeleri, kendi kültür ve değerlerini tanımaları için geleneksel oyun ve oyuncakların çocuklara tanıtılması gerekmektedir. Kısaca belirtmek gerekirse, hem kültürel değerlerimizin devamı hem de çocukların zihinsel, fiziksel, ruhsal ve sosyal gelişimi için geleneksel oyunlarımızın öğretilmesi ve uygun oyun alanlarının yapılması üzerinde önemle durulması gereken konulardan birini oluşturmaktadır.

KAYNAKÇA And, M. ‘’ Çocuk Oyunlarının Kültürümüzdeki Yeri ve Önemi ‘’. Ulusal Kültür,1979, ss:42-67 And, M. Oyun ve Büyü. 3. Baskı. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2012. Arslan, Y. ; Bulgu, N. ‘’ Oyunla Toplumsallaşma ‘’, Pamukkale Journal of Social Sciences,2010, Vol.1, No.1, p.8-22. Cirhinlioğlu, F.G. Çocuk Ruh Sağlığı ve GeliĢimi. Ankara: 2001. Dönmezler, S. Sosyoloji. Ankara: Savaş Yayınları:1984. Fırat, H. ‘’ Çocuk Oyunları Eğitim İlişkisi; Bezirgan Başı Örneği’’, Turkish Studies. International Periodical For The Language, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic.Volume 8/ 13, Fall2013.p.885-896. Gönen, M. ; Uyar, D.N. Çocuk Eğitiminde Drama. İstanbul: Epsilon Yayınları, 2000. Güvenç, B. Ġnsan ve Kültür. Ankara: Remzi Kitabevi,2000. Huizinga, J. Homo Ludens: Oyunun Toplumsal ĠĢlevi Üzerine Bir Deneme, Çev: Ali Kılıçbay, İstanbul: Der Yayınları,2000. Moles, A.A. Kültürün Toplumsal Dinamiği. Çev: Nuri Bilgin. İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları, No: 21,1984. Nicolopoulou, A.’’ Oyun, Bilişsel Gelişim ve Toplumsal Dünya: Piaget, Vygotsky ve Sonrası ‘’. Çev: Melike Türkan Bağlı. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi. Cilt:37, Sayı: 2, ss.137-169. Oktay, A. ‘’ Okul Öncesi Dönemi 3-6 Yaş ‘’, Ana Baba Okulu, İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 2001.

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Onur, B. ; Güney, N. Türkiye’de Çocuk Oyunları: AraĢtırmalar, Ankara Üniversitesi Çocuk Kültürü Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Yayın No: 12, Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık, 2004. Oskay, Ü. XIX. Yüzyıldan Günümüze Kitle ĠletiĢiminin Kültürel ĠĢlevleri: Kuramsal Bir YaklaĢım, İstanbul: Der Yayınları, 2000. Öcel, N. ĠletiĢim ve Çocuk, İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayın No:4341, İletişim Fakültesi Yayın No:15, Emek Matbaacılık,2002. Öğüt, E. Somut Olmayan Kültürel Mirasın Aktarımına Bir Bakış: Geleneksel Çocuk Oyunlarının Yaşatılması İçin Öneriler, Kültür ve Turizm Uzmanlık Tezi, Ankara: 2010. Önder, A. Yaşayarak Öğrenme İçin Yaratıcı Drama, İstanbul: Epsilon Yayınları, 2001. Özdenk, G. 6 YaĢ Grubu Öğrencilerinin Psikomotor GeliĢimlerinin Sağlanmasında Oyunun Yeri ve Önemi, Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2007. Özer, A. ; Gürhan, A.C. ; Ramazanoğlu, M.O. ‘’Oyunun Çocuk Gelişimi Üzerindeki Etkileri’’, Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi Araştırmaları: 2006. Tezcan, M. Sosyal ve Kültürel DeğiĢme. Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Yayın No: 129,1984. Tuğrul, B. ; Ertürk, G. ;Altınkaynak, Ş. ; GüneĢ, G.’’ Oyunun Üç Kuşaktaki Değişimi ‘’ International Journal of Social Science, Number 27, Autumn I 2014, p.1-14. Tural, S.K. Kültürel Kimlik Üzerine DüĢünceler, Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı,1992. Yavuzer, H. Bedensel, Zihinsel ve Sosyal GeliĢimiyle Çocuğun 6 Yılı, İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1999. Yörükoğlu, A. Çocuk Ruh Sağlığı, 23. Basın, İstanbul: Özgür Yayınları, 1998. DPT Milli Kültür 5. BeĢ Yıllık Kalkınma Planı Özel Ġhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, Ankara: DPT Yayınları, 1984. www.gelenekseloyun.org www.mangala.com.tr www.planlama.org tr.wikipedia.org

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SOSYAL PAZARLAMA VE TÜRKĠYE’DEKĠ SOSYAL PAZARLAMA UYGULAMALARI: AĞIZ - DĠġ SAĞLIĞI ÜZERĠNE BĠR ARAġTIRMA* Yrd. Doç. Dr. Hilal UYGURTÜRK Karabük Üniversitesi, ĠĢletme Fakültesi, Halka ĠliĢkiler ve Tanıtım Bölümü [email protected] Özet Sosyal pazarlama sadece malların ve hizmetlerin değil fikirlerin de pazarlanabileceğini gösteren bir yaklaşımdır. Sosyal pazarlama uygulamaları, kar amacı gütmeden sosyal fayda yaratmak amacı taşımaktadır. Bu amaçla yapılan uygulamalarda ortaya konan fikir, bir ürün gibi ele alınmaktadır. Ayrıca söz konusu fikir için bir pazarlama karması oluşturulmaktadır. Bu oluşturulan pazarlama karması aracılığı ile farklı alanlarda sosyal pazarlama uygulamaları yapılmaktadır. Söz konusu uygulamalara aşı kampanyaları, obezite ile mücadele kampanyaları, organ ve kan bağışı kampanyaları, ağız ve diş sağlığı kampanyaları örnek olarak verilebilir. Gerçekleştirilen tüm sosyal kampanyalardaki temel amaç kişilerde istenilen davranış değişikliğini ve farkındalığı yaratmaktır. Bu çalışmada ağız ve diş sağlığı kampanyaları sosyal pazarlama açısından ele alınmıştır. Ağız ve diş sağlığı bakımı, insanlara küçük yaşta öğretilmesi gereken bir konudur. Bu kapsamda yapılan çalışmada öncelikle sosyal pazarlama kavramı açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. Daha sonra ise Türkiye’de ağız ve diş sağlığı konusunda gerçekleştirilen sosyal pazarlama uygulamaları incelenmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Sosyal pazarlama, ağız ve diş sağlığı, Türkiye

SOCIAL MARKETING AND SOCIAL MARKETING CAMPAIGNS IN TURKEY: A RESEARCH ON ORAL AND DENTAL HEALTH Abstract Social marketing is an approach that shows not only goods and services but also ideas can be marketed. Social marketing practices aim to create a social benefit without profit making purpose. The idea put into practice for this purpose is treated as a product and also a marketing mix is composed for that afterwards. Social marketing practices are carried out in different areas by the composed marketing mix. Vaccination campaigns, fighting obesity campaigns, organ and blood donation campaigns, oral and dental health campaigns could be good examples for these practices. The common purpose of all social campaigns is to create desired behavioral change and increase awareness among the people. In this study, oral and dental health campaigns were discussed in terms of social marketing. Oral and dental health care is a routine that people should be taught at a young age. In this context, this study aims to explain the concepts of social marketing. Subsequently, social marketing campaigns carried out on oral and dental health in Turkey were examined. Keywords: Social marketing, oral and dental health, Turkey.

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Bu Çalışma Karabük Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Koordinatörlüğü Tarafından Desteklenmiştir. Proje Numarası: KBÜ-BAP-16/1-YD-216

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

1. GiriĢ Pazarlama faaliyetleri işletmeler açısından önemli bir role sahiptir. Üretim yapan işletmeler mallarını ve hizmetlerini pazarlamaya çalışırken, başka işletmeler, kişiler veya gruplar fikirlerini ve bilgilerini pazarlamaya çalışmaktadır. Bu fikir ve bilgilerin pazarlanması, insanlarda istenilen davranış değişikliğini yaratmak amacıyla yapılmaktadır. Söz konusu davranış değişikliği hem kişiye hem de topluma yarar sağlama amacı taşımaktadır. Örneğin obeziteye karşı bilgilendirmelerin yapılması, organ ve kan bağışına ilişkin kampanyalar ile insanlarda farkındalık yaratılmaya çalışılması insanların sağlıklarına dikkat çekerken, daha sağlıklı toplumların oluşmasına imkan tanımaktadır. İlgili uygulamalar sosyal pazarlama kapsamında ele alınmaktadır. Sosyal pazarlama sadece malların ve hizmetlerin değil fikirlerin de pazarlanabileceğini gösteren bir yaklaşımdır. Sosyal pazarlama uygulamaları, kar amacı gütmeden sosyal fayda yaratma amacı taşımakta ve bu amaçla yapılan çalışmalarda ortaya konan fikir, bir ürün gibi ele alınmaktadır. Sosyal pazarlama kavramı ilk kez Kotler ve Zaltman‟ın 1971 yılında yazdıkları makalede kullanılmıştır. Yapılan bu çalışmada, sosyal pazarlama kavramı geleneksel pazarlamaya benzer şekilde ele alınmıştır. Aynı zamanda Kotler ve Zaltman sosyal pazarlama çalışmalarının işletmelerin kar elde etmelerinden daha çok insanlara ve topluma fayda sağlamaya odaklandığı görüşünü ortaya koymuşlardır (Kotler, Zaltman, 1971). Sosyal pazarlama kavramı ilk kullanılmaya başlandığında sosyal bir olaya, düşünceye ve davranışa pazarlama prensiplerinin ve tekniklerinin kullanılabileceğini anlatmak için tanımlanmıştır. Bu doğrultuda sosyal pazarlama; ürün geliştirilme, fiyatlandırma, dağıtım, iletişim ve pazar araştırması gibi pazarlama araçlarından yararlanarak sosyal fikirlerin kabul edilmesini kolaylaştıracak ve etkileyecek programların tasarlanması, uygulanması ve kontrolü olarak ifade edilmektedir (Tek ve Özgül, 2008: 34). Sosyal pazarlama, belirli bir tutumun, davranışın ve fikrin kabul edilmesi, değiştirilmesi veya terk edilmesi için hitap ettikleri kitleyi ikna etmeyi amaçlayan aynı zamanda hedef kitlenin bilinçlendirilmesi ve farkındalık yaratılması için organize olarak gerçekleştirilen çabalar olarak tanımlanmaktadır (Kataria ve Larsen, 2009: 429). Bir başka tanıma göre ise sosyal pazarlama, hedef kitlede sosyal bir fikrin veya tutumun kabul edilirliğini artırmaya çalışan programların tasarlanması, uygulanması ve kontrol edilmesidir (Kotler, 1975). Diğer bir tanıma göre de sosyal pazarlama, hitap edilen hedef kitlenin sağlığını ve iyiliğini daha iyi konuma getirme yolunda olumlu davranış biçimleri geliştirmesini sağlamak amacıyla geleneksel pazarlama tekniklerinin kullanılmasıdır (Weinreich, 1999: 3-4). Sosyal pazarlama ile ilgili yapılan tanımlamaların büyük bir bölümünde, kar elde etmekten daha çok bireysel ve toplumsal kazancı artırmak ön planda tutulduğu görülmektedir. Sosyal pazarlama, farklı sosyal problemlerde ya da toplumun bilinçlendirilmesi ve farkındalık yaratılması gereken konularda geniş bir uygulama alanı bulabilmektedir. Özellikle yeni bir bilgi ve alışkanlığın yayılmasına ihtiyaç duyulduğunda (bazı konularda toplumun yaşam standartlarını geliştirmek, onlara bilgiler vermek ve alışkanlıklar kazandırmak için sosyal pazarlama hayata geçirilebilir. Örneğin insanların bebeklerini anne sütüyle beslemeleri, suyu kaynatarak içmeleri ya da damacana su tüketmeleri, guatrdan korunmak için iyotlu tuz kullanmaları, zeytinyağı tüketimine ağırlık vermeleri gibi konularda eğitilmesi ve alışkanlık kazandırılması için sosyal pazarlama kampanyaları düzenlenmektedir), karşı pazarlamaya ihtiyaç duyulduğunda (büyük işletmelerden bazıları, sağlığa zararlı ve tüketilmesi tavsiye edilmeyen ürünlerin tüketiminin yaygınlaşmasını desteklemektedirler ve çok ciddi tanıtım bütçesi ayırmaktadırlar. Ancak sosyal pazarlamacılar devletin ve birçok grubun desteğiyle insan sağlığını tehlikeye sokacak söz konusu ürünlerin kullanımın azaltılması için çalışmaktadırlar. Örneğin alkol, sigara ve bağımlılık yaratan diğer maddelere karşı yürütülen çalışmalar.) ve harekete ihtiyaç duyulduğunda (genellikle insanlar yapmaları gerekeni bilirler, fakat uygulamazlar. Örneğin insanlar spor yapmanın, sağlıklı kilo vermenin, diş fırçalamanın önemini bilmekte fakat dikkat etmemektedirler. Söz konusu bu durumda sosyal pazarlama çalışmaları hedef kitleleri harekete geçirerek daha sağlıklı yaşam sürmeleri için çalışmaktadırlar) daha çok kullanıldığı görülmektedir (Sezer, 1999: 53). Geleneksel pazarlamada işletmeler kararlarını maliyet-kar odağında alırken, günümüzde çok daha fazla işletme pazarlama kararlarını sosyal maliyetler, sosyal karlar ve sosyal faydalar kapsamında belirlemektedirler. Bu bağlamda sosyal pazarlama, işletmeler tarafından pazarlama kararlarının sadece ekonomik maliyetler ve kârlılıklar göz önüne alınarak belirlenemeyeceğini ifade etmektedir. Bu görüş, 520

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN pazarlamanın kapsamını da genişletmiş ve kâr amacı gütmeyen işletmeler, dernek ve vakıflar sosyal fikirlerin topluma duyurulmasında ve farkındalık yaratılmasında pazarlamayı daha etkin bir şekilde kullanmaya başlamışlardır (İlter ve Bayraktaroğlu, 2007: 51-52). Hem kar amacı güden hem de kâr amacı gütmeyen işletmeler toplumsal konulara ilişkin yaptıkları sosyal pazarlama çalışmlarında davranış değişikliği yaratabilmek amacıyla somut, soyut ve psikolojik unsurlardan faydalanmaktadırlar. Söz konusu bu çalışmalar ile sosyal pazarlamacılar, hedef kitlenin dikkatini çekerek hafızasında etki ve farkındalık yaratmaya çalışmaktadır (Kotler, Roberto ve Lee, 2002:195-196). İşletmelerin toplumu bilinçlendirerek ve farkındalık yaratarak harekete geçirmek amacıyla gerçekleştirdikleri pazarlama faaliyetleri sosyal pazarlama kapsamında değerlendirilmektedir. İşletmelerin geleneksel pazarlamada kullandıkları kavramlar, yaklaşımlar, modeller, araçlar ve teknikler sosyal pazarlamada da kullanılmaktadır. Söz konusu bu durum sosyal pazarlamanın „pazarlama‟ boyutunu ifade ederken, „sosyal‟ boyutunu ise toplum, sosyal sorunlar ve toplumun geneli için fayda sağlayacak konular oluşturmaktadır. Geleneksel pazarlama ile sosyal pazarlama arasındaki ayrımı ortaya koyan en temel unsur sosyal pazarlamanın amacıdır. Sosyal pazarlamanın faydaları kurum, kuruluş ya da işletmelere değil, kişilere veya toplumun bütününe yöneliktir (İlter ve Bayraktaroğlu, 2007: 51-52). Sosyal pazarlama ile geleneksel pazarlama arasındaki diğer farklar Tablo 1‟de yer almaktadır. Tablo 1. Sosyal Pazarlama ve Geleneksel Pazarlama Karşılaştırması Sosyal Pazarlama

Geleneksel Pazarlama

Fayda sağlamak ister.

Uzun vadede para kazanmak ister.

Vergi ve bağışlar sermayesini oluşturur.

Sermaye yatırımcılar tarafından koyulur.

Topluma karşı sorumludur.

Bireylere karşı sorumludur.

Performansı ölçmek güçtür.

Performans, kâr ve pazar payı ile ölçülmektedir.

Davranış değişikliğine ilişkin istenilen hedefler uzun

Davranış değişikliğine ilişkin istenilen hedefler kısa

vadelidir.

vadelidir.

Çoğunlukla tartışılabilir davranışları hedef alır.

Tartışmaya yol açmayacak ürün ve hizmetler sağlar.

Genellikle yüksek riskli hedefler seçer.

Açık hedefler seçer.

Riskten kaçınan yöneticiler vardır.

Risk alan yöneticiler vardır.

Katılımcıların fikirleri önemlidir.

Hiyerarşik karar alma vardır.

Güvene dayalı bir ilişki söz konusudur.

Rekabete dayalı bir ilişki söz konusudur.

Kaynak: Andreasen, A. R. (2001). Ethics in social marketing, Washington DC: George Town University Pres.

Sosyal pazarlama sosyal değişim üzerinde çok güçlü bir role ve yere sahiptir. Bunun nedeni sosyal değişimlerin bireysel hareketi gerektirmesidir. Sosyal değişimin olması için birinin ya da birilerinin soruna dikkat çekmesi gerekmektedir (Andreasen, 2006: 5). Hedef kitlelere ilişkin problemlerin çözülmesinde ya da bilinçlenmelerinin istendiği konularda kâr amacı güden işletmelerin dernekler ve vakıflar ile ortak kampanyalar yaptıkları görülse de sosyal pazarlama faaliyetleri daha çok, devlet, kâr amacı gütmeyen örgütler, yardım dernekleri ve vakıflar tarafından yapıldığı görülmektedir. Bunun nedeni ise bu kurumlar tarafından yapılan sosyal pazarlama uygulamalarının amacının kar elde etmek değil, sosyal fayda sağlayacak bir fikri, tutumu ya da bir davranışı topluma benimsetmek olmasıdır (McMahon, 2001: 77-78; Coşkun, 2012: 244). Türkiye‟de özellikle kar amacı gütmeyen örgütler ve derneklerin yanı sıra yerel yönetimler ve farklı birimler tarafından da kampanyalar düzenlenmektedir. Ancak bu kampanyaların çok fazla bilinmemesi ya da duyurulamaması sosyal pazarlamanın geleneksel pazarlamaya göre daha zor olduğunu göstermektedir. Sosyal pazarlama uygulamaları, hedef kitlelere daha sağlıklı bir ortam, daha yaşanılabilir bir çevre ve daha kaliteli bir yaşam sağlamayı amaçlamaktadır. Bu bağlamda genel sağlık konuları, sigaranın zararları, alkol ve uyuşturucu bağımlılığı, alkollü araç kullanma, geri dönüşüm ve enerji tasarrufu, aile içi şiddet vb. konular sosyal pazarlama kapsamına girmektedir. Türkiye‟de ve dünyadaki sosyal pazarlama uygulamaları incelendiğinde organ bağışı ve kan bağışı kampanyaları, kız çocuklarının okula gönderilmesi için gerçekleştirilen kampanyalar, sigara ve uyuşturucu karşıtı kampanyalar, ağız 521

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ve diş sağlığı kampanyaları, aşı kampanyaları, obezite ile mücadele kampanyaları, engelliler ile ilgili kampanyalar, trafik kazalarını önlemeye yönelik kampanyalar, çevre kirliliği ile mücadele kampanyaları, orman kaynaklarını koruma, aile planlaması kampanyaları, aile içi şiddete karşı yürütülen kampanyalar, kültür, sanat ve spora destek gibi işletmelerin duyarlı olmaları gereken sosyal konularda gerçekleştirdiği görülmektedir. Günümüzde sosyal pazarlama faaliyetleri kapsamında farklı konularda (spor bilincinin yaygınlaştırılması, dumansız hava sahası, organ bağışı, toplumsal huzur vb.) çalışmalar yapıldığı görülse de özellikle sağlık konularına yoğunlaştığı dikkat çekmektedir. Bu kampanyalardan bir tanesi de ağız ve diş sağlığına ilişkin yapılan sosyal pazarlama faaliyetleridir. Ağız ve diş sağlığı ile ilgili yapılan kampanyalardaki temel amaç; diş çürüklerini oluşmadan önlemek, topluma diş çürüğünün bir kader olmadığını, çocukluktan edinilecek ağız- diş temizliği ve bilinçli beslenme alışkanlıklarının kazandırılmasıyla kolaylıkla önüne geçilebileceğini göstermek, uzun vadede daha sağlıklı kuşaklar yetişmesine katkıda bulunmaktır. Aynı zamanda yetişkinlere de çocuklar aracılığı ulaşarak yetişkinlerde de ağız ve diş sağlığı konusunda farkındalık yaratmak, ailelerde gündelik diş bakımını genel hijyenin bir parçası ve alışkanlık haline gelmesini sağlamak, toplumun bilinçlenmesi ve daha sağlıklı kuşakların var olması da ağız ve diş sağlığı ile ilgili yapılan kampanyaların amaçları arasında yer almaktadır. Akademik olarak ilgili kampanyalar incelendiğinde çalışmaların sayısının fazla olmaması ve söz konusu literatüre katkı sağlaması amacıyla bu çalışmada Türkiye‟de gerçekleştirilen ağız ve diş sağlığına ilişkin sosyal pazarlama kampanyaları incelenmiştir. 2. Ağiz ve DiĢ Sağliği Kampanyalari Türkiye‟de ağız ve diş sağlığına ilişkin gerçekleştirilen kampanyalardan bazıları şöyledir: “Diş Fırçalama Kampanyası” Mardin 2015 yılında Mardin Kamu Hastaneleri Birliği Kızıltepe‟de “diş fırçalama” kampanyası başlatılmıştır. Bu kampanya ile Kızıltepe Ağız ve Diş Sağlığı Merkezinde program düzenlenmiş ve katılımcılara nasıl diş fırçalanması gerektiği teorik ve pratik olarak anlatılmıştır. Program kapsamında yapılan konuşmalarda diş sağlığının vücudun bütün olarak sağlığını etkilediği, özellikle diş çürüklerindeki bakterilerin kana karışarak bütün organları etkileyebildiği ve kalp üzerinde ciddi hasarlar yarattığı belirtilmiştir. Bu nedenle insanların özellikle çocukluk yaşlarından itibaren eğitilmesi gerektiği vurgulanmıştır. Düzenlenen program sonunda maddi durumu iyi olmayan hastalara ve öğrencilere diş fırçası ve diş macunu dağıtılmış, kampanya çerçevesinde de 2500 kişiye diş fırçası ve diş macunu dağıtılacağı belirtilmiştir [1]. “Günde 2 Defa En Az 2 Dakika Kampanyası” Sağlık Bakanlığı Sağlık Bakanlığı 2016 yılında toplumda ağız ve diş sağlığı farkındalığı yaratmak amacıyla “Günde 2 kez 2 dakika” sloganıyla kampanya başlatmıştır. Kampanya kapsamında ilköğretim öğrencilerine diş fırçası ve diş macunu dağıtılacağı belirtilmiştir. Koruyucu sağlık hizmetlerinin önemine vurgu yapılan kampanyada tüm çocukların ağız ve diş sağlığını kontrol edebilen, hastalanmadan takiplerini yaptıracak bilince ulaştırmak amaçlanmaktadır. Bakanlık tarafından ülke genelinde başlatılan kampanya kapsamında 8 milyon diş fırçası ve diş macunu dağıtılacağı belirtilmiş ve sağlıklı bir yaşam için bilinç düzeyinin artırılması hedeflenmiştir [2]. “Ben de Fırçalıyorum Kampanyası” Sağlık Bakanlığı Sağlık Bakanlığı'nın 2015 yılında toplumu ağız ve diş sağlığı konusunda bilinçlendirmek amacıyla başlattığı „Ben de fırçalıyorum‟ kampanyası kapsamında Bursa, Denizli, Kahramanmaraş, Batman, Edirne, Balıkesir, Karabük, Foça, Bandırma, Şanlıurfa, Niğde gibi şehirlerde programlar düzenlenmiş ve ücretsiz diş macunu ve diş fırçası dağıtılmıştır. Bu kampanya ile diş sağlığı bilincinin yaygınlaştırılması hedef alınmıştır. Bu süreçte kampanyanın uygulandığı şehirlerde diş macunu ve diş fırçası dağıtımına devam edileceği belirtilmiştir [3],[4], [5],[6]. 522

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

“Parlak Gülüşler, Parlak Gelecekler” Programı- Colgate Dünyada farklı ülkelerde 25 yılını dolduran Parlak Gülüşler, Parlak Gelecekler projesi Türkiye‟de 2006 yılında uygulanmaya başlanmıştır. Ağız ve Diş Sağlığı Derneği, TOÇEV (Tüvana Okuma İstekli Çocuk Eğitim Vakfı) ve Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı ile birlikte yürütülen proje aracılığıyla yüzbinlerce ilköğretim öğrencisine ulaşılmıştır. Proje kapsamında, özel eğitimli öğretmenler tarafından sınıflarda eğitici çizgi film, posterler ve oyunlarla eğitim verilmekte, ayrıca öğrencileri motive etmek amacıyla çocuk diş fırçası ve diş macunu numuneleri de hediye edilmektedir. Parlak Gülüşler, Parlak Gelecekler sosyal sorumluluk projesi 25 yıldır 80‟den fazla ülkede uygulanmakta ve proje ile her yıl 50 milyondan fazla çocuğa ve aileye ulaşılmaktadır. Türkiye‟de 2006-2015 yılları arasında 3.765.000 öğrenciye ulaşılmış, 121.342 öğretmen eğitime katılmış ve 3.866.342 diş macunu-diş fırçası dağıtılmıştır (Kaynak TOÇEV). Programın başlıca amacı, ilköğretim çağındaki çocuklara, sınıflarda ve evlerinde kullanmaları için videolar, öykü kitapları, şarkılar, CD‟ler ve interaktif etkinlikler yoluyla ulaşmaktır. Eğitim sonrasında öğrencilere COLGATE diş fırçası ve diş macunu hediye edilerek diş fırçalama alışkanlığı edinmelerine yardımcı olunmaktadır. Aynı zamanda bu proje kapsamında ilkokul öğrencilerinin eğlenceli yöntemlerle bilinçlendirilmesi hedeflenmektedir. Devletin ilgili kurumları, diş hekimleri, öğretmenler, okullar ve derneklerle ortak olarak yürütülen bu proje, her yıl milyonlarca çocuğun, ağız ve diş sağlığı bakımının avantajlarından faydalanmasına imkan vermektedir. “Parlak Gülüşler Parlak Gelecekler” projesine destek olmak için herhangi bir Colgate markalı ürün almak yeterli olmaktadır. Çocukların ağız ve diş sağlığı konusunda en iyi şekilde bilgilendirilmeleri gerektiğini düşünen Colgate Palmolive, bu projeyi bir adım daha ileri taşımış ve projeye halkın da katılımını sağlamak amacıyla “Gelecekleri Eğitimde, Eğitimleri Elinizde” kampanyasını başlatmıştır. Projede, Ağız ve Diş Sağlığı Derneği ve Colgate tarafından eğitim verilmiş öğretmenler görev almakta ve bu öğretmenler okullarda sınıfları ziyaret ederek ağız ve diş sağlığı eğitimi vermektedirler. Proje kapsamında öğretmenlere eğitim malzemeleri ve ağız sağlığı eğitimi verilmektedir Kullanılan görsel malzemelerde maskot olarak kullanılan diş hekimi Dr. Tavşan ve meslekdaşı Dr. Parlakdiş, çocukların ilgisini çekmek ve diş sağlığı konusunda bilgilendirmek için değişik yöntemler kullanılmaktadır. Projenin temel amacı çocukların bilgisini artırarak, alışkanlık kazandırmak, kendi ağız ve diş sağlıklarının kontrolünü ellerine almaya teşvik etmek, ergenlik ve yetişkinlik dönemleri boyunca faydalanabilecekleri yetenekler kazanmalarını sağlamaktır [7], [8]. “Dişler Yolunda Projesi” -Diş Dostları Derneği Diş Dostu Derneği‟nin 2000 yılından bu yana yürüttüğü “Dişler Yolunda Projesi”, çocuklara erken yaşlardan itibaren diş sağlığının önemini anlatarak davranış değişikliği ile diş sağlığının korunmasını amaçlayan bir projedir. Dişler Yolunda Diş Dostları projesi diş çürüklerinden korunmanda eğitimin çok önemli olduğunu ve bu mesajın ne kadar çok tekrarlanırsa o kadar çok davranış değişikliği yaratacağını ifade etmektedir. Bu projenin amacı, projenin uygulanacağı bölgelerdeki yaşları 6 ila 11 arasında değişen tüm çocuklara gönüllüler aracılığıyla ulaşmak ve öğrenim süresince her yıl diş sağlığı mesajının yılda 5 kez tekrarlanarak kalıcı olmasını sağlamaktır. Projede 3 milyon çocuğa ulaşmak, bu projeyi en az 50 ilde yaygınlaştırmak, diş çürüğünden korunma yollarının yaşı 45‟e gelmiş herkes tarafından bilinmesini sağlamak gibi hedefler bulunmaktadır. Proje kapsamında sınıf öğretmenleri ve gönüllü eğitmenler tarafından öğrencilere diş çürüğü önleme, diş/ağız sağlığı ve dengeli beslenme konularında tarafından eğitim verilmekte, ikinci aşamada ise eğitime katılan çocuklara Gönüllü Diş Hekimleri tarafından ücretsiz koruyucu bakım uygulanmaktadır. 2003-2004 eğitim dönemi süresince İstanbul, Antalya, Ankara, Elazığ, Tekirdağ, Muğla, Denizli, Adapazarı gibi farklı illerde başlayan Dişler Yolunda Projesi, şuana kadar toplam 10000‟in üzerinde çocuğa sınıflarında 8 hafta boyunca oyunlar oynayarak, deneyler yaparak ağız-diş sağlığının önemini kavratılmaya çalışılmıştır. Dişler yolunda projesine bugüne kadar destek veren kurum ve kuruluşlar arasında Türk Diş Hekimleri Birliği, Diş Hekimleri Odaları (Projenin uygulandığı illerdeki), Marmara Üniversitesi Diş hekimliği Fakültesi Pedodonti Anabilim Dalı, Türkiye Eğitim Gönüllüleri Vakfı – TEGV, Toplum Gönüllüleri Vakfı – TOG, Milli Eğitim Müdürlükleri, Belediyeler, Valilikler (Projenin uygulandığı illerdeki), 523

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kaymakamlıklar, P&G İpana (diş macunu ve fırçası desteği), Eczacıbaşı Jordan (diş fırçası desteği), Banat (diş fırçası desteği), Faber-Castell (boya kalemi desteği) gibi firmalar bulunmaktadır [9]. “Ağız Sağlığı Haftaları” Colgate- Türk Periodontoloji DerneğiTürkiye‟de ilk akademik diş hekimliği okulunun 22 Kasım 1908‟de kurulması nedeniyle her yıl 22 Kasım‟ı içine alan hafta Dünya Ağız ve Diş Sağlığı Haftası olarak kutlanmaktadır. Bu kapsamda bir sosyal sorumluluk projesi olan “Ağız Sağlığı Haftaları”, Colgate ve Türk Periodontoloji Derneği (TPD) tarafından hayata geçirilmiş ve T.C. Sağlık Bakanlığı tarafından desteklenmiştir. Projenin amacı; ağız ve diş sağlığı konusunda toplumun bilinçlendirilmesi ve farkındalık yaratılması, düzenli olarak diş hekimi kontrolüne gitme alışkanlığının kazandırılması, koruyucu Diş Hekimliği uygulamalarının yaygınlaştırılması ve toplumun ağız ve diş sağlığının gelişimine katkıda bulunulmasıdır. Proje, gönüllü diş hekimlerinin katılımıyla gerçekleştirilmektedir. Ağız ve diş sağlığına önem veren ülkelerle kıyaslandığında Türkiye‟de diş macunu ve diş fırçası tüketim rakamlarının düşük seviyelerde olduğu bilgisi doğrultusunda hayata geçirilen projede diş hekimleri gönüllü olarak katılarak, çalışma saatlerinin bir kısmını ücretsiz muayene olmak isteyen hastalara ayırmışlardır. “Bir Gülüşünüz Bize Yeter!” sloganıyla sürdürülen kampanyada yüz binlerce kişiye ağız ve diş muayenesi yapılmış, ağız bakımı eğitimi verilmiş ve diş macunu ile diş fırçası hediye edilmiştir [10], [11]. “Fırçalar Çantada Dişler Yolunda” Kampanyası Kırıkkale Üniversitesi Diş Hekimliği Fakültesi tarafından yürütülen “Fırçalar Çantada Dişler Yolunda” Kampanyası farklı illerde (Kütahya, Adıyaman, Kahramanmaraş, Gümüşhane vb.) Sağlık ve Milli Eğitim İl Müdürlükleri'nin katkılarıyla ilköğretim öğrencileri ağız ve diş sağlığı kontrolünden geçirilmiştir. Kontrollerde, öğrencilerin dişlerine koruyucu flor sürülmüş, çocuklara diş macunu ve diş fırçası hediye edilmiştir. Türkiye‟de 6-12 yaş çağındaki çocuklarda en sık görülen hastalıklardan birinin diş çürüğü olduğu bilgisi göz önüne alınarak kampanyayla çocukların bilinçlendirilmesi ve çocuklara, diş fırçaları ve macunların sınıf ortamında saklanması, dişlerin fırçalanmasının öğretilmesi hedeflenmiştir [12], [13]. “Sağlıklı Dişler Mutlu Gülüşler” Kampanyası Sağlık Bakanlığı tarafından başlatılan “Sağlıklı Dişler Mutlu Gülüşler” kampanyasının temel amacı diş sağlığı bilincini oluşturmak, düzenli ve etkin bir şekilde diş fırçalama alışkanlığı kazandırmaktır. Özellikle vatandaşların günde en az iki kez dişlerini fırçalama yönünde bilinç oluşturulması ve alışkanlık haline getirilmesi hedeflenmektedir. Kampanyanın hedef kitlesini ebeveynler ve yetişkin bireyler oluşturmaktadır. Kampanyada çocuklarda da diş fırçalama bilincinin oluşturulmasının önemine vurgulanmış ancak çocuklara bu alışkanlığın kazandırılmasında ebeveynlerin rolünün önemli olduğu ifade edilmiştir. Bu nedenle bu kampanya küçük çocuklardan daha çok büyüklere yönelik olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bakanlık tarafından başlatılan kampanya kapsamında farklı illerde etkinlikler düzenlenmiş ve etkinliklere katılan kişilere diş fırçası ve diş macunu dağıtımı yapılmıştır [14], [15]. “Sağlıklı Dişlerle Geleceğe Gülümse” Projesi Türkiye‟nin ilk diş fırçası markası Banat ve eğitim alanında faaliyet gösteren sivil toplum kuruluşu Türkiye Eğitim Gönüllüleri Vakfı (TEGV), ağız ve diş sağlığı konusunda çocukları bilinçlendirmek amacıyla “Sağlıklı Dişlerle Geleceğe Gülümse” projesini hayata geçirmişlerdir. Proje kapsamında İstanbul‟da farklı noktalarda çocuklara ağız ve diş bakımı eğitimi verilmiş ve ücretsiz diş fırçası dağıtılmıştır. Verilen eğitimlerde ağız sağlığının önemi konusunda çocuklarda farkındalık yaratmak ve daha sağlıklı, bilinçli nesiller yetiştirmek amaçlanmaktadır. Yetkililer projeye ilişkin başlatılan etkinliklerin daha sonra Türkiye çapında gerçekleştirileceğini ifade etmişlerdir. “Sağlıklı Dişlerle Geleceğe Gülümse” projesiyle diş sağlığı bilincinin çocuk yaşlarda edinilmesi gerektiği gerçeği vurgulanmıştır. Bu gerçekten yola çıkarak daha bilinçli nesiller yetiştirmek amacıyla etkinliklerin her yıl yapılacağı belirtilmiştir [16], [17].

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

“Sağlıklı Nesiller için Sağlıklı Dişler Neşeli Gülüşler” Projesi Kocaeli Kamu Hastaneleri Birliği Genel Sekreterliği tarafından başlatılan, Kocaeli Valiliği ve İl Milli Eğitim Müdürlüğü'nün destekleriyle yapılan "Sağlıklı Nesiller İçin, Sağlıklı Dişler Neşeli Gülüşler" kampanyası Kocaeli genelinde uygulamıştır. İlkokul öğrencilerine yönelik gerçekleştirilen kampanyada diş fırçalamanın önemi hakkında bilgi verilmiş ve birçok hastalığı önlemenin yönteminin ve diş sağlığının korunması, kalıcı dişlerin yapısının kuvvetli olabilmesi için ağız ve diş sağlığına önem verilmesi olduğu belirtilmiştir. Etkinlik sonunda öğrencilere diş fırçası ve diş macunu dağıtılmıştır [18], [19], [20]. “Temiz Dişler Sağlıklı Gülüşler” Kampanyası Sağlık Bakanlığı tarafından başlatılan “Temiz Dişler Sağlıklı Gülüşler” kampanyası Türkiye‟de farklı il ve ilçelerde çeşitli etkinliklerle uygulamaya konmuştur. Yapılan etkinliklerde çocuklara ağız ve diş bakımı eğitimi verilmiş, ücretsiz diş fırçası ve diş macunu dağıtılmıştır. Kampanyada yemeklerden sonra günde en az iki kere diş fırçalanması gerektiği ifade edilmiş ve çocuklarda bunun alışkanlık olmasının önemi vurgulanmıştır. Ağız ve diş sağlığının bütün bireyler için önemli olduğu belirtilerek, ileriki yaşlarda oluşabilecek hastalıkların engellenebilmesi için çocuk yaşta ağız ve diş bakımına önem verilmesi gerektiği vurgulanmıştır [21], [22], [23]. “Sağlıklı Gülüşler” Kampanyası Aydın Belediyesi ile İpana ortaklığında “Sağlıklı Gülüşler” kampanyası başlatılmıştır. Kampanya çerçevesinde tüm okullara diş macunu ve diş fırçası dağıtılmıştır. Bu kapsamda öğrencilere diş sağlığı ve bakımı hakkında bilgiler verilmiştir. Kampanyaya katılan diş hekimleri sabah kahvaltıdan ve akşam yemekten sonra ilk 20 dakika içerisinde mutlaka dişlerin fırçalanması gerektiğini belirtmişlerdir. Dişlerin çürümemesi ve uzun yıllar kullanılabilmesi için alışkanlık haline getirilmesi ve bunun çocukluk döneminde kazandırılması gerektiği ifade edilmiştir [24]. 3. Sonuç Pazarlama faaliyetinin amacı her zaman bir ürünün tüketiciler tarafından kabul edilmesini sağlamak olmayabilir. Bazı durumlarda pazarlama çalışmaları hedef kitlenin kendisine zarar verebilecek ürünlerden sakınmasını ya da kendine ve başkasına fayda sağlayacak davranışlarda bulunmasını da sağlamalıdır. Söz konusu bu çalışmalar sosyal pazarlama kapsamına girmektedir. Sosyal pazarlama uygulamaları toplumsal yaşam içerisinde var olan problemleri azaltmak, sağlık, çevre, güvenlik, eğitim vb. konularda toplumsal bilinçlenmeyi ve farkındalığı sağlamak vb. amaçlarla hayata geçirilmektedir. Alkolü ya da sigarayı bırakma, aile planlaması, kızların okula gönderilmesi, ağız ve diş sağlığı, obezite, organ bağışı ile ilgili kampanyalar toplumda istenilen davranış değişikliğinin oluşturulmasına örnek olarak verilebilir. Bu kampanya ve uygulamalar sosyal pazarlama kavramı altında incelenmektedir. Sosyal pazarlama faaliyetlerinde de, geleneksel pazarlamada bir ürün veya hizmetin pazara sürülmesinde kullanılan pazarlama karması gibi ürün, fiyat, dağıtım ve tutundurma unsurları kullanılmaktadır. Bunların yanı sıra sosyal pazarlama yaklaşımında hedef kitle, ortaklıklar, politika, maliyet kontrolünü unsurları da göz önüne alınmaktadır (Weinreich, 1999: 9-18). Küreselleşmeyle birlikte artan ve farklılaşan rekabet; işletmeleri sadece ürünler üreten ve kar hedefleyen birimler yerine toplumsal faydayı ve toplumsal karları gözeten, toplumun ilgi, destek ve beğenisini çeken sosyal konulara eğilerek çözüm odaklı faaliyetler ve projeler düzenlemeye çalışan yapılara dönüştürmüştür (Mert, 2012:127). Sosyal pazarlama amaçlı projeler, programlar, faaliyetler her geçen gün giderek artmaktadır. Bu projelerin başarılı olabilmesinde adımların doğru takip edilmesi ve uzman ekiple çalışılması önemli rol oynamaktadır. Sosyal pazarlamanın başarılı bir şekilde uygulanabilmesi için öncelikle hedef kitlenin çok iyi tespit edilmesi, daha sonra problemin doğru tanımlanması, hedefin ve etkinlik türünün buna göre belirlenmesi gerekir. Son olarak gerçekleştirilen faaliyetlerin amaca uygun olarak gerçekleşip 525

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN gerçekleşmediğinin kontrolü yapılmalıdır. Fakat bu yapılırken soyuttan daha çok somut kontrol araçları kullanılmalıdır (Uslu, Marangoz, 2008:134-135). Kampanyanın duyurulması ve mümkün olduğunca çok kişinin katılımının sağlanması etkinliğin amacına ulaşması açısından önemlidir. Toplumda davranış değişikliği yaratılmak istenen konu ile ilgili etkinliklerin sürekliliği de büyük önem taşımaktadır. Bu çalışma kapsamında ele alınan ağız ve diş sağlığı, insan sağlığını koruma ve iyileştirme açısından önemli konuların başında gelmektedir. Ağız ve diş hastalıklarının insan vücudunda başka hastalıklara da zemin hazırlaması nedeniyle ağız ve diş sağlığı bilincine sahip olan insanları daha kaliteli bir yaşam beklemektedir. Ağız bakımı ve diş kontrollerinin zamanında ve bilinçli yapılması insanların genel sağlığı açısından önem taşımaktadır. Bu nedenle ağız bakımı küçük yaştan itibaren kazandırılması gereken bir davranış şeklidir. Toplumda ağız ve diş sağlığı konusunda farkındalık yaratmak ve alışkanlık oluşturmak için sosyal pazarlama yaklaşımından yararlanmak önemli bir unsurdur. Toplumda ağız ve diş sağılığına gereken özenin neden gösterilemediğine ilişkin araştırmalar yapılmalı ve kişileri bu şekilde davranmaya iten unsurların neler olduğu net bir şekilde ortaya konmalıdır. Bu bilgiler doğrultusunda sosyal pazarlama programı ve kampanyaları hedef kitleye yönelik şekilde hazırlanırsa ağız ve diş sağlığı bilinci ve farkındalığı oluşturulabilir, ağız ve diş sağlığına dikkat eden ve düzenli diş hekimine giden kişilerin sayısı artırılabilir. Böylece daha sağlıklı nesillerin yetişmesinde önemli bir problem aşılmış olacaktır. Kampanyalarda istenilen davranış değişikliğinin yaratılabilmesi için hedef kitlenin ürüne ulaşımını kolaylaştırıcı en etkin dağıtım kanalları belirlenmelidir. Gezici ekiplerin oluşturulması, okulların ziyaret edilmesi, insanların yoğun olduğu yerlerde (alışveriş merkezleri gibi) bilgilendirme çalışmalarının yapılması, belirli dönemlerde ücretsiz muayene hizmetlerinin verilmesi, seminerler düzenlenmesi, medya programlarında bu konunun ele alınıp öneminden ve yapılması gerekenlerden bahsedilmesi, toplum üzerinde etki yaratan kişilerden (sanatçılar gibi) yardım alarak bilgi verilmesi ve hatta çocukların belirli bir yaşa kadar periyodik olarak diş kontrolüne gitmelerinin yasalarla zorunlu hale getirilmesi gibi çalışmalar toplumda istenilen davranış değişikliğini yaratacak unsurlar olabilir. Ağız ve diş sağlığının insan hayatı için ne kadar önemli olduğunun altı sürekli çizilmelidir. Fiziksel olarak verdiği rahatsızlığın yanı sıra hoş olmayan kokulara neden olduğu için toplumsal çevreden dışlanma gibi psikolojik travmalara da yol açabilir. Kişilerin böyle bir durumla karşılaşmamaları ve sağlıklarını korumaları için sosyal pazarlama kampanyalarının düzenlenmesine devam edilmelidir. Çünkü istenilen davranış değişikliği sürekli tekrar edilirse kişiler üzerindeki etkisi o kadar artacaktır. Ayrıca büyük işletmelerin sosyal pazarlama çalışmalarına sponsor olmaları yönünde özendirici çalışmalar yapılmalıdır. Ağız ve diş sağlığı bakımı, insanlara küçük yaşta öğretilmesi ve farkındalık yaratılması gereken bir konudur. Bu nedenle söz konusu alanda faaliyet gösteren firmaların sosyal pazarlama kampanyalarına ağırlık vermeleri ve toplumu bilinçlendirme konusunda üzerlerine düşen görevleri yerine getirmeleri gerekmektedir. Çalışma kapsamında incelenen sosyal pazarlama uygulamaları olarak ağız ve diş sağlığı kampanyaları genellikle Sağlık Bakanlığı, Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları ve bu sektörde faaliyet gösteren özel firmalar tarafından gerçekleştirilmiştir. Yapılan incelemede, çalışma içerisinde yer alan kampanyaların toplumu ağız ve diş sağlığı konusunda bilinçlendirmek ve farkındalık yaratmak amacıyla gerçekleştirildiği görülmektedir. Herkesin hassas olması gereken bir konu olmasına rağmen ağız ve diş sağlığı konusunda eğitim eksikliği, bilinçli davranmama, yararının farkında olmama ya da geç fark etme gibi nedenlerle gereken önem verilmemektedir. Toplumun genelinde bu alışkanlığın kazandırılabilmesi için detaylı bir çalışma yapılmalı ve sosyal pazarlama süreci hayata geçirilmelidir. Etkilenmesi gereken asıl hedef kitlenin belirlenmesi (örneğin ilk önce çocuklar, sonra ebeveynler gibi) çalışmanın etkinliği açısından önemlidir.

Kaynaklar Andreasen, A. R. (2001). Ethics in social marketing. Washington DC: George Town University Pres. Andreasen, A. R. (2006). Social Marketing in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Coşkun, G. (2012). Sosyal pazarlama ve sosyal pazarlama karması: Antalya Emniyet Müdürlüğü komşu kollama projesi örneği. CBÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi,10-2, 226-246. İlter, B. & Bayraktaroğlu, G. (2007). Kar amacı gütmeyen sosyal içerikli pazarlama uygulamaları: sosyal pazarlama. Erciyes Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, 28, Ocak-Haziran, 49-64. Kataria, M. & Larsen, K. (2009). Effects of social marketing on battery collection. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 53, 429–443. Kotler, P. & Zaltman, G. (1971). Social marketing: an approach to planned social change. Journal of Marketing, 35, 3-12. Kotler, P. (1975). Marketing for nonprofit organizations. NJ: Prentice Hall. Kotler, Philip & Roberto, N. & Lee, N. (2002). Social marketing improving the quality of life. (Second Edition), USA:Sage Publications. McMahon, L. (2001). The impact of social marketing on social engineering in economic restructuring. (Michael T. Ewing -Ed.), Social Marketing, The Haworth Press, USA. Mert, G. (2012). Sosyal pazarlama uygulamalarının tüketici davranışı ve firma performansı üzerine etkileri: teori ve bir uygulama. Organizasyon ve Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi, 4(1), 117-129. Sezer, İ. F. (1999). Sosyal pazarlama kavramı ve Türkiye uygulamaları. Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 14, 55-63. Tek, Ö. B. & Özgül, E. (2008). Modern Pazarlama İlkeleri. 3. Baskı, İzmir: Birleşik Maatbacılık. Uslu, A. T. & Marangoz, M. (2008). Kar amacı gütmeyen kuruluşlarda sosyal pazarlama ve çevre gönüllü kuruluşlara yönelik bir araştırma. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 10(1), 109-137. Weinreich, N. K. (1999). Hand-On social marketing: a step by step guide. USA: SAGE Publications. İnternet Kaynakları [1] http://www.haberler.com/kiziltepe-de-dis-fircalama-kampanyasi-6893161-haberi/ (Erişim tarihi: 20.09.2016). [2] http://www.saglik.gov.tr/TR/belge/1-38080/saglik-bakani-dr-muezzinoglu-ogrencilere-dis-sagligi-se-.html (Erişim tarihi: 20.09.2016). [3] http://bursa.adsh.saglik.gov.tr/Galerifircala.html?GaleriID=59 (Erişim tarihi: 14.09.2016). [4] http://www.ilkha.com/haber/9016/ben-de-fircaliyorum-kampanyasi-basladi (Erişim tarihi: 14.09.2016). [5] http://www.denizli.gov.tr/ben-de-fircaliyorum-kampanyasinda-ogrencilere-dis-fircasi-ve-macunu-dagitildi (Erişim tarihi: 14.09.2016). [6] http://kmarasadsh.gov.tr/index.php?p=news&newsid=114 (Erişim tarihi: 14.09.2016). [7] http://www.colgate.com.tr/app/Colgate/TR/Corp/CommunityPrograms/Bsbf.cvsp (Erişim tarihi: 15.09.2016). [8] https://www.tocev.org.tr/parlak_gulusler_parlak_gelecekler.aspx (Erişim tarihi: 15.09.2016). [9] http://www.disdostu.org/blog/kategori/disler-yolunda-egitim-ve-uygulama-projesi- (Erişim tarihi: 27.09.2016). [10] http://www.colgate.com.tr/app/Colgate/TR/Corp/CommunityPrograms/Ash.cvsp (Erişim tarihi: 27.09.2016). [11] http://pharmaturkey.com/binlerce-cocuk-agiz-ve-dis-bakimini-ogreniyor/ (Erişim tarihi: 27.09.2016). [12] http://www.milliyet.com.tr/-fircalar-cantada--disler-yolunda--ilkogretim-1047054/ (Erişim tarihi: 20.09.2016). [13] https://www.dentiss.com/%E2%80%9CFircalar-Cantada-Disler-Yolunda-Kampanyasi-y521.html (Erişim tarihi: 20.09.2016). [14] http://www.erzurumbeah.gov.tr/index.php/hastanemiz/haberler/152-dis-sagligi-kampanyasi (Erişim tarihi: 27.09.2016). [15] http://www.kha.com.tr/Saglik/28918--Saglikli-Disler-Mutlu-gulusler.html (Erişim tarihi: 27.09.2016). [16] http://banat.com/tr/haberler/dis_sagliginda_tegv_ve_banat_isbirligi (Erişim tarihi: 20.09.2016).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN [17] http://pharmaturkey.com/binlerce-cocuk-agiz-ve-dis-bakimini-ogreniyor/ (Erişim tarihi: 20.09.2016). [18] http://www.kocaeli.gov.tr/-saglikli-nesiller-i-in-saglikli-disler-neseli-g-l-sler-kampanyasi-kocaeli-valisisayin-ercan-topaca-nin-katilimiyla-baslatildi-24-05-2013- (Erişim tarihi: 15.09.2016). [19] http://kocaeli.habermonitor.com/tr/haber/detay/saglikli-nesiller-icin-saglikli-disler-nesel/202233/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.09.2016). [20] http://www.kocaeli.gov.tr/-saglikli-nesiller-i-in-saglikli-disler-neseli-g-l-sler-kampanyasi-2-nci-asamatanitim-programi-ger-eklestirildi--07-11-2013- (Erişim tarihi: 15.09.2016). [21] http://www.haberler.com/temiz-disler-saglikli-gulusler-kampanyasi-devam-4149998-haberi/ (Erişim tarihi: 27.09.2016). [22] http://kecioren.meb.gov.tr/www/arsiv/icerik/331 (Erişim tarihi: 27.09.2016). [23] http://kmarasanadolulisesi.meb.k12.tr/icerikler/temiz-disler-saglikli-gulusler_2226281.html (Erişim tarihi: 27.09.2016). [24] http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/aydin-da-saglikli-gulusler-kampanyasi-13848719 (Erişim tarihi: 27.09.2016).

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EXAMINING THE PUBLIC RELATIONS ACTIVITIES OF JUSTICE AND DEVELOPMENT PARTY (AK PARTY) AND REPUBLICAN PARTY (CHP) IN 2014 LOCAL ELECTIONS OVER KONYA ELECTORATE1

Res. Assist. Hülya Anakız ERTÜRK Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Public Relations and İntroduction [email protected] Abstract The field of public relations, which has unchanging principles and a structure with dynamic contents, is one of the basic elements of modern politics. Political parties and leaders are in constant competition in today’s world in which alternatives have grown many in number, competition has increased, and the word “up-to-date” has become inadequate in reflecting innovation. As a matter of fact, the 2014 Local Elections were the reflection of such a competition. Political parties conducted political communication activities in different tracks with different themes in the local elections on March 30, 2014. Public relations, which may be performed even with primitive methods, kept its place in political arena in this election, which was the case in every previous election. Before the 2014 Local elections, the Governing and Opposition Party of Turkey tried to have the consent of the electorate with various public relations campaigns. The public relations campaigns were shaped in the light of the desired purpose in such a manner that in some campaigns the leaders were in the forefront; while in some other campaigns, the projects and promises of some candidates cast a shadow on the leaders. In this present study, each public relations activity was examined separately, and the electorate in Konya was asked to assess the public relations activities of the Justice and Development Party and Republican People’s Party. The responses received from the electorate were evaluated in the last part of the study in a statistical manner. Key Words: Public Relations, Local Elections, Government, Main Opposition, Electorate.

1. Introduction The field of public relations, which is assumed to be applied even with primitive methods, has an important place in today’s modern politics. As a matter of fact, “public relations” is a means of communication which is transparent and based on bilateral communication; and it convinces masses without manipulating and reflects the truth without exaggerating. On the other hand, “public relations” is also “the process of influencing the society and being influenced by it” (Mıhçıoğlu, 1971:92). This definition proves the legitimacy of public relations in political field. As a matter of fact, when political organizations and units try to influence public opinion, they are also shaped according to the feedback they receive from the public opinion. The use of public relations as a political means of communication, on the other hand, has certain superior sides when compared with advertisements and propaganda. The basic principle of public relations is convincing the target audience by influencing them. For this purpose, public relations establish a relation based on trust within the society by staying away from unreal and distracted

1

This study was derived from a master thesis.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN information. In addition to this, the use of public relations as a political means of communications provides many opportunities for a political party.1 The field of public relations is the management of consent. The most influential way to sustain and increase the devotion of the electorate to the political party is receiving the consent of the electorate. The most basic way of ensuring the devotion of the electorate to the party is “public relations”. In this context, this present study has been designed for the purpose of emphasizing the importance of public relations in political field. In the literature part of the study, the concept and applications of political public relations is examined; and in the application part of the study, a public opinion survey, which was applied on the Electorate of Konya in 2014 Local Elections, is presented. In this Survey, the electorate was asked to assess the public relations activities of the governing party and the Main Opposition Party. 2. Public Relations as a Political means of Communication in the Political Arena Political communication is in relation with mainly politics and sociology, anthropology, social psychology, history, language and public relations disciplines. The field of public relations, which is one of these disciplines, is considered as an important method in terms of political communication. The public relations activities of political parties are performed in two different periods. These are the public relations activities performed during election periods, and the activities performed during periods other than elections. The purpose of the parties here is to sustain their existence and influence the public opinion. Political communication activities are not run with merely public relations activities, advertisements and propaganda are also important political communication activities. Although public relations, advertisement and propaganda overlap with each other in many areas, they also have basic differences. As a matter of fact, when the connection between advertisement and public relations is considered it is observed that these two concepts differ from each other with definite and clear lines so much so that advertisement and public relations are different from each other in terms of their target audience, means of media, costs and communicational purposes (Jefkins, 1995:20). Propaganda, on the other hand, has a notorious association in the minds of people although it has some similar sides with public relations. However, propaganda is one of the application areas which are similar to public relations and it is often confused with it. Beyond that, there are some viewpoints defending that the notion of public relations is completely a propaganda work (Kalender, 2008:40). Public relations activities are examined in various areas such as media management, image management, communication and information in organizations, crisis management, lobbying, reputation management (Kalender, 2008: 31; Oktay, 2002:79). The first one of these areas is image management. In recent periods, image management is considered as an indispensable element in political terms; however, using images as a means of power in political arena is not a new situation. In history, the owners of the power sought to create positive images by using various accessories that would carry them to a supremacy that is untouchable in the eye of the public and that would marginalize them from the rest of the society (Bostancı, 2011:169-171). The change in meaning of image started after the World War II. After this date, the concept of image became to solidify with television in such a way studies were conducted in which the personal image of the politicians and the institutional images of the political parties came to the forefront (Oktay, 2002: 85). For this reason, today, the concept of image is examined under two titles in political terms, which are the image of the party and the image of the leader. The indicators of the image of the leader and the image of the party are in parallel directions. In ideological terms, the institutional image of the party and the image of the leader cannot differ; however, it is not possible to expect that parties have a completely homogenous structure in all terms in the political history or in our present day. The image of the leader is the picture drawn by the candidates in the eye of the electorate, in other words, the picture in the minds of the candidates about the leader (Gülsünler and Ertürk, 2012:93). The image of the party, on the other hand, is the perceptions of the electorate and all the interaction groups about the institution. Political parties are influenced by some elements like the institutional image, the characteristics of the leader, management quality, the proposals the leaders produces in the face of problems (Uztuğ, 2004: 35-36).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Media management is one of the important applications of public relations. The role of the public relations in the interactions with the media is to transfer as much information as possible to the public opinion by using mass communication devices in order to ensure that the public opinion has information on the institution and has an understanding about it (Okay and Okay, 2009: 21-23). Politics today has experienced a swift transition from face-to-face communication to mostly mass communication. For this reason, mass communication devices have become the strategic medium of the governments. The struggle of political parties to survive without being in interaction with the media is a futile struggle that is doomed to end in failure (Bostancı, 2010:141-142). The media, in terms of political communication, is used in various forms according to the type of the communication. Political groups make use of the media, which is an application of political public relations, within the limits of public relations. The applications of the public relations are transferred to target masses via media organs. These public relations applications in the media are sometimes in the form of planned applications and have the quality of being news, while in some other times, they develop spontaneously. The applications of the image management and media management that are out of the scope of the political public relations applications show variations. In this context, the applications of public relations are as follows: The first one may be expressed as the communication within the organization. This is important in managing the relations within the party. This type of communication, which may also be named as intra-organizational communication, “is in the form of messages that are sent and received within the sets that are formed without a certain form and that are constructed in a formal manner in any organization” (Mutlu, 2008:228). The management in political parties is within a certain hierarchy based on superior-subordinate relations, which is the case in all organizations. Sometimes, classifications, the sent-offs and ruptures may occur in political parties. These types of communication damages that lead to serious injuries within the party may damage and decrease the potential of the party in terms of the votes it may receive. These kinds of events that damage the image of the organization are a great leverage for the rivals; and the opponents may use it frequently in public opinion. The aim here is transferring the image of “a party that cannot solve its domestic problems cannot solve the problems of the country at all” to the electorate. For this reason, even if there are communicating problems in the party, political parties do not want to share them with the public opinion. If there is such a perception in the public opinion, the members of the party may want to correct this perception in various ways. Information management, which exists in political public relations concept, covers the techniques that involve the manipulation of information in any way. Information is power, and the use of this information brings with it important advantages. Hiding information, reflecting it in an incorrect manner, providing missing information, spreading fabricated news, deliberately leak information out, and similar things are in the scope of information management (Oktay, 2002:90). Another public relations application is the financial relations concept. Financial relations are the power, which enables that political parties sustain their existence in political terms. Parties must be powerful in financial terms in order to sustain their existence. Financial public relations are important for political parties, which is the case in all the other organizations. Financial public relations are the communication programs that will regulate the relations of the organization with its partners and other business world stakeholders (Görpe, 2001: 39). The Financial relations of political parties are covered by the respondent person, people or organizations. Political parties must strengthen their organizational structures in order to exist in the political arena. The thing that is meant by the party organization is the buildings, equipment, personnel and similar elements. In order to cover these expenses, important amounts of finance is required. The party organization needs sustainable income source in order to perform its activities and conduct election campaigns (Teziç, 1996: 316). Because it is not possible for parties to conduct election campaigns without covering the financial needs (Yücekök, 1972:70). A crisis is an emergency that appears in an unexpected time and disrupt the routine of the organization and threaten its existence. Crisis management covers the activities that are run before, during and after a crisis (Okay and Okay, 2011: 356). Political parties are influenced by crisis to a certain extent. Party closure suits, the members of the party leaving it, the disagreements among the members, or different discourses delivered by members of the party, losing an election, terrorist attacks, economic crises, strikes, boycotts, and demonstration and similar crisis-like events are important threats for political parties.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Lobbyism is the most obvious application of public relations activities in political terms. The word “lobby” is defined in dictionaries as the hall, corridor, backstage or as the interest groups. Lobbyist is used as lobbyist or the spokesman or the representative of interest or pressure groups (Çamdereli, 2000: 121). Lobbyism, which is a part of public relations, is sustaining good relations with the government in order to influence legislation and execution (Cutlip et al., 1994:17). Another public relations application is the management of reputation. The management of reputation is the protection of the reputation that is gained as a result of long and hard organizational work. Various factors are influential in forming institutional reputation (Okay and Okay, 2011:387-388). These factors are organizational communication and the identity of it, social responsibility and the role of the leader. Political parties continue to build the reputation that is lost in order to protect the reputation that was gained previously as a long and hard struggle. They try to transfer the positive sides of the party to the electorate with the help of the communication works. The most important basic principle of reputation management is trust. With the help of the trust established, parties gain an image in the eye of the electorate. 2.1. As the Governing and Main Opposition Party: Justice and Development Party Republican People’s Party In 2014 Local Elections, Justice and Development Party and Republican People’s Party applied various communication activities. These activities were performed with various media. Since this part constitutes the main theme of the subject matter, the historical processes and public relations activities of the political parties have been given. The selection of only Justice and Development Party and Republican People’s Party is because one of them is the government and the other one is the Main Opposition Party. 2.1.1. Justice and Development Party Since Justice and Development Party is the governing party, it has been examined in the first part. Justice and Development Party came into power in the general elections held on November 3, 2002, and tried to reach the electorate with different slogans and election campaigns in each election period; as a matter of fact, Justice and Development Party produced different election campaigns around a different theme in each election period. Justice and Development Party was established with the leadership of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan on August 14, 2001 as the thirty-ninth political party (www.akparti.org.tr). The establishment did not happen at once, because political, economic and social conditions prepared the ground for the establishment of Justice and Development Party (Özdağ, 2011:101). In 2014 Local Elections, Justice and Development Party received votes at a rate of 45,6 (akparti.org), and tried to reach the electorate with various political communication activities. The main theme of Justice and Development Party in 2014 local elections campaigns was its activities it performed during its governing years, because the services given until that time were transferred in the advertisement campaigns to the electorate with the slogan “I do not care about the words, I care about the performance”, and there were also promises for the future, which is the case in every election. On the other hand, the operations that were made due to the bribery and corruption claims on December 17 and 25 marked the process in 2014 local elections. Fethulah Gulen and the congregation of him, which were named as “the parallel structure” by Prime Minister Erdoğan, were mentioned for the first time in the meetings of Justice and Development Party. In terms of the relation with the media, television programs may be given as the first classification in terms of public relations of Justice and Development Party. In this context, Justice and Development Party was the main guest in news before 2014 local elections, and there were many television programs to which Recep Tayyip Erdoğan participated in person. The television programs to which Recep Tayyip Erdoğan participated despite his busy agenda may be given as a public relations activity. In this context, Prime Minister Erdoğan was the guest in program like Special Agenda prepared together with Atv and A Haber, and in Iskele Sancak that was broadcast with the moderation of Mehmet Acet prepared by Kanal 7 and Ulke TV, and he answered the questions of the journalists and authors on the agenda. Another means of communication that is important in political public relations is the website. In this context, the website of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, www.rte.gen.tr may be assessed in terms of political public relations. In this website, the life of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is given, and there are also important moments noted in the history. In social media, Erdoğan contacted masses with various messages. The main theme of these messages was simultaneous in terms of each social media use, but sometimes it showed differences as 532

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN well; while the messages in Facebook were related with the activities and services performed when he was in the government, the Twitter messages included the activities and services together with critics towards the opposition party or the other structures. In this context, the services performed were transferred to the audience under the title of “Ak Services” over the Facebook account of Erdoğan before the 2014 Local elections. To advertise the services and actions performed that far, the television advertisements that were broadcast locally and nationwide were used for 2014 Local Elections. In addition to these, open-air advertisements were also used over the Facebook account of Erdoğan. No active political public relations activity was run over Twitter just before the elections. However, it is possible to claim that the Twitter and Facebook messages were simultaneous; in other words, the same messages appeared in both social platforms simultaneously. In the scope of activity management, it is observed that Erdoğan participated in many ceremonies like openings, commemorative ceremonies, funerals, etc. When the fact that Erdoğan started the 2014 Local Elections activities in February is considered, the activities that continued from February till March 30 may be considered as the political public relations activities of 2014 Local Elections. On the other hand, meetings may also be considered as an activity, because Erdoğan performed many openings simultaneously during meetings. In the scope of activity management, it is also observed that Erdoğan participated in many commemorative ceremonies. Another political public relations activity is the face-to-face communication activity performed with the electorate. In this context, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan performed many one-to-one communication activities with the electorate during the period he was in the government. For example, he came together with families of the martyrs, the owners of slum houses, taxi drivers, craft and related trades workers and similar people and institutions and performed face-to-face communicating activities. Another important communication activity is the intra-party relations and the management of these relations. Justice and Development Party participated the 2014 Local Elections with the news on 17th December operations. This situation caused resignations in the party and led to some members leave the party. On the other hand, the candidates of Justice and Development Party mentioned promising projects and activities and services of the party, which was consistent with the explanations of Erdoğan. In this context, the candidates applied several public relations activities. It is observed that the candidates were the guests of various television programs, which is one of the most important points even the key element of public relations activities.

Although 2014 Local Elections were local, they were held in an atmosphere that as if they were general elections. As a matter of fact, it is possible to see this in the social media accounts of Justice and Development Party. The meetings that would be held were mentioned as if there were general elections. Erdoğan is the key person even the single person of Justice and Development Party for some people. In this context, it may be considered normal when Erdoğan is placed in the forefront; however, the other candidates were introduced less over the Facebook account of Justice and Development Party. For example, the meeting that would be held in Antalya on March 15, 2014 was announced; however the candidates were not mentioned. In a visual that attracted the attention on how crowded the meeting was, the organizers thanked Antalya. Also, the openings that were help during the meeting and the investments on that city were mentioned. The investments were announced with television advertisements and on Facebook; however images of Erdoğan were given in television advertisement instead of the candidates. On Twitter account, it is observed that the candidates are cared more rather than the party, because the press and the public opinion were interested in the explanations of İbrahim Melih Gökçek, who was the Mayor of Ankara Metropolitan municipality, on Twitter. With over one million eight hundred thousand followers, Melih Gökçek has followers also outside the capital, Ankara. There were people who shared and supported the Twitter messages of Melih Gökçek, and there were also some people who criticized him and who found his Twitter messages amusing. In addition to these, Melih Gökçek uses Twitter in an active manner; he answers those who criticizes him and shares the messages of his followers. It is possible to reach the website of Justice and Development Party on http://www.akparti.org.tr/site link. In the website, there are main titles such as the Party, Ak Staff, News, Cities, Contact Us; as well as the activities and services, elections and the target for 2023. On the other hand, there are many introductory elements like various press releases, positive news, meeting videos, Justice and Development Party on local and national media. Under the title of “the Party”, there are the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN legislation or the party, the regulations of the party, party program, 2023 political vision, income-expenses status, institutional identity, file archive, activities, and elections. In the scope of activity management, it is observed that the candidates participated in various activities. For example, Kadir Topbaş, who was the candidate in Istanbul, which is the metropolitan city of Turkey, conducted his election campaign with the slogan “Istanbul has her Kadir big brother”. The candidacy of Topbaş was announced on December 5, 2013; and he organized ninety trips to thirty-nine counties of Istanbul with the election campaign prepared and run by the party organization (http://www.tgrthaber.com.tr). The candidates mentioned their activities and projects in various platforms like the social media, meetings, etc. For example Binali Yıldırım was the leader who found place in the media with “1414 Projects”. He mentioned these projects over his social media account, and promised that Izmir would face major changes in social and economic terms. It was promised that Izmir would be different from today by the year 2019 to convince the masses. The introduction of 1414 was made in the form of a great ceremony with the participation of many journalists (http://www.hayatizmir.com). Ankara Metropolitan Municipality Mayor Melih Gökçek found place in the media with the introduction of eighteen projects. Melih Gökçek promised the Ankara Channel, and mentioned a life and recreational area on a giant channel in Imrahor Valle consisting of 11 km, and also promised Anka Park, Airport Metro, Bus Cable Car, Fair Area, belief and history Museum (http://www.internethaber.com.tr). Tahir Akyürek stated that they were struggling to turn the city of Konya into a brand city (http://www.memleket.com.tr). Meanwhile, it was also observed that Akyürek met the electorate in various ways; he participated in planting trees activity, visited the villagers, and had a conversation with the Young Party Organization Youth Branches Organization in a restaurant (http://www.konya.bel.tr). As it is observed, Justice and Development Party performed various public relations activities for 2014 Local Elections. Although the 2014 elections were local, the atmosphere was as if it were the general elections, because Erdoğan was in the forefront rather than the candidates in election campaigns. Erdoğan is the key person even the single person of Justice and Development Party for some people. In this context, it may be considered correct when Erdoğan is placed in the forefront. In terms of the candidates, the cities of İstanbul, İzmir and Ankara attracted the attention of the public opinion and the media, which was the case in every election. In this context, the public relations activities of these three metropolitan cities have been examined mostly in the study. 2.2. Republican People’s Party Republican People’s Party is the first party of the Republic of Turkey in terms of the establishment date. Although sometimes it left its place to alternative left-wing parties in its history, it has always survived throughout history. It was on power for twenty-seven years during the period which was called as the “Single Party Period”. Since the day it was first established, it has various communication activities as long as the conditions in those times allowed. In 2014 Local Elections, Republican People’s Party conducted various communication activities on the basis of the candidates and party. In this context, the public relations activities of CHP (the Republican People’s Party) in 2014 Local Elections have been examined in the second part since it is the Main Opposition Party. Republican People’s Party was a party that was established with the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk gave the signs of the establishment of Public Party (Republican People’s Party), which was the first political party of the new Republic of Turkey, after the recapturing of Izmir. Then it was established with the leadership of Atatürk (Uyar, 1999:63). The Prime Ministers was firstly Ismet Inonü, and then Celal Bayar in the period when Atatürk was the President. The establishment of Republican People’s Party did not occur at once, because as it has been mentioned above, Atatürk established the perception of this new party in the public opinion by mentioning it several times in his speeches. The Prime Minister was Ismet Inönü and then Celal Bayar in the period when Atatürk was the President. After Atatürk died, the National Assembly elected Ismet Inönü as the second President. Thus, the “National Chief” period started. The position of Inönü as the leader became official in an extraordinary party congress held in December 1938; the party regulation was changed in this congress, and Atatürk was mentioned as the “Eternal General President” and Inönü was mentioned as the “Unchanging General President”. The title “National Chief”, which was once used for Atatürk in 1930s, became the official title of İnönü (Zürcher, 2013:274). 534

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN İnönü continued to strengthen his dominance in the party in the forthcoming years. He appointed Celal Bayar as the Prime minister, and established contact with the famous people who were once sent away from political life or who were rebels against the government (Tekin and Okutan, 2011:104). With the transition to multi-party system in 1946, the CHP government, which had been on power for twenty-seven years, left its place to DP. There were some other changes in CHP in later years; the concept of “the left of the mid-point” developed with Ecevit, and the roads of İnönü and Ecevit were soon parted. With the transition to multi-party system, CHP was on power sometimes with coalitions, and sometimes stayed as the opposition party. With the Military Coup on September 12, 1980, CHP was closed, and after a while, when the political bans abolished, CHP came back to the scene of history. In the elections that took place on November 3, 2002, CHP entered the parliament as the Main Opposition Party. CHP participated three local and three general elections in the course of twelve years, and sustained its existence as the Main Opposition Party. In 2010, there was a change in the management of CHP. Deniz Baykal resigned and left his place to Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu (www.chp.org.tr). In 2011 General Member of Parliament elections CHP participated with the leadership of Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu, and remained as the Main Opposition Party. In Local Elections that were held in 2014, the party received 27,8 votes (http://www.secim.haberler.com/2014). Republican People’s Party addressed the masses by mentioning several topic in 2014 Local Elections campaigns; however, it focused more mainly on two points. These two points constituted the main theme of CHP’s 2014 Local Elections campaign. The first one was the promise of freedom that was addressed towards the public opinion that was formed against the government after the Taksim Gezi Part events; and the second one was the bribery and corruption claims, which kept the agenda and public opinion busy after December 17. The government was criticized over these two main topics, and the party asked for votes from the masses. Republican People’s Party promised that it would be the “unifying power of Turkey” with the consideration of the nation was divided after the Taksim Gezi Park events, and claimed that the Government was not transparent after December 17, there was corruption, and claimed that these were not so-called accusations and they were true. While Erdoğan was in the forefront in the election campaigns of Justice and Development Party, Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu was in the forefront together with the candidates in the election campaigns of Republican People’s Party. Especially Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Mayor candidate Mustafa Sarıgül, and Ankara Metropolitan Municipality Mayor candidate Mansur Yavaş attracted the attention of the media and the public opinion; however, these candidates did not act independently from the General President of Republican People’s Party Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu, and acted in consistency with him. Various activities were conducted in the field of the relations with the media. For example, CHP General President Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu met the journalists at lunch at a restaurant in Florya in Istanbul (http://www.postmedya.com.tr). In the scope of the relations with the media, it was observed that Kılıçdaroğlu participated in several television programs. For example, he participated in the live broadcast of the NTV. The personal website of Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu provides information for the users over www.kemalkilicdaroglu.com.tr. In this website, there are several links under the titles like My Life, News, and Letters. The existence of a Contact link on the website is important in terms of feedback; however, although the website is functional, it is not up-to-date, because Kılıçdaroğlu made his last speech on the agenda in 2013, and he made his predictions on the future in 2013 again. On the other hand, when information is given about the program of Kılıçdaroğlu, only February 2014 was mentioned, and the other months are not mentioned. Furthermore, messages are transferred to masses over the social media accounts of Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu. In the Facebook account of Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu, there are announcements about several topics as well as activity news, the television and open-air advertisements of CHP, the speeches of Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu in the Party Group, celebration messages on certain special occasions, meeting announcements -though not in every city-, snapshots and videos from meetings. It may be claimed that the Facebook messages and Twitter messages of Kılıçdaroğlu are consistent and even simultaneous, because the advertisements that had the slogan “the Unifying Power of Turkey” were released both on Facebook and on Twitter. Republican People’s Party participated in the 2014 Local Elections with nomination of the candidates crisis on the headlines and it released its candidates in Ankara, İzmir and in counties of Istanbul at later times 535

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN than expected. This situation led to dissatisfaction and worries mainly by General President Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu, and party members (http://www.aksam.com.tr). CHP was on the agenda with nomination of the candidates crisis before 2014 Local Elections, and these crises led to breakages and worries within the party, and the management of CHP tried to overcome the crisis with the leadership of Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu. A series of meetings was held as a result of this nominee crisis, and ideas were exchanged with the family members. According to Newspaper Cumhuriyet, the management of CHP, which tried to overcome the reactions about the candidates, held meetings with the members of the Central Management Board of the party over and over, and met with the mayors in order to review the lists. On the party basis, the candidates of Republican People’s Party conducted various public relations activities. Mansur Yavaş from Ankara, Mustafa Sarıgül from Istanbul, İbrahim Işık from Konya, who were new names in the eye of the public opinion, were nominated again as well as Aziz Kocaoğlu from İzmir, Yılmaz Büyükerşen from Eskişehir, Mustafa Akaydın from Antalya (www.chp.org.tr). The candidates from Istanbul and Ankara are important for CHP as well as the other parties. On the other hand, the possibility of winning the 2014 Local Elections by Republican People’s Party in Istanbul, especially in Ankara, and there were vehement competition. In this context, the interest of the media and public opinion was focused on these cities and on these candidates. As a matter of fact, while Mansur Yavaş was the candidate of Nationalistic Movement Party in the previous local elections, he was nominated from CHP, and Mustafa Sarıgül, who went away from the party previously and who was the mayor of Şişli County of Istanbul, came back to CHP, which he called as the “Family Home” and was nominated from Istanbul. The first one among the candidates, who were on the agenda in this context, was Mustafa Sarıgül. Sarıgül was “a famous name on the media” and was the guest of various television programs before the 2014 Local Elections. Mansur Yavaş was also the guest of television programs as the Ankara Metropolitan Municipality Mayor candidate Mansur Yavaş as well as Sarıgül. On the website of the Republican People’s Party, there was a visual that emphasized the historical identity and the ideology of the party. In this visual, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was on the background and Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu was in front of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk to imply the meaning of CHP’s being the party of Atatürk. There are important elements on the website in the link www.chp.org.tr in terms of public relations. There are also announcements and press releases of CHP members and Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu, as well as a special corner that introduces the General President and the members of the parliament from CHP, news from the agenda, and announcements that are important for the electorate. CHP addressed its followers over Facebook and Twitter with themes that were shaped in various platforms. In addition to this, the shared elements of the General President on Facebook and the shared elements of the Party include approximately the same contents. In the Facebook account of the Party, there are the press releases of the Party members, the promises of the candidates, and the news about the activities of the General President and the candidates, which is different from the account of Kılıçdaroğlu. The shared elements of CHP on Twitter also have the same contents and programs as the same themes. When the face-to-face communication activities of the candidates are considered, is it observed that the candidates of CHP conducted the communication activities together with people and institutions in various platforms. The candidates participated in various activities, it is reported that Mustafa Sarıgül participated almost in every activity throughout Turkey. He joined the activities in Erzincan, Sinop and nearby cities in person, and sent the employees of the Şişli Municipality to activities to which he could not join (http://www.sonsayfa.com.tr). Mansur Yavaş organized visits to several associations and participated in concerts (http://www.hurriyet.com.tr). As it is observed, the General President and candidates of Republican People’s Party conducted several public relations activities. The main theme of the public relations activities consists of various subjects and critics. As previously mentioned, the candidates of CHP for the cities Istanbul and Ankara were in the forefront of the public opinion and in the eye of the media. For this reason, the public relations activities of Mustafa Sarıgül and Mansur Yavaş have been mentioned here. CHP emphasized its candidates together with Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu in all of its election campaigns.

3. Methodology The public relations activities of Justice and Development Party and Republican People’s Party in 2014 536

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Local Elections have been investigated over the electorate of Konya. Four hundred people participated in this study, and answers have been sought for the questions on socio-demographic properties of the electorate, media usage habits, their loyalty to the political parties, and the level of the interest in political campaigns. In addition, the public relations activities of Justice and Development Party and Republican People’s Party, which constitute the main subject of the study, have been investigated in two separate categories as on a leader basis and on a candidate basis. The topic of public relations, which constitutes the trivet of political communication strategies, attract the attention of researchers less than advertisements and propaganda, and the number of the researchers who conduct studies on political public relations is limited. In this context, the aim with this study is to contribute to the field of public relations in the literature. The political parties tried to contact the electorate with various communication campaigns in March 30, 2014 Local Elections. The public relations constitute an important part of these political campaigns. For this reason, the public relations activities of two parties one of which is the party in the government, Justice and Development Party, and the other one the Main Opposition Party, Republican People’s Party before 2014 Local Elections have been examined in the present study. The assessment of these public relations was made by the people who had qualified as the electorate residing in Selçuklu, Meram and Karatay, which are three central counties of Konya. In sampling selection, the random sampling technique was used. The literature scan was made with face-to-face communication with the participants in the central counties of Konya (Selçuklu, Karatay and Meram) between 1 and 15th April, 2014. The data were processed in electronic medium by using the SPSS 15 Statistical Package Program. Various tests have been made use of in order to describe the data collected mainly the frequency analysis.

4. Findings and Comments In the findings and comments part of the study, the following data were obtained when the demographical data of the participants were examined. 99% of the participants replied the questions and 41,7% of the participants were female, and 58,3% were male. 50% of the participants were married, and 49% of them were single. According to another finding, the people who participated in the study watched television most of the time. 43% of the participants watched television regularly on a daily basis. The rate of the participants who read newspapers regularly on a daily basis was 20.5% of the participants; the rate of those who listened to the radio was 8,5%; the rate of those who read magazines was 4,5%; and the rate of those who used the Internet was 1,8%; while the rate of those who used the social media was 38,8%. More than half of the participants, 63,8%, consisted of the electorate who decided on which party to vote for before the elections. However, an important part of the electorate, 20,5%, decide on whom or which party to vote for when the candidates were announced. The participants were asked to state their devotion levels to their parties. The distribution of the votes of the electorate in 2014 Local Elections was as follows: 42,5 of the participants voted for Justice and Development Party; 14,8% voted for Main Opposition Party, Republican People’s Party. The rate of those who voted for the Nationalistic Movement Party was 20,5%. The rate of those who voted for Peace and Democracy Party, had the lowest value with 2% of the participants. The percentage of those who voted for the parties that were not in the Assembly other than the four parties that had groups in the Assembly was 9,5%. The number of the participants who did not answer this question is forty-three people in 400 people. When the parties that received votes form the participants were examined in terms of gender, which is one of the demographical data, we determined the following findings: 50% voted for Justice and Development Party, 20% voted for CHP, 18% voted for MHP, 4% voted for BDP, and 4% voted for the other parties. In addition to these data, 45,4% of the male participants voted for Justice and Development Party, 14,1% voted for CHP, 26,8% voted for MHP, 1% voted for BDP, 12,7% voted for the other parties. There is a significant relation between the gender variable and the party voted for, and the values are as follows; (X²= 6,40; sd.= 4; p< 0,05). The question of whether or not the participants found the election campaigns of the governing party and the main opposition party successful in 2014 Local Elections was asked to the participants. According to the data obtained, the participants who found the election campaigns of Justice and Development Party was 29,5% and the rate of those who stated that they did not like it at all was 17,3%. The rate of those who liked 537

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN the election campaign of Republican People’s Party was 6,8%, and the rate of those who did not like the campaign was 35,8%. While the arithmetic average of the election campaigns of Justice and Development Party was 3,40%; that of the CHP was 2,32%. The topic was also examined around two categories, the leaders and the parties. In this context, the public relations activities of Justice and Development Party General President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Republican People’s Party General President Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu in 2014 Local Elections were asked to the participants by using 5-Point Likert Scale. In this Likert Scale, the participants were asked to express their viewpoints by saying “I definitely agree” (5); “I agree” (4); “I am indecisive” (3); “I do not agree” (2); “I definitely disagree” (1). However, the complete findings of the Likert Scale were not provided in this scale. The positive judgments were used in the Scale, and the agreement and disagreement levels of the participants were asked. In this context, the following conclusions were made by considering the viewpoints of the participants. While the percentage of the participants who agreed that Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was a charismatic leader was 51%; the percentage for the same viewpoint for Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu was 6,5%. The question “How much do you agree that the leader is experienced politician and knows what to do?” was asked to the participants, and 43,8% of the participants definitely agreed to this viewpoint for Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. The same percentage for Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu was 7,3%. When the success levels of the leader on television was asked to the participants, they found Recep Tayyip Erdoğan definitely successful with a rate of 35,3%; and Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu with a rate of 9,3%. About the management of the intra-party relations, the rate of the participants that were indecisive about both leaders was very important; 12,3% for Erdoğan; and 19,8% for Kılıçdaroğlu. The participants commented on the of the leaders on the agenda of the country as follows; “Do you find the press releases of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan on the agenda of the country satisfying?”, those who did not agree at all were 21,8%; those who did not agree were 13,0%; those who were indecisive were 12,5%; those who agreed were 16,8%; and those who agreed definitely were 34,5%. The comments on the same item about Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu were as follows; those who did not agree at all were 38,3%; those who did not agree were 21%; those who were indecisive were 15,3%; those who agreed were 13%; and those who agreed definitely were 9,3%. The parties also run public relations activities on a local basis as well as the public relations strategies of the leaders. In this context, the participants were asked to assess the public relations activities of the candidates of Justice and Development Party and Republican People’s Party in 2014 Local Elections; and a 5-Point Likert Scale was used in order to assess the comments of the participants. The first item in this scale represented the trust in the leader; as a matter of fact, the 20,3% of the participants stated that they did not trust the leader of Justice and Development Party at all, and 29% stated that they definitely trusted him. 36,3% of the participants stated that they did not trust in the CHP candidates at all, while 7,3% stated that the candidates were definitely reliable leaders. The results on the central inclination statistics of the reliability images of the candidates of the party are as follows; 390 participants answered to the questions: “Do you think that the candidates of Justice and Development Party are experienced?”. The lowest point was 1, and the highest point was 5 in this question; and the arithmetic average of Justice and Development Party in this item was 3,45; standard deviation was 1,44. 377 participants answered to the same question about CHP. The arithmetic average of CHP in this question was 2,30; and standard deviation was 1,27. The judgment “The candidates of Justice and Development Party had a successful face-to-face communication with the electorate”, was given to the participants and they were asked what they thought about this judgment. The rate of those who did not agree to this judgment at all was 18%; those who did not agree was 9,5%; those who were indecisive was 16,5%; those who agreed was 25,3%; and those who agreed definitely was 27,8%. When the same judgment was asked about CHP, the following results were obtained: The rate of those who did not agree to this judgment at all was 33%; those who did not agree was 17,3%; those who were indecisive was 21,5%; those who agreed was 14,8%; and those who agreed definitely was 7,3%. The following results were obtained on the item about the central inclination statistics of the communication with the media activities of the candidates of the party; the participants were asked the question “Do you think that the candidates of the Justice and Development Party had a successful communication?”, and 388 people answered to this question. The lowest point was 1 and the highest points was 5. The arithmetic

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN average of Justice and Development Party was 3,42; and the standard deviation was 1,33. 375 participants answered to the same question about Republican People’s Party. The arithmetic average of Republican People’s Party in this question was 2,54; and the standard deviation was 1,33. The success of the candidates on television was not clarified and answered by the participants; the percentage of the electorate who are indecisive in both parties was high. In central inclination statistics of the candidates on the success on television programs, the following results were obtained; 383 participants answered to the question “Do you think that the candidates of Justice and Development Party were successful on television programs?”. The lowest point was 1, and the highest point was 5. The arithmetic average of Justice and Development Party was 3,37; and the standard deviation was 1,43. 376 participants answered to the same question about Republican People’s Party. The arithmetic average of Republican People’s Party in this question was 2,48; and the standard deviation was 1,32. The functionality of the websites of the parties was assessed as follows: The functionality of the website of Justice and Development Party was found to be “definitely functional” with a rate of 22,8%; and the website of CHP was found “definitely functional” with 10,3%. The judgment “I found the social media use of the candidates of Justice and Development Party successful” was given to the participants, and were asked to state what they thought about it. The rate of those who did not agree to this statement was 16,5%; those who did not agree was 10,8%; those who were indecisive was 14,3%; those who agreed was 13,8%; and those who agreed definitely was 20,8%. For the same statement, the results for CHP are as follows; the rate of those who did not agree at all was 25,5%; the rate of those who did not agree was 10,3%; those who were indecisive was 17,8%; those who agreed was 12%; and those who definitely agreed was 11,3%. When the adequacy of the candidates in joining openings commemorative ceremonies, and meetings in the eye of the public opinion was assessed, the following results were obtained: The participants were given the statement “I found the participation of the candidates of Justice and Development Party in meetings, openings, commemorative ceremonies and similar activities adequate”, and were asked to state their opinions. The rate of those who did not agree to this statement at all was 16,3%; those who did not agree was 9,3%; those who were indecisive was 17,5%; those who agreed to this statement was 23,5%; and those who definitely agreed was 29%. The following results were obtained for CHP in the same item; the statement “I found the participation of the candidates of Justice and Development Party in meetings, openings, commemorative ceremonies and similar activities adequate” was given to the participants and were asked to state their opinions. The rate of those who did not agree to this statement at all was 29,3%; those who did not agree was 20,3%; those who were indecisive was 21,3%; those who agreed to this statement was 13,3%; and those who definitely agreed was 8,8%. On the other hand, the following results were obtained in the central inclination statistics of the reflection of the intra-party relations in the public opinion; the question “Was the intra-party relations of the candidates of Justice and Development Party reflected in the public opinion in a positive way?” was given to the participants, and 385 answers were received. The lowest point was 1, and the highest point was 5. The arithmetic average for the candidates of Justice and Development Party was 3,30; and the standard deviation was 1,43. 380 participants answered to the same question on Republican People’s Party. The arithmetic average of Republican People’s Party in this question was 2,44; and the standard deviation was 1,30. In the central inclination statistics of the candidates’ informing the public opinion about the agenda of the country, the following results were obtained; 389 participants answered to the question “Did the candidates of Justice and Development Party provide enlightening information to the public opinion on the agenda of the country?”. The lowest point was 1, and the highest point was 5. The arithmetic average of the candidates of Justice and Development Party was 3,11; and the standard deviation was 1,54.

5. Discussion and Conclusion March 30, 2014 was recorded in the history of Turkey as one of the important Local Elections. However, the Local Elections on March 30, 2014 were held in a general-election atmosphere rather than a local one. While the ideologies of the parties were in the forefront instead of the activities and promises, the leaders of the parties cast their shadows on the candidates most of the time. The rate of participation was more in this election when compared with the former one. According to the news of Anadolu Ajansı (Anatolian News Agency), the rate of participation to March 29, 2009 Local Elections was 83%, the rate of participation to March 30, 2014 Local Elections was 89,48%. In this study with the title Examining The Public Relations Activities of Justice And Development Party 539

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN (Justice And Development Party ) And Republican Party In 2014 Local Elections Over Konya Electorate, various results were obtained in theoretical and practical parts. In the second part of the study, the data on public relations activities of Justice and Development Party and Republican People’s Party in 2014 Local Elections were obtained via the news in the local and national media. The quality of the news in the media is important in public relations. Since it was a new election, there are no studies yet in the literature dealing with the 2014 Local Elections. While Justice and Development Party used a leader-focused public relations strategy in which Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was in the forefront in 2014 Local Elections, Republican People’s Party used a public relations campaigns focused both on the leader and the candidates, because Republican People’s Party attracted the attention of the public opinion with the candidates in Istanbul and Ankara Metropolitan Municipalities. Mustafa Sarıgül returned to CHP and became the Metropolitan Municipality Mayor candidate in in Istanbul from CHP although he went away from the party in the past; and Mansur Yavaş, who was the candidate from Nationalistic Movement Party in 2009 Local Elections in Ankara, was nominated as the candidate for Ankara from Republican People’s Party in 2014 Local Elections. The application part of the study was shaped in the light of the answers received from the participants. Each participant was given a set of judgments about the leaders and the parties, and they were asked to state their agreement levels to these statements. Some of the results obtained in this study, which was conducted after March 30, 2014 Local Elections, to receive the viewpoints of the electorate in Konya about the Government and the Main Opposition Party, were expected and some of the results were different from the expected ones. Some of the hypotheses were confirmed, and some were eliminated with the data. The demographic data, the loyalty levels, the frequency the importance of using mass communication devices, the party voted for, the public relations of the leaders and parties were asked to the participants in the study questions. As for the demographical data of the participants, it was determined that 41% of them were female, 57.8% were male; the rate of those who were married was 50%; the rate of those who were single was 49%. More than half of the participants were determined electorate, as a matter of fact, 63.8% of them determined which party they would vote for. The following results were obtained in the questions about the media use habits; the participants watched television every day at a rate of 43%; read newspapers 1-2 days a week. The following answers were received from the participants about the statement “Please evaluate the election campaigns of Justice and Development Party and CHP before the March 30, 2014 Local Elections. 29,5% of the participants stated that they liked the election campaign of Justice and Development Party, and 35,8% stated that they did not like the election campaign of CHP. In general terms, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is successful in the eye of the electorate when compared with Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu before the March 30 Elections, because in all arithmetic averages Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has a higher average than Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu. The same result is true for the candidates of Justice and Development Party, because the electorate found the candidates of Justice and Development Party more successful than the CHP candidates in terms of public relations activities. For example, while the average of the reliability image of the candidates of Justice and Development Party was 3,25, the one of the CHP was 2,30. While the average of the success in the television programs of the candidates of Justice and Development Party was 3,37, that of CHP was 2,48. As it is observed, the arithmetic averages of the public relations activities of the candidates of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Justice and Development Party, and the arithmetic average of Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu and CHP overlap with each other. Based on this, it is possible to conclude that the electorate does not consider the party as independent from the leader, and the leader from the party. While the image of the leader is associated with the party, the activities of the party strengthen the image of the leader. In brief, the field of public relations, which is examined by few authors, and which is indispensable for political parties, was considered as an important element for March 30, 2014 Local Elections. In this context, the public relations activities of Justice and Development Party and CHP were examined with the viewpoint of the electorate. References Bostancı, N. (2011). Siyaset ve Medya Alacakaranlığın İki Atlısı. İstanbul: Özgür Yayınları. Cutlip, C. et. (1994). EffectivePuplicRelations. New Jersey: PrenticeHall.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Çamdereli, M. (2000). Ana Çizgileriyle Halkla İlişkiler. Konya: Çizgi Kitabevi. Görpe, S (2001). Halkla İlişkiler Kavramları. İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınları. Gülsünler, M.E. & Ertürk, H. A. (2012). Demokrat Partinin 1946-1950 Yılları Arasındaki Halkla İlişkiler. Stratejileri. Selçuk Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 7, 90-99 Jefkins, F. (1995). Public Relations Techniques. London: Butterworth Heınemann. Kalender, A. (2008). Halkla İlişkiler: Kavramlar, Tanımlar, Uygulama Alanları. A. Kalender & M. Fidan (Eds) Halkla İlişkiler (ss. 11-47). Konya: Tablet Yayınları. Mıhçıoğlu, C. (1971). Halkla İlişkiler Nedir. Ankara Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 91-108. Mutlu, E. (2008). İletişim Sözlüğü. Ankara: Ayraç Kitabevi. Okay, A. & Okay A. (2009). Halkla İlişkiler ve Medya. İstanbul: Mediacat Yayınları. Okay, A. & Okay, A. (2011). Halkla İlişkiler: Kavram Strateji ve Uygulamaları: İstanbul: Der Yayınları. Oktay, M. (2002). “Politikada Halkla İlişkiler”. İstanbul: Derin Yayınları. Okutan, M. Ç. & Tekin, Y. (2011). Türk Siyasal Hayatı. Ankara: Orion Kitabevi. Özdağ, Ü. (2011). İkinci Tek Parti Dönemi: AKP’nin Yumuşak Hegemon Parti Projesinin Anatomisi. Ankara Kripto Kitaplar. Teziç, E. (1996). Anayasa Hukuku. İstanbul: Beta Yayınları. Uyar, H. (1999). Tek Parti Dönemi ve Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi. İstanbul: Boyut Kitapları. Uztuğ, F. (2004). Siyasal İletişim Yönetimi: Siyasal Marka Yaratmak. İstanbul: Mediacat Yayınları. Yücekök, A.N. (1972). Siyasi Partilerin Masraf Denetimi: Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 27, 65-81. Zürcher, E. J. (2013). Modernleşen Türkiye’nin Tarihi. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. www.akparti.org.tr Access Date: 12 April 2014. www.rte.gen.tr Access Date: 12April 2014. http://www.tgrthaber.com.tr Access Date: 12 April 2014. http://www.hayatizmir.com Access Date: 13 April 2014. http://www.internethaber.com.tr Access Date: 13 April 2014. http://www.memleket.com.tr Access Date: 13 April 2014. http://www.konya.bel.tr Access Date: 13April 2014. http://www.secim.haberler.com/2014 Access Date: 14 April 2014. http://www.postmedya.com.tr Access Date: 14April 2014. http://www.aksam.com.tr Access Date: 14April 2014. http://www.sonsayfa.com.tr Access Date: 15April 2014. http://www.hurriyet.com.tr Access Date: 15April 2014. www.chp.org.tr Access Date: 27April 2014.

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İŞ’TE CİNSİYET AYRIMINI YENİDEN ÜRETMEYENLER: MESLEK SOSYOLOJİSİ AÇISINDAN BİR İNCELEME Res. Assist. Hülya Anakız ERTÜRK Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Research Assistant [email protected]

Özet Biyolojik ve kültürel etkenlere bağlı olarak kadınların ve erkeklerin iş alanları toplumsal olarak kategorize edilmektedir; nitekim iş alanlarında erkek işi ve kadın işi olarak ikili bir ayrıma gidilmektedir. Bu ayrım doğrultusunda, genellikle bireyler kendi cinsiyetlerine uygun görülen meslekleri icra etmektedir. Ancak cinsiyet açısından kendi meslek sınıflandırmasının dışına çıkan bireyler de vardır; öyle ki toplumda kadın işi olarak görülen mesleği icra eden erkekler ile birlikte, erkek işi olarak görülen mesleği yürüten kadınlar da bulunmaktadır. Bu doğrultuda, çalışmada cinsiyet açısından toplumda kadın işi yapan erkekler ve erkek işi yapan kadınlar ile derinlemesine bir görüşme gerçekleştirilmiştir. Görüşme neticesinde değişen meslek algısına yer verilerek; öngörülen standart ayrımın dışına çıkan bireylerin mesleği nasıl tanımladıkları, mesleğe bakış açıları, mesleği seçme nedenleri, meslekte yaşadığı problemler ve bu problemlere yönelttikleri çözüm önerileri gibi konular çalışmada detaylandırılmıştır. Çalışmaya erkek hemşire, erkek anaokulu öğretmeni, kadın asker, kadın makine mühendisi ve kadın inşaat mühendisi olmak üzere dokuz katılımcı dâhil edilmiştir. Katılımcıların kimlikleri ise (G) şeklinde kodlanarak gizli tutulmasına rağmen katılımcıların biyografilerine çalışmada yer verilmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Keywords: Work, Gender, Sexism, Detailed Interviews, Occupation Abstract Depending on the biological and cultural factors, the work areas of women and men are categorized in social terms; and there have appeared a double distinction as woman‟s job and man‟s job in working areas. In the context of this separation, individuals generally perform the jobs that are considered proper for their genders. However, there are some individuals who exceed their occupational classifications in terms of gender, and it is possible to see women who perform the jobs that are considered as men‟s job, and men who perform the jobs that are considered as women‟s job. In this context, detailed interviews have been made in the study with men who perform women‟s jobs, and women who perform men‟s jobs. In the light of these interviews, the changing occupational perception has been dealt with; and details have been provided on how the individuals, who exceed the occupational categorization, define their jobs; their viewpoints on their jobs; the reasons why they chose their present jobs; the problems they have during performing their jobs; and the solution offers for these problems have been included in the study. Nine participants, who are a male nurse, male preschool teacher, woman soldier, woman mechanical engineer, and women civil engineer, have been included in the study. The identities of the participants have been encoded as (G), and kept hidden; however, the biographies of them have been included in the study. Keywords: Work, Gender, Sexism, Detailed Interviews, Occupation.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 1. Giriş Her meslek grubunun kendine has sorunları vardır. Bu sorunlar ise mesleklerin faaliyet alanlarına göre farklılık göstermektedir. Beyaz yakalı çalışanlar ile mavi yakalı çalışanların faaliyet alanları farklıdır; öyle ki beyaz yakalı çalışan olarak tanımlanan bireyler statü açısından daha üst düzeylerde yer alırken, mavi yakalı çalışanlar statü açısından daha düşük iş sahasında ve genellikle kol gücüne dayalı işlerde yer almaktadır. Dolayısıyla bir beyaz ya da mavi yakalı çalışanın karşılaştığı sorunlar, iş alanları, ilişki içerisinde bulunduğu kişiler farklılık göstermektedir. Ancak burada beyaz ya da mavi yakalı çalışanlar üzerinde değil erkeğin egemen olduğu iş sahasında yer alan kadınlar ile kadınların çoğunlukta olduğu iş sahasında yer alan erkeklerin mesleki problemleri konunun içeriğini oluşturmaktadır Çalışmada yinelenen kelimelerden biri de erkek egemenliğine karşı, kadın çoğunluğu ifadesidir. Toplumsal cinsiyet konularına bakıldığında ve hegemonik erkekliğin üretildiği alanlarda egemen yapıda erkek vardır, kadın egemen bir konumda değildir. İş sahasında da kadının çoğunlukta olduğu yerlerde de kadın egemen bir dil üretmemektedir. Öyle ki katılımcılardan elde edilen yanıtlar, sonuç kısmında da belirtildiği üzere kadın egemenliği ifadesi yerine kadın çoğunluğu ifadesini kullanılmasına neden olmuştur İşin cinsiyetinin belirlenmesinde biyolojik ve kültürel değer, norm veya kıstasların önem taşıdığı görülmektedir. Bu doğrultuda işin cinsiyeti belirlenirken, toplumsal bazda cinsiyetler arası bir ayrıma gidilmektedir. Çalışmanın kuramsal kısmında tarihsel bağlamda Giddens‟ın ayrımına dayanarak toplumlar üçe ayrılmış ve her bir toplumun kendi içerisindeki uğraşlarına yer verilmiştir. Burada Sanayi Devrimi öncesinde ve sonrasında değişen iş kollarından bahsedilerek açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. 2. Kuramsal Çerçeve İş‟te cinsiyet ya da iş‟in cinsiyeti tarihsel süreç içerisinde yaşanan değişimler ile birlikte şekil almıştır; öyle ki endüstri öncesi veya sonrası toplumların meşgaleleri ile bilgi toplumunda yaşayan bireylerin yaşam koşulları ve uğraşları farklılık göstermiştir. Özellikle modern dünyadaki mesleki yapı ve değişim bireyleri farklı mesleklere yönlendirmiştir. Günümüz dünyasının meslek anlayışının ortaya çıkması ise çeşitli evrelerin gelişip tamamlanması ile ortaya çıkmıştır. Tarihsel perspektiften bakıldığında endüstri öncesi meslekleri ve çalışma koşulları ile endüstri sonrası ortaya çıkan meslekler ve mesleki değişimler modern çalışma sürecini hazırlamıştır. Bir diğer ifade ile ilkel toplumlardan günümüz modern topluma kadar geçiş sürecinde çalışma koşulları şekillenerek değişime uğramıştır. Modern çalışma sürecinde ise kadın kamusal alana dâhil olurken, ev içi emeği de görünür kılınmaya çalışmıştır. Bununla birlikte kadın iş sahalarına egemen olurken, erkek kadının egemen alanına müdahil olmaya başlamıştır. Çalışma sürecinin toplumsal değişim sürecinin aynı paralellikte olduğu söylenebilir; bu doğrultuda Giddens‟ın kategorileştirmesinden yola çıkarak, mesleki değişimi de kategorileştirmek mümkündür. Bu bağlamda Giddens toplumları avcı ve toplayıcılar, kır ve tarım toplumları ve sanayi toplumları olarak üç kategoriye ayırmaktadır. Giddens‟ın avcı ve toplayıcı toplumlar olarak nitelendirdiği toplumda avcı ve toplayıcılar yaşamlarını avcılık, balıkçılık ve doğada az bulunan yenebilir bitkilerin toplanmasıyla kazanırlar. Bununla birlikte avcı ve toplayıcı kültürlerin çoğunluğu, Batı kültürlerinin yayılmasıyla yok edilmiştir. Avcı ve toplayıcıların genel özellikleri itibariyle maddi servet biriktirmekle ilgilenmezler. Bunların ana uğraşları dinsel değerler ile tören ve ayin etkinlikleridir. Gereksinimleri olan maddi ihtiyaçlar av silahları, kazma ve inşaat aletleri, tuzaklar ve pişirme aletleriyle kısıtlıdır. Dolayısıyla toplumun üyeleri arasında, sahip olunan maddi varlıkların sayısı ve çeşidi bakımından çok az fark bulunmaktadır. Konum ve rütbe farklılıkları yaş ve cinsiyetle sınırlanma eğilimindedir. Öyle ki erkekler her zaman avcıyken, kadınlar yabanıl tahılları toplayıp pişirmektedirler (2000:31). Giddens‟ın ikinci kategorisinde alan kır ve tarım toplumları ise yerleşik hayatla ortaya çıkan bir toplum türüdür. Tarım toplumları ile birlikte şehirleşme hareketi başlamıştır; öyle ki ekim ve dikim faaliyeti belli mevsimlerde yapılarak yaşamı daha yerleşik ve sistematik hale getirmiştir. Bu dönem, bundan on beş bin ila yirmi bin yıl öncesine denk gelen bir dönemdir. Önceleri avcılık ve toplayıcılık ile yaşamlarını sürdüren insan topluluklarının bir kısmı, evcilleştirilmiş hayvanları yetiştirmeye ve bulundukları toprakları ekmeye başlamışlardır. Doğanın sunduğu olanaklara ilave

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN olarak, yiyecek stokları oluşturmuşlardır. Böylece doğanın kendisine egemen olduğu bir yaşamdan, kendisinin doğaya egemen olduğu bir yaşamaya geçmeyi başarmışlardır. Bu toplumlarda bireysel anlamda yaşam daha türdeştir. Mevsim değişikliklerine göre göç vardır. Ücret icat edilmediği için angarya usulü bir karşılıkla çalışılmaktadır. Emek, köle ve toprak sahiplerinin elinde kullanılan bir biçimdedir. Oldukça göze çarpan güç ve servet farklılıkları mevcuttur. Köleci toplumların çalışma ilişkileri çok belirgindir; zira köle mal gibi değerlendirilen, emek üreten bir makine gibi algılanmaktadır (Güldiken: 2015:26-27). Üçüncü dönüşüm ise Sanayi Devrimi ile ortaya çıkmıştır; öyle ki sanayileşme ile birlikte Giddens‟a göre cansız güç kaynaklarının (buhar ya da elektrik gibi) kullanımına dayanan makineleşmiş üretim ortaya çıkmıştır (2000:33). Endüstri devrimiyle birlikte beraber gelişen teknoloji, özellikle sayıları bir anda artan fabrikalar mesleki yapıda önemli değişiklikler sağlamıştır. Geleneksel olarak Adam Smith, Andrew Ure ve Charles Babbage modellerinde geniş ölçekli ekonomilerde talep organizasyonları ve ekonomik rasyonellik ev üretiminin yerine dev fabrikalarda gerçekleşmiştir. Teknolojik gelişmenin sebebi ekonomik ya da sosyal veya otonom olsa da, buharlı makinelerin icadı ve mekanik üretim teknikleri fabrikasyon üretimi gerekli kılmıştır. Bununla birlikte, iş gücünün çeşitliliğine ve miktarına duyulan ihtiyacın artması ise bu iş gücü üzerinde yönlendirici ve kontrollü bir yönetim şeklini geçerli kılmıştır. Fabrikalardaki hiyerarşik kontrolün teknik ve organizasyonel açıdan yapılandırılması kaçınılmaz olurken, üretimin farklı kıstaslarla organize edilmesi, iş gücünün ekonomik ve teknik açılardan etkisini azaltarak, rasyonelitesini indirgemiştir (Grint, 1998:69). 18. yüzyılın ortalarında İngiltere`de başlayan ve kısa sürede başarıya ulaşan ekonomik değişim, sonrasında gelişen tüm ekonomik olaylar üzerinde belirleyici olmuş, dünyanın ekonomik gelişimi ve dolayısıyla beraberinde birçok sosyal değişim, bu süreçten etkilenmiştir. Bugün 21. yüzyıla dönük değerlendirmeler yaparken, kullandığımız “Bilgi Toplumu” kavramının temel dinamiği de Sanayi Devrimi sonrasında şekillenen sanayi toplumlarıdır. Bir başka ifadeyle, sanayi toplumunun kurum ve kurallarını yaşamayan bir toplumun, gerçekleşmekte olduğunu varsaydığımız bilgi toplumunun kurum ve kurallarına ulaşması mümkün değildir. Yani tarım toplumu kimliğinden bilgi toplumu kimliğine bir sıçrama hiçbir toplum için olası görülmemektedir. Kuşkusuz tüm toplumlar dinamik bir yapıdadır ve sürekli bir değişme halindedir. Mesleki değişiminde bu değişimle aynı paralelliktedir; sanayileşmenin yarattığı yeni toplumsal düzen, sosyolojiyi de biçimlendirmiştir; nitekim milyonlarca kişi tarımdan koparken, kırdan kente göç ederek, siyasal ve sosyal yapıları değiştirmiştir. Krallıkların yerini, cumhuriyetler almış günümüz modern toplumunda ise ataerkil yapının sorgulanmasının önü açılmıştır. Hegemonik erkeklik tartışmaları gündeme taşınırken, bazen eril dil yeniden üretilmiş, bazen de kadının kişisel alanı iktisadi alan içerisinde görünmeye çalışılmıştır (Güldiken, 2015:31). Meslek hem birey, hem de toplum açısından yaşamsal fonksiyonlara sahiptir; nitekim meslekler toplumun işleyişinden bireyin toplumsal konumunun tayininde ve topluma katılımında belirleyici bir roldedir. Geleneksel anlamıyla stabil bir yapıya sahip olan meslek günümüzde radikal bir dönüşüm sürecine girmiş bulunmaktadır; öyle ki yeni kapitalizm ile birlikte çalışma dünyası bütünüyle esneklik, değişkenlik ve geçicilik üzerine mesleki ölümcül bir dezenformasyona yerini bırakmıştır. Mevcut emek piyasası bireyin, işini bir meslek olarak benimsemesini ve ona bağlanmasını riskli kılmaktadır. Böylece bireyin meslekle olan bağları zayıf kalmaktadır. Çalışma hayatında insan emeğinin yerini makinelerin alması ise meslek mensubunun ürettiği üründen ya da hizmetten kopararak kişiyi mesleğine karşı yabancılaştırmaktadır (İlhan, 2008:313). 19. yüzyılın ortasından yirminci yüzyılın çeyreği boyunca mesleki yapı oldukça radikal değişiklikler göstermiştir. Kadınların üçte ikisi ev işleri ve tekstil dışındaki tüm meslek dallarından çıkartılmıştır. Ayrıca tarımsal nüfus üçte iki oranında düşerek oldukça azalmıştır. Giyim ve tekstil sektöründeki iş gücünde de önemli bir değişim meydana gelmiştir. Bunların yerini özellikle taşımacılık, imalat ve ticaret konularında geniş ve çeşitli istihdama sahip iş kolları almıştır (Grint, 1998:76). Yirmi birinci yüzyıla gelindiğinde ise, Sanayi Devrimi sonrasında ortaya çıkan bilgi toplumunda cinsiyete göre iş bölümlerinde kırılmalardan bahsetmek mümkündür. Öyle ki erkek iş egemen sahasında kadının yer aldığı, „beyaz yaka‟ kavramının ortaya çıktığı, kadının kamusal alanda yer aldığı, ancak bu alanlarda da hegemonik erkekliğin var olduğu ve bunun üzerinden bir mücadele alanı yaratılmaya çalışılan bir dönemdir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Bu dönemde, mesleklerde profesyonelleşme önem taşımaya başlamıştır; nitekim geçmiş yıllara göre mesleklerde profesyonelleşme çeşitlenmiştir. Emek gücünün çok daha geniş bir kısmını profesyoneller oluşturmaya başlamışlardır. Aynı şekilde profesyonelce eylemde bulunma ya da buna benzer bir psikoloji gittikçe yaygınlaşarak, statü peşinde koşan bireyler çoğalmıştır. Bütün bu olgular, profesyonelleşme eğiliminin öğeleridir (Hughes, 1963:25). Cinsiyete dayalı iş bölümünü belirleyen unsur ise erkeklerin veya kadınların biyolojik bir kaderinin sonucu değildir; işin cinsiyetini belirleyen unsur toplumsal olarak kurulmuş konumlardır. Erkekler ve kadınlar biyolojik olarak birbirinden ayrılan, bireylerden oluşmuş bir ya da iki topluluktan çok daha ötesini oluşturmaktadır. Erkekler ve kadınlar arasındaki özgül ilişki, toplumsal cinsiyet ilişkileri olan iki toplumsal gruptan oluşmaktadır. Bütün toplumsal ilişkiler gibi bunlar da, emeğin oluşturduğu maddi bir temele sahiptir ve kendilerini cinsiyetler arasındaki toplumsal iş bölümü, ya da özlü bir değişle cinsiyet dayalı iş bölümü aracılığıyla ortaya koymaktadır (Savran, 2015:87). Cinsiyete dayalı iş bölümünün oluşumunda ataerkil yapının etkisi belirleyici bir unsur olmuştur; nitekim İkinci Dünya Savaşından sonra kadınların kamusal alanda görünürlüğünün artması erkek egemenliğini kırmamıştır. Öyle ki kadınlar erkeklerin sahalarına girse dahi, ücretlendirme açısından erkeklere göre daha düşük ücret almışlardır (Giddens, 2012:118). Bununla birlikte kadının ev içi emeği görmezden gelinerek, iktisadi alana dahil edilmemiştir. Ancak ücretsiz olarak çalışan kadın, aynı zamanda çalışmayan kadın değildir (Grint, 1998: 239). Sosyalist toplumlarda dahil olmak üzere mevcut tüm toplumlar, çocukların yetiştirilmesi ve ev içi hizmetlerin tamamından kadını sorumlu tutmaktadır ve bunu karşılıksız bir emeğe dayandırmaktadır. Bu hizmetlerin karşılığı ödenmeyerek, kadınların ellerine geçen yaptıkları işten bağımsızdır ve yaptıkları işin karşılığı olarak sunulmamaktadır. Bir diğer ifade ile yapılan işin karşılığı bir ücret değil, bir bağış şeklindedir (Savran ve Demiryontan, 2012: 92 - 93). Cinsiyete dayalı iş bölümü oluşmasında, belirtildiği üzere biyolojik faktörlerden ziyade toplumsal yapılanma önem taşımaktadır. Bu yapılanma ile oluşturulan bir algı vardır. Bu doğrultuda, kadın işi veya erkek işi olarak yapılan ayrım mesleğin cinsiyetini tayin edici bir yöne sahiptir. 3. Metodoloji Araştırmada nitel bir araştırma yöntemi olan derinlemesine görüşme yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Katılımcıların her biri ile yüz yüze görüşülmüştür. Ayrıca katılımcılara, görüşmelerin kendilerine uygun olan gün ve saatlerde, kendilerinin istediği bir yerde yapılacağını ve araştırmaya katılmalarının zorunlu olmadığını, çalışmaya katılımın tamamen gönüllülük esasına dayalı olduğu aktarılmıştır. Katılımcılara istedikleri zaman ve hiç bir olumsuz yaptırıma maruz kalmadan bu çalışmadan çekilebilecekleri de söylenmiştir. Ayrıca araştırmaya katılanlardan elde edilecek tüm bilgilerle verilerin ve özellikle de katılımcıların kimliklerinin gizli tutulacağı belirtilmiştir. Nitel araştırma yönteminin gizlilik ilkesi bağlamında çalışmada hiçbir katılımcının gerçek ismi hiçbir formda kullanılmamıştır. Araştırmada katılımcılar ile yüz yüze ve elektronik ortamda derinlemesine görüşme gerçekleştirilmiştir. Katılımcılardan elde edilen cevaplar, ses kayıt cihazı ve yazılı olarak kaydedilmiştir. Her bir katılımcıya cinsiyet farkına bakılmaksızın aynı sorular yöneltilmiştir. Sorulan sorular ve elde edilen cevaplar ise hiç değişiklik yapılmaksızın aktarılmıştır. Bununla birlikte her bir soru başlık olarak kullanılmıştır. 4. Bulgular ve Yorum Bulgular ve yorum kısmında katılımcılardan elde edilen cevaplar birebir alıntı şeklinde gösterilerek, çeşitli kategorilere ayrılmış ve her bir kategori kendi içerisinde ayrılmıştır. 4.1. Yüz Yüze Görüşme Listesi Araştırmaya farklı meslek gruplarından üç erkek ve altı kadın olmak üzere toplamda dokuz katılımcı katılmıştır. Görüşülen katılımcıların meslekleri ve sosyo demografik özellikleri şu şekildedir: G1: 1980 yılında Konya‟nın köyünde doğduğunu söyleyen G1 üniversite hastanesinde hemşirelik yapmaktadır. Hemşirelik mesleğini köyden bir kaçış ve kendini kurtarma sebebiyle seçtiğini söyleyen G1‟in çocukluk ve gençlik yılları köyde geçmiştir. Dört kardeşin ikincisi olan G1‟in ablası ev hanımı, diğer iki kardeşi de kamu da çalışmaktadır. Babası ise ailenin geçimini çiftçilik yaparak kazanmıştır ve kazanmaya devam etmektedir. On yıldır Yozgat, Bursa, Balıkesir ve Konya olmak üzere dört farklı ilde bu mesleği icra ettiğini söyleyen G1 eşinden yeni boşanmıştır. Ayrıca üniversite mezunudur. 545

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN G2: 1976 yılında Konya‟da doğduğunu söyleyen G2, evli ve dört çocuk babasıdır. Eşi ev hanımıdır, yaklaşık beş yıldır bu işi yapmaktadır. Meslek lisesi mezunu olduğunu söyleyen G2, hemşirelik mesleğinden önce ticaretle uğraştığını söylemiş; ancak ticaretten bir kazanç elde edemediğini ifade etmiştir. G3: 1988 yılında Manisa‟nın bir ilçesinde doğmuştur. Babası işçi emeklisi, annesi ise ev hanımıdır. Üniversiteye gidinceye kadar, ilçede eğitimine devam etmiştir. Üç kardeşin en büyüğüdür. En küçük kardeşi üniversite ikinci sınıftadır, üniversitede okuyan kardeşinin eğitimine katkıda bulunmaktadır. Anaokulu öğretmenliği yapmaktadır. G4: Beş yıldır, bu işi yaptığını söyleyen G4, 1987 Bayburt doğumludur. Bayburt‟da doğup büyüyen, G4 şu anda İstanbul‟da bir okulda anaokulu öğretmeni olarak, bu mesleği icra etmektedir. Babası emekli, annesi ise ev hanımıdır ve İstanbul‟da yaşamaktadır. Dört kardeşin en küçüğüdür. Diğer kardeşleri evli ve kamu kuruluşlarında çalışmaktadır, kendisi ise bekârdır. Bu işten elde ettiği kazanç ile anne ve babasına yardımcı olmaktadır. Küçüklük hayali olan öğretmenlik mesleğini yapmaktadır. G5: 1989 yılında Bursa‟da doğup, büyüyen G5 astsubay olarak Ankara‟da görevini icra etmektedir. Memur bir aileden gelen ve kendinden küçük bir kardeşi olan G5 yeni evlidir. Eşi ise polistir, karşılaştığı mesleki sıkıntılar karşısında eşinden destek aldığını söylemektedir. G6: 1982 yılında Antalya‟da doğup büyüyen G6, eşinden yeni boşanmış bir erkek çocuk annesidir. Ankara‟da astsubay olarak çalışmaktadır. Babası çiftçilik yapan G6, ailenin tek üniversite okuyan çocuğudur, annesi ise ev hanımıdır. Boşandığı eşi ise deniz astsubayı olmasına rağmen çalışma saatlerinin çatışmasından dolayı, ikisi arasında mesleki farklılık olduğunu dolayısıyla da bu durumun aile içi ilişkilere sirayet ettiğini belirtmiştir. G7: 1989 Konya doğumlu G7 şu anda Konya Sanayi‟inde özel bir iş yerinde çalışmaktadır. Üç kardeşin ikincisi olan G7 bekardır. Babası esnaf emeklisidir, annesi ise ev hanımıdır. Selçuk Üniversitesi Makine Mühendisliği bölümünden mezun olmuştur. G8: 1983 Konya doğumludur. Eğitimi için il dışında bulunmamıştır. Fen lisesini bitirdikten sonra, Selçuk Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Makine Mühendisliği bölümünde eğitimini tamamlamıştır. Anne ve babası ile yaşayan G8 bekâr olduğunu belirtmiştir. Babası kamu memuru, annesi emeklidir. Teknik işlere çok ilgisinin olmadığını, ancak çeşitli şartlardan dolayı mühendislik okuduğunu belirten G8, ailede ablasının da elektrik elektronik mühendisi olduğunu söylemiştir. G9: 1980 yılında Konya‟da dünyaya gelen G8 on yıldır İnşaat mühendisi olarak çalışmaktadır. Babası inşaat sektöründe mermercilik yapmaktadır; ancak bu mesleği seçerken babasının etkisinde kalmamıştır. Zira babası bu bölümü kazandığında çalışma koşullarının ağırlığından ve bir kadın işi olmadığı düşüncesinden dolayı memnun olmamıştır. G8 evli ve bir çocuk annesidir. 4.2. Meslek Seçme Nedenleri Katılımcılara “Mesleğiniz ve bu mesleği seçme nedeniniz?” nedir sorusu yöneltilerek, katılımcıların bu mesleği seçme nedenlerine ilişkin niteliksel veriler elde edilmiştir. Meslek seçiminde, saygınlık çalışma saatleri ve koşulları, ücretlendirme, kolay iş bulabilme, terfi gibi birçok faktör önem taşımaktadır. Bu doğrultuda katılımcıların sosyo - demografik özellikleri de göz önünde bulundurularak meslek seçme nedenleri ortaya çıkmıştır. “Mesleği seçme nedenim; kolay iş bulabileceğime inandığım bir işti. Kısa yoldan para kazanıp hayata atılmam gerekiyordu. Yani yaşamış olduğum ortamdan kendimi kurtarabilmenin yolu ya hemşirelik ya da askeri personel olabilmekti. Sonuçta bu iki meslekte kolay iş bulunabiliyor”. (G1) “Hemşirelik okulunu bitirdim; ancak önceleri hemşirelik mesleğini yapmayı düşünmedim. Belli bir müddet ticaretle uğraştım. Ticaretten fayda göremeyip, zarar edince ailemi geçindirip, para kazanmam gerekiyordu, bu yüzden mesleğe döndüm. (G2) Hemşirelik mesleğini yapan G1 ve G2 için meslek seçiminde önem taşıyan en önemli faktör, mezun olduktan sonra kolay iş bulabilme özelliğinin olmasıdır. Katılımcıların, sosyo demografik özelliklerine de bakıldığında, şehir merkezinden uzak köy ya da ilçede ikametgâh ettikleri, ailelerin eğitim ve sosyal statülerinin yüksek olmadığı görülmüştür. Ekonomik kaygılardan dolayı meslek seçimi yapmışlardır. Burada ekonominin belirleyici bir unsur olduğu ön plana çıkmaktadır. “Yani geleceği parlak bir meslek, ileriye dönük olarak kendimi geliştirebileceğim bir meslek. Müdür

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN de olabilirim, müfettiş de olabilirim”. (G3). “Bu mesleği seçme nedenim, eğitimin en alt kademesinde görev almak istemem ve asıl önemli şey öğretmenlik mesleğinin iş garantili bir meslek olmasıdır. İşte bu yüzden bu mesleği seçtim diyebilirim”. (G4) Bu meslek grubunda da önem taşıyan konu iş garantisinin olmasıdır. Düzenli çalışma saatleri, ileriye dönük terfileri olan bir iş olması sebebiyle mesleği tercih ettiklerini belirtmişlerdir. “Bu meslek benim çocukluk hayalimdi, sebebine gelince içimdeki vatan sevgisi” (G5) “Askerliğe karşı özel bir ilgim hep vardı, belki de bu sebebi… Vatan sevgisi ise bambaşka, ayrıca üniformamı da çok seviyorum” (G6) Askerlik mesleğini icra eden kadınların ise, meslek seçme nedeni diğer meslektaşlarına göre farklılık göstermiştir; öyle ki üniformanın getirdiği saygı ve vatan sevgisi ile askerliği özdeşleştirmeleri katılımcıları bu mesleğe seçtiren nedenler arasında olmuştur. “Mesleği teknik personel olarak seçmiş olsam da, ÖSYM sıralamasında iyi bir yerde olmam sebebiyle bu mesleği seçtim diyebilirim”. (G7) “Başörtüsü sorunu yüzünden çocukluk hayalim olan öğretmenliği tercih edemeyince mecburen mühendislik okudum”. (G8) “Aslında eczacı olmak istiyordum, üniversite sınavından elde ettiğim netice sonucunda inşaat mühendisliğine yerleştim. Çok isteyerek tercih ettiğimi söyleyemem” (G9) Mühendislik mesleğini tercih eden kadınlar ise daha çok eğitim sistemin yönlendirmesi ile bu mesleği seçtiklerini ifade etmişlerdir. 4.3. Meslek Seçiminde Rol Modelin Önemi Meslek seçiminde rol modelin öneminin tespiti için, katılımcılara “Aileniz ve çevrenizde bu işi yapan kişi ya da kişiler var mıdır? Var ise bu mesleği seçmenizde bu kişiler etkili oldu mu?” sorusu yöneltilmiş ve her bir katılımcı soruları şu şekilde cevaplamıştır. “Ailemde amcamın kızları hemşireydi. Onların mezun olduktan hemen sonra kolay iş bulması, bu mesleği seçmem de çok etkili oldu diyebilirim”. (G1) “Ailemde veya çevremde bu işi yapan kişi yoktu. Sadece ben varım”. (G2) “Çevremden de, akrabalarımdan da bu işi yapanlar vardı; ancak bu işi seçerken bu kişilerin bir etkisi olmadı”. (G3) “Kuzenim var, o da okul öncesi öğretmeni, o da erkek. Ama bu işi seçerken, onun etkisi olmadı”. (G4) “Evet var ailemde bu mesleği yapan; dayım Hava Kuvvetleri Komutanlığında Pilot Albay, amcam da Deniz Kuvvetlerinde Astsubay… Onlar kadın değiller ama onların yaşantısı bana cazip geldi ve bu mesleği seçmemde etkili oldu”. (G5) “Bizim ailede ya da askeriyede görevli kimse yok. Kendim tercih ettim, kimsenin etkisi olmadı üzerimde” (G6) “Ailemde makine mühendisi yok; ancak çevremde makine mühendisleri vardı. Tercih döneminde onlarla istişarelerde bulundum. Dolayısıyla etkilendim diyebilirim”. (G7) “Ablamın liseden bir arkadaşı vardı, bu bölümde okuyordu. İş sahası konusunda çok umut verici bir şekilde konuşuyordu, onun etkisi oldu diyebilirim…” (G8) “Arkadaşımın ablası da bu işi yapıyordu, o zamanlar etkilendim herhalde… Kendisini severim. Babam da inşaatçıydı, mermerciydi kendisi, yani inşaata karşı bir yakınlığım vardı”. (G9) Her bir katılımcı mesleği tercih etme nedenlerinden bahsetmiştir. Ailesinden, çevresinden etkilendiğini söyleyen katılımcılar ile birlikte, bu meslek seçiminde tek başına olduğunu, ailesinde veya çevresinde bu mesleği icra eden herhangi bir kişinin olmadığını dile getirenler de olmuştur. İş seçme hayatın en önemli kararlarından birini oluşturmaktadır. Bu seçim yapılırken birçok karar faktörü devreye girmektedir. İş seçiminde karar verme aşaması önemli bir aşama olarak görülen karar verme aşamasında ise rol model önem taşımaktadır (Göktalga ve Gökalp, 2012:72). Aile görüşleriyle bireylerin meslek seçiminde etkin bir mekanizmadır; zira aile içerisinde verilen mesajlar çocukların

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN gelecekteki hayatına yön vermektedir. Çocukların veya gençlerin bir işe karşı tutum geliştirmelerinde öncelikli aile olmak üzere çevre belirleyici bir role sahip olmaktadır. 4. 4. Dışarıdan Tanımlanan Meslek Kamuoyu nezdinde her meslek işlevi sebebiyle farklı bir imaja sahiptir. Bazı meslekler kadın işi veya erkek işi olarak görülmesinin yanında, bazıları da statüleri sebebiyle toplum nezdinde farklı bir saygınlığa sahiptir. Bu doğrultuda katılımcılara “Mesleğinize ailenizin, iş arkadaşlarınızın ve çevrenizin bakış açısı nedir?” sorusu yöneltilmiştir. Katılımcılardan elde edilen cevaplar ise şu şekildedir; “Modern bir aile demeyim ama çok farklı bir aileye sahibim. Yani bu mesleği niçin yaptığım konusunda beni yadırgamadılar; ama akrabalarımın bana doğrudan söylemeseler de komik buldukları kulağıma geldi. İş çevrem ise özellikle bayan hemşire arkadaşlarım, bu işin bir bayan işinden çok erkek işi olduğunu düşünüyorlar. Sağlık çalışanları arasında en fazla şiddete uğrayanlar hemşireler oluyor. Yani bazı kişiler karşısında bir erkek gücüne gerek var. Çevremde değişti, eskiden erkek hemşire tuhaf karşılanıyordu. On yıldır bu işi yapıyorum, on yıl öncesini düşünüyorum da, böyle değildi ya… Yadırganıyordum, hasta yakını karısını benden kıskanırdı mesela, iğne yapacak olduğum zaman falan, bana bayan hemşire yok mu diye sorarlardı, sanki ben ondan cinsel menfaat sağlayacakmışım gibi… (G1) “Ben bu okulu kazandığım zamanlar, hemşirelik saygın bir meslekti. Öyle olunca ailem sevindi. İş arkadaşlarımın tepkisi ise; bunu dile getirmek için çok fazla bir zamanları olmuyor. Bakanlıkta bir hastaya bir hemşire düşerken, üniversite hastanesinde otuz iki hastaya bir hemşire düşüyor. Ama yeri geliyor hasta kilolu oluyor, tabi bunu bir bayanın kaldırması zor, o zaman bize daha çok ihtiyaç oluyor. Birde şey derler, bayanın eli hafif olurmuş, yok ya… Yeri geliyor benim elim çoğu bayan hemşirenin elinden daha hafif oluyor.” (G2) “Hem ailem, hem iş arkadaşlarım, hem de çevrem hepsi bu işin rahat olduğunu düşünüyorlar. Bu meslek onlara göre düzenli bir geliri olan güzel bir meslek. Ayrıca ek iş yapmaya da müsait de bir iş, yeterince boş zamanımız oluyor”. (G3) “Bu mesleğe ilk başladığım zamanlarda erkekten anaokulu öğretmeni mi olur diyorlardı. Garipsiyorlardı, dalga geçiyorlardı. Erkek adamdan anaokulu öğretmeni mi olur, oğlum diyenler çoktu… Ama şimdi böyle değil bu işin erkeği ya da kadını olmaz. Çocukları seven herkes bu işi yapabilir. Şimdi çok şükür böyle bir sıkıntı yok”. (G4) “Ailem ve çevrem mesleğimi öyle bir sevdiler ki, o kadar gururlanıyorlar ki ve bende onları böyle görünce mesleğime daha sıkı sarılıyorum. Keza iş arkadaşlarım da öyle, çünkü kadın astsubay yok denecek kadar az… Bu yüzden yaptığım işler takdirle karşılanıyor, bu da beni çok mutlu ediyor. Çevremin bakışı da güzel; çünkü bu üniformayı bir kadının taşıması daha bir hayranlık uyandırıcı oluyor ve övgü ile bahsediyorlar. Yani mesleğime duyulan bir saygı var, bu yüzden bu üniforma ile bu işte mutluyum”. (G5) “Annem başta asker olmamı istememişti, ama arkadaşlarım askerim komutanım deyince hoşuna gitti. Sadece annem mi, tüm ailem öyle… Benimle gurur duyuyorlar. İş arkadaşlarımın bakış açısı biraz farklı… Şöyle; bizim işi yapanlar hep erkek olunca onlara başta kadın asker garip geliyor; bazıları beğeniyor, bazıları da askerlik kadına göre değil diyorlar…” (G6) “Herkes, bayandan makineci olmaz diye düşünüyor. Bu iş erkek işi onlara göre; ancak kurumsal firma algısı taşıyanlar doğru değerlendirmeler yapılıyor. Yani bu işi bir erkek kadar kadının da yapabileceğini düşünüyorlar”. (G7) “Ailem sağ olsun, mesleğimi hep takdir etti. Hep benden gururla bahsetti. Ama çevrem (düşünme süresi) neden bir bayan olarak bu bölümü seçtin, başka iş mi, başka bölüm mü yok tu diyenler oluyor tabii ki… (G8) “Bu işte kadının yer alması aslında gerek ailemde, gerekse çevremde doğal karşılanmıyor”. Düşündükleri şey, biz kadınların daha kadınsal işlerde olması gerektiği… Aslında bir gıda mühendisliği tam bize göre…(G9) Görüldüğü üzere her bir meslek grubu kamuoyu nezdinde farklı bir algıya sahiptir. Bu algıda işin cinsiyetlere göre ayrıştırılmasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Burada belirleyici olan faktörler ise kadın iş gücünün belirli işlerde yetersiz kalarak ve bu alanlara erkek çoğunluğunun hâkim olması veya 548

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN kadınların çoğunlukta olduğu yerlerde erkeklerin bu işi icra etmesi kadın biyolojisi ile o işin özdeşleştirilmesinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Oluşturulmuş bir algı vardır; bu algı üzerinden ise eril dil yeniden üretilmektedir. 4.5. Mesleki Problemler ve Çözüm Önerileri Her meslek grubunun, kendine has sorunları vardır; ancak burada genel sorulardan çok katılımcıların cinsiyetinden dolayı karşılaştıkları sorunlara ve bu sorunlara karşı sundukları çözüm önerilerine yer verilmiştir. Bu doğrultuda katılımcılara “Mesleğinizi icra ederken, karşılaştığınız problemler nelerdir?” sorusunun ardından “Bu problem ya da problemlere çözüm öneriniz nedir?” sorusu yöneltilmiş, katılımcılardan aşağıdaki cevaplar elde edilmiştir. “Bizim mesleğin temel problemi ne biliyor musunuz, hastaların bize karşı ön yargısı. Erkek olduğumuz için bayanlara göre daha kaba ve güçlü görünüyoruz. Bu yüzden hastalar kendilerine ne denir (düşünme süresi) daha narin, daha hassas birinin iğne yapmasını istiyor. Bir de bunu kadın hastanın yanında erkek hasta da söylüyor. Ben on yıl içerisinde Konya, Bursa, Yozgat ve Balıkesir‟de çalıştım. Muhafazakâr yerlerde bu daha fazla oldu. Ya Yozgat‟dayken öcü gibi bakıyorlardı. Adam karısını kıskanır, kardeşini kıskanır. Ama Balıkesir‟de öyle değildi, daha normal karşılıyorlardı bizi. Bu sorunun da temel nedeni ne biliyor musunuz? Bizlerin yumuşak yüzlü bir mesleği yapması, biz yumuşak yüzlü olunca hastalar, hasta yakınları tepemize çıkıyor. Ayrıca genellemek istemem ama buradaki arkadaşları da tenzih ederek söylüyorum, bayan hemşireler yüzünden bizim mesleğin imajı kötü. Bir de az para alıyoruz. Avrupa‟daki bir doktor ile Türkiye‟deki bir doktorun aldığı para eşit, burada sıkıntı yok tamam, ama ya hemşire… Avrupa‟daki hemşire ile buradaki hemşirenin aldığı ücret farkı ise uçurum… Bu sorunun çözümünde ise şey dedim ya bizim mesleği kaile almıyorlar. Bunun için de refakat olayı ortadan kaldırılsa bu sorun hallolacak. Yani şöyle hemşireden sonraki hasta bakıcı hemşire gibi eğitilse, refakatçi kaldırılsa, bizim meslek daha çok kaile alınacaktır. Biz doktorun emir eli gibi görünüyoruz; ama biz esas işi yapıyoruz. Biz şey değiliz. Hasta sadece doktora saygı duyuyor, bize saygı göstermiyor. Biz de aynı eğitimi alıyoruz, biz de dört yıl okuyoruz. Ama bize hastalar doktora davrandıkları gibi davranmıyorlar” (G1) “Hasta yakınlarından şikâyetçiyim. Hasta ile ilgili yeri geliyor ne söyleyebileceğimizi biliyoruz, yeri geliyor hasta ile ilgili bir şey söyleyemiyoruz. Hasta yakınına laf anlatmak zor… Bilgi verirsin, hemşire olduğun için seni umursamazlar. Bilgi vermezsin, niye cevap vermiyorsun olur. Ya bu hasta yakınları ile uğraşmak gerçekten zor…” (G2) Hemşirelerin, mesleği icra ederken karşılaştıkları temel problem görüldüğü üzere hasta yakınlarının ön yargısı ve hemşirlerden istenen hasta beklentileridir. Hasta ön yargısından bahsederken, ilk katılımcı görevde bulunduğu yerlerdeki farklılığı vurgulamıştır. Sahil kesime yakın yerlerde erkek hemşire doğal karşılanırken, daha muhafazakâr illerde hemşirelik mesleğinin kadına özgü olması gerektiği düşüncesi vardır. “Çocuklarda bir dil problemi var. İletişim kurmak gerçekten çok zor oluyor. Çok yorulduğum zamanlar oluyor. Mesleği sevmezseniz çok zor gelir insana… Bir de ilgisiz aile de çok fazla, çocuğuyla ilgilenmeyen, tüm sorumluluğu bize yükleyenler oluyor… Ekonomik yetersizlikler, aile ilgisizliği işte bunlar… Ne yapılabilir, aile seminerleri olabilir… Bu sayede aile ile daha çok iletişimde bulunulabilir. Dedim ya ekonomik açıdan yetersizlikler var diye… İşte ekonomik destekte bulunulabilir. Bir de tek bir plan üzerinden değil de, bulunulan yöreye göre uygun bir plan hazırlanabilir. Şöyle doğuda ki bir çocuk ile batı da doğan bir çocuk için farklı programlar hazırlanabilir, bunu kastediyorum”. (G3). “Bu mesleği icra ederken karşılaştığım tek problem şu; çocukların eğitim – öğretim döneminin başında okula uyumu oldukça güç oluyor. Bu sadece mesleğin zorluğu ama benim için temel problem bu… Bu probleminde çözümünde hem ailelere hem de okul idaresine görevler düşüyor… Aileler çocukları okula teşvik etse, okul idaresi de okul uyum çalışmalarını desteklese sorun çözülebilir diye düşünüyorum.” (G4) Ana okulu öğretmenlerinde görülen temel problemlerden biri, çocukta görülen problemlerle eştir; zira çocuk oryantasyon sorunlarının yanı sıra dönem içerisinde de adaptasyon ve algılama sorunları yaşamaktadır. Bu sorunun çözümünde, aile ve okul idaresinin eş güdümlü hareket etmesi önemli bir çözüm önerisidir. 549

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN “Erkeklerin yaptığı her işi bir bayan olarak yapmak hiç kolay olmuyor. Sizin bir bayan olduğunuzu unutabiliyorlar ve sizden bir erkek edasıyla çalışmanız isteniyor. Benim çözüm önerim ise; bayan gibi davranmayı devam ettirmektir. Bayanlığından, hiçbir şey kaybetmeden erkek gibi değil, kadın gibi davranarak çalıştığım iş kolu ile özdeşleşmek gerekir.” (G5) “Jandarmada görev yapan bir kadın personel olarak maalesef henüz kadın personele alışılmağını görüyorum ve yaşıyorum. Şöyle ki; illerde karargâhlarda her katta erkek tuvaleti olmasına karşın kadın tuvaleti sonradan eklenmiş olup, pisuarlı erkek tuvaletleri kadınlara tahsis edilmiştir. İlçelerde ise bu durum daha vahim, bazen ayrı bir kadın tuvaleti dahi yoktur. Özellikle doğudaki il ve ilçelerde bu durum yeni yeni düzeltiliyor. Erkek personel kadınlarla çalışmaya alışık olmadığı için küfürlü konuştuğu sırada yanında kadın olduğunu unutmakta, 24 saat tutulması gereken nöbetlere kadın rütbeliler de eklenmekte ve nöbet tutulan mekan bir kadın için uygun olmamaktadır Yine gece devriyelerine tek bir kadın personel çıkarılmakta asayiş olaylarına tek başına müdahale etmek zorunda kalmaktadır. Öyle ki alkollü şahıslarla karşılaşılmakta ya da cinayet, adam yaralama olaylarına tek başına gidilmektedir. Yine erkek personel kadın personeli kadın olmasından dolayı sevmemektedir ve kaba davranmaktadır. İş yerinde hakaret ve seviyesiz davranışlara maruz kalınabilmektedir. Bekâr ve evli olmakta kadın askeri personel için iki zor durumdur. Bekâr olunca konuştuğunuz erkek personel ile dedikodunuz yapılmakta, evli olup bir de çocuğunuz varsa hem çocuğunuza zaman ayıramazsınız hem de evinize çok geç saatte gidersiniz. Hatta hafta sonu hafta içi her an göreve çağrılma durumunuz olur. Neler yapılabilire gelince; kadın personelin farklı olduğunu bilen erkek personelin sayısının artması lazım, ama bu zor bir durum. İç işleri bakanlığının kadın askeri personelin durumunu tekrar gözden geçirip polisteki kadın personel gibi düzenlemelere gidilmesi gerekiyor.” (G6) Askerliği modern toplumların tek cinsiyete dayalı en önemli kurumu olan ulusal ordularda, genç yaşta bütün erkeklerin zorunlu olarak güvenlik hizmeti yaptığı en temel erkeklik pratiklerinden biri olarak tanımlanabilmektedir. Modern toplumlarda sadece tek cinsi içine alan aynı zamanda kitlesel katılımı gerektiren ve bütün erkeklerin katılımı zorunlu olan bir kurumdur (Sancar, 2011:153). Erkekliğin de toplumsal inşasını sağlayan askerlikte kadın ikincil plana alınmasının da ötesinde, yok sayılmaktadır. Kurumun mimari düzenlemesinden, çalışma şartlarında herhangi bir düzenlemeye gidilmeksizin sadece erkek cinsiyet temalı düşünülmesi kadının bu alanda yer almasını çoğu zaman engellemektedir. “İkili ilişkilerde bayan amir olması işçilerin birçoğunu germekte ve yaptırım sıkıntıları çekmekteyiz. Ayrıca bayan yapamaz gibi önyargılar fazlasıyla mevcut. Tabi bu durum patron tutumuyla da doğrudan alakalıdır. Buna çözüm önerim daha fazla kadın çalışma hayatına dahil olsun. Bunun için de; kadın çalışanların çalışma hayatında daha fazla desteklenmeli bence. Verilen haklar devlet tarafından takip edilmelidir. Patron ise cinsiyeti hak mahrumiyeti olarak görmek yerine daha fazla ön plana çıkarmalıdır.” (G7) “Sanayide iş ararken her bulduğum yerde çalışamadım, güvenemedim, ortamı sevmedim. Bizim meslekte nezih ortam bulmak sıkıntıdır. Dolayısıyla bu da bir bayan için sıkıntı oluyor. Bunun çözümü de insan yetiştirmekten geçiyor. İyi insanlar olursa ve kişi kendini bilirse güvenli çalışma ortamları artar. Garip bakışlar olmayınca hanımlar da daha rahat çalışabilir.” (G8) “Erkek iş gücü gerektiren bir iş, bu yüzden kadın ikinci planda kalıyor. Kadının yapamayacağını düşünüyorlar. Ayrıca eğitim seviyesi düşük insanlar ile muhatap olduğun için, küfür duyuyorsun, patronundan azar işitiyorsun, patronun senin yanında argolu konuşuyor vs… Muhatap olduğun insanlar erkek olduğu ve eğitim seviyeleri genelde düşük olduğu için, sen de dolayısıyla bir kadın gibi davranamıyorsun. Erkek gibi oluyorsun, onlara bir iş yaptırmak için yumuşak yüzlü olursan, kaile alınmıyorsun. Mezun olurken, idealisttim, ben de şantiyeyi giderim, ben de bu işi yaparım diyordum. Ama gerçeklerle karşılaşınca o idealist düşünceler havada kalıyorlar”. (G9) Kadın ev içi rolü ile özdeşleşmiştir; öyle ki cinsiyetçi bir iş bölümü sonucu kadın özel alana hapsedilmekte, bu rollerin gereği olarak görülen özel alana ilişkin iktisadi faaliyetler ikincil ve önemsiz addedilerek iktisadın dışında kalmaktadır (Serdaroğlu, 2010:13). Oysaki kişisel olan politik, politik olanın da iktisadi olduğu gerçeği göz ardı edilmemelidir. Bununla birlikte sanayideki kadın iş gücü niteliksiz ve ikincil görülmektedir. Bu yüzden tam rekabet piyasasında, kadınların erkeklerle eşit ücret alması beklenmemektedir (Özkaplan ve Serdaroğlu, 2010:23). Katılımcılardan elde edilen cevaplar doğrultusunda mesleğin temel problemlerinden biri

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN mesleğin yaşam alanı ile ilgilidir. Meslek daha çok sanayi temelli icra edilerek, erkeğin çoğunluğunun olduğu yerlerde kadının azlığı önemsizleştirilerek, kadının ikincil planda kalmasına neden olunmaktadır. Bununla birlikte, kadınların erkek egemenliğini yıkmak için „erkek gibi‟ davranmayı normalleştirdiği de dikkat çekici bir gerçektir; öyle ki erkeklerden daha fazla erkekleşen kadınların varlığı yadsınamaz.

4.6. Mesleğin Avantajları Meslek seçme nedenleri ile mesleğin avantajları arasında paralellikten bahsetmek mümkündür. Bu doğrultuda katılımcılara “Mesleğinizin avantajları nelerdir” sorusu yöneltilmiştir. “Başta dediğim gibi iş yönünden seçilmeyecek bir meslek. Çok çabuk iş bulunabiliyor. Sağlık yönünden de fazla sıkıntı çekmiyorum; yani doktora ulaşmak çok kolay oluyor.” (G1) “İş bulma konusunda sıkıntı yok, en güzel bu tarafı galiba…” (G2) “Düzenli bir iş sonuçta, saatleri belli günleri belli… Çocuğu da farklı alanlarda tanıma şansına sahip olmak da mesleği güzelleştiriyor…” (G3) ” Mesleğimin çalışma saatleri çok iyi, bu en büyük avantajı…” (G4) “Bu meslekte daha önce ulaşamadığım ve kullanmamın hayal olduğunu düşündüğüm birçok silah ve mühimmatı kullanarak kendime olan güvenim iki kat arttı. Çevremdeki ilgi ve saygı daha da çoğaldı.” (G5) “Mesleğimin sadece dışarıdan bakıldığında saygı duyulan bir meslek olması dışında pek bir avantajı yoktur. İlk başta yüksek bir gelire sahip olduğumuz düşünülebilir ama gece ve gündüz mevhumu gözetmeksizin çıktığımız görevler, bir yerde en fazla 3-4 yıl kalmamız, çocuğumuza yeterli zaman ayıramamamız gibi daha büyük dezavantajların olduğunu düşünürsek aldığımız maaş oldukça düşüktür.” (G6) “İmza yetkimiz ve çalışma alanlarımızın geniş olması mesleği avantajlı kılıyor”. (G7) “İş alanı çok geniş, iş bulma konusunda sıkıntı yaşanmayacak bir meslek”. (G8) “Mesleğin avantajı genel olarak iş sahamız çok geniş. Benim mezun olduğum yıl Türkiye‟de ekonomik kriz yaşandığı bir dönemdi; dolayısıyla inşaat sektör durmuş vaziyetteydi. Sıkıntılı bir dönemdi ama şu anda öyle inşaat sektörü hızla gelişiyor. Çok fazla elemana ihtiyaç var. Her mezunun iş bulabileceği bir bölüm neredeyse”. (G9) İş bulma kolaylığı, düzenli çalışma saatleri, düzenli bir gelir, mesleki saygınlık, geniş yetki gibi nedenler mesleklerin avantajları arasında yer almaktadır. Ağırlıklı olarak katılımcıların mesleğini cazip kılan unsurlardan birisi de iş bulma kolaylığıdır. Kolay iş bulma meslek seçiminde önemli bir faktördür; çünkü mezuniyet sonrası aile ve çevrenin beklentisi bireyleri yetenekleri dışındaki mesleklere yönelmelerine neden olmaktadır. 4.7. İşin Cinsiyeti (Kadın İşi – Erkek İşi) Katılımcılara “Yaptığınız mesleğinizin kadın işi veya erkek işi olarak algılanmasının sebepleri nelerdir” sorusu yöneltilmiştir. Ardından ise “Bu mesleğin kadın veya erkek işi olarak algılanmaması için ne tür iyileştirmeler yapılmalıdır?” sorusu seçilmiştir. “Bence bunun bir kadın işi olarak algılanmasının sebebi geçmişten gelen algılardır. İlk başta bu mesleği kadınlar yaptığı içi böyle algılanıyor. Hemşirelik mesleği esas meslektir, öğretmenliğin, doktorluğun nasıl kadını erkeği yoksa bu mesleğin de olmamalı. Bu algının değiştirilmesi içinse bu meslekte erkek gücüne ihtiyaç duyulduğu bildirilmeli, görseller değiştirilmeli. Hastanede sus işareti yapan bayan hemşiredir, fotoğraf çekmek isterler, bayan hemşire isterler, yani hep bir bayan vardır.” (G1) “Biz böyle görmüşüz, hastanede doktor erkek, bayan hemşire olurdu. Bu yüzden belki de… Bu işi erkeklerinde yeri geldiğinde bayanlara göre daha iyi yaptığı düşüncesi aktarılırsa, bu bir bayan işi olmaktan çıkacaktır.” (G2)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Hemşireliğin bir erkek mesleğinden ziyade, bir kadın mesleği olarak adlandırılmasının nedeni katılımcılara göre oluşturulmuş bir algıdan gelmektedir; zira hemşirelik tarihsel bağlamda kadın mesleği olarak çeşitli mecralarda yeniden üretilmiştir. G2‟nin verdiği yanıt ise aslında kadını ikincil konumda göstermenin örneğini sunmaktadır; öyle ki hemşirelik hiyerarşik anlamda, doktorluk mesleğinden daha düşük seviyededir. Medya ise çeşitli iletişim stratejileri ile doktorluk mesleğini erkeklik ile hemşirelik mesleğini de kadınlık mesleği ile özdeşleştirerek yeniden üretmektedir; bu bağlamda Serdaroğlu‟na göre kadın doktor tanımlaması kullanılırken, erkek doktor tanımlaması yoktur (2010:32). “Bu mesleğin bir kadın işi olarak algılanmasının nedeni annelik duygusundan gelen bir baskınlıkkan gelmektedir. O ana okul eğitimine gelen çocukların yaşı küçük, bir babadan daha çok anneye ihtiyacı oluyor. Bunu ise o yaştaki bir çocuğa bir kadının verebileceği düşünüldüğü için, kadın işi olarak algılanıyor. Böyle bir algının önüne geçmek içinse, reklamlardan faydalanılabilir, bu konuyla ilgili toplantılar düzenlenebilir. Bu toplantılarda da, erkeklerin de bu işin içinde olduğu ve gerekliliği ön plana çıkarılırsa başarılı sonuçlar elde edilecektir diye düşünüyorum.” (G3) “Yaptığım mesleğin kadın işi olarak bilinmesinin sebebi anasınıfı ve anaokulu kavramının eğitim kademesinde hala kullanılıyor olmasıdır. Algılanmaması içinse öncelikli olarak eğitim sisteminde yer alan anaokulu ve anasınıfı kavramı daha uygun kavramlar ile yer değiştirilmelidir.” (G4) Anaokulu öğretmenleri de meslek algısını çocukla annenin ilişkisine yaslamanın yanı sıra tanımlama sorununa da değinmişlerdir. Çocuk bakımı ile sorumlu olan kişinin anne olduğuna ilişkin toplumda egemen bir algı vardır. Çocuğun fizyolojik ihtiyaçlarını, annenin biyolojisinin karşılaması çocuk bakımını sadece anne üzerinden tanımlayarak ataerkil yapının eril dilini üretmektedir. Bu doğrultuda okul öncesi eğitime gelen bir çocuğun, bir babadan ziyade anneye daha fazla ihtiyaç duyduğu düşüncesi ataerkil mantığı destekler niteliktedir. Ayrıca tanımlamada eril dilin farklı bir biçimini yeniden üreterek, iş sahasını tek cinsiyete indirgemektedir; nitekim „anaokulu‟ gibi bir kavramı kullanılmaktadır. “Türk Silahlı Kuvvetlerinde bulunan personel 2003 yılına kadar sadece erkeklerden oluştuğundan ve toplumumuzda sadece erkeklerin zorunlu askerlik görevlerinin olması nedeniyle askerlik mesleği hep erkek mesleği olarak algılanmıştır. Askerlik mesleğine yılda elli kişi veya yüz kişi bayan alımı yerine teşkilatın ve kadroların daha çok ihtiyaç duyduğu bayan personelin alımının çoğaltılması ile meslekte bulunan bayanlar çoğaldıkça ve göründükçe artık sadece erkek mesleği olduğu ön yargısı kırılacaktır.” (G5) “Ülkemizde askerlik mesleği her zaman erkek işi olarak bilinir. Jandarma Genel Komutanlığı bünyesinde 2003‟ten beri kadın astsubay alımı olmasına karşın hala kadınların uygun olmadığı görüşü mevcuttur ve meslek içinde de bu şekilde devam etmektedir. Bu yüzden mesleği bırakan kadın astsubay sayısı oldukça fazladır. Polislikte olduğu gibi reklam ve tanıtıma daha çok yer verilmelidir. Bir de askeri kuvvetlerin erkek personele bu yönde eğitim vermesi gerekir. Çünkü erkek personel en başta bunu kabul etmemektedir.” (G6) Askerlik mesleğine tarihsel perspektiften bakıldığında sadece erkekler tarafından yapıldığı görülmektedir. Sadece erkek işi olarak algılanmasının temel sebeplerinden birinin de bu olduğunu söylemek mümkündür. Katılımcıların çözüm önerileri de hegemonik erkeklikle özdeşleştirilen askerliğin sadece erkek işi olarak algısının önüne geçebilecek niteliktedir. Polislik mesleğinin de erkek gücü gerektiren, askerlik mesleği ile benzerlik taşıyan bir meslek olmasına rağmen askerlik mesleği gibi bir erkek mesleği olduğuna dair bir algısı yoktur. “Güç gerektiren ya da görev tanımı dışındaki işlerin erkek bir mühendise yaptırılmasına karşılık bayan mühendisin daha akılcı çalışması ve bu tarz işleri yapamaması bayan işi değil algısı yaratmaktadır. Mesleki cinsiyet farkını ortadan kaldırmak için öncelikle iş yeri sahipleri bilinçlendirilmeli, mesleki kalite standartları getirilmeli ve devlet tarafından sıkı yaptırımlar uygulanmalıdır”. (G7) “Hanımların fıtratının dışında bir meslek, sonuçta hanımlar naif varlıklardır. Yani ağır bir meslek… Çalışma alanı ise genellikle erkeklerin çoğunlukta olduğu sanayi ortamları, bu yüzden erkeklerin fıtratına daha uygun olduğu düşünülmektedir. Bu sorunun çözümü ise önce insan yetiştirmekten geçiyor. İnsanın değerini bilirsek, değerli insanlar yetiştirirsek, bu işin bayanı erkeği olmaz.” (G8) “Erkek iş gücü gerektiren bir meslek ve muhatap olunan kişiler de hep erkek ve çalışanların eğitim 552

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN seviyeleri hep düşük. Ayrıca sanayi ile de içli dışlı olmak gerekiyor. Dolayısıyla bayanlar bu ortamlarda çok bulunmak istiyor. Neler yapılabilir; eleman sayısı artırılabilir. Bunun için de mesela bu bölümde okuyan kız öğrencilere daha fazla devlet bursu verilebilir, engellileri çalıştırma zorunluluğu diye her iş yerinde belirli bir sayıda engelliyi çalıştırma zorunluluğu var iş yerlerine böyle bir zorunluluk getirilebilir, örneğin on kişiden üçü bayan olacak denilebilir.” (G9) Mühendis katılımcılar ise yapılan işin erkek iş gücü gerektirdiğinden dolayı ve kadının biyolojik olarak bu erkek iş gücünü karşılayamayacak nitelikte olduğu düşüncesi nedeni ile makine ya da inşaat mühendisliğinin erkeğe özgü bir meslek olarak düşünülmektedir. Ayrıca çalışanların yanı sıra müşterilerin de veya mal teminatında bulunulan kişilerin de erkek olması bu iş sahasını erkeklere özgü bir alan olarak tanımlamada önemli bir rol olduğunu vurgulamışlardır. Buradan hareketle, daha fazla kadının bu işe dahil olması için pozitif ayrımcılık yapılması gerektiği önerisi getirilmiştir. Bununla birlikte insanın değerini bilen insanlar yetiştirmek önerisiyle de aslında toplumsal cinsiyet sorunlarının tamamı çözülebilir. 4.8. Önerilen Meslekler Katılımcılara “Bu mesleği hem cinslerinize önerir misiniz?” sorusu yöneltilerek, nitel veriler ile birlikte nicel veriler de elde edilmeye çalışılmıştır. “Kesinlikle öneriyorum. Hemşirelik, international bir meslektir, hemşirelik. Dünyanın neresine giderseniz, gidin dilini bildiğiniz takdirde bu işi yapacak yer bulursunuz. Hemşireliğin toplumdaki o olumsuz algısını yıkmak için, erkekler bu işe hızla dahil olmalı.” (G1) “Hiç önermez olur muyum, iş sahası çok zengin. Bu sene oğlum, TEOG‟a girdi. Tercih yapacağız beraber, sağlık meslek lisesi yazdıracağım inşallah.” (G2) “Öneririm, ancak sabır isteyen bir iş. Dediğim gibi düzenli bir iş, farklı deneyimler elde ediyorsun ve o çocuklardaki saflığı her gün yaşayabiliyorsun. Yalanı dolanı olmayan bir dünya sunuyor bu meslek sana, bu yüzden öneririm tabii ki…” (G3) “Bu mesleği hemcinslerime öneririm; çünkü okulöncesi öğretmenliğini kadın veya erkek, cinsiyeti her ne olursa olsun, içinde çocuk sevgisi taşıyan her insanın yapacağına inancım tam.” (G4) “Tabii ki öneririm, çünkü sürekli söylenen kadın her alanda olmalı, kadın da çalışmalı, iş hayatının her alanında olmalı sözlerinin yanında %100 erkek mesleğidir algısı bulunan askerlik mesleğinde benim gibi çalışan bir bayanın iradesi, dayanıklılığı, sabrı, kuvveti ve azminin ne kadar yüksek ve kudretli olduğunun bilincindeyim. İç ve dış çevremde bunu gördüğünde mesleğimin güzelliğini ve azametini görerek mesleğimin bir albeni yaratacağını düşünüyorum.” (G5) “Üzgünüm ama önermiyorum.” (G6) “Ailesi ya da yakın çevresinde iş imkanı sağlayacak herhangi biri yada firma yoksa hemcinslerime tavsiye etmiyorum. Sanayi odaklı değil de proje bazlı ya da akademik personel olarak devam etmek isteyenler içinse gayet keyifli olabilir.” (G7) “Her ne kadar benim bölüm seçimim bazı mecburiyetlerden olmuş olsa da mesleğimi seviyorum. Eğer severek yapacağına inanan hemcinslerim varsa öneririm. Ancak sevmiyorsanız külfetlerini çekmek zorunuza gidecektir. Zira Makine Mühendisliği her isteyenin yapabileceği kolay bir meslek değil. Biraz gönül vermek, hani derler ya, makine kokusunu sevmek gerekiyor.” (G8) “Başka mühendisliklere nazaran, önerebileceğim bir meslek; çünkü eskiye çok daha kolay bulabilmektedir. Özel iş sahasının yanı sıra, okulda da kalınabilir, kamu da olabilir. İş bulma konusunda sıkıntı olmaz yani…” (G9) Görüldüğü üzere katılımcılardan sadece G6 dışında her biri mesleğini hemcinslerine önermiştir. Mesleği önerme nedenleri ile, mesleğin avantajları noktasında ortaya konulan konular arasındaki ilişki dikkat çekmektedir. Bununla birlikte katılımcıların hem cinslerinin hızlı bir şekilde bu mesleğe dahil olmasını istemesi, kadın işi veya erkek işi algısının kırılmasının istenmesinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Erkek işi yapanlar kadınlar, kadın işi yapan erkekler ötekileştirilmeyecektir. Erkeklerin çoğunlukta olduğu iş sahalarında kadınların, kadınların çoğunlukta olduğu iş sahalarında ise erkeklerin yer alması bir hegemonya olarak görülebilir. Gramsci‟nin söylemiyle hegemonya varsa karşı hegemonya da vardır ve bu karşı hegemonya öznelerinin işte cinsiyet ayrımını üretmeyenler olduğu söylenebilir. 553

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Çoğunlukla erkek egemenliğinin ve nispeten daha az kadın çoğunluğunun bulunduğu iş sahalarında bir hegemonyadan bahsetmek mümkündür; ancak Gramsci‟nin söylemiyle hegemonya varsa karşı hegemonyayı da üretenler, işte cinsiyet ayrımını üretmeyenler olmuştur. 5. Sonuç ve Tartışma Erkeğin egemen iş sahalarında yer alan kadınlar ile kadının çoğunlukta olduğu iş sahalarında yer alan erkeklerin sorunlarını, mesleğe bakış açılarını tespit etmek amacı ile bu çalışma oluşturulmuştur. Her bir katılımcıya görüldüğü üzere aynı sorular yöneltilerek katılımcılardan çeşitli cevaplar elde edilmiştir. Meslek seçme nedenleri, mesleğin getirdiği avantajlar bu doğrultuda mesleğin hem cinslerine önerilmesi gibi soruların yanı sıra, mesleğin cinsiyetin belirleyen unsurlar ve mesleki cinsiyet algının değiştirilmesi için getirilen öneriler yorumlanmıştır. Bu doğrultuda katılımcıların meslek seçme nedenleri arasında en belirleyici kriter kolay iş bulma olmuştur. Bahsedildiği üzere meslek tercih sebepleri saygınlık, ücret, statü gibi çok yönlü faktörlere bağlıdır. Askerlik mesleğini seçenler ise, diğer katılımcılara göre saygınlığı ön planda tutmaktadır. Bununla birlikte mesleğin getirdiği avantajlar ile mesleği seçme nedenleri arasında bir paralellik vardır. Mesleği seçerken rol modelin önemi ise katılımcılar arasında farklılık göstermiştir. „bu mesleği seçerken beni etkileyenler oldu‟ değerlendirmesinde bulunanların yanı sıra „ailemde ve çevremde bu işi yapan hiç kimse yoktu tek başıma benim seçimimdi‟ konuya yaklaşanlar da olmuştur. Rol modelin önemi meslekler açısından önemli bir farklılık yaratmamıştır. Mesleğe çevrenin bakış açısını anlamak için katılımcılara “Mesleğinize aileniz, çevrenizin ve iş arkadaşlarınızın bakış açısı nedir” sorusu yöneltilmiştir. Bu doğrultuda, cinsiyetler arası bir farklılığa sahip olduğu görülmektedir; Kadının çoğunlukta olduğu alanda erkek iş gücü takdirle karşılanırken, askerlik mesleği dışındaki erkek egemenliğinin olduğu alanlarda kadın iş gücü hoş karşılanmamaktadır; nitekim katılımcılardan elde edilen veriler sonucunda bu kanaate ulaşılmıştır. Mesleki problemler ise çok yönlüdür, bununla birlikte cinsiyetler arasında da farklılık göstermiştir. Kadınlar daha çok iş gücünün erkek ile özdeşleştirilmesinden ve iş yerindeki eril dilden şikâyetçidir. Kadınların sayıca çok olduğu alanlarda, karşı cins dili kullanılmazken, erkeklerin egemen olduğu iş sahalarında hegemonik erkeklik üretilmektedir. İşin cinsiyetinin belirlenmesinde ise katılımcıların bir kısmı bu durumu biyolojik faktörlere dayandırırken, bir kısmı da oluşturulmuş veya tanımlamadan kaynaklanan bir algıdan bahsetmişlerdir. Yine aynı şekilde, bu durum cinsiyetler arasında da farklılık göstermiştir; kadın katılımcılar iş ayrımının biyolojik temelli olduğunu düşünürken, erkek katılımcılar oluşturulan bir algıdan bahsetmişlerdir. Özetle katılımcılardan elde edilen cevaplara göre, mesleki sorunlar cinsiyetler arası farklılık gösterirken, mesleki anlamlandırmalarda aynı ölçüde farklıdır. Bununla birlikte kadın iş sahasında eril dile daha çok maruz kalırken, erkek azınlık olduğu yerlerde ötekileştirici bir dilden bahsetmemiştir. Kaynakça Giddens, A. (2000). Sosyoloji. İstanbul: Ayraç Yayınları. Giddens, A.

(2012). Sosyoloji Kısa Fakat Eleştirel Bir Giriş. Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi.

Göktolga, Z. G ve Gökalp, B. (2012). “İş Seçimini Etkileyen Kriterlerin ve Alternatiflerin AHP Metodu ile Belirlenmesi”. C.Ü. İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 13-2, 71-86. Güldiken, N (2015). Çalışma Sosyolojisi. Ankara: Nobel Yayınları. Grint, K. (1998). Çalışma Sosyolojisi. İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları. Hughes, E. C. (1963). Meslekler. Zafer Cirhinlioğlu (Ed). Meslekler ve Sosyolojisi (ss. 25-41). İstanbul: Gündoğan Yayınları. İlhan, S. (2008). Yeni Kapitalizm ve Değişen Meslek Olgusunun Anlamları Üzerine. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Sayı 21, s 313-328. Özkaplanoğlu, N. ve Serdaroğlu U. (2010). İktisat ve Toplumsal Cinsiyette Kadın Kimliği. (Ed). İktisat ve Toplumsal Cinsiyet (ss. 18-29). Ankara: Efil Yayınevi. Savran, G. ve Demiryontan, N. (2012). Kadının Görünmeyen Emeği. İstanbul: Yordam Kitap.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Sancar, S. (2011). Erkeklik: İmkansız İktidar. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Savran, G. (2015). Eleştirel Feminizm Sözlüğü. Ankara: Dipnot Yayınları. Serdaroğlu, U. (2010). Toplumsal, Cinsiyet, Bilim, Akademia. Ufuk Serdaroğlu (Ed). İktisat ve Toplumsal Cinsiyet (ss. 18-30) Ankara: Efil Yayınevi,. Serdaroğlu, U. (2010). Kişisel Olan Sadece Politik Değil Aynı Zamanda İktisadidir! (Feminist İktisat). Ufuk Serdaroğlu (Ed). Toplumsal Cinsiyet ve İktisat (ss.3-18). Ankara: Efil Yayınevi.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

REKREASYON ALANI TERCĠHĠ VE BEDEN KĠTLE ĠNDEKSĠ ĠLĠġKĠSĠ Dr. Ġlkay DOĞAN Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Veteriner Fakültesi, Biyoistatistik ABD [email protected] Dr. Hüseyin GÜMÜġ Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Yüksekokulu [email protected]

Özet Bireylerin vücut kompozisyonları, beslenme alışkanlıklarından giyim tarzlarına kadar yaşama dair birçok tercihlerinde etkili olmaktadır. “Kişilerin zayıf, kilolu ya da obez olmaları gidecekleri rekreasyon alanlarını tercih etmelerinde etkili midir?” sorusundan hareketle bu araştırmanın amacı rekreasyon alanı tercihi ve beden kitle indeksi arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesidir. Araştırmaya gönüllü olarak katılan 487 bireyden elde edilen verilerin 420 [16-58 yaş (𝑥=31,11; ss=10,99), %56,9 (239)’i kadın, %43,1 (181)’i erkek] tanesi araştırma kapsamına alınmıştır. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak demografik bilgi formunun yanı sıra Gümüş (2016) tarafından geliştirilen 5 alt boyut ve toplam 24 maddeden oluşan Rekreasyon Alanı Tercih Etkenleri (RATE) ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde betimleyici istatistiksel yöntemler ve tek yönlü varyans analizi (One-way ANOVA) kullanılmıştır. Analiz sonuçları, araştırma grubunun beden kitle indeksleri ile rekreasyon alanı tercih etkenleri ölçeğinin sportif çeşitlilik, personel, fiziki imkanlar ve aktivite alt boyutlarında anlamlı bir fark olduğunu gösterirken; konum alt boyutunda herhangi bir farklılık tespit edilememiştir. Obez bireyler rekreasyon alanlarının sportif çeşitliliğine, fiziki imkanlarına ve alanda çalışan personele diğer gruplara göre daha fazla önem vermektedir. Beden kitle indeksi normal olan bireyler ise rekreasyon alanlarında yapılan sosyal ve sanatsal aktivitelere diğer gruplara göre daha fazla önem vermektedir. Sonuç olarak bireylerin rekreasyon alan tercihlerinde beden kitle indekslerinin etkili olduğu söylenebilir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Beden Kitle İndeksi, Rekreasyon, Alan tercihi Abstract Body composition of individuals has an impact on many preferences from eating habits to dress style. "Is it effective people who is weak, fat or obese prefer to recreational area where they go?" based on this question the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the recreation area preference and body mass index. Among the 487 subjects voluntarily participated in the study and 420 [16-58 age (𝑥=31,11; ss=10,99), %56,9 (239) female, %43,1 (181) male] were included in the study. Recreation Area Preference Agents (RAPA) scale by Gumus (2016), consist of 5 factors and 24 items was used as a data collection form besides demographic information form. For data analysis descriptive statistics and One-way ANOVA was used. The results showed that there is significant difference in sporting diversity, staff, physical facilities and activity factors of RAPA scale according to body mass index but there is no significant difference in location factor of RAPA scale according to body mass index. Obese individuals give more importance to sporting diversity of recreation areas, physical facilities and staff who working in the area than other groups. The person whose body mass index is normally gives more importance to social and art activities than other groups. As a result, it can be said that body mass index can be effective in recreational area preference. Key Words: Body Mass Index, Recreation, Area preference

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 1. GiriĢ Tarihsel süreç içerisinde aşırı kilo ve obezite hemen hemen bütün toplumlarda sağlık ve zenginlik belirtisi olarak algılana gelmiştir. İnsanoğlunun tarih boyunca açlık, kıtlık ve yokluklarla mücadele ettiği düşünüldüğünde bu algının olması doğal karşılanabilir. Açlık ve yokluk günümüzde hala bazı topluluklarda var olsa da artık, beslenme noksanlığı ve enfeksiyon hastalıklarına bağlı sağlık sorunları yerini, çoğu yerde aşırı beslenme ve obezitenin getirdiği sağlık sorunlarına bırakmıştır. Obezite, başlangıçta gelişmiş ülkelerin sorunu olarak kabul edilirken gelişmekte olan ülkelerde de endüstriyel gelişmeler, gelir düzeylerinin artması, batı yaşam tarzının benimsenmesi, enerji alımı artarken enerji harcanmasının azalması ve nihayet kırsaldan kente göç olgusu ile birlikte kaçınılmaz olmuştur (TEMD, 2014). Obezitenin artışına paralel olarak birçok zayıflama yönteminin ortaya çıkışı ve birçoğunun zararlı olduğu konusundaki yayınlar insanların zayıflama konusundaki motivasyonunu bozmaktadırlar. Zayıflama reçeteleri uygulayan bireylerde görülen rahatsızlıkların başında kilo düşerken bedenin temel yapı taşlarının (kas kütlesi, kemik mineral içeriği) eksildiği görülmektedir (Özer, 2006). Bu nedenle spor ve egzersiz kavramları bu reçetelerin vazgeçilmez birer parçası haline gelmiştir. Rekreasyonel bir davranış biçimi olarak spor, bireylerin ideal vücut ölçülerine sahip olmalarından psikolojik rahatlama ve yenilenmeye kadar birçok görev üstlenmiştir. Bu nedenle sağlıklı bir nesil yetiştirmede devletin spor politikaları ve bu politikaların sevk ve idarecileri ayrı bir öneme sahiptir. Spor kavramıyla doğrudan veya dolaylı ilişki içerisinde olan rekreasyon alanlarının planlanmasında yerel yönetimlerin çalışmalara hız verdikleri görülmektedir. Özellikle büyükşehirlerdeki yerel yönetimler, insanlara boş zamanlarını verimli hale dönüştürme fırsatı veren rekreasyon kavramını öğretmekte, onları iş, yaşam ve geçim sıkıntısından bir parça da olsa uzaklaştırmaya çalışmakta ve yaşam kalitesini artırmayı hedeflemektedir. Bu amaçlar doğrultusunda yerel yönetimler; sportif faaliyetler, eğlendirici oyunlar, eğitici ve bilgiye dayanan çeşitli oyun ve etkinlik seçenekleri ile bu etkinlikleri en verimli şekilde uygulayabilecekleri rekreasyon alanlarını kamuoyunun hizmetine sunmaya devam etmektedirler (Koçyiğit ve Yıldız, 2014). Rekreasyon alanlarının daha fazla insan tarafından kullanılması noktasında bu çalışmanın amacı beden kitle indeksi ve rekreasyon alan tercihi arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesidir. 2. Literatür Taraması Bilimsel ve teknolojik gelişmelerin insanların yaşam tarzlarını ve sağlıklarını etkilediği şüphe götürmez bir gerçektir. Teknolojik gelişmeler insanları hareketsizliğe yönlendirdiği gibi, insanların beslenme alışkanlıklarında da değişikliklere neden olmuş, sağlıklarını da olumsuz etkilemiştir. Alanyazında 20. yüzyılın son çeyreğinde başlamak üzere obezite sadece gelişmiş ülkelerde değil, dünya genelinde yüz yüze kalınan önemli problemlerden biri haline gelmiştir (Freedman ve ark., 1999). Türkiye‟de de birçok dünya ülkesinde olduğu gibi yetersiz ve dengesiz beslenme önemli bir problem haline gelmeye başlamıştır. Ayaküstü beslenme olarak adlandırılan “fastfood” alışkanlıklarının yaygınlaşması ve fizik aktivitenin azalıp daha inaktif bir yaşam sürdürülmesi özellikle dengesiz beslenmenin en önemli sonucu olan şişmanlık sıklığının artışının temelinde yatan nedenler arasında yer almaktadır (Ilgaz, 2001). Obezite tedavisinin amacı, gerçekçi bir vücut ağırlığı kaybı hedeflenerek, obeziteye ilişkin morbidite ve mortalite risklerini azaltmak, bireye yeterli ve dengeli beslenme alışkanlığı kazandırmak ve yaşam kalitesini yükseltmektir. Vücut ağırlığının 6 aylık dönemde % 10 azalması, obezitenin yol açtığı sağlık sorunlarının önlenmesinde önemli yarar sağlamaktadır (Sağlık Bakanlığı, Araştırma Raporu, 2015). Alanyazında yapılan çalışmalar sadece beden kitle indeksi yüksek kişilerin değil, beden kitle indeksi düşük olan bireylerinde bir çok hastalık için risk faktörü oluşturduğunu göstermektedir (Baş ve ark., 2014; Ejike, 2013; Sunwoo ve ark., 2011 ). Erişkinlerde fiziksel aktivite ve beden kitle indeksi ilişkisinin araştırıldığı çalışmada düzenli olarak yapılan egzersizlerin, yetişkinlerin ideal vücut ağırlığının korunmasına yardımcı olurken, BKİ‟nin normal seviyelerde tutulmasında oldukça önemli bir role sahip olduğunu belirterek, Bu amaçla hareketsiz yaşayan yetişkin bireylerin BKİ hakkında bilgilendirilmesi gerektiğinin önemine değinilmiştir (Sevimli, 2008). BKİ‟in ideal düzeyde tutulması noktasında tıbbi müdahalelerden ziyade dengeli beslenme ve fiziksel aktivite ön plana çıkmaktadır. Dünya sağlık örgütüne göre; teknolojik gelişmeyle beraber fiziksel aktivite düzeyinde kayda değer 557

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN oranda bir azalma olduğu ve buna bağlı olarak her yıl 2 milyonu aşkın insanın hayatını kaybettiği belirtilmektedir (World Health Organization, 2010). Bireylerin fiziksel aktivite düzeyini arttırma noktasında rekreasyon alanları önemli bir misyon üstlenmiştir. İçinde bulunduğumuz yüzyılda giderek betonlaşan yaşam alanları, sanayileşen ve her geçen gün daha da artan nüfus şehirlerin, insanların rahat hareket edebileceği, spor yapabileceği, rekreasyonel faaliyetlere katılabileceği ve daha da önemlisi şehrin stresinden arınıp, dinlenebileceği; halka açık ve yeşil rekreasyon alanlarının önemini artırmaktadır. Rekreasyon alanları her ne kadar erkek dünyasına ait, hegemonizmin yaşandığı “cinsiyetleşmiş mekânlar” olarak algılansa da (Kara, 2014) beton yığınları arasında sıkışıp kalan kent sakinlerinin temiz, nezih, aktivite çeşitliliği sunan ve olabildiğince yeşil rekreasyon alanlarına olan yoğun talepleri yadsınamaz bir gerçektir (Şahin ve Kocabulut, 2014). Yapılan çalışmalar Türkiye‟de bireylerin boş zamanlarını daha çok inaktif aktivitelerle geçirdiğini göstermektedir (Öztürk ve ark., 2015; Tutal, 2004; Ayan, 2009; Öztürk, 2016). Aktif bir yaşam tarzı için yerel yönetimler bireylerin rekreasyonel etkinliklere katılım ihtiyaçlarını karşılama konusunda sorumluluğu olan kurum ve kuruluşlar olarak özellikle son zamanlarda modern park ve rekreasyon alanlarının inşa edilmesine, eskilerinin ise modernize edilmesine yönelik çalışmalara girişmişlerdir (Gümüş, Alay ve Karakılıç, 2015). Dolayısıyla bireylerin rekreasyon alan tercihlerinde etkili olan faktörlerin bilinmesi, hedef kitlenin bu alanları daha yoğun ve aktif bir şekilde kullanması ve alanyazında bu konuda bir eksikliği giderme noktasında katkı sağlayıcı olacaktır. 3. Yöntem Araştırmanın evreni Ankara ilinde yaşayan 18 yaş üzeri bireyler oluşturmaktadır. Örneklem seçimi, olasılıklı olmayan örnekleme yöntemlerinden kasti örnekleme (amaca yönelik - purposive sampling) yöntemi yardımıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmaya gönüllü olarak 487 birey katılmıştır. Elde edilen verilen incelendiğinde bazı katılımcıların cevapları geçersiz sayılmış (67 katılımcı) ve örneklem grubu son noktada 420 katılımcıdan oluşmuştur (𝑋̅𝑦𝑎ş =31,11 𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑎ş =10,99). Veri toplama aracı olarak demografik bilgi formu ve rekreasyon alanı tercih etkenleri ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Kişisel bilgileri elde etmek amacıyla yaş, boy, vücut ağırlığı, cinsiyet, medeni durum, eğitim ve gelir düzeylerine ilişkin sorular yer almaktadır. Obezitenin tanınmasında ve belirlenmesinde pek çok yöntem olmasına rağmen, tanı koymak için basit bir gözlem genellikle yeterlidir. Bununla birlikte sınıflayabilmek ve obezitenin tipini belirlemek için sıklıkla beden kitle indeksi (BKİ) ve bel çevresi ölçümü yapılmaktadır. BKİ kilogram cinsinden vücut ağırlığının, metre cinsinden boyun karesine bölünmesiyle [Vücut ağırlığı/boy 2] kolayca hesaplanabilir ve birimi kg/m2‟dir. BKİ‟nin 18.5 kg/m2‟den küçük olması zayıflık, 18.5-25 kg/m2 olması normal, 25-30 kg/m2 kilo fazlalığı, gürbüz, toplu yada preobez olarak kabul edilir. Otuz kg/m2 „den büyük BKİ ise obeziteyi gösterir. Obezite evre I (BKİ 30-40), evre II (BKİ 40-50) ve evre III (BKİ>50) olarak alt sınıflara ayrılabilir (TEMD, 2014). Rekreasyon alanı tercih etkenleri ölçeği Gümüş (2016) tarafından geliştirilen ve bireylerin gidecekleri rekreasyon alanını seçerken nelere önem verdiklerini ölçen 5 alt boyut (Sportif Çeşitlilik, Personel, Konum, Fiziki İmkanlar, Aktivite) ve toplam 24 maddeden oluşan 5‟li Likert türü ölçektir (1: Hiç önemli değil, 5: Çok önemli). Veri toplama formları Ankara‟nın 9 farklı ilçesinde yaşayan bireylere uygulanmıştır. Veri toplama araçları uygulanmadan önce, uygulamanın ortalama 6 dakika sürdüğü, her bir sorunun cevaplanması gerektiği, elde edilen bilgilerin sadece bu araştırma kapsamında kullanılacağı araştırmacılar tarafından ayrıca ifade edilmiştir. Veri toplama aracıyla elde edilen bilgiler SPSS paket programına aktarılmış ve betimsel istatistiğin yanı sıra (yüzde, frekans) ikiden fazla grubun karşılaştırılmasında varyans analizi (ANOVA) uygulanmıştır. 4. Bulgular Beden kitle indeksi ve rekreasyon alan tercihi arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesinin amaçlandığı bu çalışmada katılımcılara ait demografik özellikler Tablo 1‟de verilmiştir. Buna göre; araştırmaya katılanların %56,9‟u (f=239) kadın ve %43,1‟i (f=181) erkek; %50,7‟si (f=213) bekâr, %49,3‟ü (f=207) 558

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN evli olarak tespit edilmiştir. Katılımcıların %52,4‟ü “18-29” yaş aralığında ve %69,1‟i (f=290) üniversite mezunu olduğunu bildirmiştir. Bununla birlikte araştırmaya katılanların beden kitle indeksi değerleri incelendiğinde %35,2‟si (f=148) “hafif şişman”, %39,3‟ü “normal”, %13,6‟sı (f=57) obez ve %11,9‟u (f=50) “zayıf” olarak sınıflandırılmıştır. Tablo 1. Araştırma grubunun demografik bilgileri Değişkenler Cinsiyet

Medeni Durum

Yaş

Beden Kitle İndeksi

Eğitim Durumu

Sayı (f)

Yüzde (%)

Kadın

239

56.9

Erkek

181

43.1

Evli

207

49,3

Bekâr

213

50,7

18-29

220

52,4

30-42

120

28,6

43-55

80

19,0

Zayıf

50

11,9

Normal

165

39,3

Hafif şişman

148

35,2

Obez

57

13,6

İlköğretim (ilk-ort.)

50

11,9

Lise

80

19,0

Üniversite

290

69,1

Rekreasyon alanları tercih etkenleri ölçeği alt boyutlarının beden kitle indeksine göre karşılaştırılması sonuçları Tablo 2‟de verilmiştir. Tablo 2 dikkate alındığında; araştırma grubunun beden kitle indeksleri ile rekreasyon alanı tercih etkenleri ölçeğinin sportif çeşitlilik, personel, fiziki imkanlar ve aktivite alt boyutlarında istatistiksel olarak fark olduğu tespit edilmişken (p<0,001); konum alt boyutunda istatistiksel olarak farklılık tespit edilmemiştir (p>0,05). Buna göre; obez bireyler rekreasyon alanlarının sportif çeşitliliğine ( 𝑥 =4,47), fiziki imkanlarına ( 𝑥 =4,09) ve alanda çalışan personele (𝑥 =4,32) diğer gruplara göre daha fazla önem vermektedir. Benzer şekilde, beden kitle indeksi normal olan bireyler ise rekreasyon alanlarında yapılan sosyal ve sanatsal aktivitelere (𝑥 =4,14) diğer gruplara göre daha fazla önem vermektedir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Tablo 2. Rekreasyon Alanları Tercih Etkenleri Ölçeği Alt Boyutlarının Beden Kitle İndeksine Göre Karşılaştırılması Alt Boyutlar

Sportif çeşitlilik

Personel

Konum

Fiziki imkan

Aktivite

Beden Kitle Ġndeksi

N

𝒙 ± ss

F

p

35,217

0,001*

7,636

0,001*

1,892

0,130

6,141

0,001*

5,407

0,001*

b

Zayıf

50

4,06 ± 0,68

Normal

165

3,65 ± 0,64c

Hafif şişman

148

3,88 ± 0,37b

Obez

57

4,47 ± 0,45a

Zayıf

50

4,35 ± 0,51a

Normal

165

4,05 ± 0,74b

Hafif şişman

148

4,32 ± 0,65

a

Obez

57

4,44 ± 0,48a

Zayıf

50

3,99 ± 0,66

Normal

165

3,74 ± 0,78

Hafif şişman

148

3,76 ± 0,77

Obez

57

3,92 ± 0,90

Zayıf

50

3,95 ± 0,76a

Normal

165

3,81 ± 0,80ab

Hafif şişman

148

3,56 ± 1,07b

Obez

57

4,09 ± 0,63a

Zayıf

50

3,95 ± 0,67ab

Normal

165

4,14 ± 0,70a

Hafif şişman

148

4,04 ± 0,82ab

Obez

57

3,68 ± 0,82b

*p<0,001; a,b,c: farklı harfleri içeren gruplar arasındaki farklar önemlidir.

5. TartıĢma ve Sonuç Beden Kitle İndeksi ve rekreasyon alan tercihleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesinin amaçlandığı bu çalışmada araştırmaya yaşları 18-55 arasında 420 birey katılmıştır. Tablo 2 incelendiğinde Rekreasyon Alanı Tercih Etkenleri ölçeğinin sportif çeşitlilik alt boyutunda en yüksek değerin (𝑥=4,47) obez bireylerde olduğu görülmektedir. Bu bulgu rekreasyon alanlarında obez bireylerin diğer bireylere oranla sportif çeşitliliğe daha fazla önem verdiği şeklinde yorumlanabilir. Dolayısıyla rekreasyon alanlarında yürüyüş yollarının olması, bisiklet yolunun bulunması ve alanın farklı spor türlerini yapmaya imkan sağlaması bu alanların obez sınıfında bulunan bireyler tarafından daha fazla tercih edilebilir olmasını sağlayacaktır. Araştırmanın bir başka bulgusunda ise personel alt boyutunda en yüksek ortalama (𝑥=4,44) obez sınıfında olan bireylere aittir. Bu bulgu obez bireylerin gidecekleri rekreasyon alanlarını seçerken personel alt boyutuna diğer bireylerden daha fazla önem verdiklerini göstermektedir. Personel alt boyutundaki maddeler dikkate alındığında, rekreasyon alanlarının obez bireyler tarafından daha yoğun kullanılması için alanda spor yaptıracak eğitmenlerin olması, yeterli sayıda temizlik personelinin bulunması, alanda danışabilecek personelin bulunması, yeteri kadar güvenlik personelinin bulunması gibi önlemlerin alınmasının faydalı olacağı düşünülmektedir. Nitekim yapılan çalışmalar rekreasyonel aktivitelere katılımda güvenliğin gerek cinsiyet temelli gerekse etnik köken temelli önemli bir engel teşkil ettiğini göstermiştir (Kara, 2013; Taylor, 2001; Floyd ve Gramann, 1993). Araştırmanın bir diğer bulgusunda ise konum alt boyutunda gruplar arası anlamlı bir farklılığa rastlanmamıştır. Bu bulgu rekreasyon alanının şehir merkezine yakın olması, eve yakın olması ve toplu taşıma araçları ile ulaşılabilir olması gibi maddelerin tüm sınıflamalar için aynı öneme sahip olduğunun göstergesidir. Zanon ve diğ. (2013) rekreasyon alanlarına katılımda konum 560

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN boyutunun gençleri kısıtladığını belirtmişlerdir. Ayrıca Gümüş (2016) kadınların toplumsal rolleri ve ailevi yükümlülükleri nedeniyle konum boyutuna erkeklere oranla daha fazla önem verdiklerini belirtmiştir. Araştırmadan elde edilen bir başka bulguya bireylerin rekreasyon alan tercihlerinde fiziki imkanlar alt boyutunda en yüksek ortalamaların ( 𝑥=4,09) obez bireylerde olduğu görülmektedir. Buradan hareketle obez bireylerin diğer bireylere oranla rekreasyon alanlarında temizliğe, yeşil alanlara, kiralanabilecek ekipmanlara, bilgilendirici levhalara daha çok önem verdiği söylenebilir. Kervankıran ve Eryılmaz (2014) yaptıkları çalışmada rekreasyon alanındaki düzenlemelerin, temizliğin, ekosistemin kısacası fiziki imkanların alanlara gelen ziyaretçi sayısını etkilediğini belirtmişlerdir. Sabbağ ve Aksoy (2011) ise yaptıkları araştırmada fiziki imkânların yetersizliği nedeniyle öğrencilerin rekreasyonel etkinliklere katılamadıklarını belirtmişlerdir. Araştırmanın bir diğer bulgusunda, rekreasyon alanı tercih etkenlerinin aktivite boyutunda anlamlı farklılık tespit edilmiştir. Diğer bulgulardan farklı olarak bu alt boyutta en düşük ortalamaya obez sınıfındaki bireyler (x=3,68) sahiptir. Bu bulgu rekreasyon alanlarında yapılan sosyo-kültürel etkinliklerin (konser, tiyatro vs.), sportif organizasyonların (turnuva, yarışma vs.), söyleşi, kongre, sempozyum vb. etkinliklerin diğer bireylere oranla obez sınıfında olan bireyler için önemli olmadığı şeklinde yorumlanabilir. Aktivite alt boyutunda en yüksek ortalama (x=4,14) normal bireylerde tespit edilmiştir. Bu bulgu rekreasyon alanlarındaki sosyal aktivitelerin normal vücut ölçüsüne sahip bireyler için önemli etkenler olduğunu göstermektedir. Gürbüz ve Henderson (2014) yaptıkları çalışmada sosyo-ekonomik durumu iyi olan öğrencilerin diğer öğrencilere oranla sosyal rekreasyonel etkinliklere daha sık katıldığını tespit etmişlerdir. Sonuç olarak rekreasyonel etkinliklerin bireyde sağladığı fizyolojik ve psikolojik gelişmeleri ortaya koyan çok sayıda bilimsel çalışma olmakla birlikte rekreasyonel olanaklar konusunda gerek bilinç düzeyi gerekse tesisleşme anlamında çok ileri bir toplum olmadığımız şüphe götürmez bir gerçektir. Bu bilinci geliştirmede en büyük sorumluluğa sahip olması gereken devlet kurumları ve yerel yönetimler de rekreasyon olanaklarını artırmalı ve bu konuda gerekli tedbirleri almalıdırlar. Ülkemizde son yıllarda artan tesisleşme oranına bağlı olarak spor ve fiziksel aktivite konusunda yerel yönetimlerin halka yönelik geliştirdikleri politikalar göze çarparken (Gümüş ve Karakullukçu, 2015) Amerika‟da yüz yılı aşkın bir süredir yerel yönetimler, boş zaman ve rekreasyon hizmetleri sunmak amacı ile rekreasyon alanları yaratma iddiasındadırlar ve bu iddia çoğunlukla boş zaman ve rekreasyonun, yaşam kalitesine olumlu katkısına dayandırılmaktadır. Birçok araştırmacı, rekreasyon ve boş zaman hizmetleri ile programlarının toplumdaki insanların yaşam kalitesini artırabileceği için gerekli olduğunu savunmaktadırlar. Bu nedenle, rekreasyona katılımın toplumun yaşam kalitesini koruyan ya da yükselten etkileri dikkate alındığında, rekreasyonel hizmetleri sunmak yerel yönetimlerin öncelikli sorumluluğu olmalıdır (Baker ve Palmer, 2006). Sağlıklı bir kent ve kentli oluşmasını sağlamak amacı ile yerel yönetimler tarafından planlanacak rekreasyon alanlarının daha fazla birey tarafından kullanılması amaçlanmalıdır. Rekreasyon alanlarına daha fazla birey çekebilmek açısından, kullanıcıların rekreasyon alanlarını tercih etmelerinde etkili olan unsurların bilinmesi ve yeni yapılacak rekreasyon alanlarının bu bilgiler ışığında planlanması veya eskilerinin bu bilgiler doğrultusunda modernize edilmesi son derece önemlidir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kaynaklar Ayan, N. (2009). Sakarya Emniyet Müdürlüğü İl Merkezinde Görevli Polis Memurlarının Serbest Zaman Değerlendirme Alışkanlıklarının İncelenmesi. Sakarya Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Beden Eğitimi Ve Spor Öğretmenliği Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Sakarya. Baker, D. A., Palmer, R. J. (2006). Examining the effects of perceptions of community and recreation participation on quality of life. Social Indicators Research, 75 (3), 395-418. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-004-5298-1 Baş, F. Y., Arslan, B., Türker, Y. (2014). Beden kitle indeksi düşük kişilerin biyopsikososyal yönden değerlendirilmesi. Türkiye Aile Hekimliği Dergisi, 20 (2), 64-71. http://dx.doi.org/10.15511/tahd.16.21664 Ejike, C. (2013). Association between anxiety and obesity: Astudy of a young-adult Nigerian population. Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice, 4(1), 13-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0976-3147.116429 Floyd, M., Gramann, J. (1993). Effects Of Acculturation and Structural Assimilation in Resource Based Recreation: The Case Of Mexican Americans. Journal of Leisure Research. 25(1), 6- 21. Freedman, D. S., Dietz, W. H., Srinavasan, S. R., Berenson, G. S. (1999). The relation of overweight to cardiovascular risk factors among children and adolecents, the Bogalusa heart study. Pediatric,103,1175-82. Gümüş, H., Karakullukçu, Ö. F. (2015). Leisure satisfaction in football and basketball fans: A sample of Afyonkarahisar. International Journal of Science Culture and Sport (IntJSCS), 3 (3), 401-409. http://dx.doi.org/10.14486/IJSCS306 Gümüş, H., Özgül, A. S., Karakılıç, M. (2015). Fiziksel aktivite mekânı değerlendirme ölçeği (famdö): Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Hacettepe Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 26 (1), 1-18. Gürbüz, B., Henderson, K. A. (2014). Leisure activity preferences and constraints: Perspectives from Turkey. Word Leisure Journal, 56 (4), 300-316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16078055.2014.958195 Ilgaz, Ş. (2001). Obezite ve Tedavisi. Sağlık Bakanlığı Ana Çocuk Sağlığı ve Aile Planlaması Genel Müdürlüğü Yayınları. Kara, F. (2014). Gendered Space; Recreation and Women. 13th International Sport Science Congress, 07/11/2014 - 09/11/2014, Konya, Turkey. Kara, F. M. (2013). Kadınların serbest zaman davranışı, etnik grup persfektifi. Pamukkale Journal of Sport Sciences, Special Issue, 4, 48-58. Kervankıran, İ., Eryılmaz, A. G. (2014). Isparta ili milli parklarının rekreasyonel faaliyetlerde kullanımı. Marmara Coğrafya Dergisi, 29, 81-110. Koçyiğit, M., Yıldız, M. (2014). The Recreation Applications in Local Administrations: The Sample of Konya City. International Journal of Science Culture and Sport,(2), 211-223. Özer, M. K. (2006). Fiziksel Uygunluk. Ankara, Nobel Yayınevi. Öztürk, H. (2016). Recreation habits of the students staying at residence. The Online Journal of Recreation and Sport, 1(5), 25-33. Öztürk, H., Erdoğan, B., Çevik, M., Akın, A. (2015). Kahveye giden kişiler boş zaman değerlendirme alışkanlıklarının incelenmesi. International Journal of Science Culture and Sport, Special Issue 4, 349-358. http://dx.doi.org/10.14486/IJSCS396 Sabbağ, Ç., Aksoy, E. (2011). Üniversite öğrencileri ve çalışanların boş zaman etkinlikleri: Adıyaman örneği. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 3 (4), 10-23. Sağlık Bakanlığı, (2015). İstanbul sağlık müdürlüğü çalışanlarında obezitenin değerlendirilmesinde beden kitle indeksinin incelenmesi. İstanbul sağlık müdürlüğü sağlık araştırmaları şube müdürlüğü. Sevimli, D. (2008). Erişkinlerde Fiziksel Aktivite - Beden Kitle İndeksi İlişkisinin Araştırılması. TAF Prev Med Bull, 7(6),523-528. Sunwoo, Y. K., Bae, J. N., Hahm, B. J., Lee, D. W., Park, J. I., Cho, S. J., Lee, J. Y., Kim, J. Y., Chang, S. M., Jeon, H. J., Cho, M. J. (2011). Relationships of Mental disorders and weight status in the Korean adult population. J Korean Med Sci, 26(1), 108-15. http://dx.doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2011.26.1.108. Şahin, İ., Kocabulut, Ö. (2014). Sportif rekreasyon aktivitelerine düzenli katılımı engelleyen faktörlerin

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN incelenmesi: Akdeniz üniversitesi turizm fakültesi öğrencileri üzerine bir araştırma. Journal of Recreation and Tourism Research, 1 (2), 46-67. Taylor, T. (2001). Cultural Diversity and Leisure: Experiences of Women in Australia. Society and Leisure. 24(2), 535-555. Tutal, Y. (2004). Öğretmenlerin Boş Zamanlarını Değerlendirme Biçimleri (Isparta Örneği). Isparta Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Isparta. Türkiye Endokrinoloji ve Metabolizma Derneği (2014). Obezite tanı ve tedavi kılavuzu. World Health Organization. (2010). World Health Raport. http://www.who.int/whr/2010/en/index.html. adresinden erişildi.

18

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Zanon, D., Doucouliagos, C., Hall, J., Lockstone-Binney, L. (2013). Constraints to park visitation: A meta-analysis of north Amerikan studies. Leisure Sciences, 35, 475-493. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2013.831294

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OUTSOURCING AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY

Lecturer İlknur Çevik Tekin Selcuk University Abstract As a result of the disappearance of the borders as well, outsourcing has become a modern management technique , which is used quite commonly by businesses wanting to increase productivity .Starting in the 1980s ,gaining momentum in the 1990s applications of subcontracting initially has a cost reducing function,but in the course of time ,with the contraction request and focus of the core competency of the companies, the use of outsourcing has become a management tool that provides competitive advantage.Nowadays businesses focus on core competencies that provide themselves advantage of competition, making goal-oriented collaborations rather than expanding corporeally.They aim at increasing quality lowering costs and thus gaining business profibility, handing over activities that directly have nothing to do with their area of specialization to outer businesses specialized in this area.This study , as a management strategy, aims at investigating the causes of outsourcing use in businesses and benefits and drawbacks brought on by the use of outsourcing. The study is comprised of four sections and the causes of outsourcing use are explained under ten sub-headings in the second chapter after introduction.The third section deals with benefits and losses that the use of outsourcing secures for businesses and finally the study comes to an end with the conclusion. Keywords: Outsourcing, Management Strategy, Core competency

1. INTRODUCTION In today’s world where the boundries are disappearing gradually, businesses aim to adapt the changes in the market quickly and gain high competitive power against their rivals by using methods such as reducing the costs, improving the quality of goods and services. Nowadays, outsourcing is one of the most important strategies that provide competitive advantages. Outsourcing concept is the abbreviation of the concepts of out, resource and using (Tutar et al., 2006: 281). Outsourcing had a function of reducing the costs of the business in the beginning, businesses used to prefer to purchase from outside instead of producing goods or services within the business. But in time, it became a strategic management tool that provides a competitive advantage as a result of focusing on the basic skills of the businesses. Various definitions are available on outsourcing. Outsourcing is to decide on purchasing goods and services from outside the business (Embleton and Wright, 1998: 94). Outsourcing practice begining in the 1980s and gaining speed in the 1990s is a management approach that was created as a result of combining the cost reduction strategy with downsizing needs of businesses (Düren, 2002: 78). Outsourcing means that the important skills which the business can not enhance and improve are purchased from or used through another company which is an expert on that issue (Ülgen and Mirze, 2006: 394).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Businesses do not want physical growth as in the past, because it is difficult to manage large businesses. Businesses increase profitability by reducing costs and increasing quality only through cooperation aimed at achieving a particular purpose.

2. REASONS FOR DIRECTING BUSINESSES TO OUTSOURCING 2.1. Focusing on Core Competencies Some activities exhibit such a good performance in the competition and they are so important in terms of final products or services that they can be defined as basic skills. Real basic skills are visible valueadded activities displaying lower costs than the ones in competitive situation in a more effective way. The basic skills of a company consist of these unique activities having continuity. If a firm can not identify its basic skills accurately, it misses charming opportunities and pursues small and inappropriate opportunities. The skills defined and used properly can be powerful competitive weapons (Eren et al., 2005: 203). For example, Nike has selected product design and development as the basic skill and it has identified major suppliers for production (Quinn 1999: 20). It leaves some of its functions and activities, but it pays more attention to important basic skills and activities, it strenghtens them by allocating time and resource (Ülgen and Mirze, 2006: 395). Characteristics of the basic skills are (Koçel, 2013: 383); 1. They should be considered essential for the life of the business in short and long term, 2. they should be difficult to be imitated, 3. they should not be easily noticed by competitors, 4. they should be unsubstituted in the implementation of the vision and strategic objectives of the business, 5. they should play an important role in decision-making related to strategic management of the business. 2.2. Reducing Costs That the businesses outsource for the actions except for the ones related to the basic skills and that they use supplier firms provide a competitive advantage to businesses in terms of costs. Improving cash flows and reducing costs are among the main objectives of businesses outsourcing. The usage of fixed and variable costs affects the cash flow of the business. Businesses can reduce these costs through outsourcing, and reduced capital expenditures can be used for other purposes (Tjader et al., 2014: 617). The suppliers who the firms are in an outsourcing relationship with perform the work more cheaply since they are large as turnover in the field coming within their area of expertise and they make mass production. Fixed investments provide a significant cost advantage since they appeal to a wide group of customers. Therefore, such institutions achieve faster, more effective and efficient results. Thus, the company gains significant advantages in terms of costs by transferring the activities wanted to be performed to supplier firm instead of enduring a certain cost through making an investment activity (Özgün, 2006: 36). 2.3. Increasing the Quality

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN In its most basic definition, Quality means responding to customer requests (http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalite). Suppliers may be in one-to-one relationship with technology. So, this situation provides an advantage in terms of quality. The production can have higher quality than the one which the company providing outsourcing has made. That there is more than one company affects the reliability and external appearance of the business (Tjand et al., 2014: 616). 2.4. Process Renewal As a concept, process renewal means revising and restructuring all business procedures and processes within the business drastically in order for the businesses to adapt competitive conditions and provide better, faster, cheaper and higher quality services to their customers (Koçel, 2006: 398). The purpose of process renewal is to improve activities and issues valued by the customers and ensure their satisfaction and expectations in a better way and provide the company a competitive advantage. For example, the customers want to purchase the highest quality products and services in the most favorable conditions when they need. When this condition occurs, their satisfaction rises (Ulgen and Mirza, 2006: 390). Therefore, businesses have to outsource if they can not meet customers' everchanging expectations adequately. Because, process renewal is a management concept aimed at improving the competitive power of businesses by shortening the response time to customer requests (Koçel, 2013: 404). 2.5. Request for Downsizing Organizational downsizing is a management strategy that foresees delayering, narrowing the scope and using subcontractors in a number of activities in the businesses and therefore it includes changes and improvements in the amount and size of labor force and in work methods and processes (Zehir, 2000: 9). In recent years, downsizing, like many other new concepts and practices, emerges as a modern management technique which is also seen in management practices constantly. " Small is better " has become a veritable rule. The thing expressed as downsizing is a practice that the businesses apply to improve the competitiveness. (Koçel, 2013: 422). The companies which prefer outsourcing practice can get smaller and simplify structurally. Downsizing of an organization means reducing costs, duties, processes and the number of staff through conscious (proactive) decisions taken and strategies implemented by business management (Koçel, 2013: 422). The activities carried out within the organization can decrease, but, through outsourcing, the opportunity can be found to develop the organization more than before (Koçel, 2013: 423).

2.6. Risk Reduction Today, with globalization and technological development, each return for the businesses brings about the risk factor. Businesses reduce risks and increase their returns by creating strategic alliances today when it is quite difficult to make investment decisions and there are many uncertain elements that can not be calculated. When businesses focus on their basic skills, their fields of occupation have become narrow and as a result of this, the risks that may arise decrease. In other words, businesses will have minimized the risk against the threats and dangers caused by environmental conditions and the potential negative changes by means of giving some of its activities to outsources. (Oktay, 2006: 93). 2.7 Following Technological Innovations

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Today, it is a fact that modern business life faces with technological applications more intensionally than before. High productivity on businesses, technological change that has the effects such as increasing production quantity and quality have become a mandatory rule that has to be implemented in terms of businesses that have to develop and maintain their life. (Yeniçeri ve İnce, 2005: 135). Suppliers have to be careful about these rules while choosing the business which it will provide outsources (Marion ve Friar, 2012:46). 1.

Businesses that can develop the mission and can be complementary should be selected.

2. The prototype application setting should be prepared with appropriate methods for product development . 3. Because of being risky and costly to put the product onto the market and to commercialize, the product should be tested in appropriate circumstances rather than doing this in the short term. 4.

Thus, the fixed costs can be reduced and the expertise and flexibility can be provided.

2.8. Providing Competitive Advantage One of today's main point of creating a competitive advantage is to simplify the production system. This gradually increases the importance of the concept of outsource (İlter, 2002: 57). To select multiple suppliers both reduces the risk and creates value in terms of innovation. IBM especially gets competitive advantage by selecting more than one supplier (Mackenzie ve DeCutatis, 2013: 11). 2.9. Reducing Investment Expenditures Nowadays, businesses care about brain power rather than machine, they outsource for the investments that take place except for the main activities because every investment carries risk with it. Businesses can get cash flow by outsourcing, can strengthen their liquidity by variabilisation. Suppliers can also be a business that reduces both fixed and variable costs by taking advantage of lower costs. This situation that can be used for the other purposes provides flexibility financially by releasing reduced capital expenditures and the funds kept in capital (Tjader vd., 2014: 617). 2.10. Overcoming the Surplus Capacity Demand Businesses can collaborate with the suppliers instead of building a service or new production facility at the moments when demand from customers increased cyclically. Because investments that will meet the temporary demand may be inactive as a result of market shrinkage and capacity decrease. Therefore, businesses resort outsourcing to meet the cyclically growing demand. (Yılmaz,2013: 52). 3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF OUTSOURCING Outsourcing is an inevitable way for businesses to achieve competitive advantage, especially today. The advantages of outsourcing is mentioned among the causes of outsourcing. To sum up briefly, businesses focus on basic activities thanks to outsourcing. By this way, businesses reduce costs, increase profitability and achieve competitive advantage. They comply with environment by gaining flexibility. In addition, businesses create added value by making innovation and developing products or services. As for the unfavorable part; first of all if there are too many good and service providers, it is inevitable that a malfunction occuring within one affects the other. Therefore, it is particularly necessary to pay attention much more if the number of businesses that provide outsourcing is more than one (Jyoti ve Arora, 693). It is very difficult to try to bring about a new culture from different

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN businesses. Jyoti and Arora (2013) have also reached the conclusion in their studies that the relationship with the outsourcing business and the business that provides outsourcing affects the quality and price of their products or services and also financial performance. If the good relations between the business providing goods or services and the customer are dominant, more quality products are available, costs are low and financial performance is better . The management’s not making plans about the future, not handling the things that is likely to happen before, the lack of coordination among businesses and having cultural obstacles are associated with failure (Gobble, 2013:64). The dismissal of the employees of outsourcing businesses causes danger for the employees and also affects the motivation of the employees who stayed there adversely. In addition, the business can lose its flexibility, it can get further away from innovating and also it can lose its basic skill and the business can have the risk of disclosure of its information. On the other hand, the business outsourcing may reduce the cost as well as it may affect profit margins and limit the market. Despite all these drawbacks, outsourcing is among the inevitable competitive strategies today. While making outsourcing decisions, detailed cost and risk analysis should be carried out in order to avoid inconveniency. Outsourcing should not be used for an activity that is basic skill. 5. CONCLUSION The importance of outsourcing in business management is increasing more and more. Organizations outsource by focusing on their basic skills by means of supplying the activities not coming the area of their expertise from the businesses with basic skills. The aim of businesses is to reduce costs and raise the quality while outsourcing. At this point, it is important for businesses to identify their basic skills accurately. Basic skill will provide the businesses with competitive advantage as long as it is unique and hard to be imitated. Businesses will have both a simpler structure and a higher quality output by outsourcing in other activities that stay above their basic skills. So, they will be far from becoming clumsy, they will have simple organizations and fulfill the needs of customers by providing resource saving in a quality manner. Despite all these benefits, when it is not used consciously, outsourcing that brings about some disadvantages such as becoming foreign-dependent is one of the most important competitive strategies today.

REFERENCES Düren, A.Z. (2002). 2000’li Yıllarda Yönetim, İstanbul. Embleton, P.R. ve Wright, R.C. (1998). A practical guide to successful outsourcing. Empowerment in Organizations. 946 (3): 94. Eren, E., Alpkan, L. ve Erol, Y. (2005). Temel Fonksiyonel Yeteneklerin Firmanın Yenilik ve Finansal Performansına Etkileri. İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi Bahar 1, 4 (7): 201-224. Gobble, M. (2013). Outsourcing Innovation, Research-Technology Management, 56 (4): 64. İlter, H.M. (2002). Global Dışsal Tedarik (Outsourcing), İstanbul: İTO Yayınları, 5. Jyoti, J. Ve Arora H. (2013). Impact of Client–Vendor Relationship on Firm’s Financial Performance: A Study of Outsourcing Firms, Global Business Review , 14 (4): 691–709. Koçel, T. (2013). İşletme Yöneticiliği, Yönetim ve Organizasyon, Organizasyonlarda Davranış, Klasik, Modern, Çağdaş ve Güncel Yaklaşımlar. 14. Baskı, İstanbul: Beta Yayınları.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Mackenzie, L., DeCusatis, C., (2013). Sustaining İnnovation When Outsourcing Components İn MultiTechnology, Multi-Component Systems, Management, Policy & Practice 15(1): 2–16. Marion, T.J ve Friar, J.H. (2012). Managing Global Outsourcing to Enhance Lean Innovation, ResearchTechnology Management, 44-51. Oktay, E. (2006). Stratejik Yönetim Sürecinde Performans Geliştirmenin Bir Aracı Olarak Dış Kaynak Kullanımı: İmalat Sanayinde Bir Uygulama. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi, Konya. Özgün, M. (2006). Kalite Arttırıcı Bir Strateji Olarak Dış Kaynaklardan Yararlanma ve Lojistik Hizmet Sağlayıcı Firmalar Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üni. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Quinn, J.B. (1999). Strategic outsourcing: leveraging knowledge capabilities. Sloan Management Review, 40 (4) 9-21. Tjader Y., May J., Shang J., Vargas L. ve Gao N. (2014). Firm-level outsourcing decision making: A balanced scorecard-based analytic network process model, Int. .Production Economics 47, 614–623 Tutar Hasan, M.K. Yılmaz ve C. Erdönmez, 2006, İşletme Becerileri Grup Çalışması, 4.b., Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara Ülgen, H. ve Mirze, K. (2006). İşletmelerde Stratejik Yönetim. İstanbul: Literatür Yayıncılık. Yeniçeri, Ö. ve İnce, M. (2005). Bilgi yönetim stratejileri ve girişimcilik. İstanbul: IQ Kültür Sanat Yayıncılık. Yılmaz, N. (2013). Dış Kaynak Kullanımı (Outsourcing) ve Hastanelerde Dış Kaynak Kullanımı. Beykent Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul. Zehir, C. (2000). İşletmelerde Örgütsel Küçülme Stratejisi (Downsizing) ve Türkiye’de Örgütsel Küçülme Uygulamaları. Gebze Yüksek Teknoloji Enstitüsü Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Gebze.

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EGZERSIZ BAĞIMLILIĞI DEPRESYON ĠLĠġKĠSĠ Doç.Dr.Yunus YILDIRIM Mersin Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Yüksekokulu [email protected] Yrd.Doç.Dr.Ġrfan YILDIRIM Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Yüksekokulu [email protected]

Özet Bu çalışmanın amacı; Düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerin egzersiz bağımlılıkları ile Depresyon Düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkisel durumu tespit etmektir. Çalışama; Betimsel bir araştırma modeli olup, ilişkisel tarama yöntemi ile yapılmıştır. Çalışmanın örneklem grubunu Afyonkarahisar ilinde haftada en az 3 gün düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan 221 birey oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada veriler kişisel bilgi formu, Egzersiz Bağımlılığı ölçeği ve Beck depresyon envanterinden oluşan anket yöntemi ile elde edilmiştir. Elde Edilen verilerin SPSS paket programında analizleri yapılmıştır. Analizlerde Tanımlayıcı istatistikler, Mann Whitney U-Testi, Kruskal Wallis H- Testi ve Spearman korelasyon katsayısı kullanılmıştır. Analizlerden elde edilen bulgular doğrultusunda; Düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerin % 2,7’nin egzersiz bağımlısı, % 34,7’sinin septomatik (bağımlı olmayan) ve % 62,6’sınında bağımlı olmayan (aseptomatik) oldukları tespit edildi. Düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerin % 5,79’unun şiddetli depresyon, %4,76’sının orta şiddetli depresyon, % 9,52’sinin hafif şiddetli depresyon ve % 79,93’ününe depresyona maruz kalmadıkları saptanmıştır. Ayrıca cinsiyet değişkenine göre Egzersizin Kesilme Etkilerinde; spor geçmişlerine göre de bireylerin depresyon düzeylerinde istatistiksel olarak anlamlı farklılık olduğu saptanmıştır. Sonuç olarak düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerin Egzersizin Kesilme Etkileri ve zaman alt boyutları ile depresyon düzeyleri arasında pozitif bir ilişki olduğu saptanmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Egzersiz Bagımlılığı, Depresyon, Fiziksel Aktivite Abstract The current study aimed at identifying correlational status between exercise dependence and depression levels among those who performed regular physical activities. The study designed in descriptive model was done with relational screening model. The sample of the study was composed of 221 individuals who performed regular physical activities at least three days a week in Afyonkarahisar Province. The data of the study were collected using a questionnaire consisted of Personal Information Form, Exercise Dependence Scale and Beck Depression Inventory. The data were processed with SPSS. For the data analyses; descriptive statistics, Mann Whitney U-Test, Kruskal Wallis HTest and Spearman Correlation coefficients were employed. According to the findings obtained from the the analysis; , it was found that % 2,7 of the individuals were exercise dependent; % 34,7 of them were symptomatic (non-dependent) and % 62,6 of them were not dependent (asymptomatic).It was determined that % 5,79 of the individuals 570

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN who performed physical activities regularly have been in living with severe depression, 4.76 % of them have moderately severe depression, , % 9,52 of them mild depression and % 79,93 of them exposure to no depression.Besides; it was found that there was statistically significant difference in effects of withdrawal in terms of sex variable and in depression levels in terms of sports history of individuals. In sum; it was seen that those who performed physical activities regularly there was a positive correlation between effects of withdrawal and time vs. depression levels Keywords: Exercise Dependence, Depressıon, physical activity

1. GiriĢ Fiziksel aktivite; iskelet kaslarının kasılmasıyla bazal seviyenin üzerinde enerji harcamayı gerektiren ev işleri, yürüme, spor, dans vb. bedensel hareketlerin bütünü olarak tanımlanır (Özer, 2013; Pitta, 2006). Egzersiz fiziksel uygunluğun bir veya daha fazla bileşeninin korunmasını veya geliştirilmesini amaçlayan planlanmış tekrarlı fiziksel aktivitelerdir (Özer, 2013). Düzenli yapılan egzersizin f i z i k s e l , fizyolojik, metabolik ve psikolojik parametreleri iyileştirdiği bilinmektedir. Düzenli yapılan fiziksel aktivitenin özellikle diyabet, tansiyon, obezite gibi birçok kronik hastalıktan ve bazı kanser türlerinden korunma, kas kuvvetini, dayanıklılık ve esnekliğini geliştirmede önemli etkileri vardır (ACSM, 2009; Heyward, 2006; Ehrman ve ark., 2005; ACMS, 2007; Yıldırım ve ark., 2015). Ancak düzenli Fiziksel aktivitenin pek çok yararlarının yanında aşırı derece yapılan fiziksel aktivitenin birçok olumsuz sonuçları da beraberinde getirebileceği, zamanın çoğunu fiziksel aktivite yaparak geçirmeye çalışan, bazı engellere rağmen kontrol edilemeyecek oranda fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerde egzersiz bağımlılığı oluşabileceği belirtilmektedir (Hausenblas ve Downs, 2002; Adams ve ark., 2003; Adams, 2009). Egzersiz bağımlılığı bireyin birçok olumsuz durum ve engellere rağmen kendini kontrol edemeyerek aşırı derecede egzersiz yapması olarak tanımlanmaktadır (Hausenblas ve Downs, 2002; Adams ve ark., 2003; Adams, 2009). Bireyin egzersizin süresini, şiddetini ve sıklığının sürekli artırması, egzersiz yapmak için ailesine, eşine, çocuklarına, arkadaşlarına ve sosyal yaşama dahi zaman ayıramaması, bireyin yaşamını egzersiz çerçevesinde algılaması ve düzenlemesi egzersiz bağımlılığının önemli belirtileridir (Adams ve Kirkby, 2002; Zmijewski ve Howar, 2000; Hausenblas ve Downs, 2002). Egzersiz bağımlılığının tolerans, çekilme etkisi ve kompulsif davranış olmak üzere üç ana bileşeni vardır. Egzersiz sürecinde fizyolojik semptomlarla (tolerans, kaçınma) veya psikolojik semptomlarla (depresyon, gerginlik) kendini göstermektedir (Polat ve Şimşek, 2015; Adams ve Kirkby, 1997; Adams ve ark., 2003; Vardar ve ark., 2012). Yapılan çalışmalarda egzersiz bağımlılığı pozitif bağımlılık ve negatif bağımlık olmak üzere iki farklı formda değerlendirilmektedir. Bireyin yaşantısı içerisinde karşılaştığı bir takım zorluk ve engellerle başa çıkmak için aşırı derecede egzersiz yapması pozitif bağımlılık; aşırı egzersiz yapan bireyin egzersiz yapmadığında stres, anksiyete, depresyon, sinir hali ve uyku problemleri yaşamasını ise negatif bağımlılık olarak değerlendirilmektedir (Vardar ve ark., 2012; Hausenblas ve Downs, 2002; Glasser, 1976). Bireyin yaşantısını egzersiz çerçevesinde planlaması ve egzersizi yaşamının vazgeçilmez önemli bir parçası olarak görmesi, egzersizle erişilmesi güç olan bir mükemmelliği hedefleyip, her geçen gün egzersiz süre, şiddet ve sıklığını artırması egzersiz bağımlılığı belirtileridir (De Coverly ve Veale, 1987; Kagan ve Squires, 1985; Polat ve Şimşek, 2015). Egzersizin duygu durum hormonlarını etkilediğini, 571

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN özellikle endorfin üretimini artırıp, bireyin kendini daha mutlu ve daha iyi hissetme halini artırdığı düşünüldüğünde, artan egzersizle birlikte her gecen gün organizmada yeninden bir talep oluşacaktır (De Coverly ve Veale, 1987., Kagan ve Squires, 1985). Bu durumdaki aşırı egzersiz yapan bireyin egzersiz yapmadığında stres, anksiyete ve depresyon ile karşı karşıya kalabileceği düşünülmektedir. Bu durum egzersiz bağımlılığının depresyon düzeyini etkileyeceğini düşündürmüş ve bağımlık arttıkça depresyon düzeyinin de artacağı çalışmamızın hipotezini oluşturmuştur. Literatürde egzersiz bağımlığı ile ilgi yapılmış çalışmalar olmakla birlikte (Hausenblas ve Downs, 2002; Adams ve ark., 2003; Zmijewski ve Howar, 2000; Adams, 2009) Türk popülasyonunda egzersiz bağımlılığı çalışmalarının son derece kısıtlı olduğu görülmüştür (Yeltepe ve İkizler, 2007; Vardar ve ark., 2012, Vardar, 2012). Ayrıca Türk popolüsayonunda düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerde egzersiz bağımlılığı ve egzersiz bağımlılığında depresyon ilişkisinin araştırıldığı çalışmalara rastlanmamıştır. Bu nedenle Türk popolasyonunda egzersiz bağımlığı ve egzersiz bağımlılığı depresyon düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkisinin incelendiği çalışmaların alana katkı yapabileceği düşünülmüştür. Bu bağlamda yapılan bu araştırmanın amacı; haftada enaz 3 gün ve üzeri spor yapan genç yetişkin bireylerin egzersiz bağımlılıkları ve depresyon düzeylerini tespit edip, egzersiz bağımlılıkları ile depresyon düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkisel durumu tespit etmektir.

2. Materyal Metod Çalışama; Betimsel bir araştırma modeli olup, ilişkisel tarama yöntemi ile yapılmıştır. Çalışmanın örneklem grubunu Afyonkarahisar ilinde haftada en az 3 gün düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan 221 birey oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada veriler kişisel bilgi formu, Egzersiz Bağımlılığı ölçeği ve Beck depresyon envanterinden oluşan anket yöntemi ile elde edilmiştir. Beck Depresyon Envanteri (BDE);Yetişkinlerde depresyon riskini, depresif belirtilerinin düzey ve şiddetini ölçmek için Beck tarafından 1961’de geliştirilmiştir. Türkçe geçerlik(r=74) ve güvenirlik(α=80) çalışması Hisli (1989) tarafından yapılmıştır. Bu araştırma için ölçek iç tutarlık testi (Cronbach’s Alpha) 0.94 olarak hesaplandı. Ölçek 21 maddeden oluşan tek boyutlu 4’lü likert tipi bir ölçektir. Her bir madde depresyonun ciddiyetine göre 0-3 arası puanlanmıştır. Envanterin patolojik kesme puanı 17 olup, toplam puan 0-63 arası değişmektedir. Ölçek puan aralıkları 0-9 arasında ise depresyon olmadığı, 10-16 puan hafif, 17-24 puan orta, 25 ve üzeri puan şiddetli düzeyde depresif belirtiyi göstermektedir (Hisli, 1989). Egzersiz Bağımlılığı Ölçeği (EBÖ): Egzersiz bağımlılığını belirlemek amacıyla Daniel Symons Downs tarafından geliştirilmiş, 21 sorudan oluşan Likert tipi (asla-1, daima-6) kendini değerlendirme ölçeğidir. Ölçek, tek bir egzersiz türüne bağlı kalmadan, egzersiz bağımlılığını tespit etmeyi amaçlar. EBÖ-21 Türkçe geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması Yeltepe ve İkizler (2007) tarafından yapılmıştır. Bu çalışma için ölçek iç tutarlık testi Cronbach Alpha 0.88 olarak hesaplanmıştır. EBÖ-21ölçeği DSM-IV (Ruhsal Bozuklukların Tanısal ve İstatistiksel El Kitabı-IV) madde bağımlılıkları kriterleri temel alınarak hazırlanmış ve yedi alt boyuttan oluşur (Köroğlu, 2000). Bu alt boyutlar: Tolerans: Egzersiz miktarının istenilen etkiye ulaşmak artırılması ya da aynı miktarda egzersiz yapmaya devam etme sonucunda etkilerin azalması Yoksunluk (Geri Çekilme): Egzersiz yapmama sonucunda ortaya çıkan yoksunluk semptomlarından 572

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN sakınmak ve rahatlama sağlamak için aynı miktarda egzersiz yapılması Niyet Etkisi: Egzersizin sıklıkla düşünülenden daha fazla miktarda ve daha uzun sürede yapılması Kontrol Kaybı: Şiddetli egzersiz yapma isteği ya da egzersizi kontrol etme ve bırakma isteğinde başarısız olma Zaman: Egzersiz yapmak için çok fazla zaman harcamak. Diğer Aktiviteleri Azaltma: egzersiz yapabilmek için aile, iş, sosyal ve diğer rekreatif faaliyetleri azaltmak ya da terk etmek. Devamlılık: Fiziksel veya fizyolojik problemlerden egzersize devam etme

(sakatlık vb.) haberdar olunmasına rağmen

EBÖ-21 ölçeğinde yukarıdaki 7 bağımlılık kriteri temel alınmış olup, bu kritelerden 3 ya da daha fazlasını gösteren bireyler egzersiz bağımlısı olarak sınıflandırılmıştır. EBÖ-21’in en az 3 ve daha fazlasından 5-6 aralığında puan alan bireyler egzersiz bağımlısı, 3-4 aralığında skor kaydedenler egzersiz bağımlılığı belirtisi gösterenler (semptomatik), 1-2 aralığında skor kaydedenler ise egzersiz bağımlısı olmayanlar (asemptomatikler) olarak sınıflandırılmışlardır (Köroğlu, 2000; Hausenblas ve Downs, 2002., Vardar ve ark. 2005., Polat ve Şimşek, 2015., Yeltepe ve İkizler 2007). Ġstatistiksel Analizler: Elde Edilen verilerin SPSS paket programında analizleri yapılmıştır. Verilerin Dağılımı Kolmogorov-Smirnov testi ile incelenmiştir. Test sonucunda verilerin normal dağılım göstermediği saptanmış olup, parametrik olmayan testler ile verilerin analizi yapılmıştır. Analizlerde Tanımlayıcı istatistikler, Mann Whitney U-Testi, Kruskal Wallis H- Testi ve Spearman korelasyon katsayısı kullanılmıştır.

3. Bulgular Tablo 1. Örneklem Grubuna ait Tanımlayıcı İstatistikler Cinsiyet

Ortalama±Standart Sapma

N: Erkek 119; Kadın 102 YaĢ (Yıl)

Boy (Cm)

Vücut Ağırlığı (kg)

BKI (kg/m)

Erkek

25,50±3,86

Kadın

25,01±4,14

Erkek

178,23±6,36

Kadın

167,79±5,703

Erkek

78,84±9,46

Kadın

62,08±8,05

Erkek

24,80±2,60

Kadın

22,05±2,66

Örneklem grubu 19-28 yaş aralığında olup 102 kadın, 119 erkek toplam 221 bireyden oluşmaktadır

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Tablo 2. Egzersiz Bağımlılığına Ait Tanımlayıcı İstatistikler Egzersiz Bağımlılığı Boyutları

Cinsiyet

Ortalama±Standart Sapma

N: Erkek 119; Kadın 102 Egzersizin Kesilme Etkileri

Devamlılık

Tolerans

Kontrol Kaybı

Diğer Aktiviteleri Azaltma

Zaman

Niyet Etkisi

Egzersiz Bağımlılığı Toplam Puan

Erkek

2,42±0,81

Kadın

2,64±0,73

Erkek

2,39±0,82

Kadın

2,42±0,80

Erkek

2,77±0,85

Kadın

2,69±0,78

Erkek

2,41±0,85

Kadın

2,56±0,82

Erkek

2,35±0,70

Kadın

2,40±0,69

Erkek

2,59±0,72

Kadın

2,67±0,68

Erkek

2,64±0,75

Kadın

2,67±0,76

Erkek

2,51±0,59

Kadın

2,58±0,57

Tablo 3. Egzersiz Bağımlılığı Yüzde Oranları Egzersiz Bağımlılığı

% n

Bağımlı Olmayan (Asemptomatik)

132

59,73

Bağımlı Olmayan (Semptomatik)

82

37,10

Bağımlı

7

3,17

Düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerin %3,7’sinin egzersiz bağımlısı, %37,10’nun ise egzersiz bağımlılığı belirtilerinin (Semptomatik) olduğu belirlendi. Tablo 4. Depresyon Düzeylerine Yönelik Tanımlayıcı İstatistikler Cinsiyet

Ortalama±Standart Sapma

N:Erkek 119; Kadın: 102 Depresyon

Erkek

5,14±8,50

Kadın

5,18±9,38

Düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerin depresyon ortalamalarının düşük olduğu belirlendi (Tablo 4).

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Tablo 5. Düzenli Fiziksel Aktivite Yapan Bireylerin Depresyon Düzeyleri Depreyon Düzeyleri

% n

Ortalama ±Standart Sapma

Depresyon Yok (0-9)

183

82,81

1,85±2,76

Hafif şiddet Depresyon (10-16)

18

8,14

12,61±1,85

Orta Şiddetli Depresyon (17-24

9

4,07

19,44±2,60

Şiddetli Depresyon (25≥)

11

4,98

36,45±5,50

Düzenli FA yapan bireylerin %82,81’inin depresyona maruz kalmadıkları; %8,14’ünün hafif şiddetli depresyon, %4,07’sinin orta şiddetli depresyon, %4,98’inin ise şiddetli depresyona maruz kaldıkları belirlendi (Tablo 5). Tablo 6. Egzersiz Bağımlılığı İle Depresyon İlişkisi Egzersizin Kesilme

Devamlılık

Tolerans

Kontrol Kaybı

,029

,167*

,125

Etkileri Depresyon

,220**

Diğer Aktiviteleri Azaltma

Zaman

Niyet Etkisi

EB Toplam

,180**

,286**

,171*

,213**

**p<0,01; *p<0,05 düzeyinde anlamlıdır

Düzenli Fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerin Egzersiz bağımlılığı ile depresyon düzeyleri arasında pozitif bir ilişki olduğu belirlendi (Tablo 6). 4. TartıĢma ve Sonuç Yapılan bu çalışmada haftada 3 gün ve daha fazla düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerin egzersiz bağımlılıkları ve depresyon düzeyleri tespit edilip, egzersiz bağımlılıkları ile depresyon düzeyleri arasındaki ilişki incelenmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda Düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerin %3,7’sinde egzersiz bağımlılığı, %37,10’nunda ise egzersiz bağımlılığı belirtileri (Semptomatik) olduğu belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca Düzenli FA yapan bireylerin %82,81’inin depresyona maruz kalmadıkları görülürken; %8,14’ünün hafif şiddetli depresyona, %4,07’sinin orta şiddetli depresyona, %4,98’inin ise şiddetli depresyona maruz kaldıkları tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca egzersiz bağımlılığı ile depresyon düzeyleri arasında pozitif ilişki olduğu saptanmıştır Yapılan çalışmalarda düzenli yapılan fiziksel aktivitenin fiziksel ve fizyolojik faydalarının yanında, ruh sağlığı üzerine de olumlu etkilerinin olduğu ve depresyonu düşürdüğü bildirilmektedir (Vardar ve ark., 2012; Adams ve ark., 2003). Ancak aşırı derecede fiziksel aktivite yapmanın zararlarının da olabileceği; bireyin bazı engellere ve birçok olumsuz durumlara rağmen kendini kontrol edemeyip aşırı derecede fiziksel aktivite yapmasının egzersiz bağımlılığına neden olabileceği belirtilmektedir (Hausenblas ve Downs, 2002; Adams ve ark., 2003; Adams, 2009). Nitekim yapılan bu çalışma 575

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN sonucuna göre de düzenli FA yapan bireylerin %3,7’sinde egzersiz bağımlılığı, %37,10’nunda ise egzersiz bağımlılığı belirtileri (Semptomatik) görülmüştür. Bu sonuç alan yazındaki çalışma sonuçları ile benzerlik göstermektedir (Hausenblas ve Downs, 2002; Adams ve ark., 2003; Adams, 2009., Vardar ve ark. 2012). Yapılan çalışmalarda aşırı derece egzersiz yapan bireylerde egzersiz bağımlılığına bağlı olarak, egzersize ara verdiğinde veya egzersiz yapmadığında yeme bozuklukları ile birlikte kaygı, depresyon ve stres gibi sorunların ortaya çıkabileceği belirtilmektedir (Yeltepe ve İkizler, 2007; Hausenblas ve Downs, 2002). Yapılan bu araştırmada da düzenli FA yapan bireylerin %8,14’ünün hafif şiddetli depresyon, %4,07’sinin orta şiddetli depresyon, %4,98’inin ise şiddetli depresyona maruz kaldıkları tespit edilmiştir. Düzenli fiziksel aktivitenin ruh sağlığı üzerine olumlu etkilerinin olduğu ve stres, kaygı ve depresyonu düşürdüğü bilinmesine rağmen (Vardar ve ark., 2012; Adams ve ark., 2003., Yıldırım, 2015; Ströhle, 2009), bu çalışmada bireylerin %17,19’unda hafif, orta ve şiddetli depresyon görülmüştür. Bu durum bireylerin düzenli fiziksel aktivitenin de ötesinde her türlü olumsuz durum ve engellere rağmen, sosyal, kültürel ve sağlık gibi nedenlerden dolayı aşırı derecede egzersiz yapmalarının sonucu olarak ortaya çıkan egzersiz bağımlılığından kaynaklandığını düşündürmektedir. Nitekim bu araştırmanın bir diğer sonucuna göre de egzersiz bağımlılığı arttıkça depresyon düzeylerinin de arttığı tespit edilmiştir. Yapılan çalışmalar incelendiğinde düzenli fiziksel aktivitenin süre, şiddet ve sıklığı arttıkça egzersiz bağımlılığına neden olabileceği bu durumun da her geçen gün organizmada yeni bir talep oluşturacağını, artan talep karşında bireyde depresyon ve anksiyete görülebileceği belirtilmektedir (De Coverly ve Veale, 1987; Kagan ve Squires, 1985; Polat ve Şimşek, 2015). Sonuç olarak haftada en az 3 gün ve üzeri düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerin %3,7’sinde egzersiz bağımlılığı, %37,10’nunda ise egzersiz bağımlılığı belirtileri (Semptomatik) görülürken; %8,14’ünün hafif şiddetli depresyona, %4,07’sinin orta şiddetli depresyona, %4,98’inin ise şiddetli depresyona maruz kaldıkları tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca egzersiz bağımlılığı ile depresyon düzeyleri arasında pozitif ilişki olduğu saptanmıştır. Açık ve kapalı alanlarda sağlıklı yaşam için düzenli fiziksel aktivite yapan bireylerin fiziksel aktivite süresi, şiddeti ve sıklığını kontrol altında tutmaları ve aşırı egzersizden kaçınmaları hususunda bilinçlendirilmeleri gerekmektedir. Ayrıca egzersiz bağımlılığının fizyolojik etkilerine yönelik biyokimyasal çalışmalar yapılmasının önemli olduğunu düşünmekteyiz.

KAYNAKLAR Adams, J. M., Miller, T. W., & Kraus, R. F. (2003). Exercise dependence: diagnostic and therapeutic issues for patients in psychotherapy. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 33(2), 93-107. Adams, J., & Kirkby, R. (1997). Exercise dependence: A problem for sports physiotherapists. Aust Journal Physiother, 43, 53-58. Adams, J., & Kirkby, R.J.(2002). Excessive Exercise as an Addiction: A Review. Addiction Research and Theory,10, 415-437. Adams, J.M. (2009). Understanding exercise dependence. Journal Contemp Psychother, 39, 231-240. American College of Sports Medicine (2007). ACSM’s Health-Related Physical Fitness Assessment Manual, 2nd ed., USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. American College of Sports Medicine (2009). ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription, 6th

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ed., USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Amerikan Psikiyatri Birliği (2000) Psikiyatride Hastalıkların Tanımlanması ve Sınıflandırılması El kitabı, Yeniden Gözden Geçirilmiş Dördüncü Baskı (DSM-IV-TR), (Çev. Ed.: E Köroğlu) Hekimler Yayın Birliği, Ankara, 2001. Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An Inventory for Measuring Depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4(6), 561-571. De Coverly, D.M.V., & Veale, D. (1987). Exercise Dependence. British Journal of Addiction, 82:735-740. Ehrman, J.K., Gordon, P.M., Visich, P.S., & Keteyian S. J. (2005). Clinical Exercise Physiology. 2nd ed., USA: Human Kinetics. Glasser, W. (1976). Positive Addiction. New York: Harper and Row Publisher. Hausenblas, H.A., & Downs, D. S. (2002). Exercise dependence: A systematic review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 3(2), 89-123. Heyward, V.H. (2006). Advanced Fitness Assessment and Exercise Prescription. 5th ed., USA: Human Kinetics. Hisli, N. (1989). Beck Depresyon Envanterinin üniversite öğrencileri için geçerliği, güvenirliği. Psikoloji dergisi, 7(23), 3-13. Kagan, D.M., & Squires, R.L. (1985). Addictive Aspects of Physical Exercise. Journal of Sports Medicine, 25,227-237 Özer, K. (2013). Fiziksel Uygunluk. Nobel Yayın evi, 5.baskı, 5-20. Pitta, F., Troosters, T., Probst, V. S., Spruit, M. A., Decramer, M., & Gosselink, R. (2006). Quantifying physical activity in daily life with questionnaires and motion sensors in COPD. European respiratory journal, 27(5), 1040-1055. Polat, C,, Şimşek, K.Y., (2015). Spor merkezlerindeki Bireylerin Egzersiz Bağımlılığı Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi:Eskişehir İli Örneği. Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 3(15), 354-369. Ströhle ,A. (2009). “Physical activity, exercise, depression and anxiety disorders. J Neural Transm, 116, 777-784. Vardar, E. (2012). Egzersiz Bağımlılığı. Arşiv Kaynak Tarama Dergisi, 21(3), 163-173. Vardar, E., Vardar, S.A.,Toksöz İ., & Süt. N. (2012). Egzersiz Bağımlılığı ve Psikopatolojik Özelliklerinin Değerlendirilmesi, Düşünen Adam Psikiyatri ve Nörolojik Bilimler Dergisi, 25, 51-57. Vardar, S. A., Öztürk, L., Vardar, E., & Kurt, C. (2005). Ergen sporcu kızlarda egzersiz yoğunluğu ve öznel uyku kalitesi ilişkisi. Anadolu Psikiyatri Dergisi, 6,154-162. Yeltepe, H., & İkizler, C. (2007). Egzersiz bağımlılığı ölçeği-21’in Türkçe geçerlilik ve güvenilirlik çalışması. Bağımlılık Dergisi, 8(1), 29-35. Yıldırım, İ., Özşevik, K., Özer, S., Canyurt, E., & Tortop, Y. (2015). Üniversite Öğrencilerinde Fiziksel Aktivite ile Depresyon İlişkisi. Niğde Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, Cilt 9, Özel Sayı, 32-29. Zmijewski, C.F., Howar, M.O. (2000). Exercise Dependence and Attitudes Towar Eating Among Young Adults. Eating Behaviors, 4, 181-195

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EKOTURĠZM MERKEZĠ; DÜNYANIN ORTASI AKġEHĠR Yrd.Doç.Dr.Kadir ÖZTAġ Selçuk Üniversitesi Yunak Meslek Yüksekokulu [email protected] Abstract Tourism and cultural resources in their projections for the future, new social trends, tourist motives affecting the supply of properties with global standards and norms should be taken into account. These new trends, besides providing maximum satisfaction to tourists, südürülebilirlig the quality of tourist resources and are obliged to ensure the development for the future. The most important factor is undoubtedly the emergence of tourism activities for the country "environment" is. Because the tourism assets of natural, sustainable environment in the presence of historical and archaeological value. More precisely, it is inextricably linked to each other tourism and the environment. The continued existence of tourism and environmental protection in-use stability is required. In this context, various international meetings have been advised to take measures in this regard. The first comprehensive conference on this subject held in 1992 in Brazil-Rio de Janeiro "Earth Summit" is. At this summit the international community; social, the economic and environmental factors in relation to each other and influence each other that, to be sustainable in the long term the results need to be met in a balanced manner with each of these needs is adopted. The international community, which is a global sustainable action plan Agenda 21 adopted at the summit results. As a continuation of this initial; In 2002, "Sustainable Development Summit" of the collection and the 2002 "World Year of Ecotourism" is decided to be accepted. In this context, a significant share of the international tourism in Turkey, the world countries and regions should adapt some of these developments. Turkey should remove the inventory of the resources that you have in terms of ecotourism, conservation and use them in balance should be presented to the taste of international tourism. The aim of this study is internal to the west Anatolia, historically important lakes in the region is the Akşehir with the cultural and natural beauty examine the eco-tourism potential and work to ensure the introduction of national and international markets. Keywords: Akşehir, Ekoturizm, Nasreddin Hoca

GiriĢ Turizm ve kültürel kaynakların geleceğe yönelik projeksiyonlarında, yeni toplumsal eğilimler, küresel standartlar ve normlar ile arz özelliklerini etkileyen turist güdüleri dikkate alınmalıdır. Bu yeni eğilimler, turistlere azami memnuniyeti sağlamak yanında, turistik kaynakların kalitesinin südürülebilirliğini ve geleceğe dönük olarak geliĢtirilmesini güvence altına almak zorundadırlar. Bir ülkeye yönelik turizm hareketlerinin doğmasında en önemli etken hiç Ģüphesiz “çevre”dir. Çünkü, turizm varlığını doğal, tarihi ve arkeolojik değerlerin bulunmasıyla çevre içinde sürdürebilir. Daha açık bir ifadeyle, turizm ve çevre birbirinden ayrılmaz bir iliĢki içindedir. Koruma-kullanma dengesi içinde turizm ve çevrenin varlığını sürdürmesi gereklidir. Bu çerçevede çeĢitli uluslar arası toplantılarla bu konuda önlemler alınması tavsiye edilmiĢtir. Bu konudaki ilk kapsamlı toplantı 1992 yılında Brezilya-Rio De Janeiro’da toplanan “Dünya Zirvesi”dir. Bu zirvede uluslararası topluluk; sosyal, ekonomik ve çevresel faktörlerin birbirleriyle iliĢki içinde olduğunu ve birbirlerini etkilediğini, uzun vadede sürdürülebilir sonuçların alınması için bu ihtiyaçların birbirleriyle dengeli bir Ģekilde karĢılanması gerektiğini kabul etmiĢlerdir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Uluslararası topluluk zirve sonucunda küresel bir sürdürülebilir eylem planı olan Gündem 21’i kabul etmiĢtir. Bu baĢlangıcın devamı olarak; 2002 yılında “Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Zirvesi” nin toplanmasına ve 2002 yılının “Dünya Ekoturizm Yılı” olarak kabulüne karar verilmiĢtir. Bu çerçevede, uluslararası turizmden önemli bir pay alan Türkiye’de, dünyadaki bu geliĢmelere ülke ve yöreler bazında ayak uydurmalıdır. Türkiye ekoturizm açısından sahip olduğu kaynakların envanterini çıkarmalı, bunları koruma-kullanma dengesi içinde uluslararası turizmin beğenisine sunmalıdır. Bu çalıĢmanın amacıda, Ġç Anadolu’nun batısında, göller yöresinde önemli tarihi, kültürel ve doğal güzelliklere sahip olan AkĢehir’in eko turizm potansiyelini incelemek ve ulusal ve uluslararası piyasalara tanıtılmasını sağlamaya çalıĢmaktır. 2. Ekoturizm Kavramı: Günümüzde kitle turizmden bireysel ve alternatif turizm arayıĢlarına artan oranda bir eğilim izlenmektedir. Sosyal bir süreç olan turizm yeni dünya düzenine ve yeni teknolojilere bağlı olarak öne çıkan bireysellikten de etkilenmektedir. Yeni olarak geliĢen ve tanımlanmasında tam bir birlik sağlanamayan kavram ise “altenatif turizm”dir. Bu tür kitle turizmine tepki ve altenatif olarak geliĢmektedir. Bu sebeple; kitle turizmi “hard-sert” olarak nitelendirilirken, alternatif turizm “softyumuĢak” olarak tanımlanır. Öte yandan bu kavramın “yeĢil-kırsal” ya da son yıllardaki geliĢmeye baĢlayan tabiriyle “ekoturizm” olarak adlandırıldığı görülmektedir(Tekeli, 2001, s.6). Ekoturizm konusunda çok sayıda tanımlama görülmekle birlikte, tam bir fikir birliğine varılmamıĢtır. 2002 yılının “Dünya Ekoturizm Yılı” ilan edilmesinin temelinde de bu konuda bir uzlaĢmaya varmak yatmaktadır. “Doğa Ġçin Dünya Fonu (WWF)” ekoturizmi; vahĢi doğa çevresinde doğal çevreye en az etkide bulunan ve bu arada yerel topluluklara ekonomik fayda sağlayan turizm türü olarak tanımlamaktadır. Turizm pazarında, doğaya dayalı turizm olarak tarif edilen ekoturizm, sürdürülebilir kalkınma aracı olarak görülmektedir. Uluslararası Ekoturizm Topluluğu da TIES (The International Ecotourism Society) ekoturizmi Ģöyle tarif etmektedir; “Ekoturizm çevreyi koruyan ve yerel halkın refahını gözeten, doğal alanlara karĢı duyarlı seyahattir” Ekoturizm genellikle küçük gruplar halinde yapılır. Konaklama ve yeme içme türü hizmetler çoğunlukla yerel düzeydeki küçük ve orta ölçekli firmalar tarafından verilir. Sürdürülebilir turizmin alt bileĢenlerinden birisi olan ekoturizmin bileĢenleri ise aĢağıdaki gibi tanımlanmaktadır. Biyolojik çeĢitliliğin korunmasına katkıda bulunulması, Yerel halkın refahının gözetilmesi, Turistlerin ve yerel halkın bilinçlendirilmesinin sağlanması, Küçük ölçekli kuruluĢ/firmalar tarafından küçük turist gruplarına hizmet verilmesi, Turistlerin ve yerel halkın turizm endüstrisi hakkında sorumlu hareket etmesinin sağlanması, Geri dönüĢü olmayan kaynakların en düĢük düzeyde tüketilmesi, Turizm yönetimine yerel düzeyde katılımın önemsenmesi, iĢ fırsatlarının ve mülkiyetin yerel halk lehinde geliĢmesinin gözetilmesi(Türsab, 2002, Sa.219, s.5), Ekoturizm Uygulama Prensipleri Turizmin doğal ve geleneksel çevreye verdiği tahribatın en alt düzeye indirilmesi, Turistlere ve yerel halka doğanın ve geleneksel sosyo-kültürel çevrenin korunmasına yönelik eğitim verilmesi,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Turizmin yerel halkın ihtiyaçlarını karĢılayan, yerel yönetim ve halkla iĢbirliği içinde geliĢen sorumlu bir ticaret olarak özendirilmesinin sağlanması, Koruma kapsamındaki (doğal ve geleneksel sosyo-kültürel alanların) alanların yönetimi için kaynak ayrılması, Turizm negatif etkisini en alt düzeye indirilmesi amacıyla sosyo-kültürel ve doğal çevreye yönelik uzun vadeli takip ve değerlendirme programlarının desteklenmesi, Turizmin yerel halkın geçimine katkıda bulunmasını sağlayacak Ģekilde geliĢtirilmesinin temini, Turizmin geliĢiminin yörenin sosyal ve çevresel kapasitesini attıracak Ģekilde geliĢmesinin temini, Çevreyle uyumlu, doğal ve geleneksel sosyo-kültürel yaĢamla içi içe geçen, yöresel bitki örtüsünü ve yaban hayatını koruyan turizm alt yapı yatırımlarının gerçekleĢtirilmesi, DTÖ’ye göre ekoturizmin geliĢtirilmesindeki temel objektifler Ģunlardır: Turizm endüstrisinin negatif etkilerini en aza indirgemek, Hem çevresel tahribatı önlemek, hem de yerel halkın ekonomik kazancını arttırmak, Bireyler veya küçük gruplar halinde doğal çevreyi ve yerel halkın yaĢantısını deneyimlemek amacıyla el değmemiĢ doğal alanlara seyahat etmek, Ekoturizm hareketinin olumlu çevresel ve sosyal etkisi olsa da iyi organize edilmediği taktirde kitle turizmi kadar çevresel tahribata sebebiyet verebilmektedir. Bunun nedeni ekoturizm destinasyonlarının hassas ekosistemler olması ve bu bölgelerde yapılacak herhangi bir turizm hareketinin doğal kaynakların (biyolojik çeĢitliliğin, fauna habitatlarının) yok edilmesi, hatta çevresel kirliğin yaratılmasına sebebiyet verebilmesidir. Bazı ekoturizm uygulamalarının ekosistemlere minimum negatif etki yarattığı, yerel halka alternatif geçim fırsatları sağladığı gözlenmiĢtir. Ekoturizm ekolojik olarak hassas alanların korunması bu alanlara yakın yerlerde yaĢayan halkın sosyal-ekonomik açıdan geliĢmesini sağlamaktadır. Dünya Turizm Örgütü 2010 yılında ekoturizmin önemli bir pazar olacağını belirtmektedir. Ekoturizmin ekonomik olarak önemli olması turizm endüstrisi, kamu kurumları, yerel halk ve turistlerin arasında kurdukları iletiĢime bağlıdır(Türsab, 2002, Sa.223, s. 19-20). 2.1. Dünyada Ekoturizm: Dünya Turizm Örgütü (WTO), 27 Eylül 2002’de Kosta Rika’da düzenlenen resmi tören ve etkinliklerle kutlanacak olan geleneksel "Dünya Turizm Günü" için "Ekoturizm: Sürdürülebilir Kalkınmanın Anahtarı" temasını seçmiĢtir.. Bu seçim aynı zamanda B.M. Genel Kurulu’nun 2002 yılını "Uluslararası Ekoturizm Yılı" ilan eden bildirgesini desteklemek amacıyla yapılmıĢtır. Sürdürülebilir kalkınma ve ekoturizm, son yıllarda uluslararası çevrelerin gündeminde baĢ sıralardan eksik olmuyor. Son 50 yılda dünyada pek çok alanda kaydedilen baĢ döndürücü ilerlemelere, son derece baĢarılı geliĢmelere karĢın; kaynakların plansız ve tahripkar biçimde kullanımı eko sistemin birçok yerde, kendi kendini yenileme özelliğini yitirmesi çevrede ve yaĢamın çeĢitli alanlarında güçlenen olumsuz etkiler ve giderek artan dengesizlikler, ciddi kaygılara neden oldu. Bütün bu geliĢmeler "sürdürülebilir kalkınma" kavramını, uluslararası topluluğun gündeminde baĢ sıralara getirdi. Ekoturizm ise, temelinde sürdürülebilir kalkınma kavramı ve ilkeleri bulunan en önemli turizm türlerinden birisidir. Öte yandan ekoturizm, Dünya Turizm Örgütü'nün "Tourism 2020 Visions" isimli araĢtırmasında da belirtildiği üzere en hızlı geliĢme gösterecek turizm türleri arasında yer almaktadır(Türsab, 2002, Sa.223, s. 3). WTO’nun uzun dönemli tahminlerine göre ekoturizm hem turist sayısında hem de toplamdaki payı itibarı ile yüksek bir hızla yükselmeye devam edecek. WTO’nun 1997 yılında yaptığı bir araĢtırma ekoturizmin bir formu olarak kabul edilen doğa seyahatlerinin bütün uluslararası turizm harcamaları

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN içinde yüzde 7 civarında bir ağırlığa sahip olduğunu gösteriyordu. Dünya Kaynakları Enstitüsü’ne göre 1990’lı yıllarda turizmin genel büyüme hızı yıllık ortalama yüzde 4 iken, bu hız doğa seyahatleri segmentinde yüzde 10 ile 30 arasında idi. WTO, ekoturizmde yapılan seyahat harcamalarının dünya ortalamalarının 5 katı kadar fazla hızla artığını belirtiyor. Bu artıĢ hızı ise yıllık yüzde 20. Doğa temelli turizme yönelen talebi etkileyen bir unsur da, dünya çapında giderek artan çevre bilincidir. Doğa belgeselleri ve yayınları bir çok destinasyonu eskisinden çok daha fazla tanınır kılmıĢtır. Turizmle iliĢkili aktivitelerin ekonomik değerini ölçmek zor. Ekoturizme çok çeĢitli tipte ve büyüklükte iktisadi giriĢim katılmaktadır. Bu iĢletmelerin bir kısmı diğer turizm aktivitelerine de katılıyorlar. Doğa temelli turizm özellikle de endüstriyel ya da finansal üretimlerin daha zayıf olduğu geliĢmekte olan ülke ekonomileri için yaĢamsal bir rol üstleniyor. Kanada’nın Quebec kentinde düzenlenen Ekoturizm Zirvesi, 132 ülkenin kamu ve özel sektör kuruluĢlarının katılımıyla gerçekleĢti. Zirvede yayınlanan sonuç bildirgesi, bu turizm çeĢidini doğru ve etkin bir Ģekilde yaygınlaĢtırmayı hedeflenmiĢtir BirleĢmiĢ Milletler ve Dünya Turizm Örgütü’nün 2002 yılını Dünya Ekoturizm Yılı ilan etmesiyle 2001’den bu yana sürdürülen konferanslar, Kanada’nın Quebec kentinde Mayıs ayı içinde yapılan zirve ile doruk noktasına ulaĢtı. Zirve sonucunda yayınlanan bildirge, bundan böyle ekoturizmi, sürdürülebilir kalkınmanın bir aracı olarak görmek isteyen tüm ülkeler için rehber niteliğinde olmayı hedefliyor. AĢağıda bir bölümü verilen "Ekoturizm Sonuç Bildirgesi" özellikle eĢsiz doğal ve kültürel kaynakları ile ideal bir ekoturizm destinasyonu olmaya aday Türkiye’nin, önümüzdeki yıllarda payına düĢen görevlerin ne olduğunu da sanırım açıklamaktadır(Türsab, 2002, Sa.223, s. 19-20). Quebec Ekoturizm Deklarasyonu Quebec Zirvesi, 2001 ve 2002 yılları boyunca yapılan 18 hazırlık konferansının en üst noktasını oluĢturuyor. 2001 yılından baĢlayarak 2002’nin Mayıs ayında gerçekleĢen zirveye kadar devam eden bu toplantılara, turizm ve çevre alanındaki ulusal ve yerel kamu kuruluĢları, ekoturizm alanında faaliyet gösteren özel sektör Ģirketleri, bu Ģirketlerin dernek ve birlikleri, akademik çevreler, uluslararası örgütler, yerel halkların temsilcilerinden oluĢan 3 binin üzerinde temsilci katıldı. Bu zirvede katılımcılar, bu yıl Ağustos ve Eylül ayları içinde Güney Afrika’nın Johannesburg kentinde yapılan ve bu alanda önümüzdeki 10 yılın uluslararası politikalarının oluĢturulduğu "Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma" için Dünya Zirvesi'inde (WSSD), ülkelerdeki fakirliğin azalması ve tehlike altındaki ekosistemlerin korunmasında önde gelen bir endüstri olarak turizmin, öncelik alması gerektiğini deklare ettiler. Bundan hareketle konuĢmacılar, BM ile onun yan örgütlerinden ve bu zirvede temsil edilecek olan üye hükümetlerden aĢağıdaki deklarasyonun ve Dünya Ekoturizm Zirvesi’nin diğer sonuçları ile WSSD duyurusunun ve dağıtımının yapılmasını da talep ettiler. Zirve, ekoturizmin sürdürülebilir turizmin ekonomik, sosyal ve çevresel etkileri ile ilgili prensiplerinin tümünü kapsadığını iĢaret ediyor. Bununla beraber, zirvede belirtilen özel prensipler de ekoturizmi çok daha geniĢ bir kavram olan sürdürülebilir turizmin içinde özel bir yere yerleĢtiriyor. Toplantılarda ele alınan ekoturizm baĢlıklarını Ģu Ģekilde sıralamak mümkün: Ekoturizm ilkeleri Zirve aynı zamanda Ekoturizmin, turizm sektörünün genel anlamda sürdürülebilirliğine, yerel halkların ekonomik ve sosyal seviyesinin yükseltilmesi, doğal kaynakların ve yerel halkların kültürel bütünlüklerinin korunması ve tüm seyahatçilerin doğal ve kültürel mirasın korunmasına yönelik bilincinin artırılmasının gerekliliğine dikkat çekti. Yapılan toplantılar, kültürel zenginliğin ve bioçeĢitliliğin olduğu bölgelerin korunması ve yönetimine iliĢkin finansman kaynaklarının, dünya çapında açıkça görülen yetersizliğini bir kez daha vurguladı. Dünya Ekoturizm Zirvesi’nde ele alınan diğer baĢlıklar ise, "Ekoturizmin uygun biçimde planlanıp programlanmadığı, doğru biçimde yönetilmediği ve geliĢtirilmediği zaman doğanın zarar görmesi, yaban hayatının ve bioçeĢitliliğin tehdit altına girmesi, deniz ve kıyı kirlenmesi, su kalitesinin düĢmesi, bölge topluluklarının ve yerel halkların göçü ve kültürel geleneklerin erozyonuna yol açması" oldu.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Yukarıdaki ilkelerin ıĢığında, Dünya Ekoturizm Zirvesi katılımcıları 19-22 Mayıs 2002 tarihleri arasında bir araya gelerek, hükümetlere, özel sektöre, sivil toplum örgütlerine, akademiler ve araĢtırma kuruluĢlarına, devletlerarası örgütlere, uluslararası finans kuruluĢları, kalkınma ajansları ile yerli ve bölgesel halklara aĢağıdaki önerileri sundular. Ulusal, bölgesel ve yerel hükümetlere • Ulusal, bölgesel ve yerel düzeylerde ekoturizm politikaları ve geliĢtirme stratejileri oluĢturmak ve bunu yaparken de ekoturizm aktivitelerinden etkilenen ya da etkilenmesi beklenen tüm tarafları kapsayan geniĢ çaplı bir danıĢma süreci belirlemek. • Doğanın, yerel ve bölgesel halklara ait kültürlerin ve geleneklerin, genetik kaynakların, toprak ve mülkiyet haklarının, temiz kullanma ve içme suyu hakkının korunmasını bölgesel ve yerel halklar, özel sektör, sivil toplum örgütleri ve ekoturizmin tüm taraflarının katılımı ile garantilemek. • Uygun katılımı sağlamak ve ekoturizm sürecinin tüm safhalarında ilgili kamu kuruluĢları arasındaki gerekli koordinasyonu ulusal çapta, il bazında ve yerel seviyede sağlamak. Tüm denetleme ve takip sonuçlarını halka duyurmak. • Uluslararası ulaĢım da dahil olmak üzere, turizm ürününün tüm belirleyenleri, içinde çevresel maliyetlerin yansıtılmasını getiren düzenlemeleri belirlemek. • Uygun politikalar, yönetim planları ve ziyaretçiler için tercüme programları belirlemek. Tüm sosyal ve çevresel etkilerinin takibi için gerekli finansman kaynaklarını, doğrudan ve dolaylı yönetim stratejilerini ve düzenlemeleri yapmak. • Bölgeye gelen turistlerin eğitimini sağlamak ve destinasyonlarda outgoing ve incoming tur operatörleri, diğer hizmet sunucuları, sivil toplum örgütleri arasında güçlü bir iĢbirliği ortamı oluĢturmak. • Sürdürülebilir ulaĢtırma prensiplerini, destinasyona eriĢim ve ulaĢım sistemlerinde uygulayarak tur operatörlerini ve seyahatçileri, çevreye karĢı duyarlı mobilite seçeneklerini tercih etme konusunda teĢvik etmek. Özel sektöre • Ekoturizm faaliyetlerinizi tasarlayıp geliĢtirirken, planlama ve iĢletme safhalarında su ve enerji tüketimi, destinasyona eriĢim Ģekilleri, bölgedeki halklar arasında ayrım gözetilmemesi gibi sürdürülebilirlik ilkeleri ile uyum içinde olmak. • Doğal alanların korunması ve bioçeĢitliliğin sürdürülmesinde sorumlu kamu kuruluĢları ve sivil toplum örgütleri ile iĢbirliği yapmak. • Ekoturizm ürününün otantik özelliklerini güçlendirmek ve bu turizm faaliyetinin ekonomik yararlarının daha fazla bölgeye aktarılmasını sağlamak için, ekoturizm operasyonlarında insan kaynakları, lojistik ürünler ve hizmetlerin de aralarında bulunduğu yerel ve bölgesel kaynakların kullanımını artırmak. • Ekoturizmin faydalarını bölgesel bazda dağıtabilmek doğrultusunda destinasyon bazında geniĢ bir ürün çeĢitliliği yaratmak. Sivil toplum örgütleri, yerel halka ait dernekler, akademik çevreler ve araĢtırma kuruluĢlarına • Ekoturizm destinasyonlarına, ev sahibi sivil toplum örgütlerine, küçük iĢletmelere ve ilgili yerel otoritelere, politikalarını oluĢturabilmeleri, geliĢmeleri, yönetimsel yol haritalarının ve takip mekanizmalarının oluĢturulması için teknik, finansal, eğitimsel konularda, kapasitenin artırılmasında ve diğer alanlarda destek sağlamak. • Ekoturizm aktivitelerinin ekoloji, bioçeĢitlilik, yerli kültürleri ve sosyo-ekonomik yapı üzerindeki gerçek etkilerini araĢtırıp takip etmek. • Kamu ve özel sektör örgütlerini, ekoturizm geliĢtirme ve yönetimindeki karar alma süreçlerinde araĢtırmalara dayanan bilgi ve verilerle desteklemek. • AraĢtırma kuruluĢları ile ekoturizmi geliĢtirme konularında en uygun ve pratik çözümler üretme konusunda iĢbirliği yapmak.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Uluslararası örgütler, uluslararası finansal kurumlar ve kalkınma ajanslarına • Ulusal ve yerel örgütlerin, uluslararası yol haritaları temelinde ekoturizm politika ve planları geliĢtirmeleri için yeterli donanımı oluĢturmak. • Ekoturizmdeki tüm sektörler ve ülkeler arasında tecrübelerin paylaĢımını sağlayabilmek için küresel, bölgesel ve ulusal düzeylerde politikalar, yol haritaları ve projelerin oluĢumunda çok taraflı diyalog süreçleri belirlemek. • Ekoturizmin temelinde yer alan mikro, küçük ve orta ölçekli ekoturizm firmalarının ihtiyaçları doğrultusunda, zorunlu finansal araçları, borçlanma Ģartlarını ve süreçlerini adapte etmek. • Eğitim ve kapasite artırma faaliyetleri için finansal mekanizmalar oluĢturun. Bu mekanizmalar zaman ve kaynak açısından ekoturizm geliĢimine yerli halkların baĢarılı bir Ģekilde katılımını sağlayacak biçimde düzenlenmelidir. Yerel ve bölgesel halklara • Ġnsani, fiziki, finansal ve sosyal geliĢimi içeren kolektif faydaların elde edilmesinde ekoturizmi de kapsayabilecek bir strateji belirleyip uygulamaya koymak. • Toplumun geleneksel yetenek ve özelliklerini, özellikle de yerel kaynakların sürdürülebilir bir tarzda kullanıldığı hane temelli el sanatlarını, tarımsal üretimi, geleneksel mimariyi teĢvik edip güçlendirmek. Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Ġçin Dünya Zirvesi’ne (WSSD) • Sürdürülebilir kalkınmanın ilkelerini turizme uygulayın ve ekoturizmin ekonomik, sosyal ve çevresel fayda üretmedeki, örnek rolünü kabul ederek yola çıkmak. •Turizmin rolünü, ekoturizmi de dahil ederek WSSD’de üretilecek belgeler ve deklarasyonlara entegre etmek(Türsab, 2002, Sa.223, s. 120-23). 2.2. Türkiye’de Ekoturizm Artık dünya turizmi, sanayileĢmeden henüz payını almamıĢ, doğa ve kültür değerleri üzerinde yoğunlaĢmaya baĢladı. Ekoturizm, yeni bir trend olarak hızla büyürken Türkiye’nin bu konuda kendini yenilemesi ve çeĢitlendirmeyi artırması gerekmektedir “Katma Değer”, “Sürdürülebilir GeliĢim”, “Plan”, “Yönetim”, “Program”, “Ġnteraktivite”... Günümüzde birer sihirli kelime gibi her alanda karıĢılaĢtığımız bu terimler, 2002 yılının "Dünya Ekoturizm Yılı" ilan edilmesiyle yine gündeme geldi. Kendisi de bir tüketim endüstrisi olduğu halde çevre ile en barıĢık endüstrilerden biri olan ve doğal çevre ile kültürel mirasın korunması ve geliĢtirilmesi açısından iyi bir araç olabilecek turizm endüstrisi, bu yıl ekoturizmi tartıĢmaktadır. Tek bir tanım üzerinde henüz bir uzlaĢmaya varılamamıĢ ekoturizm, bu sene tüm dünyada BirleĢmiĢ Milletler Çevre Programı’nın, Dünya Turizm Örgütü’nün organizatörlüğünde masaya yatırılacak. Dünya Bankası’na göre ekoturizm kültür ve macera turizmi ile birlikte paralı, kalıĢ süresi daha uzun olan ve kaldığı yerde daha çok para harcadığı halde oraya en az çevresel ve kültürel etkilerde bulunmayı isteyen turistlerden oluĢan üç pazardan birisidir. Ekoturizmle ilgili göstergeler sağlıklı bir ölçüm için yeterli değil ve elde edilmesi zor göstergelerdir. Zaten endüstrilerin bir sektörünün ölçülebilmesi için herĢeyden önce doğru bir Ģekilde bilimsel olarak tanımlanması gerekir. Ekoturizm genellikle doğa turizmi ile eĢ tutuluyor. Bu pazarın gerçek büyüklüklerinin doğru görülebilmesinin önünde genellikle bir engeldir. Ekoturizmin ekonomik yararını “doğrudan” ve “dolaylı” yararları Ģeklinde ikiye ayırabiliyoruz. Doğrudan etkiler turistin oradaki faaliyetleri için doğrudan ödediği paradır. Ancak, örneğin bir restoran aldığı bu parayı ürünlerinin hammaddesini kendisine sağlayan, ya da ürünleri hazırladığı araç gereci üreten diğer sektörlere vermektedir. Bu da dolaylı etki olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Ekoturizm için dolaylı ekonomik faydanın yine o bölgede kalıyor olması çok önemlidir. Eğer restoran turiste sunacağı ürün için ürünü

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN bölge dıĢından alıyorsa burada “leakage” yani “ekonominin dıĢarıya sızması” yaĢanmaktadır. DıĢarıya sızdırma oranı büyüdükçe ekoturizmin bölgede yarattığı doğrudan ekonominin bölgedeki koruma ve sürdürülebilirlik etkinlikleri için oluĢturulacak fonlara gitme olasılığı azalır. Dolayısıyla doğal kaynakların olduğu bölgelerde uygulanabilecek bazı projelerin dıĢa sızdırma oranı ister istemez daha fazla, bazılarının ise daha az olduğu söylenebilir. Ekoturizm her ne kadar çevre dostu hedeflere sahip olsa da, doğru yönetilmediğinde olumsuz etkileri olabilir. Zaten en hassas, nadir ve çoğu zaman savunmasız çevresel ve kültürel değerlerin var olduğu yerlerde yapılabilecek ekoturizmin olumsuz çevresel etkiler konusunda büyük bir tehdit de oluĢturabileceğini söylemek mümkündür. Ekoturizmin olası etkileri arasında; aĢırı kalabalığın yarattığı tehdit, erozyon, ormanların tahribi, artan ulaĢım olanaklarının ve inĢa faaliyetlerinin yarattığı tahribat, nadir kaynaklar için artan rekabet ortamı, tüm bu etkileri absorbe etme yeteneğinin çok az olduğu ekoturizm merkezlerinde yıkıcı etkilere yol açacaktır. Bununla beraber ekoturizm, çok olumlu çevresel ve sosyal etkilere de yol açabilir. Zaten bu nedenle ekoturizmin üzerine bu kadar çok düĢülmektedir. Türkiye’de ekoturizmden söz etmeden hemen önce yukarıda aktarılanlardan çıkarılması gereken bir temel sonucu ortaya koymakta yarar var: Ekoturizmin doğal ve kültürel kaynakları ile ilgi çeken bir yörede oluĢturulacak ve sonu mutlaka katma değer ve sürdürülebilirlikle bitecek sistemli ve mümkün olduğu kadar lokal bir çevrim süreci olarak görülmesi gerekiyor. Dünyada da henüz yeni yeni geliĢtirilen ve tanımı üzerinde bile tam bir uzlaĢmaya varılamadığı en yetkili otoritelerce kabul edilen ekoturizm bir konsept olarak Türkiye’de kolayca tahmin edilebilir ki henüz tanınmıyor. Bununla beraber Ģans eseri de olsa bu çevrime uyan ya da yaklaĢan sistemler Türkiye’nin de çeĢitli yörelerinde en azından belli karakteristik özellikleri üzerinde kurulmuĢ bulunuyor. Örneğin; ünlü Efes Harabeleri’nin yakınlarında bulunan ġirince Köyü, içinde ve çevresinde yapılan turizm faaliyetleri ile ekoturizme yakın bir çevrime sahip gibi görünüyor. ġirince’de yapılan turizm faaliyetlerinden köy halkının yararlanıyor olması, köy halkının el sanatları ürünlerini, el yapımı zeytinyağı, sabun gibi ürünleri turistlere sunabilmesi, turizm faaliyetlerinden elde edilen gelirlerin köydeki evlerin restorasyonunda kullanılması gibi unsurlar ekoturizmin temel unsurlarındandır. Ancak, Türkiye’nin buna benzer tüm yörelerinde görülebileceği gibi burada da eksik olan sürdürülebilir ekoturizm doğrultusunda geliĢtirilecek olan yönetim ve planlamadır(Türsab,2002,Sa.219,s.7). . Ekoturizm sürdürülebilir olmak için böyle bir sistemsel çevrimi bilinç düzeyinde kurmak zorundadır. Örneğin, ġirince Köyü’ne gelen turist sayısı, bu turistlerin bu köyde yaptığı tüketimin ve kültürel dönüĢtürmenin boyutları, yapılan rutin araĢtırmalarla ölçülmüyor ve bu ölçümlerin sonucu sürdürülebilir ekoturizm boyutunda değerlendirilip belli sınırlar içinde tutulmanın yolları aranmıyorsa sürdürülebilir ekoturizmin önemli bir unsurunun eksik olduğunu söylenebilir. Yine ġirince Köyü’nde yer alan tarihsel değerler arasında bulunan Eski Kilise’nin bunca yıldır onarılamamıĢ olması, köyün ağır bir göç hareketi ile karĢıkarĢıya kalması turizmden elde edilen fonların köyde yeterli düzeyde kalmadığını ve yerel halka dönük ekoturizm eğitim faaliyetlerinin yetersiz olduğunu göstermektedir. Son yıllarda Karadeniz Bölgesi’nde ön plana çıkan yayla turizmine de yukarıdaki önermeleri uyguladığımızda örneğin Uzungöl’deki çarpık yapılaĢmanın o bölgedeki ekoturizmin iyi yönetilmediğini ya da zaten bir ekoturizm yönetim olgusunun bu bölgede kurulmadığının bir göstergesidir diyebiliriz. Ya da ekoturizm için son derece uygun olan Fırtına Deresi’nde yapımına baĢlanan hidroelektrik santralinin bu yöreyi bir ekoturizm destinasyonu olmaktan çıkardığını önceden bilmek gerekirdi. Türkiye’nin doğal ve kültürel kaynaklar yönünden ne kadar zengin bir ülke olduğu herkes tarafından biliniyor. Dört mevsimi yaĢayabilen üç tarafı denizlerle çevrili, farklı kültürlerin ve inançların bir arada uzun yıllar ve hala yaĢadığı bu ülke, ekoturizm açısından da oldukça büyük bir potansiyel taĢıyor. Ancak, Türkiye’nin ekoturizmdeki potansiyeli Akdeniz çanağındaki Avrupalı rakiplerine oranla çok somut biçimde daha fazladır. Çünkü; bu ülkeler endüstrileĢmiĢ ve nüfusu büyük oranda

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN kentleĢerek otantik kültürlerini büyük oranda yitirmiĢlerdir. Türkiye’nin henüz geliĢmekte olan bir ülke olması, doğal ve kırsal kültürel değerlerinin ve mirasının büyük bölümünün varlığını canlı biçimde sürdürüyor olması, Türkiye’nin birçok yöresinde sürdürülebilir ekoturizm için büyük bir potansiyelin varlığını göstermektedir(Türsab,2002,Sa.219,s.5).

2.3. Ekoturizmin Genel Ġlkeleri: Ekoturizmde temel gereksinimler •Sürdürülebilir ekoturizm, bu turizm türüne katılan tüm taraflar arasında etkili bir iĢbirliğini ve koordinasyonu oluĢturacak etkili sistemlere ihtiyaç duyar. •Çevre ve toplumsal konularla ilgili kamu kuruluĢları, sivil toplum örgütleri ve diğer oyuncular aralarında ekoturizm aktivitelerini düzenleyecek bir anlaĢma yapar ve sürdürülebilir ekoturizmi yürütecek ve kontrolünü yapacak bir üst örgüt kurarlar. •Ekoturizmin geliĢtirilmesi ve yönetimi için eğitim faaliyetleri bir önkoĢuldur. ġirket yöneticileri ve çalıĢanları, yerel halk, ekoturizmin, sürdürülebilirliğin ve bu alandaki finansal yönetimin genel özelikleri hakkında eğitim görmelidirler. Örneğin, ekoturizm idealde o bölge insanları arasından çıkan kaliteli rehberlere ihtiyaç duyar. Bölgeye giriĢin miktarının belirlenmesi ve eğitim kalitesi ekoturizmin geliĢimi için yaĢamsal önem taĢır. •Ekoturizme katılan uluslararası aktörlerin (ulaĢtırma, tur operatörleri, çevre örgütleri, vb.) arasındaki koordinasyon, turizmde sürdürülebilir mobilitenin uygulanması için bir ön koĢuldur. Destinasyonlar ziyaretçilerin geleceği ülkelerdeki ulaĢtırma ve tur operatörleri ile ortak sürdürülebilir ve mobil paketler oluĢturmak ve bu paketleri pazara ulaĢtırmak için yoğun bir iĢbirliği yapılmalıdır. Bu anlamda Avrupa’daki NETS ve Alps Mobility iĢbirlikleri iyi örnekler arasında yer alıyor. Turizm politikası •Ekoturizm her ulus, bölge ve turizm merkezi için özel bir turizm politikası, stratejisi ve programına ihtiyaç duyar. BaĢka yerlerin turizm politikalarının ve stratejilerinin kopyalanması sürdürülebilir sonuçlar almak için yeterli olmayacaktır. Ekoturizmde destinasyonlar ve turizm planlaması •Ekoturizm doğal kaynakları korumalı ve yerel kültürlerin ve belirlenen alanların sürdürülebilir geliĢimine katkıda bulunmalıdır. •Sürdürülebilir mobilite ekoturizm merkezlerinin ana teması olmalıdır. Bu alandaki çözümler mutlaka bu merkezlerin karakterlerinin gözönüne alındığı özel çözümler olmalıdır. •Turizm planlaması sektörün kendisi ile sınırlı olmamalı, yerli halkı ve diğer sektörleri de içermelidir. Bu planlama, öncelikleri, değerleri ve yerel halkın bilgilerini entegre etmeli, yerli halkın katılımını güçlendirmeli, takip ve kontrol mekanizmalarına imkan tanımalıdır. •Sürdürülebilir ekoturizm, turizm kaynağı çevresindeki ve içindeki sınırları oluĢturabilmek için kriterler ortaya koymalıdır. Bu kriterler ekoturizm merkezini rezerve edilmiĢ alanlara, düĢük ya da orta derecede etkilenen zonlara bölecek Ģekilde düzenlenmelidir. Bu kriterlere kesinlikle tüm taraflarca uyulmalıdır. •Tabelalar, alternatif gezi güzergahları, farklı giriĢ noktaları, enformasyon merkezleri, turistlerin etkili kullanımı için önemlidir. Turistlerin eğitimi ve destinasyon içindeki farklı bölgelerin kullanım düzeylerini belirlemek için bu gereklidir. Böylece en popüler alanların yükü azaltılmıĢ olacaktır. •Çevre eğitim ve anlatım merkezleri kültürel miras ile ilgili konularla da bütünleĢmelidir. Eğitim ve anlatım programları yanında profesyonel rehberlerin ziyaretçiler üzerindeki kontrolü, ziyaretçilerin yaratabileceği olumsuz etkilerin önlenmesi açısından son derece yaĢamsaldır. •Bu alandaki projelerin zamanlaması tüm bu gereklerin tam olarak yerine getirilmesine yetecek uzunlukta olmalıdır. Turizm endüstrisi

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN •Ürünlerinde sürdürülebilir ulaĢım araçlarını, araçlardan arındırılmıĢ bölgeleri, optimum yürüyüĢ ve bisiklet güzergahlarını, seyahat ve bagaj lojistik hizmetlerini, boĢlukların olmadığı ulaĢtırma zincirlerini sunabilmeli, •UlaĢım ve mobilite hakkında bol informasyon sunulabilmeli, •Sürdürülebilir mobilite için bölgedeki karar alıcılar ve halk ile yoğun iletiĢim içinde olunmalı, •UlaĢtırma Ģirketleri, tur operatörleri, turizm örgütleri ve yerel yönetim organları ile stratejik iĢbirlikleri ve ortaklıklar kurmalı, •Yerel örgütler, sivil toplum kuruluĢları, ya da küçük ve orta ölçekli giriĢimlerin oluĢturulabilmesi ya da eğitim ve anlatım merkezlerinin kurulması için subvansiyon zorunluluğu, •Sezon dıĢı periyodların değerlendirilebilmesi için programlar ve tanıtım, •Kırsal turizm ve ekoturizm arzının otantikliğinin garanti altına alınması ve geleneksel kültürler ve dağlık bölgelerdeki değerlere dayanan yeni turizm ürünlerinin üretilmesi gerekmektedir(Türsab,2002,Sa.219,s.5). 3. Alternatif Turizm Merkezi Olarak AkĢehir 3.1. AkĢehir’in Konumu AkĢehir, Ġç Anadolu Bölgesi’nde, Konya Ġline bağlı bir ilçe merkezidir. Sultan Dağları eteklerinde yer alan ve yüzölçümü 105 km2 olan ilçe; kuzeyde Yunak, doğuda Ilgın ve güneyde Doğanhisar ve Isparta, batıda ise, Afyon ile çevrilidir. AkĢehir, verimli toprakları ve bu toprakları değerlendiren gölü ile Ģirin bir ilçedir. Ayrıca, gülmece sanatımızın simgelerinden olan Nasreddin Hocanın yaĢamının geçtiği yerdir (Demiralp, 1996, s.3). ÇeĢitli tarihi kaynaklara göre, ilçenin geçmiĢi Hitit ve Friglere kadar uzanmaktadır. Sard’tan (Sardes) baĢlayarak Ninova’ya kadar uzanan ve tarihte Kral Yolu olarak bilinen ünlü ticaret yolu AkĢehir’den de geçmekteydi. Böylece AkĢehir, bir yerleĢim yeri olma yanında, ticaret ve konaklama yeri olarak da dikkat çekmektedir. AkĢehir’in günümüzde bilinen ilk adı, Lidya’Iılar zamanındaki Tymbrion’dur. M.Ö. IV. yüzyılda Iran Kralı Keyhüsrev burada, ordusu ile kalıp, uzun bir süre dinlenmiĢtir. Lidya Kralı Krezius. Ġran Hükümdarı Darius’a yenilince Lidya ve Frig toprakları Ġran hakimiyeti altına girdi. Böylece Ġran topraklarına katılan AkĢehir, daha sonraki tarihlerde de Roma ve Bizans topraklarına katıldı. Romalılar döneminde Anadolu’da yönetim örgütü kurulunca. Konya çevresi (Ġkonion) içinde yer alan kentlerden biride AkĢehir (Philomelium) oldu. Bizans sınırları içinde iken önce Emevilerin, sonra Abbasilerin Bizans ile olan savaĢları sonunda, AkĢehir’in taraflar arasında devamlı el değiĢtirdiği görülmektedir (Demiralp, 1996, s.3). 1071 yılı Malazgirt SavaĢı sonunda Bizans direniĢi kırılınca, Anadolu kapıları Türklere açılmıĢ ve Selçuklu Sultanı MelikĢah’ın komutanlarından KutalmıĢ oğlu Süleyman’ın 1077 yılında baĢlayıp 1086 yılına kadar sürdürdüğü fetih savaĢları sonunda AkĢehir de bir Selçuklu kenti olmuĢtur. Diğer Ģehirler gibi. buranın adı da değiĢtirmiĢ ve AkĢehir denmiĢtir. Niçin AkĢehir denildiğine dair kesin bir kayıt yoksa da: buraya gelen hükümdarlardan birinin kentin çevresini kaplayan meyva ağaçlarının beyaz çiçeklerini görünce AkĢehir dediği ve öylece kaldığı rivayet edilir. Mahalli Ģiveye göre; AkĢar, AlıĢar, AhĢehir denildiği gibi; bir aralık ġehr-i Beyza, Belde-i Beyza diye de anılmıĢtır. Ġ.H. Konyalı’nın belirttiğine göre, kentin adı, Evliya Çelebiye göre AkĢar’dı. Rumlar ise Sine Hisar diyorlardı. Tymbrion’dan sonra bilinen Philomelium adı; “Elma, bal kenti” anlamına gelmekteydi (Demirci, 1998, s.17-IÇ). 1402 yılında yapılan Ankara SavaĢı’nda Timur’a yenilen Yıldırım Beyazıt’ın, Timur tarafından AkĢehir’deki Ferruh ġah Mescidinin alt katına kapatıldığı ve burada bir yıl zindan hayatı yaĢayan Yıldırım Beyazıt’ın, sonunda zehir içerek intihar ettiği rivayet edilir. 1467 yılında Fatih Sultan Mehmet tarafından Karamanoğulları’ndan yeniden fethedilen kent, Osmanlıların elinde, Konya’ya

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN bağlı bir sancak, bazen de bir ilçe olarak yönetilmiĢ; Osmanlı Ģehzadelerine ve vezirlerine tımar olarak verilmiĢtir (Konyalı. 1945. s.31 1-312). Sevr AntlaĢması’na göre. Ġtalyan nüfus bölgesinde kalan AkĢehir’in Ġtalyanlar tarafından iĢgal edildiği görülmektedir. AkĢehir, KurtuluĢ SavaĢında önemli bir yere sahiptir. Garp Cephesi Komutanlığı’nın burada olması dolayısıyla Atatürk, Ġsmet Ġnönü ve çalıĢma arkadaĢları sık sık AkĢehir’e uğramıĢlardır. Atatürk. yapılan hazırlıkları yerinde kontrol etmek ve cephe karargahı ile savaĢ durumunu görüĢmek üzere değiĢik zamanlarda AkĢehir’e gelmiĢtir. 26 Ağustos l922’de baĢlayan ve 30 ağustos 1922’de zaferle sonuçlanan Büyük Taarruz’un planları AkĢehir’de hazırlanmıĢtır. KurtuluĢ SavaĢında Garp Cephesi Karargahı olarak kullanılan bina bugün Atatürk Müzesi olarak iĢlev görmektedir (Demiralp, 1996, s.4). 3.2. AkĢehir’in Turistik Potansiyeli AkĢehir. doğal, tarihi ve folklorik değerler açısından zengin kaynaklara sahiptir. Bu zengin çeĢitliliğin turizme yansıması ve yörenin turizmden aldığı payın artırılması gerekmektedir. DeğiĢen turist profilinin, çevreye duyarlı ve kültürel özelikli yörelere ilgisi giderek artmaktadır. Dünya Turizm Örgütünün(WTO) 2000 yılı sonrası tahminleri de bu yöndedir(www.world-tourism.org.) AkĢehir yöresi: baĢta Nasreddin Hoca Türbesi olmak üzere, Seyyid Mahmut Hayrani, Seyyid Yunus. Turabi, Nimetullah Nahcivani, Hacı Ġbrahim Sultan(ġeyh Hasan) Türbeleri vb. eserlere sahiptir. Söz konusu bu türbelerden özellikle Nasreddin Hoca, Seyid Mahmut Hayrani ve Hacı Ġbrahim Sultan Türbelerinin binaları, sanduka ve çinileri ile tarihi ve arkeoljik açıdan büyük önem arz eden eĢsiz Türk-Ġslam sanatı örneklerindendir(Dinçer, 1995, s.103.) AkĢehir’de Selçuklu dönemine ait Ulu Camii, Altunkalem Mescidi,Güdük Minare Mescidi. Küçük Ayasofya Mescidi, TaĢ Medrese Mescidi. Kızılca Mescidi, Kileci Camii, Hacı Hamza Mescidi. Kalaycı Mescidi, Tahtakale Mescidi vb.; Osmanlı dönemine ait en önemli eser ise Hasan PaĢa Ġmaret Camii, eĢsiz mimari özellikler gösteren önemli eserlerdir. AkĢehir’deki diğer önemli bir eserde, günümüzde Arkeoloji Müzesi olarak kullanılan Selçuklu dönemi mimari eserlerinden, Sahip Ata Fahrettin Ali tarafından yaptırılan ve çeĢitli kaynaklarda belirli bir dönemde DarüĢĢifa olarak da kullanıldığı söylenen TaĢ Medrese külliyesidir (Konyalı, 1945, s.280285). Yörede, 1959 yılından beri her yıl aralıksız kutlanan ve 1974 yılından itibaren de uluslararası nitelik kazanan; 2000 yılında 33. Ulusal, 27. Uluslararası Nasreddin Hoca ġenlikleri ve 20. “Nasreddin Hoca Karikatür YarıĢması” ilçe turizmini hareketlendiren önemli faaliyetlerdendir (ġenoğlu, 1998, s.37-38). AkĢehir, sahip olduğu zengin tarihi, kültürel ve sosyal potansiyele rağmen turistik tesis kapasitesi bakımından yetersiz kalmaktadır. Yörede 11 belediye belgeli tesis de 526 yatak kapasitesi vardır, Yörede bir “A” grubu bir de “AG” geçici olmak üzere iki seyahat acentası vardır. Yörede gerek iĢletme belgeli gerekse yatırım belgeli turistik konaklama tesisi bulunmamaktadır. Yöre Ġzmir-Konya, Ankara-Antalya. Konya-Ġstanbul yol güzergahları üzerinde önemli bir kavĢak noktası olduğundan ilçe yakınlarında iki adet turistik belgeli mola noktası tesisi ve bir adet de turistik iĢletme belgeli eğlence tesisi bulunmaktadır (Ġl Turizm Müdürlüğü Verilen. 1998). 3.2.1. Gençlik Turizmi Seyahatine programsız olarak çıkan, serbest ve bağımsız olarak dolaĢan ve ziyaret ettiği toplum ile iliĢkilere giren, 15-24 yaĢ grubunu içine alan “gençlik turizmi”, yörede önemli bir potansiyele sahiptir (Toros, 1992, s.56).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Yörede gençlik turizmi açısından en önemli potansiyel, THK’nun sahip olduğu, “AkĢehir Planör ve ParaĢüt Eğitimi Merkezidir”. Ülkemizde THK’na ait; Ankara-Etimesgut, EskiĢehir-Ġnönü, Ġzmir-Efes, Antalya-Merkez ve Konya-AkĢehir olmak üzere 5 adet eğitim tesisi bulunmaktadır (http://www.thk.org.tr.) Genellikle yaz aylarında düzenlenen kurslara ülkemizin değiĢik Ģehirlerinden bazen de dünyanın değiĢik ülkelerinden gençler katılmakta ve kurs süresince THK ait olan yurt binasında konaklamakta ve yöreyi de gezme fırsatı elde etmektedirler. Öte yandan yörede bulunan Sultan dağları yamaç paraĢütü(para-gliding) için oldukça elveriĢli bir konumdadır. Bu amaçla gerek THK gerekse çeĢitli üniversitelerimizin dağcılık klübleri zaman zaman yöreyi ziyaret ederek, dağların bu elveriĢli konumundan yararlanmaktadır. Bu potansiyelin gerek ülkede gerekse uluslar arası boyutta tanıtılarak değerlendirilmesi büyük önem taĢımaktadır. 3.2.2. Dağ Turizmi Dağların temiz ve güzel havasından yararlanmak üzere, insanların dağlara yönelik olarak, yürüyüĢ ve tırmanma Ģeklinde gerçekleĢtirdikleri turizm türü olan “Dağ turizmi” AkĢehir yöresinde de bir alternatif turizm türüdür (Kozak vdğlr, 1996, s.14). Batı Toroslar dağ silsilesinin devamı olan Sultan dağları eteklerinde kurulu olan AkĢehir, dağ turizmi açısından da zengin bir potansiyele sahiptir. Yörenin en yüksek noktası 2610 metre yüksekliğindeki Gelincikana Tepesidir (Cenikoğlu, 1998, s.22). Dağlar gerek tırmanıĢ gerekse treeking açısından oldukça elveriĢli bir yapıya sahiptir. Yılın belirli dönemlerinde AkĢehir’den Isparta-Yalvaç’da bulunan Psidia antik kentine yerel sivil toplum örgütleri tarafından doğa yürüyüĢü düzenlenmektedir. 3.2.3. Av Turizmi Avlanmak üzere seyahat eden insanlara yönelik hizmetler sunan rekreasyon amaçlı bir turizm türü olması yanında. insanlara hem tabiatın en derin köklerinde yatan içgüdülerinden birini tatmin, hem de tabiatın temiz havasından yararlanma olanağı veren av turizmi. (Olalı ve Timur, 1988, s.85) AkĢehir yöresi açısından da değerlendirilebilecek bir potansiyele sahiptir. 3.2.4. Ġnanç Turizmi Kutsal beldeleri ziyaret etmek, dini toplantı ve törenlere katılmak veya bunları izlemek, dini görevleri yerine getirmek veya ünlü mabetleri görmek amacı ile yapılan çok önemli boyutlara ulaĢan seyahat ve konaklamaların oluĢturduğu turizm çeĢididir (Ġçöz, 1996, s.9) Yöre Ġslam dini açısından önemli eserlere sahiptir. Bu yöndeki en önemli ziyaret yeri Nasreddin Hoca Türbesidir. Özellikle Konya Hz. Mevlana Müzesini ziyarete gidenlerin yol güzergahı üzerinde uğradıkları önemli bir merkezdir. Ayrıca, Seyyid Mahmut Hayrani ve Nimetullah, Nahcivani türbeleri ve Ulu Cami, Ġplikçi Cami, Hasan PaĢa Ġmaret Cami önemli ziyaret yerleridir. Ayrıca ilçede 18.yy.’dan kalma ve bugün Nasreddin Hoca ve Turizm Derneği kullanımında bulunan, bir ermeni kilisesi bulunmaktadır. Tarihi ve arkeolojik açıdan fazla bir önem taĢımayan bu yapı kentin tarihi geçmiĢi hakkında bilgi vermesi açısından önem taĢımaktadır (Demirci, 1998, s.19-20). 3.2.5. Olta Balıkçılığı SanayileĢme ile birlikte insanlarda doğaya olan özlemin artması, bu özleme yanıt verebilecek alternatif rekreasyon faaliyetlerinin çeĢitlendirilmesini zorunlu kılmıĢtır. Bu faaliyetlerde içerisinde önemli bir yer tuttuğu düĢünülen turizm amaçlı sportif olta balıkçılığının, yörede önemli bir potansiyeli olduğu düĢünülmektedir. Gerek göller yöresinde tüm göller açısından gerekse AkĢehir yöresinde AkĢehir ve Eber gölü ile yöredeki dere ve çaylarda var olan alabalık ve sazan türü balıklardan turizm amaçlı yararlanma potansiyelinden, faydalanmak mümkümdür. 3.2.6. Kültür Turizmi

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Eski sanat eserlerinin, tarihi yapıların, müzelerin, eski medeniyete ait kalıntıların görülmesi amacı ile yapılan araĢtırma, keĢif ve seyahatler, kiĢilerin bilgi ve görgülerini artırmakta ve kültür turizmi içinde değerlendirilmektedir (Toskay, 1989, s.156) AkĢehir kültür turizmi açısından zengin ve eĢsiz potansiyele sahiptir. AkĢehir’de I9.yy.’ın sonuna kadar 21 medrese (fakülte) olduğu bir çok kaynak da geçmektedir (Konyalı, 1945, s.2 75). Yörenin sahip olduğu eserlere ayrıntılı olarak değinmekte fayda vardır: Nasreddin Hoca Türbesi: Nasreddin Hoca Mahallesinde, 80 dönümlük bir mezarlık içinde bulunmaktadır. Mezar taĢında Hocanın ölüm tarihi olarak 1284 bulunmaktadır. Fakat türbenin Selçuklular zamanındaki durumu hakkında bilgi bulunmamaktadır. Ancak eski sütunlar üzerinde Yıldırım Beyazıd’ın komutanlarından Mehmed’in 1393 yılında türbeyi ziyaret ettiğine dair bilgiler bulunmaktadır (Samur. 1996.8.115) Türbenin mimari açıdan çok fazla bir değeri olmamasına rağmen, 1-locanın nüktedanlığı temsil etmesi açısından önemlidir. Türbe aslı itibariyle ahĢap yapılmıĢsa da 1905 yılında yapılan tamirle mermer sütunlar ve mermer sanduka yapılmıĢtır. Seyyid Mahmut Hayrani Türbesi: Yöredeki en önemli mimari eserlerdendir. Bina tipik Selçuklu türbelerinin karakteristik özelliklerini sergilemektedir. Fakat taĢ bina içindeki ahĢap kapı(AkĢehir TaĢ Medrese Arkeoloji Müzesi), ve türbede mef’tun olan üç kiĢi için yaptırılmıĢ olan ve Selçuklu dönemi ahĢap iĢçiliğinin doruğa çıktığı sandukalar (Süleymaniye Türk Ġslam Eserleri Müzesinde) paha biçilemez değerdedir(Samur, 1996, s.96-97) Hacı İbrahim Sultan Türbesi: AkĢehir’in 3 km. kuzeyindedir. Etrafı duvarlarla çevrilmiĢ bir avlu içerisindedir. DıĢ duvarları düzgün mermer bloklarla kaplıdır ve yine mermerden iĢlenmiĢ olan pencere levhası dikkati çekmektedir. Türbenin sandukası sonradan konulmuĢ sıradan bir sandukadır. Orjinalinin Hicaz demir yolu yapılırken çalındığı ve Ġsviçre’de olduğu çeĢitli kaynaklarda geçmekte ve bu konuda resmi makamlar gerekli giriĢimlerini sürdürmektedirler (Demirci, 1998, s.20) Taş Medrese Külliyesi: Ġlçedeki tek medrese Selçuklu döneminde yapılmıĢ “Sahip Ata Fahreddin Ali Külliyesi”dir. Medrese, türbe. mescid, imaret, hamam, hanigah (sosyal tesis, genellikle konaklama için), çeĢme ve kütüphane olmak üzere tam teĢekkülü bir külliyedir. TaĢ Medresede bugün; hanigah, imaret, çeĢme, hamam ve kütüphane ayakta değildir. Fakat buna rağmen Selçuklu dönemi en önemli mimari eserlerinden ve varolan bölümleri ile de eĢsiz bir yapıdır. Günümüzde onarım nedeniyle ziyarete kapalı olan ve arkeoloji müzesi olarak kullanılan medresede; Neolitik dönemden günümüze kadar çeĢitli arkeolojik eserler müzede koruma altına alınmıĢtır. Özellikle Bizans, Roma, Selçuklu ve Osmanlı dönemine ait eĢsiz örnekler dikkati çekmektedir (Konyalı, 1945, s.280-290) Akşehir Evleri: Toplumların en önemli kültürel varlıklarını oluĢturan alanlardan olan mimarlık ve kentsel miraslarımız, göç hareketleri, ĢehirleĢme ve rant ekonomisinin baskılarıyla savunmasız kalmakta. kimliklerini yitirmektedirler. Kentlerin kendine özgü kimliği, tarihi süreç içinde toplumsal olgular, kültürel ürünler, doğal çevre olanaklarının değerlendirilmesi, insanlar arasındaki iletiĢim olgusu içinde: bina, sokak ve meydanların özel bir yerde düzenlenmesiyle ortaya çıkar. Sit alanı olarak tanımlanan bu oluĢum AkĢehir’de çok özgün bir nitelik göstermektedir (BektaĢ, 1992. s.5-15) Sıra evlerden oluĢan sokakların dokusunu, bazen yan yana, bazen sırt sırta, bazen birer atlayarak oluĢturulmuĢ bahçe ve avlular belirler. Bu avlular, doğayı kentin yaĢamıyla birleĢtirir. Evlerin yarı özel nitelikteki sahanlıklı giriĢleri, özgün kapı çözümleri, cumbaları, sokakların ve Ģehrin kimliğine özellik ve çeĢitlilik katmaktadır (Karaman, 1998, s. 26-27). 3.3. Ekoturizm Merkezi Olarak AkĢehir Türkiye’nin doğal ve kültürel kaynaklar yönünden ne kadar zengin bir ülke olduğu herkes tarafından biliniyor. Dört mevsimi yaĢayabilen üç tarafı denizlerle çevrili, farklı kültürlerin ve inançların bir arada uzun yıllar ve hala yaĢadığı bu ülke, ekoturizm açısından da oldukça büyük bir potansiyel taĢıyor. Ancak, Türkiye’nin ekoturizmdeki potansiyeli Akdeniz çanağındaki Avrupalı rakiplerine

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN oranla çok somut biçimde daha fazladır. Çünkü; bu ülkeler endüstrileĢmiĢ ve nüfusu büyük oranda kentleĢerek otantik kültürlerini büyük oranda yitirmiĢlerdir. Türkiye’nin henüz geliĢmekte olan bir ülke olması, doğal ve kırsal kültürel değerlerinin ve mirasının büyük bölümünün varlığını canlı biçimde sürdürüyor olması, Türkiye’nin birçok yöresinde sürdürülebilir ekoturizm için büyük bir potansiyelin varlığını göstermektedir. Bu potansiyelin ön plana çıktığı merkezlerden biride AkĢehir olarak görülmektedir. AkĢehir ekoturizm potansiyeli açısından Ģu baĢlık açısından ilgi çekebilecek potansiyele sahiptir: Organik tarım Ġpek halıcılık Keklik yetiĢtirme çiftliği Doğa yürüyüĢleri ve dağ turizmi Mağara turizmi AkĢehir evleri Olta balıkçılığı Yamaç paraĢütü Sıra yarenleri Köy düğünleri Yörük Ģöleni Nasreddin hoca Ģenlikleri Bisiklet turları At-eĢek-deve turları Doğanhisar göletleri Bisse ve Sultansuyu çamlıkları kamp alanları

Sonuç: Dünya Turizm Örgütü (WTO), 27 Eylül 2002’de Kosta Rika’da düzenlenen resmi tören ve etkinliklerle kutlanacak olan geleneksel "Dünya Turizm Günü" için "Ekoturizm: Sürdürülebilir Kalkınmanın Anahtarı" temasını seçmiĢtir.. Bu seçim aynı zamanda B.M. Genel Kurulu’nun 2002 yılını "Uluslararası Ekoturizm Yılı" ilan eden bildirgesini desteklemek amacıyla yapılmıĢtır. Sürdürülebilir kalkınma ve ekoturizm, son yıllarda uluslararası çevrelerin gündeminde baĢ sıralardan eksik olmuyor. Son 50 yılda dünyada pek çok alanda kaydedilen baĢ döndürücü ilerlemelere, son derece baĢarılı geliĢmelere karĢın; kaynakların plansız ve tahripkar biçimde kullanımı eko sistemin birçok yerde, kendi kendini yenileme özelliğini yitirmesi çevrede ve yaĢamın çeĢitli alanlarında

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN güçlenen olumsuz etkiler ve giderek artan dengesizlikler, ciddi kaygılara neden oldu. Bütün bu geliĢmeler "sürdürülebilir kalkınma" kavramını, uluslararası topluluğun gündeminde baĢ sıralara getirdi. Ekoturizm ise, temelinde sürdürülebilir kalkınma kavramı ve ilkeleri bulunan en önemli turizm türlerinden birisidir. Öte yandan ekoturizm, Dünya Turizm Örgütü'nün "Tourism 2020 Visions" isimli araĢtırmasında da belirtildiği üzere en hızlı geliĢme gösterecek turizm türleri arasında yer almaktadır. Türkiye yeni geliĢmekte olan ekoturizm açısından son derece geniĢ potansiyele sahiptir. Türkiye sahip olduğu doğal çevre ortamının kıymetini bilmeli ve “koruma-kullanma” dengesi içinde uluslar arası turizmin hizmetine sunma baĢarısını göstermelidir. Bu çerçevede yöreler sahip olduğu doğal, kültürel ve folklorik değerleri ekoturizm açısından ulusal ve uluslararası turizm piyasasına sunabilmelidir. Ülkemizin her bölgesi. yöresi ili, ilçesi ve hatta köyü belirlenen hedeflere ulaĢmada, sahip oldukları potansiyeli en iyi Ģekilde değerlendirmek için gerekli çalıĢmaları yapmaları gereklidir. AkĢehir yöresi de bu görevi yerine getirebilecek tarihi, doğal, arkeolojik ve sosyo-ekonomik potansiyele sahip bir ilçemizdir. Yörenin Ankara-Antalya, Ġzmir-Konya ve Ġstanbul-Konya yol güzergahında bulunması da coğrafi olarak önemli bir avantajdır. AkĢehir sahip olduğu bozulmamıĢ doğal, kültürel ve folklorik dokusuyla uluslararası turizm piyasasında önümüzdeki yıllarda önemli bir yere sahip olması; Turizm Bakanlığının belirlediği 2020 yılı hedefi olan 40 milyar dolar turizm geliri ve 60 milyon turist sayısı hedefine ulaĢmayı gerçekçi kılabilecektir.

YARARLANILAN KAYNAKLAR BEKTAġ, C.(1992); AkĢehir Evleri, Yem Yay., Evlerimiz 4, Ġstanbul, BAġOL, K.(1994); Doğal Kaynaklar Ekonomisi, Anadolu Matbaası, Ġzmir CENĠKOĞLU, G.T.(1998); AkĢehir’de Sıra Yarenleri, Türk Dün. ArĢ Vk. Yay., Ġstanbul CENĠKOĞLU, G.T.(1998); Nasreddin Hoca Fıkralarında Ġnsan Kadrosu, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü(YayınlanmamıĢ Doktora Tezi), Konya DERMĠRALP, Y.(1996); AkĢehir ve Köylerindeki Türk Anıtları, Kültür Bakanlığı Tanıtma Eserleri 126, BaĢbakanlık Basımevi, Ankara DEMĠRCĠ, Y.(1998); “Kentsel Tarih: AkĢehir”, Sanatsal Mozaik, Yıl 3, Sa.33, Ġstanbul, Temmuz/Ağustos DĠNÇER, M.(1995); “Konya’nın Turizm Potansiyeli ve Ġl Kalkınmasına Katkısı”, Konya Ġlinin Ekonomik Kalkınması, Ġktisadi AraĢtırmalar Vakfı Yay., 1995/109, Ġstanbul GLADE, D.(1996); “Almanların Nasreddin Hocası”, Nasreddin Hocanın Dünyası(UNESCO 1996 Nasreddin Hoca Yılı), Türkiye ĠĢ Bankası Kültür Yay., Ankara GÜLERAY, Mt.(1998); “AkĢehir Bankası”, Sanatsal Mozaik, Yıl 3, Sa.33, Ġstanbul, Temmuz/Ağustos KARAMAN, A.(1998); “Kentsel Bir Miras Olarak AkĢehir”, Sanatsal Mozaik, Yıl 3, Sa. 33, Ġstanbul, Temmuz/Ağustos 1998 KONYALI, Ġ H.(1945); Nasreddin Hocanın ġehri AkĢehir(Tarihi-Turistik Klavuz), Nümune Matbaası, Ġstanbul ÖZGÜÇ, N.(1998); Turizm Coğrafyası Özellikler-Bölgeler, Çantay Kitapevi, Ġstanbul SAMUR, T.(1996); AkĢehir’deki Türk Mimari Eserleri, Kültür Serisi No:2 , Konya TEKELĠ,H, (2001), Turizm Pazarlaması ve Planlaması, Detay Yay., Ankara TÜRSAB.(2002); “Turizmde Yükselen Değer: Ekoturizm”, Türkiye Seyahat Acentaları Birliği Yayın Oraganı, Sa. 219, Ġstanbul, Mayıs TÜRSAB.(2002); “Dünyamızı Ekoturizm Kurtaracak”, Türkiye Seyahat Acentaları Birliği Yayın Organı, Sa:223, Ġstanbul, Eylül WALKER, K.Barbara.(1989); Nasreddin Hoca As Good –Will Ambassador, Kültür Bakanlığı Halk Kül ArĢ.D. Yay.,: 131, I. Milletlerarası Nasreddin Hoca Bildirileri, Ankara, 15-17 Mayıs ZEYBEK, Namık Kemal.(1989); I.Nasreddin Hoca Sempozyumu AçıĢ KonuĢması, Kültür Bakanlığı Halk Kültürü AraĢtırma Dairesi Yay.,:131, I. Nasreddin Hoca Sempozyumu Bildirileri, Ankara, 15-17 Mayıs AkĢehir, Ticaret ve Sanayi Odası Yay., AkĢehir, t.y. DĠĞER KAYNAKLAR http://turkishnews.com/DiscoverTurkey/who/nhoca http://www.thk.org.tr/aksehir.htlm

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN http://www.abite.com/HODJA/sozler.htlm http://w1.871.tella.com/u87104365/nte.htm. http://www.byegm.gov.tr/yayınlarımız/TURKHABER/86/17.htlm http://www.kultur.gov.tr/muzelerimiz/aksehir.htlm http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr/tp4.htlm. http://www.burdur.gov.tr/cografya.htlm http://www.world-tourism.org/ http://www.turizm.gov.tr/turizm.tb?app=bakanlik&bakanlik=64&altbaslik=08.00.00&lng= http://www.turizm.gov.tr/turizm.tb?kwd=ekoturizm&arama=BUL&app=arama http://www.tursab.org.tr/dergial/223/dergi223.htm http://www.tursab.org.tr/dergial/219/dergi219.htm

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APOLLONIAN CIVILIZATION’S WAR AGAINST NATURE: ANALYSIS OF THE FILM “5 VAKİT” THROUGH THE CONTRAST OF CULTURE AND NATURE Lecturer Kadir YALÇIN Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Radio-TV and Cinema Dept. [email protected] Research Assistant. Dr. Murat AYTAŞ Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Radio-TV and Cinema Dept. [email protected] Prof.Dr. Aytekin CAN Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Radio-TV and Cinema Dept. [email protected]

Abstract In the Ancient Greek myth, the Titan god Prometheus steals fire from the land of the gods and brings it to mankind in an empty cane. It is a rebellion against the domination of Zeus, yet, we also can read it as an oedipal jealousy. In Reha Erdem‟s film “Beş Vakit” (Five Times Prayer) it can be said that, in their pastoral life, people are in the same attitude to each other -young to elders, sons to fathers, daughters to mothers. Director consciously realizes the subject of the film in the village that is the basic unit of the civilization in the axis of human relationship who especially are struggling with nature. Since, the mankind destroyed all traces of nature dependency at his great cities of “masculine” apollonian civilization that is established by his own. However, in village life, dependence and struggle on nature still continues today. The film, in its own perception of time and with the families living a day divided into 5 times, offers the struggle with nature, the loss of innocence and problems such as alienation and masculine power that reflected in practice of everyday life, through the eyes of children in the axis of three generations. Director, by using pastoral time as a narrative form, yet also disrupting the “time” as an order of the apollonian notion in expression of abstract unity of human against the nature, underlines the need to think "over it" again for the audience. In the film, this time structural, including the episode changes, starts from the Isha (Yatsı) prayer but it does not follow in order. Director deliberately disrupts this abstract mathematical structure. There are very few directors who entrench the conflict of culture and nature into film‟s narrative in such an effective way. In this study, the famous Turkish director Reha Erdem's "5 Vakit" will be resolved on the contrast of Apollonian culture and Dionysian nature based on literature research Keywords: nature, culture, reha erdem, five times prayer, apollo

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 1. Introduction Cinema which is centric manufacturer and distributor based on visuality in modern society,has an intense relationship with the archaic origins of mankind and the myths. Cinema reproduces the history directly or by allegories through adding little-known stories of the mythological epic, characters, contradictions and various items to his narrative. Dionysus and Apollo, located in the ancient Greek myths oftenly, confronts as two gods in many artistic forms; one is the founder of the theater in festivals held in the nature and his name, while the other symbolizes the culture and science. From painting to tragedia and literature, Dionysus and Apollo myths extend tomany works both visual and auditory,and has been subject to cinema which is the one of the means of production of modern visual culture. As a work of Reha Erdem, who is one of the significant director of the Turkish Cinema, “Beş Vakit” (2006) will be analysed in the frame of nature-culture contrast. The basic assumption of the study, the contrast of nature and culture, as it has been seen in various ways from the archaic period to the modern times, is in relation to the socialization of the individual; childhood with nature and adulthood with acculturation and it can be conducted in parallel with representation of the film. Analyzed in the study "Beş Vakit" was regarded as a representation system that express meaning of the nature and culture by the characters in the narrative structure. In the study, it has been thought that film representation will reveal the main concept of the nature-culture that is dominated by the mentality of that period, and by selecting “Beş Vakit” as sample movie it is intented to propound how the children characters in the film affected by Apollonian civilization within their relationship with adults and nature. As it is considered that, nowadays, there are not many worksdone on the Turkish cinema or there are very few on the mythology and cinema connection, every study on the subject is expected to contribute to Turkish cinema.

2. From Myth to Cinema: The Contrast of Apollo and Dionysus In modern industrial societies, many of the tasks are served by the mass media any longer which are previously uploaded to various religious activities. Television and movies provide examples of behavior; they are directly control our thoughts and our feelings (Baynes,2004:20). Cinema, as a mass communication tool and visual arts as well, is fueled from predecessor of all forms of expressions, myth and texts.Ancient Greek myths and legends are significantly affecting Western societies, is a source directly or indirectly to literature and cinema today. The characters and the narrative structure itself, by taking over the tasks loaded on religious activity in ancient times, is effective on our way of thinking and behavior in various ways. Greek mythology has a structure that the gods have human characteristics and contradictions, changes and all human emotions can be observed. The reason of that is, the ancient human thought personalise the nature neutrally. Since modern man imposes subjective qualifications to nature. Greek gods are showing sharp personality in dramatic venues.The first person to conceive them in epic cinematic arc light was blind Homer.The cult of the sky in harmony with the earth cult in Egypt has weathered in the Greeks. Apollo is the superior one in the Greeks. The gods were living in a climax that pierce the sky (Paglia, 2004:82). The Greek god Dionysuswas considered as the protector of wine, vegetation and orgiastic ecstasy. Apollo's enemy and rival Dionysus, although being the son of Zeus, is not among the Olympian gods of Homer. Apollo is usually assimilated into sky cult, progress and culture; Dionysus is identical with the soil, nature and ecstasy.Dionysus is usually accompanied by Eros and Muses.As Dionysus is the god of wine, Eros is a desire-god who enters the body of youngsters. Just like Dionysus, Eros is also a vulgar and superhuman strenght that humanbeings can not stand alone without a specific ritual. Music gods Muses only exist in the lyre or the flute of the drinkers or professional musician girls hired for the ceremony –they were also professional in love- also musicians girls are single women who participated in Symposio(Dupont,2001:41). Dionysus is the god remembered by nature, life, music, vintage ceremonies that are held on his behalf. Dionysus is associated with fluids - blood, sap, milk

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN and wine… these are the chthonian fluidity of Dionysian nature. On the other hand, Apollo distinguishes an entity from the others by shaping it. All art is marked by Apollo. Dissolving and symphysis is Dionysian, yet differentiation and individualization is Apollonian (Paglia,2004:41).Therefore, culture, technology, art, individualism and the idea of progress is Apollonian.Interfering with nature, intertwinement, ecstasy, dancing and all kinds of relationship with nature is established corresponds to Dionysus. Nature and culture contrast, as an allegorical represantation of Dionysus and Apollo, comes across in the cinema many times. In Teen Slashers, as a leading popular genre of cinema, all murders occur at the Dionysus‟s natural areas out of the town as ingestion of drinking liquids such as alcohols. Since the urban area is place that offender is caught and sentenced as a zone controlled by Apollo with all his glory.

3. Cinema and Mythologie In cultural way, myhts can be considered as a represantation of the physical world and as a product of interpretation the nature by personalizing it. Myths include the questions and expressions of creation and the sacred. According to Walter Benjamin (1993: 15) people are not only a part of physical universe but also part and creator of a symbolic universe. Myhts, therefore, are social and they can be seen as reflection of social unconscious. Humankind, in the myhts, is both „myhtological‟ and „mitogenic‟. Namely, as a myhtology creator and by locating in it, humankind revealed his own psychology in every myth.His psychological approach highlights the traditions which is formed by the interaction of cultures and currents of thought (Olgunlu, 2015:16). There are many views on the emergence of mythology. According to Scognamillo (1995:14) when the concept of spirit and belief in the hereafter shaped, and the gods begin to proliferate, fears, anxiety and horror becomes legendary, sacred and epic. As we define them primitive, thinking and feeling human started to describe his fears and began to explain them verbally after discovering the world around and inside him. The oral tradition products, myhts, legends and fairy tales contain these fears.Bringing together stories from continent to continent, forming and breeding a memory worldwide, mythology contains elements of horror in their patterns and archetypes.Located in mythological stories, countless superheroes have reached their location thanks to evil and darkness. According to Levi Strauss (2013: 21), all myhts have a similar social and cultural functions in the community. Myths help to make sense all the problems and contradictions about the world. Myths provide models to address the mindset is different from each other,and makes the contradictions can be justified. In his book, A Is For Ox (Öküzün A‟sı), Barry Sanders mentions that, in oral cultures, storyteller can travel to the edge and beyond of life by being a medium with magic –by self-passing through a trans or a different way. The storyteller is leading spirit: He can describe every aspect of the human imagination from the widest possible angle and he can lead a person who is in ultimate ride; the biggest journey of life. He calms the fears, arouses the hopes (Sanders, 1999:17). In today's modern society based on visuality, cinema has taken the place of the storyteller. As a central culture and instution in contemporary society, cinema is almost producing works in the form of myths in primitive society.This process operates as two-way through as re-producing the existing myhts on movie screen, and mythologising their own products. While developing his own myhts, cinema uses methods that include tale rituals and dance just like the primitive societies.Cinema can also be seen as a Dionysion art by identification of an individual in a dark environment and catharsis. For Benjamin, one of the revolutionary function of cinema is that it be perceived as identical to the arts and sciences. Movie camera have contributed to human in both artistic and scientific way at his relationship with the world. “While close-up is expanding the space, slow motion is spreading the action to extensive time parts. Close-up is notto render obviously what a person “already” see even it is blurry, yet it arises entirely new structural formations of matter; similarly, slow motion is not only show the movement patterns of the known finds but to find entirely unknown in this known; they are not as heavy appearance of rapid movement, but a distinctive strap, exhibits shaky position, creating

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN extraordinary effects as well as motion. Nature addressing the camera, is different from addressing the eye is so concrete” (2008: 72).

Benjamin likens a cameraman for a surgeon and an artist for a magician. While an artist puts a distance between the object and himself in his work, the cameraman penetrates deep into the object. Cameraman creates a sectional view, however, artist creates a complete view. As the fragmented images are bringing together through the montage, the viewer sees the combination of a whole piece.Each view disappears with the image that will be in place shortly. With this aspect, cinema does not create a perception that could heavily on attention. With both producing myths and reproducing existing mythical cosmology within its own universe, cinema is also discussing many opposition contained in myhtology. Directed by Reha Erdem, in “Beş Vakit” opposition of nature and culture is discussed in a myhtological axis. 4. The Analysis of "5 Vakit" Directed by Reha Erdem, “Beş Vakit” has won four prizes including the “best film” in 13. Adana Altın Koza Film Festival, “best Turkish film” and “Fipresci prize”in 25. International Istanbul Film Festival, three prizes including the “best film” in 39.Turkish Films Festival which is held by Screenwriters Union (SİYAD), “best director prize” in Bucharest Film Festival Cine Blacksea and nominated to “best film” prize in Mannheim-Heidelberg International Film Festival and won the “honorable mention” in Florent Herry, Mannheim-Heidelberg International Film Festival. The film, in its own perception of time and with the families living a day divided into five times, offers the struggle with nature, the loss of innocence and problems such as alienation and masculine power that reflected in practice of everyday life, through the eyes of children in the axis of three generations.The narrative of the film passes through a village.Time is divided into five different zones with calls to prayer (azan) every day. While being an audience, we witness the live of the residents in village through the five times. Ömer, Yakup and Yıldız, who are close friends, slightly stands out among the villagers. Yıldız and Yakup are first cousins. The narrative is established from the perspective of the children studying in primary school. By using pastoral time as a narrative form, yet at the sime time, moving from the “time” which is expression of abstract unity of humankind against nature, and breaking the rank of it, the director underlines to the audience that they have to think “over it” again. In the film, including the episode changes, time structure starts with night prayer (yatsı), yet,do not continue in regular turn. Film starts with a scene of Ömer, who has a relationship with time only within five prayers time, on the way to inform villagers about the “night prayer time” after sitting out of the house as his back is turned to his lying sick father. We hear the voice of Elif while Ömer and Yakup watch the sky at night as they both seems to care the nature more than their families: “World turns around from West to east, in an axis which assumed to go past from the poles. This is called the world's daily movement.” Here, the director consciously pushes the audience to think over the word of “assumed” in order to expose the abstract universe of mankind which is only based on his assumptions and believed as reality. When we look at the sky of the kids and at their relationship with nature we can to see this kind of limits. Therefore, children havegreat difficulty in adapting to this hypothetical world founded by adults. Children in the village have much more integrated and harmonious relationship with nature since they are at the beginning of the dominant patriarchal values and civilizing process. They take refugee in nature against the discipline they received from generations to generations. As the first seen character, Ömer can not establish a accumstomably relationship neither with his father nor with her mother. Ömer wishes the death of his father, in which he sees as responsible for the situation and also represents the potency and traditional authorities. However, here, the killing is not to attain an oedipal complex to the mother; it refers to restoring the environment.With all the power,the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN father represents human development and culture. Children can not find a place for themselves in the advanture of makind‟s struggle for sovereignty and development on nature started with the plow. They want to integrate with the nature by destroying authority. Families do not like their relationship with the nature. Elif‟s mother wants his father as an authority to discipline her due to “roaming the rambling mountains”. Likewise, Yakup‟s father remembers him to help his mother instead of spending time outside. Ömer‟s father does not like homework done by his son and blamed him with the failure of his writing. The sexual identity of “writing” symbolizes the masculine authority. Ömer shows the response to masculine civilization at this point.After his father's punishment, he tries to concrete with “female” nature, but not with her mother in an oedipal manner. On the other hand, Ömer‟s brother is loved in a proportion with his answers given to his father‟s mathematical questions which refer to all hypothetical reality and as he shows how compatible he is. In another family, after the grandfather received a promise from his sons that they will organize field covered stone, hearing the sound of a horse recalls the origins of domestication of human against the nature. All the personality traits of village people is reflected in their work. Even Yıldız‟s father and her uncle produces different type of walls which reflect the attitude towards authority of each other. As an undisciplines man, her father‟s wall is in a bad form, yet her uncle‟s wall is more suited to the rules. In the following scenes, sons will be loved or scolded by their fathers in the rate of compliance by the form of civilization. Even the walls of the house reflect the moods of the children to the viewers. When Ömer abandoned the family in the room because of discomfort, we see that the wall behind is cracks and rough. Director questiones the alienation of man where it begins in pastoral life that represents the first and most archaic civilization. Erdem shows his attitude on this issue by choosing to remain on the side the nature at the first beginning of civilization stage and criticizes the idea of progress and moving away from the nature through “unbreakable” children who rebeled their authoritarian families. 5. Conclusion Enlightenment philosophy,which is decisive in the transition from pre-modern to modern society, has created milestone in the history of culture. It is known that the success of cognitive-instrumental reason in hegomonizing the nature stems from this intellectual attitude.Enlightenment, as it represents a free and independent idea from the traditional knowledge and emotional bias, gave limitless possibilities to instrumental reason which produces the technique as the shortest path to any predetermined purpose (Atiker,1998:13). Many paradigm shifts that mankind has lived reflect the attitude towards the nature as a result of the struggle with it.Both in instrumental use of reason and as well as in economic, intellectual and artistic products, we see the signs of the mankind‟s struggle with nature. Apollonian progress and science fights with Dionysian nature in every aspect. This conflict of nature and culture at issue, has found it‟s place in the cinema, modern era's most important visual expression and narrative tool. Many directors from the world or from our country have produced films addressing this contradiction directly or indirectly. Contrary to early theatrical shows can be expressed as Dionysian, cinema sets up its field of action within modern spaces.According to the Situationists, carrying art performance into the social sphere and streets from the halls and galleries is a mandatory move to get away of viewer‟s un-interfere trend which is a 'reified' form of the structure of the theater and the cinema. It requires to „disconnect of spiritual identification with the hero‟, „to invite the viewer to be affactive‟ by awaking his abilities „to ensure making a revelution in his own life‟. Mobilizing every individual as a participant instead of a viewer, is indicative of departure from the Avantgardists paradigm which never dissolves the hierarchical distinction between creator and audience (Kanngieser,2015:112).Cinema establishes a relationship with the audience in primarily intellectual plane.At this point, directors who place philosophical and mythological elements into narrative such as Reha Erdem and their revealed films are very important. In Reha Erdem‟s film "5 Vakit", villages and towns are the first settlements during the socialization of

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN individuals or in other words, the rise of the emerging relationship with Apollonian stage process. However, in this places, the ties with the Dionysian nature of human has not broken yet. As the towns and villages represent the first and most archaic civilization, people still have a specific perception of time and reality in contrast to the unique nature of the world as rational and mathematical construction. In this world, children have a special position who are not tamed by the authorities.Children, in conjunction with the idea of progress, moves from the nature as a result of the education they have been given especially by their families, schools and other institutions. In the film, progress and Apollonian cultural universe has been criticized through the children who choses to remain in the nature at the stage of civilization, and by showing their relation with families and other social groups.

References Atiker, E., (1998) Modernizm ve Kitle Toplumu, Ankara, Vadi Yayınları. Baynes, K., (2004) Toplumda Sanat, (Çev.: Yusuf Atılgan), İstanbul, Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Benjamin, W., (2008) Pasajlar, (Çev.: Ahmet Cemal), İstanbul, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul. Dupont, F., (2001) Edebiyatın Yaratılışı, (Çev.:Necmettin Sevil), İstanbul, Ayrıntı Yayınları. Kannıgıeser, A., (2015) Uzman 'Getto'sundan Çıkmak: Radikal Politikada Performatif Karşılaşmalar, Direniş ve Estetik İçinde (Ed.), Aylin Kuryel , Begüm Özden Fırat, İstanbul, İletişim Yayınları. Olgunlu, A.C. (2015). Mitos'tan Logos'a, İstanbul, Hükümdar Yayınevi. Paglia C., (2004) Cinsel Kimlikler, (Çev:Didem Atay), Anahid Hazaryan, Ankara, Epos Yayınları. Sanders, B.,(1999) Öküzün A‟sı, Elektronik Çağda Yazılı Kültürün Çöküşü ve Şiddetin Tahir), İstanbul, Ayrıntı Yayınları.

Yükselişi, (Çev: Şehnaz

Scognamillo, G., (1995), Dehşetin Kapıları, İstanbul, Kamer Yayınları. Strauss, C. L., (2013) Mit ve Anlam,Çev.Gökhan Yavuz Demir, İstanbul, İthaki Yayınları.

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FINANCIAL LITERACY TESTING Josef Nešleha Masaryk University, Faculty of Economics and Administration, Department of Finance [email protected] Karel Urbanovský Masaryk University, Faculty of Economics and Administration, Department of Finance [email protected] Abstract The goal of this paper is to introduce a system of financial literacy testing in terms of insurance products, which are provided by insurance company operating in the Czech Republic. Doing so, this paper elaborates on the previous paper of the same authors, in which the authors tried to investigate mostly important predictors of financial literacy related to life insurance products. The testing method which is intended to be described in this paper is based on subjective evaluation of respondent’s knowledge related to financial literacy in the areas of insurance products. Afterwards, the plan dataset is intended to be used in another research. Keywords: insurance, insurance company, subjective evaluation, Czech Republic

1. Introduction Financial literacy has become an important part of educational system in the Czech Republic and other countries around the Europe and the whole world. As the role of it is increasing, the whole society starts to be exposed to financial literacy more than ever. It goes for financial literacy related to insurance products and the insurance market as well. Financial literacy represents a set of knowledge which is necessary for a correct and appropriate decision in terms of one’s investments, debts and other financially orientated issues. It consists of three parts – money, price and budget literacy. The insurance market is characterized by the predominance of the supply-side, which means that clients are likely to find easily products and services they correspond to their needs and expectations. Therefore, it is important to know what clients want to know when they buy a new insurance product. The consumers have to get information about the financial advisor, insurance company, and insurance product and have to be asking about their wants and needs (EBF, 2009; OECD, 2005). But do they really get all information which they want? In general, we can divide determinants of the demand for the insurance into several groups accordıng to their character as a personal, demographic, and economic, respectively financial, political, institutional, and also cultural (Beck and Webb, 2003). Also demand for insurance products is positively correlated with income in most of previous studies (Campbell, 1980). Differences in expected retirement age should also result in various (and difficult to predict) demand for insurance products, assuming similar income levels (Lee et al., 2010). There is no state insurance company in the Czech Republic, only private insurance companies operate on the Czech insurance market. Statistics from the Czech Insurance Association imply that total insurance premium in insurance products is 116.1 billion CZK or 4.3 billion EUR (2015). This number has an increasing character within the last years as the number of contracts in insurance products from 26.3 million contracts at the end of 2015 to 26.6 million contracts at the end of June 2016. Interesting is that the number of contracts in life insurance has decreased in last years (from 5.8 million contracts in June 2015 to 5.6 million contracts in June 2016) but the number of contracts has increased in last years (from 20.5 million contracts in June 2015 to 21.0 million contracts in June 599

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2016). The insurance companies with the biggest market share (over five percent): Česká pojišťovna (22.5%), Kooperativa pojišťovna (20.8%), Allianz pojišťovna (10.7%), Generali pojišťovna (7.3%), ČSOB pojišťovna (6.8%), ČPP pojišťovna (6.2%), Pojišťovna České spořitelny (5.1%) and UNIQA pojišťovna (5.1%), other ones are: NN pojišťovna, Metlife pojišťovna, CARDIF pojišťovna, Komerční pojišťovna, AXA pojišťovna and AEGON pojišťovna. There are also other insurance companies working on the Czech market, yet this share market is lower than one percent as you can see in the Figure 1(Czech Insurance Association, 2016). The Czech Republic belongs to the group of countries, where the nature of financial education mandates is granted through primary legislation and guaranteed by the Ministry of Education. Financial education at schools is compulsory since 2009 in secondary schools (cross-curricuar) and since 2013 in primary schools as part of citizenship education (OECD, 2015). 2. Review of Literature The paper is based upon up-to-date relevant literature which deals with financial literacy, the protection of the customers in financial sector, the life and non-life insurance and characterizing of customers in the insurance sector. Therefore, this paper elaborates on previous papers and articles which were published over the world. In the last two decades of the twentieth century, research of information asymmetry in insurance market overcomes significant expansion. Several papers by Arrow (1963), Pauly (1974) and the most famous work by Rothschild and Stiglitz (1976) theoretically modelled the existence of information imbalances in the competitive insurance market. Empirical papers follow theoretical works with lag, as well as theoretical models using simplified frameworks hardly applicable to real situations (Chiappori et al., 2006). In the Figure 1 on global basis, 35% of men are financially literate, compared to just 30% of women. Interestingly, Klapper, Lusardi and von Oudheusden found that “while women were less ikely to provide correct answers to the financial literac questions, they were also more likely to indicate that they ´do not know´ the answer” (S&P Global FinLit Survey). In the Figure 1 there is percent of adults with correct or do not know asnwers. Figure 1. Women trail men financial literacy

3. Methodology Since in the planned questionnaire, respondents are supposed to evaluate their level of financial literacy related to financial products themselves, there are no questions having correct answer or 600

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN answers. In order to be able to compare various groups of respondents, the questionnaire consists of two parts. In the first part, respondents are asked to state their personal data, such as age, education, income, field of their work, etc. This demographic data enables us to divide the whole sample of respondents into various groups and sub-groups. In the second part of the questionnaire respondents are supposed to evaluate their own financial literacy level and skills on their own. It, therefore, gives us subjective assessment of their knowledge, which might be different from their real level of literacy. With regard to particular questions of the second part, the list is following: How would you evaluate your knowledge related to financial literacy in general? How would you evaluate your knowledge related to insurance products? - How, from your point of view, are you a person who is easily influenced by advertisements of insurance companies? For each of the questions, respondents are supposed to evaluate their knowledge, using a scale from zero to ten points, when zero stands for complete ignorance and ten stands for complete and correct knowledge. This part of the questionnaire also factors the following questions: - What do you think that are the most problematic arease of financial literacy of the Czech population? - What, on the other hand, are the strengths of the Czech population concerning the financial literacy? - What do you think that is the main drawback of the Czech population in terms of the financial literacy? - Do you think that the system of insurance is sufficient in the Czech Republic? The questionnaire is planned to be distributed during the autumn 2016. After what the dataset is gained, the first analysis will be conducted. These results will be consequently compared with further research which is planned and which will be based on objective assessment of respondent’s financial literacy in the areas of insurance products. 4. Results In this article, the authors determined the questions for the first survey of financial knowledge in order to achieve these goals: To identify areas of insufficient financial knowledge and to assist educators to improve literacy in those areas. To assist the financial services industry to identify which aspects of financial skills, products or services cause the greatest problems for Czech population and, thus, contribute to improvement of communication or design. To develop benchmark measures of financial knowledge across the entire adult population and also children population and key segments so that trends could be measured and programmes targeted at areas of need. To recommend development of the law reform programmes which provide effective consumer protection and address real issues which individuals face. To identify participation rate, investments behaviours and habits of retail consumers in financial products market. 5. Discussion and Conclusion The goal of this article was to introduce the way of financial literacy testing. This way takes into consideration subjective assessment of respondent’s knowledge related to financial literacy in the area of insurance products. It provides us with data related to Czech population confidence in terms of financial literacy. Such dataset is (apart from the study of the data itself) is planned to be used

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN in further research in which the authors also plan to utilized another dataset; devoted to objective assessment of financial literacy testing in the area of insurance products. The main drawback of this planned research is the fact that it is planned to be based on subjective assessment of respondent’s knowledge. However, there is, on the other hand, the benefit of the possibility to measure their real knowledge in the future – through the further research. Acknowledgments

Support of Masaryk University within the project MUNI/A/0916/2015 “Behavioral and knowledge aspects of trading and evaluation of financial assets” is gratefully acknowledged. References Arrow, K. J. (1963). Uncertainty and the welfare economics of medical care. In The American economic review (Vol. 53(5), pp. 941-973). Beck, T., & Webb, I. (2003). In Economic, Demographic, and Institutional Determinants of Life Insurance Consumption across Countries. World Bank Economic Review (Vol. 17(1), pp.51 – 88). Campbell, R.A. (1980). The Demand For Life Insurance: An Application of the Economics of Uncertainty. In The Journal of Finance (Vol. 35(5), pp. 616 – 634). Chiappori, P. A., Salanie, B. (2000). Testing for asymmetric information in insurance markets. In Journal of political Economy (Vol. 108(1), pp. 56-78). Czech Insurance Association. (2016). Retrieved from: http://www.cap.cz EBF (2009). Financial literacy – empowering consumers to make the right choices, European Banking Federation. Retrieved from: http://www.ebf-fbe.eu/uploads/documents/publications/Reports/Fin20Litterature/D0305C-2009-EBF_Finan cial_Education_-_rev7-26-9_webversion-2009-00831-01-E.pdf Lee, S-J. Kwon, S. I., & Chung, S. Y. (2010). Determinants of Household Demand for Insurance: The Case of Korea. In Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance – Issues and Practice (Vol. 35, pp. S82 - S91). Nešleha, J., & Urbanovský, K. (2016). Study of Financial Literacy in the Field of Insurance Products. In Proceedings of the 13th International Scientific Conference (pp. 490-495). Brno: Masaryk University. OECD (2005). Importance of Financial http://www.oecd.org/general/35883324.pdf

Literacy

in

the

Global

Economy.

Retrieved

from:

Pauly, M. V. (1974). Overinsurance and public provision of insurance: The roles of moral hazard and adverse selection. In The Quarterly Journal of Economics (Vol. 88(1), pp. 44-62). Rothschild, M., & Stiglitz, J. (1976). Equilibrium in competitive insurance markets: An essay on the economics of imperfect information. Netherlands: Springer. Urbanovský, K., & Nešleha, J. (2016). Introduction of New Approach to Financial Literacy Testing in the Area of Insurance Products. In Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Currency, Banking and International Finance. Bratislava: Ekonóm, University of Economics in Bratislava.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN __________________________________________________________________________________

A COMPARISON of OLS and WLS REGRESSION DETERMINANTS of CORPORATE BORROWING from THE PERSPECTIVE of THE PECKING ORDER THEORY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Kartal DEMİRGÜNEŞ Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Business [email protected]

Abstract Modigliani and Miller (1958)’s “capital structure irrelevance” theory states that -under the assumptions of the perfect capital market-, firm value is independent of its mix of debt and equity. According to this statement; the capital structure does not affect firm value and firm value depends on the ability of its assets to create value. However, the pecking order theory of Myers (1984), and Myers and Majluf (1984) suggests that firms have a particular preference order for capital used to finance their investments by preferring retained earnings to debt, short-term debt over long-term debt and debt over equity. Therefore, it is more appropriate to consider the determinants of corporate borrowing from the perspective of pecking order theory. This study aims to test a series of hypotheses about the financial determinants of corporate borrowing as derived from the pecking order theory by using a large sample of Borsa Istanbul listed manufacturing firms for the period of 2007.Q1-2014.Q4. Both ordinary least squares and weighted least squares regressions are employed and the coefficients are compared in terms of consistency and goodness of fit. While ordinary least squares regression is affected by the normality and heteroscedasticity problems, weighted least squares regression produces more efficient and consistent results. Empirical findings indicate that in both regressions, profitability has statistically negative effect on corporate borrowing; while growth opportunities, (asset) tangibility and (firm) size have statistically positive effects on corporate borrowing. Keywords: Corporate Borrowing; Firm Value; Pecking Order Theory; Trade-off Theories; Ordinary Least Squares Regression, Weighted Least Squares Regression.

1. Introduction In their seminal paper named “The Cost of Capital, Corporate Finance and The Theory of Investment”, Modigliani and Miller (hereafter MM) (1958) proposed the “capital structure irrelevance” theory stating briefly that the value of the firm is independent of its capital structure (debt-equity mix) under the assumptions of the perfect capital market, such as the absence of taxes, transaction, agency and bankruptcy costs; and symmetry of market information. Later on, MM (1963) published a follow-up paper named “Corporate Income Taxes and the Cost of Capital: A Correction” and slightly relaxed the assumption regarding taxes by adding corporate income tax to their original theory. Along with their studies, the issue of capital structure and its effect on firm value has gained more popularity than ever before among financial researchers, paving the way for the development of alternative capital structure theories, mostly relaxing the strict and unrealistic assumptions of the perfect capital market (see Harris and Raviv,1991; Myers, 2003). These alternative and widely accepted capital structure theories can be categorized into two groups: (1) tax-based and agency-costs based trade-off theories [proposed by Modigliani and Miller, 1963; Kraus and Litzenberger, 1973; Jensen and Meckling, 1976; Miller, 1977; Kim, 1978; Grossman and Hart, 1982; Bradley et al., 1984; Jensen, 1986; Diamond, 1989; Harris and Raviv, 1990; Stulz, 1990; Chang, 1999]; and (2) the pecking order theory of Myers (1984) and Myers and Majluf (1984). The very apparent opposition between the trade-off theories and the pecking order theory is the issue of existence of optimal capital structure. The trade-off theories argue that there exists an optimal (target) debt-equity mix for the firm that it struggles to be around that target. This target is achieved by considering the trade-off among the tax benefits of debt, and direct and indirect costs of bankruptcy 603

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN __________________________________________________________________________________ and agency costs. In opposition to trade-off theories, the pecking order theory rejects the existence of optimal capital structure, suggesting that the firm -being aware of the information asymmetries between internal stakeholders such as owners and managers, and outsider (potential) investors-, has a particular preference order for the capital to finance its operations. According to Myers (1984) and Myers and Majluf (2004), firstly internal finance (retained earnings) should be preferred due to adverse selection. However, in necessity of outside funds, debt (short-term debt over long-term debt) should be preferred to equity because of relatively low information costs of debt. Later on, in the studies of Krasker (1986), Brennan and Kraus (1987), Noe (1988), Constantinides and Grundy (1989), and Heinkel and Zechner (1990), the pecking order theory have been re-considered by some extensions. The opposition on the existence or non-existence of optimal capital structure between trade-off and pecking order theories have led researchers to question the superiority of them: “Which theory is more powerful in explaining the financing behavior of the firm?”. Unfortunately, there is no unique and precise answer to this question. Though its sample size (157 firms for the period of 1971-89) is relatively small and its methodology is seriously questioned by Chirinko and Singha (2000); ShyamSunder and Myers (1999)’s study focusing on a regression test of pecking order theory shows that the set-up pecking order model’s time series explanatory power is much greater than the trade-off model and therefore, the trade-off model can be rejected. In another study of Myers (2001), it is claimed that relatively a small portion of capital is financed externally (with the majority of it with debt) and equity issuance is rare, as consistent with the pecking order theory. Empirical findings of Ang (1991)’s study on financing of small firms; Holmes and Kent (1991)’s study on Australian small firms; Bessler et al. (2008)’s study on non-United States firms for the period of 1995-2005 and Seifert and Gönenç (2008)’s study on United States, United Kingdom, Germany and Japan firms for the period of 19802004 also support the pecking order theory. However, according to Fama and French (2002), Zhao and Susmel (2008), and Clark et al. (2009); neither the pecking order theory nor the trade-off theories can be rejected, because firms’ different financing behaviors may be explained by any of these theories. Besides, the empirically testing of these two different set of theories may be complicated as their related variables are interwoven (Booth et al., 2001). Myers (2003) tries to briefly explain the complexity of capital structure theories and their related models, claiming that “there is no universal theory of capital structure and no reason to expect one”. This study that aims to find out the possible determinants of corporate borrowing in Turkish manufacturing firms, contributes to the literature in two ways. Firstly, ignoring the distinction among several empirical findings on how superior the trade-off theories or the pecking order theory are, the determinants of corporate borrowing is discussed under the pecking order theory. The reason is because the pecking order theory’s explanatory power should be greater for small and high-growth firms facing adverse selection problems of which financing behaviors are mostly driven by adverse selection costs (Frank and Goyal, 2003), such the same as most firms operating in Turkey. The second contribution of the study is about the country analyzed. Most of empirical studies on capital structure either employ data from major developed countries (Bradley et al., 1984; Titman and Wessels, 1988; Wald, 1999; Antoniou et al., 2008) or make international comparisons (Rajan and Zingales, 1995; Booth et al, 2001; Antoniou et al., 2002; Seifert and Gönenç, 2008). Though studies of Wiwattanakantang (1999); Deesomsak et al. (2004), Huang and Song (2006), Singh and Kumar (2012), and Tandya (2015) are exceptions, empirical studies on developing countries are still very few in number. The rest of the paper is as follows: Section 2 presents the literature review on the determinants of corporate borrowing from the perspective of the pecking order theory. In Section 3, econometric methodology and empirical findings are given. Finally, conclusion is presented in Section 4. 2. Literature Review: Corporate Borrowing and the Pecking Order Theory - Research Hypotheses The empirical literature on the determinants of capital structure (theories) is so broad. The reason may mostly be related to view both trade-off theories and the pecking order theory (and their embedded models) as a part of a broader set of determinants of capital structure. Booth et al. (2001) emphasize the difficulties in separation of interwoven variables describing the models, especially in empirical studies. Another reason may be the possible differences between financing policies and trends of firms operating in emerging economies and developed countries (see Fernandes, 2011; Ayyagari et al., 2012; Amo-Yartey and Abor, 2013). The relationships postulated by the trade-off theories and the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN __________________________________________________________________________________ pecking order theory on each frequently used variable as a possible determinant of corporate borrowing and their reported signs in studies are summarized in Table 1. The relationships between variables such as non-debt tax shield, effective tax rate, earnings volatility (risk) and share price performance and corporate borrowing are not discussed in the study, as these variables are mostly related to trade-off theories. Table 1: Capital Structure Theories and Determinants of Corporate Borrowing

Variables

Postulated Theoretical Relationship Pecking Order Theory

Reported Theoretical and Empirical Relationships in Studies of … Confirming Related Theories

Trade-off Theories

The Pecking Order Theory

The Trade-off Theories

Long and Malitz, 1985; Fama and French, 2002; Frank and Goyol, 2009

Pecking Order, Trade-off, Free Cash Flow

Kim and Sorensen, 1986; Smith and Watts, 1992; Berens and Cuny, 1995

Pecking Order, Trade-off, Agency, Signaling

Profitability

-

+

Kester, 1986; Friend and Lang, 1988; Rajan and Zingales, 1995; Chang, 1999; Wiwattanakantang, 1999; Booth et al., 2001; Sogorb-Mira, 2005; Daskalakis and Psillaki, 2008; Ramalho and Silva, 2009; Kayo and Kimura, 2010; Gonzales and Gonzales, 2012; Adair and Adaskou, 2015

Growth Opportunity

+

-

Kester, 1986; Michaelas et al., 1999; ShyamSunder and Myers, 1999; Bevan and Danbolt, 2002; Bhaduri, 2002; Eriotis, 2007; Ramalho and Silva, 2009

Tangibility

+

+

Size

-

+

Marsh, 1982; Long and Maltiz 1985; Williamson, 1988; Harris and Raviv, 1990; Allen, 1995); Johnson, 1997; Wald; 1999; MacKay and Phillips, 2005; Sogorb-Mira, 2005; Faulkender and Petersen, 2006; Amidu, 2007

Dragota et al., 2008; Lim (2012)

Ang et al., 1982; Marsh, 1982; Rajan and Zingales, 1995; Wald, 1999; Booth et al., 2001; Chen, 2004

Pecking Order, Trade-off, Agency

Pecking Order, Trade-off, Agency

The pecking order theory and trade-off theories have different points of view on the relationship between profitability and corporate borrowing. According to the pecking order theory, firms’ investments are preferably financed by internal funds rather than debt (Myers, 1984). As relatively profitable firms generate more internal funds (Chang, 1999; Antoniou et al., 2008), it is assumed that profitability is expected to affect corporate borrowing negatively. Contrary to this, (static) trade-off theories argue that due to relatively low costs of bankruptcy and tax shield advantages, profitable firms have tendency to use more debt (Fama and French, 2002; Frank and Goyal, 2009). Studies of Jensen (1986) on the effect of debt on minimizing agency costs and Niu (2008) on shareholder beliefs regarding the effect of debt on managers’ investment decisions support this argument. According to Shenoy and Koch (1996), the opposite signs of postulated theoretical relationship between profitability and debt in capital structure theories are the consequence of that the pecking order theory is based on the correlation between both variables, while the trade-off theories describe the dynamic aspect. H1: There is a negative relationship between profitability and corporate borrowing. Growth opportunity is the other variable that the pecking order theory and the trade-off theories have different considerations on its effect on corporate borrowing. The pecking order theory argues the necessity of debt accumulation for high-growth firms, especially when internal funds remain insufficient (Leary and Roberts, 2005). Therefore, it postulates the existence of a positive relationship between growth opportunity and corporate borrowing. Contrary to this, trade-off theories predict that there exists a negative relationship between growth opportunity and corporate borrowing due to possible agency problems between shareholders and bondholders, especially in the case of wealth transfer. The tendency of firm managers to invest on high-risk projects compared to less-risk ones leads bondholders to loan high-growth firms. Besides, Myers (1977) regards (high) growth opportunity as a firm value destroyer. As the debt capital requirements of high-growth firms are relatively high, they face higher costs of financial distress, forcing them to keep their leverage levels low. H2: There is a positive relationship between growth opportunity and corporate borrowing. Both the pecking order theory and the trade-off theories generally postulate that tangibility affects corporate borrowing positively. Tangible assets such land, building and equipment are mostly overvalued and can be used as collateral to raise debt capital, diminishing creditors’ risks. The highness of tangible assets reduces the agency cost of debt that emerges when firm’s investment may shift to a

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN __________________________________________________________________________________ riskier level after the issuance of debt, transferring wealth from creditors to shareholders (Jensen and Meckling, 1976). Besides, in any case of bankruptcy, the value of tangible assets is higher than intangible assets. Though Dragota et al. (2008)’s finding is contrary as an exception, empirical studies of Marsh (1982), Long and Maltiz (1985), Williamson (1988), Harris and Raviv (1990), Allen (1995), Johnson (1997), Wald (1999), MacKay and Phillips, 2005; Sogorb-Mira (2005), Amidu (2007), and Lemmon and Zender (2007) confirm this predicted positive relationship between tangibility and corporate borrowing. H3: There is a positive relationship between asset tangibility and corporate borrowing. The pecking order theory predicts the relationship between firm size and corporate borrowing as negative, assuming that profitability (thus, the capability of firm to finance its investments using internal funds rather than debt) has tendency to increase due to firm size as a consequence of economies of scale. However, the trade-off theories have a different perspective on the relationship between firm size and corporate borrowing, depending on two interconnected issues: possibility of bankruptcy (Rajan and Zingales, 1995) and tax-shield benefits (Antoniou et al., 2002). As larger firms have relatively low possibility of bankruptcy, they may take advantage of higher debt funding to utilize tax-shield benefits. Besides, Fama (1985) argues that information asymmetry is relatively low in these firms, minimizing the agency problems and enabling them to borrow at lower costs. While studies of Dragota et al. (2008) and Lim (2012) on the relationship between firm size and corporate borrowing confirm the pecking order theory; studies of Ang et al. (1982), Marsh (1982), Rajan and Zingales (1995), Wald (1999), Booth et al. (2001) and Chen (2004) report positive relationship between size and corporate borrowing, in line with the trade-off theories. H4: There is a negative relationship between firm size and corporate borrowing. 3. Econometric Methodology 3.1. Data, Variables and the Research Model The data of the study covers the period of 2007.Q1-2014.Q4 for Borsa Istanbul (BIST) listed manufacturing firms. As the aim of the study is to analyze the possible determinants of corporate borrowing, (total) debt ratio (short- and long-term borrowing to total assets ratio) is included in the research model used to measure corporate borrowing as the dependent variable. All components of the debt ratio are measured in book values (not in market values) due to lack of available public quotes for bond issues. Though finance theory insists on using market value of debt (see Welch, 2004; Frank and Goyal, 2005), it may not be practicable and most of related empirical studies are mostly limited to the use of book value of debt. This dichotomy is the result of unavailability of public quotes for bond issues; trading of corporate debt mostly over-the-counter rather than in the secondary market via exchanges because of their diversity and the infrequency of debt trading (Sweeney et al., 1997; Buferna et al., 2005; Kumar, 2005). Besides, Myers (1977), Fama and French (2002), and Shah and Khan (2007) suggest the use of book value rather than market value in capital structure related studies, as it performs better in explaining capital structure theories. Supporting this suggestion is the study of Bowman (1980). It concludes that the misspecification of using book value instead of market value is probably so small due to high cross sectional correlations existing between book value and market value of debt. In accordance with the pecking order theory, the independent variables included in the research model are measures of profitability, growth opportunity, (asset) tangibility and (firm) size, respectively. Details about these variables are given in Table 2. Table 2: Variables of the Research Model Variable

Calculation

Symbol

(Total) Debt Ratio

CORBOR

Profitability

PROF

Growth Opportunity

Market to Book Value

(Asset) Tangibility (Firm) Size

GROWOPP TANG

Natural Logarithm of Total Assets

606

SIZE

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN __________________________________________________________________________________ The regression model is as given below: 3.2. Empirical Analysis and Findings The previous empirical studies on the determinants of corporate borrowing mostly employ the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression method. It is known that most of studies in the literature refer to OLS regression (see Nascimento et al., 2010; Kim et al., 2012). However, OLS regression can only be used after fulfillment of its four principal assumptions: (1) the linearity of the relationship between dependent and independent variables; (2) statistical independence of the errors; (3) normality of the error distribution and homoscedasticity (constant variance) of the errors (4). The initial regression runs point out violations of normality and homoscedasticity assumptions of OLS. In the study, the normality of the error distribution is tested by the Jarque and Bera (1987) test statistics. This test statistic is built on the idea that the normal distribution has a skewness coefficient of 0 and a kurtosis coefficient of 3. In case of that test statistic has a sufficient large value, the null hypothesis that the errors are normally distributed is rejected. Violations of homoscedasticity (i.e., heteroscedasticity) problem is detected by the Breusch and Pagan (1979) test statistic. The null hypothesis of the test is that the error variances are all equal; while the alternate hypothesis is that the error variances are a multiplicative function of one or more variables (see Table 3). To correct for heteroscedasticity, Weighted Least Squares (WLS) regression method is employed. WLS regression offers a remedy for the heteroscedasticity problem, as the weights generated incorporate the information about the error variances (Zhou et al., 2015). Both OLS and WLS regression results are reported comparatively in Table 3. Table 3: Comparison of OLS and WLS Determinants of Corporate Borrowing OLS Variable constant

Estimated Coefficient 0.046

PROF

-0.448***

GROWOPP

0.114***

TANG

0.185***

SIZE

0.128***

Adjusted R2 F (4; 1,807) Normality Test of Jarque and Bera (1987) Heteroscedasticity Test of Breusch and Pagan (1979)

WLS t-value (Standard Error) [p-value] 0.673 (0.068) [0.501] -19.535 (0.066) [0.000] 5.320 (0.003) [0.000] 8.424 (0.002) [0.000] 5.738 (0.004) [0.000]

Variable

Estimated Coefficient

constant

0.123*

PROF2

-0.443***

GROWOPP2

0.156***

TANG2

0.198***

SIZE2

0.100***

t-value (Standard Error) [p-value] 1.918 (0.064) [0.055] -19.584 (0.062) [0.000] 7.340 (0.003) [0.000] 9.041 (0.002) [0.000] 4.590 (0.003) [0.000]

Adjusted R2 F (4; 1,807) Normality Test of Jarque and Bera (1987)

0.183 102,49 198.49 [0.000] 64.34 [0.000]

Heteroscedasticity Test of Breusch and Pagan (1979)

N = 1,812

0.213 108,33 1.077 [0.598] 17.43 [0.061]

N = 1,812

Note: *** and * denote significance levels of 1% and 10%, respectively.

Empirical findings indicate that -though the difference is not much- WLS regression procedure produces a higher adjusted R2 and F values, presenting relatively high explanatory power compared to OLS. However, there is not any difference detected among the signs of coefficients of the variables. In both WLS and OLS regressions, profitability has negative effect on corporate borrowing; while growth opportunities, (asset) tangibility and (firm) size have positive effects on corporate borrowing, all statistically significant at 1%. 4. Conclusion

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN __________________________________________________________________________________ This study tests the pecking theory of capital structure by examining the possible determinants of corporate borrowing via ordinary least squares and weighted least squares regressions, on a large sample of Borsa Istanbul listed manufacturing firms for the period of 2007.Q1-2014.Q4. The empirical findings of both regressions indicate the presence of statistically negative effect of profitability on corporate borrowing, and statistically positive effects of growth opportunities, (asset) tangibility and (firm) size on corporate borrowing. These findings -except for the (firm) size variable- support the predictions of the pecking order theory. The finding related to profitability can be explained by the high availability of internal funds in relatively profitable firms. Such firms have option to finance their investments by (costless) selffinancing as an alternative to external sources. This finding is similar to the ones of Kester (1986), Friend and Lang (1988), Rajan and Zingales (1995), Chang (1999), Wiwattanakantang (1999), Booth et al. (2001), Sogorb-Mira (2005), Daskalakis and Psillaki (2008), Ramalho and Silva (2009), Kayo and Kimura (2010), Gonzales and Gonzales (2012), and Adair and Adaskou (2015). The empirical finding of this study as the positive relationship between the growth opportunity and corporate borrowing is similar to findings of Kester (1986), Michaelas et al. (1999), Shyam-Sunder and Myers (1999), Bevan and Danbolt (2002), Bhaduri (2002), Eriotis (2007), and Ramalho and Silva (2009). This finding may be explained as a consequence of the necessity of debt accumulation for high-growth firms, especially when internal funds remain insufficient. In such circumstances, relatively less-costly debt financing seems to be the most appropriate source of financing. Similar to findings of Marsh (1982), Long and Maltiz (1985), Williamson (1988), Harris and Raviv (1990), Allen (1995), Johnson (1997), Wald (1999), MacKay and Phillips, 2005; Sogorb-Mira (2005), Amidu (2007), and Lemmon and Zender (2007); the finding of this study on (asset) tangibility and corporate borrowing is also in line with the prediction of the pecking order theory. As the highness of tangible assets that are mostly over-valued and can be used as collateral to raise debt capital lessens creditors’ default risk, these assets potentially favor access to debt capital markets. The only empirical finding of the study contradicting with the prediction of the pecking order theory is on the relationship between (firm) size and corporate borrowing. The pecking order theory theoretically postulates a negative relationship between (firm) size and corporate borrowing, linking this relationship to profitability. According to the theory, profitability -as a mean reflecting the capability of firm to finance its investments using internal funds (rather than debt)- has tendency to increase due to firm size as a consequence of economies of scale. In this regard, the pecking order theory fails to consider two very substantial and interconnected issues which are better explained by the trade-off theories: possibility of bankruptcy (Rajan and Zingales, 1995) and tax-shield benefits (Antoniou et al., 2002). Trade-off theories argue that relatively large firms may take the advantage of higher debt funding to utilize tax-shield benefits, as their possibility of bankruptcy is lower. While studies of Dragota et al. (2008) and Lim (2012) on the relationship between (firm) size and corporate borrowing confirm the pecking order theory; studies of Ang et al. (1982), Marsh (1982), Rajan and Zingales (1995), Wald (1999), Booth et al. (2001) and Chen (2004) report positive relationship between size and corporate borrowing, in line with the trade-off theories.

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THE INTER-CULTURAL ELEMENTS IN FERIDUN ZAIMOĞLU‟S NOVEL “LEYLA” Inst. Mehmet Dudar CANLI Selcuk University, School of Foreign Languages [email protected]

Abstract The concept of multi-culturalism was so commonly used in Germany just until 10 years ago. The Migrant Literature, which emerged in the 1970s, began to be called as multi-cultural literature at the turn of the 21st century. Today the concept is replaced by the concept of inter-culturalism. While multi-culturalism refers to the situation where many cultures co-exist, inter-culturalism refers to the products of the interaction of the cultures involved. Therefore, the migrant literature in Germany is referred as inter-cultural literature. FeridunZaimoğlu is one of the eminent representatives of this category. Zaimoğlu is considered to be one of the inter-cultural writers with regard to the subjects that he addressed. Leyla, one of the author’s famous novels, contains such linguistic and thematic elements. In this study, the inter-cultural elements in the novel Leyla are detected and examined in terms of inter-culturalism. Keywords:Interculturalizm, migrant literature, FeridunZaimoğlu, Leyla

1. Introduction Feridun Zaimoglu was born in 1964 in Bolu provience of Turkey in 1965, he went to Germany with his family. First they lived in Berlin, but moved after five years to Munich, where his father hoped a better job and salary. Since he could not speak German sufficiently in early school years, he was often mocked by his schoolmates and experienced what it meant to be an outsider in his childhood. To solve this problem associated with the language, he read everything he could reach in German and overcame this problem. He started to study art and medicine in Munich, but he did not complete it. In 1985, he moved to Kiel, where he works today as a freelance writer, screenwriter, painter and journalist. As a journalist, he writes literary criticism and essays, besides his writings for ‘Die Zeit and Die Welt’. In 1999/2000, he was employed at the Mannheim National Theatre as a playwright. In 2000, Lars Becker filmed socially critical film Kanak Attack, which the original book was provided by Zaimoglu. In 2003, he became Island poet on the island of Sylt, and in 2004 he was a visiting fellow at the FreieUniversität Berlin. In 2005,Zaimoglu received a scholarship at the Villa Massimo. He processed literary the experiences of this stay in Rome in the book ‘Rome intensive’. In November 2007,Zaimoglu was a lecturer at the University of Tübingen under the Tübingen poetry lectureship. The excluded become subjects in his literary works. In his first book ‘KanakSprak’ 1995, he attempts to express the authentic, tough and subversive power of slang language spoken by young Turkish male youth in Germany, and calls for a new self-confidence. He opposes a romantic multiculturalism. His second book, the novel Abschaum (1997), was filmed in 2000 by Lars Becker as Kanak Attack. After that, perhaps best known novels Leyla and Liebesbrand appeared. The narrative Häute (skins) received the jury prize at the Ingeborg Bachmann Competition in 2003. Zaimoglu received in 2006 as one of the most recent German writers of our time, the art prize of the Land Schleswig-Holstein. On 17 April 2007, he was awarded in Munich the Carl Amery Prize for Literature. In 2008, his novel Liebesbrand was nominated for the Leipzig Book Fair Prize, which was awarded on 13 March 2008 at the Leipzig Book Fair. Zaimoglu who won the screenplay prize of Schleswig-Holstein in 1998 writes theater versions and writes screenplays mostly with his co-author Günter laces. Besides his work as a writer Zaimoglu is a visual artist and active (Wikipedia, 2016). 613

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ‘Leyla’, one of the most prominent novels by FeridunZaimoğlu,differs from the novels written by other authors which are evaluated in terms of inter-cultural literature. Even though the plots of the novels written by other novelists take place in Germany, it completely takes place in Turkey in Zaimoğlu’s novel. However, it is also possible to see several intercultural elements in this novel. For that reason, this novel has attracted our attention. In this study, the inter-cultural elements in this novel will be detected and the inter-cultural interactions and elements will be analyzed. 2. The novel „Leyla‟ The novel was published in 2006 and tells the story of a family in the Anatolian province in the 1950s, but is also a wide view in the Turkish village and town life. It is a typical Turkish migration novel which represents the move from the country to Istanbul and from Istanbul to Germany. The story is reported from the perspective of the young girl Leyla. At the center is Leyla and her family. The family lives in restrictive poverty; the father is a bullying despot, reigns tyrannically over women, sons and daughters. To escape the conditions of a patriarchal oriented world for Leyla means a long ordeal, she goes with patience. Again and again she meets male characters who want to prevent her luck. The result is a life as a migrant worker in Germany.The novel is one of the most famous works of the author. He has also received several awards, e.g. it received 2007 Grimmelshausen Prize and the Arts Prize of the State of Schleswig-Holstein. But apart from applause Zaimoglu also harvested accusation of plagiarism. Zaimoglu was accused of having depreciated with Leyla from ‘Life is a Carawanserai Has Two Doors I Went in One I Came out the Other’ of Emine S. Özdamar and used many of the same motives. Zaimoglu said he had not even previously read this novel. (Wikipedia, 2016) It is also interesting that Zaimoglu was accused although the author Özdamar himself made no accusation. (Breitfeld, 2006). So it is assumed that actually an attempt to blemish Zaimoğlu’s image as a writer was behind the allegations of plagiarism. 3. The Term „Interculturalism‟ The term interculturalism refers to a relationship between two or more cultures. He expresses that there are differences between cultures, but also that in spite of these differences, opportunities for exchange between cultures are given. Interculturalism does not just mean that different people from different cultures have intercourse with each other in a situation, but that evolve a new outcome that goes beyond it. In short we mean by interculturality the meeting of two or more cultures comes to mutual influence in spite of cultural differences. The interculturalism must not be confused with the concept of multiculturalism because the prefix ‘inter’ expresses a reciprocal relationship between two or more cultures are while the concept of multiculturalism is merely the coexistence of many cultures (Ernest, 2000). If it is closer described interculturalism is a concept of process: Inter cultures arise when participants from conceptually different worlds A and B meet with each other and or rather communicate with each other. Inter cultures exist accordingly depending only on their own parties. They occur: they are constantly regenerated, in the sense of, a third party 'is a two-world C, which corresponds neither to the living world A still life of world B completely. Because it is a field of action, a field of process, an inter-culture must not to be thought a synthesis of A and B in terms of a 50:50. Rather, in this encounter in a classical learning effect, a completely new quality, a synergy arise that neither A nor B would have generated for themselves According to this definition of interculture we conclude that all aspects of interculturalism are the product of two or more cultures. Accordingly, we can establish the following points of the interculturalism as the products of these encounters.  linguisticInterculturalism: e.g. Multilingualism, languagemixing, voicechanges,ınterference, languagecreation, hybridization  thematicInterculturalism: e.g. Migration, exile, foreignnessexperiences, prejudices, xenophobia, conflict, defense, exchange, dominationetc. 4. Interculturalism in the Novel „Leyla‟ The first thing to say is that the novel is an inter-cultural product itself. In our definition of 614

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN interculturalism we had stressed that we can speak of interculturalism when two different cultural worlds meet and thereby they produce a product. So on one side we have a story about a Turkish family, which takes place in Turkey, on the other hand, the German language and as product a German novel which is about a story lived in Turkey. But one can also argue that interculturalism created by combining: The story of a Turkish family, which takes place in Turkey + German author. Here there could be objections on the grounds that Zaimoglu is of Turkey origin. But considering that Zaimoglu does not see himself as a representative of the Multicultural or Intercultural literature, this assessment would not be wrong. Zaimoglu himself says of himself that he is not a Herkunftskulturprolet (origin culture prolet). Although he was born in Turkey, he felt as German (Sorensen, 2002). In an interview with the Berliner Morgenpost in 2002, he emphasized that it would be understood that he was a German, a German writer (Can, 2011). 4.1 Thematic interculturalism in the Novel „Leyla‟ When we speak of thematic interculturalism, we have a very extensive subject group, everything, in fact extra linguistic everything that exist when two or more worlds encounters is part of the thematic group of interculturalism (conflicts, xenophobia, prejudice, problems of all kinds, cultural exchanges, mutual tolerance, solidarity ...). You could have many examples of the thematic interculturalism in a novel in which two different worlds collide. This is not the case in the novel Leyla, because the novel ends with the arrival Leyla’s in Germany. And thus also the expectations of the reader who would like to read the new challenge to Leyla, life in the new country are not fulfilled. Despite this early, but also appropriate end, thematic intercultural aspects can be observed. With appropriate end the intention of the writer is meant for. Zaimoglu doesn’t aim to concern with the literature of aggrieved, which is intended for the treatment of victims and overwhelmed feelings in the first generation of immigrants, but he wants to clarify the background in ‘KanakSprak’, actually the Turkish background (Sorensen, 2002). This intention of the author himself is thus again an intercultural project, because an object of interculturalism is helping to eliminate the hindering differences in daily dialogue between the various companies, which should give cause for common tolerance and acceptability. Part of this is just to have knowledge, know also about the other world. But let’s go back to the thematic intercultural aspects in the novel. When Germany is the speech, as intercultural aspects mostly the emotions of fictional characters is expressed. Metin, the husband of Leyla who attends a German course and many experiences over Germany, forms a large exaggerated enthusiasm about Germany and a hope for a better life by the acquired Information in the German course and the comparison between his current conditions in Turkey. So says Metin: I decided, I accept the offer, I will go to Germany. You'll see it brings blessings(Zaimoğlu, 2012). And Metin continues to talk about the Germans: They all smell like soap. And if you go on their roads, crunches no less rubbish under the soles of shoes. The sandwich you fall out of hand? You can take it from the ground and safely eat(Zaimoğlu, 2012). The longing for a better life is, of course, in itself no intercultural point, but the opportunity to go to Germany and to work there, thus becoming a beacon of hope for Metin and for us to an intercultural product. For Leyla this information about this foreign country and also later, she receives from the letters of Metin is rather a cause for amazement or alienation. So told Leyla: I got from him strange letters of the other country. The churches are built rather angular than round, the prayer exclamation towers would stand in a darkened gray clouds sky, everything has its order (Zaimoğlu, 2012). Adultery comes in the novel quite frequently. Particularly adulteries of Leyla's father are portrayed. While adultery is not a product of interculturalism, but the adultery of Metin with a German can be mentioned in terms of interculturalism, because it is a reality that confronted some Turkish wives whose husbands worked in Germany. For these women, an intercultural problem occurred, that is, the interest of their men to German women and their related concern about their own marriages. Leyla who finds out her husband’s betrayal also has similar concerns:

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN You are an adulterer, I say, you were in a hurry to go to the foreign country. You were in a hurry, there to find a mistress (Zaimoğlu, 2012). Another intercultural aspect mentioned is the cohesion or solidarity of Turkish guest workers, giving them a residue in the foreign country. The visit of the hostess who is friends with the sisters of Leyla and works in Germany, shows this fact. This woman who does not know Leyla was given money and gifts by her sisters. The hostess gives Leyla these gifts while staying in Turkey. In the novel, this is mentioned as follows: She handed me the packages, she tells that they include gifts of Yasmin and Selda, she was friends with the two women, in the foreign country puts you together, that was normal(Zaimoğlu, 2012). A feeling of alienation also occurs as an intercultural aspect in the novel. For the two elder sisters Leyla who work as guest workers in Germany it's hard to get used to conditions in Germany and only think about an early return. Particularly, they find it extraordinary to share the workplace with men. So says Selda: In Germany I will not stay any longer, says Selda. Yasmin happens to feel exactly the same. We are not designed to work with men on an assembly line. It is there haywire(Zaimoğlu, 2012). But the thematic interculturalism is generated not only by the meeting of the Turkish and German world. Zaimoglu(2012) also references to historical contexts of Turkey. So the term ‘Korea lion’ emerge in the novel. This term meant the soldiers of the Turkish Brigade that fought in the Korean War (1950-1953) on the side of South Koreans with the troops of the United Nations. The Korean War was actually the first armed conflict of the Cold War. The conflict between the Western powers and the Soviet bloc had an impact in Turkey. As intercultural aspect we are considering the political polarization of the Turkish population, who cannot escape it. This fact can be seen in some places in the novel. The discussion between Tolga who exerting criticism of the Korean War and the coffeehouse owner is an example of it. Tolga stops, calls to the man, the dead sons of the fatherland but would have much of it, if the country fobbed them with silly tales.The man calls back, “we get you the Bolsheviks, you stab our soldiers in the back (Zaimoğlu, 2012). Other men also participate in the discussion and show the political confusion that has arisen in their minds through the export concepts of capitalism and communism: If you have your doubts about the Americans do you become a Bolshewics? Interferes another man, you Hakki Effendi as a well-read man, you should know better. I wonder who our real enemy is, says another man, the Reds or the Americans(Zaimoğlu, 2012). But it is not just these economical systems that lead the population unrest. The increasing contact between Turkey and the West created an aversion, distrust perhaps even a fear towards the West in the conservative population. This can be understood from the words of the barber who speaks with Halid during shaving. I want to tell you something HalidBey, I’m not so much afraid of the Bolsheviks, with whom we are already finished. I'm afraid that the strange customs of the West will soften us. Look at our women, who bears the shame cloth is considered underdeveloped peasant girl(Zaimoğlu, 2012). When we speak of the coming together of two worlds in Interculturalism, then of course we do not mean only two other countries or nations. Interculturalism can also occur domestically between different cultural communities. As xenophobia, which is also a product of interculturalism and was treated in the immigrant literature often, here a hostility, a contempt for the stranger and the other culture, is often heard. SenemHanim that resembles the modern side of Turkey, the Istanbulians, often makes her hatred felt towards the family of Leyla that represents the East Anatolian Society and the small-town residents, in the novel: MelekHanim and great aunt disgusted the urban tradition, a girl preparing to the wedding dying with red paint (Zaimoğlu, 2012). 4.2 Language Interculturalism in the Novel „Leyla‟ In our introduction we emphasized that the novel itself an intercultural product by combining the German language and a story from Turkey. The intention of Zaimoglu to create an exotic effect in the novel itself by language is added to the mentioned aspect. In the book cover is a quote of the Tages - Anzeiger, which indicates the language in the novel as archaic. Sorensen says that Zaimoglu attempts to interpret the variety

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN of modernity by the religious language of the past (Sorensen, 2002). We agree with this view and therefore we also look at the language in the novel as an inter-cultural product. In our opinion it’s an attempt to create an exotic and oriental language atmosphere in the German language. Many idioms that Zaimoglu uses, receive their incentives from Turkish, appear in German but in completely different word combinations. Here emerges linguistic creativity of Zaimoglu. He creates the intermediate world which is prerequisite for inter – culturalism by transforming Turkish idioms into German. He also invents proverbs that are not reasonably be expected to exist in Anatolian. Sorensen believes, therefore, that it is not possible to directly translate back the book from German into Turkish, only a paraphrase would the novel deserve (Sorensen, 2002). Some examples of these invented phrases and for the creation of language as a linguistic interculturalism are the following: If you don’t want the ravens cry, you cannot be a mosque dome top(Zaimoğlu, 2012). and Pierced bitch should look for her innocence in hell(Zaimoğlu, 2012). Zaimoglu probably hopes to give a special taste of reading to the German reader who perhaps holds these proverbs for real by this strange sounding phrases. Therefore many neologisms can be found in the novel. For example, the word ‘virtue rose’ (Tugendrose), means the good girl. I do not care if it a virtue rose insulted me(Zaimoğlu, 2012). In our opinion some neologisms have, not only the function of reinforcing the oriental atmosphere language but should also help to better understanding of a concept. For example Zaimoglu used instead of the word headscarf the word ‘shame hood’. With this neologism the author separates headscarves borne in Turkey from the European headscarves worn mostly in the countryside by attention to the role or function of the head covering. But also a mockery of the author on the head covering of women is slightly noticeable. The ‘shame hood’ is mentioned in the novel several times. For example: We have to wait until it is fixed and directed her shame hood(Zaimoğlu, 2012). ‘Frau Seelenverwandte’ which can be translated as ‘MrsSoulmate’ is also an example for interculturalism neologisms. This term refers to a heading of an advice corner in a Turkish newspaper where women write anonymous letters to a so-called ‘GönülAbla’ to ask advice for their problems. And I open the magazine, seek the heading "The modern woman" and read her the letters written by the city ladies to ‘the Madam soulmates’(Zaimoğlu, 2012). But here we want to briefly note that something went wrong in this neologism or is not so appropriate as the ‘shame hood’ was. The spelling of some proper names can be mentioned as a sample of linguistic interculturalism. For example the actual proper names as Cengiz or Ayse does not seen in their original form, but written in German debate under the form of ‘Djengis’ and ‘Aysche’.

6. Conclusion Typical for Zaimoglu is his consistent criticism of multiculturalism and accordingly considers his works as part of contemporary German literature. With these words once again that Zaimoglu does not considered himself under the category ‘Intercultural Literature’ is emphasized. As we mentioned before he considers himself as a German author, there could be no objection against this fact. But as long as he himself derived his characters from Turks or Turkish originated people, of course, his works find attention in terms of interculturalism. If Zaimoglu aims a firm delineation, he must confront in his works more with the German milieu. References Breitfeld, A. (2006, June 8). Özdamar dementiertPlagiatsvorwurf. Spiegel Online. Retrievedfrom http://www.spiegel.de/kultur/literatur/zaimoglu-roman-oezdamar-dementiert-plagiatsvorwurf-a-420334.htm l. Can, Ö. (2011). Göçmen Yazın Süreci Çerçevesinde Feridun Zaimoğlu ve Anlatısı.S.Ü.E.F.D., 25, 139-156

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Hess-Lütich, E.W.B. (2000).Interkulturalität. Beziehungen zwischen Kulturen. Reallexikon der deutschen Literatur Wissenschaft.Berlin: H- O. Walter de Gruyter, 163-164. Sorensen, B. A. (2012).Geschichte der deutschen Literatur 2.München: Verlag C.H.Beck. Şölçün, S. (1992). Sein und nicht Sein, Zur Literatur der multikulturellen Gesellschaft. Bielefeld:Aisthesis Verlag. www.wikipedia.com Zaimoglu, F. (2012).Leyla. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BUREAUCRACY-POLITICAL POWER RELATIONSHIP IN TURKEY Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mehmet GÖKÜŞ University of Selcuk /Konya/Turkey/ [email protected] Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali ŞAHİN University of Selcuk /Konya/Turkey/ [email protected] Abstract In today’s world, the state is governed by political power consisting of elected politicians and bureaucracy consisting of appointed bureaucrats. In this process, what should be the position of bureaucracy in its relations with political institutions and especially with political power has long been debated. The relationship between these two institutions is shaped by the economic, cultural, political and administrative structures that relevant countries have. In our country, bureaucratic administrative traditions and political culture of Ottoman Empire have an impact on the configuration of the relationship between these two institutions. In the period of single-party rule –from the beginning of the republican era to the period of transition to the multi-party political system- bureaucracy and politics relationship militated in favor of bureaucracy and bureaucracy reached a dominant position. Together with Democrat Party’s coming into power, political power started to come to the forefront in the relationship between these two institutions. Developments in the post-1960 period show that bureaucracy couldn’t achieve such efficiency as in the period of single-party rule. The globalization process in the post-1980 period affected Turkey expeditiously and a number of policies were implemented for reducing the impact of bureaucracy. Since 2000 bureaucracy while bureaucracy as a whole has undergone a restructuring period, a major transformation has started. Together with this transformation, political power has seen to be more powerful and efficient vis-a-vis bureaucracy. In this study, bureaucracy and political power relationship, the evolution of this relationship from the republican period up to today and the factors having an impact on this relationship will be tried to be revealed. Keywords: Bureaucracy, Political Power, Evolution, Relationship

1.Introduction In all contemporary societies, state administration consists of political and administrative structure. While political structure ensures separation of pursued politics into various fields, administrative structure is responsible for conducting this politics which is separated into various

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN fields. In this process, there has been a long debate about what should be the position of bureaucracy in relation with political institutions and especially with political power. However, where the boundaries between these two institutions start and end cannot be revealed exactly especially with respect to senior administrators (Ergun & Polatoğlu, 1992: 240). At first glance, the relationship between these two institutions may not be seen as such an important problem. However conflict may come out when differences between the values of political power and bureaucracy arise. The process of conflict continues as bureaucracy’s set against political power and trying to prevent it from achieving its objectives. However, this situation is not continuous. After a while, political power eliminates this conflict by creating its own bureaucratic staff (Şaylan, 1986: 32). 2. The Position Of Bureaucracy In Relation To Political Power Today, state is administered by political power consisting of elected politicians and bureaucracy consisting of appointed officials. In this administration process, there has been a long debate about what should be the position of bureaucracy in its relation with political institutions, especially with political power. These debates revealed there different approaches (Eryılmaz, 2002:94). The first approach is the approach asserts that bureaucracy and bureaucrats must be strictly controlled by the elected politicians. In other words, it alleges that politics and administration must be separated from each other. Second approach on the other hand, rejects the distinction between politics and administration. It emphasizes the fact that bureaucracy has a political role in addition to administrative role and for this reason bureaucrats are an element taking part in the governance and policy making process. Third approach is a developing and attention-grabbing approach. This approach is in favour of giving senior bureaucrats some autonomous powers in the face of politicians in administrative system. To examine these approaches in a bit more detail: 2.1. The View of “Politics and Administration are Separate from Each Other” In liberal political theory, politics and administration are accepted to be different from each other (Akbulut, 2005: 11). This idea depends on the principle that in modern societies political function and administrative function must be undertaken by two different people located in two separate structures. While political duties are carried out by the elected, administrative duties are carried out by the officials situated in the hierarchical structure and acceded through appointment. Woodrow Wilson comes first among the thinkers adopting separation of administration and politics. In his article named as “The Study of Administration” Wilson tried to separate administration and politics from ecah other. He regarded politics as state acticity in major and universal issues; on

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN the other hand administration as activities involving individual and small businesses of the state. Thus, he interpreted politics as business of statesman and administration as business of official (Wilson, 1961: 64). Similar ideas are also asserted by Max Weber and Frank Goodnow. Max Weber accepted the presence of administration and politics relationship and wanted to draw a clear line between the roles of politician and bureaucrat (Güven, 1976: 51). Weber argued that in this relationship the objectivity of bureaucracy can be with the legal-rational bureaucracy understanding. He stated that since legal-rational bureaucracy is an institution

purified from intimateness and politicization, it

serves at the same level of efficiency and effectiveness to all types of political power (Heper, 1984: 293). Frank Goodnow, in the book “Politics and Administration” he wrote in 1900, argued that politics and administration must be precisely separated. According to him, politics is a way of declaring public claim; administration, on the other hand, is responsible for performing these claims (Ergun, 1997: 6). He argued that politics and administration are two functions different from each other. According to him, the principle of separation of powers provides for the separation of politics and administration (Ergun, 2004: 294). 2.2. The View of “Politics and Administration Cannot be Separated from Each Other” The first reaction to thoughts and attitudes about the fact that politics and administration are two separate processes different from each other came from Herbert A. Simon. Simon, in his work named as “Administrative Behaviour”, argued that politics and administration cannot be precisely separated from each other. According to him, there is a relationship and even nestedness between administration and politics. This relationship is seen clearly in the public policy making process. These thoughts of Simon and his colleagues were accepted by a lot of political scientists and public administrators. It is indicated that this distinction cannot be made especially in the public policy making process (Eryılmaz, 2013: 42). According to the view that argues that it is difficult to make a distinction between politics and administration, they are two interdependent elements complement of each other. Therefore, they argued that it is difficult to make a distinction between politics and administration and thus it is not possible to draw a boundary line between the two. Especially, when public policy making process is carefully examined, it can clearly be seen how administration and politics are intertwined (Güven, 1976: 52). While politicians determine general political framework and goals, administration takes decisions within this framework and implements them. Activities related to application constitute an extension of politics in broad sense. Implementation way, level and technique of a decision and organisations necessary for this have an important place in the execution of a certain politics successfully (Eryılmaz, 2013: 87). Moreover, administration units play an important role in information gathering, analysing and distributing which are important inputs in program and policy making (Ripley & Franklin, 1982: 32). In practice, the knowledge and expertise of the administration

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN affect policy determination on the one hand and keeps control of authority related to policy implementation on the other (Şaylan, 1981: 32). For this reason, since administration takes part in the general policy process, as well as its decisive position in public policy area, it is difficult to think administration and politics separately. 2.3. The View of “Giving Autonomous Powers to Senior Bureaucrats in the Face of Politicians in the Administrative System” The idea of taking precaution for preventing politicians in power from using their authority in a partisan way or in any other bad way and authorizing senior bureaucrats in order to achieve efficiency underlies on the basis of this approach. According to the supporters of this approach; authorising senior bureaucrats can ensure improvement of general public interest. Thus bureaucracy can hinder potential misuse of political power and privilege of powerful interest groups. Alongside this, it can also help improving enterprising and productive understanding of administration and increasing efficiency of public services. On the basis of this thought, there is the effort of establishing balance between objectivity, efficiency and productivity of bureaucratic administration and political representation (Eryılmaz, 2002: 96). It is really difficult to separate activities and decisions of politicians from those of bureaucracy in public policy formation, since political and bureaucratic characterisations represent the successive stages of decision making process. As each bureaucratic application has political effects, political decisions can transform into bureaucratic decisions in the application stage. There is always a connection between public policies and means that will implement them. Political and bureaucratic decisions affect each other. Thus, separation between function and issue with respect to the character of the job cannot be made precisely. Especially with respect to the positions and functions of senior officials, this distinction becomes even harder (Örnek, 1988: 42-43). For this reason, the idea that politics and administration are two sides of a whole and they are like partners of each other, even not rivals is put forth (Eryılmaz, 1994: 35). The latest development in the distinction between politics and administration is the neo-liberal ideology which emerged in the 1970s. This ideology supported the understanding of minimal state, strong market and focused on the necessity of redefining the role of the state. The state this understanding foresees will just provide the continuance of the system by withdrawing from economic and social functions that it assumed. This change in the role of the state has caused the revival of defining administration as a technical function and revival of the distinction between administration and politics. The idea of the fact that administrative units are just the “suppliers” of services and activities take place in the political field is re-registered in terms of politics-administration distinction (Güzelsarı, 2004: 89). In the next part of our study, we will try to put forward how the relationship between these two institutions pursues a course in Turkey starting from the first years of the Republic until today.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 3. Bureaucracy-Political Power Relationship In Turkey Republic-an administration adopted the base institutions of Ottoman Empire’s administration system. Hence, (therefore) the affair (condition) which resembles the relations of bureaucracy-political power in recent period of Ottoman administration was inherited to Republican Period. In order to prevent the ramification of this study; we exclude the progress in Ottoman Empire. We tried (try) to research and analyze the relations of bureaucracy- political power by splitting the Republican Period into four eras. 3.1.The period of Single Party Rule Bureaucracy of the republic aimed to undertake two missions; first, to sustain and adopt reforms by enhancing them and second; providing the precursory of state in economic development-growth (Eryılmaz, 1997: 1358). The republic bureaucracy undertaking such important missions –as Ottoman Bureaucracy- regards the state as its own reason of existence. The state became an institution to which bureaucracy gives service and benefits. For this reason, the strengthening and sustaining of state became the main purpose of Republic Bureaucrats (Sarıbay, 1984: 60-61). In upcoming years this purpose became the major factor determines the relations of bureaucracy-political power. When we look at the TBMM (GNAT) in the period of single party rule, we are able to see that the majority of elected consist of (originate from) bureaucrats. In parliament quantitative supremacy of bureaucrats provided impulse in the process of determining public policy and legislation. This statuscondition made bureaucrats effective in politics. In the period of single party rule there were any differences between the political attitudes of bureaucrats and ideas of political elites. Towards the end of 1930s, distinguishing the high bureaucracy from political elites became difficult (Heper, 1974: 111). Basic principles of modern bureaucracy such as efficiency and productivity in public services were subordinated by republic bureaucracy (Eryılmaz, 1997: 1358). In terms of bureaucracy-political powers relation, remarkable leaps were tried to be achieved by establishing the parliament system within the 1924 Constitution. The base of distinction between politician and administration laid a foundation but the efforts had been futile. Integrity between politics and administration, legislative and executive branch, remained same as mentioned above. In conclusion, Republic bureaucracy mainly pledged itself to support republic’s reform and new administration’s interests. As a result, within the context of legal rational function of being effective and productive was subordinated. Bureaucracy became precursory of modernist reforms. Efforts aimed at modernity increased the power and capacity of bureaucracy. Naturally, bureaucracy became the part of political processes and even participated effectively in decision-making process. Thus bureaucracy not only came off from executive branch of administration supervised by legislative branch but also became effective agent of executive branch and played important roles in policy making process. 3.2.The Period of Democrat Party

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN In the period of Democrat Party, compared to republic period radical changes took place in relations between bureaucracy and political power. These changes generally resulted against the bureaucracy. With the new competitive, multi-party political system, bureaucracy’s political dominance gradually weakened. Bureaucracy which used its political power single-handed started to share its power with new groups. Upcoming years, bureaucracy became dependent to new agents which hold political powers and had different approaches from bureaucracy (Şaylan, 1986: 87). Bureaucrats lost their power over political issues. At this period bureaucracy’s dominance in parliament and strong ties with political elites melted out. Bureaucrats considerably lost their status, reputation, reliability and income (Özbudun, 1995: 17). With Democrat Party’s accession to power, bureaucracy started to face with significant obstacles. These became the most serious issues for bureaucracy from westernization process. The reason of this was; dated from Ottoman administration, for the first time a group apart from traditional administration came into prominence in political life even grabbed the political power (Heper, 1974: 121) By this way, bureaucrats were removed their administrative positions that were effective in creating public policy and they were replaced with the representatives of new political power. Consequently bureaucracy lost its political effectiveness in a quick way (Şaylan, 1986: 84-85). Bureaucrats acted differently against new phenomena. Some bureaucrats responded furiously the new political condition and reacted harshly against intervention and criticising by politicians. These groups constantly clashed with new political power and generally bet. Another bureaucrats group steered for cooperation with the new political power. Some bureaucrats acted in the way of partisan bureaucrat model. One other group preferred to be passive and they tried to show their reaction in this way (Yalçındağ, 1987: 67). 3.3.The Period Between 1960-1980 Socio-political changes after 1960 period caused a new organization (paradigm) in every area of life including constitutional and political field. As a result, in Turkey a new era started in the relations of bureaucracy-political power. In order to prevent repetition of negative political relation between bureaucracy and political power in DP’s period, bureaucracy made some arrangements in 1961 Constitution. With new constitution the Administrative Courts which have jurisdiction over executive branch were strengthened and right to appeal in council of state was enacted for officials. In an effort to provide jurisdictional independence High Judicature Board were established. DPT which aimed to make policy about state’s economy and investments were also established. All this new agents established with the notion of empowering the appointed (bureaucracy) by restricting elected’s power (Özbudun, 1995: 20, Keyder, 1990: 122).

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1961 Constitution- apart from parliament and government- created institutions which de facto control government, make policy and not supervised. Henceforth these regulations provided bureaucracy to use national sovereignty with Parliament (Keyder, 1990: 122).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN In addition, due to be deeply politicized by coalition government, bureaucracy forced to face with political appointments and assignments. Political party bureaucrat notion substituted for merit and talented ones. As well as, while not accepting loss of status in Democrat Part period, bureaucrats started to acknowledge this condition and initiated to find independent-professions more attractive. Position of military bureaucracy became different than civil bureaucracy. Because in terms of incomes, social status and profession assurance (guarantee); military bureaucracy faced with more positive regulations. (Göküş, 2010: 221). During and after 12 March 1971 Memorandum, several regulations in constitution became milestone for new era in relations of bureaucracy-political power. Some institutions’ autonomy given by 1961 Constitution was retaken and political power were empowered against civil society, NGOs which utilized these institutions’ autonomy. After 1971 intervention, the ultimate participation of military in political life institutionalized. Thus National Security Council not only gave information to council of ministers as before but also had authority to give advice. (Heper, 2006: 170). Thus with National Security Council military bureaucracy became integrative part of state’s political and socioeconomical life, even became an institution determines major politics. Between the years of 1971–1979 there have been twelve changes of government. Governments in this period preferred “politics of plunder” and “spoils system” instead of principles of “system of competence” in relation to civil servants and have given place in bureaucracy to their supporters (Çulpan, 1980: 39). In 1973 and following years, the period of coalition governments, political parties which are partners in the government have largely caused politicisation of bureaucracy by installing their supporters within the bureaucracy. These approaches of governments have caused an increase in the average rate of change in top and medium level of administrators. Instead of competent and talented administrators, party-member-administrators have begun to be prevailed. Governments of the period, by means of appointing their supporters to the bureaucracy, have tried to keep it under their control (Eryılmaz, 1997: 1364). Parties which are coalition partners have not been contented with appointing their men to the top levels of bureaucracy; they also exhibited similar behaviours in the lower levels. In addition to this, thousands of new bureaucratic positions have been created. Each ministry have entirely been left to the disposal of political parties as if ministries are their own property. All these developments have led to the over-politicisation of the bureaucracy. Thus bureaucracy have lost its former ideological homogeneity and its strength to affect political life in line with its own preferences have weakened (Heper, 2006: 199-200). 3.4. The Period After 1980 While the constitution of 1982 made arrangements for empowering government as a reaction to the developments before 1980, it also equipped presidential wing of executive with new authority as the second power. Also, some arrangements to empower executive were made regarding council of ministers. The state of 1982 constitution, has given weight to the regulations to strengthen civil society

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN in the face of the political. With the coming to power of the Motherland Party bureaucracy in 1983, there have been significant developments in bureaucracy-political power relations. Different ideas were raised about the ideology, structure and properties of Turkish public bureaucracy. In this context, alongside the studies such as the reduction of bureaucratic procedures and the reorganization of state structure, the effectiveness of bureaucracy have been tried to be decreased by placing the understanding of liberalism, privatization and free competition. Although ANAP period has advanced as bureaucracy’s loss of power and fall under the authority of government, this change has been relative. ANAP government have not been able to take bureaucracy completely under its control and ensure transform of bureaucracy’s role into instrumental nature. Often bureaucracy has showed resistance (Tataroğlu, 1998: 3598-3600).In other words, in ANAP period, bureaucracy has been fought, but solution about the entrenched problems of bureaucracy has not been achieved (Eryılmaz, 2002: 152-153). In 1990s, supreme boards become the main topic of bureaucracy. The aim of supreme boards which are founded with the support of international organisations is to save public institutions from daily populist activities and effects of politicians. Thus civil bureaucracy, which came under the control of politics in accordance with both “partisanisation” and other political decisions, started to move away from effect of politics by virtue of these autonomous councils (Durgun, 2002: 100). These boards began to politicise in time and political proximity started to come to the forefront in the designation of the names who will take charge in other than the dimension of competence (Eryılmaz, 2002:163). Many reforms made in the field of public administration in the world in 1990s take hold of Turkish public administration. And with the good governance principles such as efficiency, productivity, participation, transparency, accountability, decentralisation in public administration, it was expected that Turkish public administration realised a fundamental mental transformation. However, until 2000s, as well as public bureaucracy couldn’t keep up with the developments in economic and social structure, much success was not achieved in studies about this issue. Starting from 2000, public bureaucracy was treated as a whole and a restructuring process started. In this process, public bureaucracy started to undergo an important transformation in terms of structure and functioning (Eryılmaz, 2012:301) Together with the transition from interventionist state to regulatory state, new actors began to be influential in the structures in charge of regulating markets by means of governance. It is thought that decrease in the intervention of state in the social life will also decrease bureaucracy’s social strength. Sharing power with private sector and non-governmental organisations in supreme boards, limited the decisive power of bureaucracy in decision making processes. 2000s, when Justice and Development Party came to power marked the beginning of a new era in Turkish political life. In this period, the concept of bureaucracy was used in two different meanings.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The first one is in negative sense which is “retardation of work, red tape, awkwardness, excessive adherence to authority, inefficiency”. The second one is its meaning as “public administration device”. In party program, these two meanings were used and it is emphasized that bureaucracy must be restructured in accordance with the requirements of the period and must be operated effectively in guidance of politics (Yılmaz& Güler: 2016:300). In the first years of its ruling when it just came to power, Justice and Development Party have not yet entered into open conflict with the bureaucracy. In the later years of its ruling, it named bureaucracy as an oligarchic structure. With several reforms, especially Information Act and EGovernment Project, it is announced that transition from rigid and closed bureaucracy to a transparent administration which is sensitive to new needs and requests and in interaction with the people has been achieved. Prominent people of Justice and Development Party argued that the understanding which tries to create a regime shaped with the will of bureaucratic oligarchy lost its efficiency with their policies. Together with the policies implemented in this period, a significant change was achieved in drawing bureaucracy to the position of “public service tool” and in perception of society about bureaucracy (Yılmaz-&Güler, 2016:302). Thus the effectiveness of bureaucracy vis-a-vis political power has decreased. In later years the ruling bureaucracy has called oligarchic structure. Information Act and the EGovernment Project bureaucracy with various reforms carried off the floor and, especially, which interacts with and responsive to new needs and wishes of the people has been declared the transition to transparent management. The specific focus of the elders of the Justice and Development Party and the bureaucratic oligarchy formed a government with the will to form a working understanding of creation, argued that lose their effectiveness with their politics. Bureaucracy with the policy put forward in this period of "public service vehicle" position and pull the society's perception of the bureaucracy has also carried out significant changes (Yılmaz&Guler, 2016: 302). Thus the bureaucracy against the political power efficiency is considerably reduced. Conclusion In single party period, Republican bureaucracy undertook the duty of supporting Republican reforms and interests of new administration. For this reason, being efficient and productive in legalrational sense which is its main duty stayed in the background. As a result of this, bureaucracy instinctively participated in political process and had a say in political power participated in political process by even further going ahead. Together with Democrat Party rule, bureaucracy started to face with important obstacles. These were the most serious challenges faced since the beginning of westernisation process. The reason of this was coming to the fore of a group other than traditional administrative groups and even their seizure of political power. Thus bureaucrats were rapidly removed from administrative positions that are effective in the formation of public policies and they were replaced with the representatives of new political power.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Although 1960 revolution created the expectancy of bureaucracy’s return to its powerful days in the period of single-party rule, it wasn’t realised. In this period, because of the fact that bureaucracy was heavily politicised especially in the period of coalition governments, it was exposed to political appointments and designations. These applications provided bureaucracy’s having different ideological views and caused to dying out of its feature of acting together. Instead of talented and competent administrator, the understanding of partisan bureaucrat has been started to prevail. 1982 Constitution brought arrangements that ensure the empowerment of political power. Ruling Motherland Part, even though partially, provided bureaucracy’s loss of power and its falling under the authority of political power. Until 2000s, as well as traditional public bureaucracy have not kept pace with the developments in the economic and social structure, it also have not achieved in studies done about this issue. Together with the coming to the power of Justice and Development Party, it has been seen that public bureaucracy has undergone a process of restructuring handled as a whole. In this process, public bureaucracy started to undergo a significant transformation regarding structure and functioning. Because of the new administration understanding and implementations in this period, efficiency of bureaucracy decreased in the face of politics.

References Akbulut, Ö. Ö. (2005.) Siyaset ve Yönetim İlişkisi kurumsal ve Eleştirel Bir Yaklaşım, TODAİE, Ankara Çulpan, R. (1980). “Bürokratik sistemin Yozlaşması”, Amme İdaresi Dergisi, 13( 2), pp.31–45 Durgun Ş. (2002). “Türk Kamu Yönetiminde Bürokratik Siyaset”, G.Ü. İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi, Özel Sayı, pp.83-102 Ergun T. (1997), “Postmodernizm Ve Kamu Yönetimi”, Amme İdaresi Dergisi, 30,(4) Ergun T. &Aykut P.(1992). Kamu Yönetimine Giriş, TODAİE Yayını, Ankara Eryılmaz B.(1994). “Bürokrasi ve Yönetimde Açıklık”, Politik Yozlaşma ve Şeffaf Yönetim Sempozyumu , İzmir Eryılmaz, B. (2013), Kamu Yönetimi, Umuttepe Yayınları, 6.Baskı, Kocaeli Eryılmaz, B.(2002), Bürokrasi ve Siyaset Bürokratik Devletten Etkin Yönetime, Alfa Yayınları, Bursa Göküş, M. (2010). “1960-1980 Döneminde Türk Kamu Bürokrasisinin Hukuki, Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Değişimi”, ZKÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 6, (12), pp.203-223 Güven S. (1976). “İdare Siyaset İlişkileri ve Personel Yönetimi Açısından Önemi”, Amme İdaresi Dergisi, :6(1), pp 50–60 Güzelsarı S.(2004).”Kamu Yönetimi Disiplininde Yeni Kamu Yönetimi İşletmeciliği ve Yönetişim Yaklaşımları”, Kamu Yönetimi Gelişimi Ve Güncel Sorunları, (Edt. M.Kemal Öktem ve Uğur Ömürgönülşen), İmaj Yayınevi, Ankara Heper M. (1974). Bürokratik Yönetim Geleneği: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ve Türkiye Cumhuriyetinde Gelişimi ve Niteliği, ODTÜ idari Bilimler Fakültesi Yayını, Ongun Kardeşler Matbaası, Ankara Heper, M.(1984). “Bürokrasisi”, Cumhuriyet Dönemi Türkiye Ansiklopedisi, Cilt 2, İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul Heper, M.(2006). Türkiye’de Devlet Geleneği, Doğu Batı Yayınları, Keyder, Ç.(1990). Türkiye’de Devlet ve Sınıflar, İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Örnek A. (1988). Kamu Yönetimi, Metinler Matbaacılık, İstanbul. Özbudun, E.(1995). “Türkiye’de Devlet Seçkinleri ve Demokratik Siyasal Kültür”, Türkiye’de Demokratik Siyasal Kültür, Türk Demokrasi Vakfı Yayınları, Ankara Ribley, B. R. & Franklin, A.G. (1982). Bureaucracy and Policy İmplementatian, The Dorsey Press, Sarıbay A. Y.(1985). Postmodernite Sivil Toplum ve İslam, İletişim Yayınları-İstanbul Şaylan, G. (1986). Türkiye’de Kapitalizm Bürokrasi ve Siyasi İdeoloji, Verso Yayınları, Ankara. Şaylan G.(1981). Türkiye’de Kapitalizm Bürokrasi ve Siyasi İdeoloji, Verso Yayınları, Ankara Tataroğlu M.(1998). “Cumhuriyet Döneminde Bürokrasinin Rolü”, Yeni Türkiye Dergisi, 4 (23-24), pp35893600 Wilson W.(1961). Seçme Parçalar, (Çev., Nermin Abadan),Türk Siyasi İlimler Derneği Yayınları, İstanbul Yalçındağ S. (1987). “Kamu Yönetiminde Halkla İlişkiler”, Halkla İlişkiler Sempozyumu-87, TODAİE Yayınları, Ankara. Yılmaz A.&Güler T.(2016). “AK Parti Hükümetleri Döneminde Siyaset Ve Bürokrasi Arasındaki Güç Mücadelesinin Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı Üzerinden Okunması”, Yönetim ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 14 (2) pp.294-316

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LIGHT AS AN INSTRUMENT OF VISUAL METAPHOR AND EXPRESSION IN CINEMA PRODUCTIONS: THE EXAMPLE OF FILM NOIR1 Mehmet Sefa DOĞRU SelcukUniversity, Faculty of Communication, Foreign Language Teaching Dept. [email protected] Abstract Lighting not only makes the objects visible but also provides meaning, aesthetics and a new dimension to footage. According to Eisenstein, light becomes an activity to produce a real meaning while light is a montage element according to Greg Tolland, the cinematographer of Orson Welles. Although light is primarily a physical data, it turns into a psychological and symbolic value in da Hitchcock’s works. In the first chapter of this study called “Light as an Instrument of Visual Metaphor and Expression in Cinema Productions: The Example of Film Noir”, the development of light-shadow technique in the art of drawing and its effects on cinema, the origins of film lighting and the use of lighting as a dramatic element will be discussed. In the second chapter, the structural framework of the Expressionist German Cinema and the cinematographic inheritance it left to film noir will be set. Finally, the film “Seven (Se7en)” directed by David Fincher will be analyzed through “Mise en chene Analysis” based on the techniques employed by film noir in terms of lighting. Keywords: Renaissance Painting, Cinema, Expressionist Cinema, Film Noir, Lighting,

1. Introduction Throughout the history, the black represented bad luck, hatred, fear and agony as the darkest color and opposite to white but it also represented loyalty, reliability and endurance. On the contrary, white symbolized both beginning and end of life, cold, silence, peace and virginity as well as death on the contrary to black. The grey which was regarded as the symbol of negotiation and introversion was symbolized as the color of indecision, sadness, distress, and pessimism (Ercan, 2010:4). Of course, one of the major components of the cinema art is the images. Almost all the major directors of photography analyzed the works of classical art of painting and decided on Chiaroscuro for the art of cinema. When we mention about the art of cinema and visuality, the very first thing to come up to minds is light and shadow. Light and shadow signify the image and turns into one of the most important narration elements which employ passion, fear, hope, delight and sadness. The lighting rehearsal is one of the major factors which radically changes the image in cinema and television and where the changes are directly reflected. Lighting not only makes the object visible but also provide meaning, aesthetics and a new dimension to the image. For Einstein, lighting is a real activity of creating meaning while lighting is a fiction element for Greg Tolland, the famous director of photography of Orson Welles. Although the light is a physical data above all, it receives a psychological and symbolic value with Hitchcock. The employment of lighting as a dramatic elements comes from its two types of effects. They are objective and subjective effects. The objective effect of the lighting emerges when it changes the appearance of the object, the same object turns into other shapes. The subjective effect of lighting is a sense which a definite light level arouses in us. The objects which we don‟t care in the daylight may turn into scaring objects in the dark. The bright and sunny weather may arouse delight and vitality while the dark and rainy weather gives sadness and depression. The light impels not only the space but also time. The study is important since it reveals that how the lighting which is an important and indispensable 1

This study is the postgraduate thesis accepted by Selçuk University, the Institute of Social Sciences in 2013.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN element in reflecting the characteristics of the screenplay on the curtain in aesthetic and different forms reached to the peak point in terms of presenting the inheritance it received from the art of drawing and as an element which supports the meaning through film noir. When the developments which were experienced especially in lighting techniques and diversities in the applications are considered, it is thought that this study will contribute to the new studies since there are very few studies related to the cinema within this context. The hypothesis of this study are as follows: 1. The lighting which is employed to produce meaning in the cinema is inspired by the art of drawing. 2. The images employed in the cinema language create stronger and sharp emphasis through lighting. 3. No matter how well the dramatic language is and how rich the employed space is, producing meaning and visuality will be incomplete without a good lighting. The universe of the study consists of films noir which are called the golden age of the lighting and sampling consists the film Seven (Se7en) chosen among the films directed by David Fincher through random sampling and which was evaluated within the context of „Neo-Noir‟. This study is limited with the effect of the drawing art on the cinema in terms of light and shadow technique and films noir where this technique was employed. This film which was chosen to reveal the contribution of light-shadow technique to the narration was chosen among the films which were considered as the golden age of the lighting. “The Critics of Mise en Scene” was chosen as the method. related field, and relevant studies in the literature (if your paper is not going to include a Literature Review section) 2. Light As A Narration Instrument In addition to making the some objects visible in the productions of cinema and television, lighting also helps in creating and controlling the effect to be reflected to the stage and screen. The very first applications of light in art is seen in the art of drawing which exists before cinema and television. Gombrich who stated that two different copies of a picture wouldn‟t seem similar in an illuminated and enlightened environment and human eye react against high brightness intervals and brightness degrees when compared to the actual amount of light also points out that human psychology and emotions can be explained and influenced through lighting (Cited by, Bayram : 2009, 125) The art of drawing developed the lighting techniques. The painters provided meanings to the issue on the canvas through light and colors. Cinema borrowed lighting techniques from the drawing art and turned it into specific narration instrument. Lighting has great significance for arranging the images in the cinema. The painters transfer the issue they deal to the audience after they conduct necessary arrangements of light; similarly, film makers employ light arrangements while organizing the images (Arslantepe, 2012: 32). 2.1. The Development of Light-Shadow Technique in the Art of Drawing The ancient products of the human memory helps us to perceive the creative impulses behind the works of art from the resource itself. The art is perhaps the most specific utterance of a unique prodigy which drifts human being to repeat the creative acquisition of the Creator in everything. It is a work and activity of magic which human displayed his dominance on the nature (Bazin: 1998, 15). As seen in all the fine arts, the art of drawing has been considered as a simple handicraft since the Antique Age. Throughout a long and slow process, the painters slowly and gradually got free from their status as the craftsmen and express their opinions as free artists. Great transformations which starts to occur in every field of life and cause an intellectual position through a new point of view at the end of the Medieval Age underlie those new perceptions in art (Krausse, 2005:6). New inventions by Italian and Flemish artists at the beginning of the 15.th century breathed new life into entire Europe. The painters and protectors of art have taken a fancy to the idea that art not only helps to effectively narrate a holy story but also reflect an actual part of this world as if it is a mirror. 631

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The very first result of this great revolution in art which instantly emerges led the artists all over the world start new trials and seek for new and surprising effects (Gombrich, 1997:247). In the history of Western art, drawing arouse among the other branches of art during the early Renaissance period and reached to the top. Thus, a new relationship emerged between the work of art and the audience. From then on, drawing not only aims to fulfill a function but also to challenges to its own audience. Ever-increasingly, the artists drifted away from the superficial „naturality‟ and turned to other directions towards understanding the natural life more deeply (Wundram, 2008: 6). The end of 16.th century, the tendency of locating the issues to a natural environment through surrounding the issues with light and atmosphere by Renaissance gave way to a technique with dark shadow called “tenebrism” in the 17.th century. In the works which are conducted through this technique and remind a „shadow-show‟, the fantastic is frequently observed: the contrast of light and shadow so strong that it seems that the objects were closet in a completely dark room and then abruptly enlightened. The created effect is rather dramatic and ideal for the expression of religious mysteries (Parramon, 1997: 12-13). Between the years of 1430 and 1450, the artists created a new atmosphere of art. Massaccio evaluated light and considered it as an element to determine three-dimensionality (Kınay, 1993:29). Masaccio who was the first to perceive the „exploration‟ of perspective for the art of drawing caught the sense of actual depth in his fresco called “the Holy Trinity” (Figure 1) and the figures which gained a three-dimensionality through a soft light adjustment turned into an existence which were never seen before, an independence and individualism (Krausse, 2005: 9,10). In his fresco which is called “the Dream of Constantine” and narrates the famous dream legend which causes the Emperor Constantine adopt the Christian belief, Piero della Frencesca added a new method to those geometrical ones with the purpose of giving the sense of place on the stage: the use of light. In this painting, light not only helped to gaining volume of the figures but also played an important role in creating depth illusion equal to the perspective. Light and shadow helped Piero in creating “the mysterious atmosphere” of the scene where the Emperor had the dream which changes the flow of the history and occurs in the depth of the night (Gombrich, 1997:260). Correggio balanced the forms through color and light in his painting called „the Holy Night‟ (Figure 3) and progressed further than Tiziano related to focusing our sight on determined. The one who runs towards the stage in accompany with the shepherd and who sees that miracle of light which enlightens the darkness mentioned in the Bible of John the Baptist is us (Gombrich, 1997: 337). In his painting called „the Final Supper‟ (Figure 4) which he painted in 1550, Tintoretto supported the effect of depth with light. The light which was focused on the people around a table in the room in the twilight clears towards the middle of the picture and effuses out from the window behind the Christ (İpşiroğlu, 1977: 106, 107).

Masaccio who was the first to perceive the „exploration‟ of perspective for the art of drawing caught the sense of actual depth in his fresco called “the Holy Trinity” (Figure 1) and the figures which gained a three-dimensionality through a soft light adjustment turned into an existence which were never seen before, an independence and individualism (Krausse, 2005: 9,10). In his fresco which is called “the Dream of Constantine” and narrates the famous dream legend which causes the Emperor Constantine adopt the Christian belief, Piero della Frencesca added a new method to those geometrical ones with the purpose of giving the sense of place on the stage: the use of light. In

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN this painting, light not only helped to gaining volume of the figures but also played an important role in creating depth illusion equal to the perspective. Light and shadow helped Piero in creating “the mysterious atmosphere” of the scene where the Emperor had the dream which changes the flow of the history and occurs in the depth of the night (Gombrich, 1997:260). Correggio balanced the forms through color and light in his painting called „the Holy Night‟ (Figure 3) and progressed further than Tiziano related to focusing our sight on determined. The one who runs towards the stage in accompany with the shepherd and who sees that miracle of light which enlightens the darkness mentioned in the Bible of John the Baptist is us (Gombrich, 1997: 337). In his painting called „the Final Supper‟ (Figure 4) which he painted in 1550, Tintoretto supported the effect of depth with light. The light which was focused on the people around a table in the room in the twilight clears towards the middle of the picture and effuses out from the window behind the Christ (İpşiroğlu, 1977: 106, 107).

The use of light-shadow by Caravvaggio in the forms of sharp contrasts and his way of interpreting religious issues caused discomfort during his period (Tansuğ, 1999: 180). Despite their complete reality, he also took care of spiritual dimensions of the figures he described and he revealed this dimension generally through unusual light tricks. His „Chiaroscuro‟ style figures which he created through dark shadows was also called „the style of basement window‟ since he instantly took out the figures from the darkness and this style became one of the indispensable style elements (Krausse, 2005: 35, 36). In his work called „Call for Saint Matta‟ (Figure 4), he provided the refunction of high-power specificity of volume into the Italian painting through impressive simplicity of his compositions, sharp light and shadow contrasts given by enlightenment coming from the sides (Bazin, 1998: 354). The light which sneaks in through the right side of the painting from a high but unknown resource enlightens the figures through it spot effect and dramatizes the atmosphere (Stokstad, 1992: 767). Among the artists following his path, „the Caravaggioist people from Utrecht‟ draws the attention. Gerit van Honthorst described the scene of „Dentist‟ exactly in the style of Caravaggio and he provided a mysterious and confidential air through the light he employed (Krausse, 2005: 35). Georges de la Tour is also one of the painters who inherited the dramatic transparent-dark color of Caravaggio. As seen in his work called „the Birth‟, La Tour preferred the light of a single candle which isn‟t mostly regarded as a light resource (Krausse, 2005: 35). In the works of La Tour which he employed either daylight or a single candle, the groups of people are surrounded by a quiet and mysterious atmosphere (Tansuğ, 1999: 186). As for Rembrandt, the events mostly take place indoor. He employs the light completely in his own way. Rembrandt increased the emotional effect and depth of the picture especially through creating transparent-dark effects (Krausse, 2005: 42). As a masterpiece, the work called „the Anatomy Lesson by Doctor Tulp‟ and dated 1632 brings light to this dimension of the painter. This work creates an air much more different than the other portraits of the period in terms of employing color and light, attention paid to expressions and comfortable organization chart which demolishes the dry patterns (Beksaç, 1995: 67). Light is the major character is his works. This light isn‟t the pure light which gives the details of the figures but is a poor enlightenment which falls into a dark and humid shade and drown to blow out. Light doesn‟t enlighten the objects, it seems as if going out of it. The phosphorescence occurring around the faces is seems like the divine light emitted by them (Hourtıcq and Toprak, 1967: 114-115).

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In this work, Rembrandt proves that he was a successful „light worker‟. The faces of the doctors are washed by the striking bright light and the individuals who exist with their personalities all together come out of darkness and are defined as a group. 2.2. The Origins of Film Lighting Lighting creates an environment to tell a story. Cinema is fundamentally tells a story through pictures (Brown, 2010: 1). In the cinema, the thing which enables us see the light activity is more than lighting. The brighter and darker areas in the frame help in creating a complete composition for each filming and thus it guides paying attention to definite objects or actions. A brightly enlightened place may draw attention through an important gesticulation while a shadow may hide a detail or creates a tension related to the presented issue (Bordwell and Thompson, 2012: 131). Almost all the major directors of photography analyzed the works of masters of classical drawing art and majority of them decided on „Chiaroscuro‟ in terms of the art of cinema. Light and shadow provide meaning to the image. Light turns into the most important narration elements which carry passion, fear, hope, joy and sorrow inside it. Studios are at open air: movie sets were installed at backyards and the sun was employed as the source of light. The first studio was established by K.L. Dickson who was the co-creator of the cinema technology in accompany with Thomas Edison. The studio called „Black Maria‟ was constructed on a rotating ground in order to follow the sunlight throughout the day (Brown, 1996:2). In New York where the film industry was born, the studios were constructed on the top floors of the buildings with glass ceilings. In order to soften the light and obtain fluctuation, giant muslin curtains were employed under the glasses. Later on, the arc-lamps were employed to get better light but it was impossible to control them. One of the peak points of lighting as a narration instrument is the age of film noir. The most distinct characteristics of the American films of 1940‟ and 1950‟s which almost all of them were filmed in black and white is soft lighting. The technical inventions such as faster lenses, smaller and faster camera cars and easily portable light resources which were developed during the World War II and minimize the logistic problems that complicated the filming in the natural environments all contributed to the development of this style. In cinema, the type films have specific lighting styles. Horror films employ dark, dim-lit and shaded lighting. Science fiction films focus on white, grey and shining light. Musical films have bright and eyeful light. Western films have day light and yellow. Psychological films aim to reflect the psychology of the individual (Arslantepe, 2012: 34). The use of lighting as a dramatic element is due to its two types of effect. They are objective and subjective effects. The objective effect of lighting emerges when the appearance of the object is changed. The subjective effect of lighting is the sense which the level of light excited in us. The objects which don‟t draw our attention in the daylight turn into scaring objects. A bright and sunny day gives us joy and vitality while darkness brings us sorrow and depression. Light not also activates space but also the time. In 1910‟s, the French director Abel Gance defined cinema as “the music of light”. Starting from the same opinion, Walter Ruttman states that “the music of light has been the heart of the cinema and will remain so”. The light which is employed to make the objects detectable in the image arrangements is an important element that provides depth to the composition and turns it into a narration instrument (Kars, 1993:116). The objects look different depending on how they are enlightened. The light coming from the front enlightens the objects strongly. However, the light at the back creates a silhouette. Enlightening from the sides, from bottom, and from the top; all of them create different emotional occasions through creating different shadow forms (Butler, 2011: 35). The light not only activates the space but also the time. Due to the rise of the sun and the sunset, and resealable window shutters; the density of light increases and decreases and they are natural effects which provide dynamism to life. For the movie-makers, they become interesting when they encounter the psychological moments and support the meaning (Güngör, 1994: 68). Frederico Fellini gives this reasoning related to light: “cinema is image and light consists of images”. Then, light is everything in cinema. A film is written through light. A creator reflects his style this way” 634

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN (Güngör, 1994: 67). 2.3 From Expressionism to Film Noir 2.3.1 Expressionism The art movement of the 20.th century where emotions and inner world are brought into forefront instead of representing the nature as is. In the environment of the political instability and economic rout, it emerged as a reaction to positivism, naturalism and impressionism. The purpose of expressionist art is expressing the emotions and inner world through color, line, plane and mass. In order to represent those feelings, the artist breaks the traditional rules and deforms the truth; this occasion is based on the subjective emotions of the artists. According to the artists of the movement, the outer world is like an empty and lifeless shell in the eye of the artist. While choosing the topic, he may still be inspired by it. However, the real life can‟t solely determine the content of the picture. „The actual reality‟, namely, distortion of the objects in order to emphasize the essence of the matter is necessary to catch the essence of the invisible but felt matters (Krause, 2005:88). The expressionists expressed their art as the explanation of the spirit of the life and being able to learn the pictorial gestures through intuition. They are connected with a long art tradition (Krause, 2005:88). 2.3.2 Expressionist Cinema While the directors present their art, they display their differences in using camera, light and fiction; the issues they deal with in their films also changed with the effect of social, political and economic developments experienced during their periods and pioneered in the birth of different cinema movements. When the history of cinema is analyzed, it may be seen that the films of some countries are so successful, innovative and superior that they affect the cinema all over the world. The most striking examples of this occasion are observed in Germany and Soviet Union during 1920‟s (Abisel, 2010: 143). “Expressionism” which emerged in Germany at the beginning of the 20.th century and showed up in cinema as well as in painting, sculpture, poems and literature left an indelible impression in art in all the western countries. Expressionist images were observed in numerous American films (Nichimson, 2012: 110). This movement was noted for its oblique camera angles and beyond the reality, the use of light and shadow. The narrations are supported by the fairy tales or Gothic Horror Stories and analyzes the psychological events. This movement left a great impression on Alfred Hitchcock who was working in Germany in mid-1920. Some of its implementers moved to America and they primarily influenced the Universal Horror films of 1930‟s and then perspective of Film Noir (Butler, 2011: 144). In expressionism which was transferred to cinema from painting and theatre, a shadowy lighting, a surrealistic decor, artificial role playing and the excessive style of the cameras which travels all around this “unreal” world are the most striking characteristics. The rude and barbaric image of the films in this movement is accompanied by the objects of death and low level life (Biryıldız, 2002: 40). The existence of expressionism in Germany after the war, especially in cinema, is doubtlessly related to expression of this movement. The perceptions of the expressionist artists and their implementation forms, namely, their opinions stating that the solely expression of the beautiful objects in the art is hypocrisy and the art should express the realities such as agony, misery and violence mattered a lot for the people who were defeated during the war and have been experiencing those miseries and agonies (Coşkun, 2003: 66). There are numerous factors which influence the emerging of Expressionist German Cinema. First of them is the effect of UFA (Universium Film Aktiengesellschaft) established in 1917. The second factor is the effects of the intellectual excitements observed in Germany after the War. The third factor are the films of Der Student Von Prag, Golem and Homunculus which were filmed before the World War I but predicts the issues after the war, reflects the fantastic world and full with imaginary creatures as well as the films Der Andere which displays a psychological disorder. This aforementioned four films which were among the archaic films shot in Germany prior to the World War I draw attention and were effective in the formation of the contents of the films of the Expressionist German Cinema (Biryıldız, 2002: 44).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2.4. Film Noir The Gangster Films which had the initial examples in serial films in America and France tackled the prohibition of the alcoholic beverages, the illegal sale of alcoholic beverages, and the life and conflicts of the gangsters who deal with the trade of drugs, women and children, and bank robberies which were seen in American life towards the end of 1920‟s as a result of the economic crisis. (Onaran, 1994: 110-111). The type of gangster narrates a period of American history it especially mythologizes the period of Prohibitions. The producers argued that invited the governments to take precautions through presenting the audience violence and thriller in the films (Butler, 2011: 150). Towards the end of the period, the criminal characters in the gangster films underwent a change. The gangster character turned into an ordinary criminal and an individual from the streets. A character of a private detective was given to fight to the criminal. Although the detective is a positive person, he is melancholic and skeptical. Those films were classified as Film Noir in 1940‟s (Arslantepe, 2012: 134). The term film noir initially presented by two French authors, Raymond Borde and Etienne Chaumeton, points out the films referring to the noir novels written by Raymond Chandler, Dashiell Hammett and James M. Cain (Tansel, 2007: 32). Borde and Chaumeton present the features of the film noir. Accordingly the main axis of the story is crime. The events are narrated from the perspective of the criminal not the police. Since the detective is also involved the crime, he isn‟t completely innocent. In such films, the elements of violence have a wide coverage. The screenplay displays unexpected returns and surprises the audience and the film finished with an unexpected end. Different from the classical detective stories, the hero isn‟t mandatorily the detective. Even if the hero is the detective, he isn‟t completely good and he is in relation with crime. In those films, not only the criminals but also everyone is guilty. Both underworld and over ground are corrupted (Cited by: Tansel, 2007: 32) The films in Film Noir are the films darkness and black is visually dominant in addition to the thematic pessimism (Biryıldız, 2012: 122). Film noir are the fictions which Americans called „hard-boiled‟, regales, owns a planned narration structure accompanied by a perfect murder and evidences but a suspected who is innocent, victim, the informant, the tattler, mysterious events, falling into trap or being trapped, foolish mistakes, violence, sex and, in any case, a tracker private detective who works hard to solve the murder (Özdemir, 2011: 17). Film noir produced the bare light/darkness contrasts and dramatic shadow pattern and headed towards modest lightening systems. The shadows of an actor, a wall or a whole environment of the Venice curtains are iconic images and became a cliché before the period of new film noir. In order not to conduce to the rising vindication of men, the stories are re-shaped and femme fatale suffer the consequences of their badness and disloyalty through their dramatic end (Özdemir, 2011: 29). There is a marked difference between classical cinema narration and film noir in terms of content and style. In film noir, the elements such as make-up, decors, lighting and music have significance. In those films, the contrasts of shadow-light are apparent (Cited by: Tansel: 2007: 34-35) 3. The Analysis of Lighting as a Visual Metaphor and Narration Instrument: The Example of “Seven (Se7en)” In film noire which draws the picture of a world trapped in the darkness, the lighting techniques which contribute to narration manifest themselves. The film noir preferred using plain lighting systems through producing the contrasts of light/darkness and the patterns of dramatic shadow after the classical period which is also called classical period or neo-noir. In film noir, the visuality depending on artificial lighting is employed this way to reflect the actual world better. The mood of those films depend on the design on light and set. The rain in the dark streets and the images with high contrast thanks to low level light are the visual characteristics seen in films noir. Lightening with high contrasts has a significant place in film noir. The director of photography is as important as the director in the film noir (Mutluer, 2008: 26). 4. Method Another point to be considered in analyzing films is the term “mise en scene”. The term mise en scene which is theatre-based shortly means “to put into stage” (Cited by: Kabadayı, 2013:45). The mise en scene which is directly in relation with the staged activity basically has six elements. Decor/site, lighting, costumes, hair, make up and the movements of players are the elements of mise en scene 636

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN (Cited by: Kabadayı, 2013: 45). Perceiving the critics of mise en scene by the reader is based on awareness of the reader related to the elements of mise en scene. Thus, the analysis may be conducted without needing explaining what mise en scene is and what it contains while executing critics (Kabadayı, 2013: 114) While criticizing the mise en scene; the length of filming as a visual style, the ranking of the filmings, whether camera panning activity was conducted or not, whether this occasion was specific to the occasion or not, the reasons for dynamic shot, and technical comparison of the similar sequences are considered (Kabadayı, 2013: 115). To sum up, one of the mise en scene elements, „lighting‟, was discussed in the application section of the film related to the film analyzed through mise en scene critics. In the sample film, lighting was regarded as a narration and metaphorical instrument and it was analyzed under the title of „the qualification and dramatic structure of the light‟ considering the specific pattern of the film noir. In this direction, the sampling film was analyzed at the chosen sequences and within the context of the following parameters; i. What are the basic elements and qualifications of the lighting which shapes the stage? ii. What are the psychological, aesthetic and dramatic perceptions of lighting in the film (form, differentiation, depth, texture, directing the eyes, air, tone and objective & subjective etc.)? 4.1. Findings and Interpretation 4.1.1. Film of Seven (Se7en ) The film Seven which was written by Andrew Kevin Walker and is a film dealing with a serial murderer who kills the people committing the 7 fatal sins of the Christianity in savage methods and two police officers who are following him. It was filmed in Hollywood. Through its scenes which were filmed in a city with continuous rain, tones of lime green and dark spaces, it is regarded as one of the cinema classics. The Film Se7en (Seven) which David Fincher filmed before the film of Fight Club, employed gothic shadow games of German expressionist cinema and narrates the world of wise detectives who deal with the events through remaining at a distant is one of the film noir‟s which reflect the film noir nihilism best; the events take place in an environment with neurotic characters, crime, sin, murder, victim and hunter. The film Se7en starts with the story of a homicide desk and a classical serial murderer film and turns into a thriller film. The murderer who is clever and has a message to the society commits murders to say something about the Seven Deadly Sins since he felt himself responsible to the society. In his first murder, the murderer lefts a citation from the Paradise Lost by Milton to state that the path to light from hell was long and compelling and he implies that he will continue killing. 4.2. Personal Record of the Film Director: David Fincher / Script writer: Andrew Kevin Walker / Producer Arnold Kopelson and Phyllis Cariyle / Editor: Richard Francis-Bruce / Director of Photography: Darius Khondji / Casting: Brad Pitt (David Mills), Morgan Freeman (William Somerset), Kevin Spacey (John Doe), Gwyneth Paltrow (Tracy Mills) 4.3. The Analysis of the Chosen Sequences in Terms of Determined Parameters 4.3.1. The First Sequence (Prologue) This sequence which takes about 17 minutes starts with the scene with close shots to introduce the mood of Detective Somerset, the house he lives, his profession and him. The Basic Elements and Qualifications of Lighting that Shapes the Stage

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At the beginning of the film, the first plan of the scene (Figure 8) which introduces the character employed an ambient lighting which covers the entire place. The place where the character is seen, all the objects in the place and the relationships between the objects, their locations, and all the details consisting of the patterns are transmitted to the audience through lighting. The director desired to make the audience informed about the place and he hid no details through general lighting. For example, the chess set on the table, the trinkets near the frame and a neat counter all give us hints about the character. In the same time, the sunlight which is allowed to enter in through the window gives us information about the period of time. In the plan where the other hero of the film, Detective Mills, meets the audience (Figure 9), the character was enlightened through a key light on the right of the stage and a front light of ¾f and ill-in light with lower density than the key light on the left side of the stage and a contour light coming from the back of the character. This scene displays the typical three directions lighting and it separates the character from the background through providing him depth.

There is a complete light in the corridor where the player is located. In this scene (Figure 10), a key light with low density on the ground enlightens the right side of Detective Somerset while another light located on the eye level of the player enlightens his face through a light with lower density. In this way, the eye of the audience is separated from the scene and directed towards the anxious glance of the Detective Somerset. No fill-in light was employed here for that reason, the self-side of Detective Somerset is still dark. The torch in the hand of Detective Mills standing just behind Detective Somerset functions as a contour light. In this plan which consists of one of the details in the site of murder (Figure 11), the torch in the hand of Detective Somerset functions as a strong one direction resource of light. The relationships between the objects which are directly enlightened from the front, their forms and patterns were revealed. The area which is out of the area enlightened by the torch is completely dark. The concern was focused on spaghetti sauces. The rest of the frame was left completely dark. In this scene, no fill-in and contour lights were employed. The director avoided using fill-in and contour light in order to present the instant and unvarnished truth in the site of the murder instead of a dramatic effect. 4.3.2. The Psychological, Aesthetic and Dramatic Meanings Provided by Lightening.

This plan taken from the scene where Detevtive Somerset went to solve an ordinary case of murder (Figure 12) opens us the gate of a dark world where cheat, fraud and murder become ordinary. Low density lightening and light-shadow games which reflect the specific structure of the film noir were strongly employed in this plan. A tense, suffocating, scary and pessimist air was created through soft lightening which dominates the entire area and some clues were presented about the world which the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN events will occur. Detective Somerset and Detective Miller who came arrive at the crime site of the first murder related to seven deadly sin and the police officers accompanying them are seen in this plan (Figure 13) and the director doesn‟t clearly answer the questions related to the city where events take place, the period of time and similar questions. The only thing you should know is the overcast weather, the rain, disappearing details, and dark tones of color display that tis place is the known world of film noir which is insensitive, reckless and solely full of crime.the sunlight which hides all those scattered details uniforms with the image of a dark city.

It seems that the director avoids a general lightening, even in the low density, where details could be overlooked and trivialized in this plan (Figures 14, 15, 16, and 17). He takes the audience for a walk in the crime site through the help of the torch, in the same time, he underlines the details we should pay attention. So long as the detectives wander around the room, we learn more about the all the objects in the room which are enlightened through the torch and the place and the event. Here, the major task of the lightening is to reveal the shapes of the objects, guide the eyes and show their relationship with the place in such a dark atmosphere. At the end of the scene, the tension which the audience encountered with the violence the corpse experienced (Figures 18 and 19) and some hints about the murder (Figures 20 and 21) reaches to climax. Because, the dark and gloomy place which was created through lightening became so frightening that nobody wants to be there.

In the final of the scene, this lightening which is obtained from a close distant through the torch (Figure 22) is beyond the general lightening, it suddenly leaves the audience to the suffering face of the corpse and thus carries tension created by the unvarnished reality to the top level. The primary purpose of the regional lightening through the help of the torch is to make all the objects visible. Secondly, the low level ambient light which dominates the place in all the plans mentioned above was arranged so that the objects are discriminated from the background; because, it will be difficult to 639

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN discriminate the objects in the dark and thus the possibility of perception of the desired information by the audience properly will fall into danger. The torch lightening the details in the dark emphasizes the existence of the tracker detective who tries to solve the murder. 5. Result In this study, the meaning created by the lightening as a mise en scene element in the cinema productions, similar to costumes, make up and decore, the air formed by it and the psychological effects were analyzed. In the study, it was revealed through the film Seven (Se7en) which was analyzed in terms of using lightening techniques in cinema productions that the light affects and consolidates the stage through creative solutions, the way it changes the appearance of the actions and movements and its effectiveness in creating an atmosphere and meaning. When the development of the lightening technique within the art of drawing is considered, the contribution of light-shadow games which started with Caravaggio reached to top with Rembrandt to the composition in terms of content and meaning show similarities with the analyzed film. When the paintings of “Call for Saint Matta”, “the Death of Virgin” and “the Saint Matheus” by Caravvaggio is analyzed, it may be seen that the sharp light-shadow techniques which reveal the spiritual dimension of the rather than material dimension, figures reaching to the light from darkness, a single light resource coming from a dark background figures show similarities with the lighting techniques in the plans obtained from the film. When the painting called “the Anatomy Course of Dr. Tulp” and “Night Watchmen” which Rembrandt who explored dramatic light and shadow games extraordinarily increased emotional effects and depth through creating light-dark effects; it is also seen that those effects show similarity with soft lightening technique which is employed in the entire film and is specific to film noir. Especially, the strong contrasts and more accurately and darker shadows were created the same as Rembrandt consciously left majority of it or, sometimes, some parts of it in dark. Technically, especially in parallel with the issues of Rembrandt taking place in the indoors were employed in the general places where dark and mysterious scenes of the film. In the plans which were analyzed within the selected sequences, the arrangement of light-dark which the face and expressions of the players are brought into the forefront and light-shadow games which become evident (Chiaroscuro) the techniques we commonly encounter. The enlightening techniques employed in the film were used to create different meanings beyond the lightening the stage. The tension created by a dark world which is dominant in the entire film, the indecisiveness of the characters, the curiousity caused by bthe committed crimes and all the other details and different lightening techniques employed by the director show similarities with the light which falls into dark and humid region and fades away implemented by Rembrandt instead of the pure light which gives the details of the figures. Especially, the room which never gets sunlight and solely enlightened through a torches in the hands of the detectives and every detail which directs the story and increases the tension to the top level created a unique environment. The torch light moving in the darkness guide the audiences. The extra dark and extra light tones which contributes to the atmosphere created by in “Seven”, is an aesthetic implementation which brings the stage and movements into foreground. In the same time, those dark and light tones provide great contributions to the rainiy and gloomy noir world where the story progresses similar to the qualifications which are poetic and created by world of thought we observe in Rembrandt. In conclusion, this sudy reveals that the lightening as an important element of mise en scene provided huge contributions especially in the visual pattern of the noir world, the light-shadow games which refer to reckless and gloomy air of the metropolis life soaked with crime, the indecision and alienation of the individual and the sharp contrasts which determine the borders of the outer world all contribute to the meaning.

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References Arslantepe, Mehmet. (2012) Sinema Okur Yazarlığı. İzmit:Umuttepe Yayınları Bazın, Germaın (1998). Sanat Tarihi.(Çevirenler:Viren Üzra Ünal, Selahattin Hilav). İstanbul: Sosyal Yayınları. Beksaç, Engin (1995). Avrupa Sanatı'na Giriş. İstanbul: Engin Yayıncılık. Biryıldız, Esra (2012). Western'ler, Gangster Filmleri Ve Kara Filmlerde Erkeğin Sunumu Üzerine Bir Deneme. İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Hakemli Dergisi, 5, 117-130 Bordwell, David, Thompson Kristin. (2012). Film Sanatı. (Çevirenler: Ertan Yılmaz, Emrah Suat Onat). Ankara: De Ki Yayınları. Brown, Blain. (2010). Sinema ve Videoda Işıklandırma. İstanbul: Hil Yayınları. Coşkun, Esin. (2003). Dünya Sinemasında Akımlar. İstanbul: İzdüşüm Yayınları Ercan, Cansen. (2010). Rönesans'tan Günümüze Resim Sanatında, Beyazdan /Siyaha / Gri Rengin Kullanılışı, Giorgıo Morandı, Alberto Gıacomettı Ve Bernardbuffet'nin Resimlerinin Üslup Özelliklerinde 'Grinin Payı. Resim Ana Sanat Dalı Resim Programı. Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. İstanbul. Gombrıch, E. H (1999). Sanatın Öyküsü. (Çevirenler: Erol Erduran, Ömer Erduran). İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. Güngör A. Şefik. (1994). Sinemada Görüntü Yönetmeni, Ankara: Kitle Yayınları. Hourtıcq, Louıs, Toprak, Burhan (1967). Sanat Şaheserleri: Rönesanstan Bugüne Kadar. İstanbul: Güzel Sanatlar Akademisi Yayınları. İpşiroğlu, Mazhar, Akkan, Oğuz (1977). Oluşum Süreci İçinde Sanatın Tarihi. İstanbul: Cem Yayınları Kabadayı, Lale (2013), Film Eleştirisi: Kuramsal Çerçeve ve Sinemamızdan Örnek Çözümler, İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları Kars, Neşe. (2003).Televizyon Programı Yapalım Herkes İzlesin. İstanbul: Derin Yayınları. Kınay, Cahit (1993). Sanat Tarihi: Rönesans‟tan Yüzyılımıza - Geleneksel'den Modern'e. Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları. Krausse, Anna-Carola (2005). Rönesanstan Günümüze Resim Sanatının Öyküsü İstanbul: Literatür Yayınları. M. Butler, Andrew. (2011). Film Çalışmaları. (Çeviren: Ali Toprak). İstanbul: Kalkedon Yayınları. Nochimson, Martha P. (2012). Bir Dünya Sinema. (Çeviren: Özgür Yaren). Ankara: De Ki Yayınları. Onaran, Âlim Şerif. (1994). Sessiz Sinema Tarihi. Ankara: Kitle Yayıncılık Parramon, Jose M (1997). Işık Ve Gölge: Resim Sanatı Tarihinde Işık Ve Gölge Işığın Fiziksel Ve Psikolojik Özellekleri. İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi Tansel, Deniz. (2007). Varoluşçuluk ve Yeni Kara Film: David Lynch. Radyo Televizyon ve Sinema Anabilim Dalı. Ankara Üniversitesi. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Ankara Tansuğ, Sezer (1999). Resim Sanatının Tarihi. İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. Wundram, Manfred (2008). Rönesans. (Çeviren: Selva Suman) İstanbul: Remzi & Taschen Yayınları

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NASREDDĠN HOCA FIKRALARINDAKĠ ÇEVĠRĠ SORUNUNUN KÜLTÜR BOġLUĞU BAĞLAMINDA ĠNCELENMESĠ

Okt. Melda ġENEL Gaziantep Üniversitesi, Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi, Rus Dili ve Edebiyatı Anabilim Dalı [email protected] Okt. Melek YAVUZ Selçuk Üniversitesi, Yabancı Diller Yüksekokulu, Rusça Bölümü [email protected] Hülya ATEġ Gazi Üniversitesi, Edebiyat Fakültesi, Rus Dili ve Edebiyatı Anabilim Dalı [email protected]

Özet Kültürlerarası etkileşim ve iletişimin artması farklı kültürden insanların birbirini doğru anlama ihtiyacını da beraberinde getirmektedir. Ancak kültürün bir toplumu oluşturan dil, din, tarih, gelenek ve görenekler dışında o toplumun düşünce yapısını da içine alan tüm maddi ve manevi değerler bütünü olduğu göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, toplumlar arasındaki farklılığın çeviri etkinliğini ne kadar zorlaştırdığı da anlaşılabilir. Özellikle bir kültürde olan kavramın diğer kültürde bir karşılığının olmaması çeviribilimde kültür boşluğu olarak nitelendirilmektedir. Bu sorunla, Türk halk edebiyatında fazlasıyla çevrilen bir figür olan Nasreddin Hoca’nın fıkralarında özellikle karşılaşılmaktadır. Türk halk edebiyatında önemli bir yere sahip olan 13. yüzyılda Anadolu’da yaşamış olan Nasreddin Hoca salt bir güldürü ustası olmamakta, aynı zamanda bir İslam aydını olarak bilgeliği, eleştirel ders niteliğindeki fıkralarıyla ünü Avrupa’dan Asya’ya uzanan evrensel bir şahsiyet de taşımaktadır. Ancak fıkralarında Türk kültürüne has bazı kavramların kullanımı ve çeşitli kelime oyunlarının yapılmış olması çeviriyi zorlaştırmaktadır. Araştırma kapsamında incelenen Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarının Türkçe’den Rusça’ya çevirilerinde, özellikle Türk ve Rus kültürleri arasındaki farklılıktan doğan kültür boşluğu dikkati çekmiştir ve iki kültür arasındaki farklılığın yapılan çevirilerde anlam kaybına neden olduğu gözlemlenmiştir. Bu çalışmanın amacı bu fıkraların kültür boşluğu bağlamında değerlendirilmesidir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Çeviri, Kültür Boşluğu, Nasreddin Hoca, Halk Edebiyatı. Abstract The need for the people to understand each other better has increased with the improvement of intercultural interaction and communication. When culture is considered as all the moral and material set of values including not just the language, religion, history and customs of a society but also school of thought, it can be seen that societal differences make the act of translation rather troublesome. Notwithstanding, when a concept is not utilized in another culture, it is entitled as cultural gap. We come accross with this problem especially in Nasreddin Hodja’s anecdotes who is an extensively translated figure 642

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN in Turkish folk literature. Nasreddin Hodja who has lived in Anatolia during the 13th century holds a very important place in Turkish folk literature. By being both a humourist and a universal personality, his reputation reached from Europe to Asia, with his witty anecdotes full of critical thinking and wisdom as an Islamic intellectual and philosopher. In the translation of Nasreddin Hodja’s anecdotes from Turkish to Russian, a cultural gap comes the fore arising from the difference between these two languages. The analysis has shown that the translation causes loss of meaning to some extent. This study aims to assess the anecdotes of Nasreddin Hodja within this context. Keywords: Translation, cultural gap, Nasreddin Hodja, folk literature

1. GiriĢ Kültür teriminin günümüze kadar birçok farklı tanımı yapılmıştır, ancak genel bağlamda ifade edilecek olursa, kültürün ―kendini ifade aracı olarak özel bir dil kullanan topluluğa özgü yaşam biçimi ve onun göstergeleri‖ (Newmark, 1988, s.94) olduğu söylenebilir. Bu açıdan bakıldığında dil ile kültür kavramlarının çok iç içe geçtiği, dünyada kullanılan dil sayısı göz önünde bulundurulduğunda ise insanoğlunun büyük bir kültür çeşitliliği içinde yaşadığı ve her geçen gün birbirini daha iyi anlama ihtiyacı duyduğu görülmektedir. Kültürlerarası etkileşimin artmasının bunda önemli bir payı vardır. Bu etkileşim ise binlerce yıllık geçmişe sahip olan çeviri faaliyetini gün geçtikçe daha da önemli konuma getirmektedir. Bu bağlamda 20. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren dilbilim kökenli çalışmalarla ele alınan çeviribilim, sonrasında ayrı bir bilim dalı olarak kendi inceleme alanını oluşturmuştur. Çevirideki eşdeğerlik konusu ise dilbilimsel yaklaşımların ele aldığı en önemli sorunsal olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır (Gürçağlar, 2011). Kültürel eşdeğerlik ise Newmark‘ın görüşüyle; ―kaynak dildeki kültürel kelimenin, erek dildeki kültürel kelimeyle çevrilerek birbirine yakın bir çeviri‖ (Newmark, 1988, s.82-83) oluşturulması durumudur. Ancak bazen kaynak dilin kültürüne ait kavramların, erek dilde yer almaması sonucunda, erek kültürdeki okurun metni doğru anlamasında sorunlar ortaya çıkabilmekte, bu da kültür boşluğu yaratmaktadır. Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarında yer alan Türk kültürüne özgü bazı sözcüklerin, fıkraların Rusça‘ya yapılan çevirilerinde, Rus kültüründeki eşdeğerliğinin kullanılmasının bu sorunun aşılmasında küçük de olsa bir katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir. Ancak bu anlam sorunları ile sadece kavram bazında değil, erek kültürdeki okurun, kaynak dilin kültürüne yabancı olmasıyla da karşılaşılabilmektedir. Çalışmamızın üçüncü bölümünde Nasreddin Hoca‘nın ele alınan fıkraları bu bağlamda değerlendirilecektir. Fıkraların değerlendirilmesinde, Nasreddin Hoca‘nın bilge bir İslam aydını olmasının ve bazı nükteli fıkralarının eleştirel anlamlar barındırmasının önem taşıması sebebiyle, Nasreddin Hoca‘nın yaşamı, kişiliği ile ilgili bilgi vermenin doğru olacağı düşünülmektedir. 2. Nasreddin Hoca’nın YaĢamı, KiĢiliği ve Halk Edebiyatındaki Yeri Nasreddin Hoca‘nın gerçekte yaşayıp yaşamadığı konusunda günümüze kadar bazı batılı ve Türk araştırmacılar tarafından şüphe duyulmuş olsa da, ―Nasreddin Hoca‘nın adının geçtiği en eski belge Ebû‘l-Hayr-i Rumî‘nin Sarı-Saltuk menkabelerini anlatan, yayınlanmamış ‗Saltuknâmesi‘dir. Bu eser, 1480‘de yazılmıştır‖ (Boratav, 2014, s.18). Nasreddin Hoca‘nın doğum yeri kesin olarak bilinmemektedir, ancak ―genel görüşe göre Hoca‘nın Eskişehir‘in Sivrihisar ilçesine bağlı bugün Nasreddin Hoca adıyla bilinen, Hortu köyünde doğduğu‖ (Sakaoğlu, Alptekin, 2009, s.31-32) düşünülmektedir. Nasreddin Hoca‘nın 1208-1209 yıllarında doğduğu, 1284-1285 yılllarında ise Akşehir‘de öldüğü ifade edilmektedir (Sakaoğlu, Alptekin, 2009). Akşehir‘in Nasreddin Hoca‘nın yaşamında çok önemli bir yeri olduğu, burada yaşayan bir İslam bilgini olan Mahmûd Hayrânî‘nin bilgilerinden yararlanmak için Akşehir‘e göç ettiği düşünülmekte, Hoca‘nın eğitimli biri olduğu ve asıl mesleğinin vaizlik, gölge kadılığı ve hocalık olduğu görüşü üzerinde durulmaktadır (Sakaoğlu, Alptekin, 2009). Bunun yanı sıra ―Nasreddin Hoca‘nın Anadolu‘nun Müslümanlaşma sürecinde etkin rol oynayan alperenlerden olduğu‖ (Abak, 2012, s.24) görüşü de vardır. Bu bağlamda Nasreddin Hoca‘yı salt bir güldürü ustası olarak görmemek gerekir. O fıkralarıyla insanları güldürürken düşündürerek, eğitmeyi amaçlamakta, sadece Anadolu insanının değil, tüm insanlığın içinde

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN barındırdığı zaaflara ve düşük yönlere dikkat çekerek fıkralarıyla bu durumu hicvetmektedir. Nasreddin Hoca‘nın evrensel bir kişilik olmasının nedenini de belki de bu noktada aramak gerekir. ―Türkistan‘dan Macaristan‘a, Güney Sibirya‘dan Kuzey Afrika‘ya, Türk dilinin konuşulduğu yerler kadar, kısa bir süre Osmanlı egemenliği altında kalmış bölgelerde de Nasreddin Hoca‘nın güldürücü hikayeleri anlatılmıştır‖ (Boratav, 2014, s. 29-30). Ancak Nasreddin Hoca fıkraları sözlü halk edebiyat geleneğinin bir parçası olarak, kuşaktan kuşağa farklı şekillerde anlatılagelmiştir. Bu fıkraların, Türkçe‘de dahi farklı anlatım versiyonları olduğu düşünülürse, diğer dillerde de ortaya çok farklı çevirilerin çıkması şaşırtıcı değildir. Özellikle Rusça‘da belli kişiler tarafından yapılan çeviriler olduğu kadar, sözlü halk edebiyat geleneğinin bir parçası gibi kendini devam ettiren anonim çeviriler de vardır. Çalışmamızı zenginleştireceği düşüncesiyle, bu çalışmada her iki çeviriye de yer verilmiştir. 3. Nasreddin Hoca Fıkralarının Türkçe’den Rusça’ya Yapılan Çevirilerinin Ġncelenmesi Bu noktada ilk ele alınacak olan fıkra, kimi kaynaklarda Nasreddin Hoca‘ya ait olarak verilen, kimisinde ise ona ait olmadığı düşünülen fıkralar kategorisinde gösterilen ―Ya tutarsa‖dır. Bu fıkra, Türkiye‘de Nasreddin Hoca‘nın en çok bilinen fıkrası olması ve kültür boşluğu kavramına iyi bir örnek teşkil etmesi nedeniyle incelemeye alınmıştır. Örneklerde fıkraların ilk olarak Türkçesi, sonra da Türkçe‘den Rusça‘ya yapılan çevirileri gösterilecektir. Bazı fıkraların Rusça çevirileri belli şahıslar tarafından yapılmıştır, ancak anonim çevirilerin çokluğu da dikkat çekicidir. Ya tutarsa Bir gün Nasreddin Hoca‘nın göl kıyısında elindeki bir çanaktan kaşık kaşık yoğurt alıp suya bıraktığını gören dostları: ―Hoca! Ne yapıyorsun? Balıklara yoğurt mu yediriyorsun?‖ diye sormuşlar. ―Yok!‖ demiş. ―Göle maya çalıyorum.‖ Gülmüşler: ―Efendi! Sen sapıttın mı? Koca göl maya tutar mı?‖ Hoca şöyle bir bakmış yüzlerine: ―Ya tutarsa!..‖ (Fuat, 2002, s.165). А вдруг всѐ-таки получится! Однажды друзья увидели Насреддина стоящим на коленях около пруда. Он добавлял в воду небольшое количество йогурта. Один из них спросил: - ―Что ты хочешь сделать, Насреддин?‖ - ―Я хочу сделать йогурт.‖ - ―Но ты не сможешь сделать йогурт таким способом!‖ -―Я знаю, а вдруг всѐ-таки получится!‖ (Anonim, ?) Bu fıkrada kültür boşluğu bağlamında dikkat çeken özellikle yoğurt sözcüğüdür. Rus diline yeni giren sözcüklerden biri olan ve Rus yemek kültüründe henüz yerini bulamayan yoğurt1 sözcüğü yerine, fıkrada Rusça smetana sözcüğünün kullanılmasının daha doğru olacağı düşünülmektedir. Smetana2 Rusya‘da yoğurt yerine tüketilen bir yiyecektir. Yoğurt, ―Türk mitolojisine göre Ötüken‘de Türk kadınları tarafından çeşitli bitkilerden elde edilen bir mayanın süte karıştırılması sonucu keşfedilmiş ve dünyaya buradan yayılmıştır‖ (Abak, 2012, s.72). ―Hemen bütün zehirlenmelerin panzehir olan yoğurt büyük bir keşif olduğu için başlangıçta bu formülü Çinlilerden ve diğer düşmanlardan koruma 1

Kökeni Türkçe olan bu sözcük Rus diline yaklaşık 20 yıl önce İngilizce‘den geçmiştir (Akademik, 2000) Yüksek yağ oranındaki ekşi sütün ya da ekşiyen kremanın üstünde oluşan tabakanın alınmasıyla elde edilen, Rusya‘da yoğurt gibi tüketilen yiyecek. Fabrikasyon olarak üretildiği için, evlerde artık pek yapılmamaktadır (Kulina, 2000). 2

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN gereği duyulmuş, bu amaçla bitkilerden maya yapmak yasaklanmış ve Türkler arasında bir sır olarak kalması için yoğurdun yine yoğurtla mayalanması yoluna gidilmiştir‖ (Abak, 2012, s.72-73). Yoğurdun bu keşfiyle Türk diline ―mayanın tutması‖ ve ―yoğurdun tutması‖ gibi ifadeler de girmiştir. Ancak Türkçe‘den Rusça‘ya yapılan çeviride, ―göle maya çalıyorum‖ ifadesi yerine ―yoğurt yapmak istiyorum‖; ―göl maya tutar mı‖ yerine ―bu şekilde yoğurt yapamazsın‖; ―ya tutarsa‖ yerine de ―ya yine de olursa‖ ifadesi kullanılmış, bu da bir dildeki kavramın karşılığını, diğer dilde tam olarak bulamamasına neden olmuştur. Bunun dışında fıkranın vermek istediği mesajla ilgili yapılan iki yorum da kültürel açıdan dikkat çekmektedir. İlki, Nasreddin Hoca‘nın yoğurdunu koyduğu bez torbasını ve tahta kaşığını gölde yıkarken, lüzumsuz soru soran bir adama bu şekilde cevap verdiği yönünde, ikincisi ise kendini Anadolu‘nun Müslümanlaşmasına adamış ilim sahibi mürşitlerden biri olduğuna inanılan Nasreddin Hoca‘nın Anadolu‘yu bir göle, kendisi gibi alimleri de mayaya benzeterek dönemin insanlarının gelişiminde alimlerin rolünü gösterdiği ve asla ümitsiz olunmaması gerektiğini anlattığı yönündedir (Abak, 2012). Bu ikinci yorumun doğru olduğu düşünülürse, Türk kültürünü yakından tanımayan birinin, fıkrayı bu yönüyle anlaması da imkansız görünmektedir. İkinci örneğimiz ―Kırk yıllık sirke‖ fıkrasıdır. Bu fıkranın Rusça‘ya üç farklı şekilde ―yedi yıllık sirke‖, ―on yıllık sirke‖ ve ―kırk yıllık sirke‖ olarak çevrildiği görülmektedir. Kırk yıllık sirke Nasreddin Hoca‘nın komşularından birisi turşu kurmak ister, fakat bakar ki evde keskin sirke yok. Hemen oğlunu çağırır; ―Oğlum, Nasreddin amcalarına git ve kırk yıllık bir keskin sirke al gel.‖ der. Babasından emri alan çocuk, Hoca‘nın kapısını çalıp; ―Hoca amca, babam turşu kuruyordu, evde sirke kalmamış; Bana ‗Hoca amcanlardan kırk yıllık sirke al gel‘ dedi.‖ der. Hoca şöyle bir sakalını sıvazlar ve çocuğa dönerek; ―Babana selam söyle, kırk yıllık sirkeyi veremem, eğer her gelene verseydim, evde hiç kırk yıllık sirke kalır mıydı?‖ der (Sakaoğlu, Alptekin, 2009, s.151-152). Уксус семилетней давности Пришѐл сосед к мулле Насреддину и говорит: — Я слышал, что у тебя есть уксус семилетней выдержки. Правда ли это? — Да, — отвечал Насреддин. — Прошу тебя, налей мне кувшин такого уксуса. — Странный ты человек, — говорит ему Насреддин, — если бы я давал уксус каждому, кто попросит, он и месяца не продержался бы. (Anonim, ?). Однажды, один сосед пришел к Насреддину и попросил у него десятилетнего уксусу. Ходжа отказал. – Но у тебя же есть десятилетний уксус! – обиделся сосед. – Странный ты человек, – ответил Ходжа, – ты думаешь, продержался бы у меня уксус десять лет, если бы я давал его каждому, кто попросит? (Anonim, ?). Сосед просит у ходжи сорокалетнего уксусу Сосед спросил однажды у ходжи: «У тебя есть выдержанный уксус, которому сорок лет?» — «Есть»,— отвечал ходжа. «Дай мне немножко»,— продолжал сосед. «Нет, не могу дать»,— возразил ходжа. «Почему?»— «Да если бы стал я раздавать уксус всем встречным и поперечным, за сорок лет разве осталось бы у меня что-нибудь от уксуса?» (Gordlevskiy, 1959, s. 31).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Bu fıkranın Rusça‘ya farklı sayılarla çevrilmesinin nedeni, Rus kültüründe kırk dışında, yedi ve on sayılarının da kültürel bir değer taşımasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Öncelikle kırk sayısı irdelenecek olursa, bu sayının Türk kültüründe önemli bir yere sahip olduğu, günlük yaşamda atasözlerinden deyimlere birçok alanda kullanıldığı, bu kullanımın özellikle dinsel inanışla bağlantılı olduğu söylenebilir (Güvenç, 2009). ―Kırk beklemenin, hazırlığın, denemenin ve cezalandırmanın sayısıdır. Kitabı Mukaddes‘te kurtuluş yolu boyunca büyük olaylar bu sayıya bağlanmıştır.(…)Kur‘an-ı Kerim‘de ise dört yerde geçmektedir. Bakara Suresi‘nin 51. ayetinde Hz. Musa‘nın Sina Dağı‘nda kırk gün tutulduğu anlatılır.‖(Güvenç, 2009, s.89). Bu bağlamda kırk sayısının hem Müslümanlıkta hem de Hristiyanlıkta özel bir anlam taşıdığı görülmektedir. Kırk sayısı dışında yedi ve on sayıları da kutsal kitaplarda dinsel anlamlar taşımaktadır. Özellikle İngilizce seven, Rusça sem diye adlandırılan ―yedi, manevi mükemmelliğin sayısıdır (Tanrı‘nın mührü veya antlaşma sayısı). O,‗yeterince sahip olmak, memnun veya dolu olmak‘ anlamında İbranice ‗savah‘tan gelmiştir‖ (Stewart, 2001, s.31). Sayılarla ilgili çalışma yapan Stewart‘a göre sayıların arasında belki de en önemli yere bu sayı sahip olmaktadır (Stewart, 2001). Bunun nedeni olarak da sayının Kitabı Mukaddes‘te şaşırtıcı derecede fazla tekrar edilmesi ve bu sayının doğada da anlamsal bir değere sahip olması (Ayın dünyanın etrafında bir dönüşünün 28 ‗7x4‘ gün olması, insan embriyosunun 28 ‗7x4‘ günde oluşması gibi) düşünülmektedir (Stewart, 2001). ―On sayısı ise Tanrısal düzenin mükemmelliğini temsil etmekte; o, eksikliğin olmadığı ve tüm döngünün tamamlandığı anlamına gelmektedir. Bu, mükemmelliği ifade eden üçüncü sayıdır‖ (Stewart, 2001, s. 43). Tüm bu açımlamalar göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, Rus kültüründe dini inanç nedeniyle yedi sayısının kırk sayısına göre daha fazla kültürel anlam taşıdığı ve bu kültürde yedi sayısının daha fazla kullanıldığı, bu bağlamda da çeviride ―kırk yıllık sirke‖nin eşdeğerliği olarak ―yedi yıllık sirke‖ kullanımının daha uygun olacağı düşünülmektedir. Diğer örneğimiz ―Sarı aşı kim yediyse‖ fıkrasıdır. Sarı aĢı kim yediyse Nasreddin Hoca‘yı, daha mollalığın başlarındayken, anası babası, ―Artık yaşın geldi! Koca herif oldun!‖ diye evlendirmeye karar vermişler. Kız bulunmuş. Düğün yapılmış. Düğünde pilav zerde yenilmiş. Ama hiç kimse damada, ―Şöyle buyur da, zerde ye!‖ demeyi akıl etmemiş. Akşam olmuş. ―Haydi gerdeğe,‖ demişler. ―Yoo!‖ demiş Molla Nasreddin. ―Sabahtan sarı aşı kim yediyse o girsin gerdeğe! Ben girmem!‖ (Fuat, 2002, s. 37). Кто ел шафран, тот пусть и идет в опочивальню Вечером того дня, когда ходжа задумал жениться, он созвал друзей. Все кушают, пьют, а ходжу и забыли позвать. Ходжа, оставшийся без шафранного плова, который он так любил, рассердился и ушел. Через некоторое время начинают ходжу искать и никак не могут найти. Посылают всюду людей, и, наконец, с трудом где-то его изловили и привели домой. «Послушай, голубчик, что же это ты? — говорят ему домашние.— Мы ищем тебя вот уже два часа!» А ходжа сердито заметил: «А мне-то что! Кто ел шафран, тот пусть и идет в опочивальню» (Gordlevskiy, 1959, s. 15). Bu fıkrada en dikkat çeken nokta, fıkranın Türkçe‘sinde kullanılan ―sarı aş‖ olarak kastedilen zerde1 sözcüğünün yerine, Rusça‘sında ―safran‖ ve ―safranlı pilav‖ ifadesinin kullanımıdır. Arapça ―sarı‖ anlamına gelen zâferân sözcüğünden gelen, köklü bitki kültürüne sahip Türklerin dilinde, Divanü Lügati‘t-Türk‘te başka bir adla geçtiği tahmin edilen, metinlerde ise Kutadgu Bilig‘den itibaren rastlanılan bu sözcük, kolay telaffuzu nedeniyle halk arasında safran olarak yaygınlık göstermiştir (Ceylan, 2005). Bu bitkinin anavatanının neresi olduğu hakkında çeşitli rivayetler olsa da, ―kaynaklar Türkiye-Yunanistan, Hindistan Endonezya, Ortadoğu Havzası ve İran‘ı safranın ilk yetiştirildikleri yerler olarak kaydetmektedir‖ (Ceylan, 2005, s.150). Gıda, tekstil, boya ve ilaç sanayinde kullanılan, çok pahalı ve değerli bir bitki olan safranın yemeklere hoş bir koku ve renk kattığı ve bazı hastalıklara da iyi geldiği bilinmektedir. Ayrıca safranın neşe verici özelliği ile zerde yapılarak düğün sofralarında mutlaka bulunması gerektiği yönünde de bir gelenek mevcuttur (Boratav, 2014). Rus kültüründe safranın böyle bir yerinin olmadığı düşünülürse, fıkranın Rusça çevirisinde aktarılmak istenenin tam 1

Safranla renk ve koku verilen bir çeşit şekerli pirinç peltesi (Türkçe Sözlük, 2011).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN olarak aktarılamadığı görülmektedir. İncelenen fıkralarda karşılaşılan sorunun, bir dildeki kavramın karşılığının, diğer dilde karşılığının tam olarak aktarılamaması olduğu görülmüştür. Ancak şimdi ele alınacak olan fıkrada diğerlerinden farklı olarak, her iki dilde de aynı kavramın var olduğu, ancak verilmek istenen mesajın okuyucuya kültürel farklılıktan dolayı verilemediği ortaya çıkmıştır. Allah’ın rahmetinden kaçılmaz Günün birinde bardaktan boşanırcasına yağmur yağmaktadır. Elbette yağmur yağdığı vakit ya koşulur, ya da bir yerlere sığınılır. Nasreddin Hoca da yağmurun yağışını ve sokakların yalnızlığını pencereden seyrederken, bir de bakar ki yağmurdan kaçan bir adam… Hoca biraz dikkatli baktığında bunun bir komşusu olduğunu anlar ve pencereyi açarak; ―Komşu, komşu, utanmıyor musun, niçin Allah‘ın rahmetinden kaçıyorsun?‖ deyince adam koşmayı bırakır ve yavaş yavaş evine doğru gider. Bu arada adamın da ıslanmadık yeri kalmaz. Ertesi gün hava yine yağmurludur. Bu defa Hoca Efendi alışveriş için sokağa çıkmıştır. O, işini bitirip de hızlı adımlarla evine doğru giderken, bir gün önceki komşusunun evinin önünden geçer. Bu sefer komşusu; ―Hoca Efendi, Hoca Efendi, sen dün bana ‗Allah‘ın rahmetinden kaçılmaz.‘ demiştin; bak şimdi kendin kaçıyorsun.‖ deyince, Hoca komşusuna doğru döner ve; ―Be adam! Ben Allah‘ın rahmetinden kaçmıyorum, Allah‘ın rahmetini çiğnememek için koşuyorum.‖ der (Sakaoğlu, Alptekin, 2009, s.153-154). Дождь – Божья Благодать Сидел ходжа в дождливую погоду дома и, поглядывая на улицу, увидел соседа, который быстро шел, чтобы не намокнуть под дождем. Ходжа спросил, почему он так бежит, и когда сосед сказал, что он бежит, чтобы не намокнуть от «божьей благодати», ходжа заметил: «Ай, ай, ай! Да разве подобает убегать от благодати всевышнего господа?» Бедняжка, находясь под впечатлением слов ходжи, пошел домой медленно-медленно, а ходжа все время укоризненно поглядывал на него. Так, насквозь промокший, усталый, пришел сосед домой. Другой раз в серенький день смотрит сосед в окно и видит, что и всего-то капнуло несколько капель, а вдруг показался ходжа и, закинув полы джуббэ, как стрела летит домой. Сосед закричал: «Эфенди, разве ты забыл, как меня намедни поучал: «Не подобает-де бежать от благодати божией»? Ходжа на секунду задержался, а потом сказал: «Голубчик, я не хочу топтать ногами божью благодать, падающую на землю, оттого и бегу». Сказав это, он мигом устремился к дому (Gordlevskiy, 1959, s.40-41). Bu fıkrada en dikkati çeken rahmet1 sözcüğü ve onun yağmurla bağlantısının, hem Kur‘an-ı Kerim‘de hem de İncil‘de geçmesidir. Kur‘an-ı Kerim‘in yağmurun Allah‘ın rahmetiyle bağlantılı ayetlerinden birinde Şûrâ Sûresi, 28. ayette şu ifade yer almaktadır: ―O, insanlar umutlarını kestikten sonra, yağmuru indiren, rahmetini her tarafa yayandır. O, dost olandır, övülmeye layık olandır.‖ (Şûrâ Sûresi, 42:28). Fıkranın Rusça‘ya çevirisinde kaynak dildeki rahmet sözcüğü yerine, onunla neredeyse aynı anlamı taşıyan blagodat2 sözcüğü kullanılmıştır. İncil‘de de yağmurla ilgili birçok bölüm geçmektedir ve bir örnek şu şekilde verilebilir; ―Öyle ki göklerdeki Babanız‘ın oğulları olasınız. Çünkü O, güneşini hem kötülerin hem iyilerin üzerine doğdurur; yağmurunu hem doğruların hem eğrilerin üzerine yağdırır.‖ (Matta, 5:45). Açımlandığı üzere bu fıkrada kaynak dildeki rahmet sözcüğünün, erek dilde eşdeğerliğini bulduğu söylenebilir. Ancak bu noktada da fıkranın anlamının, erek kültüre doğru geçip geçmediği sorusu ortaya çıkmaktadır. Fıkranın görünürdeki anlamı bir kaynakta şöyle açıklanmaktadır: ―Yağmurda ıslanmamak için kendini bir an önce eve atmak rahmetten kaçmak değildir. Hoca‘nın komşusu rahmet kelimesini, sadece duyduğu kadarıyla anladığından dar anlamda kullanmış. Zira nimetler ancak gereği kadar kullanılıp tüketilirse yararlı olur. Şiddetli yağan yağmurun altında kalmak, 1

Merhamet etme, bağışlama, aynı zamanda Allah‘ın kullarına lütufta bulunması anlamını taşır. İkinci bir anlamı da yağmurdur (Türkçe Sözlük, 2011). 2 Ceza affı, bolluk, bereket anlamlarına gelmektedir (Rusça Türkçe Sözlük, 1996).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN sırılsıklam olup hastalığa davetiye çıkarmak demektir. Nasreddin Hoca‘nın fıkrada iletmek istediği mesaj: Böyle zamanları gerekli tedbirleri alarak, zarar görmeden atlatmamız yönündedir.‖ (Sertdemir, 2014, s.46). Nasreddin Hoca‘nın İslam dinini bilen, akılcı bir aydın olduğu düşünülürse karşı çıktığı şeyin akılsızlık olduğu görülebilir. Nasreddin Hoca‘yı bu yönüyle ve kişiliği ile tanımayan erek kültürdeki okurun, çeviride iki dilde de birbirini karşılayan kavramlar kullanılmasına rağmen, fıkrayı bu yönüyle anlamasının zor olduğu düşünülmektedir. Üstelik bu fıkranın bir de tasavvufi açıklaması yapılmakta, o açıklamada ise ―su tasavvufta ilimdir. Hoca‘nın ‗Allah‘ın rahmetinden kaçılır mı‘ ifadesi; ‗ilim öğrenmekten kaçılır mı‘ anlamına gelir; ‗Ben Allah‘ın rahmetini çiğnememek için kaçıyorum‘ demesi de; ‗ilim öğrenmek istemeyenlerden kaçıyorum‘ manasına gelir‖(Sertdemir, 2014, s.47) denmektedir. Fıkranın böylesine derin eleştirel anlamlar taşıdığı doğru olarak kabul edilirse, erek kültürdeki okurun fıkrayı bu anlamlarıyla değerlendirmesinin mümkün olmadığı görülmektedir. Diğer bir fıkramız ise ―Ye Kürküm Ye‖ dir. Ye Kürküm Ye Bir gün Nasreddin Hoca bir düğüne gitmiş. Varlıklıları, iyi giyimlileri başköşeye buyur ediyorlarmış. Ona dönüp bakan bile olmamış. Karnı da bayağı açmış. Ne bulduysa yiyip içip bir köşede oturmuş. Başka bir düğüne çağrılınca, dostlarını dolaşıp kiminden kürk, kiminden kavuk, kiminden kaftan, kiminden kuşak, kiminden at, eyer ödünç almış. Düğün kapısında konukları karşılayanlar hemen koşuşup onu coşkuyla atından indirip, başköşeye buyur etmişler. En güzel yemekler, içkiler önüne sıra sıra dizilmiş. Hoca bir yandan atıştırır, bir yandan da kürkünün ucunu yemeklere doğru tutarak: ―Ye kürküm ye!‖ dermiş. ―Bütün bunlar aslında bana değil, sanadır.‖ (Fuat, 2002, s.59). Раз почет шубе, пусть шуба и кушает Ходжу пригласили на званый обед. Он надел поношенное платье, и никто не обратил на него внимания. Тихонько побежал ходжа домой, облачился в пышные одежды, сверху накинул еще шубу и вернулся. Ходжу почтительно встретили у дверей дома и посадили за почетный стол. Указывая на вкусные блюда, хозяин начал его угощать: «Пожалуйста, ходжа, отведайте!» А ходжа, подтягивая шубу к блюду, заметил: «Прошу, шубейка!» — «Что ты делаешь, ходжа?» — удивились гости. «Раз почет шубе, пусть шуба и кушает»,— объявил ходжа. (Gordlevskiy, 1959, s.7) Еда для одежды Насреддин услыхал, что в соседнем городе состоится банкет и что на него приглашаются все желающие. Он проделал путь туда как мог быстро. Когда распорядитель увидел его в рваной одежде, он посадил его в самом незаметном месте, далеко от большого стола, где с большим вниманием обслуживали самых важных людей. Насреддин увидел, что пройдет по меньшей мере час, прежде чем официанты дойдут до того места, где он сидел. Поэтому он встал и пошел домой. Он оделся в великолепный соболий халат, надел тюрбан и вернулся на праздник. Как только Герольды эмира, хозяина праздника, увидели, как величественно он выглядит, они начали бить в барабаны и трубить в трубы, как полагается для гостя высокого ранга. Сам главный управляющий вышел из дворца и проводил великолепного на середину к месту почти рядом с эмиром. Немедленно перед ним поставили блюдо с изумительными кушаньями. Недолго думая, Насреддин принялся горстями запихивать ее в свой тюрбан и халат. - Ваше высокопреосвященство, - сказал принц, - вы возбудили во мне любопытство вашим обычаем есть, который для меня является новым. - Ничего особенного, - ответил Насреддин, - халат доставил меня сюда, доставил мне еду. Он несомненно заслуживает своей порции. (Anonim, ?).

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Bu çevirinin ilkinde başlık ―Kürke saygı gösteriliyorsa, kürk de yemek yesin‖ şeklinde çevrilmiş, ikincisinde ise başlıkta ―Kıyafet için yemek‖ kullanılmış, ancak fıkranın içeriğinde kıyafet yerine halat1 tercih edilmiştir. ―Kıyafet için yemek‖ başlığıyla yapılan çeviride, erek dilde kavramsal ve anlamsal kayıp yaşandığı gözlemlenmektedir. Çünkü ―Ye kürküm ye‖ deyiminde ―kıyafet için yemek‖ anlamı yoktur. Anlamın ve kavramın en iyi verildiği çeviri, ―Kürke saygı gösteriliyorsa, kürk de yemek yesin‖ şeklinde yapılanıdır. Ancak Rusça‘da ―Встречают по одѐжке, провожают по уму‖ yani ―Kıyafetine göre karşılanır, zekâna göre uğurlanırsın‖ şeklinde bir atasözü bulunmaktadır ve bu atasözünün ilk bölümünün bu deyimi anlam bakımından tam olarak karşılaması sebebiyle, bu atasözünün ilk bölümünün çeviride kullanılmasının kültürel eşdeğerlik bağlamında daha uygun olacağı düşünülmektedir. 4. Sonuç Bu çalışma kapsamında ele alınan Nasreddin Hoca fıkralarının Türkçe‘den Rusça‘ya yapılan çevirileri incelendiğinde, bazı fıkralarda kaynak dilin kültürüne ait kavramların, erek kültürde yer almamasından dolayı, çeviride anlam kaybının yaşandığı gözlemlenmiştir. Bu noktada, kaynak dilin kültürüne ait kavramların, benzerinin erek dilde olması durumunda, erek dildeki karşılığının kullanılmasının anlam kaybını önlemeye bir ölçüde destek olacağı görüşüne varılmıştır. Ancak kaynak dildeki karşılığın erek dilde olması durumunda dahi, kaynak dilin kültürüne yabancı olmanın getirdiği anlamsal sorunlarla karşılaşıldığı da görülmüştür. Bu açıdan bakılırsa okurun herhangi bir anlam kaybı yaşamadan metni anlaması, kaynak metnin kültürüyle arasındaki yakınlığa ve bu kültürle kurduğu organik bağın ne derecede güçlü olduğuna bağlıdır. Ancak bunun kültürel kavramların ya da kodların yoğun olarak geçtiği, ironi, hiciv gibi çeşitli kelime oyunlarının yapıldığı ve derin kültürel anlamlara sahip metinler için geçerli olduğu söylenebilir. Kaynakça

Anonim Çeviri, Ya tutarsa (A vdrug vse-taki poluchitsya), http://prt.sufism.ru/index.php/sufism/2010-05-26-20-32-33/259-nasreddin Anonim Çeviri, Yedi yıllık sirke, (Uksus semiletney davnosti), http://wisdomlib.ru/story/138 Anonim Çeviri, On yıllık sirke, (?), http://portal.krasno.ru/viewtopic.php?t=6497&start=30 Anonim Çeviri, Ye kürküm ye, (Yeda dlya odejdı),http://pritchi.castle.by/ras-04-57-com.html Abak, Ş. (2012). Tarifi Bende Bir İslam Aydını Olarak Nasreddin Hoca, Ankara, Vadi Yayınları. Boratav, P. N. (2014). Nasreddin Hoca, İstanbul, Islık Yayınları. Ceylan, Ö. (2005). Taşranın Altın Çiçeği Safran. Osmanlı Araştırmaları Dergisi XXVI, 147-162. Fuat, M. (2002). Nasrettin Hoca Fıkraları, İstanbul, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. Güvenç, A. Ö. (2009). Kırk Sayısının Halk Edebiyatı Ürünlerinde Kullanımı Üzerinde Bir İnceleme, A.Ü. Türkiyat Araştırmaları Enstitüsü Dergisi, 41, 85-97. Gürçağlar, Ş. H. (2011). Çevirinin ABC’si, İstanbul, Say Yayınları. Gordlevskiy, V. A., Ulug-zade, K., (1959). Anekdotı o Hodje Nasreddine, Moskova, İzdatelstvo Vostoçnoy Literaturı. İncil, (2003). İkinci Basım, İstanbul, Yeni Yaşam Yayınları. Kur’an-ı Kerim Meali, (2007), Altıncı Baskı, Ankara, Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı Yayınları. Newmark, P. (1988). A Text Book of Translation, Great Britain, Prentice HaH International Vuio Ltd. Rusça Türkçe Sözlük, (1996), İstanbul, Multilingual Yabancı Dil Yayınları.

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Halat (Халат) kelimesi Türkçe‘ye entari, sabahlık, bornoz olarak çevrilebilir. Orta Asya‘da dışarıda da giyilebilen kıyafet türüdür. İnsanın varlıklı olup olmadığı bu giysiye bakılarak anlaşılabilmektedir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Stewart, M.D. (2001). Udivitelnoe Znaçenie Çisel i Tsvetov v Tekstah Svyaşennıh Pisaniy, Moskova, Vtoroe İzdanie. Sakaoğlu, S. (1992). Türk Fıkraları ve Nasreddin Hoca,Konya, Selçuk Üniversitesi Basımevi. Sakaoğlu, S., Alptekin, A. B. (2009). Nasreddin Hoca, Ankara, Atatürk Kültür Merkezi. Sertdemir, N. (2014). Bir Mutasavvıf Gözüyle Nasreddin Hoca- Fıkraların Zahiri ve Tasavvufi İzahları,İstanbul, Ensar Neşriyat. Türkçe Sözlük, (2011), Onbirinci Baskı, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları http://russian_stress.academic.ru/1417/%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%80%D1%82. http://www.kulina.ru/articles/3681/.

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THE CONNECTION BETWEEN SEMANTIC AND VIGNETTE Instructor Melek YAVUZ Selcuk University, School of Foreign Languages. [email protected]

Abstract While thinking on semantic, first what comes to mind is language, linguistic and works on linguistic. Semantic should not be just related to linguistic, it is possible to connect it to every points in daily life. Semantic is a concept which has lots of different research area. In this study, the aim is to connect vignette and semantic which are known as two irrelevant things. It is important to understand that vignette is not an artless decoration explaining that includes language with full of meaning and knowledge. That is related to be taken place in linguistic. Semantic is one part of linguistic, it is a language tool which analyses the details which are offered to us, after semantic and vignette are connected to each other. It explains what kind of knowledge it offers us. Vignette is like a text. From past to present how knowledge has transferred from generation to generation. To understand that text, people must read it correctly. Therefore folklore, culture, consuetude, tradition must be known. Keywords: Semantic, vignette, linguistic, culture

1. Introduction The design forms, vignettes, to be studied in this paper have been used by different countries at different times. It is impossible to analyse this very extensive subject in such a short period of time, so I decided to handle the part that Slavic meanings attributed to these forms; that are embroideries. Before speaking of the semantics and meaning of embroidery we should first look up the meaning of it from “Krugosvet” electronic dictionary (1997): the dictionary gives us the broad sense of the word that is; it is the analysis of the relationship between this real world and the imaginary world, the relationship itself and the integrity of this relationship. Turkish dictionary for embroider shows that mean -It is a handiwork to embroider piece of cloth by using colourful threads or tinsel and silver-gilt threads (Turkish dictionary, 2011), -Decorate (cloth) by sewing patterns on it with thread (Oxford, 2015), Now let's look what embroider is: -To sew a design on a piece of cloth (Merriam- Webster, 2015), -To decorate cloth by sewing small patterns or pictures onto it (Cambridge Dictionary, 2016), -To decorate cloth by sewing a pattern, picture, or words on it with coloured threads (Longman) -To decorate cloth with a design of coloured stitches (Macmillan Dictionary, 2009). In short, embroider is a set of pictures and designed with themes processed onto a different kinds of cloths with threads (or beads, ribbons etc.) using needle. Design is an important part of this art and rhythmic repetition is important indication of it. The rhythmical repetition of the designs are similar to the rhythmical repetition of letters and words in a written text. Let's try to combine these two estranged terms at a glance. We have to understand whether the embroider is a language or not. -a type of communication used by the people of a particular country (Cambridge Dictionary, 2016), -the system of words or signs that people use to express thoughts and feelings to each other (Merriam-Webster, 2015).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN -the method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way (Oxford, 2015), -a system of communication by written or spoken words, which is used by the people of a particular country or area. (Longman) -the method of human communication using spoken or written words. (Macmillan Dictionary, 2009) Language is not just sound, word and grammar, it is also signs to pass on information; embroider on the other hand is system of patterns or designs repeated rhythmically. Therefore we can positively say that embroider is a language. The researchers of folk art compare texts with designs. S. Yesenin says that people should learn how to read forgotten signs in his work “Meri's Keys” (Yesenin, 1918, 4). Designs are generally similar with the texts. Some of the patters in ancient Slavic embroiders are same as ancient Slavic runic writings. Ancient runic writings are not written from right to left or vice versa; it is written circular. The designs used to ornament garments are also circular (collar, sleeves, and hem). (Kachayeva, 2008; Dmitriyenko, 2001).

Furthermore, it is known that designs are literally used as writing in Russia. In 1914, Russian Museum of History bought a piece of a rug depicting the myth of World Tree by means of designs from Siberia and northern regions in the beginning of 19th century. There is a design reminding us of a writing very clearly. This design is a geometrical one; it is also similar to the runic writing as much as the goddess showing different seasons with her arms. Furthermore, the signs are coloured and they are same as the runic writings. This method, which is writing one symbol into another, that is to say forming semantic layers and putting them onto one another is a tradition in Slavic designs (Kachayeva, 2008).

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A piece of tablecloth from 18th Century belonging to the people migrating from Novgorod in Zaonejye in 80s, is a good example of writing-design. The 1,5 metres long and 70 centimetres wide cloth was completely designed as a chess board signs. The designs are easy to understand; cross, swastika, circle, rectangle, and hexagonal ended cross. There are slight differences among them (knots, line, fillings). We can clearly see the two categories: picture-signs and filled signs. It is thought to be mythological text or a king of magic (Kachayeva, 2008).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN These examples and examples of such assert us that textile inscriptions do exist. Some signs and some elements of designs might be tied semantically. Although there has been a great improvement in the Russian embroidery semantic, there are masses yet to be discovered. The analysis of ancient semantics can be resolved completely by next couple of generation of scientists. Because the real semantics of the pattern have been concealed, deferred and intentionally over simplified. One of the reasons of this much secrecy is that the Christian clergy wanted to erase all the evidence of pagan culture. They destroyed and burned sculptures made of rock or wood; they pulled all the temples down and built churches instead. However, it was hard for them to erase the traditional designs and patterns from daily tools; the meanings of these designs and patterns were just simple ornaments as they tried to suppress the transfer of the real meaning. The semantics and the folkloric importance of designs on the Slavic towels should be well understood in order to comprehend the hidden messages and to embrace its artistic beauty (Shabanova, 2008). The main semantics of the ancient elements of embroidery had been forgotten. The main semantic of embroideries can only be comprehended through studying beliefs, traditions, customs, folklore and historical events closely and correlatively. The designs have changed and restructured through centuries. Nonetheless, it is possible to trace the ingrained characteristics, the repetition of some common lines of embroiders that have reached to our time by different versions. Let's analyse some examples of them that have ingrained characteristics (Malahova, 2010). We can divide the Slavic folk embroidery into three main categories: geometrical designs, the world of plant and animals, people (mostly women giving birth as the symbol of human reproduction). Geometrical designs have an important role in the composition for semantics. One of them is the widely known design swastika. Being one of the ancient symbols of the Sun, it has been commonly used to decorate spindles, wedding towels and window frames. It is believed that it brings justice and blessing to the materialistic world (Shabanova, 2008). The symbol means “su/swa” in ancient Sanskritic language which comes from Europe-Indian roots meaning “related to bless”. The word “light” has the same root. Eastern Slavic people called swastika as Kolovrat (spinning the circle) or Solntsevorot (rotating the Sun) and they usually drew it with six rays. Circle means unity, infinity, wholeness and perfectness. The pattern depends on daily and yearly movement of the sun. Moreover, the contemporary researchers A. Asov and V. Demin define this movement as the unity of static and dynamic. However, the dynamic meaning is attributed to the swastika which is turning. If it turns clockwise (towards right), it symbolizes life, positivity and favourable things; if it turns counter clockwise, it means rejection of positivity, dissolution and passive behaviours ( Kachayeva, 2008; Malahova, 2010; Shabanova, 2008).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN We can see that swastika is basically a cross. The cross is one of the symbols of the Sun. It symbolizes life, sky and infinity. “ris” in ancient Slavic language means the edge, limit of an object. “Krest” or the cross means unity of two beginnings or things in the shape of “X” or “+”. Rhombohedral cross symbolizes the relationship and the interaction between the two beginnings, male (vertical line) and female (horizontal line). Later, it can not only be seen as embroidery but also on wall decorations, wooden objects and church appliances (Malahova, 2010; Shabanova, 2008).

We don't only see sun's symbols on embroideries. The symbol of Mother Earth is very important for Slavic ancestries who come from farming culture. Land and sky (they are considered as one in folk mythology) becomes alliances and form the world where all people are born and die. It is definitely impossible to think mythology without Earth (land) (Ribakov, 1981). The symbols of land fertility are seen in Slavic ceremonies. They used it in almost every part of their lives in folk art such as decorate their furniture, gussy up toys, tools used by villagers and even on the bread they eat. Earth is also identified with femininity. Earth gives life: her sisters Fate (luck) and Destiny (not fate) spin yarn (yarn symbolizes the life) (Ribakov, 1981). The symbol of fertility is a very distinctive pattern; a rhomb divided into four equal parts. This means piece of land or field. Smaller parts are holes for the seed. If the smaller parts have spots in it, it means the field is sowed-it is fertile. If they are empty, that means the field is not sowed. There are countless designs with rhombs, rectangles and spots. In short, spotted rhomb is the source of fertility, prosperity and giving birth (Malahova, 2010; Shabanova, 2008).

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The collective (type) image for nature in Slavic emboidery is the Tree of Life. It is the axis of the universe holding all the other worlds. Roots of the tree stand for underworld, body stands for the life we live and the branches stand for world of sky. It is almost written the same as “destiny (fate)” in all of the

runic alphabet with rune.

There is a rune named “world” just like the branches of Tree of Life.

These runes describe the essence of the Tree of Life.

The world of animals can also be seen in symbolism. The signs have the characteristics of animals. The symbols showing birds have special meaning. Because ancient people thought the birds were mystical and magical. Some have feminine characteristics, some of them have male characteristics whereas some symbolize good dods. Moreover, there are “birds” such as “crow” like swastika (Survo, 2014; Shabanova, 2008).

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A woman figure with two deer standing by her side are usually seen on embroidery. This describes the mother of ancestry. We can see that all the pieces of this composition are tied to each other and the women figure in the centre is to obey the woman. The protector of that ancestry has to ward them from sicknesses and infertility. It is one of the most powerful amulets of that clan. We can see this pattern on towels, especially towels for weddings, sheets, and cradles (Malahova, 2010; Maslova, 1978).

The designs we studied are only a small part of the rich Slavic embroidery. The semantics of this subject is very rich and it is partial. It apparently holds the characteristics of the local people. This folk art symbols hold the seeds of values, ethnicity and national culture. It stayed distinctive for centuries without being bound to individuals. It was contemporary for every century as embroidery has always been universal. In this sense the language of the embroidery conveys opposition of universality, mortality and immortality. Patterns are akin to ancient writings and like them, they provide us so much information about view of the

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2. Methodology The subject of the study requires field study and has not been searched so much. Therefore, while writing this paper I had to compile the information gathered by the experts of this field. This information had to be compiled and written as an article in a short period of time so I chose the most striking parts of the studies I used as data. 3. Conclusion While writing this article, I realized that scientists should give more thought on the subject. Because folklore constitute our national identity. Furthermore, it is important for us to understand that everything mankind create has a language, semantics and thus meaning. They pass on their fears, love, anger and information on their daily life. In conclusion, this article itself which is only very tiny part of what we have to search has revealed a lot about the embroidery. References http://dictionary.cambridge.org http://www.krugosvet.ru/ http://www.ldoceonline.com http://www.macmillandictionary.com http://www.merriam-webster.com http://www.oxforddictionaries.com Kachayeva, M. (2008). Sokrovişa russkogo ornamenta. Moskva: Beliye Alvi Malahova, T.P.(2010) Motivi geometricheskogo ornamenta v russkoy narodnoy vishivke. Vestnik, 2,210-213 url (http://www.vestnik-mgou.ru/Articles/Doc/2113) Maslova, G.S. (1978). Ornament russkoy narodnoy vishivki. Moskva: Nauka Ribakov, B.A. (1981). Yazichestvo drevnih slavyan. Moskva: Nauka. Shabanova, M.N. (2008). Rol yazicheskogo simvola v indentifikatsii tsennostnogo soderjaniya etnohudojestvennoy kulturi. Kursk: Kurskiy gosudarstvenniy universitet. Survo, V. (2014). Obrazi vishivki i obryadovaya semantika tekstila v traditsiyah Karelii. Helsinki Turkish dictionary, 2011, 11th Edtion, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları Yesenin, S.A.,(1918). Sobraniye sochineniy. Tom 4. Moskva: Hudojestvennaya literatura Dmitriyenko, A. (2001). Pamatniki slogovogo pisma drevnih slavyan. Moskva: Beliye Alvi

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THE INTERNATIONAL LIS PENDENS IN TERMS OF EUROPEAN UNION LAW AND TURKISH LAW Asst. Prof. Dr. Mesut AYGÜN Anadolu University, Faculty of Law, Private International Law Dept. [email protected]

Abstract Lis pendens is a defense mechanism to prevent duplication in the legal proceedings. According to this principle, it is not permissible to initiate new proceedings if litigation between the same parties and involving the same dispute is already pending. In the law of many countries including Turkish law, lis pendens is taken into account and arranged to in terms of cases doesn‟t contain foreign element. However, in the cases with foreign element in the international area, although the boundaries are variable, international lis pendens it is possible to say that has been generally accepted. In the European Union (EU) Law, Council Regulation EC No 1215/2012 on Jurisdiction and the Recognition and Enforcement of the Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters (hereinafter, Regulation”) arranges „lis pendens‟ and „related actions‟ on its articles from 29 to 34. The European legislation on conflicts of jurisdiction has taken account of this and adopted the lis pendens principle in a way that it is being extended across borders if the same action is brought up in the courts of different Member States. In Turkish Law, there isn‟t a clear provision which international lis pendens be arranged. However, international lis pendens has been generally accepted that emerged from articles 41 and 47 of Code on International Private Law and Civil Procedure Law, No. 5718. This study aims to determine the location and boundaries of international lis pendens in terms of EU Law and Turkish Law. Firstly, general overview of the Regulation regarded 29-34 of the articles is stated and secondly, definition and scope of the „Lis Pendens‟, „Related Actions‟, „Exclusive Jurisdiction and Jurisdiction Agreement‟ is determined and particularly „The new rules about proceedings for Non-Member States‟ are examined in detail. Then, within this scope international lis pendens approaches in Turkish law is discussed and the situation in Turkish law is compared. Finally, the conclusion we have achieved in the study is settled. Keywords: Lis pendens, International procedural law, European Union law, Turkish law, Council Regulation EC No 1215/2012.

1. Introduction Taking into consideration the historical development of the European Union (herein after EU), it can be said that EU is based on four fundamental freedoms: free movement of persons, goods, capital and services. In order to ensure the survival of these four fundamental freedoms, making a judicial cooperation between the Member States of the EU is indispensable. The EU, a Community based on,

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and characterized by the common market provides the ideal background for legal disputes arising simultaneously in different Member States since contradictory decisions are undesirable1. The basic regulations enforced by the EU are Council Regulation EC No 44/2001 of December 2000 on Jurisdiction and the Recognition and Enforcement of the Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters (Brussels I Regulation), Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003 Concerning Jurisdiction and the Recognition and Enforcement of Judgments in Matrimonial Matters and the Matters of Parental Responsibility (Brussels II bis Regulation) and Council Regulation (EC) No 4/2009 of December 2008 May 2000 on Jurisdiction, Applicable Law, Recognition and Enforcement of decisions and Cooperation in Matters Relating to Maintenance Obligations (The Maintenance Regulation). For a stronger judicial cooperation between the EU Member States, Council Regulation EC No 44/2001(Brussels I Regulation) reviewed and Council Regulation EC No 1215/2012 of December 2012 on Jurisdiction and the Recognition and Enforcement of the Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters (hereinafter, Regulation” or “Recast”) was adopted on December 12, 2012 and entered into force on January 10, 2015. It would not be wrong to say that judicial cooperation and coordination between the EU has increased thanks to the work carried out in cooperation and harmonization of international private and civil procedure law within the EU for a long time. Recast (EC No 1215/2012) is as an indication of this. The purpose of the Regulation is that judgments should be enforceable in other Member States without legal hurdles. For example, by virtue of article 39 of Recast „A judgment given in a Member State which is enforceable in that Member State shall be enforceable in the other Member States without any declaration of enforceability being required‟. This regulation can be considered as a very important and final step. Furthermore, Recast regulates the conflict of laws in the EU, straight applicable to the members of EU. Articles 29 to 34 of the Brussels Recast contains the basis of lis pendens and related actions due to this. A well-known mean to avoid duplication of legal proceedings is the plea of lis pendens. According to this principle, it is not permissible to initiate new proceedings if litigation between the same parties and involving the same dispute is already pending. The European legislation on conflicts of jurisdiction has taken account of this and adopted the lis pendens principle in a way that it is being extended across borders if the same action is brought up in the courts of different Member States2. To hinder any irreconcilable judgments among the EU, a strict application of lis pendens has been established by the courts of Member States and European Court of Justice (ECJ) also. In this study, it is scrutinized international pendency regulations specified by Recast besides relevant ECJ decisions. And also, it is asserted that varied views in Turkish doctrine and decisions of Court of Appeals relevant to this issue, evaluation of Turkish Law within the framework of the Brussels. The first chapter of the study is dedicated to historical background of European Civil Procedure. This section concludes agreement signed in the historical process leading to European Civil Procedure.

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Eisengraeber, Julia (2004), Lis Alibi Pendens under The Brussels I Regulation -How to Minimize „Torpedo Litigation‟ and Other Unwanted Effects of The „First-Come, First-Served‟ Rule-, Centre for European Legal Studies, Exeter Papers in European Law No: 16: , (Date accessed 24.08.2016). 2 Eisengraeber, p. 5.

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In the second chapter of the study, regulations of Recast about pendency and related actions are examined. Firstly, general overview of the New Recast of the Regulation Regarded 29-34 of the Articles is stated and secondly, definition and scope of the „Lis Pendens‟, „Related Actions‟, „Exclusive Jurisdiction and Jurisdiction Agreement‟ is determined and particularly „The new rules about proceedings for Non-Member States‟ are examined in detail. In the third and last chapter of the study is entitled „Lis Pendens in Turkish Law‟. Within this scope international pendency approaches in Turkish law is discussed, later on the principle of Forum Non Convenience (Regulated by the Article 30.3 of Recast) and the situation in Turkish law is compared. Finally, the conclusion we have achieved in the study is settled.

2. Lis Pendens and Related Actions on Brussels Recast A. General Overview of the New Recast of the Regulation Regarded 29-34 of the Articles The Brussels Convention signed in Brussels on September 27, 1968, and entered into force on February 1, 1973 between the six founding States of the European Economic Community3. The Convention provided the criteria for determining the competent judge for procedures in the Member States. It can be stated that European Civil Procedure based on this Convention. On May 1, 1999, Treaty of Amsterdam came into force. By this Treaty, this policy of cooperation, which had hitherto been solely directed at action to be taken by the Member States, became a matter for legislative action by the institutions of the European Community. According to Treaty of Amsterdam Article 61.c and 67.1, 1968 Brussels Convention has converted to a Regulation4 by European Council on December 2, 2000, which is called The Brussels I Regulation, and entered into force on March 1, 20025. It replaced the previous Brussels Convention of 1968, which had the same subject matters. Brussels I sets out a closed jurisdictional system, assigning jurisdictional competence as between courts of the Member States to resolve cross-border civil and commercial disputes6. The Brussels I Regulation was revised subsequently and a new „recast‟ version of the Regulation was adopted on December 12, 2012 and entered into force on January 10, 2015 and abolished the Brussels I. Even though both regulations oversee the same regulatory sphere in EU jurisdiction, which can be designated as EU regulations on jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters, Brussels Recast is aimed at resolving the shortcomings of the Brussels I. In other words, Brussels Recast is more specific in scope. Although there have been several changes, there are two changes that seem to be standing out amongst the other ones. These are (i) the status of

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ECC included at the time of signing Brussels Convention: Italy, France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg. 4 Council Regulation EC No 44/2001 of December 2000 on Jurisdiction and the Recognition and Enforcement of the Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters. After the Brussels I Regulation had been in force and revised Brussels Convention 1968, the new LugC applies in proceedings between the EU Member States and Iceland, Norway and Switzerland. The new LugC was signed on October 30, 2007. 5 Kennett, Wendy (2001), “Current Developments: The Brussels I Regulation”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 50 (Jully), pp. 725-737: 725. 6 European Commission (2014), Judicial cooperation in civil matters in the European Union, A guide for legal practitioners: , (Date accessed: 24.08.2016), p. 13.

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the third parties (i.e. Non-Member States) regarding the application of lis pendens and related actions, and (ii) the amendments aimed at preventing the use of „torpedo actions.‟ Regarding the lis pendens and related actions, these amendments issued in the Brussels Recast, allows the application of pendency to the cases where defendant is not domiciled in a Member State. For instance, when the Article 6.1 of the Recast is examined, its scope also covers parties in the NonMember States such as Turkish citizens. This is an exception, which is different from Brussels I Regulation. In Section 9 of the Recast, there are regulations about lis pendens and related actions. The novelty of Brussels Recast is the extension of the regulatory framework regarding the application of the pendency when one of the parties is a Non-Member State.

B. General Examination on the Articles In Section 9 labeled, as “lis pendens-related actions” there are six articles outlined as articles 29-34. The changes made in the Brussels Recast I can be scrutinized as follows7:

i. Definition and Scope of the "Lis Pendens" Article 29 is about the status and application of pendency, which occurs in the courts of different Member States8. The pendency applies to cases where a proceeding involves the same cause of action and between the same parties9. When the article is examined, it can be seen that, the regulation has strict rules that cannot be seen in any other national regulations about pendency. The rule explicitly states that when the pendency clause is applied to a case, which involved the courts of the different Member States, any court other than the court first seised ought to stay its proceedings on its own motion - ex officio10. Staying the proceedings would continue until the first court that seised the jurisdiction adjudges. Thus, the first court where the actions are pending would be the one who have competency. If the court first seised concludes that it has jurisdiction, all the other courts must decline 7

Hartley, Trevor C. (2015), International Commercial Litigation, Second Edition, London: Cambridge University Press, s. 261. 8 Since the Roman law, it has been undesired situation that the same legal dispute has been tried more than once (ne bis de eadem re sit actio). Otherwise it will cause waste of time, work and money, furthermore it will eventually violate legal certainty and reliability by the possibility of the emergence of two different court decisions: Kuru, Baki/ Arslan Ramazan/ Yılmaz Ejder (2014), Medeni Usul Hukuku, Ankara: Yetkin Yayınevi, s. 291; Şanlı, Cemal/ Esen, Emre/ Ataman Figanmeşe, İnci (2015), Milletlerarası Özel Hukuk, 4. Bası, İstanbul: Vedat Kitapçılık, s. 395-396. 9 In Gubisch case, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) stated that two actions are identical if they are between the same parties and „involve the same cause of action and the same subject-matter‟. In Gubisch, a German limited partnership, Gubisch Maschinenfabrik KG, started proceedings in Germany against a purchaser from Italy, Mr. Palumbo, for payment arising from a contract of sale. Subsequently, Mr. Palumbo brought an action in Italy seeking a declaration that the contract between both parties was invalid. After a lis pendens plea was rejected by the Italian court, Gubisch appealed to the next highest court in Italy, which asked the ECJ to interpret the term „same subject-matter‟...The Article 21 of 1968 Brussels Convention applies where two actions are between the same parties and involve the same cause of action and the same subject-matter.... (Gubicsh Mashinenfabrik KG v. Guilio Palumbo, ECJ C-144/86), EUR-Lex: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A61986CJ0144, (Date accessed: 24.08.2016). 10 The ECJ expressly confirmed this interpretation in the case Overseas Union Insurance Limited v. New Hampshire Insurance Co. The court first seised thus has considerable power to decide on the validity of the party autonomy expressed in the forum choice clause. (Overseas Union Insurance Limited v. New Hampshire Insurance Co C-351/89, 27.06.1991, ECR, ss. I.3342- I.3352), EUR-Lex: http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61989J0351:EN:PDF, (Date accessed: 24.08.2016).

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jurisdiction even if they are of the opinion that the conclusion of the court first seised was erroneous. This means that the lis pendens rule delegates to the court first seised a very significant power, which is clearly based on a great deal of confidence and trust11. So far, the Article 29 is exactly the same in Brussels I and Brussels Recast. Yet, there is an important change made that was not in the Brussels I. At the very beginning of the paragraph of the Article 29, an extra statement was included which is as follows: “Without prejudice to Article 31.2…”12 which means an exception to the rule “first seised has the competency” rule. With the inclusion of this exception, which will be explained more in detail under Article 31, if there is a jurisdiction agreement between the parties, then the Article 29.1 cannot be applied to the dispute. According to the Article 29.2, upon request by the court first seised of the dispute which is said in the paragraph 1, the other courts ought to inform the first court about the date when the dispute is seised immediately. The last paragraph of the article 29 is about the decision of rejection of venue. Until the jurisdiction of the court, which is first seised, is established, the other courts have to decline their jurisdiction in favour of that court.

ii. Definition and Scope of the "Related Actions" The Article 30 is about related actions as the title suggests. It should be stated that in the Article 30, there has been no significant changes by the Brussels Recast. At the very last paragraph of this Article, the paragraph states the aim of this regulation and also gives a definition about what can be accepted as related actions according to this Article13. In other words, the purpose of the Article is aimed at avoiding “the risk of irreconcilable decisions resulting from separate proceedings”. The related actions are defined as “… actions are deemed to be related where they are so closely connected that is expedient to hear and determine them together”. As to article, where the related actions are pending in different Member State‟s courts, then the court, which is first seised, may have competency. In other words, any court other than the first court may stay its proceedings.

11

Bogdan, Michael (2008), “The Brussels/Lugano Lis Pendens Rule and the „Italian Torpedo‟”, Scandinavian Studies in Law: , (Date accessed: 24.08.2016), pp. 1-9, p. 2. 12 Regulation (EU) No 1215/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of December 12, 2012, L 351/12 Article 29 (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2012:351:0001:0032:en:PDF). 13 In Tatry v. Maciej Rataj Case, the court states, on a proper construction of Article 21 of the Convention, [Article 27 of the Brussels I] an action seeking to have the defendant held liable for causing loss and ordered to pay damages has the “same cause of action” and the “same object” as earlier proceedings brought by that defendant seeking a declaration that he is not liable for that loss. As for the meaning of Article 22 of the Convention [Article 28 of the Brussels I], it is sufficient, in order to establish the necessary relationship between, on the one hand, an action brought in a Contracting State by one group of cargo owners against a ship owner seeking damages for harm caused to part of the cargo carried in bulk under separate but identical contracts, and, on the other, an action in damages brought in another Contracting State against the same ship owner by the owners of another part of the cargo shipped under the same conditions and under contracts which are separate from but identical to those between the first group and the ship owner, that separate trial and judgment would involve the risk of conflicting decisions, without necessarily involving the risk of giving rise to mutually exclusive legal consequences (Also see: Korkmaz, Cansu/ Panahpoursalehi, Hugo (2012), “Lis Pendens in Brussels I Regulation”, LW.433.1-2012.1: International Trade Law: , p. 6-7).

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Compared to the Article 29, which expounds the application of lis pendens, the Article 30 appears to be more responsive. The disputes that would be solved in accordance with the regulatory framework of the Article 29 are subject to more solid and rigid rules. On contrary, if the dispute is about related actions, which are subject to the enforcement of the Article 30, the solutions seem to be more responsive and flexible. As to the Article 30.2, any court other than the court may decline the jurisdiction of the court first seised. This rule is stipulated the first court‟s competency and permission about the consolidation of the court‟s national law in respect thereof.

iii. Exclusive Jurisdiction and Jurisdiction Agreement The Article 31, particularly deals with the notion of exclusive jurisdiction. The first paragraph lays out that when there are more than one courts have the exclusive jurisdiction, then courts with the exception of the court first seised ought to decline jurisdiction in favour of the first court14. Thus, if an action is pendent as to the Brussels Recast, the first court‟s jurisdiction hinders the other courts‟ competency. The paragraph 31.2 is about the jurisdiction agreement. This paragraph is introduced with the Brussels Recast and it was not in the Brussels I. When it is examined, with the Article 29.1 which referring to this paragraph in cases of exclusive jurisdiction agreement, at the outset the paragraph dictates that if there is an exclusive jurisdiction agreement in favour of a court, then it has the priority to seise, as the proceedings starts in that chosen court. At that point, any other Member State‟s court have to stay its proceedings even if that court was first seised until the time chosen court has declared that it has no jurisdiction under relevant agreement. If the chosen court has the jurisdiction according to the exclusive jurisdiction agreement, then the other court must decline jurisdiction. The inclusion of Article 31 appears to be aimed at preventing the use of "torpedo actions" that were defined above. The last paragraph of the Article is about the exceptions that cannot be subject for a jurisdiction agreement under the Article 31. In other words, the exception does not apply to issues such as the policyholder, the insured, a beneficiary of the insurance contract, the injured party and when the consumer or the employee is the claimant. In such cases, the chosen court does not have the priority regardless of which court is first seised.

iv. The Documents Determining When the Court is First Seised This article 32 of the Recast depicts the circumstances in which a court is going to be competent. It is more like a guide that helps to determine the instances when the court is seised. In other words, to determine the competency of a court, this Article gives guidelines to be followed in such cases. These cases are stated in Article 32.1.a and 32.1.b. First one relates to the document that institutes the 14

In the Gasser Gmbh v. MISAT Srl case, (Case C-116/02, 2003, ECR 1-14693.) one of the parties tried to refer to the exclusive jurisdiction clause and addressed the higher court of Austria, requesting an Austrian court not to stay proceedings, because an Italian court was seised and the time of functioning of this Italian court was lengthy. The ECJ, in the preliminary ruling, pointed out that since Brussels I does not deal with the question of duration of the proceedings, the lis pendens rule should be applied (Also see: Ivanova, Ekaterina (2010), “Choice of Court Clauses and Lis Pendens under Brussels I Regulation”, Utrecht Journal of International and European Law, 26(71), pp. 12–16: 15).

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proceedings or equivalent documents that are necessary for the court seise. When one of these documents is lodged with court, then the court ought to be deemed to be seised. Secondly, if the document has to be served before being lodged with the court, it has to be received by the authority responsible for service. This authority responsible for the service has to be the first authority. In this case, at the time when the first authority has received the document, then the court deemed to be seised. In addition to that rule, the clause that is explained in the first place is also valid for this paragraph. In both situations, the court and the authority have to note the dates when any of the documents that are mentioned above are lodged or received, respectively.

v. The New Rules about Proceedings for Non-Member States The Article 33 is first introduced in the Brussels Recast and it was absent in Brussels I. Thanks to this Article of Recast, there are new rules about proceedings in Non-Member States. This Article ought to be applied on the application of one of the parties or under the Member State‟s national law of its own motion. As to the Article, the third State would have the jurisdiction if it could meet certain requirements. There are two clauses that are sub-grouped under the Paragraph 1. While the first one is about the judgement capacity of recognition and enforcement in the Member State, the second condition states that the Member State‟s court must be satisfied that a stay is necessary for the proper administration of justice. The Article 33.2 is about the continuation of the proceedings in the court of the Member State. According to the regulation, (i) if the proceeding in the third state‟s court is themselves stayed or discontinued, (ii) if it is obvious that the court of the third state is unlikely to conclude the proceedings within a reasonable time and finally, (iii) if the continuation of the proceedings is required for the proper administration of justice. If one of these clauses occurs at any time, then the court of the Member State may continue its proceedings. According to the Article 33.3, if the proceedings in the court of the Non-Member State is concluded and if the result has the capacity of recognition and enforcement, then the court of the Member State have to dismiss its proceedings.

3. Lis Pendens in Turkish Law In Turkish civil legislation, pendency is one of the negative causes of action regulated by Code of Civil Procedure (CCP) No. 610015. How to handle judicial process if the same action16 is brought several Turkish courts is regulated by articles 114 and 115 of CCP. In the event of national pendency, the latter proceedings should be dismissed for the reason that cause of action is unfulfilled17. In other words, where the action in the court first seised is pending, any other court should dismiss the same 15

Code of Civil Procedure No. 6100, Article 114. In the context of the appeal of pending, the parties must be the same to be able to mention the same case. The second condition referred to as the same case is the same matter of dispute and the same cause of action. Kuru/ Arslan/ Yılmaz, s. 291; Pekcanıtez, Hakan/ Atalay, Oğuz/ Özekes, Muhammet (2013), Medeni Usul Hukuku, Ankara: Yetkin Yayınevi, s. 847; Tanrıver, Süha (2007), Medeni Usul Hukukunda Derdestlik İtirazı, 2. Bası, Ankara: Adalet Yayınevi, s. 66. 17 Kuru/Arslan/Yılmaz, s. 291; Pekcanıtez/Atalay/Özekes, s. 521. 16

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action. Neither CCP nor Private International and Civil Procedure Law (PICPL) No. 5718 regulate however, what should be done if the same action is seised to both Turkish court and a foreign court. For instance, supposing that Berlin will be the place of performance concluding sales contract between a German and a Turk. The defendant is domiciled in İstanbul, Turkish courts should be competent by the reason of defendant‟s domicile it is likely that also German courts should be competent by the reason of place of performance. If actions are deemed to be related where they are so closely connected, even a third country court shall be authorized, so it will emerge affirmative conflict of venue between this relevant courts18. In the event of more than one country, court having jurisdiction is defined as international pendency and in our legislation, there is no legal regulation directly related to this matter. Still, recognition international pendency is regulated about Turkish citizen‟s personal actions and the Court determined by a jurisdiction agreement by Article 41 and 47 of Law No. 571819. According to Article 41, wife who first filed a divorce case in foreign court has a right of plea of pendency when the other spouse‟s files a divorce case in Turkish court later20. As to Article 47, unless the Court‟s jurisdiction is defined as exclusive jurisdiction, contracting parties should negotiate that foreign state court will be competent court as regards disputes involving foreign elements between them. Despite the fact that there is a jurisdiction agreement authorizing a foreign court and sued in that country to this respect, it should be filed objections about another action pending afterwards when the same action is seised in a Turkish court21. It should be noted that some of special provisions about international pendency is regulated by bilateral international agreements22. Nevertheless, there is no legal arrangement how the parties enter a plea of pendency and what will be decided by the court on this appeal if the action is brought in a foreign court by Article 41 and 47 of Law No. 5718. Then two possibilities could be considered in this case23: The first of these, Turkish legislator did not knowingly and willfully make legislative regulation about international pendency because it is directly related to right of independence thus international pendency is inadmissible. The second of these, this issue accepted as "lacuna (legal gap)" in Turkish law.

18

Erdoğan, Ersin (2014), “Milletlerarası Derdestlik (Lis Alibi Pendens)”, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, C. 16, Özel Sayı (Prof. Dr. Hakan Pekcanıtez‟e Armağan), s. 1857-1884: 1857. 19 Nomer, Ergin (2009), Milletlerarası Usul Hukuku, İstanbul: Beta Yayınevi, s. 84; Şanli, Cemal (2016), Uluslararası Ticari Akitlerin Hazırlanması ve Uyuşmazlıkların Çözüm Yolları, 6. Bası, İstanbul: Beta Yayınevi, s. 169. 20 After the res judicata of a foreign court, it is not possible to reject the appeal of pendency in case of re-filing a divorce case. In these circumstances, it should be requested the recognition of foreign judgments: Ekşi, Nuray (2000), Türk Mahkemelerinin Milletlerarası Yetkisi, 2. Bası, İstanbul: Beta Yayınevi, s. 156. 21 In the doctrine, it is stated that it is not plea of pendency, but it is plea of jurisdiction. According to this view, unless the foreign court dismiss the case Turkish courts will be deemed to have been lack of venue of international jurisdiction. Therefore, the existence of jurisdiction agreement will prevent the prosecution by Turkish courts and the defendant shall enter a plea of jurisdiction nased on the jurisdiction agreement. Also see: Sargın, Fügen (1996), Milletlerarası Usul Hukukunda Yetki Anlaşmaları, Ankara: Yetkin Yayınevi, s. 189-190; Doğan, Vahit (2002), “Türk Hukukunda Yabancı Derdestliğin Nazara Alınması”, Milletlerarası Hukuk ve Milletlerarası Özel Hukuk Bülteni, Y. 22, S. 2, s. 121-147: 142. 22 Şanlı/Esen/Ataman Figanmeşe, s. 397, Nomer, (2009), s. 84. 23 Erdoğan, s. 1875.

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A. International Pendency Approaches in Turkish Law i. The View, Which Accepts the Acknowledging Plea of International Pendency Should, be Regarded as Violation of Right of Independence Unless There Is Any Legal Regulation. The prevailing view in our doctrine is that plea of international pendency should be rejected by Turkish courts. Based upon this, if international pendency plea is accepted by the Turkish court, it is claimed that Turkish courts will waive from competency in favour of foreign courts and consequently principle of national sovereignty will be violated24. In addition, these supporters stated that it is impossible to revoke a person‟s right to sue under Turkish law due to lawsuit brought against in a foreign court25. However, in the light of developing international relations and when we consider Turkey‟s membership process to EU, it seems difficult to us adopt this view.

ii. The View Which Accepts International Pendency on the Condition That It would be Possible of Enforcement and Recognition of Foreign Court Judgments The view put forward in recent years is that if a foreign court is closely related to the case, recognition and enforcement of foreign court's judgment is capable and applicable, the plea of international pendency should be accepted26. Hence, according to the supporters of this view it will be more appropriate for the purpose of international procedural law and natural judge principle. Furthermore, they argue that the acceptance by the Turkish court of international pendency plea in the light of developing international relations does not mean violation of principle of national sovereignty unless it is forbidden by Turkish law and contracts obviously. For this reason, they consequently argue that if recognition and enforcement of foreign court's judgment is capable and applicable in Turkish law, plea of international pendency should be accepted by the Turkish courts27. Now, the overall approach adopted by the European Civil Law is in line with this view28. However this view may be criticized for the following reasons: Acceptance of international pendency by taking into consideration the possibility of recognition and enforcement of the foreign court's judgment is not a proper approach even if other legal requirements of recognition and enforcement of the foreign court's judgment is predictable, reasons related to public order are unpredictable. If the recognition and enforcement of the foreign court's judgment were not possible in Turkish Law, an unsatisfactory situation would emerge in terms of the claimant29.

iii. The view regarding international pendency as a prejudicial question The another view put forward about this subject is that when considered the developments and needs 24

Seviğ, Muammer Raşit (1941), Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kanunlar İhtilâfı Kaidelerinin Sentezi, İstanbul, s. 177; Nomer, Ergin (1968), “Milletlerarası Yetki Alanında Derdestlik İtirazı”, İstanbul Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Mecmuası, C. 34, S. 1-4, s. 343-374: 368; Nomer, (2009), s. 85, Sargın, s. 188. 25 Doğan, s. 127. 26 Ekşi, s. 177; Ulukapı, Ömer (1995), “Medeni Usul Hukukunda Derdestlik ve Sonuçları”, Yargıtay Dergisi, C. 21, S. 4, s. 395-445: 397, dn. 11. Also see Court of Appeal decision in this aspect Erdoğan, p. 1863, dn. 20. 27 Şanlı/Esen/Ataman-Figanmeşe, s. 399. 28 Also see above ‘Gubisch Maschinenfabrik KG v. Giulio Palumbo Case’ and ‘Tatry v. Maciej Rataj Case’. 29 Nomer, (2009), s. 85.

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in the area of private international law, if recognition and enforcement of the foreign court's judgment by the Turkish courts is possible, the Turkish court will be able to ask prejudicial question30. The main underlying reason of this view is as it follows: The purpose of the existence of prejudicial question overlaps with the acceptance of plea of international pendency. In this context, both of them contribute to the judicial economy principle and prevent irreconcilable judgments31. Indeed, Court of Appeal (Yargıtay) render several different decisions whether accepting the plea of international pendency as a prejudicial question. Civil Chamber 15 of Court of Appeal in 2012 adjudged that32 “ ... as it is seen from the case file, the firm MKJV was sued in the court of Romania before. If sub-contractor certainly has commercial claim … proceeding in Turkey depends on outcome of the first action-seised in Romania. The outcomes of the case which is pending between parties should be waited”. As so, Civil Chamber 15, admitted foreign court's judgment as a prejudicial question33. On the contrary, Civil Chamber 2 of Court of Appeal in 2010 adjudged that34 “… the same reasons of action would not be enough for the plea of pendency. There should some other requirements; ability of enforcement of foreign court's judgment, existence of a jurisdiction agreement between foreigner and Turkey on this issue or a regulation in Turkish Private International Law”. As so, Civil Chamber 2, rejected a general international pendency objection. There is another approach in doctrine35, arguing, lis pendens cannot be named as a prejudicial question. Explicitly, an argument is deemed as a prejudicial question when it is irrelevant with the jurisdiction of the court dealing with. Whenas, in the case of pendency, Turkish court has competency with mentioned controversy. After all these views, the mutual goals of national and international pendency can be listed as; *absence of legal interest, *compliance with the judicial economy principle, *practical reasons and *notably avoiding irreconcilable decisions of varied courts in different countries. However, in order to coincide those aforementioned aims, there is a precondition; the ability of recognition and enforcement of foreign judgment in domestic law. Otherwise, for instance, recognition of the foreign court's judgment is not capable and peculiarly, if defendant has property in Turkey, the claimant would has legal interest to sue his claim in Turkish courts as well. In such a case, the action cannot be dismissed by asserting judicial economy principle. If not, the right to legal remedies, regulated by both Turkish Constitution and European Convention of Human Rights, would be 30

Şanlı/Esen/Ataman-Figanmeşe, s. 402. Also see Court of Appeal Decision: Court of Appeal Civil Chamber 2, 15.6.2010, E. 2009/13541, K. 2010/11899: Kazancı İçtihat Bankası, htttp://kazanci.com (Date accessed: 24.08.2016). 31 Erdoğan, s. 1867. 32 Court of Appeal Civil Chamber 15, 11.6.2012, E. 2011/2901, K. 2012/4661, Şanlı/Esen/Ataman Figanmeşe, s. 401 33 Yargıtay 11. HD, 10.4.1986, E.1486/1986, K. 1986/2090: Kazancı İçtihat Bankası, htttp://kazanci.com (Date accessed: 24.08.2016). 34 Yargıtay 2. HD, 15.6.2010, E. 2009/13541, K. 2010/11899: Kazancı İçtihat Bankası, htttp://kazanci.com (Date accessed: 24.08.2016). 35 Nomer, (2009), s. 85.

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excessively restricted. At the beginning, it is not always conceivable to say, whether recognition of foreign judgment is possible or not. Assume a case sued against Turkish courts, dependency was asserted as a reason and the case is dismissed. Later on, the foreign court also dismissed the case for procedural reasons or another existed reason, which makes recognition or enforcement of foreign judgment impossible. Meanwhile, if limitation of action is ended, the claimant would be expose to loss of his right. Besides that, when non-ability of recognition becomes clear, proceeding will be inexpedient with the judicial economy principle. To sum up, uncertainty of recognition and enforcement of foreign court's judgment, pose an obstacle to directly apply pendency as a cause of action.

B. Evaluation of Turkish Law within the Framework of the Principle of Forum Non Convenience (Regulated by the Article 30.3 of Recast) According to the principle of "forum non convenience", the court seised can dismiss the case due to the existence of a court closely related despite having international jurisdiction36. In common law countries, courts today generally have a discretionary power to refuse to take jurisdiction on the basis of forum non convenience, i.e. if there is another, clearly more appropriate forum in other jurisdiction where it would be better to try the suit, having regard to the interests of the parties and the ends of justice37. Per contra, In Anglo-American legal system, which accepts living temporarily in the homeland of the person as an adequate cause for the presence of international jurisdiction, it seems reasonable to restrict the court of jurisdiction by virtue of "forum non convenience" principle38. In Turkish Law‚ "forum non convenience" principle is adopted neither by legal regulations nor by judicial decisions. Ordinary rules of competency in Turkish Procedural Law are the rules that determine the place of the jurisdiction court dealing with the lawsuit. International jurisdiction of Turkish courts should be appointed by the rules of competency of national law39. By this way, it refers that competency rules in national law should be taken into consideration for the determination of international jurisdiction40. According to the Article 36 of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, any competent court must not refuse to hear a case in its jurisdiction. In this context, the determination of the existence of a court closely connected will emerge challenges and uncertainties in terms of Turkish Procedural Law41.

4. Conclusion EU has paid significant attention to uniform rules of civil procedures among Member States. This unification is regarded as "sine qua non" criteria of common market. Rather than other communities, it would not be unfair to say, EU has taken further steps on this issue of harmonization of separate 36

Akıncı, Ziya (2002), Milletlerarası Usul Hukukunda Yetki Sözleşmesine Dayanan Yabancı Derdestlik, Ankara: Seçkin Yayınevi, s. 28; Nomer, (2009), s. 119. 37 Eisengraeber, s. 22. 38 Nomer, Ergin (2015), Devletler Hususi Hukuku, 21. Bası, İstanbul: Beta Yayınevi, s. 457. 39 Kuru/Arslan/Yılmaz, s. 164. 40 Nomer, (2015), s. 430. 41 Akıncı, s. 29; Nomer, (2015), s. 457.

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Member States' civil procedural laws. Brussels Regulation is one of those steps, the mainstream one, and aims free movement of judgments. By this way, the existing reliance within the EU could be enhanced and procedural action is accelerated further. In addition to ECJ decisions has been constituted main references to EU Member States, guiding how to apply notion of “international pendency”. However, some regulations enacted in the Recast are likely to make difficulties in practice. That is to say, according to Article 31.2, how long any court of another Member States, except the court of a Member State on which an agreement as referred to in Article 25 confers exclusive jurisdiction is seised, will stay the proceedings for the decision of the court seised is not clear on the basis of the agreement. In other words, when the court seised on the basis of the agreement declares that it has no jurisdiction under the agreement is not definite. ECJ mentions in the Gasser case, the Brussels Convention and Regulation are based, it will not allow a court of one Member State to decide upon or evaluate the jurisdiction of a court of another Member State, or evaluate their speed of proceedings42. Though this problem is solved within the framework of mutual trust of Member States as stated in the Gasser Case: The ECJ underlines that the Brussels Convention [respectively the Brussels I Regulation] is based on the mutual trust the Contracting States accord to each other‟s legal systems and judicial institutions and it is that mutual trust that all the courts are required to respect. Therefore, no derogation from the „first-come, first-served‟ rule is possible „where, in general, the duration of proceedings before the courts of the Contracting State in which the court first seised is established is excessively long. The principle of equality of all the national courts within the EU prohibits an exception based on a national distinction concerning the length of domestic proceedings43. In spite of all the negative consequences, the ECJ‟s decision to protect the Brussels/Lugano system is commonly appreciated. To allow the courts of one Member State to review the jurisdiction of the courts in other Member States could lead to chaos and undermine not only the jurisdictional rules but also the rules on recognition and enforcement of judgments. It is no coincidence that Article 35.3 of the Brussels Regulation forbids even the test of public policy (ordre public) with regard to the jurisdiction of the courts of other Member States44. Also thanks to Recast, there are new rules about proceedings in Non-Member States. This Article ought to be applied on the application of one of the parties or under the Member State‟s national law of its own motion. As distinct from Brussels Recast, Turkish domestic law do not provide a certain arrangement commanding implementation of international pendency, there is also no regulation forbidding it. That is the main reason initiates discussions related to international pendency in Turkish Law. Considering the judicial economy principle, legal interests of parties and cohesion of international judgment, Turkish judge should create law (based on his authority given him by Article 1 of Turkish Civil Code No. 4721) and apply lis pendens by regarding possibility of foreign judgment enforcement and recognition45. Regarding critics mentioned above the judge who applies lis pendens in Turkish proceeding should also be sensitive about the claimant's right to legal remedies in order not to cause

42

Ivanova, s.16. Eisengraeber, s. 45-46. 44 Bogdan, s. 96, 97. 45 Erdoğan, s. 1877. 43

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any loss of right. For the beginning of the proceeding, none can certainly guarantee recognition of foreign judgment, it is solely a prediction. For that reason, the judge should not dismiss the case immediately, instead, wait for foreign courts definitive judgment. Finally, if recognition and enforcement of foreign court's judgment is incapable and inapplicable, then Turkish judge should continue to hear the case. Turkey, as a candidate State of EU, has made many adjustments in domestic law system to accord with EU Law during the process of membership. From this perspective, to harmonize international pendency provisions of Brussels Regulation and Turkish legal system would empower both economic and commercial ties of Turkey and EU, which is what Brussels Regulation aims actually.

References Akıncı, Ziya (2002), Milletlerarası Usul Hukukunda Yetki Sözleşmesine Dayanan Yabancı Derdestlik, Ankara: Seçkin Yayınevi. Bogdan, Michael (2008), “The Brussels/Lugano Lis Pendens Rule and the „Italian Torpedo‟ ”, Scandinavian Studies in Law: , (Date accessed: 24.08.2016), pp. 1-9. Cox, Arthur (2015), “The Recast Brussels Regulation: What It Means for Commercial Parties”, Group Briefing: , (Date accessed: 24.08.2016), pp. 1-3. Doğan, Vahit (2002), “Türk Hukukunda Yabancı Derdestliğin Nazara Alınması”, Milletlerarası Hukuk ve Milletlerarası Özel Hukuk Bülteni, Y. 22, S. 2, s. 121-147. Eisengraeber, Julia (2004), Lis Alibi Pendens under The Brussels I Regulation -How to Minimise „Torpedo Litigaiton‟ and Other Unwanted Effects of The „First-Come, First-Served‟ Rule-, Centre for European Legal Studies, Exeter Papers in European Law No: 16: , (Date accessed: 24.08.2016). Ekşi, Nuray (2000), Türk Mahkemelerinin Milletlerarası Yetkisi, 2. Bası, İstanbul: Beta Yayınevi. Erdoğan, Ersin (2014), “Milletlerarası Derdestlik (Lis Alibi Pendens)”, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, C. 16, Özel Sayı (Prof. Dr. Hakan Pekcanıtez‟e Armağan), s. 1857-1884. European Commission (2014), Judicial cooperation in civil matters in the European Union, A guide for legal practitioners: , (Date accessed: 24.08.2016). Hartley, Traver C. (2015), International Commercial Litigation, Second Edition, London: Cambridge University Press. Hellner, Michael (2002), “The Limits to Judicial Cooperation in Civil Matters: Taking Legality Seriously”, Juridiska Augstskola, RGSL Working Papers No. 9: , (Date accessed: 24.08.2016), pp. 1-27.

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Ivanova, Ekatarina (2010), “Choice of Court Clauses and Lis Pendens under Brussels I Regulation”, Utrecht Journal of International and European Law, 26(71), pp. 12–16. Jenard, P. (1979), Report on the Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters, Official Journal of the European Communities: . Kennett, Wendy (2001), “Current Developments: The Brussels I Regulation”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 50 (Jully), p. 725-737. Korkmaz, Cansu/ Panahpoursalehi, Hugo (2012), “Lis Pendens in Brussels I Regulation”, LW.433.12012.1: International Trade Law: , pp. 1-7. Kuru, Baki/ Arslan Ramazan/ Yilmaz Ejder (2014), Medeni Usul Hukuku, Ankara: Yetkin Yayınevi. Mueller, Lukas (2011), “The Revised Lugano Convention from the Swiss Perspective”, The Columbia Journal of European Law Online, Vol. 18, pp. 9-16. Nomer, Ergin (2015), Devletler Hususi Hukuku, 21. Bası, İstanbul: Beta Yayınevi. Nomer, Ergin (2009), Milletlerarası Usul Hukuku, İstanbul: Beta Yayınevi. Nomer, Ergin (1968), “Milletlerarası Yetki Alanında Derdestlik İtirazı”, İstanbul Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Mecmuası, C. 34, S. 1-4, s. 343-374. Pekcanıtez, Hakan/ Atalay, Oğuz/ Özekes, Muhammet (2013), Medeni Usul Hukuku, Ankara: Yetkin Yayınevi. Sargın, Fügen (1996), Milletlerarası Usul Hukukunda Yetki Anlaşmaları, Ankara: Yetkin Yayınevi. Seviğ, Muammer Raşit (1941), Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kanunlar İhtilâfı Kaidelerinin Sentezi, İstanbul. Şanlı, Cemal (2016), Uluslararası Ticari Akitlerin Hazırlanması ve Uyuşmazlıkların Çözüm Yolları, 6. Bası, İstanbul: Beta Yayınevi. Şanlı, Cemal/ Esen, Emre/ Ataman Figanmeşe, İnci (2015), Milletlerarası Özel Hukuk, 4. Bası, İstanbul: Vedat Kitapçılık. Tanrıver, Süha (2007), Medeni Usul Hukukunda Derdestlik İtirazı, 2. Bası, Ankara: Adalet Yayınevi. Ulukapı, Ömer (1995), “Medeni Usul Hukukunda Derdestlik ve Sonuçları”, Yargıtay Dergisi, C. 21, S. 4, s. 395-445.

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THE ANALYSES OF GENERAL (PARLIAMENTARY) ELECTION IN TURKEY’S POSTERS IN 1ST NOVEMBER 2015 Assoc. Prof.Dr.Metin KASIM Selçuk Üniversitesi, İletişim Fakültesi, Radyo Televizyon ve Sinema Bölümü, Fotoğrafçılık ve Grafik Anabilim Dalı, Konya/TÜRKİYE [email protected]

Abstract In this study; election posters which were used in 1st November 2015 and include political party leaders’ images are analysed. In the study, posters used by AKP (Justice and Development Party), CHP (Republican People’s Party), HDP (Peoples’ Democratic Party) and MHP (Nationalist Movement Party) are analysed because they are top 4 parties in terms of vote rate and they found representation opportunity in the parliamentary. In the study, posters include images of Ahmet Davutoğlu from AKP, Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu from CHP, Selahattin Demirtaş from HDP and Devlet Bahçeli from MHP are analysed. In this study, posters are analysed by using semiotic methods to understand whether leader images support their party policies and promises or not; match their commonly known personalities by the public or not; whether used slogans, texts, symbols or images serve the same purpose or not; and in addition to this, their success levels are discussed. Keywords: Advertisement,image, semiotic, election, posters.

THE ANALYSES OF GENERAL (PARLIAMENTARY) ELECTION IN TURKEY’S POSTERS IN 1ST NOVEMBER 2015

1. Introduction Topic of the Study: In this study, 1st November 2015 Parliamentary election posters which inludes political party leaders‟ images are analysed. In the study, used posters of AKP (Justice and Development Party), CHP (Republican People‟s Party), HDP (People‟s Democratic Party) and MHP (Nationalist Movement Party) in their campaigns are analysed because they are both top 4 parties in terms of vote rate and found representation opportunity in the parliamentary. Aim of the Study: In this study, it is revealed whether leader images of top 4 parties support their party policies and promises or not; whether they match with their commonly known personalities by the public or not; whether used slogans, texts, symbols or images are in the same way with the planned message or not. The scope and limitations of the study: This study is limited with prepared works for only 1st November 2015 Parliamentary elections. For this reason, top 4 partie‟s election posters are analysed instead of all parties‟ ones. Although all parties have more than one posters, which have same images and different written messages are selected to analyse. In the study, posters include images of Ahmet Davutoğlu from AKP, Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu from CHP, Selahattin Demirtaş from HDP and Devlet Bahçeli from MHP are analysed.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2. Review of Literature 1.THE ANALYSES OF JUSTICE AND DEVELOPMENT PARTY (AKP)’S ELECTION POSTERS Justice and Development Party was established in 14th August 2001. Its founders are Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Abdullah Gül, Abdüllatif Şener, İdris Naim Şahin, Binali Yıldırım and Bülent Arınç. In the last election conducted in November 2015, it came to power alone with 49,5% vote rate. Its general president is Ahmet Davutoğlu in 2015 Election period. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan as one of founders of the party says that the political position of the party is conservative-democratic. Ak Party has always become the first party in all elections which it participated and it came into power alone in fourth time in 5 general elections (www.wikipedia.org). Its logo is a bulb consist of yellow and black (www.akparti.org.tr). Ak Party worked with Arter Advertising agency in 2015 elections and this agency is also name founder, logo designer, communication strategy and election campaign determiner of the Ak Party (www.ntv.tr).

Source: www.akadaylar.com,10.11.2015. Signs: Light grey background, advertising slogan in red, advertising promise in blue, image of party leader, light blue shirt, dark blue jacket and stand of the party leader, voting paper, red text includes yes expression, hand which impresses a seal. 1)How is the layout (general view of the ad)? Does it take attention at first sight? At the first sight to the billboard, it is understood that it is AKP‟s election poster which is designed for the election and the message is understood directly. It also gains attention. 2)Is the rate of used photo suitable with the advertising-wide? Is photography of the leader big enough and apparent? The photography of the party leader covers 1/3 of the billboard so it fulfils the condition of successful visual quality. Logo as a corporate identity of the party is located in voting paper cognisably. Visual elements are used in a suitable size unclearly. 3)Does used title, slogan, text and photography support with each other? Slogans of Ads: Main slogan of the party is “Come into Power Singly” and election promises are used before the slogan as texts or titles. This method can be evaluated as a method which increases memorability of election promises Title and texts: It is necessary to evaluate texts or advertising titles which include promises of the party together. The reason of this can be expressed as messages are too short when they are evaluated as texts and when they are evaluated as titles, there is not another text. Titles or texts in different posters are as below: “Come into Power Singly for Turkey”, “Come into Power Singly for Stability”, “Come

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN into Power Singly for Peace”, “Come into Power Singly for Our Children”, “1300 TL as Minimum Wage”, “Appointment for Subcontracted Workers”, “Free Internet for Youth”, “30000 TL Interest Free Credit for Our Tradesman”, “Opportunity to be Homeowner for Low-Income Families”, “1200 TL Additional Wage Increase for Our Retires”, “We are Abolishing KDV (Value Added Tax) on Fertilizer and Bait”, “Non-Refundable Support for Young Entrepreneurs who Set Their Business”, “Social Support Specialists for All Families who Need”, “100000 TL Interest Free Credit for Young Entrepreneurs Who Set Their Business”, “Being Homeowner Opportunity for Our Retirees from TOKİ”, “30000 TL Non-Refundable Support for Our Young Farmers”, “70 New Organized Industrial Zones”, “Job Opportunity for 1 Millions Individuals”, “We Will Pay Wages of Young People Who Work in a Job first time during 1 year”, “The Right for Part Time Employment with Full Payment During 2 Months for First Child, 4 Months for Second Child, 6 Months for Third Child for Working Women”, “300 TL for First Child, 400 TL for Second Child and 600 TL for Third Child as a Birth Gift for Mothers”, “Full support for Women Entrepreneurs; We are Guarantor of 85% of 100000 TL Credit”. “Come into Power Singly” slogan is used again and again in advertising texts. This slogan is located in center-bottom and its font colour is red in all posters. In analysed billboard which includes “Come into Power Singly for Turkey” slogan, the slogan located in center-bottom of the billboard in red and white colors and also advertising text located above the slogan with blue font color. There is a voting paper, a hand which holds stamp and logo of the party in left-bottom corner. Consequently, used slogan, text and visual elements are clear and support each other. 4) How degree of the leader photography can be shown in the ad? Although leader image is seen in a small part of right side of the ad, it can be easily understood his smiling face. Because of this, the leader image supports the advertising text. 5)How degree of the used promise in the ad supply the material benefits of target audience? Used text with the image of the party leader in billboards addresses to the material benefits of target audience by promises such as “home, labour opportunity, wage increase”. 6) Are the colours used in accordance with their determined effects in the ad? Background colour of the billboard and shirt of the leader are white. This colour which represents purity, chastity, innocence, continuity and nobleness gives confidence to people (www.yumaksepeti.com). Because of these meanings of the colour, politicians mostly prefer this colour (www.kazimcapaci.com). The slogans are red and white in all billboards. By using these colours, it aimed to touch on people‟s nationalist senses and this aim is supported with the text of “For Turkey” completely. Red as a colour represents dynamism, determination, sincerity, power and also it can be easily recognized. Red loses its characteristic by moving away, but blue is more effective in long distances (www.bilgiustam.com). Blue is used in some parts of the billboards and it represents comfort, order, discipline, confidence and idealism. Dark blue jacket of the leader represents authority so it is frequently used (www.teknikeretiket.com). Under negative conditions which the party has experienced, using the colours in accordance with their determined meanings can be evaluated as a success in terms of both the party‟s identity and offered promises to target audience. 7) How degree of visual signs do their tasks in meaning transfer? Using leader image and party logo makes clear that this billboard is AKP‟s one and also using voting paper makes a reference to the election. It is desired to give a message by used texts that it is a party which cover everyone and they should “come into power singly” for peace, stability and economic welfare. 8) Are angles and rate of the photography suitable with determined criteria? By using shoulder shot as a scale of shot, it is aimed to gain attention on sight intensity to the leader‟s face and gestures and tries to give a message which includes character of the leader and his relation with the environment (kiralikkamera.com.tr). Used low angle emphasizes the power of the leader (medyaakademisi.com/kamera). 9)Does the ad stimulate emotions? (Love, excitement, curiosity, fear, prestige, etc.) By using messages in advertising texts like “For Turkey, For Stability, For Peace” address to moral 675

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN senses of people and it is aimed to create excitement. Economic promises like job opportunities, wage increase, being home-owner opportunity, credit, etc. creates excitement and curiosity for people. 2-ANALYSES OF ELECTION POSTERS OF REPUBLICAN PEOPLE’S PARTY (CHP) Republican People‟s Party (CHP in brief form) is a Turkish political party which adopt Kemalist, social democratic and social liberal views. It was established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and it is the first political party of Republican Period. It was remained in power from 1923 to 1950 and Republican People‟s Party was used single party regime apart from short breaks. Republican People‟s Party remained the longest period of time in Turkey and it is also called as founder of Turkish Republic. Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu has been conducted general presidency duty since 2010 (tr.wikipedia.org). Six Arrows Principles which constitutes essentials of savings from Struggle for National Independence and Atatürk Revolutions; and philosophical and moral values of the process refers to historial source and the most powerful base of CHP‟s political identity, ideology and party programs (www.chp.org.tr).

Source: CHP Province Presidency of Konya Signs: Photography of Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu as CHP leader, CHP‟s logo with 6 arrows and YES seal below the logo. 1) How is the layout (general view of the ad)? Does it take attention at first sight? Simplicity of the design has success in access to target audience so this ad can be evaluated as effective advertising work. Using transverse colours create influence in text and leader photography. 2)Is the rate of used photo suitable with the advertising-wide? Is photography of the leader big enough and apparent? Leader photography used in the ad is cognizable with the rate of 1/3. Leader photography on white background increase purity and understandable. 3)Does used title, slogan, text and photography support with each other? Slogan: “Turkey is First, People is First, Unity is First, Turkey is First”. This slogan which located in space of Leader‟s sight provides purity and brings success. Title of Ad: “Turkey is First” message is used as title, text and slogan. Title, slogan, text and leader photography accords with each other by their purity and colours so the ad meets successful advertising criteria mostly. 4)How degree of the leader photography can be shown in the ad? Design which includes leader photography covers 1/3 of the design so it can be shown enough. By this way, it represents a successful example. 5)How degree of the used promise in the ad supply the material benefits of target audience? 676

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN “People are first, unity is first, Turkey is first” slogan used in the design emphasizes moral elements like unity and solidarity more than materiality. 6) Are the colours used in accordance with their determined effects in the ad? Red and white as Turkish flag‟s colours and party‟s colours are used suitably with each other. Using red on white background takes attraction successfully. Transversely used black colour on white background expresses power, nobility, sedateness, and passion. Because of increasing concentration, it precludes from distraction (www.renklerinanlamlari.com). 7)How degree of visual signs do their tasks in meaning transfer? “People is first, Unity is first, Turkey is first” slogan emphasizes people and state as a matter of priority in accordance with Şeyh Edebali‟s “let people live, the state lives” statement. The colour of leader‟s shirt and tie integrate with Turkish Flag‟s colours and visual signs‟ meanings are strengthened. YES seal which is near the slogan attracts attention. First button of the jacket is buttoned and it is used as a sign of respect to society. 8) Are angles and rate of the photography suitable with determined criteria? Middle shot is used as scale of shot in photography and it is frequently used scale in political party leaders‟ ads. It also supports decisive stand of the leader. Rates of materials used in the design are successful in terms of composition. Sight space makes room for slogan and text. 9)Does the ad stimulate emotions? (Love, excitement, curiosity, fear, prestige, etc.) Decisive stand of the leader in billboard harmonizes with determination in the slogan and stimulate senses like trust, power, prestige. This ad stimulates national emotions like unity, solidarity and Turkey. 3-ANALYSES OF 1ST NOVEMBER 2015 GENERAL ELECTION POSTERS OF PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC PARTY HDP which was found in 15th October 2011 and its aims are expressed in its websites that aimed people‟s power with “all oppressed and exploited groups; excluded and ignored people and religious communities, women, workers, peasants, young people, unemployed, retirees, LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans) individuals, immigrants, people whose living space destroyed; literate, author, artists and scientists, and forces who participate struggle with these groups of people, abolishing all kinds of exploitation and discrimination and establishing a life compatibly with human dignity (hdp.org.tr). However, Selahattin Demirtaş and Figen Yüksekdağ as deputies and co-presidents of HDP reveal party‟s connections with terrorist organizations which were accepted as terrorist organizations by the world as “we lean on PKK, YPG...” so this leads to be seen as synonymous with terrorism and terrorists by all people live in Turkey apart from voters of this party.

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Signs: There is a photography of Selahattin Demirtaş who is the party leader in left side, “we‟re for parliament” text above his heart in left side and green leaf in right side. There is HDP‟s logo in right bottom of the poster and in its left side there is web site and social media links. The colour of background is near red and there is advertising text above the poster. 1) How is the layout (general view of the ad)? Does it take attention at first sight? There is a photography taken with close shot of Selahattin Demirtaş who is the party leader in left side and he looks on target audience with smiling face. The title and text are located in right side while logo and the web sites are located in right bottom of the poster. At first sight, it can be easily understood that this poster is HDP‟s one and it takes attention. 2)Is the rate of used photo suitable with the advertising-wide? Is photography of the leader big enough and apparent? Leader photography used in the ad covers nearly 1/3 of the ad so it is easily cognizable. 3)Does used title, slogan, text and photography support with each other? Title/slogan of the ad: “For Big Humanity” Advertising text: The first step of protecting your freedom, rights, law for big humanity is to protect your vote. In this, “For big humanity” is used as slogan, title and introduction part of the text. This makes easier to understand the message and increase success. 4)How degree of the leader photography can be shown in the ad? Leader photography covers nearly 1/3 of the poster and direct sight of the leader to the audience can be easily recognizable. 5)How degree of the used promise in the ad supply the material benefits of target audience? There is no message which address to material benefits of target audience, in contrast, it is offered to target audience protecting their material and moral benefits by themselves with the message of “let you protect your rights, law”. 6) Are the colours used in accordance with their determined effects in the ad? Completely purple background colour provides attractiveness and also yellow-red-green colours provide success by integrating corporate colours of the party. 7)How degree of visual signs do their tasks in meaning transfer? There is a photography of Selahattin Demirtaş who is the party leader in left side, “we‟re for parliament” text above his heart in left side and green leaf in right side. There is HDP‟s logo in right bottom of the poster and in its left side there is web site and social media links. There is advertising text on purple background. So, visual signs serve the purpose. 8) Are angles and rate of the photography suitable with determined criteria? Only photography seen in the poster is leader‟s one and close shot scale and some low angle shot not only make easier to be seen, but also create an image as if looking down on target audience. 9)Does the ad stimulate emotions? (Love, excitement, curiosity, fear, prestige, etc.) People‟s emotions are stimulated by using words like “big humanity” and “freedom” in messages. 4-ANALYSES OF 1ST NOVEMBER 2015 GENERAL ELECTION POSTERS OFNATIONALIST MOVEMENT PARTY (MHP) Nationalist Movement Party (MHP), was found in 9th February 1969. It argues Turkish-Islam ideal and especially Turkish nationalism. Central office of the party is in Ankara. Logo of the party includes three white crescents on a special red circle. Its founder is Alparslan Türkeş and its current president is Devlet Bahçeli (MHP Tüzüğü, 2009:15).

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Source:www.mhp.org.tr, Accessing: 11.12.2015 Signs: There is a photography of Devlet Bahçeli who is leader of the party in left side and in right bottom there is party logo. There is party name and “Future of the Country” slogan below the logo. There is a rifle image which divide the image into two crossly and there is a message includes “the terrorism will be wiped out” on the rifle image. 1) How is the layout (general view of the ad)? Does it take attention at first sight? In this ad, colours and leader photography remain the same with other advertising posters of the party, but messages are used differently. There is a message and slogan in right side of the leader photography. Red background is used for the slogan and white for texts. By this way, they became suitable with the party logo composed of red and white. Black and bigger font size than slogan is used for advertising message. It is aimed to transfer meaning easily by using big font sizes for texts 2)Is the rate of used photo suitable with the advertising-wide? Is photography of the leader big enough and apparent? Leader photography is located in left side of the billboard and it is cognizable by covering 1/3 of total advertising space. 3)Does used title, slogan, text and photography support with each other? Title: The message of “The Terrorism will be Wiped Out” can be thought as title. Although there is any separate text, this message can be evaluated as the message, title and text. Slogan: “Vote for Future of the Country” Text: Although billboard organization remains the same, different messages or texts used by the party as below: -Minimum wage will be 1400 TL, -Diesel fuel price will be 1,75 for farmers, -Subcontracted Workers, contract labours with 4c and unpaid workers will be tenured, -17-25th December will be called to account, -2800 TL support will be paid to retirees, -Violence and discrimination against women will be prevented,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN -The terrorism will be wiped out, -Our citizens will get rid of credit debt and interest spiral, -10.000 TL higher education support will be paid for students. MHP posters mostly addresses to material benefits. If we look at discourses detailed, product/service, price/wage amounts which will be meet expectations about topics which people complain are used in billboards. By using discourse of retirees, students, farmers, workers who work for minimum wage, people who have credit debt, it is preferred to give one-to-one messages to target audience and increased effectiveness of discourses. Discourses like “17-25th December will be called to account; violence and discrimination against women will be prevented; the terrorism will be wiped out” include the message that social wounds will be dressed. By this way, it is tried to stimulate moral emotions of the society. 4)How degree of the leader photography can be shown in the ad? If we look at leader image in the billboard; a hard look and angry face takes attention at first. This situation keeps distance between the party and voters. In other words, it makes feel that the leader puts up a wall between himself and the society. Likewise, the leader is not look voters or given message and looking down. By this way, it is tried to show Devlet Bahçeli as magnificent, but this creates connotation as if he looks down on his voters. 5)How degree of the used promise in the ad supply the material benefits of target audience? “Minimum wage will be 1400 TL; diesel fuel price will be 1,75 for farmers; subcontracted workers, contract labours with 4c and unpaid workers will be tenured; our citizens will get rid of credit debt and interest spiral, 10.000 TL higher education support will be paid for students” messages are addressed to material benefits of target audience. 6) Are the colours used in accordance with their determined effects in the ad? White shirt, dark blue suit, and dark blue tie is used as leader‟s cloth. Dark blue is an expression of prestige and conservativeness physically and it represents organization. Socially, it represents honour, richness, organization, classical view and statue. In this terms, dark blue is a good choice in accordance with the ad‟s message. White represents resolution, non-resistance, loyalty and tolerance physically. It expresses freedom, openness, brightness and quietness psychologically. White also strengthen other colours which they are used together. Blue is silence and calmness in physical manner. Its psychological effect is pleasing and relaxing. In social terms, it recalls organization and by this way it is used in officials‟ clothes. In terms of colours, used colours are suitable with content of the ad. A photography is used as background of the ad which is dominated by faded and grey elements. The slogan is used in red, by this way the point which attention will be focused is determined. Red represents power, life, energy and excite physically. Its psychological effect is attractive and gaining attention on itself. In this case, it serves the main purpose of the ad. 7)How degree of visual signs do their tasks in meaning transfer? There is vertically positioned leader photography which covers the ad from left bottom to the top and also there is party logo in right bottom of the party. Party name and „Future of the Country‟ slogan is located below the logo. Rifle image which divide the image into two crossly holds “the Terrorism Will Be Wiped Out” message. Brand of the rifle used in the ad is Kalashnikov and this is used as a message against terrorism. 8) Are angles and rate of the photography suitable with determined criteria? Close shot scale is used for the photography in the background. In Bahçeli‟s photography, middle shot scale is used. The camera was installed a bit lower than level of eyes. By this way, it is aimed to show the leader as powerful, magnitude, lofty. 9)Does the ad stimulate emotions? (Love, excitement, curiosity, fear, prestige, etc.) In the billboard, senses like curiosity, happiness, love and sadness are addressed. The ad arouses excitement because of both going towards requests of target audiences and addressing to general desires of the society.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 3. Methodology In theoretical part of the study, literature review about the study was made to explain concepts of semiotics and in analyses part a semiotic analyses was conducted and by this way the success degrees of election posters are discussed. It is good to say something about semiotic concepts briefly. Semiotics: semiotics or semiology is a science which handles various meaningful wholes in social life; analyses, makes sense and classifies the sign systems which enable communication among individuals. The aim of semiotics is to analyse sign systems which fall into its working area; to apperceive relations of signs within the sign system and to classify areas of usage in social life. In this sense, working area of semiotics not only includes visual signs, but also natural languages which enable communication for human communities (Teker, 2003: 95). All posters are accepted as a political advertising work and analysed on the basis of 9 criteria below: 1) How is the layout (general view of the ad)? Does it take attention at first sight? 2) Is the rate of used photo suitable with the advertising-wide? Is photography of the leader big enough and apparent? 3) Does used title, slogan, text and photography support with each other? 4) How degree of the leader photography can be shown in the ad? 5) How degree of the used promise in the ad supply the material benefits of target audience? 6) Are the colours used in accordance with their determined effects in the ad? 7) How degree of visual signs do their tasks in meaning transfer? 8) Are angle and rate of the photography suitable with determined criteria? 9) Does the ad stimulate emotions? (Love, excitement, curiosity, fear, prestige, etc.) 4. Results If we look at layouts of all parties, it is seen that leader images reflect their points of view towards the public. Especially in AKP poster, mild personality and face expression of Ahmet Davutoğlu are also shown in the poster. In CHP poster, it seen that calm personality of Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu reflects on its face in used photography. We see Selahattin Demirtaş with smiling facial expression extraordinarily in HDP poster. For this reason, we can say that he is shown as cute to gain votes. Devlet Bahçeli as MHP leader has a hard look ordinarily and by the help of tilt shot he is aggrandized and this creates an image as if he looks down on the people. 5. Discussion and Conclusion In all parties‟ posters leaders look out of the frame and by this way they are seen as disconnected from the people apart from HDP because he looks on people. At the same time, in all posters apart from HDP‟s ones, leader photos are not suitable with taking angles and scales also heads or arms are cut because of the frame. All posters apart from HDP include messages addressed to material benefits of voters, but HDP posters includes peace, equality, freedom, democracy, and law. There is a discrepancy between given messages by HDP and its explanations or directly supports to terrorist organizations. Used colours in election posters are in accord with their corporate colours. Mutual sign used in all ones is voting paper include expression of “YES”. There is an interesting situation when election images are compared with each other: party which gives support to the terrorist organization use concepts like equality, justice, right, law and its logo includes green leaf and tree while MHP expresses its position against the terrorism with “the terrorism will be wiped out” slogan, but there is a gun image in the poster. These parties have a potential to give totally opposite impression for people who do not know something about these parties.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN References Teker, U. (2003), Grafik Tasarım ve Reklam, Dokuz Eylül Yayınları, İzmir. http//,www.chp.org.tr http//,www.hdp.org.tr MHP Tüzüğü, 2009:15 http//,www.akadaylar.com,10.11.2015 http//,www.renklerinanlamlari.com, 25.11.2015. http//,www.wikipedia.org, 08.12.2015 http//,www.akparti.org.tr, sa.15:40, 08.12.2015 http//,www.mhp.org.tr, Accessing: 11.12.2015 http//,www.ntv.tr,15.12.2015 http//,www.yumaksepeti.com, 20.12.2015 http//,www.kazimcapaci.com, 20.12.2015 http//,www.bilgiustam.com, 20.12.2015 http//,www.teknikeretiket.com, 20.12.2015 http//,www.kiralikkamera.com.tr, 21.12.2015 http//,www.medyaakademisi.com/kamera, 21.12.2015

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FED AND CBRT POLICY DECISIONS: A GAME THEORETIC PERSPECTIVE Metin TETİK University of Usak, Shool of Applied Sciences, Department of International Logistics [email protected]

Abstract With the globalization, monetary policies implemented by countries are known to be affected from each other. In this context, in the belief that monetary policy strategy of the CBRT(Central Bank of the Republic of Turkish) consider FED(Fedaral Reserve)' s policy is thought to be known by market participants. However, CBRT is really decision is affected by the Fed's policies? The aim of this study is to investigate the answer to this question. In order to analyze the existence of leader-follower relationship between CBRT and FED, firstly we have investigated FED and CBRT's policy decisions between 2006-2016 years. Therefore, we was to use Granger-causality (GC) analysis to establish whether there is a follower-leader relationship between the changes in the relevant Turkey and US interest rates and have been obtained evidence about the existence of this relationship. Keywords: Game Theory, Monetary Policies, Granger Cousality

FED VE TCMB KARARLARI ARASINDAKI ILIŞKI: OYUN TEORIK BIR BAKIŞ Özet Küreselleşme ile birlikte ülkelerin uyguladığı para politikalarının birbirinden etkilendiği bilinmektedir. Bu çerçevede, TCMB uyguladığı para politikası stratejisinin FED' in uyguladığı politika stratejisini dikkate aldığı inancı, piyasa aktörleri tarafından bilindiği düşünülmektedir. Ancak, gerçekten de TCMB' nin uyguladığı politikalar FED'in kararından etkilenir mi? Bu çalışmanın amacı, bu sorunun cevabını araştırmaktır. TCMB ve FED arasındaki sistematik bir lider-takipçi ilişkisinin varlığını analiz etmek için öncelikle 2006-2016 yılları arasında FED ve TCMB'nin politika kararları incelenmiştir. Daha sonra ise ilgili tüm değişkenler ile ayrı bir analiz yapılmıştır. Bu çerçevede politika kararları arasındaki ilişkinin yönü Granger Nedensellik testi ile analiz edilmiş ve güçlü sonuçlar elde edilmiştir. Anahtar kelimeler: Oyun Teorisi, Para politikaları,Granger Nedensellik

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

1. Giriş Bu çalışmada TCMB'nin politika kararlarının gerçekten sistematik olarak FED'in politika kararlarını takip edip etmediği araştırmak üzerine kuruludur. Bir çok çalışma merkez bankaların FED'in politika kararlarını takip ettiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Buradaki gerekçe ise basitçe, FED'in faiz hamlesinin diğer mekez bankaları için Amerikan ekonomisi ve finansal piyasaları hakında önemli bir sinyal olarak kabul edilmesidir(Belke ve Gross, 2005). Literatürde yapılan çalışmalar çoğunlukla Avrupa Merkez Bankası(ECB) ve FED kararları üzerine yoğunlaşmıştır. Belke ve Gross, (2005) çalışmasında ECB ve FED arasında uzun süreli sistematik bir lider takipçi ilişkisini ampirik olarak gösteren bulgular elde edilmiştir. Belke ve Gross, (2002a) çalışmasında ise ECB'nin politika kararlarında FED'i taklit ettiği ilişkisi sonucuna varmışlardır. Bir başka çalışmada Ulrich (2003), ECB ve FED'in politika davranışlarını Taylor kuralı çerçevesinde incelemiştir. Bu iki merkez bankasının Taylor tipi reaksiyon fonksiyonları arasındaki benzerlikler ve farklılıklara bakılarak bir merkez bankasının davranışının diğer merkez bankası üzerindeki olası etkisi analiz edilmiştir. Sonuç olarak FED'in ECB'nin kararları üzerinde bir etkisi olduğu halde ECB'nin FED kararlarında bir etkisi olmadığı gözlemlenmiştir. Garcia ve Cervero (2002) çalışmasında ise ECB' nin FED'in politika kararlarını takip ettiği bulgusuna ulaşmışlardır. Literatürde oyun teorik olarak öne çıkan bir çalışma olan Ioannidis ve Napolitano (2003) çalışmalarında varlık piyasaları üzerinden birbirine bağlı olan iki merkez bankasının kararlarını 3 farklı işbirliksiz oyun çerçevesinde ele almışlardır. Bu oyunlar sonucunda merkez bankalarının eş anlı olarak hamle yaptıkları durumda Nash dengesi, FED ve ECB' nin lider takipçi ilişkisi için ise Stackelberg dengeleri türetilmiştir. Analizlerinde varlık piyasalarında bir şok yaşandığı durumda Nash dengesinde ECB'nin FED'in davranışları ile kıyaslandığında daha az kısıtlıyıcı politika uyguladığı sonucuna varırkın FED'in lider olduğu durumda Stackelberg çözümünün Nash çözümüne göre daha üstün olduğu sonucuna varmışlardır. Bu çerçevede çalışmamız FED ve TCMB arasındaki stratejik etkileşimi lider-takipçi oyun çerçevesinde oyun teorik olarak Ioannidis ve Napolitano (2003) çalışmasındaki FED'in lider olduğu duruma benzer şekilde ele alınacaktır. Daha sonra amprik olarak FED ve TCMB'nin arasında lider takipçi ilişkisinin varlığı tartışılıcaktır. 2. Model Belirsizliğin olmadığı basit teorik oyun kurgumuzda oyuncular FED(F) ve TCMB(C) dir. Oyuncular arasındaki etkileşim dinamik yapıda(genişleyen biçimli) tam bilgiye dayalı ve bu oyuncuların stratejilerinin pür strateji olduğu varsayılmaktadır. FED'in stratejisi 𝑖⃗, TCMB'nin stratejisi 𝑟⃗, merkez bankalarının faydalarını 𝑢𝐹 ve 𝑢𝐶 ve her bir merkez bankasının kayıp fonksiyonlarını 𝐿𝐹 ve 𝐿𝐶 temsil etsin. Merkez bankaları arasındaki oyun aslında her bir merkez bankanın kendi sosyal refah fonksiyonları maksimize etme veya kayıp fonksiyonlarını minimize etme davranışları üzerine kuruludur. Buradaki kayıp fonksiyonları merkez bankalarının enflasyon, potansiyel çıktı, denge faiz hedeflerinden uzaklaşmaları üzerine kuruludur. FED'in amaç(kayıp) fonksiyonu; 𝐿𝐹 = 𝛾𝜋 𝜋 2 + 𝛾𝑥 𝑥̂ 2 + 𝛾𝑖 (𝑖̂ − 𝑖 ∗ )2 TCMB'nin amaç(kayıp) fonksiyonu; 𝐿𝐶 = 𝜌𝜋 𝜋 2 + 𝜌𝑥 𝑥̂ 2 + 𝛾𝑖 (𝑟̂ − 𝑟 ∗ )2 Yukarıdaki kayıp fonksiyonları merkez bankalarının makroekonomik dalgalanma ile mücadelesini tanımlamak için kullanılır. Denklemde 𝜋 enflasyon, 𝑥̂ = ( 𝑌̂𝑡 − 𝑌̂𝑡𝑛 ) çıktı açığı(cari çıktı ve potansiyel çıktı arasındaki fark), 𝑖̂ ve 𝑟̂ değişkenleri ise nominal faizleri temsil etmektedir. Bu fonksiyonlar merkez bankalarının enflasyon ve büyüme sapmaların(varyansların) bunlara verdikleri ağırlıklara göre 684

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN cezalandırılması üzerine kuruludur. Bu çerçevede her bir oyuncunun faydası aynı şekilde tanımlansın; 𝑢𝐹 (⃗⃗𝑖 , 𝑟⃗) = −𝐿𝐹 𝑢𝐶 (⃗⃗𝑖 , 𝑟⃗) = −𝐿𝐶 Bu bilgiler ışığında, FED'in ilk hareket ettiği (Stackelberg Lider) düşünelim. Bu durumda teorik olarak FED, takipçisi olan TCMB'nin optimal politikasını hesaba katarak en iyi tepkisini yapacaktır. Lider FED'in en iyi tepkisi, takipçisi olan TCMB' nin en iyi tepkisine bağlı olacaktır. TCMB' nin en iyi tepkisi ise optimal politikası olup Nash denge çözümüdür. İki oyunculu, tam bilgili bu oyunun tasarımı aşağıdaki şekildeki gibidir. Şekil 1: FED'in Stackelberg Lider Olduğu Oyun Ağacı

1. FED(F)'in 𝐹 olası hamleler kümesinden bir 𝑖⃗ hamlesini seçer. 2. TCMB(C) bu 𝑟⃗ hamlesini gözlemler, 𝐶 olası hamleler kümesinden bir 𝑟⃗ hamlesini seçer. 3. Fayda fonksiyonları(kazançlar) 𝑢𝐹 (⃗⃗𝑖 , 𝑟⃗) = −𝐿𝐹 ve 𝑢𝐶 (⃗⃗𝑖 , 𝑟⃗) = −𝐿𝐶 şeklindedir Dinamik yapıda olan bu oyunun çözümü oyun geriye doğru çıkarsama ile şu şekilde çözülebilir; Takipçi olan TCMB ikinci bölümünde(alt oyunda) hamlesini yapar ve karşısında öncesinde FED'in veri 𝑖⃗ hamlesini dikkate aldığı şu problem vardır; max 𝑢𝐶 (⃗⃗𝑖 , 𝑟⃗) ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟⃗ ∈𝐴𝐶

𝐹 olası hamleler kümesindeki her bir 𝑖⃗ hamlesi için TCMB'nin optimizasyon problemi 𝑏𝐶 (𝑖⃗ ) ile yani TCMB'nin FED'e reaksiyonu(en iyi tepkisi) ile çözülür. Sonraki aşamada, FED TCMB'nin her bir 𝑖⃗

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN hamlesine tepkisini öngörerek oyunun 1. bölümündeki şu problemi çözer; max 𝑢𝑀 (𝑖⃗, 𝑏𝐶 (𝑖⃗ )) 𝑖⃗⃗⃗∈𝐴𝐹

∗

TCMB'nin optimizasyon problemi 𝑖⃗ ile ifade edilen tek bir çözümü olduğu ve bu durumda (𝑖⃗∗ , 𝑏𝑐 (𝑖⃗∗ )) profili oyunun geriye doğru çıkarsama sonucu dolayısı ile altoyun mükemmel Nash dengesi olacaktır. Buradan anlaşılacağı üzere bu oyunda TCMB'nin politika kararları yani politika faizi FED'in politika kararlarından etkilendiği varsayımı üzerine oturtulmuştur. Bu çalışmada FED ve TCMB arasında yukarıda teorik olrak değinilen bir lider takipçi mekanizmanın varlığı araştırılmak istenmektedir. Bunun için 2002-2015 yılları arasında FED ve TCMB politika karaları incelenecek ve bu ikisi arasındaki nedenselliğe bakılacaktır. Çalışmada analize geçmeden önce Ocak 2006- Aralık 2015 yılları arasında FED ve TCMB politika karaları tarihsel olarak bakılmıştır. Bu çerçevede 2006-2015 yılları arasında FED ve TCMB politika karaları Tablo 1'de gösterilmiştir. Tablo 1: FED ve TCMB Politika Karaları Tarih Ocak 06 Mart 06 Nisan 06 Mayıs 06 Haziran 06 Haziran 06 Haziran 06 Temmuz 06 Eylül 07 Ekim 07 Kasım 07 Aralık 07 Ocak 08 Ocak 08 Şubat 08 Mart 08 Nisan 08 Mayıs 08 Haziran 08 Ekim 08 Ekim 08 Kasım 08 Aralık 08 Ocak 09 Şubat 09 Mart 09

FED Politika Faizi 4.5 4.75

TCMB Politika Faizi 16.5 16.25

5 5.25

4.75 4.5 4.25 3.5 3

18 20.25 22.25 22.5 22.25 21.5 20.75 20 19.5 19.25

2.25 2

1.5 1 0-0.25

19.75 20.25 19.75 18.75 17.5 15.5 14 13

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Tarih Nisan 09 Mayıs 09 Haziran 09 Temmuz 09 Ağustos 09 Eylül 09 Ekim 09 Kasım 09 Eylül 10 Aralık 10 Ekim 11 Şubat 12 Eylül 12 Ekim 12 Kasım 12 Ocak 13 Şubat 13 Mart 13 Nisan 13 Mayıs 13 Temmuz 13 Ağustos 13 Ocak 14 Ağustos 14 Şubat 15 Aralık 15

FED Politika Faizi

0.25-0.5

TCMB Politika Faizi 12.25 11.75 11.25 10.75 10.25 9.75 9.25 9 8.75 9 12.5 11.5 10 9.5 9 8.75 8.5 7.5 7 6.5 7.25 7.75 12 11.25 10.75

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Tablo 1'de FED politika faizi verileri için Federal Fon oranları kullanılmıştır.1 Tabloya bakıldığında FED 2006'dan Ekim 2007 finansal krizine kadar daraltıcı bir politika benimsemiş ve politika faizini yükseltmiştir. Geriye doğru bakıldığında aslın bu politika 2002'den beri aynı şekildedir. Finansal krizden sonra ABD büyüme ve işsizlik rakamlarının kötüleşmesi ile birlikte FED hızlıca politika faizlerini indirerek genişlemeci bir tutum sergilemiştir. Para politikası uygulanmasında FED'in yaklaşımı finansal krizden bu yana özellikle 2008 sonundan bu yana politika faizi sıfıra yakın bir hedef aralığında gelişmiştir. TCMB politika kararlarına bakıldığında2 TCMB'nin 2002-2005 yılında uygulamaya geçirdiği örtük enflasyon hedeflemesi ve 2006'dan itibaren ise yürüttüğü açık enflasyon hedeflemesi ile birlikte enflasyon oranları beklentilerin altında gerçekleşmiştir. Bu durumula birlikte görülen istikrarlı büyüme rakamları TCMB'nin politika faizlerini %60 seviyelerinden %16 seviyelerine doğru çekmesini sağlamıştır. 2007 küresel çapta yaşanan finansal krizinin başladığı dönemlerde TCMB politika faizlerini bir miktar yükseltse de krizin etkilerinin geçici olması ve enflasyon rakamlarının hedefler doğrultusunda ilerlemesi sonucunda TCMB politika faizlerini %6.5 seviyelerine kadar indirmiştir. Politika kararları arasındaki ilişkiye bakmak FED ve TCMB arasında lider takipçi mekanizmanın varlığı hakkında bir ipucu verebilir. Şekil 1'de politika kararları gösterilmektedir. Şekil 1: FED ve TCMB Politika Faiz Oranları 25 20 15 10 5 0

TCMB Politika Faizi

FED Politika Faizi

Şekil ve tablo incelendiğinde FED Mayıs ve Haziran 2006'da politika faizini 0.25 puan artırmaktadır. FED'in bu politikası ile birlikte TCMB Nisan 2006'da %16.25 olan politika faizini Haziran 2006'da 1.75 puan artırmıştır. Ardından TCMB politika faizi artımına devam etmiştir. Eylül 2007'de FED'in politika faizini düşürmesi ile birlikte TCMB'de politika faizini düşürmüştür. FED'in Aralık 2008'e kadar yapmış olduğu 4 puanlık indirimle birlikte politika faizini 0-0.25 bandına çekmiştir. TCMB ise bu süre zarfında FED'in politika kararlarını 7 puanlık bir indirimle takip etmiştir. Buradaki FED'in TCMB'ye lider olması tamamıyle konjonktürel olabilir. Çünkü ABD'nin iş çevirimi Avrupa bölgesine etkisi 1-2 çeyrek dönemde yansımaktadır. Ancak, Eğer lider-takipçi ilişkisi tamamen konjonktürel bir gecikmenin bir fonksiyonu olsaydı bu TCMB'nin FED'i yaklaşık 3-6 ay sonraya karşılık gelen bir gecikme ile takip etmesi beklenirdi(Belke ve Gross, 2005). 3. Analiz Bu çalışmada istatitisksel olarak FED ve TCMB arasında lider- takipçi ilişkinin varlığını tespit etmek 1 2

Veriler http://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/openmarket.htm#fnr1 adresinden elde edilmiştir. TCMB politika faizleri verileri için gecelik(O/N) borç verme faiz oranları kullanılmıştır.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN için kullanılan prosedür aslında bir Granger-nedensellik (GC) testidir. Bu test belirli bir değişkenin geçmiş değerlerinin(FED politika faizi) diğer değişkene(TCMB politika faizi) etkisi olup olmadığını gösterebilmektedir. Eğer etkisi var ise bu durumda bu değişkenin diğer değişkenin Garanger nedenidir denilir ancak, etkisi yok ise bu durumda bu durumda bu değişkenin diğer değişkenin Garanger nedeni değildir denilmektedir. Granger nedensellik testi iki değişken arasında öncelik ilişkisi ve bilgi içeriği ölçtüğü için çalışmamızda kullanımıştır. Çalışmada FED ve TCMB arasında lider- takipçi ilişkisi varlığı hipotezinin testi için 1 Ocak 2006-31 Aralık 2015 dönemleri arasındaki günlük veriler kullanılmıştır. Merkez bankalarının politika faizinin günlük gerçekleşimleri kullanılmıştır. FED politika faizini yansıtması açısından günlük Federal fonlama oranları(FFO) kullanılırken, TCMB politika faizi için ise gecelik repo-ters repo ağırlıklı ortalama basit faiz oranı(AOBF) kullanılmıştır.1 Değişkenlerin grafiksel gösterimi şekil 2'deki gibidir. Şekil 2: FFO ve AOBF Zaman Serileri 25

20

15

10

5

0 250

500

750

1000

1250

FFO

1500

1750

2000

2250

AOBF

Bir sonraki adım FED ve TCMB arasındaki takipçi-lider ilişkisi olup olmadığını belirlemek için Granger-nedensellik (GC) analizi kullanmak olmuştur. İlgili tüm değişkenleri için ayrı GC analizi yapılmıştır. Bu hipotezin testi için E-views paket programı kullanılmıştır. Tablo-2' de GC analizi test sonuçları görülmektedir. Tablo-2: İki gruplu Granger Nedensellik Testi

Sıfır Hipotezi

Obs

F-istatistiği

Prob.

AOBF, FFO'nun Granger nedeni değildir FFO, AOBF'nin Granger nedeni değildir

2401

0.59935 8.21674

0.5493 0.0003

Tabloya göre AOBF, FFO'nun Granger nedeni değildir sıfır hipotezi red edilememektedir. Bu sonuca göre TCMB'nin politika kararlarının, FED'in politika kararları tahmininde kullanışlı olmadığını 1

FFO günlük verileri https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/h15/data.htm AOBF için ise http://www.borsaistanbul.com/veriler/ adreslerinden elde edilmiştir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN söyleyebiliriz. İkinci hipotez ise aslında çalışmanın genel hipotezini yansıtmaktadır. İkinci "FFO, AOBF'nin Granger nedeni değildir" sıfır hipotezi analiz sonuçlarına göre red edilir. Dolayısı ile FFO, AOBF'nin Granger nedenidir denebilir. Bu sonuç her ne kadar FED'in politika kararlarının, TCMB'nin politika kararları tahmininde kullanışlı olduğunu söylese de aslında oyun teorik olarak FED'in lider olduğu FED ve TCMB arasındaki lider-takipçi ilişkisini ortaya koyduğu düşünülmektedir. 4. Sonuç Dünya'da finans piyasaları gelişmesi ve bu piyasaların birbirlerine entegre olması ile birlikte ülkelerin uyguladığı para politikalarının birbirine bağlı hale getirmektedir. Dolayısı ile bu çalışmanın konusu TCMB uyguladığı para politikası stratejisinin FED' in politika kararlarını dikkate aldığı inancı üzerinden hareket etmektedir. FED'in politika kararlarının ABD ekonomisi hakkında ciddi bir sinyal olarak düşünülürse bu durumu makul gözükebilir. Dolayısı ile bu çalışmada TCMB' nin uyguladığı politikaların FED'in politika kararlarından etkilenip etkilenmediği oyun teorik çerçevede analiz edilmiştir. TCMB ve FED arasındaki sistematik bir lider-takipçi ilişkisinin varlığını analiz etmek için öncelikle, Ocak 2006- Aralık 2016 dönemleri arasında FED ve TCMB'nin politika kararları incelenmiştir. Bu çerçevede politika kararları arasındaki ilişkinin yönünu tespit etmenin TCMB ve FED arasındaki sistematik bir lider-takipçi ilişkisinin varlığı hakkında ipuçları verebileceği düşünülmüştür. Bunun için politika kararları arasındaki ilişki Granger Nedensellik testi ile analiz edilmiştir. Granger Nedensellik testi sonuçları; TCMB'nin politika kararları FED'in politika kararlarının bir nedeni olmadığını gösterirken FED'in politika kararları TCMB'nin politika kararlarının bir nedeni olduğu sonucunu ortaya koymuştur. Bu sonuç bize oyun teorik olarak FED'in lider olduğu FED ve TCMB arasındaki lider-takipçi ilişkisi hakkında bilgi verdiği düşünülmektedir. 5. Kaynakça Belke, A., Gros, D. (2002a): Does the ECB Follow the Fed?, Department of Economics Discussion Paper 211/2002, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart. Belke, A., & Gros, D. (2005). Asymmetries in Transatlantic Monetary Policy‐making: Does the ECB Follow the Fed?. JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 43(5), 921-946. Garcia-Cervero, S. (2002): Is the FED Really Leading the Way?, Deutsche Bank Europe Weekly 22 November 2002, Global Markets Research, London, pp. 8-10. Ioannidis, C., & Napolitano, O. (2003). Optimal Monetary Policy and the Asset Market: A Non-cooperative Game. Ulrich, K. (2003): A Comparison Between the Fed and the ECB: Taylor Rules, ZEW Discussion Paper No. 03-19, Centre for European Economic Research, Mannheim http://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/openmarket.htm#fnr1 https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/h15/data.htm http://www.borsaistanbul.com/veriler

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VISUAL NARRATIVE AND AESTHETICS STRUCTURE OF OTOMAN ERA TV SERIES IN TURKISH TELEVISION CHANNELS Research Assitant.Dr. Murat AYTAŞ Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Radio-TV and Cinema Dept. [email protected]

Abstract Nowadays as well as the documental historical works, many works are being produced that manipulates the past by a visual narration form and the past is transferred by these works to the next generations. This transfer that was done by myths, tales and epic in the past periods, today is being done by the artistic and commercial forms like stories, novels, films, and television series and history is transformed narration and narration is transformed history. One of the most important concepts that have emerged in this transformation is visual history writing that was introduced in the centerline of historical period television series. Today mass media which is based on dynamic image production and visual history writing is being done by these tools. Television, as one of the most important mass media tools that visual history writing is being done, makes its story and narration firstly with aesthetic codes about forms and narration systems peculiar to it screen structure. The purpose of this work is to bring out the differences from the perspective of visual history writing by analyzing the construction of visual aesthetic and narration structure of historical television series which are popular in the way of viewers and rating system in Turkish television channels especially the productions about Ottoman Empire by using which visual and aesthetic codes. The Ottoman period television series are investigated by the goal-oriented sample method among the Turkish television channels which represents the commercial and public broadcasting system according to specialties about public, semi-public and private space. How the Ottoman period television series that are broadcasted in Turkish television channels make their historical montages in visual and audio narration structure and how they make the meaning in the aesthetic understanding that is made with form and content are analyzed and interpreted in the perspective of representations and with the method of analysis of the scene by dividing shots. Keywords: visual narrative, visual aesthetics, tv series, ottoman era

1. Introduction Television, which has a privileged position amongst mass media in terms of the people it reaches, builds its narration using visual, audio and written codes in the framework of distinctive screen aesthetics. Television, as of these characteristics, restarted the process called second oral culture age after typography age.Each culture uses esthetical, oral, visual, audial and textual codes of modern mass media, and traditional story and narration while making its own semantic world. It presents stories related to the past with historical TV series and productions regarding historical field and mythos concept. Visual productions including various historic comments and narrations within the scope of television and history have been executed on an ever-mounting line. Convenience provided by technological improvements in the field of image production and interest in the field of history have paved the way 690

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN for the appearance of TV programs and TV series both globally and locally. Historical period series also trigger a lot of arguments with performances dealt with historical period in the context of accessibility to the many in the society and power of making current issue, and they contribute to the popularisation of history. Domestic television series in Turkey started to dominate TV channels in terms of both number and time slot during broadcasting streaming. Today‟s private TV channels are in a rivalry related to the rating system; moreover, state channels tend to take part in this rivalry. When TV series, shot lately, are investigated, it can be seen that historical period ones are the most attractive and from the perspective of production they are visual products made by high investments. In this sense, the aim of this study is to interpret, within the frame of representations, how historical TV series aired on Turkish televisions set up reality construction within visual and audial narration structure, and to analyse how they build up the meaning in aesthetic understanding which is made up by format and content. For this study post 2010 –year period during which the number and technical quality of Turkish TV channel series has increased and big budget productions were made has been specified as turning point. From this point on, according to the content forming the subject of the thesis and corresponding to the visual historiography, selection of three popular native TV series from a private and state channel constitutes the limitations of this research. 2. Development of Period Series on Turkish Channels and Visual Historiography Many types of programs are made in the television channels streaming and they are presented to the liking of audience. Although there are some methods used to classify television program kinds, the most common distinction is fiction and non-fiction. The kinds of TV series such as historical, horror, comic, detective, war, science fiction etc. have special visuality, narration structure, places, characters and varietal representation. Depending on the kinds, the use of place for television series is vital from the point of visuality and iconography. There are characteristic places which support every kind of movie‟s visual narration. The most common type of program being watched on Turkish TV channels is TV series. Initially domestic productions made from literature adaptations appeared on the screen, and with the improvement of technical facilities in 1980s production which had real dramatic and aesthetic features started to emerge. Upon the appointment of İsmail Cem to TRT general manager, new era started in the making of TV series. Especially TRT living the golden age of period, many high quality series created by Turkish cinema directors and actors and actresses appeared on the screen. Lütfi Akad transferred from Yeşilçam (Turkey‟s Hollywood) adapted Ömer Seyfettin Stories; Metin Erksan adapted Beş Hikâye (Five Tales) (Sait Faik Abasıyanık Müthiş Bir Tren,(Gorgeous Train) Kenan Hulusi Koray-Sazlık (Reeds), Sabahattin Ali-Hanende Melek (Angel), Ahmet Hamdi TanpınarGeçmiş Zaman Elbiseleri (Nostalgia Clothes), Samet Ağaoğlu-Bir İntihar (A Suicide), Halit Refiğ Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil Aşk-ı Memnu (Forbidden Love) shot television series adapting above- mentioned tales to TV (Serim, 2007: 76). Before giving information about the period series ordered to Yesilcam directors by TRT, it would be beneficial to explain television broadcasting via looking social and political structure of that era. Yücel Çakmaklı and TRT originated directors such as Okan Uysaler, Ünal Küpeli, Ziya Öztan and Hüseyin Karakaş when heading to style search, they determine the motives in accordance with their ideologies in terms of content. Yücel Çakmaklı is different from the other four directors with his expression supporting Turkish-Islam synthesis. While Küpeli and Uysaler rather express individual matters, Ziya Öztan place his series on an aesthetic platform with his tendency towards writing visual history Taranç, (1991:9). When we reach 1990s, the biggest production that came to the forefront amongst period series was Kurtuluş (Salvation) (1994) the series directed by Ziya Öztan mentions post second Inonu War, salvation struggle. Scenario was written by Turgut Özakman. The series which was subsidized by TRT and created in TRT studios is an important production on periodical atmosphere and visual historiography. From 1980s many films were shot to go beyond Yeşilçam. In this period films camera movements, different montage, mise en scene trials and modern narration techniques that were hardly ever seen in Yeşilçam and character phenomenon, which Yeşilçam almost ignored, was intensively included. New generation directors who aim transition from melodrama to dramatic structure paid attention to handle main characters with their surroundings as well as heading to individual style and to some extend tried to establish a mutual relation which Yeşilçam cinema 691

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN couldn‟t establish among time, place and characters. (Yüzbaşı, 2012:48). TV series which are in an interaction with cinema films have become the most watched and demanded kind in Turkish television broadcasting. In recent years place and duration allocated to TV series in Turkish TV channels has increased compared to other types of programs in the streaming. The number of period series both on private and state TV channels like TRT have been going upper and upper. This process which can be conceptualized as visual historiography in television aesthetics reached the peak with Ottoman series started to be aired especially after 2010. Therefore mentioned TV series bring the rivalry about visual historiography in front of our eyes between state and private TV channels.The strong relation resting on the visuality between television and history have become even stronger thanks to TV series and lead to the appearance of new productions. Today visual work has begun to come to forefront as well as historiographical productions, visual transfer systems which reached summit with massive technological developments have paved the way for the production of glamorous historical work as TV series or films (Kanat, 2012: 19). Period series whose number have substantially risen up in Turkish TV channels point a phenomenon that can be conceptualised as visual historiography in terms of television aesthetics and history relation. In today‟s world which was built on visuality the sense of history of an individual can be affected by visual messages besides almost every kinds of conception. In this regard television,which is one of the mass media means that has the potential of effecting a society or even societies, builds a narration that can be derived different meanings between today and history (Bilis, 2013: 20). Period series, which get reference from a historical person, event and reality,realize visual historiography in the frame of expression and narration features that were determined by idiosyncrasy of television. Technological developments that were experienced starting from 2000s have facilitated the production and finance of period series in broadcasting system. After 2010 amongst the series which mentioned Ottoman era, Magnificent Century, Once Upon a Time Ottoman and Invigoration: Ertugrul, are important productions from the point of rating and representation of broadcasting system they stand on. 3. Construction of Reality in Television Literacy and Aesthetic Interpretation Although television takes its material from real world, itre-establishes this world with its distinctive visual and audial codes. In other words people do not watch real world on TV screens but they watch televisual world set up by real world elements and representations of these elements.Here it is mentioned of fictional reality which substitutes reality (Mutlu, 2005: 411). Neil Postman indicates that contrary to what is visual, television rather than representing any part of reality, it produces or builds reality, and he continues to indicate that TV cameras and microphones do not record reality but codes it and coding produces an ideological reality feeling (1994: 99). Television during televisual reality implements not subjective reality but ideological reproduction of capitalism. Television carries the reality production out through narrations united with distinctive aesthetic codes Diegesis and Mimesis, which are often seen in the writings of Aristotle and Plateau,are the concepts that come to the fore as part of narration styles relation with “reality”. Supporters of aesthetics use these concepts naming and appointing fictional world (Yüzbaşı, 2012: 30). Interrelations based on diegetic and mimetic narrations are the subject matter of whole leading visual production and consuming fields such as series and films of popular culture. Television especially must be seen as an attention grabbing field from this point of view.Production field of TV which is in various kind, content and form involves audience from each level of society. TV series are especially important place for popular culture production and consumption. Television series which deal with different life styles, appeal to audience from every level of society. Among the programs that are in television broadcast streaming, series are especially the narrations reproduced through fictionalised realities.Keeping TV productions in mind both as a text and a cultural phenomenon would be necessary to understand the narration structure and visual aesthetics of Ottoman era TV series which will be studied in the thesis. Modern man belonging to televisual universe dominated by TV screen, record word and script centred content of culture and lives a vision-centred content acquiring process.Vision has a distinctive

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN language and in this context the most important function is carried out by TV.That is because “a footage is worth millions of words” is the common view for TV. When we consider development levels of mass media and their accessibility to people, none of them have been able to reach the power of especially TV in a short time. When it is thought about “media” in society, it is TV that first comes to mind. Television which advanced and became widespread in America in 1950s, occupied an important part of people‟s lives in a short time.People get the news, watch soap operas, follow sports events, watch comedy programs; besides, methods increasing knowledge and education lead to significant changes. Adorno, (1998: 122) states that art transcends the principle of reality in the direction of both for something higher and more mundane daily operations. Media changes and shapes traditional culture by way of recreating it; besides, using it as raw material.This new culture is named as visual media culture. Visual media culture uses the various aspects of real culture through recreating, changing and reforming. Media culture can be seen as both reflection and reformation of real culture (İrvan, 2002: 1-13). The need of storytelling and the reality of myth production never disappear in a society. All the narrations or stories are mythical no matter they are oral or written. Stories and narrations in television programs take place via aesthetic codes belonging form and content. Story telling is available not only for soap operas or television series based on fiction, but also for programs such as news, floor shows, sport and science programs which are based on pseudo real events. Different kinds of programs use different aesthetic forms while storytelling. For instance soap operas and TV series use instruments such as characters, time and place while story telling (Kaplan, 1993: 75). Television, both as an instrument of fun and information, does this with its distinctive aesthetic and narration technic. Television, in terms of technical specifications it has and screen size, achieves its narration through aesthetics codes of formal structures and meaning systems. The aesthetic codes which make up form consist of items such as television screen, generic, composition, shooting angles and scales, framing, light and colour, visual effects, montage and filmic rhythm. Television, in addition to formal aesthetic codes it has, achieves its narration through aesthetics codes in the formal sense of content and meaning systems. The aesthetic codes which make up content are theme, dramatic structure/narration, characters, plot, dialogue, time and place. It is possible to order basically the elements of dramatic productions like this: Action, characters, thought, music and staging. Event series is created from the combination of the first three elements; that is action, character and thought. Event series are supported by dialogue, music and staging and so dramatic productions are completed.Since ancient Greeks conventional structure has been applied to dramatic narrations. In these conventional dramatic narrations, story starts with a conflict and continues on a rising curve until it reaches its peak.This rise has curiosity and tension filled narration. On the peak conflict is resolved and story ends. Although television dramas use the narration structure of traditional drama which is similar to cinema and theatre,they show some differences with limitations and applications they have. The first of these differences is that television watching routine is different from cinema or theatre routines (Mutlu, 1991: 86). To watch something in cinema or theatre we need to reserve a special time in our daily livesand despite necessity to go to special places reserved for watching, the lack of such necessity to watch TV makes the dramas come to our houses. Second difference is that TV audience watch not a single type of program but different kinds of them.Television fulfils many disparate functions such as entertainment, receiving news and business. 4. Narration in TV Series such as Muhteşem Yüzyıl (Magnificent Century), Bir Zamanlar Osmanlı (Once Upon a Time Ottoman) and Diriliş: Ertuğrul (Invigoration: Ertugrul) and Analysis of Aesthetic Phenomenon Domestic TV series began to dominate TV channels especially in the beginning of 2000s both in terms of number and time zone in the streaming. Today‟s private TV channels, while in a competition with each other via TV series in relation to the rating system, state TV channels have started to be included in this rivalry. When examining the TV series shot recently, it can be observed that particularly historical period TV series are the visual products which attract the most attention and high investment in terms of production.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN In this area in relation to the rating system that determines the order of television broadcasting, historical period TV series shot after 2010 are important examples in terms of visual aesthetics, narration, richness, production and current publishing understanding.Three episodes in which public, semi-public and private space representations exist were taken from the following TV series and main sample of the study was created. Muhteşem Yüzyıl (Magnificent Century) produced by TIMS in 2011 and aired on Star TV and Show TV at 20.00, Bir Zamanlar Osmanlı (Once Upon a Time Ottoman) produced in 2012 by Herşey Film and aired on channel TRT 1 at 19:50, Diriliş: Ertuğrul (Invigoration: Ertugrul) produced in 2014 by Tekden Film and aired on channel TRT 1 at 20:00 How the narration structure was established in terms of form and content on the productions especially about Ottoman Empire period was demonstrated by William V. Costanzo‟s Reading the Movies: Twelve Great Films on Video and How to Teach Them ‘Shooting Analysis of the Stage’. In the line with the conceptual perspective of the study and in three series that make up the research sample, content analysis instruction was prepared which centres themes determined by watching three episodes in detail. Each episode was analysed in accordance with guidelines dividing into sequences.In addition to structural narration and semiotic analysis in connection with obtaining data about history narration in Turkish TV series and aesthetics, Joseph Campell‟s character analysis was also used. 4.1. Analysis of TV series 'Muhteşem Yüzyıl', ‘Magnificent Century’/ Mohacs War Sequence Magnificent Century TV series mentions the rising period of Ottoman Empire during which Magnificent Suleiman was on the throne, his relation with his wife Roxelana and her struggle for power in the harem. It can be seen that Magnificent Century among TV series aired in Turkey according to the research results of TNS and SBT organizations, within the season it was aired on Wednesday evenings, it was at the top of both as AB and in total (http://sbtanaliz.com/ index.php ?page=2). It was the most watched TV series among the same season historical period series with its rating percentage. Visual historiography explained in the theoretical part of the study and in terms of analysis of how historical events were aestheticized within TV narration, 22 scenes belonging Battle of Mohacs sequence that took place in 1526 in Hungary, were chosen as the sample.These scenes are from second season episode 26. The scene, which starts on 73:44 minute of series which is 97 minutes in total, lasts 16 minutes 35 seconds. In the Battle of Mohacs scene of the related sequence of series, from the entry stage on, camera angles were placed lower and upper angles and this was intentionally used to show the greatness of Ottoman Empire. On the intensively used speechless battle scenes, a fast-paced, exciting and rhythmic music increases the tension and effect. Combination of shooting with cutting contributes to show that there is no skip of time. Because movement was especially installed on players, camera was extensively used from a fixed angle. For the stage to be objective and each detail to be clearly seen, normal and natural lightening method was preferred. After silent and speechless shooting at the beginning, from the beginning of the attack, audience was prepared for tension using external sounds and effects, so war scenes were successfully aestheticized. Ottoman flags shown by close-up shootings, costumes of Ottoman and Hungarian warriors, demonstration of the region chosen as venue with the information from historical sources, were aestheticized in terms of visual historiography. In each episode of the series power struggles of the afore mentioned characters were shown with close-up shooting and sequencing made with cutting which is appropriate to TV aesthetics derived from intensive contrasts. Mainly shoulder and chest shootings were used in the TV series. Because movement especially was installed to actors, camera was intensively used with fixed non-moving angle. In the series, the relation of the characters representing Ottoman Empire and government with non-Muslims and opposing characters, camera being placed to lower and upper angles it was tried to create an psychological atmosphere in favour of Ottoman. While natural lightening methods were preferred for outdoor shootings, indoor shootings were carried out by artificial light sources. In Magnificent Century TV series mainly background music reflecting periodical atmosphere, diegetic ambient sounds and effects were included.The use of external sound and diegetic sound was preferred in the scenes when important decision were taken about characters. The relation of authority and enemy was spatially made visible in the scene of Battle of Mohacs.While regulating the stage visually, composition elements such as golden ratio and tissue were utilized. Cavalry and infantry of Holy Roman Empire army were shown sequentially using the elements of rhythm and perspective 694

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN composition. The eighth scene in which armies on Mohacs valley were shown against each other, in the frame of ground perception relationship, a caftan draws attention. The scene, referring Magnificent Suleiman‟s talismanic caftan at the end of the sequence, symbolises the power and strength of Ottoman Empire. In the series religious and nationalistic emphasis is often done verbally through monologues and dialogues of characters.Nationalism is stated clearly and verbally throughthe dialogues of characters mainly Sultan Suleiman, Pargali Ibrahim Pasha and Bali Bey, especially via speeches with the soldiers.Structurally there are direct or indirect highlights on nationalism about the subjects such as all the characters, space selection and visual regulation of places. The most important figures symbolising nationalism visually are Ottoman flag and banner carried by the soldiers. Ottoman Empire army carry red, green and white banners. The colour red on the banner carried by Ottoman scouts symbolizes Turkishness, three crescents symbolize three continents being reigned. White banner which can be seen behind grand vizier symbolizes independence. White banner passed from Seljuk Sultan Gıyaseddin Mesud Shah to Seljuk Empire and from Seljuk Empire to Ottoman Empire. Ottoman army war dress, appearance and behaviour as well increase the emphasis on nationalism. The speech of Sultan Suleiman with his soldiers contains emotional meanings for individual and collective history. Sultan Suleiman‟s standing in front of Ottoman flags and Ottoman army is iconographic associated with Fatih Sultan Mehmet‟s conquest image.Sequentially lined Ottoman artillery and janissary soldiers are of a nature symbolising power and strength. The green banners, which are about religion, of Ottoman soldiers in the series attract the attention.On the banner, which consists of three white crescents on green surface, green symbolizes Islam and three crescents symbolize three continents being reigned (Europe, Asia and Africa) Sultan Suleiman correspond to „father‟ archetype in Ottoman Empire regime. 4.2. Analysis of TV series ‘Bir Zamanlar Osmanlı' ‘Once Upon a Time Ottoman / Battle of Prussia Sequence TRT got Hersey Film Company to make TV series Once Upon a Time Ottoman, which is the subject matter of this study, after the success of Magnificent Century which was the most discussed period TV series then.This TV series mentions „Tulip Period‟ during which Ahmet 3 was on throne. It historically deals with the period before „„Patrona Khalil Rebel”. In order to analyse, 12 scenes belonging to Battle of Prussia sequence that took place in 1711 which were taken from the 1st season episode 13, was chosen.The TV series lasts for 96 minutes. The scene starts on the 18.36 minute and lasts for 1 minute and 02 seconds.14 shootings were determined about Battle of Prussia that happened between Ottoman Empire armies Tsarist Russian in July 1711 in Bogdan (Moldavia) on the banks of river Prussia. Cold and dark colours are dominant on the scenes that describe Battle of Prussia which happened in 1711 between Ottoman Empire and Russian Empire. In order to aestheticize the battle, computer effects and selected place which accompany natural lightening reflected the war scenes realistic.The scenes on which war was revived intensively used dialogue free scenes with the selection of music which is suitable to war atmosphere, sequencing made by cutting, the use of close-up shooting complete dramatic effect of „1711 Battle of Prussia‟ scenes in terms of visual historiography. In order to indicate that war scenes are about the past, stage was deliberately stylised with black and white aesthetics. The whole of Battle of Prussia scene is dominated by high paced and tense atmosphere. Especially with the angles provided by the cameras placed on lower and upper spots and framing increased the action and tension on the scene. Although the scene was illuminated with natural lightening method, the whole of it was stylised as black and white because it correspond to commemorative retrospective in the series. In 1711 Battle of Prussia sequence Tsarist Russian artillery lined up sequentially from the entry stage on, indicate a much more disciplined and larger army. Ottoman army fighting with large and regular Russian army, Butcher Ramadan character commanding Ottoman army was responding much lower number.Later sequence of the sequence, camera was intentionally placed on lower and upper angles in the scenes related to Ottoman army and Butcher Ramadan to show the greatness of Ottoman Empire.Montage of shootings through cutting supports to show that there is no time warp. Because movement especially was installed to actors, camera was intensively used with fixed non-moving

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN angle. When it is thought from Battle of Prussia angle, the most important figures that visually aestheticize nationalism are Ottoman State banner that soldiers carry and the flags they have in their hands. What is more, war clothes of soldiers, their appearances and behaviours increase emphasis of nationalism. Religious representations are uttered verbally in the speeches of all characters.All the characters in the series are in a relation with religious symbols. Both Ottoman family in the series and Holy Quran in the daily lives of characters are shown quite often. There are Sufi elements in the TV series. Representation of the hero in the series is firstly based on courage, sacrifice and determination concepts.In the general narration of the series, figures of hero play an important role and imaginative designs of heroism are used in abundance. The sequence on which 1711 Battle of Prussia is visually aestheticized is completely processed through heroic figure.The figures of traitors in the series represent gangs organised around rebel Patrona Khalil who rebelled against Tulip Period administrators and government, and opponents in Janissary. The character who acted Patrona Khalil, leader of rebels, are aestheticized parallel to more of a dark atmosphere in terms of the clothes they wear and selection of place. Representation of enemy or enmity in the TV series is carried out not only through non-Muslim states or armies but also through rebellious groups and organizations in the state. About the enemy despite all the good behaviour of Ottoman state on the battlefield, criticism is made on their arrogance and aggressiveness. In the frame of 1711 Battle of Prussia figures that symbolizes enemy visually are Tsarist Russian flags and Russian soldiers who carry cross. In 1711 Battle of Prussia scene enemies are generally characterised as those who shoot Ottoman soldiers from remote places, ruthless, dishonest, traitor and coward. Ottoman army soldiers and flags, costumes of Ottoman and Hungarian warriors and the cannons used by Tsarist Russia shown during 1711 Battle of Prussia were aestheticized in terms of visual historiography. 4.3. Analysis of TVseries Diriliş: Ertuğrul (Invigoration: Ertugrul)/ Conquest of Templars Castle Invigoration: Ertugrul, another important TV series taken into the sample of this study, focuses on the story of Kayi Clan which is the pioneer of Ottoman Empire on the contrary of Magnificent Century and Once Upon a Time Ottoman which focus on the last period of Ottoman Empire. Parallel to the rise of TV series with Magnificent Century which deals with Ottoman Empire, Invigoration: Ertugrul, produced by Tekden Film, is a second historical period TV series aired in the same year by TRT. Invigoration: Ertugrul mentions the struggles of Kayi Clan, one of a Turkish clans which came to Anatolia from Central Asia steppes in 13th century, with Templars and Mongolians. The name of the TV series was designed as reference to Kayi Clan, historically the pioneer of Ottoman Empire, the period in which Ertugrul Gazi, the father of Osman Gazi who gave his name to the state, lived. It is a 135 minutes long series and conquest scene starts on 119.28 minute, lasts for 14 minutes and 07 seconds in total. In the sequence 27 shootings were determined about the conquest of the castle constructed by Templars onto cliffs by Kayi Tribe and Alps (special Turkish soldiers). The sequence was chosen in connection with visual historiography in order to collect data regarding form and content used by Invigoration:Ertugrul in terms of visual narration and aesthetics. In the related part of the TV series, the members of Kayi Clan who decided to fight with Templars in Toy, discovers the hidden castle of Templars in Amanas Mountains under the leadership of Alp soldiers and Ertugrul Bey who is the son of Suleiman Shah. Ertugrul Bey leads Kayi Tribe warriors during the attack to the castle where Templars hide, with his brave and heroic behaviours. The costumes of Ertugrul Bey have 13th century traditional Turkish motives. The castle of Templars in Amanas Mountains was added to the scene through computer software. Computer effects, which were used in addition to natural lightening in connection with the visualization of the castle where Templars hid, as related to the environment reflects the spatial atmosphere in an appropriate manner. Cold and dark colours are dominant on all of the scenes describing the attack of Kayi Tribe warriors to the castle of Templars. Internal design, rooms and corridors of the castle where Templars hidwere lightened in frame of creative light use and shadow –show to create a dramatic impact.Computer

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN effects, which were used in addition to natural lightening in connection with the visualization of the castle where Templars hid, as related to the environment reflects the spatial atmosphere in an appropriate manner. The scenes during which the attacks to the castle of Templars were revived, the use of music, in accordance with war atmosphere, based on 13th century instruments in addition tonatural sounds, and sequencing made through cutting increase the dramatic impact of raid in terms of visual historiography. Slow motion shootings designed in fictional meaning during war scenesstrengthen the impact of action scenes. Flags of Kayi Tribe and Templars, Alp soldiers and costumes of crusaders shown with close-up shooting, reconstruction of the selected place with computer supported technologies and in the light of information contained in historical sources are significant in terms of visual Nationalism is verbally expressed in an obvious way with Takbir (saying God is the greatest) and the speech of the character Ertugrul Bey for Kayi Tribe warriors before and after the raid to the castle of Templars. Structurally there is direct or indirect emphasis about nationalism on characters, selection of place and visual regulation of the places. On the axis of raid to the castle of Templars, the most important indicator thataestheticize nationalism is the flag of Kayi Tribe that Ertugrul Gazi holds. In addition to the flag of Kayi Tribe which was perked to donjon, Takbir of Alp soldiers rising their swords are in a quality of symbolising nationalism. The war costumes of characters such as Ertugrul Bey, Gundogdu, Bamsı Beyrek, Dogan Bey, Deli Demir and appearance and behaviour of Alp soldiers increase the emphasis on nationalism as well. In the series as for government, there is a servitude relationship between the public and Suleiman Shah. The family of government also participate to process of production.Managers have no personal servants or helpers. Religious representations are uttered verbally in the speeches of all characters who belong to Kayi Tribe.All the characters are in a relation with religious symbols. Religious emphasis draws attention in the discourses and daily lives of managers, soldiers and local people. After the conquest of the castle of Templars, especially the character of Ertugrul Bey, all the Alp soldiers who fought chanted takbir for a long time.They celebrate the victory gained against Templars by experiencing intense religious feelings. The motives of Turk-Islam culture are often given imaginatively and discursively in character selection and place emphasis. The hero in the series is grounded through loyalty to Kayi Tribe, courage during war, self-sacrifice and determination notions.In the general flow of the series, heroic figures play important role, imaginative heroic designs are used in abundance. Bamsı Beyrek who plays an important role in the series is a heroic figure in Turkish mythology and usually the subject of fairy tales. Characters in the series such as DoganBey, Gundogdu, and Deli Demir are significant figures in terms of the representation of hero. In the series men are more arbiter at public sphere and state affairs. At voting meetings where decisions are taken about state affairs, only men are present. In the TV series, with regard to operation of government parallel to the historical realities there is not a monarchy as in the Ottoman Empire but there is a common decision making process. Men in cooperation with women join production process on behalf of the continuation of tribe. Men in the tribe are keen on religion, traditions and customs. They often perform worship in their daily lives. One of the motivations why Suleiman Shah, Ertugrul Bey, Bamsı Beyrek, Deli Demir and other Alp soldiers fought with Templars was to protect and spread Islam. 5. Conclusion Television carries out its story and narration that are presented with various kinds of programs through aesthetics codes in the formal sense of content and meaning systems .The aesthetic codes that make up form are TV screen and image, generic, composition, camera angle and scales, framing, light and colour, visual effects, montage filmic rhythm.The aesthetic codes which make up content are theme, dramatic structure/narration, characters, plot, dialogue, time and place.Television in its unique screen structure, realises its visual and audial narration through various kinds. As many popular entertainment means, TV has produced its own program types and still use these types together. Change and development of the types of television programs is mainly due to two main reasons.The first of these reasons is technological development, the second is competition between television channels.The

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN strong relationship between TV and history, which is based on visuality, is intensifying through period TV series and this causes the new productions to come to life. Period series whose number has substantially risen up in Turkish TV channels point a phenomenon that can be conceptualised as visual historiography in terms of television aesthetics and history relation In today‟s electronic, visual and media culture age, TV series which take historical realities as reference causes holistic history conception to undergo deconstruction putting forth representations about the past. Period series concern with historical event, phenomenon, character or period and it is a type which includes characteristic, spatial, factual, personal or collective representations. In terms of man‟s relation with time concept, transfer of past periods to the next generationis carried out through using present age cultural, artistic and technological production tools. From this point on,the concept of visual history writing is done not only through literary tools but also through visual forms reflecting the spirit of time. Period series, which get reference from historical person, event and reality, realize visual historiography in the frame of expression and narration features that were determined by idiosyncrasy of television The number of period series both on private and state TV channels like TRT is increasing.This process which can be conceptualized as visual historiography in television aesthetics reached the peak with Ottoman series started to be aired especially after 2010.The aforementioned TV series bring the rivalry about visual historiography in front of our eyes between state and private TV channels. In this context Magnificent Century, Once Upon a Time Ottoman and Invigoration: Ertugrul were selected taking into consideration the construction features and results of rating system among post-2010 period series. They are all important productions in terms of visual aesthetics and narration relation of both private and state channels. In order to reveal visual aesthetics and narration structure ofthe period series which are the subject of this study, 12 episodes consisting of public, semi-public and private space were selected and the most important sequences of the series were analysed through using visual, audial and written codes which were explained in the theoretic part of the thesis.Magnificent Century, Once Upon a Time Ottoman and Invigoration:Ertugrul productions, in the format of episode series, present the stories fed from historical area in various archetypes and in screen-specific narrative structure to audience.Aforementioned series also trigger a lot of arguments with performances dealt with historical period in the context of accessibility to the many in the society and power of making current issue, and they contribute to the popularisation of history. References Atabek, Ü. (2001). İletişim ve Teknoloji. Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. Adorno, T. W. (1998) “Sanat, Toplum, Estetik”, Sinemasal Dergisi: 125 , Çev. Taylan Altuğ , Temmuz/Ağustos. İzmir Bilis, A. E. (2013) Popüler Televizyon Dizilerinden Muhteşem Yüzyıl Dizisi Örneğinde Tarihin Yapısökümü, İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2013/II 45 19-38, İstanbul. Costanzo, V. W. (1992) Reading the Movies: Twelve Great Films on Video and How to Teach Them, National Council of Teachers, USA. İrvan, S. (2002) Medya, Kültür, Siyaset, Ankara: Ark Yayınevi, Kaplan, Y. (1993) Televizyon, İstanbul: Ağaç Yayıncılık. Kanat, C. (2002) Tarihin Medya ile İmtihanı, İstanbul: Yeditepe Yayınları. Mutlu, E. (2005)

Globalleşme, Popüler Kültür ve Medya, Ankara: Ütopya Yayınları.

Mutlu, E. (1991) Televizyonu Anlamak, Ankara: Gündoğan Yay. Postman, Neil. (1994) Televizyon: Öldüren Eğlence Gösteri Çağında Kamusal Söylem, Çev: Osman Akınhay, İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları, Serim, Ö. (2007) Türk Televizyon Tarihi 1952-2006, İstanbul : Epsilon Yayınları. Taranç, R. (1991) "Televizyon Dizi Filmlerinin Estetik Sorunları" Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, İzmir. Yüzbaşı, R. (2012) Mezopotamya’da Dengbej’likten Sinemaya Anlatı Sanatı, Marmara Üniversitesi Güzel

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Sanatlar Enstitüsü Sinema Televizyon Ana Sanat Dalı Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. İstanbul. http://sbtanaliz.com/index.php ?page=sayfa&id=2

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TRANSFORMATION OF THE SPACE AND END OF OBJECT ON THE COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES Research Assitant.Dr. Murat AYTAŞ Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Radio-TV and Cinema Dept. [email protected]

Abstract The human being are re-producing their own social, cultural and daily lives on these technologies in parallel to the development experienced on the communication technologies. The space has been pointed out to have lost its importance today; especially due to the fact the digital platform which was created by the internet enables the global surfing. That the expiring of the space was experimented by means of various software in the years that we can classify as the first term of the internet. In the second term of the internet, we can feel that the perishing is not only experienced with the space dimension, but also the objects with the restructured object-subject correlation together with the created various interaction environments. The thing which was aimed by perishing the space and the object is not becoming independent; it is, however, to make the individuals inactive with the restructured software contents on a platform which cannot change and menace the existing society system. So, in this research communication technologies on the transformation of the space and end of object are analyzed which we regard necessary and worth to investigate, is the topic of our study. Keywords: internet, new media, communication technologies, space and time

1. Introduction The historian Eric Hobsbawn who claimed that industrial capitalism became an actual world economy after 1850‟s and the earth turned into a continuous operational reality from a geographical expression stated that “from now on, the history will be a history of world”. As a result of the developments which each of them is a revolutionary action that are gradually approaching after the industrial revolution, the social scientists focused on the new “end” expressed “the end of ideologies” in 1960‟s, “the end of nation-states” in 1980‟s and “the end of democracy” in 1990‟s. Neo-liberal movement which becomes effective all over the world in parallel to the growth of postfordist production after 1980‟s and the dissolution of Soviet Union may be regarded as the beginning of globalization‟s becoming a world system. The formation which is also called globalization proposes the transformation of the world into a single and integrated market for the agenda and it aims to block the decrease in the rates of profit which brings the end of the fordist process. The pattern of globalization which forces the nations to take place in a global network in terms of economy and integration and uniformity conducted the change of time and space with the effect of rapidly developing communication technologies and continues rebuilding micro-identities through new connections. We can interpret the basic paradigmatic transformation experienced between modernity and postmodernity as the disengagement of human beings from their connections in terms of “place” and even “time”. The need of new global economic market for stability and freedom so much that it doesn‟t prevent globalization also requires the use of technology – especially communication technologies - which isn‟t independent from the social and political environment where it was formed in terms of 700

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN significance of government and global competency. It is worth noting that, however, the communication technologies which emerged in parallel to the revolution of capitalism after the industrial revolution radically changed the quality of “the knowledge” presented to human in the axis of the relationships between the government and production. The distribution of the knowledge has gained speed and become cheaper but the government increased its dominancy and control on the content of information after every revolution. In this study, the transformation process which is conceptualized as the end of place where it formed the infrastructure of internet, the most important technology of the age, will be analyzed in parallel with a new social formation which focuses on “networks”. The purpose of the study is to analyze the social functions of subject-object as the patterns of mutual connections and relationships not a simple determination of the occasion regarded as the end of place and transformation of the object. In order to take the initiative related to this issue in this study, we should deal with technology seriously, we should employ it as the starting point for this research, we should locate the revolutionist technological development into the social context where its process occurs and shapes it and we should also remember that the search for identity is as strong as techno-economic transformation in drawing a new historical scheme. In this study, qualitative historical analysis method was employed and the social context which configures it in the name of explaining the technological-social relationships which form the framework of this study and experienced process of social, cultural, economic and global transformation better were based on considering the historical process of the relationships between the reason and result. 2. Technology, Society and Government In order to explain the basic configuration on the axis of technology, society and government which are explained with the end of the place and transformation of the object related to communication technologies, we should determine what the communication technologies were and also determine their developments in the historical process. Today, the term “technology” is re-defined in numerous forms by numerous writers. When we get to the etymological bottom of the word, it was formed through “the suffix of “logos” which means knowledge to the word “techne” which means craft and skills in the Ancient Greek (Atabek, 2001: 17). Concise Oxford Dictionary defines technology as „the science of arts related to industry‟ while Great Turkish Dictionary gives the definition of „all sorts of equipment and devices which human beings manufactured to hold on to life and make it useful‟. The rapid developments experienced one by one in the communication technologies in the 19.th century pioneered the emerging of new communicative experiences in both national and global sense and a new social formation. Upon Alexandre Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876, verbal communication regained importance, and verbal communication gained popularity among the masses when the first regular radio broadcasting started in the USA in 1920‟s. In 1936,BBC conducted the first television broadcasting in the UK and then the radio which has been the pioneer in mass communication for a period of time regressed against television which has both visual and audial structures. The Canadian communication scientist, Mcluhan, pointed out the term “global village” in terms of the masses the television which is integrated with satellite technology reaches and its coverage zone. According to Ong (1991: 160),electronic media culture both transformed the connection of the words with place which started with the invention of writing and was consolidated through the printing press and brought our conscious to the secondary verbal culture age. According to Baldini (2000: 92), “all the devices from radio to the satellite which are products of electric and electronic technology have the power of simultaneously delivering the same message to numerous people who are too far from each other.” Mass communication instruments changed the time and characteristics of entertaining and re-formed the sensations. As Giddens who regard modernity as an unpreventable „juggernaut‟ stated, “electronic communication isn‟t the way to transfer only news or information much faster. The existence of instant electronic communication, no matter whether we are rich or poor, causes the changing of all the tapestry of our lives” (2000: 24). The basic paradigmatic change which is experienced between modernity and postmodernity is highly

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN related to the technology which reveals new communication forms. “Mentioning about postmodernity in this sense means a change of age which consists of the emergence of a social totality with specific organizing principles or disengagement from modernity”(Featherstone, 2005: 23). In that case, technology is one of the major points of a movement developing towards a post-industrial age. Baudrillard, (2005: 15) emphasizes that new technology and information forms play a central role in regenerative social transition from a productive social order which causes the formation of simulations and models so that discrimination between the reality and the appearance of the social world disappears. The emergence of aforementioned new technology and information forms as a „a new production‟ form started the discussion for the transition from the industrial society to the information society in parallel with the development of computer technology and internet which enabled the globalization of knowledge and information at the end of 20.th century and provided an opportunity to experience a new communication age to human beings. According to Peter F. Drucker (1998: 267) who presented the concept information society, technology is an extension of human beings; for that reason, “the basic change in technology both always represents our world perspective and also changes our world perspective.” Although the discussions about the information society still goes on, Spanish Sociolog, Manuel Castells (2005: 17) who claims through his work called “The Rise of the Network Society” that new communication processes and a society model which depends on it started to rise argues that the societies are organized within the frameworks of humanistic processes which were configured through the relationships between production, experience and government which were historically determined.“Production is the activity of human beings to take over the item, turn it into product which it owns, consume some parts of it and save plus value for the investment in accordance with the objectives which were socially determined”. In his book called „The Society of Technology‟, Jaques Ellul analyzed the integration process of technology with society and stated that technique integrated machine to society, established the type of world which machine needs, it enlighted, arranged and rationalized the world (2003: 15). Baudrillard pointed out that machines only produce machines. The more virtual technologies become excellent the more it becomes realistic. “There is no discrimination of human/machine at a level of manoeuvre, at a level of jumping into virtual machines as if jumping into water: Machine dominates both sides of being mutual faced with each other. Perhaps, you are the extension of the space only it owns – human turned into the virtual reality of the machines and became its processor in the mirror” (2001: 131). We can state that communication technologies accelerate the communication processes between human beings and brought a new dimension through removing the spatial obstacles in the evolution from verbal culture to the written culture, to typography, and electric-electronic culture. Within this context, the globalization technologies which cause great changes on both individual and the society are produced as a result of mutual interaction between technology and society in parallel with economic configuration which forms the infrastructure. New information and technology technologies connects the whole world on a single and common platform through established global networks. Upon the instrumental employment of computer technology, a wide chain of virtual organizations is established. Starting from this point, „the end of place‟ which we will discuss in the next chapter points out the significance sub-system of the occasion. 3. End of the Space Before examining the transformation of instrumental and communicative experiences about the space, it will be useful to look into the definitions put forward related to „‟space.‟‟ Space is a social construct. „‟It appears every place where people get in touch with each other. It can‟t be described with the land or human being only; it exists with individuals, culture, tradition and architecture. Belongingness, personality and integration grow tall and turn green in space. Space has a cultural memory” (Koçdemir, 2002: 47). Space was stretched out and enlarged along with modernity in the direction of consumption demand; the magic of the space which had a complex cohesion was exposed to disenchantment and rationalized with Weber terminology so as to be purified from the „‟magic‟‟ in other words from „‟meaning.‟‟ We can describe the journey of the space from modernity as „Post-Modern Elysıum.‟ Space and time transformation which was sustained partly by the new communication technologies and partly by the development of faster vehicles caused problems which could only be solved by 702

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN reconciliation on standardization of the world time in space-time coordinate. (Thompson, 2008: 58). In his work named „Life in Fragments‟ where he criticized the modernity, Zymunt Bauman expresses the birth of the telecity as a life style: „‟Telecity was put into practice in the city as a haunt of the passerby; the bee was distilled until it returned to self and now it only enters the final shelter of its world with completely private, safe, locked and theft proof appliances of the monad (self). „‟Here, the physical presence of the strangers doesn‟t change their spiritual inaccessibility or it doesn‟t interfere this.‟‟(2001: 125-7). The explanations of American sociologist Daniel Bell (1973) who put forward the concept of Post- Industrial Society are quite interesting at this point. According to him; „‟human beings claim they transformed life into a game played against man-made nature by arranging life with technology and rationality along with industrial society‟‟ because humans considered life as a game that was played against nature before industrial society. In the words of Marx, „‟in an age where everything solid evaporates, modern humans laid the foundation of their transformations where the distance was redefined through means of transport of industrial revolution and accelerated their disengagement from the space with audiovisual geographies created by new communication technologies. The communication technologies, which started with telegraph at the end of 18 th century and went on to exist into one another with radio, radiotelephone, television, satellite broadcast and internet, caused changes in human beings‟ traditionally spatial experiences. Especially the electronic mass media such as radio, television and internet caused important effects on social organizational structures by creating new audiovisual geographies in respect to people they can contact and the daily life started to be reproduced through these instruments, particularly the government-population relationship. The state of affairs, which were called disenchantment by the sociological thinker of 19 th century Max Weber, and described as a mood in association with the downfall of a social formation and the rally of a new one, express the change that occurs in time-space perception as well (Bakhtaran: Mule, 1999:9). Concordantly, electronic mass media and new audiovisual geographies which are produced globally provide individual with a chain of virtual experiences. “A collagen that contains the parts from postmodern cities, different climates and different cultures offers a city planning. The messages that are transmitted through TV inform us of everything about every corner of the world. In the new audiovisual geographies, whole humanity belongs to an imaginary community and this community has got ahead its own cultural characteristics.‟‟ (Gruel, 2008: 114). For this reason, television makes us a saloon imperialist with its view that includes everything; and we become the audiovisual masters of the world.‟‟ (Morley and Robins, 1997: 180). “Media categorizes the world for us, orders it, draws a frame, enlarges it, minimizes it, encolours it and makes claims about the appearance of the world.‟‟ (Postman, 1994: 19). The new communication media and the development of the new means of transports affect the styles of the individuals to experience the spatio-temporal features of the life. Habitus, which we can make use of to refer to the new possible uses of the space, represents a conceptual frame that contains several sociological arrangements, allows a cultural category of the social world within its own logical system, defines a prism that allows perception‟‟ (Akt. Channey, 68). The internet which is going fast to be the most important means of communication in our age; and the fact that the numerical platform lets global roaming for mutual interaction shows that the space has lost its importance now. Besides, various software on the internet has started to take place in the daily lives of people of all ages. The number of the people that we could meet was limited in our daily life practices in the past but this number is unlimited in our new technological spaces based on global architecture. This „‟limitlessness‟‟ appeared when the space gained new forms or in other words it came to an end traditionally. For instance, everyday millions of people connect „messenger‟ which is one of the software created on the internet technology or the internet sites that let people get to know each other and the way to experience the friendship and sexual relationship have a transformation. All communication processes are progressing to take place on the „placelessness platform‟ that the global communication technologies have promised human beings without a need for a common space.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4. Network Society 19th century witnessed the emergence of the networks that surrounded the whole world and provided their contemporaries with information experiences for the first time. These networks became prevalent gradually and they became „‟the carriers of both the utopia that reappeared as a global village and of a democracy dream that aimed at a universal and direct communication and participation.‟‟ (Barbier and Lavenier, 2001: 14). While asking whether writing was a technology or not in that period that was also described as electronic oral age, in hypertext period today words have become electronic. Writing has lost its solid state. The method to write an introduction and then finish it with a conclusion part has ended. “Writing has now had a link for many other texts and even visual and audial. „Hypermedia‟ has appeared. Writing has been turned into an everlasting work and a fluid form that is always contributed to and it is interactive‟‟ (Katipoğlu, 2009). National borders have become the least important with internet. It is a communication technology that globalizes the cultural space in the fastest way. Internet enabled the construction of a homogeneous global culture in the global scale in a sense by allowing the formation of the new global forms and new social and individual relationship types. Accordingly, we can say that internet has a more revolutionist structure than the previous communication instruments and it promises the rise of a new model of society beyond being just a communication network where millions of computer system are connected to each other globally and grows constantly. For the first time in history, everybody faces the others and themselves in a single platform whose groundwork was formed by millions of network. Actions and processes that were dominant in information age were organized around the networks. In his book named „‟The Rise of Network Society, Spanish sociologist Manuel Castells conceptualized network society like this as a new social formation: “Networks constitute new social morphology of our communities; the spread of network creating style changes the running and results seriously in production, experience, power and culture process.“ (Castells, 621: 2005). The internet that sustains the strongest global groundwork to contact the unlimited points pioneered the rise of network society which described a social formation as a cultural course of global system. New cultural forms, identities and spatio-temporal perception came along with network society. Toffler stated that the race and the new balance of power of the century started to be kept on electronic network. „‟As electronic network spreads, the power changes hands. Electronic age grounds itself not only in Japan but also in the U.S.A and Europe unprecedentedly‟‟ (1992:132). We saw that a virtual extension and a virtual society were created by means of electronic media. Now we must come to an agreement about this virtual reality. Hannerz (1996) states that television and printed media affect the formation of our semantic worlds considerably. Today, internet is one of the most important technological ground works of globalization and it increases its effects gradually in the meaning transformation at the point of communication processes connected to space. This fact that we can reveal as the end of the space traditionally can be described as the disappearance of necessity to live in common space for people who have relations with other people. Baudrillard puts forward that, along with network society, virtuality is something that is not being able to imagine how it has changed each forms of it designed in our minds about the world as if it touched it. „‟We can‟t imagine because the speciality of virtuality is not only to end the reality, it is also to end the imagination of reality, politics and sociology. Virtuality does not only end the reality of the time it also ends the imagination of the past and the future (2001: 93). The new formation put forward by network society and the differences in spatio-temporal perception caused fundamental changes in the structure of the commodity with the rise of the visual culture. The transformation of human beings‟ relationship with the space and the new type of community structured by the global network made the transformation of the object inevitable that became a visual commodity in consumption dimension.

5. Transformation of the Object Foucault uses state of affairs so as to form the general picture of matrix of thoughts that every generation has used to comment their own experiences. He claims that the only way to make the statements meaningful is to take them into such a frame created by the thoughts. He deals with the 704

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN relationship of understanding with the history like a physical archeologist who identifies every single of findings with its stratum and its frame. Foucault was impressed by Hegel while he was putting forward this finding. Hegel reveals that there was a particular „geist‟, that‟s to say; an age had a spirit and the context was created by this spirit for every social and cultural production (Cited by: Rodgers ve Thompson, 2007: 248). In this sense, information-communication processes where every kinds of social and cultural production are made and the transformation of basic paradigm today, economical organization that forms the general frame of our age –we can describe its starting point as globalization- correlate with the mentality of the time that generated it. In other words, our experiences are determined by the age we are in and the mentality dominating that age. Transformation period where a new age, new society and the concerning consumption habits are built is a conscious transformation project where capitalism is reconstituted itself, information is used as basic production and consumption stock. It was founded as a post-industrial network society. According to Georg Simmel who considered the transformation as the mediation of subject-object relationship in postmodern period (2000:125)”the way going to inexistent keeps a distance through the utmost integrity and depth of the things at the attraction of the parts, in an implication, in aphorism or in symbolic; they are as if they were talking to us from a distance. According to John Berger who argued that the basic source of the knowledge of human beings about the world consists of ‟visible‟ and it is only directed through „visible‟, even the perceptions coming from the other sensations are translated into vision language. Human being fulfils the precondition of physical presence. He takes the world from us only by means of „visible‟ extension. Nothing is more hypocritical than this (2007:56). As the author suggests, visuality built by communication technologies in conjunction with the rise of visual culture offers the most distinct type of hypocrisy. Visual communication first depended on the printed material. However, along with the development of television, it underlay contour communication by processing the view simultaneously. We can call this situation „the first important step of visuality‟ as a universal language. However, the real revolution about this matter –or „evolution‟ as we will approach in details later- is the period where the internet virtualized the words, objects, things, emotions and perceptions in size of image as a non-spatial global communication platform. This period, which we study as the transformation of the objects, perceptions, emotions -or the evolution of the experiences-, is a „conscious‟ transformation period where the capitalism reconstituted itself, information is used as basic production and consumption stock. It was founded as a post-industrial network society. This project is possible in a world where visual culture and experience are dominant. In his book named „Homo Videns‟ (The Power of the Vision) Giovanni Sartori (2004:11) stated that „homo sapiens‟(human who knows), which became the product of the written culture under the influence of an intensive and fast visual technological instruments, was substituted for „homo-videns‟ (human who sees) after the audio overthrew and the vision got the power. The reality perception of Homo videns is quite changed and developed in comparison to the perception of the humans of traditional written culture and current technologies. According to Baudrillard (2003: 16), „‟Today the reality is now produced by miniature cells, matrixes, storages and command models, so it is possible to produce infinite reality. We will not need a rational reality from now on, because the reality is not in a position to cope with the ideal or negative processes.‟‟ Along with the observation technologies and modern tranny whose groundwork is formed by dominant visual culture, the virtual network created in cyber space has supported the individuals to offer their existence in a supra identity virtual-visual way by increasing the atomization of the individuals. The users who are restricted with alphanumeric characters in computer keyboard have developed even a new visual alphabet so as to express human facts such as smiling, anger and embarrassment in interpersonal communication. The individuals of this culture who hide their real identities and meet in virtual spaces with virtual identities generally create communication styles and communication contents that don‟t exist in their real lives with their virtual partners. Accordingly, internet is an application that feeds the individual‟s existence most as a supra identity by hiding themselves (Atabek, 2001:125). The mechanic reproduction of internet and cyber space representation of human body supported with it‟s supra identity existence both isolates the sensual nature of human experience and creates a place 705

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN for sadistic desires and fantasies to reproduce. Accordingly, the alienating effect of modern communication abilities produces pathological side effects and it also functions as a domination instrument (Stevenson, 2008: 201). In the late 1980s, when computer managed visuality production with several software, virtual reality technologies entered into the process of a fast development. The term „Virtual Reality‟ was first used in the middle of 1960s by Ivan Sutherland who worked for ARPANET project that was carried out collectively at Harvard and MIT Universities so as to express computer-based visual environment and human interaction (Schroeder, 1995: 387). Today, as we will study in the next chapter, virtual reality can be experienced by daily users with several software and with virtual games on the internet called MMOG globally. Contrary to Baudrillard who defends that we won‟t need a rational reality from now on, if we evaluate this statement of Kant who said (2004,21) „separating the possibility and reality of the objects from each other is necessary for human mind‟, it is inevitable to see the change between the 19th century and today‟s paradigm. In our age, in parallel with visual information density our bodies are simply re-created; objects and feelings are transformed and our perceptual processes get changed depending upon this. Especially in virtual games whose number of members has increased in recent years, buying virtual objects must be examined since this reveals the transformation of the objects as a visual commodity. Especially the numerical platform created by the internet when global economic structuring became a reality required the construction of placelessness in techno-cultural meaning. In the years that we can call the first period of the internet, the fact that the end of the space came to an end was experienced through several software. In the second period of the internet, transformation is carried out not only in space dimension but in object dimension with interaction simulation. Objects are virtualized in visual and consumption dimension with restructured object-subject relationship. In recent years, this can be observed better especially in games played on the internet by the young. In computer games objects (clothes, tools) are bought and sold in some software which aims to make the individual feel a part of that environment by combining the human senses with virtual environment. These objects are virtual but the money is real. In this shopping period where virtual and real images get mixed, virtual object takes the place of the real one. For instance, the players all over the world who connect the game called „Knight Online‟ can sell all objects (clothes, guns etc.) to each other in this virtual interaction environment. Every passing day, similar software and the games appear and a large number of users become the members of these sites from all over the world. In this context, thousands of games with various contents are produced by the producers of global games from many parts of the world who get involved in the market. 6. Conclusion Communication technologies such as radio, television, telegram, telephone, radio telegram based on printing press and whose development was given acceleration by industrial revolution and intellectual experiences changed all communication experiences of human beings in the 20th century. We can say that communication technologies speed up the communication process between people and they add a new dimension in its evolution from oral culture to written culture, typography and electric-electronic culture by removing spatial obstacles. Especially in terms of people they can contact, mass media such as radio, television and internet had important influence on people and social organization by creating new audiovisual geographies; daily life-particularly government-population relations- started to be reproduced by these instruments. By means of globalization that is a mainstay of communication technologies, capitalism has covered a big distance to be a world system renewing itself with countless networks it has created. Internet created the strongest groundwork globally to contact countless points through networks and it pioneered the rise of a network society that describes a social formation as a cultural course of the global system. For the first time in history, everybody faces the others and themselves in a single platform whose groundwork was formed by millions of network. New cultural forms, identities and time-space perceptions were accompanied by network society. Space was stretched out and enlarged in line with consumption demand along with modernity; the magic of the space with complex cohesion was exposed to disenchantment and rationalized with Weber terminology so as to be purified from the magic, in other words „meaning.‟ 706

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The period that we will study as a transformation of the objects, emotions and perceptions is a conscious transformation project where capitalism is reconstituted itself, information is used as a basic production and consumption stock. It was founded as a post-industrial network society. The development in communication technologies today and informational capitalism which makes the knowledge a basic stock in a global structure in this context virtualize object-commodity and consumption types in size of image by means of various software contents that contain millions of users. This can be seen better in the games played on the internet by the young especially in recent years. The objects that are sold are virtual but the money that is used is real. In this shopping process where virtual and reality are mixed, virtual objects take the places of the real ones. In parallel with the intensity of visual information here; our bodies are simply re-created, objects, feelings are transformed and our perceptual processes get changed depending upon this. In the virtual games with a large number of members especially in recent years, buying virtual objects has become possible after objects were transformed into a visual commodity. References Atabek, Ü. (2001). İletişim ve Teknoloji. Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. Baldini, M. (2000). İletişim Tarihi. (Çev: Gül Batuş. Avcıol) İstanbul: Basım Yayın. Barbier, F,

Lavenir, C.B. (2001). Diderot'dan Internete Medya. (Çev. Kerem Eksen). İstanbul : Okyanus Yayın.

Baudrillard, J. (2001). Tam Ekran. (Çev: Bahadır Gülmez). İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları Baudrillard, J. (2003). Simulakrlar ve Simülasyon. (Çev: Oğuz Adanır). Ankara: Doğu-Batı Yayınları Bauman, Z. (2001). Parçalanmış Hayat. (Çev: İsmail Türkmen). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları Bell, D. (1973). The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture In Social Forecasting. Newyork: Harper Colophon Books. Berger, J. (2007). Ve Yüzlerimiz, Kalbim, Fotoğraflar Kadar Kısa Ömürlü (Çev: Zafer Aracagök). İstanbul: Metis Yayınları Castells, M. (2005). Enformasyon Çağı: Ekonomi, Toplum ve Kültür - Ağ Toplumunun Yükselişi. (Çev. Ebru Kılıç). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları. Channey, D. (1999). Yaşam Tarzları. (Çev: İrem Kutluk). Ankara: Dost Yayınevi. Drucker, P. F. (1998). Kapitalist Ötesi Toplum. (Çev: Belkıs Çorakçı). İstanbul: İnkılap Kitabevi. Ellul, J. (2003). Teknoloji Toplumu. (Çev: Musa Ceylan). İstanbul: Bakış Yayınları Featherstone, M. (2005). Postmodernizm ve Tüketim Kültürü. (Çeviren: Mehmet Küçük). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları Giddens, A. (2000) Elimizden Kaçıp Giden Dünya. (Çev: Osman Akınhay). İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları Hannerz, U. (1996). Transnational Connections. London: Routledge Hobsbawm, E. J. (2005). Sanayi ve İmparatorluk. (Çev:Abdullah Ersoy) Ankara: Dost Kitabevi. Kant, I. (2004). Yaşamın Anlamı. (Çev:Dr. Gürsel Uyanık, Ahmet Sarı). İstanbul: Birey Yayınları Katipoğlu, S. (2009). Modernizm- Postmodernizm, Entelektüel Teknoloji ve Kütüphaneler. Şanlıurfa: Akademik Bilişim Konferansı 11-13 Şubat 2009, 473-476. Koçdemir, K. (2002). Küreselleşme, Koordinatları Okumak. İstanbul: Ötüken Yayınları. McLuhan M. & Bruce R. P. (2001) Global Köy. (Çev: Bahar Öcal Düzgören). İstanbul: Scala Yayıncılık. Ong, W. J. (2007). Sözlü ve Yazılı Kültür. (Çev: Sema Postacıoğlu Banon). İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Postman, N. (1994)

Televizyon: Öldüren Eğlence Gösteri Çağında Kamusal Söylem,

(Çev: Osman Akınhay) İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Robins, K. (1999). İmaj: Görmenin Kültür ve Politikası. (Çev: Nurçay Türkoğlu). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları Rodgers, N. & Thompson, M. (2007). Sıradışı Filozoflar. (Çev: Nur Küçük). İstanbul: İthaki Yayınları Sartori, G. (2004). Görmenin İktidarı. (Çev: Gül Batuş ve Bahar Ulukan). İstanbul: Karakutu Yayınları.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Schroeder, R. (1995) Virtual Reality in the Real World: History, Applications and Projections, Nick H. (Ed) p. 387-400. London, Sage Publications Ltd. Simmel, G. (2000). Öncesizliğin ve Sonrasızlığın Işığında An Resimleri. (Çeviren: Ali Can Taşpınar). Ankara: Dost Yayınevi Stevenson, N. (2008). Medya Kültürleri. (Çev: Göze Orhon-Barış Engin Aksoy). Ankara: Ütopya Yayınları Toffler, A. (1992). Yeni Güçler, Yeni Şoklar. (Çev: Belkıs Çorakçı). İstanbul: Altın Kitaplar

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INVESTIGATION OF BURNOUT LEVEL OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS, WHO DESIRE TO CHANGE THEIR BRANCHES TO SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHER BRANCH, IN TERMS OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES Lecturer Mustafa GÜLER Selçuk University, Health Services Vocational School,TURKEY [email protected] Abstract This study aims to investigate burnout level of classroom teachers, who desire to change their branches to special education teacher branch, in terms of socio-demographic variables. The study was done with descriptive method and survey model was used. The research group consists of 87 classroom teachers, including 51 men and 36 women working at the schools under the Ministry of Education and participating in the branch change course organized by the Ministry of Education in Konya in order to pass Special Education Teacher branch. In the study "Maslach Burnout Inventory" and "Personal Information Form" developed by the researcher were used to collect data. In analyzing the data, t test for pairwise comparisons, one-way analysis of variance for multiple comparisons (ANOVA) and to determine the source of differentiation Scheffe test were used. According to the results of the analysis, occupational burnout level teachers do not differ significantly in terms of gender, marital status and professional title variables, whereas occupational burnout level of teachers showed a significant difference in terms of variables such as age, get support from colleagues, appreciation of the manager and the school type they work. Keywords: Occupational Burnout, special education teachers, classroom teachers

1. INTRODUCTION Those working in the education and service sectors suffer from a high level of stress due to the organizational structures of the sectors and their working conditions. Long-continued stress in working environment may lead to burnout. The concept of burnout was first used by Freudenberger (1974) as a phenomenon of physical, emotional and mental exhaustion accompanied by reduced success, desensitization and reduced motivation (Çapri, 2006). 2. Review of Literature Burnout is experienced more in professions where it is required to work with people face to face (Çokluk, 2003).In the studies on teachers who are members of such an occupational group (CanoGarcia et al., 2005; Emery&Vandenberg, 2010; Fernet et al., 2012; Girgin&Baysal, 2005; Grayson&Alvarez, 2008; Karakelle&Canpolat, 2008), it was attempted to determine the reasons of burnout. Personal reasons of burnout include age, educational level, personality, medical condition, marital and family status, number of children, expectations, values, emotional stability and living conditions (Gözüm, 1996). These reasons affect individuals in a different manner. Among teachers, burnout can be shown as a negative reaction developed due to stressful teaching conditions, students and lack of management support (Tümkaya, 1996). Excessive face-to-face relations and personal and organizational reasons may result in burnout in teaching profession. In particular, such stress factors as discipline problems, crowded classrooms and expectations of parents may lead to burnout among teachers. Apart from stress factors, certain socio-demographic variables are associated with burnout. It was determined that women feel burnout more in the subdimension of emotional burnout (Çimen, 2007; Sürgevil, 2005; Şahin, 2009). There are other research findings which point out that men feel burnout more than their female colleagues (Demirbaş, 2006; Tümkaya, 1996). In terms of age and seniority; level of burnout decreases as the age and duration of working as a

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN teacher increase (Çam, 1989; Çokluk, 1999; Tümkaya, 1996; Sucuoğlu and Kuloğlu, 1996; Aydemir, 2013). Problems resulting from burnout among teachers negatively may affect both individuals and education services. In our country, due to the scarcity of teachers trained in the field of special education, teachers can change their branches and switch to the field of special education teaching from the field of classroom teaching through courses organized. It is thought that the examination of burnout cases among the classroom teachers desiring to switch to the field of special education teaching in terms of socio-demographic variables will contribute to determining the variables leading to burnout, taking the necessary measures, determining the works to be carried out for the teachers with respect to burnout, improving the environments in which and socio-economic conditions under which teachers provide services and conducting further studies on the subject. 3. Methodology Research Model This study was carried out by using the descriptive survey model. Purpose of the study General purpose of the present study is to examine the burnout cases among classroom teachers desiring to switch to the field of special education teaching in terms of socio-demographic variables. Study Group Sample of this study consisted of 87 classroom teachers who were working in the schools affiliated to the Ministry of National Education and participated in the course organized by the Ministry of National Education in Konya with the aim of switching to the branch of Special Education Teaching. While 36 participants were female (41.4 %), 51 participants were male (58.6 %). 23 teachers (26.4 %) were aged between 20 and 29; 45 teachers (51.7 %) were aged between 30 and 39; and 19 teachers (21.8 %) were aged 40 and older. While it was determined that 81 teachers (93.1 %) were married and 6 teachers (6.9 %) were single, it was reported that 19 teachers (21.8 %) had been working as teacher for 5 years or less, 26 teachers (29.9 %) had been working as teacher for 6-10 years, 23 teachers (26.4 %) had been working as teacher for 11-15 years and 19 teachers (21.8 %) had been working as teacher for 16 years or more. While 35 participants (37.9 %) were working as classroom teachers in primary schools, 54 of them (62.1 %) were working as seconded special education teachers in special education classes and special education schools. Data Collection Tools In the research, Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) which was developed by Maslach and Jackson in 1981 and adapted into Turkish by Ergin in 1992 and the “Personal Information Form” developed by the researcher were used. After the participants were informed about the purpose and voluntary basis of the study, practices were carried out in the course environment. During the practices, purpose of the study and basic instructions concerning the application of scales were explained to all participants in a standardized manner. Analysis of Data Data obtained from the measurement tools were transferred into computer environment and were made ready for the appropriate statistical processes. SPSS 16.0 package program was used for the statistical analysis of the data obtained from the research. t test was applied on the data for paired comparisons and One Way Variance Analysis (ANOVA) was applied on the data for multiple comparisons with the aim of determining whether occupational burnout scores of teachers vary significantly in terms of socio-demographic variables. Scheffe test was employed as post hoc test in order to determine the source of differentiation. Error margin was accepted as 0.01 and 0.05 in the analyses.

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4. Results According to the results obtained from the research, while the variables of gender [t(85)= .09; p>.05], marital status [t(85)= .06; p>.05] and title [F(2-84)= 2.05; p>.05] do not lead to significant differences on the occupational burnout scores of the teachers, significant differences are observed in the personal success subdimension [F(2-84)= 2.05; p<.05] by the variable of age; in the emotional burnout [t(85)= 3.53; p<.05] and desensitization [t(85)= 2.79; p<.05] subdimensions by the variable of whether support is received from the coworkers; in the emotional burnout [F(2-84)= 5.91; p<.05] subdimension by the variable of type of school where the teacher is working and emotional burnout [t(85)= 2.56; p<.05 t(85)= 2.56; p<.05] and desensitization [t(85)= 2.40; p<.05] subdimensions by the variable of being appreciated by the managers. It was also determined that the burnout scores ( X =13.30) of those working as classroom teachers in primary schools were higher than the burnout scores ( X =7.27) of classroom teachers seconded to the special education classes and special education schools as special education teachers. 5. Discussion and Conclusion The variable of gender did not lead to significant differences in the study. Similar findings were obtained in some studies on the burnout cases among teachers (Arslan&Arslan, 2014; Sucuoğlu&Kuloğlu, 1996 ). It is thought that the differences between the burnout levels of female and male teachers stem from the fact that services are carried out under equal circumstances for female and male teachers and working conditions similarly affect female and male teachers. At the end of the analysis made with the aim of revealing whether the marital status makes any difference on the burnout levels of the teachers, it was determined that teachers did not experience burnout according to their marital statuses. When the literature is examined, the studies conducted by Vızlı (2005), Oruç (2007), Kayabaşı (2008), Yılmaz (2010) and Arslan&Arslan (2014) also report that the variable of marital status does not have a significant impact on burnout. The fact that marital statuses of the teachers do not have a significant impact on burnout levels may result from the fact that factors leading to burnout are similar for both single and married teachers. Significant differences were found between the burnout scores according to the variable of age. Burnout score averages of the 20-29 age group are higher than the burnout score averages of the participants aged 40 and older. It can be thought that burnout levels decrease as the age of the teachers increases since they feel more competent and successful, have more realistic expectations regarding their profession and gain experiences. A significant difference was detected when the variable of whether support is received from coworkers and burnout levels. Strasmeier (1992) reported that lack of support from coworkers increases burnout levels of teachers. Support and support from coworkers, in particular, is a highly significant factor and has a role in preventing burnout. Similarly, appreciation from managers is associated with burnout. Findings related to the variable of being appreciated by managers are significant and the burnout levels of the teachers who have never been appreciated by managers are higher than those of the teachers who have been appreciated or occasionally appreciated by managers. When the literature is examined, Aksoy (2007) and Çam (1989) report a negative relation between support from managers and exhaustion and desensitization subdimensions of burnout. Although all of the teachers participating in the research were appointed as classroom teachers, 62.1 % of them are working as seconded special education teachers in special education classes and schools. It was seen that there was a statistically significant difference between the variable of the type of school where the teachers were working and burnout scores. Burnout scores of those working as classroom teachers in primary schools are found to be higher than those of the classroom teachers

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN temporarily working as special education teachers in special education classes and schools. High burnout scores of those working as classroom teachers in primary schools are thought to be influential in their desires to switch to another branch. Based on the findings and observations of the research, the following suggestions can be made for the practices and further studies on this topic. Detecting the teachers suffering from burnout syndrome with respect to their profession and taking the necessary steps for increasing their personal senses of achievement will enable the students to adapt themselves while in-service trainings, courses and seminars may reduce burnout levels of teachers. Working environments of teachers should be improved and teachers should be provided with training and social opportunities. In the field of special education, one of the biggest problems is the scarcity of specialized personnel. Thus, the number of special education departments in the universities should be increased so that the number of graduates of such departments meets the requirement of the field. References Aksoy, S. U. (2007) Eskişehir ili özel eğitim kurumlarında çalışan öğretmenlerin tükenmişlik düzeylerin değerlendirilmesi. Yüksek lisans tezi, Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi, Eskişehir. Arslan, G. & Aslan, G. (2014). Zihin engelli bireylere eğitim veren öğretmenlerin tükenmişlik düzeylerinin İncelenmesi (Tokat İli Örneği) . Eğitim bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi , 4 (2), 4966. Aydemir, H. (2013). Özel Eğitim Alanında Çalışan Öğretmenlerin Tükenmişlik Düzeyleri Ve Yaşam Doyumlarının İncelenmesi.Yüksek lisans tezi. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Bolu. Cano-Garcia, F. J., Padilla-Munoz, E. M., Carrasco-Ortiz, M. A. (2005). Personality And Contextual Variables In Teacher Burnout. Personality And Individual Differences, 38, 929-940. Çam, O. (1989). Hemşirelerde tükenmişlik ve çeşitli değişkenlere göre incelenmesi . Doktora tezi, Ege Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü,İzmir. Çapri, B. (2006). Tükenmişlik Ölçeği’nin Türkçe uyarlama geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2 (1), 62-77. Çimen, S. (2007). İlköğretim öğretmenlerinin tükenmişlik yaşantılarını ve yeterlik algıları Yüksek lisans tezi, Kocaeli Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Kocaeli. Çokluk, Ö. (1999). Zihinsel ve işitme engelliler okullarında görev yapan yönetici ve öğretmenlerde tükenmişliğin kestirilmesi.Yüksek lisans tezi. Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara. Çokluk, Ö. (2003). Örgütlerde tükenmişlik. Elma, C. & Demir, K. (Ed.), Yönetimde Çağdaş Yaklaşımlar içinde (s.109-134) İkinci Baskı. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Demirbaş, A. R. (2006). Üç farklı hastanenin yöneticilerinin ve klinikte çalışan sağlık personelinin tükenmişlik durumları.Yüksek lisans tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara. Emery, D. W., Vandenberg, B. (2010). Special education teacher burnout and Act,. International Journal Of Special Education, 25 (3), 119-131. Fernet, C., Guay, F., Snecal, C. & Austin, S. (2012). Predicting ıntraindividual changes ın teacher burnout: The role of perceived school environment and motivational factors.Teaching and Teacher Education. 28, 514-525. Girgin, G. & Baysal, A. (2005). Tükenmişlik sendromuna bir örnek: zihinsel engelli öğrencilere eğitim veren öğretmenlerin mesleki tükenmişlik düzeyi. TSK Koruyucu Hekimlik Bülteni, 4 (4), 172187. Grayson, J. L., Alvarez, H. K. (2008). School climate factors relating to teacher burnout: A mediator model. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 1349-1363.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Gözüm, S. (1996). Koruyucu Sağlık Hizmetlerinde Görev Yapan Hemşire Ve Ebelerde İş Doyum,Tükenmişlik Ve İşe Devamsızlığı Etkileyen Faktörlerin Araştırılması.Doktora tezi, Atatürk Üniversitesi, Erzurum. Karakelle, S. & Canpolat, S. (2008). Tükenmişlik düzeyi yüksek ilköğretim öğretmenlerinin öğrencilere yaklaşım biçimlerinin incelenmesi, Eğitim ve Bilim, 33 (147), 106-120. Kayabaşı, Y. (2008). Bazı değişkenler açısından öğretmenlerin mesleki tükenmişlik düzeyleri. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 20, 191-212. Oruç, S. (2007). Özel eğitim alanında çalışan öğretmenlerin tükenmişlik düzeylerinin bazı değişkenler açısından incelenmesi.Adana ili örneği. Yüksek lisans tezi. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Adana. Strassmeier, W. (1992). Stres amongst teachers of children with mental handicaps.International Journal Of Rehabilitation Research, 15, 235–239. Sucuoğlu, B. & Kuloğlu, N. (1996). Özürlü Çocuklarla Çalışan Öğretmenlerde Tükenmişliğin Değerlendirilmesi, Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 10 (36), 44-60. Sürgevil, O. (2005). Tükenmişlik ve tükenmişliği etkileyen örgütsel faktörler: akademik personel üzerinde bir uygulama.Yüksek lisans tezi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, İzmir. Şahin, D. (2009). Ankara Keçiören Eğitim ve Araştırma Hastanesi hemşirelerinin rol çatışması-rol belirsizliği ve tükenmişlik durumları .Yüksek lisans tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara. Tümkaya, S. (1996). Öğretmenlerdeki tükenmişlik görülen psikolojik belirtiler ve başa çıkma davranışları. Doktora tezi, Çukurova Üniversitesi, Adana. Vızlı, C. (2005). Görme engelliler ilköğretim okullarında çalışan öğretmenlerle normal ilköğretim okullarında çalışan öğretmenlerin tükenmişlik düzeylerinin karşılaştırılması. Yüksek lisans tezi. Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul.. Yılmaz, B. (2010). Resmi ve özel ilköğretim okullarındaki sınıf öğretmenlerinin tükenmişlik düzeylerinin incelenmesi. Yüksek lisans tezi, Uludağ Üniversitesi,Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Bursa.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN EXAMINATION OF BURNOUT LEVELS IN GUIDANCE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING STUDENTS Lecturer Mustafa GÜLER Selçuk University, Health Services Vocational School.TURKEY [email protected] Abstract The purpose of this study is to investigate burnout levels of guidance and psychological counseling undergraduate students within the framework of demographic variables. Seven hundred and ninety-one university students studying at Erciyes University, Aksaray University and Necmettin Erbakan participated in the study, and Maslach Burnout Inventory – Student Scale (MBI-SS) which was designed by Schaufeli, et al. (2002), and adapted into Turkish by Çapri, Gündüz and Gökçakan (2011) has been used as a data collection tool . For data analysis, ANOVA, Tukey and T test have been administered. The results of the analysis indicate that burnout scores of students differ from each other in terms of variables such as gender, selection department with own desire, the support from academic staff, being satisfied with the department and grade. The results are discussed in the light of literature and several recommendations are presented. Keywords: guidance and psychological counseling students, Burnout, depersonalization, competence

1. Introductıon Intensive emotional reactions are observed in members of professions that require face-to-face and close relations with people and have a greater face-to-face communication. Education and service sector employees may be exposed to a higher level of stress due to the organizational structure and working conditions. According to Çokluk (1999), stress in workplace environment is accepted as a part of daily labor demands and unless individuals find an opportunity of showing themselves and being supported with the aforementioned labor demands, this may lead to a long-term stress and finally burnout. 2. Review of Literature The concept of burnout was defined for the first time by Freudenberger (1974) as “a condition of exhaustion that develops as a result of failure, attrition, loss of energy and power or irrecoverable demands in internal sources of individuals”. And then Maslach and Jackson (1981) developed the Maslach Burnout Inventory-MBI and defined burnout as a syndrome that contains physical, emotional and cognitive dimensions, which become evident with the feelings of chronic fatigue, despair and hopelessness, development of a negative self-concept, as well as negative attitudes toward work, life and other people, and three components as emotional burnout, depersonalization and reduced personal success that emerge with changes in attitudes and behaviors concerning work. Signifying the dimension of stress in burnout; emotional burnout is defined as loss of energy and fatigue. Depersonalization concerns the interpersonal relations of burnout and is defined as a decrease of sensibility in employees toward themselves and individuals they provide service to; in other words, an emotional and a cognitive alienation from themselves and individuals they provide service to (Maslach, Schaufeli and Leiter, 2001). Concerns the other two components and a decrease in efficiency and productivity senses of individuals (Maslach and Goldberg, 1998); the dimension of personal success is a condition for employees that consume emotionally to not feel productive and successful enough. Maslach and Leiter (1997), extended their opinions about burnout and suggested that burnout was not a phenomenon being only enountered in human professions, which is the total opposite of the aforementioned interpersonal models. According to a recent understanding; “burnout” signifies a

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN condition of being upside down in any work performed by individuals and represents the erosion in the values, honors, respectabilities and spirits of individuals. It is stated that compulsive effects of activities upon individuals cause the development of burnout and loss of energy in the course of time (Gündüz, Çapri and Gökçakan, 2012). Pines and Aronson (1988) define burnout as a loss of enthusiasm, energy, idealism, perspective and purpose; and a physical, emotional and cognitive fatigue (burnout) that causes constant stress, hopelessness, despair and sense of being trapped. A number of researchers accept burnout as an inner psychological experience that contains expectations, attitudes and perceptions and develops personally (Gökçakan and Özer, 1999; Pines and Aranson, 1988; Tümkaya, 1999) and a condition to be prevented as it would bring along heavy and serious outcomes for organizations and individuals (Ağaoğlu et al., 2004). Examining the literature; it is seen that studies concerning burnout in Turkey have a parallelism with the process abroad; they started with adaptation studies in the beginning of nineties (Çam, 1992; Ergin, 1992) and were primarily applied to healthcare professionals (Arslan et al.,1996; Ergin, 1996; Gündüz, 2000) and then to trainers (Baysal, 1995; Gökçakan and Özer, 1999; Tümkaya, 1996). It is also seen that the number of studies concerning burnout increased in the latter process and they started to be conducted in different areas of profession, as well. Burnout studies were applied to not only healthcare professionals and trainers, but also different groups like coaches (Tatlıcı, 2006), automotive sector employees (Öztuna, 2005; Sümer, 2005), security officers (Şanlı, 2006; Gündüz et al., 2007; Kaya, 2009), hotel personnel (Bahar, 2006), partners (Çapri, 2008), football referees (Gümüş, 2009), parents with mentally retarded children (Arman, 2009), municipality workers (Özçelik, 2009), call center workers (Atlandı, 2010) and patient relatives (İlaslan, 2009). Apart from the members of profession; it is seen that burnout studies are applied to especially secondary school and higher education students in our country in parallel with studies abroad. Burnout studies of students are conducted both abroad (Chang et al., 2000; Gold et al., 1989; Hu and Schaufeli, 2009) and in our country (Ören and Türkoğlu, 2006; Eker, 2007; Kutsal, 2009) and students constitute a significant group. According to Salmelo-Aro, Savolainen and Holopainen (2008); studies of students at school are accepted as work although they are not employees with a profession. In the educational process, students are required to continue school, do their homework and prepare for school exams and central exams in order to pass their exams and classes. Existence and abundance of exams generally expose students to an oppression caused by the demand and expectation of being successful. Thus, according to Maslach and Leiter (1997); students may be exposed to an inner erosion and easily enter into the process of burnout. Due to a number of expectations, students may experience burnout in case of having; an inconsistency between the expectations of their immediate vicinity consisting of their family, friends and teachers (Schaufeli et al., 2002), a lower motive of learning , situations where their efforts are not rewarded or appreciated (Maraşlı, 2005) and insufficiency of social support (Kutsal, 2009). Burnout that is experienced in studentship (Watson et al., 2008) before starting business life may become serious in the future business life (Güdük et al., 2005). Examining studies on student burnout in Turkey; it is seen that they are conducted by using different assessment instruments (Gündüz, Çapri and Gökçakan, 2012). As a result of their study examining burnout in preservice teachers; Ören and Türkoğlu (2006) determined higher rates of burnout in men in the dimensions of personal success and depersonalization and in women in the dimension of emotional burnout. In a similar study that was applied to medical faculty speciality students; it was determined that there was a significant difference in terms of the variables of gender, marital status, number of shifts, being appreciated by superiors (Yılmaz, 2009); social support levels perceived by high school students predicted burnout scores; and burnout levels increased in parallel with the increase of age and grade (Kutsal, 2009). As a result of their study examining burnout in university students; Gündüz, Çapri and Gökçakan (2012) reached statistically significant results in terms of the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN variables of gender, social support, homeland, faculty/college, grade and weekly course hour burden. In a study examining burnout levels in midwifery and nursing students and the affecting factors; a significant difference was determined between the departments and grades of students (Kaya and Arıöz, 2014) There is a limited number of studies concerning student burnout in our country. This study aims to examine burnout in guidance and psychological counseling students according to some demographic features. Examination of burnout in guidance and psychological counseling students will contribute to the improvement and development of educational conditions of students and the fulfillment of studies aimed at personal development of students and new relevant studies. 3. Methodology Study Model A screening model that was applied with descriptive method was used in this study. Study Group Research group of this study consists of totally 791 students (571 female (72,2%), 220 male (27,8%)) that study guidance and psychological counseling at Erciyes University, Aksaray University and Necmettin Erbakan University. 294 (37.2%) of students study at Erciyes University, 232 (29,3%) Aksaray University and 265 (33.5%) Necmettin Erbakan University. 186 (23,5%) of students are 1. grade, 206 (26,0%) 2. grade, 188 (23,8%) 3. grade and 211 (26,7%) 4. grade. Study Objective General objective of this study is to examine the burnout levels of undergraduate guidance and psychological counseling students within the scope of demographic variables. An answer was sought to the question, “Do burnout scores of guidance and psychological counseling students differentiate according to their gender, grades, family accommodation, state of willingly selecting their department, satisfaction with their department, weekly course hours and the support received from instructors?”. Data Collection Tools In the study, burnout levels of university students were evaluated by using the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Form (MBI-SF) that was developed by Schaufeli et al. (2002) and adapted into Turkish by Çapri, Gündüz and Gökçakan (2011). As a result of the confirmatory factor analysis that was applied to totally 782 university students for the construct validity of the inventory; a structure of 13 items and 3 factors was obtained. These sub-factors were named as “burnout (5 items)”, “depersonalization (4 items)” and “competence (4 items)”. It was seen that the correlations between the scores of sub-factors varied between 0,32 and 0,83. Total item test correlations were calculated for proving the item validity and the correlation values of sub-factors were observed to vary between 32 and 69. Being developed by the researcher; “personal information form” was used in the study. 4. Results The data acquired from the assessment instruments were computerized for conducting convenient statistical procedures. Statistical analysis of the data acquired from the study was conducted by using the SPSS 16.0 package software. We used independent samples t-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) in data analysis for determining whether or not burnout levels of undergraduate guidance and psychological counseling students significantly differentiated according to their demographic variables and applied the Tukey test techniques to the data as post hoc test for determining the reasons of the significant difference. According to the study results; while no significant difference was observed in burnout scores of students in terms of the variables of family accommodation [F(2-788)= .24; p>.05] and weekly course hours [F(2-788)= .55; p>.05], a significant difference was observed in terms of the variables of willingly

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN selecting their department [t(789)= 5.56; p<.05], satisfaction with their department [t(789)= 7.70; p<.05], gender [t(789) = .72; p<.05], grades, [F(2-788)= 4.48; p<.05] and the support received from instructors [t(789)= 5.95; p<.05]. 5. Discussion and Conclusion This study was conducted for the purpose of determining whether or not burnout scores of guidance and psychological counseling students differentiated according to their gender, grades, family accommodation, state of willingly selecting their department, satisfaction with their department, weekly course hours and the support received from instructors. A significant difference was obtained in terms of the variable of gender. Similar results were obtained in studies concerning student burnout (Gündüz, Çapri and Gökçakan, 2012; Kaya and Arıöz, 2014; Tansel, 2015; Seçer, 2015). Examining burnout levels of students according to gender; while no significant difference was obtained in the dimension of competence, a significant difference was obtained in the dimension of burnout and depersonalization. Evaluating the scores obtained from the MBI-SF; it was observed that male students experienced a higher rate of burnout in the subscale of depersonalization and burnout than female students. A significant difference was determined between the depersonalization and burnout scores of first and fourth grade students according to the variable of grade. It was also observed that fourth grade students had higher scores of depersonalization and burnout than first grade students. This result shows a parallelism with the findings of Gündüz, Çapri and Gökçakan, (2012) and Kaya and Arıöz (2014) and Tansel (2015). It is thought that burnout scores of first grade students were affected by having less pressure as they had just entered the university program after the university entrance exam, as well as mainly having general knowledge lessons compared to upper classes. Factors like future uncertainties and anxieties concerning finishing school and preparing for assignment exams are thought to have caused fourth grade students to experience a higher rate of stress and burnout. A significant difference was obtained according to the variables of willingly selecting their department and satisfaction with their department. It was determined that students that willingly selected their department had lower scores of burnout and depersonalization than students that unwillingly selected their department. Similarly, students that were satisfied with their department had lower scores of burnout and depersonalization than students that were not satisfied with their department. This result shows a parallelism with the findings of Kaya and Arıöz (2014) and Tansel (2015). A significant difference was determined between the variable of the support received from instructors, which is examined in the study, and students’ scores of burnout and depersonalization. Students that are supported by instructors have lower scores of burnout and depersonalization than students that are not supported. Support received from instructors might increase the social support of students, develop their adaptation and school commitment and decrease their stress and burnout levels. The acquired results make us think that there might be a negative relationship between the support received by students from instructors and burnout scores. No significant difference was determined according to the variables of family accommodation and weekly course hours. It was determined that the type of family accommodation (metropolis, district, village or town) had no effect upon burnout levels of students. Increase in the variable of weekly course hours was observed to also increase burnout scores in a statistically insignificant way. In their study; Gündüz, Çapri and Gökçakan (2012) determined that burnout levels of university students differentiated according to weekly course hours and students that had 21-30 and 31+ hours had higher burnout levels. According to the study results; while no significant difference was observed in burnout scores of students in terms of the variables of family accommodation and weekly course hours, a significant

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN difference was observed in terms of the variables of willingly selecting their department, satisfaction with their department, gender, grades, and the support received from instructors. Based on study findings and interpretations; following suggestions could be made concerning implementers and new relevant studies: This study is limited with undergraduate guidance and psychological counseling students studying at Erciyes, Aksaray and Necmettin Erbakan universities and it is suggested to extend studies with a higher number of universities. It is recommended to examine student burnout with different psychological variables (like coping with stress, life satisfaction, commitment styles, competence). Psychological Counseling and Guidance Centers of universities could organize prevention/intervention programs concerning burnout for students. It is suggested to encourage students to participate in social and cultural activities, as well as student communities. It is recommended to determine the factors that cause student burnout, remove negative conditions and develop the skills of students to cope with stress and solve problems. References Ağaoğlu, E; Ceylan, M; Kasım, E; Madden, T. (2004). Araştırma görevlilerinin kendi tükenmişlik düzeylerine ilişkin görüşleri, Malatya: XIII. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kurultayı. Arman, N. (2009). Zihinsel engelli çocuğa sahip anne ve babaların algıladıkları sosyal destek düzeyleri ile tükenmişlik ve kaygı düzeylerinin incelenmesi.Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü,Erzurum. Arslan ve diğ. (1996). Tıpta uzmanlık öğrencisi hekimlerde tükenme düzeyleri. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 7 (1), 39-45. Atlandı, D. (2010). Çağrı merkezi çalışanlarında tükenmişlik ve iş doyumu düzeylerinin incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Bahar, E. (2006). Tükenmişlik sendromu, otel işletmelerinde ön büro çalışanlarında bir uygulama. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Baysal, A. (1995). Lise ve dengi okul öğretmenlerinde tükenmişliğe etki eden faktörler. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, DEÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir. Chang, E. C., Rand, K. L., ve Strunk, D. P. (2000). Optimism and risk for burnout among working college students: Stress as a mediator. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 255-263. Çam, O. (1992). Tükenmişlik envanterinin geçerlik ve güvenirliğinin araştırılması, VII. Ulusal Psikoloji Kongresi, (155-160), Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara Çapri, B. (2008). Eş tükenmişliğini yordayan değişkenlerin incelenmesi. Doktora Tezi.Mersin Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Mersin. Çokluk, Ö. (1999). Zihinsel ve işitme engelliler okulunda görev yapan yönetici ve öğretmenlerde tükenmişliğin kestirilmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara. Eker, G. (2007). Endüstri Meslek Lisesi öğrencilerinin tükenmişlik düzeyi. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Teknoloji Eğitimi Ana Bilim Dalı, İstanbul. Ergin, C. (1992). Doktor ve hemşirelerde tükenmişlik ve Maslach tükenmişlik ölçeğinin uyarlanması. VII. Ulusal Psikoloji Kongresi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara. Ergin C. (1996). Maslach tükenmişlik ölçeğinin Türkiye sağlık personeli normları. 3P Dergisi, 4, 2833. Gold, Y., Bachelor, P., ve Michael, W. B. (1989). The dimensionality of a modified form of the Maslach Burnout Inventory for university students in a teacher-training program. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 49, 549-561.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Gökçakan, Z., & Özer, R. (1999). Rehber Öğretmenlerde Tükenmişlik, Rize Rehberlik Araştırma Merkezi Yayınları.Rize Güdük, M., Erol, Ş.,Yağcıbulut, Ö., Uğur, Z. Ş., Özvarı,Ş.Aslan,D. (2005). Ankara'da bir tıp fakültesi'nde okuyan son sınıf öğrencilerde tükenmişlik sendromu. Sted Dergisi 14(8), 169-173. Gümüş, İ. A. (2009). 3. bölgede görev yapan futbol hakemlerinin mesleki tükenmişlik düzeylerinin incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Kütahya. Gündüz, B. (2000). Hemşirelerde stresle başaçıkma biçimleri ile tükenmişlikleri arasındakiilişkilerin incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Trabzon. Gündüz. B., Erkan, Z., & Gökçakan, N. (2007). Polislerde tükenmişlik ve görülen psikolojik belirtiler, Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 16 (2), 283-298. Gündüz B., Çapri, B., Gökçakan, Z. (2012). Üniversite öğrencilerinin tükenmişlik düzeylerinin incelenmesi. Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 19,38-55. Hu, Q., ve Schaufeli, W. B. (2009). The factorial validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-student surveyin China. Psychological Reports, 105, 394-408. İlaslan, E. A. (2009). Hemodiyaliz hastalarının bakımından sorumlu hasta yakınlarının sorunları ve tükenmişlik düzeylerinin belirlenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul Kaya, O. Ş. (2009). Ankara ilinde çalışan polislerin tükenmişlik düzeylerinin bazı Değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Adana. Kaya, D.Ş., & Arıöz, A. (2014). Ebe ve hemşire öğrencilerinde tükenmişlik düzeyi ve etkileyen faktörler. Selçuk Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 31, 89-99. Kutsal, D. (2009). Lise öğrencilerinin tükenmişliklerinin incelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara. Maraşlı, M. (2005). Bazı özelliklerine ve öğrenilmiş güçlülük düzeylerine göre, lise öğretmenlerinin tükenmişlik düzeyleri, Mesleki Sağlık ve Güvenlik Dergisi, 23, 27-34. Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). the measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 2, 99-113. Maslach, C., & Leiter, M.P. (1997). The truth about burnout: how organizations cause personal stress and what to do about ıt. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Maslach, C., Goldberg, J. (1998). Prevention of burnout: New Perspectives. Applied&Preventive Psychology 7, 63-74. Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job Burnout. Annual Reviews of Psychology, 52, 397-422. Ören, N. & Türkoğlu, H. (2006). Öğretmen adaylarında tükenmişlik, Muğla Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 16 Özçelik, B. (2009). Belediyelerde çalışan işgörenlerin durumluluk kaygı, iş doyumu ve tükenmişlik düzeylerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Maltepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul Öztuna, İ.G. (2005). Oto sanayi sektöründeki bir firmada çalışanların tükenmişlik düzeyleri ve ilişkili etmenler. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Pines, A.M. Aranson, E. (1988). Career burnout. Causes and cures. New York: The Free Press.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Salmelo-Aro, K., Savolainen, H., & Holopainen, L. (2008). Deppressive symptoms and school burnout during adolescence evidence from two cross-lagged longitudinal studies. Journal of Youth Adolescence. DOI 10.1007/s10964-008-9334-3. Schaufeli, W. B., Martinez, I., Marques-Pinto, A., Salanova, M., & Bakker, A. (2002). Burnout and Engagement in University Students: A cross-national study. Journal of CrossCultural Studies,33,464-481. Sümer, D. (2005). İnsan kaynakları eğitim fonksiyonunun mesleki tükenmişlik üzerine etkisi ve otomotiv yan sanayinde bir uygulama. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir. Tansel, B. (2015). Üniversite öğrencilerinin tükenmişlik düzeylerinin incelenmesi . Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2, 241-268. Tatlıcı, M. (2006). Atletizm antrenörlerinin mesleki tükenmişlik düzeylerinin incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Konya. Tümkaya, S. (1996). Öğretmenlerdeki tükenmişlik, görülen psikolojik belirtiler ve Başaçıkma davranışları. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Çukurova Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Adana. Yılmaz, T.D. (2009). Ankara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Hastaneleri’’nde Tıpta Uzmanlık Öğrencilerinin Tükenmişlik Düzeyi ve İlişkili Etmenler. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Watson, R., Deary, I., Thompson, D., Li, G. (2008). “A study of stres and burnout nursing student in Hong Kong: A Qustionnaire Surve”, Internetional Journal of Nursing Studies 45, 1534-1542.

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DIMENSIONS OF E-TRANSFORMATION IN KIRIKKALE: THE CASE OF SPECIAL PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION1 Asisst. Prof. Dr. Filiz Tufan EMİNİ Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Public Administration [email protected] Asisst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa KOCAOĞLU Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Political Science and Public Administration [email protected] Abstract Governments have to develop policies towards computer based service delivery because of increasing expectations about public service delivery and developments on information and communication technologies. In this context, studies on creating information based society started towards the Lisbon Strategy, which was accepted by the EU. This strategy was implemented to Turkey under the name of etransformation Turkey Project. In this study, e-transformation process which was followed by The Special Provincial Administrations in Turkey will be analyzed. The study based on results of a survey and interview which were taken place in The Special Provincial Administration of Kırıkkale. In addition, the institute’s web site was analyzed in terms of online service delivery. The results revealed that The Special Provincial Administration of Kırıkkale made a good progress in e-transformation process and the institution will continue working to achieve a better stage. Key Words: Information society, information and communication Technologies, local governments, Kırıkkale.

1. Introduction Globalization, continual rise in people’s expectations and need for creating information-based societies have all changed societies, and many countries and organizations, the European Union in particular, have set goals to transition to a information-based society and thus prepared special action plans to this end. Transition to information society is defined as the establishment of an infrastructure suitable for creating, processing, storing and transmitting information and the presentation of public transactions through information and communication technologies. With the adoption of e-transformation as the common policy in Europe, Turkey too could not fall behind this transformation process and in line with the developments throughout the world, started studies to transfer transactions into electronic medium. This process that has been put into practice under the name of E-transformation Turkey Project involves the extension of computer and Internet use and literacy, the continuing education of qualified manpower to procure qualified knowledge, and the materialization of regulations regarding technological, legal, financial and security-related issues. E-transformation Turkey Project, which has come to the fore within the scope of the Lisbon Strategy, aims to transfer public transactions into electronic medium, provide 24-hour non-stop public service, give services at a fast, secure, inexpensive and timely basis, improve organizational structures, boost performance level, enable participation and transparency and actualize the principle of equality in services. In this context, e-transformation policies have been adopted and put into effect in centralized and local governments from 2000 onwards. In this study, the policies that are being pursued by local governments within the framework of Etransformation Turkey Project will be analyzed through the example of Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration. The study is a field research. During the execution process of this field research, a 1

This work was supported by the Ahi Evran University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit. Project Number: IIB.E2.16.011.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN questionnaire was given to the office staff who were involved in information and communication technologies as a part of their jobs and an interview was conducted to the personnel authorized in data processing issues. In addition to this, corporate web page was also evaluated in terms of online service delivery. 2. E-Structuring Process In The European Union2 With the advent of information age and technology, a need has arisen to formulate a common policy (Kaplan, 2004: 188, Çakır, 2009) and ensure efficiency in the fields of information and technology to boost competitive power of the European Union particularly against Japan and the United States, and to move towards a kind of structuring in which people’s expectations have become more important (Torres et al, 2005: 219). E-government, one of the approaches developed in this context with the hope of improving technological, political, legal and administrative infrastructure as well as changing psychological, sociological and economic outlook of society (Denker, 2001: 7), is defined as a regime which, in accordance with the European Commission regulations, brings the management closer to people and business world and facilitates efficient use of state resources (Paris, 2005: 307). Services that can be offered through e-government structuring cover a wide variety of services ranging from basic services like education, health and transportation to more complicated services whose purpose is to increase political participation (Balcı, 2003: 269). The European Union, with the Lisbon Summit conducted in 2000, formulated the Lisbon Strategy, aiming to make Europe the most competitive, dynamic and information-based economy in the world until 2010 (Zobel, 2005: 8, Uçkan, 2003: 125, Usal and Ilgaz, 2006: 7). Within the framework of Lisbon Strategy, e-Europe initiative took a start in Fieria in 2000 and all the initiatives towards information society were brought together under the title of e-Europe. This initiative was later extended under the name “e-Europe+” with the integration of member states (State Planning Organization, 2004: 5), and the European Research Area (ERA) was constituted with a view to removing the borders in the fields of science and technology and thus restructuring research networks (Zobel, 2005: 9, Süngü, 2007: 66). E-Europe 2005 Action Plan, which is a follow-up of e-Europe 2002 initiative, aims to make Europe online until 2005 within the scope of Lisbon objectives (Zobel, 2005: 7). E-Europe 2005 aimed to deliver modern online services particularly as e-government, e-education and e-health, provide dynamic e-business medium, and establish secure information infrastructure with widespread broadband access, which will render all the above-mentioned services possible through competitive prices (State Planning Organization, 2004: 5-6). In 2010, e-government action plan was released by the European Commission for 2011-2015. It was stated in this plan that the aim was to increase the percentage of Europeans using e-government services up to 50 until 2015. This percentage was marked as 80 for businesses (European Commission, 2010: 4). Apart from these, it can be seen that four points are of priority in this e-government action plan. European Commission’s first priority was to improve the position of people and businesses through e-government services which are designed in accordance with the needs of users. In this context, the aim was to facilitate easy access to information about state services and improve transparency. The second priority was to allow companies to conduct their businesses smoothly anywhere in Europe by making circulation in a Single Market possible through uninterrupted egovernment services. European Commission’s third priority was to minimize administrative burdens and increase the efficiency of public institutions by improving organizational processes and promoting sustainable low-carbon economy. In addition to these, development of national electronic identities (eID) is also encouraged to be used by military units to make cross-border operations easy. Finally, it is stipulated that necessary legal and technique infrastructure be established for all these priorities to be fulfilled (www.ikv.org.tr). 3. Local Governments In Turkey And E-Structuring Process

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This study has been carried out in Konya, Kayseri and KırĢehir Provincial Special Administrations. The same literature and scale have been used in all studies.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Considering the studies carried out into the local governments in Turkey, it can be seen that Local Governments General Directorate has linked all the provinces, municipalities and governorships with each other with a live Internet medium under the scope of e-Europe+ Action Plan. The Directorate has formed a database for all the administrative units from district governorships to municipalities (www.telepati.com). Furthermore, Yalova municipality has been chosen the pilot area for local egovernance application within the e-Turkey programme (www.undp.org.tr). It is a fact that the Provincial Inventory Study (ILEMOD), which was conducted by the Directorate of Research, Planning and Coordination Committee under the Ministry of the Interior, was carried out in order to make data exchange possible between the central and local governments (Güler, 2009). ILEMOD is the modernization project of the application and monitoring of provincial inventories and rural infrastructure services in provinces. This project aims to facilitate easy access to data whenever necessary, make accumulation of knowledge concrete during the process of the formulation of ministry policies and allow information transfer to other public organizations should there be any need for it. With these provincial inventories, the basic aim was to make projections by using the data of the previous years, to determine and help determine the primary needs of provinces, to draw economic and social maps of Turkey for the long term, to facilitate the generation of reports and documents about the districts and priority regions for development with respect to sectors and corporations, to ensure coordination between provinces in terms of investments and to determine the current capabilities of nearby cities during any disaster or state of emergency (Emini and Kocaoğlu, 2011:169170). Besides, some ministries have been carrying out studies in order to regulate data flow between central government and local units within the context of service fields (Güler, 2009). 80th action of the information society strategy document is about the development of Provincial Inventory System and establishment of Decision Support System. In accordance with these regulations, data that have been gathered within the scope of ILEMOD are to be expanded in such a way as to comprise the innovations in provinces, decisions regarding planning and investment issues in provinces are to be activated with the help of decision support and reporting system which will be built upon the database, the data currently found in the system are to be transferred into the electronic medium at the production spot and electronic data sharing is to be made possible with other systems that gather information for local governments, natural, historical and cultural values inventory is to be prepared in provinces and useful content is to be obtained for Turkish Culture Portal (www.icisleri.gov.tr). Another study that has been conducted into local governments is the Local Governments Specialization Commission Report within the context of Eighth Five-Year Development Plan. In this report, it is stated that computer networks, telephone systems, electronic mass communication devices and similar innovations have allowed individuals to communicate with each other instantly thanks to the developing technology (State Planning Organization, 2001: 9). In the report, it is emphasized that registration and archiving systems used for creating urban and local databank are poor and that there is not an accessible and functional archive system and databank in most local government units, which prevents the provision of the tools necessary for decision-making process and leads to the deprivation of people from democratic supervision tools (State Planning Organization, 2001: 74). In order to overcome these inconveniences, it is essential that a study be carried out into local infrastructure technologies and other public institutions and organizations, notably The Bank of Provinces; institutions like TUBITAK (Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey), universities, TODAIE (Turkey Middle East Public Administration Institute) provide their contributions; a local infrastructure for Research and Development Institute be established and new technologies like geographical information systems be immediately put into use (State Planning Organization, 2001: 59, 174, 184). Among the studies carried out into local governments in Turkey, YerelNet (Local Net) and YERELBĠLGĠ (Local Information) projects are of great importance in terms of using information technologies in local governments and developing local service offer. YerelNet, also known as the portal of local governments, was set up in 2001 in order to bring together a number of autonomous local governments such as State Planning Organization (DPT), TODAIE (Turkey Middle East Public Administration Institute) and YYAEM (Local Governments Research and Education Center) and meet the need of sharing their experiences in a common communication pool (Güler, 2009, Nohutçu and Demirel, 2005: 46). With YerelNet Portal, it is possible to query and use information in line with its purpose and gain access to the elected and appointed executives of local governments and their personnel, to the related regulations and literature, to data and information related to the structure of municipalities, local governments, villages and units as well as their personnel, infrastructure services 723

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN and local election results. In this sense, this portal is a source of information and experience sharing platform for local officials and employees as well as being a door for local governments opening to the world and a medium for fellow citizens. The portal is a source of information from which people can gather current and reliable information about the city, town or village they are currently living. It is also a local government databank which gathers compiled information about local government units to which public enterprises can gain daily and uninterrupted access (Akay, 2009). Objectives planned within the scope of YerelNET overlap with “all online public services and e-business applications including the issues of services, applications and content”, which constitutes the first stage of the eEurope 2005 Action Plan. According to the action plan, at the end of 2004, all public services will be available for access through broad band networks and all the citizens will be able to easily gain access to PIAP (Public Internet Access Points) via these broad band networks. YerelNET, which is an open source website free of charge, broadcasting via broad band, is easily accessible by citizens, public institutions and organizations as well as the private sector without any password requirement, allowing data transfer without any quota limitation. With these qualifications, the website has parallels with the action plan. As a result, due to its high achievements in applications, the YerelNET Portal was chosen the best application by the Johannesburg Sustainable Development Study Group in United Nations World Summit in 2002. In the Golden Spider Web competition held in 2002, it became the finalist by getting into the top ten in the group of “The Best Civil Society Website” and, in 2003, YerelNET Portal again became the finalist in e-Europe e-Government Applications competition which was held by the EU Commission. In 2004, it became the finalist once again in e-Europe e-Government Applications competition, which is held annually by the EU Commission (Akay, 2009). Local government portal of YerelNET went into air in 2000 and has been trying to provide information flow since then with over around 20.000 visitors daily. YerelNET website, which is on air on the web address www.yerelnet.org.tr, has been adopted by both users and local governments and serves as a reference tool on various issues concerning local governments, also being a communication tool between the municipality and citizens. Local Governments Centre pronounces various notices regarding education via www.yerelnet.org.tr portal (www.yerelnet.org.tr portal). Local Governments Database Project (YERELBILGI PROJECT), which is another project carried out into local governments in Turkey, has arisen from the need to empower local governments and support them by the central government with policies correspondent with arising demands in order to meet the essentials of dynamism brought in by the wave of change across the world and properly satisfy the increasing demands of people. The primary requirement in supporting local governments is to have accurate, reliable, up-to-date and comparable data in the related field. YERELBILGI PROJECT aims to build up the necessary database that will develop appropriate policies extensive enough to embrace the dynamism exhibited by local governments (www.yerelbilgi.gov.tr). 4. The Dimensions Of E-Transformation Structuring In Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration The objective, scope, method, findings and evaluation regarding these findings in the field research directed towards the evaluation of Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration within the context of etransformation policies are as follows. 4.1. The Objective, Method and Target Population of the Research The study aims to determine the rate of computerization in Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration, the number of computers used in this respect, available software and hardware, sufficiency level of infrastructure and financial resources, the condition of local networks, the computer literacy levels of personnel working in the institution, the efficiency of the education services to ensure the competence of people in computer literacy, to decide on the policies to be used by the institution in the field of information technologies and to identify the position of the institution in e-Europe and e-Turkey enterprises. The study is based on data obtained through field research. Survey method has been used in collecting data which will form the basis of this research. The first part of the questionnaire form aims to get personal information about participants (status in the organization, gender, age, term of employment in the organization, educational background). Questions directed in the rest of the questionnaire have intended to appraise personnel’s view as regards the information policies pursued by the organization. Questions in this part have been prepared using 5-point Likert scale. 724

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The target population of the field research is Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration. In addition to the Directors working in the institution and providing service using information and communication technologies have been taken into the sample of this research. Directors and officials working in the organization who provide service via information and communication technologies have been included in the sample of the study. According to the 2012 performance plan of the organization, the number of officials working in the organization (together with those on contract) is 124 (Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration, 2012: 19). Of these 124 officials, 109 are working in the central office where field research was conducted. Questionnaire form was delivered to these people by hand and 84 of the returning forms which were valid (77%) have been evaluated. Frequency distribution, average standard deviation and standard error statistical figures have been presented in the evaluation. Collected data have been evaluated on SPSS 15.0 program. To test the reliability of the data collected through survey, Cronbach Alpha coefficient has been used. Cronbach Alpha coefficient has been preferred because it is a method which is commonly used in the analysis of the reliability of Likert type attitude scales. That this coefficient is close to 0 suggests that variables are not internally interrelated, and its being over 0.60 indicates that internal consistency is high. Cronbach Alpha coefficient for survey questions vary between 0.72 and 0.80. Therefore, scales are coherent. 4.2. Findings Obtained in the Study and Evaluation Considering the status of people in the organization who replied to the survey questions, 9 (10,7%) were directors (head of department, manager, deputy manager, supervisor, etc.) and 75 (89,3%) were officials. The stages that organizations should base their applications in the use of information technologies have been specified as computerization, automation, internet use, building a website, transferring management on to the internet (citing from www.yerelnet.org.tr; Emini and Kocaoğlu, 2011: 171). The situation in Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration as regards computerization is considered favorable in accordance with the survey results. To the question “Do you have a personal computer in your workplace that is connected to the internet?”, 89,3% of the respondents said “yes” and 7,1% said “no”. On the other hand, to the question “Are the features of the computer in your workplace satisfactory for the work you are responsible for doing?”, 29,8% said “very satisfactory”, 51,2% said “satisfactory”, 8,3% said “I have no idea”, 8,3% said “unsatisfactory” and 2,4% said “quite unsatisfactory”. According to the 2012 performance plan, there are 137 desktop and 9 laptop computers, 83 printers and 9 scanners in the workplace. In accordance with the information in the plan, provincial special administration has been equipped with computer automation system and web so that it can provide service befitting today’s conditions. Besides, by means of subscriptions to periodicals and non-periodicals, essential information has been obtained and these works have been supported by means of technological devices such as computers, fax and photocopy machines. Technical developments which, with the help of ongoing e-government applications, will accelerate the speed of operations and processes and eliminate unnecessary red tape procedures are closely monitored and persistently implemented so that efficient works could be carried out (Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration, 2012: 15). With reference to the information obtained from the interview conducted with an IT specialist, antivirus and firewall programs are being used to maintain the security of computers in the organization. However, these programs have to be installed in every computer and supported by programs that will boost the security level of the firewall. E-government program is being used in the organization and every working individual has an e-government password. In addition to this, e-Interior program is being used by all the units working on analytical budget, payroll and accounting programs. In accordance with Organization’s 2012 Performance Plan, the establishment, execution and maintenance of Geographical Information System is one of the primary objectives so as to set up an automation system that will monitor the working hours of employees, provide fast and non-stop service to all the real and corporate bodies as well as organizations and institutions that are using the corporate services, initiate and maintain e-Province applications and make planning and business procedures in the field of professional activities operate healthily (Provincial Special Administration, 2012: 31, 33, 35). Moreover, the Strategic Plan of the organization which covers the years between 2010 and 2014 aims to develop a Province Security System and activate the vehicle and fuel tracking systems (Provincial Special Administration, 2012: 48, 59). In line with it, it can be said that a significant progress has not yet been 725

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN made in the maintenance of data security, but that the organization has an efficient automation infrastructure and that it is open to progress in areas where it is still ineffective. Another phase that shows the degree of the application of information policies is the use of computers and internet. With qualified personnel who have computer and internet literacy and by improving these qualities in them through continuing education, it will be possible to increase the use of information technologies within the organization to the maximum level and thus the quality of service delivery and level of satisfaction in people will be raise. In line with this point, to the question “Which of the following is true for your ability level of computer and internet usage?”, 27,4% of those participating in the survey responded by saying “very good”, 44% said “good”, 21,4% said “medium”, 3,6% said “bad” and 2,4% said “very bad”. To the question “Have you ever received a special training or attended a course on computer and internet use in your workplace?”, 54,8% of the participants said that training activities and courses on computer and internet use were seen by the related organization as “a matter of personal training issue”. 16,7% of them stated that only those working in the data processing department were given special training. Of all the participants, 27,4% said that “everybody in the organization was provided with periodical training.” In relation to the questions presented above, to the question “Where did you learn to use computers and internet?”, 55,6% of the respondents said that they had learned it “through their own means” (personal interest and curiosity) and only 6,5% of those working in the organization stated that they had learned during the training programs and courses provided in the workplace. In the light of these data, it can be seen that the personnel working in Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration have an average level of computer and internet literacy, that raising this level has been adopted as an institutional policy and that people working in the organization are supported in this field through regular training programs. There is a need for personnel who are trained and equipped with the knowledge and skills in information and communication technologies, capable of solving any software or hardware-related problem when necessary as well as personnel who are qualified in terms of computer and internet literacy. To the question “Do you have qualified specialists who write computer software in your organization?”, 57,1% of those who participated in this survey responded by saying “no” and 41,7% said “yes”. To the question “Are there specialists in your organization who are in charge of maintenance and repair of data processing hardware?”, 82,1% of the respondents said “yes” and 16,7% said “no.” Accordingly, it can be seen that specialist personnel are employed in the organization for the maintenance and repair of computer hardware, yet they obviously lack desired professional skills. Nonetheless, it is quite significant that the authorized person stated during the interview that routine computer maintenance services are relatively satisfactory. It should be taken into consideration that such negligence will in the short-run be reflected badly in the services provided by the organization and therefore necessary precautions should immediately be activated. In Table 1, the mean points and their standard deviation values are presented for the answers given to the question “To what extent are the following propositions true in line with the information technology policies practiced in your organization?” Table 1: Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation Values of the Answers Related to Information Technology Policies Practiced in the Organization Evaluation

Arithmetic Standard Mean Deviation

Our organizational website is regularly updated.

4,0488

3,35880

Our financial means to be allocated for information technologies are sufficient.

3,6429

,93966

The security of the personal data in public services provided by our organization is adequately ensured.

3,5904

,78143

We make use of the latest information and communication technologies in providing service.

3,5542

,83012

Personnel working in the organization are encouraged to use computers and internet.

3,5542

,92727

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Our organizational website is sufficient in terms of online service delivery.

3,5181

,81692

Our organization closely follows national and international developments in information technologies.

3,5000

,97561

We have some drawbacks in terms of information technologies, but we are an organization doing its best to overcome these drawbacks and improve ourselves.

3,4691

,96289

Technological infrastructure in our organization is satisfactory.

3,3415

1,04491

The educational background and adaptation level of personnel working in our organization to new technologies is satisfactory.

3,2963

,99303

The number of personnel in charge of data processing procedures in our organization is sufficient.

3,1707

1,08645

There is a lack of eligible and trained personnel in our organization who are able to use computers and internet.

2,8902

1,06581

There is a resistance within the organization against new technologies.

2,7976

1,01530

Notes: (i) n= 137; (ii) On the scale, 1= Very low, 2= Low, 3= Medium, 4= High and 5= Very high Another indicator that marks the level of the use of information technologies in local governments is the establishment of a website. According to the 2012 Performance Plan of Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration, an organizational presentation is given at www.kirikkaleilozelidare.gov.tr, which went into use in 2003, and users are briefed about how to use the web site, current data being regularly updated and new data being uploaded to inform the users of the site (Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration, 2012: 15). As seen in the table above, organizational website is regularly updated in line with the perception of personnel working in the organization. The websites of public institutes are very good indicators of whether e-government services are proper for the use of citizens and how well they can provide e-government services on the e-medium. To this end, the website has to be well-designed (user-friendly, functional, legible, etc.) and should have the necessary means for surfing (surfing within the website, accessibility to links, proper menu, etc.), content (essential information, e-mail, reaching by phone, document presentation, etc.) and accessibility by disabled people. (T.R. Court of Accounts, 2006: 91-103). Looking through the website of the organization, it can be seen that it has been designed in a plain and simple manner, that clear and understandable statements have been used and that it is user-friendly with a website title which is easy to keep in mind. In terms of surfing within the website, it can be seen that links are accessible, there is a search link within the site and there are useful links of other institutions and processes which are currently accessible. In terms of its content, one can see that necessary information about the organization such as its address, phone number, organizational structure and chart have been presented, allowing accessibility to various announcements, relevant laws and regulations, reports, issues about budget and schedules, with an opportunity to download necessary documents or receive information and service in various fields. There is no special configuration on the website that will facilitate easy access for disabled people. Consequently, the website of the organization comprises the minimum content that the website of a public institution is supposed to have. However, from the viewpoint of online service delivery, the personnel working in the organization have found it “fairly enough”. That there is a continuous effort to improve the situation is clearly understood from the statement in the 2012 Performance Plan of the organization, “To provide fast and efficient service to the institutions and corporations as well as all real and corporate bodies that are benefiting from the services of the Provincial Special Administration and to initiate and maintain the continuity of eProvince applications,” which stands out as one of the objectives of the organization (Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration, 2012: 34). In the study carried out by ġahin (2007), it was emphasized that one of the major obstacles before egovernment applications was “lack of infrastructure” and “lack of adequate resource allocation” (ġahin, 2007: 535). According to the survey results, financial resources to be allocated for information technologies by the organization are partially enough. The level that the organization benefits from

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN latest technologies and follows national and international developments in the field of information technologies has been considered to be fairly enough. The security of personal data in the services provided has partly been maintained. This is due to the inadequacy of the infrastructure of the organization in terms of technical and technological points. However, it can be understood that the organization is at least partly aware of the shortcomings in the field of informatics and trying to eliminate these shortcomings and improve its capabilities. The personnel do not think that they are adequately encouraged to use computers and internet. On the other hand, personnel’s adaptation to new technologies and education in related fields is partially enough. This finding is in a way supportive of our previous thesis that computer literacy has been left to the person himself and essential training and support policy has not been internalized within the organization. 5. Conclusion As information and technology have been regarded as the powers of our time, this has forced countries to reinforce the foundations of information and technology in order to increase their competitive powers. From the point of view of the European Union, it is observed that member countries, within the scope of the Lisbon Strategy, have been acting in accordance with common principles to establish an information-based society and thus become an information society. This strategy has been put into practice in member countries under the e-Europe+ action plan and e-transformation process has begun in central and local governments in Turkey under the title e-Turkey. In this study, the reflection of e-transformation Turkey project onto local governments has been evaluated through Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration. In this context, the results obtained from the questionnaire and interviews suggest that the organization is fully equipped in terms of computers connected to a local network, yet it is at the average level barely adequate in terms of the functionality of computers in the operations involved. Considering the adequacy level of the current state of computer hardware and continuous changes in technological means, it is likely that the organization will soon fail to provide effective service. Accordingly, another conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that the personnel within the organization who are doing their work by means of information and communication technologies should continuously improve themselves through on-the-job training programs and thus adapt themselves to the changing environment. Furthermore, again in line with the survey results, it is necessary that the organization should improve its capability regarding the maintenance of information and communication systems presently in use within the organization, their improvement and upgrading and employment of qualified personnel and their training. It is clear that the website of Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration embodies the minimum conditions that a public institution should have. In addition to this, the organizational website provides links to certain institutions that are considered important for the province. Besides, the website could only be visited for the purpose of receiving information or filling out certain forms, but it does not include any application such as online service delivery, which will make things easy for users. It can be said that the organization has already covered a significant distance in terms of automation services and that such developments will tend to continue. The most striking documents giving a hint about this issue are the strategic plan and performance program of the organization. Moreover, as it can be understood from the survey results, the organization is aware of its shortcomings regarding the application of policies in information and communication fields and developing itself to eliminate these shortcomings. References AKAY, A. (2009). “1999’dan 2006’ya, Yerel Yönetimler Portalı: YerelNet TODAIE / YYAEM”, www.yerelnet.org.tr/yyaem /YerelNET.ppt, (Accessed: 27.12.2009). BALCI, A. (2003). “E-Devlet: Kamu Yönetiminde Yeni Perspektifler, Fırsatlar ve Zorluklar”, Kamu Yönetiminde ÇağdaĢ YaklaĢımlar, Seçkin Publications, Ankara, pp. 265-280. ÇAKIR, Y. (2009). “Avrupa AraĢtırma Alanı Entegre Projeler ve Mükemmeliyet Ağları”, http://www.capital.com.tr/haber.aspx?HBR_KOD=1386, (30.12.2009).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN DENKER, A. (2001). Bilgi Toplumu Yolunda: Bilgi Çağında Bilgi Çığı için Kartopu Etkisi Havelsan, Ankara. DPT (State Planning Organization), (2004). “E-DönüĢüm Türkiye Projesi Kısa Dönem Eylem Planı (2003-2004)”, http://ekutup.dpt.gov.tr/plan/aep/e-dtr/2004.pdf, (Accessed: 20.12.2009). DPT (State Planning Organization) (2001). Eighth Local Governments Five-Year Development Plan, Local Governments Specialization Commission Report, Ankara. EMINI, F. T. and M. KOCAOĞLU (2011). “Avrupa Birliği BiliĢim Politikasının Yerel Yankısı: EDönüĢüm Sürecinde Konya Ġl Özel Ġdaresinde Bir Uygulama”, Fırat University Social Sciences Journal, Vol. 21, Ed. 2, pp. 162-182. European Commission (2010). “The European e-Government Action Plan 2011-2015 Harnessing ICT to Promote Smart, Sustainable & Innovative Government”, http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2010:0743:FIN:EN:pdf, (Accessed; 24.09.2013). GÜLER, B.A. (2009). “Yerel Yönetimler ve Ġnternet”, http://www.inettr.org.tr/inetconf7/Sunum/yerelyonetim.doc, (Accessed: 16. 12. 2009). http://www.icisleri.gov.tr/default.icisleri_2.aspx?id=760 (Accessed; 24.09.2013). http://www.ikv.org.tr/images/upload/data/files/avrupa_komisyonu_2011-2015_edevlet_eylem_planini _acikladi.pdf, (Accessed; 24.09.2013). http://www.telepati.com/temmuz02/konu4.htm (Accessed; 24.09.2013). http://www.undp.org.tr/Gozlem2.aspx?WebSayfaNo=108 (Accessed; 24.09.2013). http://www.yerelbilgi.gov.tr, (Accessed: 17.09.2013). http://www.yerelnet.org.tr/genel/hakkimizda.php, (Accessed: 17.09.2013). KAPLAN, Z. (2004). “Avrupa Birliğinde Bilim ve Teknoloji Politikaları ve Adaylık Sürecinde Türkiye’nin Uyumu”, 3rd Information Economy and Management Convention, pp. 187- 195. Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration (2012). “2012 Performans Planı”, http://www.kirikkaleilozelidare.gov.tr/ortak_icerik/kirikkaleilozelidare/planlar/ĠLÖZEL%20Ġ DAIRESI5-6.pdf, (Accessed: 26.11.2012). Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration (2010). “2010-2014 Stratejik Planı”, http://www.kirikkaleilozelidare.gov.tr/ortak_icerik/kirikkaleilozelidare/faaliyetraporu/Kırıkkal e%20Ġl%20Özel%20Ġdaresi%202010-2014%20Stratejik%20Planı.pdf, (Accessed: 26.11.2012). NOHUTÇU, A., D. DEMIREL (2005). “Türkiye’deki E-Devlet Uygulamaları”, Turkish Management Journal, June, Issue: 447, pp. 35-58. PARIS, M. (2005). “Local E-Government and Devolution: Electronic Service Delivery in Northern Ireland”, Local Government Studies, 31(3), pp. 307-319. SÜNGÜ, E. (2007). “Avrupa Birliğinde e-DönüĢüm Süreci”, Electronics Engineering, Issue: 432, December, pp. 66-69. ġAHIN, A. (2007). “Kamu ÇalıĢanlarının E-Devleti AlgılayıĢ Biçimleri:Beklentiler ve Sorunlar”, Business Administration Articles, Ed.: Eryılmaz Bilal., Musa Eken and Mustafa Lütfi ġen, First Edition, Nobel Publications, Ankara, pp. 514-541. T.R. Court of Accounts (2006). “E-Devlete GeçiĢte Kamu Kurumları Internet Siteleri”, http://www.sayistay.gov.tr/rapor/perdenrap/2006/2006-2Web/2006-Web.pdf, (Accessed: 26.11.2012). TORRES, L., V. PINA and B. ACERETE (2005). “E-Government Developments on Delivering Public Services Among EU Cities”, Government Information Quarterly, 22, pp. 217-238. UÇKAN, Ö. (2003). E-Devlet, E-Demokrasi ve Türkiye: Kamu Yönetiminin Yeniden Yapılanması için Strateji ve Politikalar - I, Literatür Publications, Istanbul. USAL, Z. and M. ILGAZ (2006). Avrupa Birliği’nin Lizbon Stratejisi, Economic Development Foundation Publications, Istanbul.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN YILDIZ, M. (2003). “Elektronik E-Devlet Kuram ve Uygulamasına Genel Bir BakıĢ ve Değerlendirme”, Modern Public Administration – 1, Ed.: Acar M., H. Özgür, First Edition, Nobel Publications, Ankara, pp. 305-327. People Interviewed: Atanur AYDIN (Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration, Secretary General) Özkan ÇĠÇEK (Kırıkkale Provincial Special Administration, IT Deputy Director.)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

TURĠZM CEZA HUKUKU Yrd.Doç.Dr. Nazmiye ÖzenbaĢ Anadolu Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Özet Turizm sektöründe, gerek bu sektörden istifade eden gerekse turizm hizmeti veren kişiler bakımından ceza hukukunu ilgilendiren pek çok suç tipi ile karşılaşılmaktadır. Gerek müşteri ile hizmet sunan kişiler arasındaki, gerekse müşteriler arasındaki ya da hizmet sunan bireyler arasındaki ilişkiler bazı suç tiplerine uyabilmektedir. Hayata, vücut bütünlüğüne, cinsel dokunulmazlığa, özel hayata ve hayatın gizli alanına, malvarlığına, hürriyete karşı suçlar yahut da çevreye, genel ahlaka, ekonomi, sanayi ve ticarete karşı suçlar bunlar arasında sayılabilir. Bu suçların turizm sektöründe en aza indirgenmesi elbette ülkemizin turizm potansiyelini önemli ölçüde etkileyecektir. Bursa özelinde sağlık turizminin de özel bir önem taşıdığı dikkate alındığında tıp ceza hukuku ile turizm sektörünün ortak noktalarının da bulunduğu gözden kaçırılmamalıdır. Bu çalışmada özel hukuk problemlerine girilmeden turizm potansiyeli üzerine etki edebilecek, turizm sektöründe karşımıza çıkacak suç türleri üzerinde durulacaktır. Anahtar kelimeler: Ceza hukuku, Turizm, Suç, Turizm sektörü, Sağlık turizmi.

Abstract In tourism sector, a number of crime types which are related to criminal law in terms of people who give service to tourism and also those who are benefiting from the sector, are met. Relations both between customer and people giving service and between the customers or between the individuals giving service may be able to suit some crime types. Crimes against life, body integrity, sexual immunity, private life and secret part of life, assets, independence or those against environment, public morality, economy, industry and trade may be counted among them. Reducing such crimes to the lowest in tourism sector will certainly affect tourism potential of our country significantly. When it is considered that health tourism bears a special importance for Bursa specifically, it should not be missed out that medicine criminal law and tourism sector have common points. In this study, crime types, which will confront us in tourism sector, which may have effect on tourism potential, will be emphasized without entering into special law problems. Keywords: Criminal law, Tourism, Crime, Tourism sector, Health tourism.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN GĠRĠġ Ülkeler turzimden elde ettikleri geliri artırmak için birbirleriyle giderek artan bir rekabet içindedirler (Bahar ve Kozak, 2005: 139). Ülkelerin ulusal ve uluslarası alanda iyi bir imaja sahip olması turizm potansiyeli bakımından son derece önemlidir. Ülke imajı, kişinin o ülke hakkındaki izlenim, duygu, düşünce ve inançlarının bütünüdür (Albayrak, 2011: 42). Bir ülkenin turizm potansiyelini belirleyen faktörler arasında tatil planlanan bölgenin politik faktörleri (terör olayları, vize uygulamaları vs.) de etkilidir (Oktayer vd., 2007: 25). Örneğin Hindistan, ziyaret edilecek birçok yeri bulunması ve pazarlama çalımalarına rağmen beklenen sayıda turist çekememektedir. Çünkü Hindistan yabancıların gözünde gizemli olarak algılanmakla birlikte, terör olayları, işsizlik, ezici fakirlik, cahillik, politik istikrarsızlık, toplumsal uyumsuzluk ve sosyal hizmet eksikliğine ilişkin olumsuz düşünceler, olumsuz bir imaj yaratmaktadır (bkz. Albayrak, 2011: 43). Bu çalışmada turizm sektörünü olumsuz yönde etkileyebilecek bazı suç tipleri ceza hukuku kapsamında ele alınacaktır.

I.

HAYATA KARġI SUÇLAR

Kasten Öldürme Ülkemize gelen turist sayısını etkileyebilecek suçlardan en önemlisi, Türk Ceza Kanunu’nun 81. maddesinde1 düzenlenmiş olan kasten öldürme suçudur. Bu hükme göre bir insanı kasten öldüren kişi müebbet hapis cezası ile cezalandırılır. Kasten öldürmenin nitelikli halleri2 gerçekleşirse faile ağırlaştırılmış müebbet hapis cezası verilir. Kasten ölüdrme suçunun ihmali hareketle işlenmesi durumu için de Ceza Kanunu’nda özel bir düzenleme yapılmıştır3. Kişinin gerçekleştirmekle yükümlü olduğu bir daranışı gerçekleştirmemesi neticesinde meydana gelen ölümden sorumlu tutulabilmesi için ihmali davranışın icrai davranışa eşdeğer olması gerekir. Bunun için de kişinin belli bir şekilde davranmak konusunda kanuni düzenlemelerden veya sözleşmeden kaynaklanan bir yükümlülüğün bulunması veya failin önceden gerçekleştirdiği davranışın başkalarının hayatı ile ilgili tehlikeli bir durum yaratması gerekir. Bu durumda kasten öldürme suçunun cezası indirilerek verilir. 1

Madde 81- (1) Bir insanı kasten öldüren kişi, müebbet hapis cezası ile cezalandırılır. Madde 82- (1) Kasten öldürme suçunun; a) Tasarlayarak, b) Canavarca hisle veya eziyet çektirerek, c) Yangın, su baskını, tahrip, batırma veya bombalama ya da nükleer, biyolojik veya kimyasal silah kullanmak suretiyle, d) Üstsoy veya altsoydan birine ya da eş veya kardeşe karşı, e) Çocuğa ya da beden veya ruh bakımından kendisini savunamayacak durumda bulunan kişiye karşı, f) Gebe olduğu bilinen kadına karşı, g) Kişinin yerine getirdiği kamu görevi nedeniyle, h) Bir suçu gizlemek, delillerini ortadan kaldırmak veya işlenmesini kolaylaştırmak ya da yakalanmamak amacıyla, i) (Ek:29/6/2005 - 5377/9 md.)Bir suçu işleyememekten dolayı duyduğu infialle, j) Kan gütme saikiyle, k) Töre saikiyle, İşlenmesi halinde, kişi ağırlaştırılmış müebbet hapis cezası ile cezalandırılır. 3 Madde 83- (1) Kişinin yükümlü olduğu belli bir icrai davranışı gerçekleştirmemesi dolayısıyla meydana gelen ölüm neticesinden sorumlu tutulabilmesi için, bu neticenin oluşumuna sebebiyet veren yükümlülük ihmalinin icrai davranışa eşdeğer olması gerekir. (2) İhmali ve icrai davranışın eşdeğer kabul edilebilmesi için, kişinin; a) Belli bir icrai davranışta bulunmak hususunda kanuni düzenlemelerden veya sözleşmeden kaynaklanan bir yükümlülüğünün bulunması, b) Önceden gerçekleştirdiği davranışın başkalarının hayatı ile ilgili olarak tehlikeli bir durum oluşturması, Gerekir. (3) Belli bir yükümlülüğün ihmali ile ölüme neden olan kişi hakkında, temel ceza olarak, ağırlaştırılmış müebbet hapis cezası yerine yirmi yıldan yirmibeş yıla kadar, müebbet hapis cezası yerine onbeş yıldan yirmi yıla kadar, diğer hallerde ise on yıldan onbeş yıla kadar hapis cezasına hükmolunabileceği gibi, cezada indirim de yapılmayabilir. 2

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Taksirli Öldürme Taksirli öldürmeler de yine özellikle ülkemizde sıkça karşımıza çıkan trafik kazaları bakımından önem arz eden bir suçtur. Elbette taksirli öldürme sadece trafik kazarları ile karşımıza çıkmamaktadır, örneğin bir otelde havuzda gerekli güvenlik önlemlerinin alınmaması nedeniyle elkrtik kaçağı neticesinde birisinin ölmesi yahut da balkon korkuluğunun sağlamlarştırılmamış olması nedeniyle balkondan düşen birinin ölümü taksirli öldürme suçu olarak nitelenebilir. Elbette ülkemizdeki trafik terörü turist sayısı üzerinde olumsuz bir etki yaratmaktadır. Bunun yanında doğrudan turizm işletmelerinde çalışmakta olan kişilerin neden olabilecekleri taksirli öldürmeler de az sayıda olsa dahi turist sayısı üzerinde etkili olabilecek bir etkendir.

II.

VÜCUT BÜTÜNLÜĞÜNE KARġI SUÇLAR

Kasten Yaralama Ülkenin imajını olumsuz etkileyen bir diğer suç grubu ise kasten yaralama suçlarıdır. TCK’nın 86. maddesine göre, kasten başkasının vücuduna acı veren, sağlığını bozan ya da algılama yeteneğinin bozulmasına neden olan kişi eğer bunu kasıtlı olarak yani bilerek ve isteyerek gerçekleştiriyorsa veya yaptığı hareketin bu neticelere neden olacağını öngörmesine rağmen hareketinden dönmeyerek olursa olsun düşüncesiyle bu neticelere neden olursa kasten yaralama suçundan cezalandırılır4.Suç icrai davranışla işlenebileceği gibi ihali davranışla da işlenebilir. TCK’nın 88. maddesinde5 suçun ihmali davranışla işlenmesi hali düzenlenmiştir. Örneğin bir turistin dövülmesi kasten yaralama suçunu oluşturduğu gibi o turist ve gelecek olan diğer turistler bakımından bir sonraki seyahati planlamada önemli bir etken olacaktır. Neticesi Sebebiyle AğırlaĢmıĢ Yaralama Fail yaralama sonucu kastettiğinden daha ağır veya başka bir neticenin oluşumuna sebebiyet vermiş ise bu ağır veya başka neticeler bakımından en azından taksiri bulunuyorsa bu neticelerden de sorumlu olur, bu durumda neticesi sebebiyle ağırlaşmış yaralamadan bahsedilir (TCK m. 23 ve m. 87 6). 4

Madde 86- (1) Kasten başkasının vücuduna acı veren veya sağlığının ya da algılama yeteneğinin bozulmasına neden olan kişi, bir yıldan üç yıla kadar hapis cezası ile cezalandırılır. (2) (Ek fıkra: 31/3/2005 – 5328/4 md.) Kasten yaralama fiilinin kişi üzerindeki etkisinin basit bir tıbbî müdahaleyle giderilebilecek ölçüde hafif olması hâlinde, mağdurun şikâyeti üzerine, dört aydan bir yıla kadar hapis veya adlî para cezasına hükmolunur. (3) Kasten yaralama suçunun; a) Üstsoya, altsoya, eşe veya kardeşe karşı, b) Beden veya ruh bakımından kendisini savunamayacak durumda bulunan kişiye karşı, c) Kişinin yerine getirdiği kamu görevi nedeniyle, d) Kamu görevlisinin sahip bulunduğu nüfuz kötüye kullanılmak suretiyle, e) Silahla, İşlenmesi halinde, şikâyet aranmaksızın, verilecek ceza yarı oranında artırılır. 5 Madde 88- (1) Kasten yaralamanın ihmali davranışla işlenmesi halinde, verilecek ceza üçte ikisine kadar indirilebilir. Bu hükmün uygulanmasında kasten öldürmenin ihmali davranışla işlenmesine ilişkin koşullar göz önünde bulundurulur. 6 Madde 87- (1) Kasten yaralama fiili, mağdurun; a) Duyularından veya organlarından birinin işlevinin sürekli zayıflamasına, b) Konuşmasında sürekli zorluğa, c) Yüzünde sabit ize, d) Yaşamını tehlikeye sokan bir duruma, e) Gebe bir kadına karşı işlenip de çocuğunun vaktinden önce doğmasına, Neden olmuşsa, yukarıdaki maddeye göre belirlenen ceza, bir kat artırılır. Ancak, verilecek ceza, birinci fıkraya giren hallerde üç yıldan, üçüncü fıkraya giren hallerde beş yıldan az olamaz. (2) Kasten yaralama fiili, mağdurun;

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Taksirle Yaralama TCK’nın 89. maddesine7 göre, başkasının vücuduna acı vermeye veya sağlığının veya algılama yeteneğinin bozulmasına taksirle neden olan kişi cezalandırılır (ayrıntılı bilgi için bkz. Üzülmez, 2013: 1 vd.). Kasten yaralama ve taksirle yaralama arasındaki temel fark suçun manevi unsuruna ilişkindir (Özbek vd., 2015: 233). Ülkemizde yaşanan trafik kazalarının sayısının çokluğu düşünüldüğünde özellikle tur firmalarının otobüslerinin kaza yaptığı olaylarda çok sayıda yerli ve yabancı turist ölmekte veya yaralanmaktadır. Bu da söz konusu turizm etkinliğinin, özellikle çok sayıda ölüm veya yaralamalı kazaların akabindeki belli bir süre, durağanlaşmasına neden olabilecek bir faktördür. Bursa özelini düşündüğümüzde kaplıca turizmi bakımından da gerek olası kastla işlenen yaralamalar gerekse taksirli yaralamalar turizm sektöründe karşılaşılabilecek suçlardandır. Kaplıca turizminde yer alan bazı ilaçların kullanımı, su sıcaklığının ayarlanması, çeşitli faaliyetlerden yararlanmadan önce müşterilerin sağlık durumlarının kontrolü son derece önemlidir. Örneğin sağlıklı bir bireyde kalp krizine neden olmayacak yükseklikteki sıcaklık veya efor, kalp prolemi olan bir bireyde bu neticeye neden olabilmekte dolayısıyla görevli personelin taksirli öldürme yaralama, kişinin ölümü halinde taksirli öldürme suçlarından sorumluluğuna gidilebilmektedir. Bu nedenle tesislerin uzman sağlık personelini ve bir problem halinde ilk müdahalede bulunmayı sağlayacak ekipmanı hazır bulundurmaları gerekmektedir. Aksi takdirde gerek ceza hukuku gerek özel hukuk bakımından sorumlulukları söz konusu olabilecektir. CĠNSEL DOKUNULMAZLIĞA KARġI SUÇLAR Cinsel Saldırı a) İyileşmesi olanağı bulunmayan bir hastalığa veya bitkisel hayata girmesine, b) Duyularından veya organlarından birinin işlevinin yitirilmesine, c) Konuşma ya da çocuk yapma yeteneklerinin kaybolmasına, d) Yüzünün sürekli değişikliğine, e) Gebe bir kadına karşı işlenip de çocuğunun düşmesine, Neden olmuşsa, yukarıdaki maddeye göre belirlenen ceza, iki kat artırılır. Ancak, verilecek ceza, birinci fıkraya giren hallerde beş yıldan, üçüncü fıkraya giren hallerde sekiz yıldan az olamaz. (3) (Değişik: 6/12/2006 – 5560/4 md.) Kasten yaralamanın vücutta kemik kırılmasına veya çıkığına neden olması halinde, yukarıdaki maddeye göre belirlenen ceza, kırık veya çıkığın hayat fonksiyonlarındaki etkisine göre, yarısına kadar artırılır. (4) Kasten yaralama sonucunda ölüm meydana gelmişse, yukarıdaki maddenin birinci fıkrasına giren hallerde sekiz yıldan oniki yıla kadar, üçüncü fıkrasına giren hallerde ise oniki yıldan onaltı yıla kadar hapis cezasına hükmolunur. 7 Madde 89- (1) Taksirle başkasının vücuduna acı veren veya sağlığının ya da algılama yeteneğinin bozulmasına neden olan kişi, üç aydan bir yıla kadar hapis veya adlî para cezası ile cezalandırılır. (2) Taksirle yaralama fiili, mağdurun; a) Duyularından veya organlarından birinin işlevinin sürekli zayıflamasına, b) Vücudunda kemik kırılmasına, c) Konuşmasında sürekli zorluğa, d) Yüzünde sabit ize, e) Yaşamını tehlikeye sokan bir duruma, f) Gebe bir kadının çocuğunun vaktinden önce doğmasına, Neden olmuşsa, birinci fıkraya göre belirlenen ceza, yarısı oranında artırılır. (3) Taksirle yaralama fiili, mağdurun; a) İyileşmesi olanağı bulunmayan bir hastalığa veya bitkisel hayata girmesine, b) Duyularından veya organlarından birinin işlevinin yitirilmesine, c) Konuşma ya da çocuk yapma yeteneklerinin kaybolmasına, d) Yüzünün sürekli değişikliğine, e) Gebe bir kadının çocuğunun düşmesine, Neden olmuşsa, birinci fıkraya göre belirlenen ceza, bir kat artırılır. (4) Fiilin birden fazla kişinin yaralanmasına neden olması halinde, altı aydan üç yıla kadar hapis cezasına hükmolunur. (5) (Değişik: 6/12/2006 – 5560/5 md.) Taksirle yaralama suçunun soruşturulması ve kovuşturulması şikâyete bağlıdır. Ancak, birinci fıkra kapsamına giren yaralama hariç, suçun bilinçli taksirle işlenmesi halinde şikâyet aranmaz.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Cinsellik, cinsel aktiviteye katılanların karşılıklı istemleri ve rızalarıyla gerçekleşen bir ilişkidir. Taraflardan birinin rızası olmadan zorla gerçekleştirilen cinsel ilişkinin, günümüz modern toplumlarının hukuk düzenleri tarafından kabul edilmesine imkân yoktur (Dülger, 2006: 544). Cinsel saldırı, rızası olmayan veya herhangi bir sebepten dolayı rızası kabul edilmeyen bir kişinin, fiziksel güç kullanımı tehdit, korku, hile ve kandırma gibi zorlamalarla cinsel içerik taşıyan bir davranışa maruz kalmasıdır. Cinsel saldırı suçunun temel şekli TCK’nın 102. maddesinin ilk fıkrasında düzenlenmiştir. Buna göre: Cinsel davranışlarla bir kimsenin vücut dokunulmazlığını ihlâl eden kişi, mağdurun şikâyeti üzerine, beş yıldan on yıla kadar hapis cezası ile cezalandırılır. Cinsel davranışın sarkıntılık düzeyinde kalması hâlinde iki yıldan beş yıla kadar hapis cezası verilir. Suçun basit şeklinin gerçekleşmesi için sadece cinsel davranışın yapılması değil, bu davranış sonucunda vücut dokunulmazlığının da ihlal edilmiş olması gerekir (Özbek vd. 2015: 322; Koca, Üzülmez, 2015: 322-323) . Eğer vücut teması yok ise cinsel saldırı suçu da bulunmayacaktır (Tezcan vd., 2009: 298). Suçun nitelikli hali ise maddenin ikinci fıkrasında düzenlenmiştir: Fiilin vücuda organ veya sair bir cisim sokulması suretiyle gerçekleştirilmesi durumunda, on iki yıldan az olmamak üzere hapis cezasına hükmolunur. Bu fiilin eşe karşı işlenmesi hâlinde, soruşturma ve kovuşturmanın yapılması mağdurun şikâyetine bağlıdır. Aslında bu iki fıkra cinsel saldırı suçunun üç işleniş şeklini göstermektedir: Vücuda organ veya sair bir cisim sokmadan vücut dokunulmazlığının ihlali ile işlenen cinsel saldırı, sarkıntılık suretiyle işlenen cinsel saldırı ve vücuda organ veya sair cisim sokarak vücut dokunulmazlığının ihlali ile işlenen cinsel saldırı. Maddenin 3. fıkrasında suçun daha ağır cezayı gerektiren nitelikli halleri, 4. fıkrasında8, sucun işlenmesi sırasında mağdurun direncinin kırılmasını sağlayacak ölçünün ötesinde cebir kullanılması hali ve 5-6. fıkralarda9 ise sucun neticesi sebebiyle ağırlaşmış halleri düzenlenmiştir. 5237 sayılı TCK cinsel saldırı suçunu genel ahlakı ve aile nizamını etkileyen bir suç olarak değil kişiye karşı işlenen bir suç olarak belirlemiştir (Üzülmez: 1). Bu suçla korunan hukuksal değer öncelikle mağdurun cinsel özgürlüğü (Toroslu, 2005: 57; Aydın, 2004: 152; Taner, 2013: 80) ve doğal olarak cinsel saldırı sonucunda etkilenecek olan fiziksel, ruhsal bütünlüğü (Yokuş Sevük, 2005: 247) ve dokunulmazlığıdır. Cinsel Taciz Cinsel dokunulmazlığa karşı işlenen suçlar arasında sıkça işlenen ve Türkiye’nin imajı konusunda olumsuz bir değerlendirmeye neden olan suçlardan biri de cinsel tacizdir. TCK’nın 105. maddesinde10 8

Madde 102- (3) Suçun; a) Beden veya ruh bakımından kendisini savunamayacak durumda bulunan kişiye karşı, b) Kamu görevinin, vesayet veya hizmet ilişkisinin sağladığı nüfuz kötüye kullanılmak suretiyle, c) Üçüncü derece dâhil kan veya kayın hısımlığı ilişkisi içinde bulunan bir kişiye karşı ya da üvey baba, üvey ana, üvey kardeş, evlat edinen veya evlatlık tarafından, d) Silahla veya birden fazla kişi tarafından birlikte, e) İnsanların toplu olarak bir arada yaşama zorunluluğunda bulunduğu ortamların sağladığı kolaylıktan faydalanmak suretiyle, işlenmesi hâlinde, yukarıdaki fıkralara göre verilen cezalar yarı oranında artırılır. 9 (4) Cinsel saldırı için başvurulan cebir ve şiddetin kasten yaralama suçunun ağır neticelerine neden olması hâlinde, ayrıca kasten yaralama suçuna ilişkin hükümler uygulanır. (5) Suç sonucu mağdurun bitkisel hayata girmesi veya ölümü hâlinde, ağırlaştırılmış müebbet hapis cezasına hükmolunur. 10 Madde 105- (1) Bir kimseyi cinsel amaçlı olarak taciz eden kişi hakkında, mağdurun şikayeti üzerine, üç aydan iki yıla kadar hapis cezasına veya adlî para cezasına fiilin çocuğa karşı işlenmesi hâlinde altı aydan üç yıla kadar hapis cezasına hükmolunur. (2) (Değişik: 18/6/2014-6545/61 md.) Suçun; a) Kamu görevinin veya hizmet ilişkisinin ya da aile içi ilişkinin sağladığı kolaylıktan faydalanmak suretiyle,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN düzenlenen cinsel taciz, bir kimseye karşı vücut dokunulmazlığını ihlal etmeden cinsel amaçlı davarnışların gerçekleştirilmesi suretiyle işlenen bir suçtur. Gerçekleştirilen davranışın cinsel taciz sayılabilmesi için davranışın mağdur bakımından rahatsız edici boyutlara ulaşmış olması gerekir (Koca, Üzülmez, 2015: 336). Cinsel davranış vücut dokunulmazlığını ihlal ettiği takdirde suç cinsel saldırı suçu olarak nitelenir, cinsel taciz suçunda fail mağdurun vücut bütünlüğünü ihlal etmemektedir. Ülkemizde turiste karşı cinsel taciz olayları sıkça karşılaştırğımız bir durumdur (http://www.haberturk.com/gundem/haber/1127975-beyoglunda-abdli-turiste-cinsel-taciz-darp-ve-kapkacolayinda-flas-gelisme (e.t. 30.11.2015); http://www.milliyet.com.tr/turiste-taciz/ (e.t. 30.11.2015)) MALVARLIĞINA KARġI SUÇLAR Turizm sektörünü en çok etkileyebilecek suçlar arasında malvarlığına karşı suçlar yer almaktadır. Gerçekten özellikle ülkemize gelen yabancı turistlerin en sık karşılaştıkları suçlar arasında hırsızlık, yağma ve dolandırıcılık suçları bulunmaktadır. Hırsızlık Hırsızlık suçu; “Zilyedinin rızası olmaksızın başkasına ait taşınır bir malın, yarar sağlanmak amacıyla bulunduğu yerden alınması” olarak tanımlanabilir. Failin, kendisine ya da bir başkasına yarar sağlamayı amaçlamış olması fark oluşturmamaktadır. Bir malın mağdurun egemenlik alanından çıkarılıp failin egemenlik alanına sokulmasıyla suç tanımında aranan alma unsuru gerçekleştirilmiş olur. Bundan maksat failin o mal üzerinde tasarrufta bulunabilecek konuma ulaşmasıdır (Centel vd., 2007: 290). Hırsızlık suçunun işleniş şekillerinden özellikle yankesicilik suretiyle veya üstte veya elde taşınan eşya üzerinde işlenmesi turizm sektörü üzerinde etkili olabilir. Bu suretle işlenen hırsılık suçunun cezası ağırlaştırılarak verilir11. b) Vasi, eğitici, öğretici, bakıcı, koruyucu aile veya sağlık hizmeti veren ya da koruma, bakım veya gözetim yükümlülüğü bulunan kişiler tarafından, c) Aynı işyerinde çalışmanın sağladığı kolaylıktan faydalanmak suretiyle, d) Posta veya elektronik haberleşme araçlarının sağladığı kolaylıktan faydalanmak suretiyle, e) Teşhir suretiyle, işlenmesi hâlinde yukarıdaki fıkraya göre verilecek ceza yarı oranında artırılır. Bu fiil nedeniyle mağdur; işi bırakmak, okuldan veya ailesinden ayrılmak zorunda kalmış ise verilecek ceza bir yıldan az olamaz. 11 Madde 142- (1) Hırsızlık suçunun; a) Kime ait olursa olsun kamu kurum ve kuruluşlarında veya ibadete ayrılmış yerlerde bulunan ya da kamu yararına veya hizmetine tahsis edilen eşya hakkında, b) (Mülga: 18/6/2014-6545/62 md.) c) Halkın yararlanmasına sunulmuş ulaşım aracı içinde veya bunların belli varış veya kalkış yerlerinde bulunan eşya hakkında, d) Bir afet veya genel bir felaketin meydana getirebileceği zararları önlemek veya hafifletmek maksadıyla hazırlanan eşya hakkında, e) Adet veya tahsis veya kullanımları gereği açıkta bırakılmış eşya hakkında, f) (Mülga: 2/7/2012-6352/82 md.) İşlenmesi hâlinde, üç yıldan yedi yıla kadar hapis cezasına hükmolunur. (2) Suçun; a) Kişinin malını koruyamayacak durumda olmasından veya ölmesinden yararlanarak, b) Elde veya üstte taşınan eşyayı çekip almak suretiyle ya da özel beceriyle, c) Doğal bir afetin veya sosyal olayların meydana getirdiği korku veya kargaşadan yararlanarak, d) Haksız yere elde bulundurulan veya taklit anahtarla ya da diğer bir aletle kilit açmak veya kilitlenmesini engellemek suretiyle, e) Bilişim sistemlerinin kullanılması suretiyle, f) Tanınmamak için tedbir alarak veya yetkisi olmadığı halde resmi sıfat takınarak, g) (…) büyük veya küçük baş hayvan hakkında, h) (Ek: 18/6/2014-6545/62 md.) Herkesin girebileceği bir yerde bırakılmakla birlikte kilitlenmek suretiyle ya da bina veya eklentileri içinde muhafaza altına alınmış olan eşya hakkında, İşlenmesi hâlinde, beş yıldan on yıla kadar hapis cezasına hükmolunur. Suçun, bu fıkranın (b) bendinde belirtilen surette, beden veya ruh bakımından kendisini savunamayacak durumda olan kimseye karşı işlenmesi halinde, verilecek ceza üçte biri oranına kadar artırılır.

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Yağma TCK’nın 148. maddesinde12 düzenlenen yağma suçu,“Bir kimseyi, tehdit ederek veya cebir kullanarak, taşınır bir malı teslim etmeye ya da alınmasına karşı koymamaya mecbur etme” şeklinde tanımlanabilir. Yağma, YTCK’nın 108. maddesinde düzenlenen cebir kullanma suçu ile hırsızlık suçunun bir araya gelmesinden oluşan bir suçtur (Koca, 2003: 58; Özbek, 2006: 508). Dolandırıcılık TCK’nın 157. maddesinde13 düzenlenen dolandırıcılık suçunun varlığı için; hileli davranışlarla bir kimseyi aldatıp, mağdurun veya başkasının zararına olarak kendisine veya başkasına yarar sağlamış olmak gerekir. Ülkemizde hem vatandaşlarımız, hem de yabancı turisteler gerek doğrudan gerekse internet vs. gibi araçlarla bu suçun sıkça kurbanı olmaktadır ve özellikle yabancı turistler bakımından destinasyon tercihleri üzerinde etkili olan bir faktör olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. KREDĠ KARTLARININ KÖTÜYE KULLANILMASI SUÇU Kredi kartları, her geçen gün, para yerine geçmesi, nakit taşıma külfetinden kurtarması ve kredi imkânı saglaması gibi bir takım nedenlerle, daha yaygın hale gelmektedir. Elektronik ortamda kullanılabilen ve kart sahibinin bilgilerini içeren kredi kartları üzerinden bu bilgileri elde etmek çeşitli şekillerde mümkündür. Bu nedenle bu suçlar ile pek çok suçtan daha az zahmetli, daha az riskli bir şeklide yüksek gelir elde etmek mümkün olmaktadır. Ayrıca banka veya kart çıkaran kuruluşların ve üye işyerlerinin duyarsız tutumları bu suçun işlenişini çeşitli şekillerde kolaylaştırmaktadır. Farklı kartların farklı avantajlar sunması, bankaların veya kart çıkaran kuruluşların kart edinme hususundaki ısrarcı yaklaşımları, hamillerin gereğinden fazla ve limitte kart edinmelerine neden olmuş ve bahse konu bu kartların muhafazasında ve kullanımında özensizlik ve dikkatsizlik (konu ile ilgili ayrıca bkz. Özkan, 2014: 44-45) baş göstermeye baslamıştır. Sonuç olarak da; kartların elde edilmesi kolaylaşmış, buluntu-çalıntı kart kullanımıyla birlikte çalındıgı iddiasıyla kendi kartını baskasına kullandırma şeklinde gerçekleşen suçlar artış göstermiştir (Aldan, 2006: 33). Tüm bu nedenler kredi kartlarının kötüye kullanılması suçlarının oluşması ve işlenme sıklığının artmasına neden olmuştur. Banka veya kredi kartlarının hukuka aykırı olarak kullanılması suretiyle bankaların veya kredi kartı sahiplerinin zarara sokulmasını ve bu yolla çıkar sağlamasını engellemek amacıyla, 5237 Sayılı TCK’da, (3) Suçun, sıvı veya gaz hâlindeki enerji hakkında ve bunların nakline, işlenmesine veya depolanmasına ait tesislerde işlenmesi halinde, beş yıldan oniki yıla kadar hapis cezasına hükmolunur. Bu fiilin bir örgütün faaliyeti çerçevesinde işlenmesi halinde, ceza yarı oranında artırılır ve onbin güne kadar adlî para cezasına hükmolunur. (4) (Ek: 6/12/2006 – 5560/6 md.) Hırsızlık suçunun işlenmesi amacıyla konut dokunulmazlığının ihlâli veya mala zarar verme suçunun işlenmesi halinde, bu suçlardan dolayı soruşturma ve kovuşturma yapılabilmesi için şikâyet aranmaz. (5) (Ek: 18/6/2014-6545/62 md.) Hırsızlık suçunun işlenmesi sonucunda haberleşme, enerji ya da demiryolu veya havayolu ulaşımı alanında kamu hizmetinin geçici de olsa aksaması hâlinde, yukarıdaki fıkralar hükümlerine göre verilecek ceza yarısından iki katına kadar artırılır. 12 Madde 148- (1) Bir başkasını, kendisinin veya yakınının hayatına, vücut veya cinsel dokunulmazlığına yönelik bir saldırı gerçekleştireceğinden ya da malvarlığı itibarıyla büyük bir zarara uğratacağından bahisle tehdit ederek veya cebir kullanarak, bir malı teslime veya malın alınmasına karşı koymamaya mecbur kılan kişi, altı yıldan on yıla kadar hapis cezası ile cezalandırılır. (2) Cebir veya tehdit kullanılarak mağdurun, kendisini veya başkasını borç altına sokabilecek bir senedi veya var olan bir senedin hükümsüz kaldığını açıklayan bir vesikayı vermeye, böyle bir senedin alınmasına karşı koymamaya, ilerde böyle bir senet haline getirilebilecek bir kağıdı imzalamaya veya var olan bir senedi imha etmeye veya imhasına karşı koymamaya mecbur edilmesi halinde de aynı ceza verilir. (3) Mağdurun, herhangi bir vasıta ile kendisini bilmeyecek ve savunamayacak hale getirilmesi de, yağma suçunda cebir sayılır. 13 Madde 157- (1) Hileli davranışlarla bir kimseyi aldatıp, onun veya başkasının zararına olarak, kendisine veya başkasına bir yarar sağlayan kişiye bir yıldan beş yıla kadar hapis ve beşbin güne kadar adlî para cezası verilir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 765 Sayılı TCK’dan farklı olarak, banka veya kredi kartlarının kötüye kullanılması eylemleri, ayrı bir suç tipi olarak düzenlenmiştir. Kanun’un ikinci kitap üçüncü kısmında düzenlenmiş olan topluma karşı suçlardan bulunan bilişim sistemlerine karsı islenen suçlar kapsamında değerlendirilen 245. maddede14 üç ayrı suçun düzenlendiği görülmektedir. Bunlar; — Gerçek bir banka veya kredi kartını, kart hamilinin rızası dışında kullanarak, kendisine veya bir başkasına haksız yarar sağlamak, — Sahte kredi kartı veya banka kartı üretmek, satmak, devretmek, satın almak veya kabul etmek, —Sahte kartı kullanmak suretiyle kendisine veya bir başkasına haksız yarar sağlamak, şeklindedir. Maddenin dördüncü fıkrasında bir kısım hısımlıklar şahsi cezasızlık nedeni olarak düzenlenmiştir. Maddenin besinci fıkrası ise, etkin pişmanlık hükümlerinin, maddenin birinci fıkrasında yer alan suçlar için de geçerli olacağı hükmünü içermektedir.

ÇEVREYE KARġI SUÇLAR Kalkınma ve gelişme konusunda çok yakın tarihlere kadar çevre hep ekonomik hedeflerin gerisinde kalmıştır. Çevrenin, üretim ve tüketim faaliyetleri sonucunda bozulacağı, hatta tükeneceği göz ardı edilmiştir. 5237 sayılı Türk Ceza Kanununda, “Çevreye Karsı Suçlar” pek çok çevre sorunundan belki de en önemlilerini, yani atık ve artıklarla çevrenin kasten (TCK m.181) ve taksirle (m.182) kirletilmesini, gürültü kirliliğini (TCK m.183) ve ülkemiz gerçekleri de dikkate alınarak özellikle kırsaldan kente göçlerle ortaya çıkan çarpık kentleşmenin sebep olduğu imar düzenine aykırı yapılanmayı imar kirliliğine neden olmak adıyla (TCK m.184) “suç” olarak belirlemiştir (bkz. Şen, 1994). Söz konusu hükümler ile çevre bir ölçüde korunabilmektedir. Turizm sektörü de özellikle ormanlık alanlarda inşa edilen oteller, otellerden kaynaklanan kirlilikler, deniz canlılarının ölümüne neden olabilecek veya üretimini etkileyebilecek bir takım faaliyetlere sebep olarak söz konusu suçların faili olabilmekle birlikte, aynı zamanda çevre kirliliği, çarpık 14

(1)Başkasına ait bir banka veya kredi kartını, her ne suretle olursa olsun ele geçiren veya elinde bulunduran kimse, kart sahibinin veya kartın kendisine verilmesi gereken kişinin rızası olmaksızın bunu kullanarak veya kullandırtarak kendisine veya başkasına yarar sağlarsa, üç yıldan altı yıla kadar hapis ve beşbin güne kadar adlî para cezası ile cezalandırılır. (2) Başkalarına ait banka hesaplarıyla ilişkilendirilerek sahte banka veya kredi kartı üreten, satan, devreden, satın alan veya kabul eden kişi üç yıldan yedi yıla kadar hapis ve onbin güne kadar adlî para cezası ile cezalandırılır. (3) Sahte oluşturulan veya üzerinde sahtecilik yapılan bir banka veya kredi kartını kullanmak suretiyle kendisine veya başkasına yarar sağlayan kişi, fiil daha ağır cezayı gerektiren başka bir suç oluşturmadığı takdirde, dört yıldan sekiz yıla kadar hapi s ve beşbin güne kadar adlî para cezası ile cezalandırılır. (4) Birinci fıkrada yer alan suçun; a) Haklarında ayrılık kararı verilmemiş eşlerden birinin, b) Üstsoy veya altsoyunun veya bu derecede kayın hısımlarından birinin veya evlat edinen veya evlâtlığın, c) Aynı konutta beraber yaşayan kardeşlerden birinin, Zararına olarak işlenmesi hâlinde, ilgili akraba hakkında cezaya hükmolunmaz. (5) (Ek: 6/12/2006 – 5560/11 md.) Birinci fıkra kapsamına giren fiillerle ilgili olarak bu Kanunun malvarlığına karşı suçlara ilişkin etkin pişmanlık hükümleri uygulanır.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN yapılaşma gibi sebepler turizmi olumsuz yönde etkileyebilmektedir. Bu yönüyle çevreye karşı suçlar ile turizm potansiyelinin ciddi bir etkileşim içinde olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. Sonuç Turzim gelirinin, özellkle yabancı turist sayısının artışı ülke imajının iyi olmasıyla yakından ilgilidir. Çok sayıda suçun işlendiği, terör olaylarının çok olduğu, kısaca can ve mal güvenliğinin bulunmadığı bir ülkeye turist gelişi azalacaktır. Bu nedenle ülkede özellikle turistlerin mağduru olabilecekleri suçların önlenmesi veya sayısının ve etkilerinin azaltılması turizmden elde edilen geliri de artıracaktır. Yukarıda daha ziyade sıkça karşılaşılan ve turizm sektörünü doğrudan etkileyebilecek bazı suçlar ele alınmış olmakla birlikte genel olarak güvenli bir ülke imajı turizm sektörü bakımından ciddi bir öneme sahiptir. Diğer illerle karşılaştırıldığında Bursa özelinde, sağlık turizmi bakımından işletmelerin belli personelinin taksirli yaralama, taksirli öldürme suçları dolayısıyla sorumlulukları veya suç olmasa bile tazminat sorumlulukları söz konusu olabilmektedir. Bu suçların meydana gelmemesi için gerekli dikkat ve özenin gösterilmesi gerekmektedir.

Kaynaklar: Albayrak, A. (2011). Türk Turizminde Sürdürülebilir Rekabet Avantajının Elde Edilmesi 12. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, (30 Kasım-4 Aralık 2011, Akçakoca, Düzce), İzmir. Aldan, Ö.S. (2006). “Sahte Müracaat, Kayıp/ Çalıntı, Sahte Kart Olayları, Yeni Türk Ceza Kanunu Açısından Degerlendirilmesi”, BKM Hukuki Açıdan Banka Ve Kredi Kartları Sempozyumu, 03- 05 Kasım 2006, Antalya. Aydın, Ö.D. (2004). “Cinsel Dokunulmazlığa Karşı Suçlar”. Hukuki Perspektifler Dergisi, Sonbahar 2004. Bahar, O. ve Kozak, M. (2005). Uluslararası Turizm ve Reabet Edilebilirlik, Ankara. Centel, N. Zafer, H. ,Çakmut, Ö. (2007). Kişilere Karşı İşlenen Suçlar C. I, İstanbul. Dülger, M.V. (2006). “Evlilik Birliği İçinde Gerçekleşen Nitelikli Cinsel Saldırı Suçu, Bu Suçun Mağdur Üzerinde Etkileri ve Mağduru Korumaya Yönelik Önlemler”, İstanbul Barosu Dergisi, C. 80, S.2. Koca, M. (2003).Yağma Cürümleri, Ankara. Koca,M., Üzülmez, İ (2015). Türk Ceza Hukuku Özel Hükümler, Ankara. Oktayer, N., Susam N., Çak, O. (2007). Türkiye’de Turizm Ekonomisi, İstanbul. Özbek V.Ö, Kanbur, M.N., Doğan, K., Bacaksız P., Tepe, İ. (2015). Türk Ceza Hukuku Özel Hükümler, Ankara. Özbek V.Ö. (2006). Yeni Türk Ceza Kanununun Anlamı, Cilt:1, Ankara. Özkan, H. (2014). SorularlaBilişim Hukuku Mevzuatı, Ankara. Şen E. (1994),. Çevre Ceza Hukuku: Ceza Hukuku Açısından Sağlıklı ve Düzenli Bir Çevrede Yaşama Hakkı, İstanbul. Taner, F.G. (2013). Türk Ceza Hukukunda Cinsel Özgürlüğe Karşı Suçlar, Ankara. Tezcan, D., Erdem, M.R., Önok, M. (2009). Teorik ve Pratik Ceza Özel Hukuku, Ankara.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Toroslu, N. (2010). Ceza Hukuku Özel Kısım, Ankara. Üzülmez, İ. “Cinsel Dokunulmazlığa Karşı Suçlar”, http://www.ceza-bb.adalet.gov.tr/makale.htm, (erişim tarihi: 30.11.2015). Üzülmez İ. (2013). Vücut Dokunulmazlığına Karşı Suçlar, Ankara. Yokuş Sevük, H. (2005). “5237 s. Türk Ceza Kanunu’nda Cinsel Saldırı ve Cinsel Taciz Suçları”, Türkiye Barolar Birliği Dergisi, S. 57.

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TARĠH BOYUNCA ĠSPANYA'DA VE TÜRKĠYE'DE DĠN EĞĠTĠMĠ ÜZERĠNE BĠR ĠNCELEME Necmi UYANIK1- Atiye EMĠROĞLU2 Özet Dünya’yı ve evreni, canlı ve cansız bütün varlıkları yaratan üstün bir varlığın olduğuna yönelik insan inancı, insan topluluklarını yaratanı bulma çabasına itmiştir. Bu çaba tarih boyunca farklı toplulukların farklı inançlara sahip olmasına neden olmuştur. İnsan doğasının inanma ve inandığı dini öğrenme ve bu dinin gereklerini yerine getirme isteğinin engellenmesi, tarih boyunca inandıkları dinin gereklerini yerine getirmek isteyenlerin karşı duruşlarına neden olmuştur. Bu bağlamda inandığı dini en iyi şekilde öğrenme isteği, din eğitimi sorununu da gündeme getirmiştir. Bu sorun uzun tartışmalara ve devletlerin siyasi politikalarını değiştirmelerine neden olabilecek bir güce sahip olmuştur. Uluslararası kanunlar ve anayasalarla, “Kişi Hak ve Özgürlükleri” arasında değerlendirilen din eğitimi alma ve ibadet özgürlüğü, çeşitli gerekçelere dayandırılarak gerek Türkiye’de gerekse İspanya’da farklı sürece girmiş ya da çeşitli prosedürler içinde sorunlar yaşanmıştır. Türkiye’de durum İspanya’dan farklı olarak, sadece azınlıklar üzerinde değil çoğunluğu Müslüman olan halkın da din eğitimi alma haklarında zaman zaman sorunlar yaşanmıştır. Bu makalede İspanya ve Türkiye’de verilen din eğitiminin tarih içinde geçirdiği evreler kısaca incelendikten sonra, son dönemlerde nasıl bir dini eğitim verildiği konusu ele alınmıştır. Yapılan bu çalışmanın amacı, tarih ve sosyoloji biliminin verileri ekseninde insan inancının farklılıklarını sorgulamayan, insanları ötekileştirmeyen, kişi hak ve özgürlüklerine saygılı nesillerin varlığına katkıda bulunmaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: İspanya, Türkiye, Din Eğitimi, Toplum, Siyaset

A REVIEW ON RELIGIOUS EDUCATION IN SPAIN AND TURKEY THROUGHOUT THE HISTORY Abstract Humans’ belief that a superior creator that created the Earth, universe and all living and nonliving creatures exists has urged communities to seek the Creator. This effort has led different communities to have different faiths throughout the history. Obstructing human nature’s willingness to have faith, learn about the religion one believes in and fulfill the religious requirements caused religious practitioners throughout the history to take a stance against it. In this context, the willingness to learn the religion that one believes in has brought to the agenda the issue of religious education. This issue has the power to lead to lengthy discussions and cause governments to change their policies. Religious education and freedom of worship that is considered among “Individual Rights and Freedoms” under international laws and constitutions entered into a different process both in Turkey and Spain based on various reasons or problems were faced within various procedures. Unlike Spain, in Turkey, problems were faced from time to time about the right to undergo religious education both by the minority and the Muslim majority. This article will briefly address the phases of religious education in Spain and Turkey throughout the history and will discuss what kind of religious education is offered in recent times. The purpose of this study is to contribute to raising generations that do not question the differences in human faiths or

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Necmi UYANIK, Prof.Dr., Selçuk Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü Öğretim Üyesi. [email protected]. 2 Atiye EMĠROĞLU, Dr. Okutman, Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey Üniversitesi Öğretim Elemanı. [email protected].

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016),October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN discriminate (otherize) people and respect individual rights and freedoms in the framework of data from history and sociology. Keywords: Spain, Turkey, Religious Education, Society, Politics

GĠRĠġ Tarih boyunca insanların bir yaratana inanma ihtiyacı, onu tek Tanrı anlayıĢına ulaĢtırmıĢtır. Tek Tanrılı dinlere örnek Hristiyanlık, Ġslamiyet, Musevilik gösterilebilir. Ülkelerin farklı dinlere farklı yaklaĢımları bulunmaktadır. Özellikle II. Dünya SavaĢından sonra Ģekillenen “kiĢi hak ve özgürlükleri” arasında değerlendirilen kiĢinin istediği dine inanma/inanmama, ibadet etme/etmeme ve inandığı ya da inanmadığı dini öğrenme/öğrenmeme hakkı çeĢitli uluslararası antlaĢmalarda, Anayasalarda yerini almıĢtır. Ancak her ne kadar yukarıda ifade edilen unsurlar hukuk çerçevesinde değerlendirilse de uygulamaya geldiğinde kiĢinin inandığı dini öğrenme hakkı, bir ülkedeki azınlık ya da çoğunluk olma durumuna göre değiĢim göstermiĢtir. Ülkelere göre de farklılık gösteren din eğitimöğretimi alma hakkı, kimi zaman laiklikle-demokrasiyle iliĢkilendirilerek azınlığın haklarını çiğnememek amacıyla Türkiye’de olduğu gibi çoğunluğun istediği din eğitiminin dahi verilmemesine neden olmuĢtur. Ġspanya’da durum biraz daha değiĢik ve karmaĢıktır. Bu ülkede de bazı dönemlerde din eğitim-öğretimi laiklik çerçevesinde değerlendirilerek Katolik din eğitimi Devletin müfredatından çıkarılmak istenirken çoğunluğun karĢıt ve mücadeleci tepkilerine neden olmuĢtur. ÇalıĢmada insan hakları, laiklik çerçevesinde geçmiĢten bugüne Ġspanya ve Türkiye’de din eğitim-öğretimi ele alınmıĢtır. Bu bağlamda öncelikle uluslar arası anlaĢmalara, adı geçen ülkelerin yürürlükte olan ve konuyla ilgili Anayasa maddelerine yer verilmiĢtir. 1. Uluslararası AntlaĢmalar Çerçevesinde Din Eğitim-Öğretimi Alma Hakkı Uluslararası belgelerin çoğunda dini eğitim-öğretim hakkı, din ve vicdan özgürlüğü içerisinde yer almaktadır.3 Özellikle II. Dünya SavaĢı’ndan sonra düzenlenen bu belgelerde din ve vicdan özgürlüğüne büyük önem verilmiĢtir. 1945 yılında onaylanan Birleşmiş Milletler Antlaşması’nın 55. maddesinde ırk, cinsiyet, dil ya da din ayrımı gözetmeksizin herkesin insan haklarına ve temel özgürlüklerine bütün dünyada etkin bir Ģekilde saygı gösterilmesinin gereği vurgulanmıĢtır4. 10 Aralık 1948 tarihli BirleĢmiĢ Milletler tarafından kabul edilen İnsan Hakları Evrensel Beyannamesi’nin 26. maddesinde, herkesin eğitim hakkına sahip olduğu, Yükseköğretimin yeteneklerine göre herkese tam bir eĢitlikle açık olması gerektiği; eğitimin insan kiĢiliğini tam geliĢtirmeye ve insan haklarıyla temel özgürlüklere saygıyı güçlendirmeye yönelik olması gerektiği; eğitimin bütün uluslar, ırklar ve dinsel topluluklar arasında anlayıĢ, hoĢgörü ve dostluğu özendirilmesinin gereği; çocuklara verilecek eğitimin türünü seçmenin öncelikle ana ve babanın hakkı olduğu gibi hususlar vurgulanmıĢtır5. 20 Mart 1950 tarihinde imzalanan ve 3 Eylül 1952’de yürürlüğe giren Avrupa İnsan Hakları Sözleşmesi’ne iliĢkin 1. protokolün 2. Maddesinin, “Eğitim hakkı” baĢlıklı bölümünde, hiç kimsenin eğitim hakkından yoksun bırakılamayacağı; devletin, eğitim ve öğretim alanında yükleneceği görevlerin yerine getirilmesinde, ana ve babanın bu eğitim ve öğretimi kendi dini ve felsefi inançlarına göre yapılmasını sağlama haklarına saygı gösterilmesinin gereği ifade edilmiĢtir6. Dokuzuncu Maddede ise her Ģahısın düĢünme, vicdan ve din hürriyetine sahip olduğu; bu hak din veya kanaat değiĢtirme hürriyetini ve alenen veya hususi tarzda ibadet ve âyin veya öğretimini yapmak suretiyle

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Ġbrahim, Turan, “Ulusal ve Uluslar arası Hukuk Açısından Türkiye’de Din Eğitiminin Yasal Dayanakları”, Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi Ġlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı: 32, 2012, s. 77-109. 4 http://www.ombudsman.gov.tr/contents/files/6535501-Birlesmis-Milletler-Antlasmasi.pdf, 23.09.2016. 5 TBMM Ġnsan Hakları Ġnceleme Komisyonu, https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/komisyon/insanhaklari/pdf01/203208.pdf , 22.09.2016, s. 207. Ayrıca bkz. Servet Armağan, Anayasa Hukuku’nda Temel Haklar ve Hürriyetler, Harran Üniversitesi Yayınları, ġanlıurfa, 1996, s. 138-142. 6 Okçu, Davut, “Türk Eğitim Sisteminde Din Öğretiminin Zorunluluğu Sorunu”, Uluslararası Eğitim Felsefesi Kongresi, 2009, s. 77.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016),October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN tek baĢına veya toplu olarak dinini veya kanaatini izhar eylemek hürriyetini tazammun ettiği belirtilerek kiĢi hak ve özgürlükleri altında din eğitim ve öğretimi alma hakkına yer verilmiĢtir.7 BirleĢmiĢ Milletler Genel Kurulunun 16 Aralık 1966 tarih ve 2200 A(XXI) sayılı kararıyla kabul edilen ve 49. maddeye istinaden 23 Mart 1976 tarihinde yürürlüğe giren Kişisel ve Siyasal Haklar Uluslararası Sözleşmesi’nin18. maddesinde; düĢünce, vicdan ve din özgürlüğüne tanınan haklara yer verilmektedir. Din ve vicdan özgürlüğünün ve kimsenin kendi dini tercihi olmadan, dini kabul etmeye zorlanamayacağı ya da bu inanca sahip olma özgürlüğünü zayıflatacak herhangi bir zorlanmanın yapılamayacağını ifade eden maddenin dördüncü bendinde: “Bu sözleşmeye Taraf devletler, anne-babalar ile mümkünse vasilerin kendi inançlarına uygun biçimde çocuklarına din ve ahlak eğitimi verilmesini isteme özgürlüğüne saygı göstermeyi taahhüt ederler.”8 denilerek, herkesin kendi inancına yönelik din eğitimi alma hakkı olduğu vurgulanmaktadır. Finlandiya’nın baĢkenti Helsinki’de 1971 yılının Ağustos ayında düzenlenen Avrupa’da Güvenlik ve ĠĢbirliği Konferansı sonrası alınan kararlara imza atan Avrupa ülkeleri, SSCB, ABD ve Kanada konferansın sonuç bildirgesinde formüle ettikleri on ilkeden birini “Düşünce, vicdan, din ve inanç özgürlükleri dâhil olmak üzere, insan haklarına ve temel özgürlüklere saygı”ya ayırmıĢlardır. 25 Kasım 1981 tarihinde kabul edilen Din veya İnanca Dayanan Her Türlü Hoşgörüsüzlüğün ve Ayrımcılığın Tasfiye Edilmesine Dair Sözleşme’nin 5. maddesinin 2. bendinde yer alan kararlarla çocukların anne-babalarının isteği doğrultusunda din eğitimi alma hakları olduğu ve din eğitimi haklarından yararlanırken baĢka bir dinde eğitim görmeye zorlanamayacakları ifade edilmiĢtir. 9 20 Kasım 1989 yılında kabul edilen Uluslararası Çocuk Hakları Sözleşmesi’nin 14. maddesinde çocuğun din ve vicdan özgürlüğüne duyulan saygı ifade edilmekle birlikte, anne-babaların çocuklarının geliĢiminde yol göstericilik rolüne saygı gösterileceği vurgulanmaktadır. Ancak üçüncü maddede bir kimsenin dinini ve inancını açıklama özgürlüğü, baĢkalarının temel haklarını korumak amacıyla kanunların öngördüğü Ģekilde kısıtlanabileceği ifade edilmektedir.10 Uluslararası anlaĢmalarda kabul edilen ve Avrupa Birliğine üye ülkelerin de imzaladıkları kararlar, bugün din eğitim-öğretim hakkını hukuksal bir çerçeve içerisinde yer almasını sağlamaktadır.11 Avrupa Birliğine üye olan bir ülke olarak Ġspanya ve üye olma yolunda ilerleyen Türkiye bu anlaĢmalara imza atarak din eğitim-öğretim alma hakkını kiĢi hak ve özgürlükleri arasında olduğunu ve kiĢilerin bu hakkı talep etme ya da etmeme haklarının yasal olduğunu kabul etmiĢlerdir. Ancak 1 Mayıs 1999 yılında yürürlüğe giren Amsterdam SözleĢmesinde AB’ye üye ülkelerdeki dindevlet iliĢkilerindeki statüye saygı duyulur, denilerek her ülke, din eğitimi uygulamalarında serbest bırakılmıĢtır. Bundan dolayı Avrupa Ülkeleri ilk ve ortaöğretim okullarının programlarında din derslerini zorunlu, seçmeli ya da isteğe bağlı olmak üzere okutma kararı almıĢtır.12 Avrupa Konseyi Parlamenter Meclisi’nin 2005 tarih ve 1720 sayılı “Eğitim ve Din” konulu Tavsiye Kararı, çağdaĢ dünyanın karĢılaĢtığı fundamentalist yaklaĢımların ve terörist hareketlerin temelinin dini bir yöne dayandığına iĢaret edilerek demokrasi ve dinin birbirine zıt düĢmemesi gerektiğine vurgu yapılmıĢtır. Din konusundaki cehaletin, önyargıların ve anlaĢmazlıkların giderilmesi için eğitimin esas olduğu, dinler arası diyalogu cesaretlendirmek ve dinlerin sosyal ve kültürel ifadesini desteklemek için daha çok çaba sarf edilmesi gerektiği ifade edilmiĢtir.13 Ancak yapılan araĢtırma göstermektedir ki dinler arası diyaloga pek çok yazar ve araĢtırmacı sıcak bakmamaktadır. Her ne kadar bu fikrin temelinde farklı dinleri olduğu gibi kabul etme anlayıĢı olsa da kimi yazara göre bu fikrin hayata geçirilmesi sürecinde teolojik farklılıklar, tarihsel faktörler, dinin politikacılar 7

Hasan Sayim, Vural, Türkiye’de Din Özgürlüğüne İlişkin Anayasal Güvence, Seçkin Yay., Ankara, 2013, s. 188-189. 8 TBMM Ġnsan Haklarını Ġnceleme Komisyonu, https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/komisyon/insanhaklari/pdf01/5373.pdf 25.09.2016. 9 http://www.unicankara.org.tr/doc_pdf/metin137.pdf, 23.05.2016. 10 TBMM Ġnsan Haklarını Ġnceleme Komisyonu, http://www.ombudsman.gov.tr/contents/files/20512--CocukHaklarina-Dair-Sozlesme.pdf, 22.09.2016, s. 143. 11 Ömer Yılmaz, “Avrupa Birliği Üye Ülkelerinin Ulus Anayasalarında Din ve Vicdan Özgürlüğü”, C. Ü. İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, XI/1 – 2007, ss. 299-315. 12 Davut, age., s. 222. 13

Emine Keskiner, “Bir Ġnsan Hakları Meselesi Olarak Din Kültürü ve Ahlak Bilgisi Dersleri”, M.Ü. İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 38 (2010/1), ss. 5-24.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016),October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN tarafından manipule edilerek siyasileĢtirilmesi ve ön yargıların ve bunun gibi nedenlerin dini gruplar arası diyalogun önünde ciddi bir engel olarak görülmektedir.14 1.2. Laiklik AnlayıĢının Türkiye ve Ġspanya Din Eğitimi Bağlamında Değerlendirilmesi “Laic, laique; latincelaicus” aslından alınmıĢ Fransızca bir kelimedir ve lügat manasıyla, ruhânî olmayan kimse, dinî olmayan Ģey, fikir, müessese, prensip demektir. Katolik dünyasında lâik olanlar, ruhâniler sınıfının “reguiler” ya da “seculier” zümresinden hiç birine mensup olmayan, zahit ve papaz sıfatı almayan Hristiyanlar olarak görülmüĢtür. Kelimenin bu ilk manası geniĢletilerek, Ģahıslardan baĢka, dinî olmayan Ģeylere, fikir, prensip ve müesseselere de lâik denilmiĢtir. Bu kelime, hukuk ıstılahları arasına, Fransız Ġhtilâlinden sonra girmiĢtir.15 Binaenaleyh, Fransızca bir kelime olan “Laic” herhangi bir dine mensup olmayanlar için değil“zahit” ya da “papaz” gibi din adamı olmayanlar için kullanılan bir terimdir. Ancak kelimenin manası sonradan geniĢleyerek dini olmayanlara ya da kurumlara laik denilmiĢtir. Eğitimde laiklik anlayıĢı, herhangi bir din ya da mezhebe dayanmadan yeni nesillerin bilimsel kaynaklara dayanarak eğitim ve öğretim almalarını sağlamaya dayanır.16 Laiklik kavramı, Türkiye’de özellikle Cumhuriyet’in ilanından sonra hukuk, siyaset, eğitim ve toplumsal alanda kendini hissettirmiĢ ve 1946’dan itibaren çok partili siyasi hayata geçilmesiyle birlikte bu kavram üzerinde uzun tartıĢmalar yapılmıĢ ve farklı görüĢler ortaya koyulmuĢtur. Genel bir tanım olarak “din ve siyasetin birbirinden ayrılması” anlamına gelen laiklik kavramı, içinde toplum yapısını değiĢtirebilecek çok güçlü dinamikler taĢımaktadır. Cumhuriyet Türkiye’sinin temel yapı taĢlarından biri sayılan ve diğer ilkelerle bir bütünlük arz eden bu kavram “modernleşme”nin bir parçası olarak görülmüĢ ve bu ilke olmazsa Türkiye’nin ilerlemeyeceği ve gittikçe gerileyebileceğini düĢünen çevreler oluĢturmuĢtur. Din ve mezhep ayrımı yapmaksızın bütün toplum fertlerini aynı kotada kabul eden bu ilkenin olmaması veya bu ilkenin bazı gerekçelerle yumuĢatılması din ve mezhep farklılığı taĢıyan azınlık haklarının çiğnenebileceği endiĢesini yaratmıĢtır. Bu endiĢe doğrultusunda Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devleti’nin kuruluĢundan itibaren din eğitim-öğretimi nasıl olması gerektiği hususunda tartıĢmalar vücuda gelmiĢtir. Azınlığın haklarını çiğnememek adına uzun yıllar halkın çoğunluğunun istediği Ġslam din eğitim-öğretiminin verildiği kurumlar olarak bilinen Ġmam-Hatip Okulları/Liseleri zaman zaman kapatılmıĢ, uzun yıllar eğitimöğretim hayatı kesintiye uğratılmıĢ, bu eğitim kurumlarından nitelikli eğitim alınmasının önüne geçilmiĢ, kimi zaman da bu eğitim kurumlarından mezun olanların istihdamı sağlanmamıĢtır. Yukarı da bahsi geçen eğitim kurumlarının dıĢında diğer eğitim-öğretim kurumlarında din dersi ya müfredatta yer almamıĢ ya da aldığı zamanlarda isteğe bağlı olma özelliğine sahip olmuĢtur. Bugün Türkiye’de din eğitimi nasıl verilmeli tartıĢmaları sürerken laiklik ilkesinden ve demokrasinden ödün vermeden azınlıkların da haklarına sahip çıkılarak nasıl bir din eğitimi verilmesi konusunda araĢtırmalar yapılmaktadır. Ġspanya’da 1931-1936 arasında sekülerleĢme yanlısı bir politika izlenmesine rağmen bugün daha çok Katolik nüfusunun beklentilerine göre bir eğitim anlayıĢının hakim olduğu ve devlet okullarında verilen din derslerinin ise laiklik anlayıĢından uzak mezhebe dayalı bir din eğitimi verildiği söylenebilir. Ancak uluslararası anlaĢmalar, 1970 yılında UNESCO’nun ve Dünya Bankası’nın finansal desteğinin etkisiyle devletçi ve laik eğitimin tekrar canlandığı söylenebilir. Nitekim 1978 Anayasasında, 1985 ve 1990 sosyalist rejimin kanunlarında (Eğitim Hakkı Temel Kanunu-LODE) ve Genel Eğitim Öğretimin Düzenlenmesi Kanunu’nun (LOGSE) görüĢmeleri sırasında gündeme gelmiĢtir.17

14

Asım Yapıcı, Kadir Albayrak, “Ötekini Algılam Bağlamında Dini Gruplar Arası ĠliĢkiler”, Dini Araştırmalar, C. 5., Eylül-Aralık 2002, ss. 35-39. 15 BaĢgil, Ali Fuat, Din ve Laiklik, İkinci Baskı, Sönmez NeĢriyat ve Matbaacılık, Ġstanbul, 1962, s. 68-69. 16 Tunaya, Tarık Zafer, İslamcılık Akımı, Simav Yayınları, Ġstanbul, 1991, s. 122-125. 17

Miguel Ayuso, Andres Gambra, Jose Maria Sanchez, Kirche und Erziehung in Europa, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenccaften 2005, ss. 249-269, Çev: Ġrfan BaĢkurt, Ġ.Ü. Hasan Ali Yücel Eğitim Fakültesi Din Kültürü ve Ahlak Bilgisi Eğitimi Bölümü, “İspanya’da Din Eğitimi”.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016),October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Ġspanya’da laiklik, kiliseler ve devlet arasındaki basit bir ayrım rejimine tabi tutulmaktadır.18 Kilise okullarının hemen hemen tamamı devlet yardımı almaktadır. 1.3. Ġspanya ve Türkiye’de Anayasaların Din Eğitim-Öğretimine YaklaĢımı 7 Aralık 1978 tarihinde referandumda Ġspanya halkı tarafından kabul edilen Ġspanya Anayasasının düzenleme amacının Anayasa ve kanunlar kapsamında, bir arada demokratik yaĢama güvencesini sağlamak olduğu, hukukun üstünlüğünü teminat altına almak, tüm Ġspanyolların ve Ġspanya halklarını kültür ve geleneklerini, insan haklarını, dillerini ve kurumlarını korumak olduğu ifade edilmiĢtir.19 Bahsi geçen Anayasanın en dikkat çekici notası Ġspanyollar ve Ġspanya halkları Ģeklinde ayrım yapmasıdır. Ġspanya Anayasanın 14. maddesinde Ġspanyolların kanun önünde eĢit olduğu ve hiçbir Ģekilde doğum, ırk, cinsiyet, din, fikir veya herhangi bir kiĢisel, toplumsal koĢul veya durumdan dolayı ayrıma tabi tutulamayacakları ifade edilmiĢtir. Ġspanyolların ve Ġspanya halklarının ifadesinin Anayasanın farklı maddelerinde kullanılmıĢ olması ve 14. maddede sadece Ġspanyollar denilmesi diğer halkların bu maddeden yararlanıp yararlanamayacağı sorusunu gündeme getirmektedir. Ancak bu Anayasanın 16. maddesinde kiĢilerin ve toplulukların fikir, din ve ibadet özgürlüklerinin ve bunların ifade edilmesinin, kanunla korunan kamu düzeninin devamı için gerekli olanların dıĢında hiçbir sınırının olmadığı vurgulanmıĢtır. 27. maddede ise eğitim hakkı ve özgürlüğü olarak, herkesin eğitim ve öğretme hürriyetinin olduğu; kamu makamlarının, ebeveynlerin, çocuklarına kendi mezheplerine uygun dini ve ahlaki eğitim aldırma hakkını teminat altına aldığı vurgulanmıĢtır. Anayasa, din hürriyetini garantileyen ve bunun alanını belirten 1980 kanunu tarafından tamamlanmıĢtır. Buna göre; istenen dini öğrenme ya da o dinin emirlerinden hiç birini yerine getirmeme, onu değiĢtirme veya sahip olunan dinden ayrılma, onu açıklama ya da açıklamama hakkı kabul edilmiĢtir.20 Türkiye’de 1982 yılında halkoyuyla yürürlüğe giren 1982 Anayasasıyla ilk defa din ve ahlak eğitim-öğretimi ilk ve orta öğretim kurumlarında zorunlu olarak okutulması hükme bağlanmıĢtır. 21 Madde 24 ile devlet okulları dıĢında da, devletin denetimine ve kiĢinin isteğine bağlı olmak Ģartıyla, din eğitimi yapılabilir, denilmiĢtir. Diyanet ĠĢleri BaĢkanlığı’nın 22 Haziran 1965 tarih ve 633 sayılı KuruluĢ ve Görevleri Hakkında Kanunun ek üçüncü maddesine göre;“ilk ve ortaöğretim kurumlarında okutulan zorunlu din kültürü ve ahlak bilgisi dersi dışında” Ġslam inancına yönelik dini eğitimin, Kur’an Kurslarında verilmesi öngörülmüĢtür. Ancak ne Ġslam inancı ne de Sünni mezhebin dıĢında farklı din ya da mezheplerin din eğitimi almalarını sağlayacak bir uygulamadan bahsedilmemiĢ olması tepkilere neden olmuĢtur.22 Din eğitimi ve öğretimi açısından önemli sayılabilecek kanun, Anayasanın 24. maddesinde yerini almıĢtır. Bu maddede; herkesin vicdan, dini inanç ve kanaat hürriyetine sahip olduğu ve 14. maddeye aykırı olmamak Ģartıyla ibadet, dini ayin ve törenlerin serbest olduğu; kimsenin ibadete, dini ayin ve törenlere katılmaya zorlanamayacağı; dini inanç ve kanaatlerinden dolayı kınanamayacağı ve suçlanamayacağı vurgulanmıĢ; din ve ahlak ve öğretiminin devletin gözetim ve denetimi altında yapılacağı kanun hükmüne bağlanmıĢtır. Din kültürü ve ahlak öğretimi ilk ve ortaöğretim kurumlarında okutulan zorunlu dersler arasında yerini almıĢ; bunun dıĢındaki din eğitim ve öğretimi ancak kiĢilerin kendi isteğine, küçüklerin de kanuni temsilcilerinin talebine bağlanmıĢtır. Ġspanya ve Türkiye’de bugün yürürlükte olan Anayasaların genel hatlarıyla değerlendirildiği bu çalıĢmada her iki ülkede de din eğitim-öğretim alma hakkından hareketle azınlığın haklarının dikkate alınmadığı söylenebilir. Her ne kadar Anayasalarda bu durum dikkat çekici bir Ģekilde göze 18

Mehmet Kahraman, “Avrupa Birliği Ülkelerinde ve Türkiye’de Laiklik”, Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 2008, Cilt: 5, Sayı: 9, s. 60. 19 http://www.adalet.gov.tr/duyurular/2011/eylul/anayasalar/ulkeana/pdf/14-%C4%B0SPANYA%20533-584.pdf , 05.10.2016. 20 Jean Bauberot, Avrupa Birliği Ülkelerinde Dinler ve Laiklik, Çev: Fazlı Arabacı, Ufuk Kitapları, Ġstanbul, 2003, s. 87-88. 21 Suat, Cebeci, “Ġmam-Hatip Liselerinden Mezun Olanların YöneliĢleri ve Sebepleri”, İmam-Hatip Liselerinin Kuruluşunun 40. Yılı Münasebetiyle Tartışmalı İlmi Toplantı, Türkiye’de Din Eğitimi ve Öğretimi, Ġslam Medeniyeti Vakfı, Ġstanbul, 1993, s. 110-111. 22 Demir, Hande Seher, Türkiye’de Din ve Vicdan Özgürlüğü (Avrupa Ġnsan Hakları Mahkemesi Kararları IĢığında), Adalet Yay., Ankara, 2011, s. 154.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016),October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN batmıyor olsa da her iki ülkedeki uygulamalar, tarihsel süreçte karĢılaĢılan problemler ve bu alanda yapılmıĢ olan çalıĢmalar bu yargıyı kanıtlar niteliktedir. 2. Türkiye’de Din Eğitiminin Tarihsel GeliĢimi Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devleti’nde din eğitim ve öğretimi, 1924 yılında laiklik kapsamında gerçekleĢtirilen pek çok düzenlemeyle Ġmam-Hatip Mekteplerine verilmiĢtir. Verilen bu dersler ĠslamSünni mezhebe dayanan din eğitim-öğretimi olmuĢtur. Ancak 1933 yılından 1946 yıllına kadar din eğitiminin devlet okullarında verilmediği ve Ġmam-Hatip Mekteplerinin kapatıldığı bir dönem olmuĢtur. 1950’lerde değiĢmeye ve okul müfredatlarına eklenip yeniden faaliyete geçirilen ĠmamHatip Okulları adını alan din görevlisi yetiĢtiren kurumlar Türkiye’de vücut bulan darbeler ve siyasetin etkisiyle günümüze kadar süre gelen uzun soluklu var olma mücadelesi içerisine girmiĢtir. Türkiye’de laiklik ve demokrasiye verilen önem zaman zaman çoğunluğu Müslüman olan halkın dahi istedikleri gibi din eğitim-öğretimi alma giriĢimlerini baĢarısız kılmıĢtır.23 Türkiye’de Din Kültürü ve Ahlak Bilgisi dersi, 1961 Anayasası’yla da kabul gören zorunlu dersler arasında yer alan mezhepler üstü bir ders olma özelliğini taĢımaktadır. Ancak Türk vatandaĢı olup Hristiyan ve Musevi dinlerine mensup öğrenciler, istemedikleri sürece bu dersten muaf tutulabilir.24 Din dersinin programı diğer bütün dersler gibi Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı tarafından yapılmaktadır. Yani Devletin din eğitimi üzerinde kontrolü söz konusudur.25 Ġmam-Hatip Liseleri; imam-hatip, müezzin, kayyım gibi din görevlisi ihtiyacını karĢılayacak elemanlar yetiĢtiren ve yükseköğretime hazırlayan meslek liseleri olarak 1973 yılında açılmıĢtır.26 Bu okullar da devletin denetimi altındadır. Her ne kadar devlet tarafından bu okulların pek çok masraf ve giderleri karĢılanıyor olsa da halkın destekleriyle de pek çok Ġmam-Hatip Okulu/Lisesi binası yaptırılıp çeĢitli masrafları karĢılanmıĢtır.

2.1 Ġspanya’da Din Eğitiminin Tarihsel GeliĢimi Ġspanya’da bugün halkın çoğunluğunun Katoliklerden oluĢtuğu bilinmektedir. 15. ve 17. yüzyılda Yahudilerin ve Müslümanların çoğunluğunun sınır dıĢı edilmesi ve bu zaman diliminde farklı inanıĢa sahip olanlara yapılan uygulamaların sonucu bugün Katolik nüfusun Ġspanya’da büyük bir çoğunluğa sahip olmalarının nedenleri arasında gösterilebilir. 1931-1936 arasında II. Cumhuriyet döneminde sekülerleĢme yanlısı bir politika izlenerek laiklik temel bir rol oynamıĢ ancak 1939’daki iç savaĢtan sonra bu politikadan vazgeçilmiĢtir. Ġspanya’da yüzyıllarca kilise, eğitimi tekeline almıĢ, ancak özellikle 18. yüzyıldan itibaren devlet, kilisenin eğitimdeki tekelini sorgulamaya baĢlamıĢ ve 19. yüzyılda üniversitelerin ve diğer eğitim kurumlarının içeriğinin denetlenmesi ve diplomaların düzenlenmesi hususunda bazı isteklerde bulunmuĢtur. II. Cumhuriyet dönemi sekülerleĢmeyle birlikte Katoliklere güvensiz bakılmaya eğitim kurumlarında dini tarikatların eğitimde faaliyet gösterilmesi yasaklanmıĢ ve ders programlarına mezhepsiz, resmi ve zorunlu dersler getirilmiĢtir. 1931-1939 arası Ġspanya iç savaĢından sonra ülkeyi 36 yıl diktatörlükle yönetmiĢ olan Francisco Franco döneminde Katoliklerin sayısı artmıĢ, dini tarikatlar çok sayıda okullar kurmuĢtur. Kilisenin eğitimde etkinliğinin de arttığı bu dönemde halkın % 64’ü kendisini Katolikliğin uygulayıcısı olarak tanımlamıĢtır. Ancak 1970 yılında UNESCO’nun ve Dünya Bankası’nın finansal desteğinin etkisiyle devletçi ve laik bir eğitimin tekrar canlandığı görülmüĢtür.

23

Mustafa, Öcal, “KuruluĢundan Günümüze Ġmam-Hatip Liseleri”, Din Eğitimi Araştırmaları Dergisi, Sayı 6, Ġstanbul, 1999. 24 Keskiner, agm., s.12-14. 25 ġule Albayrak, “Batı Ülkelerinde Din-Devlet ĠliĢkilerindeki Alternatif Modeller ve Türkiye Örneği”, Marmara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt-Sayı: 48, Haziran 2015, ISSN 1302-4973, ss. 185-198. 26 Mehmet Zeki Aydın, “Avrupa Birliği Ülkelerinde Din Öğretimi ve Türkiye ile KarĢılaĢtırılması”, Türk Milli Eğitim Sisteminde Din Eğitimi ve Öğretimi Sempozyumu, Ankara, 2-3 Mart 2005, s. 11.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016),October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Bugün Ġspanya’da anne-babaların çocuklarının kendi inanıĢlarına uygun bir eğitim sistemi seçme hakkı olmasına rağmen bu inanıĢa eğitim-öğretim alma hakkı, Katoliklik inanıĢına karĢı olmadığı müddetçe verilmektedir.27 Yapılan araĢtırmalar göstermektedir ki bugün Ġspanya’da “mezhebe dayalı din öğretimi” tercih edilmektedir.28 Ġspanya’da mezhebe/dine dayalı din öğretimi yaklaĢımı uygulanmaktadır ve öğrenci ya din dersini ya da alternatif bir dersi almak zorundadır.29 Aynı Ģekilde Almanya, Avusturya, Belçika, Finlandiya, Hollanda, Ġrlanda gibi ülkelerde de din dersi ya da alternatif ders almak zorunludur. Halkın çoğunluğu Katolik olan Ġspanya’da ilk ve orta dereceli devlet okulları, öğrenciye din dersi vermek zorundadır. Din dersi almak istemeyen öğrenciler ise Ġspanya’da ahlak, Katalonya Bölgesinde din kültürü dersini almak zorundadır. 2000 yılına kadar, okullarda Katolik din dersi tek ders olarak okutulurken bu tarihten sonra Ġslam, Protestan ve Yahudilik dersleri de yer almıĢtır.30 Ġspanya’da kilise-devlet iliĢkilerinde, bazı dini gruplarla anlaĢma ve uzlaĢma temeline dayanmaktadır. Bu nedenle Ġspanya’daki bu sisteme, anlaĢmalı sistem denilmektedir.31 SONUÇ Dinin, toplumları bir araya getirme, insan ruhunu iyileĢtirme gibi özelliklere sahip olduğu düĢünülmektedir. Tabi dinin yanlıĢ öğrenilmesi ya da kulaktan dolma dini bilgiler toplumları bir araya getirmekten ziyade ayrıĢmalara sürükleyebilir ya da ruh sağlığının bozulmasına neden olabilir. Bugün özellikle Ortadoğu’da karĢılaĢılan problemlerin baĢında Ġslamiyet’in özünün öğrenilmemesi ve Ġslamiyet adı altında ancak bu dinle alakalı olmayan yanlıĢ uygulamaların/inanıĢların yapılıyor olması yatmaktadır. Bu anlayıĢ hem Hristiyanlık için hem de diğer dinler için geçerlidir. Günümüz dünyasında globalleĢmeyle birlikte farklı dini unsurlar bir kaynaĢma içerisindedir. Özellikle 1960’lardan itibaren ilerleyen iletiĢim teknoloji, sosyal medyanın toplumlar üzerindeki etkisi yadsınamayacak kadar büyüktür. Bu geliĢen dünyada Hristiyan ya da Müslüman olanların ya da herhangi baĢka bir dine mensup olanların birbirlerini anlamaları için gerekli olan Ģey eğitimdir. Ayrıca her bir farklı dini unsur kendi dinini kulaktan dolma bilgilerle öğrenmekten ziyade uzman kiĢilerden öğrendikleri zaman dinin bir terör malzemesi olma durumunun önüne geçilecektir. Din eğitim ve öğretimi açısından olumlu ya da olumsuz yaklaĢımlar bir kenara konulduğunda görülecektir ki, kültürün de içinde barındırdığı din ve inandığı dini öğrenme arzusu halkın isteğidir. Ancak burada dikkat edilmesi gereken husus sadece çoğunluğun tercih ve isteklerini göz önünde bulundurulmaması gerektiğidir. Birlik ve beraberlik içinde huzurlu bir dünya, ancak kiĢi hak ve özgürlüklerinin bulunduğu, kanunların ve adaletin iĢlediği zaman gerçekleĢebilecektir. Günümüzde Batı ülkelerinde gitgide destek bulan anlayıĢ din eğitim-öğretiminin özel kurumlardan ziyade devlet eliyle yapılması yönündedir. Ancak burada yeni bir tartıĢma noktası, demokrasi ya da laikliğin altının oyulacağı endiĢesidir. Buradaki endiĢe ancak devletin dini olmadığı görüĢünden hareketle her inanca eĢit muamele edilmesiyle gerçekleĢtirilebilecektir. Avrupa’da Ġslam’a karĢı bir ön yargının olduğu ve bunun da Ġslam-fobi olarak nitelendirildiği bilinmektedir. 11 Eylül saldırılarıyla zirveye ulaĢan Ġslam-fobi, Bernard Lewis, Samuel Huntington tarafından da körüklendiği iddia edilir. Ayrıca basın yoluyla Müslümanların değerleriyle alay edilerek Müslüman Dünyasının büyük tepkilerine neden olunmaktadır. Avrupa’da Ġslamafobi yaratmaya çalıĢanlar, Müslümanların tepkilerinin barbar ve ilkel olduğunu ifadeyle kendi tezlerinin haklılığını kanıtladıklarını iddia etmektedir. Bu tarz çatıĢmacı ve ön yargılı söylemler dünyayı bir kaos ortamına sürüklemekten ileriye gidemez. Toplumların barıĢ içerisinde yaĢayabilmesi adına öncelikle uluslararası anlaĢmaların, anayasalarda alınan kararların uygulanması gerekmektedir. Bugün Ġspanya 27

Miguel Ayuso, Andres Gambra, Jose Maria Sanchez, Kirche und Erziehung in Europa, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenccaften 2005, ss. 249-269, Çev: Ġrfan BaĢkurt, Ġ.Ü. Hasan Ali Yücel Eğitim Fakültesi Din Kültürü ve Ahlak Bilgisi Eğitimi Bölümü, “İspanya’da Din Eğitimi”. 28 Mehmet Zeki Aydın, “Avrupa Okullarında Din Eğitimi ve Bunun Türkiye ile KarĢılaĢtırılması”, Komisyon, Avrupa Birliği’ne Giriş Sürecinde Türkiye’de Din Eğitimi Sempozyumu, DeğiĢim Yay., Ġstanbul, 2002, s. 91. 29 Aydın, “Avrupa Birliği.., agm., s.3. 30 Aydın, “Avrupa Birliği.., agm., s.9. 31 Silvio Ferrari, Çev.: Mehmet Salih KumaĢ, “Ġslâm ve Din-Devlet ĠlĢkilerinde Batı Avrupa Modeli”, Uludağ Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi, Cilt: 13, Sayı: 1, 2004, s. 303-319.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016),October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ya da Türkiye için durum aynıdır. Çoğunluğun haklarına öncelik verilip bazı kesimler ötekileĢtirildiği ve karĢıt guruplara baskıcı-engelleyici bir tutumla yaklaĢıldığı müddetçe toplumun huzur içerisinde yaĢaması beklenemez. Devlet, vatandaĢı olan halka eĢit muameleyle yaklaĢması ve çoğunluğun da buna saygı duyması gerekmektedir.

KAYNAKÇA Albayrak, ġule, “Batı Ülkelerinde Din-Devlet ĠliĢkilerindeki Alternatif Modeller ve Türkiye Örneği”, Marmara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt-Sayı: 48, Haziran 2015, ISSN 1302-4973, 185-198. Armağan, Servet, Anayasa Hukuku’nda Temel Haklar ve Hürriyetler, Harran Üniversitesi Yayınları, ġanlıurfa, 1996. Aydın, Mehmet Zeki, “Avrupa Birliği Ülkelerinde Din Öğretimi ve Türkiye ile KarĢılaĢtırılması”, Türk Milli Eğitim Sisteminde Din Eğitimi ve Öğretimi Sempozyumu, Ankara, 2-3 Mart 2005. Aydın, Mehmet Zeki, “Avrupa Okullarında Din Eğitimi ve Bunun Türkiye ile KarĢılaĢtırılması”, Komisyon, Avrupa Birliği’ne Giriş Sürecinde Türkiye’de Din Eğitimi Sempozyumu, DeğiĢim Yayınları, Ġstanbul, 2002. Ayuso, Miguel, Andres Gambra, Jose Maria Sanchez, Kirche und Erziehung in Europa, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenccaften 2005, Çev: Ġrfan BaĢkurt, Ġ.Ü. Hasan Ali Yücel Eğitim Fakültesi Din Kültürü ve Ahlak Bilgisi Eğitimi Bölümü, “İspanya’da Din Eğitimi”. BaĢgil, Ali Fuat, Din ve Laiklik, Ġkinci Baskı, Sönmez NeĢriyat ve Matbaacılık, Ġstanbul, 1962, s. 68-69. Bauberot, Jean, Avrupa Birliği Ülkelerinde Dinler ve Laiklik, Çev: Fazlı Arabacı, Ufuk Kitapları, Ġstanbul, 2003. Cebeci, Suat, “Ġmam-Hatip Liseleinden Mezun Olanların YöneliĢleri ve Sebepleri”, İmam-Hatip Liselerinin Kuruluşunun 40. Yılı Münasebetiyle Tartışmalı İlmi Toplantı, Türkiye’de Din Eğitimi ve Öğretimi, Ġslam Medeniyeti Vakfı, Ġstanbul, 1993, s. 111-120. Demir, Hande Seher, Türkiye’de Din ve Vicdan Özgürlüğü (Avrupa İnsan Hakları Mahkemesi Kararları Işığında), Adalet Yayınları, Ankara, 2011. Ferrari, Silvio, Çev.: Mehmet Salih KumaĢ, “Ġslâm ve Din-Devlet ĠliĢkilerinde Batı Avrupa Modeli”, Uludağ Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi, Cilt: 13, Sayı: 1, 2004, s. 303-319. Kahraman, Mehmet, “Avrupa Birliği Ülkelerinde ve Türkiye’de Laiklik”, Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl: 2008, Cilt: 5, Sayı:9. Keskiner, Emine, “Bir Ġnsan Hakları Meselesi Olarak Din Kültürü ve Ahlak Bilgisi Dersleri”, M.Ü. İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı: 38, (2010/1), s. 5-24. Okçu, Davut, “Türk Eğitim Sisteminde Din Öğretiminin Zorunluluğu Sorunu”,Uluslar arası Eğitim Felsefesi Kongresi, 2009, s. 213-225. Öcal, Mustafa, Kuruluşundan Günümüze İmam-Hatip Liseleri, Din Eğitimi AraĢtırmaları Dergisi, sayı 6, Ġstanbul, 1999. Tunaya, Tarık Zafer, İslamcılık Akımı, Simav Yayınları, Ġstanbul, 1991. Turan, Ġbrahim, “Ulusal ve Uluslar arası Hukuk Açısından Türkiye’de Din Eğitiminin Yasal Dayanakları”, Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı: 32, 2012, s. 77-109. Vural, Hasan Sayim, Türkiye’de Din Özgürlüğüne İlişkin Anayasal Güvence, Seçkin Yayınları, Ankara, 2013. Yapıcı, Asım, Kadir Albayrak, “Ötekini Algılam Bağlamında Dini Gruplar Arası ĠliĢkiler”, Dini Araştırmalar, C. 5., Eylül-Aralık 2002, s. 35-59. Yıldız Kızılabdullah, Tuğrul Yürük, “Din Eğitimi Modelleri Çerçevesinde Türkiye’deki Din Eğitimi Üzerine Genel Bir Değerlendirme”, Dini Araştırmalar, Eylül-Aralık 2008, Cilt: 1, s. 107-129. Yılmaz, Ömer, “Avrupa Birliği Üye Ülkelerinin Ulus Anayasalarında Din ve Vicdan Özgürlüğü”, C. Ü. İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, XI/1 – 2007, s. 299-315. http://www.ombudsman.gov.tr/contents/files/6535501-Birlesmis-Milletler-Antlasmasi.pdf, 23.09.2016. TBMM Ġnsan Hakları Ġnceleme Komisyonu, https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/komisyon/insanhaklari/pdf01/203208.pdf , 22.09.2016. TBMM Ġnsan Haklarını Ġnceleme Komisyonu, https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/komisyon/insanhaklari/pdf01/53-73.pdf 25.09.2016. http://www.unicankara.org.tr/doc_pdf/metin137.pdf, 23.05.2016. TBMM Ġnsan Haklarını Ġnceleme Komisyonu, http://www.ombudsman.gov.tr/contents/files/20512--CocukHaklarina-Dair-Sozlesme.pdf, 22.09.2016. http://www.adalet.gov.tr/duyurular/2011/eylul/anayasalar/ulkeana/pdf/14-%C4%B0SPANYA%20533-584.pdf , 05.10.2016.

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VOICE TRAINING IN TRADITIONAL TURKISH CLASSICAL ART MUSIC THROUGH THE RIGHT BREATHING TECHNIQUES Nuran ACAR Dilek Sabanci State Conservatory Traditional Turkish Music Selcuk University, Konya,Turkey nrnayaz @hotmail.com Abstract Music, which has great significance for people from different culture throughout the world, has taught vocal training is a must for them. Proper inhale is very important for vocal training so the first thing in vocal training should be breathing training. Breathing exercises, with the help of breathing with diaphragm support, bring quality inhalation and quality singing skills to people. With this skill, music performing by an individual in national and international circles, consolidates value of music and ensures integration to the world. Vocal training aestheticize voice and makes human life easy from the first day that it has been used. It has great place in educating artist, music teacher and for everybody using their voices. Vocal training in Traditional Classical Turkish Music is done with Meshk system like it is done in Europe Music. Meshk system has used to be done by memorizing pieces with set of pipes one to one at its early days. Meshk system is still being done one to one in this day and scholars starts with breath training and then do exercises to improve their voice fields. In this work, survey model with qualitative model search has been used, hypothetical sources has been surveyed, with figuring out obtained samples signs have been reached, interpretation work has been done. Our purpose in this work, to research effects of breathing and voice techniques, well accepted and used internationally, on Traditional Classical Turkish Music’s sound and perform. Keywords: Vocal, Voice, Classical Turkish Music, Meshk system

1. INTRODUCTION According to the term in dictionary, breath means exhalation, blown air, respiring, taking and giving exhalation. Taking and giving exhalation is an activity which keeps us alive. For that reason, it is important to recognize the importance of proper breathing. Taking correct and controlled breath is useful for the body while improper breathing is harmful to our body. Taking correct breath both provide oxygen to our body and organs so that they can maintain the life and they help to eliminate the waste and toxins out of the body. Taking breath doesn’t only occur through nose and lungs. In the intellectual sense, taking breath is possible through hands, feet, top of the head and the entire body. A conscious taking breath in and out may create an ability to activate all the potentials. Breathing is a bridge and a path. Everything which is required to take and give may be transferred through breathing. For that reason, all sorts of physical and mental diseases result from incorrect breathing.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN It was observed that a person who isn’t interested in breathing employs only 10% of the capacity of their lungs at every breathing while those who are interested in breathing could utilize 30% of the capacity of their lungs and an experienced breathing therapist uses 50% of the capacity of their lungs. Increasing the rate of kinetic rate from 10% to 30% is known to lead to incredible changes in life (Kartal.2010).

Just after the moment of birth, each baby starts living through breathing with the support of diaphragm. Throughout life, the phrenic muscle experiences decreased productivity due to improper utilization or disuse. Our lungs which is known in public as the breathing technique continuously intakes air into our body throughout the life and pump this air out. For a strong and healthy breathing, lungs receive support from the muscles between diaphragm and ribs just beneath rib cage. However, a giant burden falls on the lungs since those muscles were ignored through incorrect breathing.

In parallel with the significance of correct breathing in human life, using our voice effectively is also important. Voice training is a requirement for the correct use of voice and the first target in the voice training should be the breathing training. The breathing activities and the use of diaphragm should be conducted together. In order to sing well and speak well through the support of breathing, we should learn breathing correctly for the first thing. In daily life, the breath without the support of lungs and taken from the lungs directly prevents the formation of a quality voice.

The diaphragmic breath is the breath of quality singing and quality breathing in. another form of breathing is the breathing through shoulders and chest. In this type of breathing, the air is generally accumulated on the upper parts of lungs and it isn’t a form convenient for singing. While breathing, no air is taken into the diaphragm. Diaphragm is a muscle which activates the lungs. When we mention about diaphragm breathing, we mean lowering diaphragm down and thus inflating the lungs from bottom to the top simultaneously with the movement of the diaphragm.

2. Breathing Forms:

In order to breathe correctly, we should take the air in through our nose. The diaphragm breath is the form of natural inhalation of an individual who lies down. If we put our hand on our stomach while we are lying, we can easily watch this movement. This form of breathing which is natural while lying down is obtained with difficulty and through a definite technique. For a singer the diaphragm breathing is very important (Kolçak.2008).

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The breathing shown in the figure is a form of lungs filled with air. We cannot employ this type of breathing since it doesn’t make us comfortable and isn’t convenient for the formation of a soft and cohering sound (Kolçak.2008).

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The form shown in the figure is the breathing of shoulders and chest. In such breathing, the air is accumulated in the upper parts of the lungs. As is known, it is the form of breathing employed in the physical education lessons. It isn’t convenient for singing since it overloads to the heart and prevents the resonance in the chest cavity. It is a tiring and dangerous form of breathing since it accumulates air near to the larynx and compresses to the heart. Moreover, the air inhaled through this way is less than the air that fills in the lungs when compared to other breathing types (Kolçak.2008).

The form of breathing shown in the figure is the diaphragm breathing. Diaphragm is a broad and umbrella shaped muscle just beneath the chest region. It controls the 75% of the breathing process. It is connected to the first, second, third and fourth lumbar spines. Diaphragm creates a cavity through expanding over the abdomen while breathing and pulls the organs towards sides and downwards so that the lungs enlarge (Kartal 1999).

2.1. Golden Rules to be considered in Diaphragm Breathing:

1. While breathing, you should learn the take in out the inhalation deep, frequent, quick, regular, without tension and silent. 2.

You should definitely take the breath from your nose and give out from your mouth.

3.

The timing of taking in, holding and giving out your breath should be in conformity with the formula of 1-4-2.

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4.

If you have taken your breath in 2 seconds, namely, you will keep it for 8 seconds and blow it out in 4 seconds.

5.

Please, force your lungs while breathing. Learn to keep your breath for a long time.

6.

Taking too much oxygen in an instant may cause dizziness.

7.

The objective is expand the lungs. However, the lungs don’t expand at once. An ideal diaphragm breath can’t be formed in a short time. So long as you practice, you will recognize the development of your diaphragm.

8.

If you tighten your throat more than necessary and try to hold the air in, your throat gets tired. The voice becomes deformed.

9. The air which you take in when you start talking shouldn’t be blown out at once. Learn to use the same air for a long time. However, you shouldn’t strain meanwhile and cause the blocking of throat. Otherwise, we can only produce growling (Arıkan.2007)

Only necessary air should be spend for every sound. Upon the employment of too much air, tightening in the vocal cords and the sharpening and aphonia of the sounds may occur. For that reason, the activities for learning correct form of breathing, giving it temperately and loosening on time all make a singer achieve his objectives. While singing, the breath is taken controlled and evasively in conformity with the musical sentences (Arıkan.2007).

2.2. Breathing Activities:

1- Breathing as if smelling a flower and releasing the breath through the consonants of F or S. in this study, the breath which is taken in as if smelling a flower should be deflated in a regular form as if hissing. 2- Deflating the inhaled breath interruptedly. This activity will allow a perfect cooperation between the breath and diaphragm and increase the breathing pressure. While interruptedly deflating the single breath which was taken at once, no second breath should be taken. The activities of interrupted breathing should begin with an interrupted breathing in return for a number uttered by the trainer. 5 interrupted breathing at the beginning should be increased to maximum 30 interrupted breathing. (During the breathing activities, our heart is on a bigger load when compared to normal breathing. During the deflated breathing, we feel that our heart beats stronger and more frequently. For that reason, all the breathing activities should be conducted without pushing our heart too far, for a balanced and reasonable periods). 3- The activities of interrupted and long breathing should be conducted together.

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4- Strong, light, interrupted and long breathing activities. The objective of those activities is provide a tone through adding strong and light breathing to the interrupted and long breathing activities. 5- Expanding and decreasing, interrupted and long breathing activities. The objective of those activities is to enrich the power of the diaphragm and pressure of breathing.

2.3. Rules of Breathing

1. We will definitely take the breath through our nose and give it out from our mouth. 2. While breathing, the enlargement always starts at the diaphragm and moves towards the upper parts of the lungs. 3. We will conduct the breathing process in accordance with the formula of four stages such as taking breath, holding and giving out and holding. If we have taken our breath in 2 seconds, namely, we will hold it in for 2 seconds and give it out in 2 seconds and wait for 2 second before taking another breath. 4. Our breathing activities will be conducted in silence without making any sounds. 5. We will aim to complete less than 12 times breathing within a minute. 6. We will conduct breathing activities 10 times each time early in the morning and in the evening. 7.

While breathing, we will force the lungs to be filled with air and completely discharged when we give it out.

8. At the beginning, the employment of the lungs doesn’t reach to the ideal level. When we progress, we will realize that the capacity is used more effectively each time we try. 9. Beyond the physical and mental health, you will keep your breath through controlling your belly not tightening your throat so that you can speak well and balanced.

10. On condition that you control your breath through diaphragm, taking breathe in and out so slowly that a candle in front of the lips doesn’t blow out (Kartal.2010).

3. Voice Training

Voice means harmonizing functioning of almost all the organs within the region from inguinal area to the edges of the lips through supporting each other in order to form the voice (Yurdakul, 1997:109).

Voice training is an interdisciplinary private sphere training where the attitudes required for using the sound properly, effectively and well in both speaking and singing is provided to the individuals and

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN which employs various sub-stages of voice training such as speaking and singing (Töreyin,1998: 10). Singing training was derived from the French word “chant” and it is originally an overall musical and technical sounds processing the sound to provide it stability and durability and was established through the art of vocal durability, art of vocal music, techniques and human voice (Töreyin, 1998: 11).

Voice training aims to enable individuals use his voice effectively, properly and consciously and sing well through utilizing the principles of voice training in sorting out all the problems related to the effective use of voice among the individuals, in every field of vocational music training, namely, in the forms of general, amateur and vocational music training and discomfort and defects occurring in human voice due to physical intervention (Kekeç, 2006:11). Individual voice training is divided into two sub-groups such as basic voice training and advanced voice training (singing). The basic voice training providing the individuals the attitudes to develop the voice of speaking and singing in accordance with the educational purposes for the voices at every age and aspects. In the advanced voice training, it is required that the sound completes the mutation process and it has a physical and anatomic structure and a quality voice material in order to apply advanced techniques and methods (Çevik, 2006, 646).

Voice training has been adding an aesthetic to the voice and providing convenience to human life since it was first employed. Voice training occupies an extremely important place in training performers, music teachers and for every person who uses his voice. “Today, individual voice training is given priority in musical education and through similar approaches all over the world. Throughout the entire education, the voice training techniques which will protect the voice quality and provide the harmony of voice-word are taken great care (Gürgan, Öztürk, 2003:81)”.

Individual voice education comprises of the issues such as taking-holding-giving out the breath properly, the quality of the voice, correct breathing technique, the connection between the voice and word, and the coherence between voice and word (prosody). Speaking properly through using Turkish correctly and effectively, and articulation of vocals and consonants properly are the basic rules of individual voice training. Speaking and music language are the greatest factors in introducing the nations (Perçin, 2004:1)

In the initial lessons, the students should be enlightened about voice training and singing doctrine and content of the lesson. First of all, information should be given about correct breathing technique and should be mentioned about the importance of the practices of taking-holding-giving out the breath. It

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also should be noted that breathing technique is important for the diction training and enough practices should be conducted related to this issue. Prior to the voice practices, the necessity of voice training should be emphasized and practices of diction should be conducted along with the breathing practices (Perçin, 2004: 1-3).

If we list the basic issues to be taught during the lesson of voice training, then we obtain the following issues: -Larynx and anatomic structure of this organ -The organs of voice and breathing -Thorax -Diaphragm, and the importance of diaphragm breathing -Types of breathing -The practices of breath to increase the breath pressure. The activities of breath which are taken wider and deeper and released in a long term - The most useful form of breathing which will be used in the formation of the singing voice - The inter-relations between breath and sound and breath and utterance -Sound path and mask -Resonance activities -Dictation activities -Basic technical vocal activities which are optimized and provide quality and field to the sound -Educational and small scaled compositions in conformity with technical activities and studies on the optimized works -Caring and protection of the sound (Sevinç and Simsek, 2004).

4. BREATH IN VOICE TRAINING

It is important to learn breathing properly in order to sing well. Using the diaphragm in the most quality way enables having an increased sound power, a quality sound color and perfect performance. It is possible to use the muscles of mouth and face properly in using vocal and consonant sounds and syllables for voice training. In order to take the sound to the microphone, the lower jaw is set free, the mouth is wide opened enough and the syllables are uttered through rounding the rim and thus coving of the sound and throwing the sound forward are obtained. The syllable to push the sound forward should be rounded (Kolçak.1998).

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The most beautiful sound is the sound which comes out without obstruction. The connection between sound and breath should be protected against too weak or too strong sounds. Thus, even the faintest sound which is based on the support of breath reaches to the ear of the listener at the furthest part of the hall. While practicing nuance exercises, resonance activities should be paid utmost attention. Only then, to faint sounds may be articulated without detaching form breath and the strongest sound may be achieved without shouting. The primary nuance exercises start with mf (moderately strong) and mp (moderately faint) sounds (Kolçak.1998).

4.1. Voice Training in the traditional Turkish Classical Music

As is known, voice training has great importance in musical training. During the Ottoman period, the courses of voice training were employed in the places such as mehterhane (janissary band houses), public houses and dervish lodges where musical education is given. Musical education was popularized in Children’s Schools, Madrasahs, Enderun Schools (Special schools for the children of Ottoman Royal family), Lodges and Palaces while vocational music education was exercised in the Janissary Band Houses, Dârü’lHuffâz (The schools where hafiz memorized Quran), Dârü’l Kurra (the schools where students learn the ways to read Quran), Dervish Lodges and some parts of the Madrasahs. In this period, music education was given parallel to the general education policies of the state and in conformity with a religious and traditional system (Tanrıkorur, 2003: 22, 32).

The music lesson which we encountered especially during the latest period of Ottoman Empire was expressed with the term “Gına” at the beginning. The term “Gına” means singing and singing with a tone (www.osmanlicaturkce.com). Related to the content of Gına courses, it is stated that various musical works which narrate hymns and praises to the sovereign were performed in those lessons although there isn’t much document-based information related to the issue (Dinçer; 1988, 445). Starting from the term Gına, the most important factor in carrying Traditional Turkish Classical Music which is an important part of Turkish culture and employs the aesthetic perception related to the culture is the system of practicing when the method of “Practicing” which is used to discipline the voice. The practice in the music is the performance and singing of a music work by a master in order to train students and learning by the student. In this type of education where the musical notes aren’t written down but is only based on memory, benefiting from the teacher plays a significant role. The first thing to be done while the teacher is conducting practice is recording the piece of work into the memory and the second action is performing it. The most important issue to be considered at this point is the “style”. Style can be defined as playing a work in conformity with its composition without deforming its tempo and form and staying loyal to the aesthetic perception of the composer and adding

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own aesthetic perception. A good performance is the performance which obeys the stylistic characteristics of the work, tries to reveal the entire graces and secret beauties of the work as well as delivering the content of the piece and the secret meaning in this content (Behar, 1998: 24)

The art of singing started in our country when Ottoman State came across with Western music and the foundation of the Western music was established after Donizetti was invited to İstanbul in 1828 and the art of singing was born in Turkey as a necessity upon the aforementioned developments. Related to voice education, it is also observed that the courses of sonic information, reading musical notes, vocal, chorus and singing were taught in Darül-elhan (an official music school during the Ottoman period) between 1916 and 1927.

Master-apprentice education is a form of education which was employed commonly during the periods of Seljuk and Ottoman and the trainer and the students performed a work one-to-one in order to transfer their knowledge to the future generations. Today, the voice training is conducted through onetone training as seen in the previous ages.

One of the most important developments encountered after the establishment of Turkish Republic was provide state scholarship to the students who study music in European countries without any support and send other students to Europe through state scholarships. A committee which was established under the presidency of İsmail Hakkı (Baltacıoğlu), the Director of Darülfünun sent 22 students to Germany for music education and Nurullah Şevket Taşkıran and Bayan Afife who were sent for voice training were among those students.

After this education, the students who returned from abroad were called for duty for the rapidly increasing schools and our own teachers started to teach singing lessons. In the educational program of Musiki Muallim Mektebi (School of Music Teachers) between 1925 and 1931, the course of voice training was taught under the name of “Vocal” as the “Field Information”. In his paper called “the Application Methods and Problems Related to the Employment of Traditional Turkish Classical Music in Music Education”, he listed the aforementioned methods under the topic of “the Application Methods of Traditional Turkish Classical Music” as following: “1) We should well explain that Turkish Classical Music has a specific sound (fret) system and this system is much more different than the Western voice system with 12 equal intervals. 2) Two basic concepts which this sort of music is based on, “Mode and Tempo”, should be paid utmost attention and they should be taught through comparing to the similar terms and concepts of the West.

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3) The method of classifying and designating as a natural necessity of the science is also valid for Traditional Turkish Classical Music. 4) The definite instruments of this type
In the majority of institutions in our country which give music education, contemporary methods of musical education aren’t known, analyzed or utilized enough. Traditional Turkish Classical Music wasn’t analyzed through scientific methods, classified, arranged for education and methodized (Aydın; http://www.turkuler.com/yazi/GTM usta.asp).

Throughout the history, the chains of teaching and transferring were gathered around palaces, dervish lodges, mosques and mehterhanes; this brought along the performance schools and transformed “the difference of style” into “the difference of edition” upon the emerging of the musical notes. If everybody in the mass performance can’t produce the same sound, this is a problem but it isn’t the problem of Traditional Turkish Classical Music but the problem of the system of trainingperformance-singing. It is impossible to mention about the association in our state musical institutions which have been waited for the establishment. Another way to increase the knowledge is to see and experience it. Today, majority of the musical institutions aren’t aware of each other (they aren’t in relationship with each other). There is no sensitivity of the association of performance and training (Sarı; http://www.musikidergisi.net/?p=134 ) (The Differences of Training and Performance in the Traditional Turkish Classical Music). In the institutions where Traditional Turkish Classical Music is taught, it is important to employ the activities related to the performance of Traditional Turkish Classical Music verbal songs during the activities of individual and mass voice training in terms of development and progress of the Traditional Turkish Classical Music verbal songs.

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interpretational differences emerged due to different places such as mosques, palaces, dervish lodges etc. where Traditional Turkish Classical Music is conducted. This interpretation variation is also experienced in the mass performance of works. In our existing musical institutions, no association is observed in both performance and administration.

4.2. The Singing System in Traditional Turkish Classical Music “Throughout the periods which Turkish music encountered in the history such as Preparation period (between Farabi and Meragi), Pre-classical period (between Meragi and Hafız Post), Innovative period (between İsmail Dede and Hacı Arif Bey), Romantic period (between Hacı Arif Bey and Tanburi Cemil Bey) and Contemporary period (Sadettin Kaynak and later); Turkish music reached to its peak point. It is a music of voice rather than instruments and it has a voice system which is used in regular intervals (It wasn’t made harmonic through equalizing the voice intervals and spoiling the natural frequencies). It is performed according to the serials consisting of various voice intervals, the modes (590 different modes) obtained through employing those serials in accordance with some special circulation (progress) and combination of the rhythms from the simplest to the most complicated ones to obtain tempos (the pattern of tempos from 2 strokes to 120 strokes) and religious-nonreligiousmilitary- folkloric fields based on various voice and instrument forms” (Tanrıkorur, 1998: 206, 207).

Behar who defined singing methods as a face-to-face education system emphasizes that the students are required to sit in front of their teacher, understand, internalize and interpret whatever their teacher says, reads and behaves from beginning until the end and repeat them in the presence of their teacher. The old form of singing can’t be regarded as an education system which externalizes the human affairs but it doesn’t mean a one-on-one educational relationship and the students are alone with their teachers and learn singing alone as well as numerous students come together to get singing lessons (Behar, 2003: 51, 52 ).

Within the tradition of singing, the technical aspects and opportunities of human voice which is the most important and most common instrument of Traditional Turkish Classical Music were highly overlooked. Although human voice is accepted as themost important musical instrument, it is agonizing that special technical aspects required for the employment of human voice as a real musical instrument have been ignored for many centuries. The basic education related to voice maintained imitation-based or through inborn characteristics of the individual and the notion that student should be developed in terms of technical aspects was totally overlooked. When the works constituting Traditional Turkish Classical Music are analyzed, however, it may be seen that remarkable technical skills are required. Human voice which is one of the most important musical instrument wasn’t

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improved through technology-related activities. It was thought that the voice could be improved only through memorizing and performing a work through the student imitates his teacher one-to-one was enough. Interestingly, the repertoire is transferred into the singing tradition while writing was externalized and the fact that the works may be more or less changed while transferring them on the grapevine was accepted. It is also stated that the same work may be performed in various forms as well as numerous different forms could be performed at the same time. Nevertheless, it is also thoughtprovoking that the idea stating the resulting work had the “original” form created by the composer was assumed, claimed and was regarded as a boast (Behar 2003: 78). Again, Behar reports that those works should be obtained and singed from a sound reference, namely from a reliable resource, from a person who reads Quran properly and perfect (a mouth who is endower) and he also determines it an obsession of loyalty (Behar 2003: 78). Indeed, it is open to discussion that knowing this is an important cultural product which can’t be left to a simple loyalty obsession, perceiving and emphasizing the significance of transferring it to the future generations and providing its permanence through the mosth healthy methods; however, the same methods have remained loyal for many years. One of the sayings of Münir Nurettin Selçuk, one of the latest vocal artists who has practiced singing “from the classical masters through old ways” as a result of this loyalty and dependence stated that; “During the early years when I started to learn music, one of the sayings of my teachers which I never forget is as follows: Turkish music is a music of singers. Thus, it should be learned from from a person who reads quran well (from a well-known master). In my opinion, it is necessary to conduct it in the way old people did in order to learn the music properly and sing adequately and practice and exercise singing from a perfect and authorized person” (Behar 2003: 78, 79 ).

The student will be able to entirely use his voice in terms of technology upon the technical activities to be conducted related to voice training. The issue that whether those technical studies were conducted within the system of singing was found woth of analyzing.

4.3. Voice Training within the Singing System in Traditional Turkish Classical Music

The singing system is a method employed in Traditional Turkish Classical Music for a long time. The education give in thepast through the conducted singing meetings contributed to the repertoire development of the students in terms of both instrumental and vocal music. Through the memorybased education system, the works have been transferred to the students for many centuries. However, no studies were employed within the singing system related to technical development of human voice. Human voice which was regarded as the most important instrument was assumed to be developed only through imitating the style and attitudes of the master to perform a work.

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In the institutions of today which give Turkish Music education, however, voice training is being given in conformity with its objectives, voice training was given as a separate course as well as stylistic education. The student starts his education through breath training and then practices voice exercises and the lesson is consolidated through sound developing and flexor works. However, voice training in Traditional Turkish Classical Music doesn’t have a clear education method seen in the institutions which give a Western dominated education. In this field, every educator employs his own method. The technical activities which wasn’t included to the singing process but was assumed to provide significant contributions to individual are thought to play a significant role in the development of style and attitude in the individual and performing.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Breathing is a miracle for human beings. Although it is the most important power which combines us to life from birth to death, it is the main resource of chronical diseases, mental disorders, speaking singing and all sort of our behaviors and awareness either consciously or unconsciously. Correct breathing technique is a rule which individuals who desire to achieve professional success in using the voice properly should be aware or obey. In the conducted study, the employment of the correct breathin techniques in voice training while teaching Traditional Turkish Classical Music was analyzed. It was observed during the voice training that diaphragm supported breathing was the correct breathing technique and the courses of voice training should be supported with this teaching method. When it is considered that voice training is an international term, the breathing technique at the beginning of singing lessons is employed similarly in all the traditional music. The breathing education which is employed during the stages of individual voice training in Traditional Turkish Classical Music is conducted through one-to-one education. The education which is employed through starting with the correct breathing technique is known to be the most important factor in the technical development of the voice and the development of style and attitudes as the following stage.

The breathing education which is one of the major technical stages of the voice training lesson aims to introduce the physical characteristics of the voice of the student starting with correct breathing techniques, applying his voice properly in accordance with the structure of the work and protect his voice health.

References

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[1]

Arıkan. Y. 2007. Sahnede Bana Da Yer Açın. Yılmaz Yayınevi, İstanbul.

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Behar, C. 1993. Zaman, Mekân, Müzik- Klasik Türk Musikisinde Eğitim ( Meşk), İcra ve

Aktarım. AFA Yayınları, İstanbul. [3]

Behar. C. 1998, 2003. Aşk Olmayınca Meşk Olmaz. Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul.

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Behar. C. (1998). Zaman Mekân Müzik. AFA Yayınları, İstanbul.

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Çevik. S. 2006. Ulusal Müzik Sempozyumu Bildiriler. Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Denizli.

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Dinçer. M. 1988. Türkiye’de Okulöncesi Öğretim, İlköğretim ve Orta Öğretim Kurumlarında

Müzik Eğitimi Nasıl Olmalıdır. Birinci Müzik Kongresi, Kongre Bildirisi. Kültür Bakanlığı Yayını, Ankara. [7]

Gedikli. N. 1979 – 1999. Geleneksel Türk Sanat Musikisini Müzik Eğitimine Uygulama

Yöntemleri ve Sorunları [8]

Kartal. M. 2009. Nefes Teknikleri. Nefesin Sihirli Gücü. Sistem Yayınevi, İstanbul.

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Kartal. M. 2010. Nefesle İyileşme. Sistem Yayınevi, İstanbul.

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Kekeç D.Y. 2006. Müzik Öğretmenliği Ana Bilim Dallarında Uygulanan Bireysel Ses Eğitimi

Derslerinde Türk Müziğine Dayalı Ezgilerin Kullanımına İlişkin Bir Araştırma. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. [11]

Kolçak. O. 1998. Ses Eğitimi ve Şarkı Sanatı. Esin Yayınevi, İstanbul.

[12]

Öztürk. F.G. 2003. Müzik Ögretmeni Yetiştiren Kurumlarda Ses Eğitiminin Önemi ve Bireysel

Ses Eğitimi Ders. http://www.gefad.gazi.edu.tr/231/7.pdf (16 Kasım 2005)

[13]

Perçin. Y. 2004. 1924–2004 Musiki Muallim Mektebinden Günümüze Müzik Öğretmeni

Yetiştirme Sempozyumu Bildirisi Bireysel Ses Eğitiminde diksiyon dersinin önemi SDÜ, Isparta, 7–10 Nisan

[14]

Sevinç S.-Şimşek G. 2004. Müzik Eğitimi Bölümlerinde Ses Eğitimi (Şan) Dersine Ayrılan

Sürenin Yeterli Olup Olmadığı Üzerine Bir Araştırma . http://www.gefad.gazi.edu.tr/243/13.pdf (22

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Aralık 2005) [15] Tanrıkorur, C. 1998, “Türk Müzik Kimliği”, Dergâh Yayınları, İstanbul

[16] Tanrıkorur, C. 2003, “Müzik, Kültür, Dil”, Dergah Yayınları, İstanbul. [17] Töreyin, M. 1998, Türkiye Türkçesi Dil Bilgisi Yapısının Şan Eğitimi Amaç, İlke ve Teknikleri Açısından İncelenmesi, Gazi Üniv. Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi. (http://www.musikidergisi.net/?p=134 ) (Aydın; http://www.turkuler.com/yazi/GTM usta.asp).

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A REVIEW OF THE EFFECTS OF MEVLANA’S POEMS ON THE COMPOSITION IN THE MEVLEVI RITUAL: CARGAH MEVLEVI RITUEL Ph.D.Oguz KARAKAYA Selcuk University, Dilek Sabanci State Conservatory, Traditional Turkish Music Department

[email protected] Abstract Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi was born in the city Belh which is located in Afghanistan today on September 30, 1207. He is one of the most important poets, Sufis and intellectuals of Turkish-Islamic world. His father was BahaeddinVeled who was called Sultanû‟l Ulema (Sultan of Ulema‟s) during that period. Due to some political events and Mongol invasion occurred during that period, Mevlana‟s family visited Nisabur, Baghdad, Mecca, Jerusalem and Damascus at first, then travelled to Malatya, Erzincan, Sivas, Kayseri, Nigde and Karaman in Turkey and finally arrived in Konya. Mevlana considerably took the advantage of both his father and the great Sufis of the cities where they visited and established the foundations of the idea and opinion of his future works. The works of Mevlana such as „Mesnevi‟, „Fîh-i Mafih‟, „Mektubat‟ and „Divan-ı Kebir‟ have been translated into numeroud foreign languages up to now. Among those works, especially Mesnevi consists of twenty five thousand six hundred couplets while Divan-ı Kebir has forty thousand. Moreover, those poms were written in Persian through aruz prosody. After Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi died on December 17, 1273, the Mevleviyag order was established in the light of his works and ideas. Mevlânâ‟s son Sultan Veled determined the rules and conventions of this order. In the Mevleviyah order, Mevlevi rituals were organized in the Mevleviyah dervish lodges in addition to the obligatory worship. The Mevlevi rituals are composed in various forms of Turkish Music and consist of verbal and instrumental chapter. The lyrics of Mevlevi rituals are chosen from the poems in Mesnevi and Divan-ı Kebir in accordance with the rules and conventions of the order. The aruz prosody which those were written is the directly in relation with the rhythm structure of the verbal sections in Mevleviyah rituals. The poems which form the lyrics of the Mevlevi rituals are in the four chapters of the rituals called „selam‟ (greeting / part). Here, there is a main theme which each selam undertook. The lyrics should reflect this theme and the structure of tempo/rhythm and the lyrics should be in accordance with the aruz prosody in a with the theme of the chapters. In the uniformity of those rules, the composition is conducted and the verbal section of the Meveleviyah rituals is completed. Prior to and after the verbal section, there are instrumental chapters and those sections have different rhythmic structure. Between the years of 1697 and 1729, Nayi (the Flute Player = Neyzen) Osman Dede who was the sheik of İstanbul Galata Mevlevi Lodge produced numerous songs as a composer, a flute player, a theoretician, a calligraphist and a poet. One of those songs is the „Cargah Mevlevi Ritual‟ which he composed in the form of Cargah mode. This Mevlevi ritual still sets a good in terms of the example in terms of using Cargah mode and the effect of poem written in the aruz prosody on the structure of rhythm and melody. Keywords: Mevlevi ritual, Mevlana, Aruz, Turkish Music

1.Introduction Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi was born in the city Belh which is located in Afghanistan today on September 30, 1207 (Can, 2006, p. 31). He is one of the most important poets, Sufis and intellectuals of Turkish-Islamic world. „His father was BahâeddinVeled who was called Sultanû‟l Ulema (Sultan of Ulema‟s) (Nahifi, Çelebioğlu, 2010, p.38) during that period. „Due to some political events and

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Mongol invasion occurred during that period‟ (Hacıgökmen, 2014), Mevlana‟s family visited Nisabur, Baghdad, Mecca, Jerusalem and Damascus at first, then travelled to Malatya, Erzincan, Sivas, Kayseri, Nigde and Karaman (Can, 2006, p.34-36) in Turkey and finally arrived in Konya. Mevlana considerably took the advantage of both his father and the great Sufis of the cities where they visited and established the foundations of the idea and opinion of his future works. The works of Mevlana such as „Mesnevi‟, „Fih-i Mafih‟, „Mektubat‟ and „Divan-ı Kebir‟ (Ayangil, 2014, p.3) have been translated into numeroud foreign languages up to now. Among those works, especially „Mesnevi consists of twenty five thousand six hundred couplets‟ (Yeniterzi, 2014) while Dîvân-i Kebîr has forty thousand. Moreover, those poms were written in „Persian‟ (Karaismailoğlu, 2014) through aruzprosody. Arûz has great importance in Turkish, Arabic and Persian literature. Although aruz enables writing and reading poems in accordance with definite rules and patterns, the lyric forms a rhythmic structure and the rhymes establish a melodic harmony in the ear. This occasion is a typical characteristic of the poems written through aruz prosody in the Classical Turkish Literature. In order to catch this harmony, the science of “aruz” is employed as the basic foundation. The person who presented the term “aruz” for the first time is an Arabic linguist called Imam Halil Bin Ahmet. The Arabic aruz primarily transitted to Iran and then entered in to Turkish literature through the influence of Persian Literature after the Turks converted to Islam (Dilcin, 2004, p.5). The aruz prosody which is based on “the length and shortness of syllables” (Dilcin, 2004, p.3) “dominated the world of Classical Turkish Poem for a long time although it didn‟t belong to Turks in principle. The composers combined the harmony of melody, rhythm and speech” (Akbulut, 1990). Aruz is an Arabic word and it means “the pole locatedin the middle of the tent” (Tanrıkorur, 2003). In other words, it may be thought that the aruz functions as the main body of the poem similar to the main column-bedplate which holds the tent up. It is understood that the poems written in aruz form are the “restrained and analogic” words” (Tanrıkorur, 2003). The long and short syllables of the poems which are represented by those patterns show the choice of tempo/rhythm during the stage of composition. In this case, the composer can‟t compose the poem written in aruz prosody in the rhythm/tempo and mode he desires. It seems that the aruz prosody is the most important factor here. Mevlânâ Celâleddin-i Rumi employed the various forms of aruz prosody such as „Remel, Recez, Hezec, Münserih and Müctes etc.‟ in his works, especially in Mesnevî and Divan-ı Kebir. The patterns in this science which depends of the length of the syllables differs according to the transposition of the syllables. When Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi died on December 17, 1273 (Can, 2006), the order of Mevleviyah was established under the light of his works and opinions. Mevlana‟s son Sultan Veled determined the rules and conventions of this path (Kücük, 2003, p.21). In the Mevleviyah order, the mevlevi rituals were organized in the dervish lodge in addition to the obligatory daily worships. The mevlevi rituals are composed in various forms of Turkish Music and include verbal and instrumental chapters. The mevlevi rituals are the second biggest form of Turkish Music. At the beginning of the rituel, the Na‟t-i Şerîf which describes the perfect character of the Muhammed the Prophet (pub) is read aloud. The Na‟t is composed in the mode of Rast and uttered by a person a capella and withouth rhythm/freely. After the Na‟t-i Şerif, the kudüm (a small double drum used as the rhythm instrument) is played. The beating of kudüm represents the order of Allah meaning the “Kün”, namely, „be‟ while Almighty Allah creates the universes. Then, the main improvisation is conducted through the flute. The main theme here is the representation of the holy blowing which Mighty Allah blowed to give life to the creatures. In this chapter, the Semazen‟s (whirling dervishes) conduct a circular walking so that they greet each other three times. This chapter is called Devr-i Veledi. After that, the first greeting which is the verbal chapter of the ritual is conducted. The main theme here is the perception among humans

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN beings related to their own servitude. Starting from this thought, the first greeting of the mevlevi rituals were generally composed through the tempos of “14 / 8 Mevlevi Devr-i Revanı” or “8 / 8 Düyek. After the first greeting, the second greeting starts. The main theme of this chapter is to perceive the existence, solidarity, sovereignity and power of the Almighty Allah. This greeting of the rituals was composed in the tempo of 9/4 Ağır Evfer to reflect the main theme. After the second greeting, the third greeting is conducted. The main theme of this chapter the transformation of the admiration into love for the existence, solidarity, sovereignity, and power of the Almighty Allah. This main theme revealed the composition of the third greeting in three different rhythms/tempos. The beginning of the third greeting was generally composed in the forms of 28/4 Devr-i Kebir or 12 / 4 Frenkcin tempo/rhythm. After this verbal chapter, there comes an instrumental chapter composed in 10/8 Aksak Semai rhythm/tempo. After this instrumental chapter, the third chapter is completed through a verbal chapter composed in the tempo of 6 / 8 Yürük Semai. The fourth greeting is the final verbal chapter of the Mevlevi Rituals. The main theme represented in this chapter is the return of the dervished to their own servitude after this moral journey. This chapter was also composed in the tempo of 9/4 Ağır Evfer. After the fourth greeting, mass performance of verbal and instrumental chapters of the mevlevi ritual is completed through the Son Peşrev (the Final Prelude) composed in the tempo of 8/8 Düyek and 6/8YürükSemâî. Musical form characteristics of the fifty three extant mevlevi rituals were formed with this main topic and structure. 2.Methods In this study, the effects of the poems by Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi on the melody and rhythm structure during the composition of the Mevlevi Rituals were analyzed. For sampling, the Mevlevi Ritual composed by the Nayi (Neyzen= the Flute Player) Osman Dede who was a sheik, a composer, a performer, a peot and a theoretician in the Galata Mevlevi Lodge in the 17.th century was analyzed. Moreover, the literature review was conducted for the theoretical information. 3.Findings and Interpretations The lyrics of the Mevlevi rituals are known to consist of the poems by Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi. Again, it is seen that they were written in the form of aruz prosody which contains the poetic forms of Turkish-Islam literature. Though the various aruz patterns employed in those poems, the basic idea to be expressed is written in a rhythmic and melodic pattern. This rhythmic and melodic verbal element also influences the musical structure. As an example of it, the Mevlevi Ritual composed by Nayi (Ney player) Osman Dede shows the inter-relationship between the lyrics and composition. The lyrics in the first greeting of the Cargah Mevlevi ritual was chosen from the Divan-ı Kebir by Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi. This Mevlevi ritual was composed by Nayi Osman Dede who was the Head flute Player and the Postnişin (the head of the dervish lodge) in Galata Mevlevi Lodge in the seventeenth century (Erguner, 2014). Osman Dede determined the tempo to compose the ritual as „Cargah Makamı (Mode)‟. When the poems composed in this tempo for the ritual are analyzed carefully, the outnumbering works with the religious and sufistic contents up to today may be clearly seen. The main theme in the first greeting of the mevlevi rituals is the perception of the own of the human beings. Within the framework of this main theme, Nayi Osman Dede determined the lyrics of the first greeting from Divan-ı Kebîr as follows: Bâ ân ki ez peyvestegî men aşk(ı) geştem aşk(ı) men

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Bîgâne mî bâşem çünînbâ aşk(ı) ez dest-î fiten The first couplet with the Ode number of 1808 in the „Recez‟ form of aruz was chosen. This couplet was written with the pattern of müstef‟ilün, müstef‟ilün, müstef‟ilün, müstef‟ilün. The rhythm of the first greeting (chapter) is 14 / 8 Mevlevi Devr-i Revan. Each meter in this chapter consists of fourteen unit of time.

Figure 1. (Calısır, 2010)

Figure 1.1. (Cevikoglu, 2011) As seen in Figure 1. and 1.1., the first syllable of the couplet „Ba‟ starts from the fourth unit of time and uses the fifth unit of time so that it is vocalized within two units of time. The second syllable of the couple, „ân‟ starts at the sixth unit of time and continues until the end of the ninth unit od time. The third syllable of the couple, „ki‟, uses the tenth unit of time and takes only one unit of time. The fourth syllable of the couplet, „ez‟, starts at the eleventh unit of time, uses the fourteenth unit of time and completes the meter. It continues until the first three units of time in the other meter. The fifth syllable of the couplet, „pey‟, starts at the fourth unit of time in the second meter and continues until the end of the fifth unit of time. The sixth syllable of the couplet, „ves‟, starts at the sixth unit of time in the meter and continues until the end of the ninth unit of time. The seventh syllable of the couplet, „te‟, is used at the tenth unit of time and takes only one unit of time. The eighth syllable of time, „gî‟, starts at the eleventh unit of time, it uses the fourteenth unit of time and completes the meter and continues throughout the fourteenth unit of time and completes this meter. It also takes the first three units of time in the next meter. As seen in Figure 1, the scale of the couplet is in the pattern of vezni „müstef‟ilün, müstef‟ilün, müstef‟ilün, müstef‟ilün‟ and the distribution of the each scale within the fourteen units of time is equal. This relationship between the structure, composition and lyrics shows how the times of vocalization differ according to both mathematical structure and the length of the syllables. Another

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN striking point here is that the composer can‟t use the verbal element as he wishes and has to consider the numerical and durative harmony within definite rules. After the first couplet of the first greeting, following couplets which were written in a different prosody were chosen from the Divan-ı Kebir: İmrûz(i) semâ‟est_müdâmest_ü sakâyî Gerdân şüde ber cem‟(i) kadehhâ-yi atâyî Fermân-ı sekallah(ı) resîdest(i) bi-nûşîd İn ten heme cân şevk(i) zi ihvân-ı safâyî The first and second couplets with the number of Ode 2635 written in the Hezec form of aruzwere employed. Those couplets were written in the form of mef‟ûlü mefâîlü mefâîlü fe‟ûlün.Since prosody pattern of the couplets change, the location of the syllables in the meter also differs. As seen in Figure 2. and 2.1.;

Figure 2. (Calısır, 2010)

Figure 2.1. (Cevikoglu, 2011) The first syllable of the couplet „İm‟, is vocalized within the first, second and third units of time. The second syllable of the couplet, „rû‟, starts at the fourth unit of time in the meter, continues until the end of the fourteenth unit of time and completes the meter. The fourth syllable of the couplet, „z(i)‟, was vocalized within the first and second units of time in the meter. The fourth syllable of the couplet, „se‟, was vocalized within the third unit of time. The fifth syllable of the couplet, „mâ‟, was vocalized within the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh units of time. The sixth syllable of the couplet, „est‟, starts at the eighth unit of time and continues until the end of the meter.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The seventh syllable of the couplet, „_ü‟, was vocalized within the first and second unit time of the meter. The eighth syllable of the couplet, „mü‟, was vocalized within the third unit of the meter. The ninth syllable of the couplet, „dâ‟, was vocalized within the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh units of time. The tenth syllable of the couplet, „mest‟, starts at the eighth unit of time and it was vocalized until the end of the fourteenth unit of time. The eleventh syllable of the couplet, „_ü‟, was vocalized throughout the first, second and third units of time in the following meter. The twelfth syllable of the couplet, „sa‟, was vocalized in the third unit of time in the meter. The thirteenth syllable of the couplet, „kâ‟, was vocalized throughout the fourth, fifith, sixth and seventh units of time in the meter. The fourteenth syllable of the couplet „yi‟ starts at the eighth unit of time in the meter and continues until the fourteenth unit of time. As seen in Figure 2. and 2.1. , it is seen that the prosody of the couplet is in the pattern of „mef‟ûlü mefâîlü mefâîlü fe‟ûlün‟ and each meter was equally distributed within the fourteen units of time. In the first greeting, following couplets written in different prosodies were chosen from Divan-ı Kebir: Biyâyîd(i) bi-yâyîd(i) ki dildâr-ı resîdest Biyâyîd(i) bi-yâyîd(i) ki gülzâr-ı demîdest

Figure 3. (Calısır, 2010)

Figure 3.1. (Cevikoglu, 2011) The first couplet with the Ode number of 329 which was written in the Hezec form of aruz was chosen. Those couplets were written in the prosody pattern of mefâ‟îlü mefâîlü mefâîlü fe‟ûlün. As

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN seen in Figure 3, the distribution of sound and words (syllable) varies within the fourteen units of time due to the difference of prosody. Here, the differences are observed among the distribution of the syllables within the units of time on condition that the fourteen units of time remain the same thoughout the first greeting (chapter). The final two couplets of the first greeting were written in the Remel form of Aruz. Those couplets were written in the prosody pattern of fâ‟ilâtün fâ‟ilâtün fâ‟ilâtün fâ‟ilün: Sûre-î Ve‟l-leyl(i) dîdem vasf-ı gîsû-yî şümâst Ve‟d-duhâ hândem serâser nüsha-î rûy-î şümâst Âyet_âyet tâ be sûy-î ka‟be kavseyn_âmedem Çün nazar kerdem bi-dîdem tâk-ı ebrû-yî şümast

Figure 4. (Calısır, 2010)

Figure 4.1. (Cevikoglu, 2011) As seen in Figure 4. and 4.1., the couplets were written in the prosody form of fâ‟ilâtün fâ‟ilâtün fâ‟ilâtün fâ‟ilün and the distribution of the sounds and syllables within the fourteen units of time differ from the other patterns. The second greeting of the Cargah Mevlevi Ritual was established on the main theme of recognizing the superiority, sovereignity and power of Almighty Allah. The lyrics of this greeting consist of the 1.st and 2.nd couplets with the Ode number of 3137 in Divan-ı Kebir. On condition that the lyrics and rhythm characteristics of this greeting are similar, the second greetings of the other mevlevi rituals have the same characteristics of lyrics and rhythm. The lyrics employed here were written in the pattern of aruz prosody „mef‟ûlü mefâîlün fe‟ilün‟. Sultân-ı menî sultân-ı menî Ender dil_ücân_îmân-ı menî Der men bi-demî men zinde şevem

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Yek cân çi şeved sad cân-ı menî

Figure 5. (Calısır, 2010)

Figure 5.1. (Cevikoglu, 2011) As seen in Figure 5. and 5.1., the couplets were written in the aruz prosody form of mef‟ûlü mefâîlün fe‟ilün and the distribution of sounds and syllables within the nine units of time. Within the framework of the main theme of the seconds greeting, the tempo of 9/4 Agır Evfer is vocalized in a slower tempo (speed) than the first greeting. The third greeting of Cargah Mevlevi Ritual was established on the main theme of transformation of the admiration of the superiority, sovereignity and power of Almighty Allah into love. The entrance tempo/rhythm of the third greeting was generally composed through 28 / 4 Devr-i Kebir or 12 / 4 Frenkçin tempo/rhythm. For that reason, the lyrics employed in this ritual were written in the pattern of aruz prosody “Müstef‟ilün müstef‟ilün müstef‟ilün müstef‟ilün”. Ey şehd-nûşîn-i lebet pâk ez heme âlûdegî Bin‟şinki tâ bâz îsted çeşmem zi hun-pâlûdegî

Figure 6. (Calısır, 2010)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Figure 6.1. (Cevikoglu, 2011) As seen in Figure 6. and 6.1., the couplets were written in the pattern of “Müstef‟ilün müstef‟ilün müstef‟ilün müstef‟ilün” and the distribution of sounds and syllables within the twenty eight units of time is conducted this way. After this chapter which is uttered at the beginning of the third greeting, the rhythm changes since the aruz prosody changes and the instrumental chapter in the rhythm of 10 /8 Aksak Semai is played. As stated in the main theme, the admiration for the Almighty Allah turn into love turns into love after this chapter. When the general speed and beats of the rhythm called 6 / 8 Yürük Semai are combined to the melody and the lyrics, the main theme occur enthusiastically. The lyrics of this Yürük Semai chapter consist of the first and different thirteen couplets with the Ode number of 332 in Divan-ı Kebir. În hâne ki peyveste der_ô çeng_u çegânest Ez hâce bi-pursîd(i) ki în hâne çi hânest Çûn rûz-i kıyâmet ki kesî râ ser-i kes nîst Ez zevk (i) ne-dânist (i) fülânest_ü fülânest

Figure 7. (Calısır, 2010)

Figure 7.1. (Cevikoglu, 2011)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN As seen in Figure 7. and 7.1., the couplets were written with the pattern of “mef‟ûlü mefâ‟ îlü mefâ‟îlü fe‟ûlün” and the distribution of sounds and syllables within the six units of time occurs in this way. After this Yürük Semai chapter of the third greeting, the metronome speed of the music gradually and slowly increases although there is an instrumental chapter. After this instrumental chapter, a Rubaie written through the Hezec form of Aruz was chosen. Among those couplets, the 1.st, 2.nd and 4.th lines were written through the aruz prosody pattern of mef‟ûlü mefâ‟îlün mefâ‟îlün fâ while the third line was written through the pattern of mef‟ûlü mefâ‟îlün mefâ‟îlü fe‟ûl. Bişnev tü zi ney çihâ mî gûyed Esrâr-ı nühüfte kibriyâ mî gûyed Ruh zerd(i) derûn tehî vü ser dâde be bâd Bînutk_u zebân Hudâ Hudâ mî gûyed

Figure 8. (Calısır, 2010)

Figure 8.1. (Cevikoglu, 2011) As seen in Figure 8. and 8.1., the couplets were written in the patterns of “mef‟ûlü mefâ‟îlün mefâ‟îlün fâ” and mef‟ûlü mefâ‟îlün mefâ‟îlü fe‟ûl, the distribution of sounds asyllables within the six units of time is in this way. The other lyrics of this chapter which is a Rubaie written in the Hezec form of Aruz was also taken from Divan-ı Kebir. The first and fourth lines of the couplets were written through the prosody pattern of mef‟ûlü mefâ‟ îlü mefâ‟îlü fe‟ûl while the second and third lines were written through the pattern of mef‟ûlü mefâ‟îlün mefâ‟ îlü fe‟ûl. Mevlâye ene‟t-tâibü mimmâ selefâ Hel yukbelü özrü âşıkin kad telefâ În kâne nedâmetî sudûden ve cefâ Mevlâye afallâhü afallâhü afâ

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Figure 9. (Calısır, 2010)

Figure 9.1. (Cevikoglu, 2011) As seen in Figure 9. and 9.1., the couplets were written through the patterns of “mef‟ûlü mefâ‟ îlü mefâ‟îlü fe‟ûl” and“mef‟ûlü mefâ‟ îlün mefâ‟ îlü fe‟ûl”and the distribution of sounds and syllables within the six units of time occurs this way. The following lyrics of this chapter which was an Ode written in the Seri form of Aruz were taken from Divan-ı Kebir. Those couplets were written in the prosody pattern of müfteilün müfteilün fâilât. Bâz resîdîm zi mey-hâne mest Bâz rehîdîm zi bâlâvü pest

Figure 10. (Calısır, 2010)

Figure 10.1. (Cevikoglu, 2011) As seen in Figure 10. and 10.1., the couplets were written through the pattern of “müfteilün müfteilün fâilât” and the distribution of the sounds and syllables within the six units of time occurred this way.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The following lyrics of this chapter which was an Ode written in the Münserih form of Aruz were taken from Divan-ı Kebir. Those couplets were written in the prosody pattern of müfte‟ilün fâ‟ilân müfte‟ilün fâ‟ilân. Bâz(ı) ez_ân kûh-i Kâf_âmed Ankâ-yı aşk Bâz(ı) ber_âmed zi cân na‟re-i heyhâ-yı aşk Aşk(ı) nidâ-yî bülend kerd(i) be âvâz-ı pest Key dil-i bâlâ niger der kad-i bâlâ-yı aşk

Figure 11. (Calısır, 2010)

Figure 11.1. (Cevikoglu, 2011) As seen in Figure 11. and 11. 1., the couplets were written through the pattern of “müfte‟ilün fâ‟ilân müfte‟ilün fâ‟ilân” and the distribution of the sounds and syllables within the six units of time occurred this way. The final lyrics of this chapter which is an Ode written in Müctes form of Aruz was again obtained from Divan-ı Kebir. Those couplets were written in the prosody pattern of mefâ‟ilün fe‟ilâtün mefâ‟ilün fe‟ilün / fa‟lün. Kücâst(ı) mutrıb-ı dil tâ zi na‟rehâ-yı salâ Der_efkened dem-i ô der hezâr(ı) ser sevdâ Çü âfitâb-ı cemâlet ber_âmed_ez meşrik Zi zerre zerre şinîdem ki ni‟me Melânâ

Figure 12. (Calısır, 2010)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Figure 12.1. (Cevikoglu, 2011) As seen in Figure 12. and 12.1., the couplets were written through the pattern of “mefâ‟ilün fe‟ilâtün mefâ‟ilün fe‟ilün / fa‟lün” and the distribution of the sounds and syllables within the six units of time occurred this way. The lyrics of the fourth greeting and the lyrics and musical rhythm structure of the second greeting are in the same form. 4.Conclusions In his works, especially in Mesnevi and Divan-ı Kebir, Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi wrote poems, odes and rubaies through the aruz prosody which has a significant place in Turkish-Islam literature. After the death of Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi, the mevleviyah order was established by his son Sultan Veled the procedures-rules and conventions of Mevleviyah were determined based upon the Mevlana‟s sufistic thought and ideas. The mevlevi rituals have great importance in those rules and conventions. The lyrics of the mevlevi rituals are chosen from the poems,odes and rubaies of Mevlana. Since the poems were written in the aruz prosody, there is an occasion of longness and shortness depending on the either syllables end with a consonant or a wovel. According to the longness and shortness of the syllables, it is better to consider the longness and shortness of the notes in terms of duration during the process of composition. For that reason, the syllables of the poems with different prosodies in the same greeting (chapter) are vocalized in different units of time within the meter. The poems written in the same prosody are seen to be vocalized through the same units of time as if they were patterns. References Akbulut, Y. (1990). Klasik Türk Müziği Şarkı Formunda Usûl Aruz Vezni İlişkisi, Sanatta Yeterlik Tezi. Selcuk Universitesi. Ayangil, R. (2014). Mevlana Metinlerinde Musiki ve Sema‟a İlişkin Mecazlar. Tarihi Süreçte Mevlana ve Eserleri. 9-10 Aralık 2011 Ulusal Sempozyum. Mevlana Araştırmaları Enstitüsü. Konya Can, Ş. (2006). Mevlana hayatı-şahsiyeti-fikirleri. Ötüken Neşriyat A.Ş. İstanbul Çalışır, A. (2010). Beste-i Kadim‟den Beste-i Cedid‟e Mevlevî Ayinleri. Selçuklu Belediyesi Kültür Yayınları Yayın no:35. Konya Çevikoğlu, T. (2011). Mevlevi Ayinleri Usuller ve Aruz. T.C. Konya Valiliği İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü Yayınları Yayın no:216. İstanbul Dilçin, C. (2004). Örneklerle Türk Şiir Bilgisi. Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları no: 517. Ankara Erguner, S. (2014). Lale Devrinde Mevlevi Musikisi ve Osman Dede. Tarihi Süreçte Mevlana ve Eserleri. 9-10 Aralık 2011 Ulusal Sempozyum. Mevlana Araştırmaları Enstitüsü. Konya

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Hacıgökmen, M.A. (2014). Mevlana‟nın Divan-ı Kebir‟inde Selçuklular‟la İlgili Tarihi Olaylar. Tarihi Süreçte Mevlana ve Eserleri. 9-10 Aralık 2011 Ulusal Sempozyum. Mevlana Araştırmaları Enstitüsü. Konya Karaismailoğlu, A. (2014). Mevlana‟nın Eserlerinde Gazneli ve Selçuklu Sultanları. Tarihi Süreçte Mevlana ve Eserleri. 9-10 Aralık 2011 Ulusal Sempozyum. Mevlana Araştırmaları Enstitüsü. Konya Küçük, S. (2003). Mevleviliğin Son Yüzyılı. Simurg Yayınları, İstanbul Tanrıkorur, C. (2003). Osmanlı Dönemi Türk Müziği. Dergah Yayınları, İstanbul Top, H.H. (2001). Mevlevi Usul ve Adabı. Ötüken Neşriyat A.Ş. İstanbul Yeniterzi, E. (2014). Hz. Mevlana‟nın Diliyle Mesnevî‟i Şerif. Tarihi Süreçte Mevlana ve Eserleri. 9-10 Aralık 2011 Ulusal Sempozyum. Mevlana Araştırmaları Enstitüsü. Konya

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

RELIABILITY PERCEPTION OF MEDIA NEWS AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

Research Assistant Emre Osman OLKUN Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Journalism Department [email protected] Assoc. Prof. Dr. Şükrü BALCI Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Journalism Department [email protected] Abstract Medya ve haber, iletişim araştırmalarının önemli konu başlıkları arasında yer almaktadır. Özellikle, insanların medyada yer alan haberlere olan güven düzeyi, genelde iletişim, özelde ise gazetecilik alanında uzun bir süredir tartışılan ve incelenen konuların başında gelmektedir. 2000’li yıllarla beraber sosyal medyanın kullanılmaya başlanması ve kısa sürede yaygınlaşmasıyla beraber haber, farklı araçlarla, farklı şekillerle insanlarla buluşma imkânı bulmuştur. Bu durum insanların geleneksel medya araçlarına olan bakışında değişikliklere neden olmakla birlikte, habere olan güven düzeyinde de farklılaşmaların olması sonucunu doğurmuştur. İşte iletişim fakültesi öğrencilerinin medya haberlerine olan güven algısı tespit edilmeye çalışıldığı bu araştırmada, yöntem olarak saha araştırması kullanılmıştır. Araştırma kapsamında 320 kişiye ulaşılmış ve elde edilen veriler yüz yüze görüşmeye dayalı anket tekniğiyle toplanmıştır. Çalışma kapsamında genel olarak iletişim fakültesi öğrencilerinin medya haberlerine olan güven algısı ölçülmeye çalışılmıştır. Bununla beraber çalışmada, iletişim fakültesi öğrencilerinin medya araçlarını kullanım alışkanlıklarıyla beraber bu araçlara duydukları güven düzeyi de tespit edilmesi hedeflenmiştir. Ayrıca iletişim fakültesi öğrencilerinin medya haberlerine olan güven düzeyini belirleyen faktörler de çalışmada incelenin bir diğer konudur. Araştırma sonuçları; katılımcıların gazete haberlerine daha çok güven duyduklarını ortaya koymaktadır. Katılımcıların gazete haberlerine güven düzeyleri arttıkça, televizyon haberlerine güven düzeylerinde de bir artış yaşanmaktadır. Güvenilir olma ve tarafsızlık, haber elde etmek için medya tercihinde etkili en önemli iki faktör durumundadır. Siyaset ve magazin haberleri ise, en az güven duyulan haber türleri arasında yer almaktadır. Keywords: Haber, Medya, Güven, Güven Algısı.

1. Introduction News/communication being used by humankind within different communication vehicles from the beginning of history has always protected its importance and developed. Media after its rapid development in 20th century has provided societies more qualified communication possibilities. With usage of internet technologies, news can find a possibility to reach people by using different vehicles and forms after appearance of social media in 21th century. News is a text which claims reality and it is accepted the most effective content of media because of its acceptance as reality or relation with reality (Temizkan, 2012: 332). However, it has been revealed media as the less reliable organization in society by some surveys (Damlapınar, 2008: 188). This insecurity situation of media has negatively affected reliability perception of people about news. Consequently, people prefer to use media organizations to which they trust to get news and 779

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN information about events. Beside this, usage of social media in news production processes and as news source have widen borders of the topic about reliability of news and this has also increased potential and possibility of news production processes (Balcı & Bekiroğlu, 2014: 195). From starting this point of view, this study basically aims to detect reliability perception of university students to media news which was published and broadcasted in media by using survey method. Reliability perception of students from communication faculty, their media usage behaviors and factors determining their reliability level to media news were tried to detect with using data obtained from 320 university students by using questionnaire technique depending on face to face meeting. 2. Nature of News Today mass communication vehicles and news as their first priority have a crucial role to reproduction and presentation of social, political, cultural, economic, artistic and daily beings and events. Because of news media‟s important role for formation of opinion and collecting information, it is accepted as one of the main references. In other words, media functions as a main reference perspective for formation of people‟s ideas about social events (Balcı & Bekiroğlu, 2014: 193). The production process of news which plays an important and crucial role for society consists of long and complex processes except predictions. Active factors taking place in the news production processes are determined according to specific features of each media organization. Although news media theoretically depends on similar news production processes, this situation can show differences in the production process of news media (Dursun, 2009: 47).In other words, news is shaped by decisions in production processes made by media organizations and it is taken in hand in order to place ideas and beliefs its own structure. In this context, media functions to realize and legitimize private interests controlling power and activities of private sector and this function turns media a propaganda vehicle which works with a filter system called gatekeepers. Analysis of economic structure of media is not enough to make clear working mentality of this system. Beside economic structure; cultural dimensions of society, capitalist social relations and ideological culture should be taken in hand (Mora, 2011: 16). Factors which are effective on news production processes are taken in hand in propaganda model developed by Herman and Chomsky. Herman and Chomsky (1998: 22) collected 5 different news filters used by media organizations throughout news production processes. 1. Ownership structure of dominant media companies, profit-oriented, its capacity and fortunes of media owners. 2. Advertisement is the biggest and most important income source of media. 3. Media accepts officials, business man and experts supported by governments and business world as basic news source while producing news material. 4. Flaks refer to the negative responses directed to media and flaks is accepted as a method to control or repress media. 5. The usage of anti-communism discourse in media as a control mechanism. In fact anti-communism being last filter in Herman-Chomsky's propaganda model is used as an political control mechanism. Herman and Chomsky defend that anti-communism has an instrumental value for elites in social structure. Elites want to use anti-communism filter to legitimization of military coups, support conservative governments, deactivate national leftist movements and labor movements (Shoemaker & Reese, 2014: 111). Herman and Chomksy state that trivialization process of alternative ideas by statuesque formed by elites in social structure is presented by media as a normal process. Herman and Chomsky also defend that people taking responsibility in news production process believe that they work professionally and select news and news material objectively depending on international news values (1998: 22). There are different approaches about news selection and news eliminate processes except Herman and Chomsyky's propaganda model. Yüksel (2010: 210) proposed one of these approaches: There are 5 factors which determine which topic will take place in news organization contents as news. These factors are: 1. Personal or employees effects

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2. Institutional purposes 3. Effects from outside 4. Routine conditions of media organizations 5. Ideological effects. There are so many effects generally affecting media and specially affecting news content similarly statements of Herman, Chomsky and Yüksel. Although these effects can change according to structure of news organization and media, but there are also some similarities too. Finally, effects and causes mentioned above determine taking place of some events, selected among millions events from all over the world, in media outlets. At the same time these news contents turned into news in media organizations can be affected by these effects. In addition to this, photo usage of news, place of news on newspapers, position of news on newspaper pages, broadcasting time of news on television and its timeline can be determined by same effects and causes (Olkun, 2016: 496). 3. Objectivity and Reliability in News Truthfulness principle forms the basis of objectivity concept. Therefore, problematic relations of communication vehicles or their contents to reality or manipulation, transformation or conceal of reality will damage or totally eliminate objectivity of news or material (Arık & Solmaz, 2007: 240). Looking from this point of view, main mission of journalists is to inform society about important events or developments and this should be done without changing, manipulating and concealing reality. In other words; searching reality becomes journalists' main mission (Dedeoğlu, 2016: 55). According to its nature, journalism is a job which is intertwined with interpersonal relations. Consequently, it become so important for journalists to gain confidence of people and society which prefer to consume journalists' media outlets and news. That is why, gaining confidence of people for journalists have a crucial importance at this moment. This is basically provided only by producing reliable and realistic news (Alemdar & Uzun, 2013: 78). In modern societies, the responsibility of journalists to tell reality to societies have become increased and gained more importance. Therefore, journalists as warranty of rights and freedoms have responsible to uncover events which society must know and represent these events to society within an objective and unbiased manner (Öncel, 2013: 54). However, a biased approach becomes possible in news structure in terms of social responsibility and professional ethics codes can become possible when the situation of determination in which news is formed according to possible comments about a social event (Akçalı, 2002: 2). The main and first mission of journalists is to check and control truthfulness of information gathered by journalists for writing a news story. This is realized only by carefully selecting and controlling news sources. Intentional or unintentional informing of news sources can constitutes the most important obstacle in front of news. Because of this, journalists should check and control data by using different methods while gathering information. Verification of news can be done by comparing different news sources. Otherwise news organizations can be presented as irresponsible and unreliable and respectability of journalists is largely damaged (Tokgöz, 2003: 218-223). Therefore, journalists should be careful about their news sources in terms of reliability. Generally news sources give information to journalist by directing or manipulating information. Similarly, direction and manipulation always take their place in press meetings or releases. People preparing these kinds of information present news according to their own interests and they also make a control on information which is shared with journalists. Moreover, news sources intentionally or unintentionally give wrong information to journalists. That is why; journalists should be too careful against their news sources and they should always check and control the information given by news sources with using different news sources. Checking and controlling all information with using different news sources avoid journalist to be fooled directed or usage of journalists as a propaganda vehicle (Alemdar & Uzun, 2013: 78-79). The topics of validity and reliability have been surveyed by scholars in the field of communication researches and these surveys have put forth some kind of findings. Carl Hovland who was member of Yale University became leading person for the start of these kinds of surveys. Clinical tests, researches and theories conducted and formulated by Hovland about effects of mass communication vehicles make him founding leader of communication science (Güngör, 2011: 218). There are also different

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN studies conducted about these topics in Turkey. One of these studies was conducted by Balcı and Bekiroğlu on 666 university students in Turkey. This study aims to show university students‟ perception styles of media news and their ideas about reliability of media news. According to findings of this study, participants trust respectively newspaper; television and radio news and they stated that social media news is less reliable (Balcı & Bekiroğlu, 2014). Erzurumluoğlu, who studies about the relation of media reliability and media ethic in society, stated that when journalism is realized according to media ethic rules, the reliability of media in the eyes of society will increase rapidly. Beside this, it is also stated that media should be encouraged to obey ethical codes of journalism and media (Erzurumluoğlu, 2013). According to study prepared by Balcı and Çavuş to determine reliability level of local readers to local newspapers, government is the most reliable institution and media is the less reliable institution for participants. Another finding of the study shows that 275 participants find local media more reliable than national media (Balcı & Çavuş, 2011). The study named “Reliability in Media and Politic” conducted by Damlapınar shows that media and political parties are the less reliable institutions for participants. Another important finding of this study is that the factor affecting reliability level against media was accepted as “political bias of media” (Damlapınar, 2008). With the lighting of literature review listed above, this study tries to answer the research questions listed below. RQ 1: What are the effective factors for media preferences of participants to get news? RQ 2: What is reliability level of participants to news media types? RQ 3: What kind of relations are there among reliability levels of participants to news media? RQ 4: What is the most reliable media for participants according to their education departments? RQ 5: Is there any difference among participants‟ reliability level to news types according to their genders? 4. Methodology This study prepared for measuring reliability level of university students to media news was designed as a descriptive survey. Survey technique depending on questionnaire was implemented and in the content of the study a questionnaire forms which has five parts and 36 questions was prepared. Questionnaire examined by an expert became ready for survey after necessary corrections. 4.1. Survey Model This study has general scanning model and comparative relational scanning was implemented among dependent and independent variables of this study. Data was collected to determine the ideas of communication faculty students who are elder than 18 years old about reliability of media news. 4.2. Implementation of the Survey and Sampling A survey was conducted in the sampling of Selçuk University Communication Faculty in order to determine the ideas of communication faculty students about reliability of media news. Consequently, the population of this survey was consisted of students of Selçuk University Communication Faculty. Selçuk University is one of the biggest universities of Turkey with its multi-cultural students‟ population. The reason why students of communication faculty were selected as sampling is that communication faculty students are more conscious to evaluate and consume media news because of their formation. Random sampling technique was accepted to determine sampling of the survey and a questionnaire was implemented to participants by using face to face communication method. After pre-analysis, 320 questionnaire sheets were accepted to analysis. 4.3. Data Collection Methods 782

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN A questionnaire form which has five parts and 36 questions was prepared to measure daily news consumption level of university students, their media usage types to get news, their reliability level to media news, factors effective on reliability of media news. This questionnaire was arranged by using different examples (Kiousis, 2001; Rubin, 2009; Balcı & Çavuş, 2011; Balcı & Bekiroğlu, 2014). How media usage frequency of participants and the most reliable media types for participants were questioned in the first part of the questionnaire. In the second part of questionnaire, there is a scale which has 5 likert (1= too unimportant, 5= too important) type including 7 items to measure effective factors on preference of university students to get news or information. Reliability value of the scale is Cronbach's a= .73. In the third part of questionnaire, a scale which has 6 questions and a value range from 1 to 10 ( 1= I do not trust at all, 10= I trust much) was used to collecting data. Reliability value of the scale is Cronbach's a= .77. In the fourth part of questionnaire, a scale which has 9 questions and a value range from 1 to 5 ( 1= I do not trust at all, 5= I trust much) was used to measure reliability level of university students to news types. Reliability value of the scale is Cronbach's a= .82. At the end of the questionnaire, 4 questions was used to determine demographic features of participants. 4.4. Data Analysis and Tests Used for Analysis Survey was conducted between the dates of 2-16 May 2016 with participants by using face to face communication method. Data was examined in digital platform by using statistic program. For the analysis of data some descriptive statistics were taken in hand such as: Frequency Analysis was used to determine demographic features of participants, Arithmetical Medium was used to determine the most used media types to get information and the most preferable media news types and Standard Deviation was used to determine factors effective on reliability of news. Independent Samples T-Test was used to show whether weekly media usage frequency of participants shows meaningful differences according to gender or not and Independent Samples T-Test was used to show whether there is a meaningful difference in terms of gender of university students or not. Correlation Analysis was used to show the relations among reliability levels of university students about news published with different types of media. Chi-Square Test was used to determine the most reliable media distribution according to participants faculty departments. 5. Results Analysis results will be taken in hand under this title such as participants' socio-demographic features, news needs in daily life, media types used by participants to get news, reliability level of participants' to media news and factors effective on media preference of participants to get news. 5.1. Socio-Demographic Features of Participants  51,9 percent of participants is male and 48,1 percent of participants is female. These ratios are suitable for comparison of participants' genders.  As for education departments; 25 percent of participants is from Public Relations and Publicity Department, 25 percent of participants is from Journalism Department, 25 percent of participants is from Radio-Television and Cinema Department and 25 percent of participants is from Advertisement Department.  22,8 percent of participants is from first class, 26,3 percent of participants is from second class, 25,6 percent of participants is from third class and 25,3 percent of participants is from fourth class. Table 1. Findings about the Some Features of Participants

Gender

Frequency

Percent (%)

Male

166

51,9

Female

154

48,1

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Department

Class

Age



Public Relations and Publicity

80

25,0

Journalism

80

25,0

Radio-TV and Cinema

80

25,0

Advertisement

80

25,0

First

73

22,8

Second

84

26,3

Third

82

25,6

Fourth

81

25,3

N

Minimum

Maximum



SD

318

18

44

21,77

2,19

When descriptive statistics of age distribution are taken in hand, it is seen that minimum age is 18 years old and maximum age is 44 years old. Participants' age medium is 21,77 and standard deviation of age distribution is 2,19.

5.2. Media Usage Behaviors of Participants Internet (  = 4,54) takes first place as the most used media by university students participating the survey and social media (  = 4,29) takes second places after internet. Television (  = 2,56) takes third place. Table 2. Weekly Media Usage Frequency Distribution of Participants to Get News N

Minimum

Maximum



SD

Internet

319

1

5

4.54

.83

Social Media

315

1

5

4.29

1.14

Television

315

1

5

2.56

1.17

Newspaper

311

1

5

2.01

1.06

Magazine

309

1

5

1.57

.90

Radio

310

1

5

1.50

.87

Radio (  = 1,50) and magazine (  = 1,57) draw attentions as the less used media types of participants. 5.3. Factors Effective on Media Preferences of Participants to Get News When the descriptive statistic results of the factors effective on media preferences of participants to get news are taken in hand, there are three factors scored highly by participants which are reliability (  = 4,84), objectivity (  = 4,57) and presenting breaking news (  = 4,38). Table 3. Central Tendency Statistic of Media Preference of Participants to Get News N

784

Minimum

Maximum



SD

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Being Reliable

319

1

5

4.84

.51

Being Objective

319

1

5

4.57

.92

Presentation of Breaking News

316

1

5

4.38

.88

317

1

5

3.61

1.08

318

1

5

3.60

1.15

Ideological Affinity

319

1

5

3.23

1.19

Usage by More People

316

1

5

3.04

1.22

Attaching Importance Regional-Local News It's easy usage

to

Contrary to this, usage by more people (  = 3,04) and ideological affinity (  = 3,23) are among the factors given less point and paid medium importance. Table 4. Differences on Paid Importance to Effective Factors of Media Preference of Participants to Get News According to Gender

Being Reliable Ideological Affinity Usage by More People It's easy usage Presentation of Breaking News Attaching Importance to Regional-Local News Being Objective

Gender

N



Male

165

4,79

Female Male

154 165

4,89 3,09

Female Male

154 163

3,38 2,86

Female Male

153 165

3,24 3,53

Female Male

153 165

3,67 4,20

Female Male

151 164

4,57 3,45

Female Male

153 165

3,79 4,39

Female

154

4,77

t-value

Sig.

-1,87

,061

-2,19

,029

-2,76

,006

-1,07

,281

-3,80

,000

-2,81

,005

-3,81

,000

According to gender of communication faculty students answering research questions; attaching importance to the factors of Ideological Affinity (t= -2,19; p< .05), Usage by More People (t= -2,76; p< .01), Presentation of Breaking News (t= -3,80; p< .001), Attaching Importance to Regional-Local News (t= -2,81; p< .01), Being Objective (t= -3,81; p< .001) shows meaningful differences. When the results of descriptive statistic are focused on, it is seen that male participants attached more importance and took into account the factors of ideological affinity, usage by more people, presentation of breaking news, attaching importance to regional-local news and being objective to get news in their media preferences.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Table 5. Findings of Correlation Analysis about Factors Effective on Media Preference to Get News (Pearson r) Correlation Analysis

1

1. Being Reliable

1

2

3

4

6

5

2. Ideological Affinity

,041

1

3. Usage by More People

,133*

,343**

1

4. It's easy usage

,113*

,152**

,356**

1

5. Presentation of Breaking News

,260**

,120*

,200**

359**

1

,177**

,185**

,256**

,258**

,394**

1

467**

,003

,127*

,092

,168**

,114*

6.

Attaching Importance Regional-Local News

7. Being Objective

to

7

1

Note: **p< .01, *p< .05 When the findings of correlation analysis about factors effective on media preference to get news are taken into account, it will be seen that the most powerful relation happens among the factors of being objective and being reliable (r=,467; p< 01). In other words, participants caring the factor of being objective in their media preference to get news ascribe also importance to the factor of being reliable. This study also put forth that there is a meaningful and medium level relation among the factors of Attaching Importance to Regional-Local News and Presentation of Breaking News (r=,394; p< 01). On the other hand, positive and the weakest relation comes into picture between the factors of It's easy usage and being reliable (r=,113; p< 05). 5.4. Reliability Level of Participants Against News Media Types The most reliable news media type for participants came into picture as newspaper news with its 5,55 arithmetical medium value. This value is followed by television news with its 5,27 arithmetical medium value and radio news 5,11arithmetical medium value. Table 6. Central Tendency Statistics of Participants' Reliability Level Against News Media Types N

Minimum

Maximum



SD

Newspaper News

318

1

10

5.55

2.42

Television News

320

1

10

5.27

2.47

Radio News

316

1

10

5.11

2.31

Internet News Sites

320

1

10

4.73

2.41

Magazine News

317

1

10

4.71

2.21

Social Media News

320

1

10

4.14

2.53

News Media Types

News in social media (  = 4,14) and magazine news (  = 4,71) are among news media types to which participants trust less compared with other factors.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Table 7. Findings of Correlation Analysis to the Relations of Participants' Reliability Levels Against News Media Types (Pearson r) News Media Types

1

1. Newspaper News

1

2. Television News

,730**

1

3. Radio News

,710**

,678**

1

4. Magazine News

,498**

,467**

,615**

1

5. Internet News Sites

,175**

,267**

,179**

,217**

1

,040

,170**

,064

,081

,575**

6. News on Social Media

2

3

4

6

5

1

Note: **p< .01, *p< .05 When correlation analysis results about the relations of participants' reliability levels against news media types are taken in hand, it will be seen that the most powerful meaningful relation comes into picture between newspaper and television news (r=,730; p< 01). In other words, when reliability levels of university students to newspaper news increase, their reliability levels to television news increase too. There is also a positive, powerful and meaningful relation between newspaper and radio news (r=,710; p< 01). The weakest meaningful relation was detected between internet news sites and newspaper news (r=,175; p< 01). Table 8. Distribution of Most Reliable Media According to Participants' Department

Public Relations and Publicity Journalism

Radio-TV and Cinema

Advertising

TOTAL

Newspaper

Magazin e

Radio

TV

Internet

Social Media

20

2

2

18

18

20

25.0%

2.5%

2.5%

22.5%

22.5%

25.0%

37

4

4

18

15

0

47.4%

5.1%

5.1%

23.1%

19.2%

0.0%

18

3

2

32

18

6

22.8%

3.8%

2.5%

40.5%

22.8%

7.6%

11

6

3

11

24

23

14.1%

7.7%

3.8%

14.1%

30.8%

29.5%

86

15

11

79

75

49

27.3%

4.8%

3.5%

25.1%

23.8%

15.6%

X2= 64,42; df= 15; p= ,000

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The most reliable media types of students from communication faculty according to their departments show meaningful differences (X2= 64,42; p< .05). 25 percent of students of public administration and publicity department, 47,4 percent of students of journalism department, 22,8 percent of students of radio Television and Cinema, 14,1 percent of students of advertising department accept newspaper as the most reliable media type. According to these results, students of journalism department accept newspaper as the most reliable media type compared with other departments' students. 22,5 percent of students of public administration and publicity department, 23,1 percent of students of journalism department, 40,5 percent of students of radio Television and Cinema, 14,1 percent of students of advertising department have marked internet as reliable media. Percentiles distribution results show that students from Radio-TV and Cinema department trust television more than other departments' students. Students from Advertising department have a intense tendency to trust internet and social media more than other departments' students. Table 9. Comparison of Media Types in terms of Reliability to News Media Frequency

Percent (%)

National Media

227

70,9

Local Media

93

29,1

TOTAL

320

100,0

According to Table 9, 70,9 percent of participants accepts national media as more reliable and 29,1 percent of participants accepts local media as more reliable. The results of analysis show that participants prefer national media because of being more reliable. Table 10. Distribution of TV Channels Mostly Trusted for News Broadcasting Frequency

Percent (%)

FOX TRT Star NTV CNN Türk Kanal D ATV Habertürk TV İMC TV A Haber Ulusal TV Halk TV SHOW TV Samanyolu TGRT Bengütürk TV Other

63 49 22 21 20 20 15 12 8 5 4 4 3 2 2 2 4

24.6 19.1 8.6 8.2 7.8 7.8 5.9 4.7 3.1 2.0 1.6 1.6 1.2 .8 .8 .8 1,6

Total

256

100,0

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

University students participating the survey stated that the most reliable TV channels are Fox TV (24,6%) and TRT (19,1%). Table 11. Distribution of National Newspapers Mostly Trusted for News Publishing Frequency

Percent (%)

Hürriyet HaberTürk Sözcü Milliyet Cumhuriyet Sabah Posta Yeni Şafak Birgün Akit Aydınlık Sol Taraf Evrensel Zaman Türkiye Takvim Fanatik Diriliş Postası Other

52 30 27 25 21 18 10 8 6 5 4 4 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 14

21.6 12.4 11.2 10.4 8.7 7.5 4.1 3.3 2.5 2.1 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.2 .8 .8 .8 .8 .8 5,6

Total

241

100,0

The most reliable newspapers in Turkey are listed as first 5 newspapers like this: Hürriyet (21,6%), HaberTürk (12,4%), Sözcü (11,2%), Milliyet (10,4%) and Cumhuriyet (8,7%).

5.5. Reliability Levels of Participants about News Types The most reliable news types according to participants are listed as first 4 news types like this: Culture-Art (  = 7,08), Spor (  = 6,57), Regional-Local (  = 6,16), and Health (  = 6,11). Table 12. Central Tendency Statistic of Reliability Levels of Participants about News Types N

Minimum

Maximum



SD

Culture-Art News

318

1

10

7.08

2.37

Sport News

318

1

10

6.57

2.64

Regional-Local News

318

1

10

6.16

2.32

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Health News

320

1

10

6.11

2.34

Police-Court News

320

1

10

5.96

2.60

Foreign News

319

1

10

5.96

2.44

Economy News

318

1

10

5.64

2.40

Magazine News

319

1

10

3.90

2.73

Political News

320

1

10

3.46

2.28

It can be said that participants trust less to political (  = 3,46) and magazine (  = 3,90) news. Especially mutual interests‟ relations between media and politics and determinative effects of these relations on news contents have caused to damage communication faculty students‟ the sense of trust against political news. Table 13. Differences in Reliability Levels against News Types According to Gender

Political News Health News Economy News Sport News Magazine News Culture-Art News Foreign News Police-Court News Regional-Local News

Gender

N



Male

166

3,34

Female Male

154 166

3,59 6,16

Female Male

154 164

6,05 5,46

Female Male

154 166

5,83 6,71

Female Male

152 166

6,43 3,84

Female Male

153 164

3,96 6,98

Female Male

154 166

7,20 6,12

Female Male

153 166

5,79 6,25

Female Male

154 165

5,64 6,24

Female

153

6,07

t-value

Sig.

-,969

,333

,396

,692

-1,36

,174

,930

,353

-,363

,717

-,825

,410

1,18

,239

2,10

,036

,677

,499

As seen on Table 13, reliability level of Police-Court News has meaningful differences according to genders of participants (t= 2,10; p< .05). When the results of descriptive statistics are focused on; male trust more to Police-Court News compared with female. 6. Conclusion and Discussion Today media has become an indispensable part of our life, an important guide for our daily life and it 790

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN has become an effective dynamic of political, economic and culture life of modern societies. With its features, media is accepted a frame for us to understand and perceive social environment. Events and realities are transferred to citizens as second hand realities and definitions. In modern societies, media has embraced a responsibility to inform citizens about events, transformations and reforms about world and our own countries (Gurevitch & Blumler, 1997). At the same time, it makes contributions to formation of public opinion, informs citizens and increase knowledge level of society, provides people with entertaining contents to escape problems (McQuail, 1994). Beside this, it observes every implementation and action of governments in behalf of public opinion and this is accepted its main responsibility against society (İrvan, 1995; Çaplı, 2002). So people‟s perception mentalities are generally determined or shaped by media and news outlets which draw lines around perceptions. This makes reliability of media and news so important compared before (Balcı & Bekiroğlu, 2014: 212). This study was designed to show ideas and perception styles of students form communication faculty about reliability levels of news. Beside this, various data were collected in the content of this study to show which mass communication vehicles are frequently used by students and which factors are effective on reliability of news structure. Students joining the study mostly use internet and social media in their weekly plan to reach news in social life. The less preferred communication vehicles for students are radio and magazine in a weekly plan. Students joining the study stated that the most reliable news types in media news are lined as newspaper, television and radio news. Contrary to this, the less reliable news type for students is social media news. When reliability levels of participants about newspaper news increase, similar increase happens about their reliability level on television news. National media is accepted more reliable than local media. According to the participants, Fox TV and TRT became the most reliable national television channel and Hürriyet, haberTürk and Sözcü became the most reliable list for national newspapers. This study shows that students from journalism department accept newspaper as the most reliable media compared with students from other departments. Students from Radio-Television and Cinema department have a high reliability level for television compared with students from other departments. Students from Advertising department have a high reliability level for television compared with students from other departments. On the other hand, being reliable and being objective are the most preferable factors to get news for the students. Participants attaching importance to objectivity factor to get news also attach importance to the factor of being reliable. Female attach more importance to the factors of Ideological Affinity, Usage by More People, Presentation of Breaking News, Attaching Importance to Regional-Local News and Being Objective than male for getting news about daily life. Finally, this study was designed to show reliability level perceptions of students form Selçuk University Communication Faculty about media news and factors effective on these perceptions. Future studies conducting with different samplings from different universities are going to make huge contributions to the literature about communication studies in Turkey. Future studies also select different samplings and by using these sampling they can examine reliability levels of different social groups to media news. References Akçalı, S. İ. (2002). Türkiye’de Araştırma Gazetecilik. İstanbul: Gazeteciler Cemiyeti Yayınları. Alemdar, K. & Uzun, R. (2013). Herkes İçin Gazete-ci-lik. Ankara: Tanyeri Kitap. Arık, B. & Solmaz, B. (2007). Kitle İletişim Araçlarında Gerçeğe Bürünen Kurgu: Orhan Pamuk Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü Örneği. Can Bilgili & Nesrin Tan Akbulut (Eds.), Medya Eleştirileri 2007 “Gerçeğin Dışındakiler”, İstanbul: Beta Basım Yayım Dağıtım, 233-257. Balcı, Ş. & Bekiroğlu, O. (2014). Medyanın Kritik ve Süreğen Dönemeci: Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Gözünden Medya Haberlerinin Güvenilirliği. Selçuk İletişim, 8 (2): 192-217. Balcı, Ş. & Çavuş, S. (2011). Yerel Okuyucu Zihninde Yerel Gazetenin Güvenilirlik Düzeyi: “Konya

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Araştırması”. Caner Arabacı & Ayhan Selçuk (Eds.), Konya Kitabı XIII, Konya Medyası, Konya: KTO Yayınları, 521-540. Çaplı, B. (2002). Medya ve Etik. Ankara: Imge Kitabevi Yayınları. Damlapınar, Z. (2008). Medya ve Siyasette Güvenilirlik: „Medya Siyaseti‟nin Toplumsal Algılanmasına Bağlı Faktörler‟. Zülfikar Damlapınar (Ed.). Medya ve Siyaset, Konya: Eğitim Kitabevi, 187-207. Dedeoğlu, G. (2016). Teknoloji, İletişim, Yeni Medya ve Etik. Bursa: Sentez Yayınları. Dursun, O. (2009). Basında İdeolojinin Oluşumu ve Haber Üretim Sürecine Etkisi (Örnek Olay: Danıştay’ın Türban Kararı ve Danıştay Saldırısı. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara. Erzulumluoğlu, B. (2013). Medyanın Toplumda Güvenilirliği ve Medya Etiğine Uyum İlişkisi. KSÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 10 (1): 121-136. Gurevitch, M. & Blumler, J. G. (1997). Siyasal İletişim Sistemleri ve Demokratik Değerler. Süleyman İrvan (Der.), Medya Kültür Siyaset, Ankara: Ark Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları, 199-219. Güngör, N. (2011). İletişime Giriş. Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi. Herman, E. S. & Chomsky, N. (1998). Medya Halka Nasıl Evet Dedirtir. Berfu Akyoldaş, Tamara Han, Metin Çetin & İsmail Kaplan (Çevirenler), İstanbul: Minerva Yayınları. İrvan, S. (1995). Demokratik Sistemde Medyanın Rolü, Birikim, 68-69: 76-83. Kiousis, S. (2001). Public Trust or Mistrust? Perceptions of Media Credibility in the Information Age, Mass Communication and Society, 4 (4): 381-403. McCombs, M. E. & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The Agenda- Setting Function of the Mass Media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36 (2): 176-187. McQuail, D. (1994). Kitle İletişim Kuramı (Giriş). Ahmet Haluk Yüksel (Çev.), Eskişehir: Kibele Sanat Merkezi Yayını. Mora, N. (2011). Medya Çalışmaları Medya Pedagojisi ve Küresel İletişim. Ankara: Nobel Basım Yayım Dağıtım. Olkun, E. O. (2016). 7 Haziran 2015 Genel Seçimlerinde Yazılı Basının Siyasi Partilere Yaklaşımı: Habertürk, Milliyet, Sabah, Sözcü, Yeni Şafak ve Zaman Gazeteleri Örneği. Şükrü Balcı (Ed.), 7 Haziran’dan 1 Kasım’a Türkiye’de Siyasal İletişim Uygulamaları, Konya: Literatürk Yayınları, 485-520. Öncel, G. K. (2013). Türkiye’de Soruşturmacı Gazetecilik. İstanbul: Evrensel Kültür Kitaplığı. Rubin, A. (2009). News Credibility Scale, Rebecca B. Rubin et al. (Eds.), Communication Research Measures, New York: Routledge, 234-237. Shoemaker, P. & Reese, S. D. (2014). İdeolojinin Medya İçeriği Üzerindeki Etkisi. Süleyman İrvan (Ed.). Medya Kültür Siyaset. Ankara: Pharmakon Yayınevi, 97-132. Temizkan, A. C. (2012). Televizyon Haberciliğine Bir Bakış. Ömer Özer (Ed.). Haberin Doğası: Gazetecilikte İdealler ve Sorunlar, Konya: Literatürk Yayınları, 331-356. Tokgöz, O. (2003). Temel Gazetecilik. Ankara: İmge Kitapevi. Yüksel, E. (2010). Medya ve Habercilik. Konya: Çizgi Kitabevi.

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DOES RISE OF FAR-RIGHT PARTIES SIGN TO COLLAPSE OF LIBERALISM ACROSS EUROPE? PREDICTIONS ABOUT WHAT'S HAPPENING ACROSS EUROPE THROUGH VOTER ANALYSIS Prof. Dr. Orhan GÖKÇE Selçuk University Konya, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Department of Public Administration [email protected] Abstract Anne Applebaum for eseen in 4 March, 2016 dated American the Washington Post newspaper in “Is this the end of the West as we know it?” titled article before the Presidential Elections carried out in 22nd of March in Austria as such in general sense “if there are a couple of suchlike elections, the west is not far away from a collapse: If Donald Trump is elected as President of America, he will isolate America. If EU cannot prevent the rise of extreme right, European Union will collapse and separated. Then, what is left from the West? Can West sustain being west?” Indeed, national front has started to shape political climate in France, Alternative for Germany succeeded to get into parliament in three states in Germany, and a far-right candidate came in the first in Presidential Election in Austria. Far-right’s gaining power in Austria after Poland, Slovakia, Denmark, France, Germany and Denmark, both proves the anxieties of Applebaum right and put these questions into agenda: what does the rise of extreme right parties mean? How will those developments be reflected in the future of Europe? Does society model of the west start to collapse or in other words, does liberalism, qualified as reuniting capitalism and democracy and as undefeated or end of the history, start to decline quarter of a century after the collapse of Communism? The answers of these questions will be sought in this article, primarily. It is possible to give responses to them in different ways. Hereby, we will use the statistical data concerning voting in elections. We assume that more satisfactory responses can be given to these questions in this manner. Furthermore, it will be possible with this method to observe whether this shift to extreme right is limited with certain social groups and whether a temporary state or, quite the reverse, whether it is reflected to all layers of the society. In this regard, reliable and valid data are presented by state or constituency elections (Presidency and parliament) in Europe in the recent period undoubtedly. With this purpose, the distribution of vote rates by electors group in the elections in France, Germany and Austria will closely be investigated and it will be tried to find answers to our questions given above on basis of these data.

1. Introduction

The fact that Freedom Party of Austria achieved the second biggest success of far-right in Presidential Elections in April, after World War II, drew the attention to “the rise of right wing extremists” again. It is also necessary to state that extreme right gains power not only in Austria but also in numerous countries in European Union such as Poland, France, Germany. Extreme right is not a phenomenon showed up in Europe in one day just as a mushroom. The very first indicator of the rise of extreme right in Europewas Freedom Party of Austria‟s (FPÖ), under the 793

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN leadership of Jörg Haider, receiving 26% of votes in 1999 in Austria. Jean-Marie Le Pen‟s votes reaching to 16% of the votes for the first time in 2002 in France showed that this threat was not limited with Austria. Vote rate of Swiss People‟s Party – SVP was about 26% in Switzerland; Danish People‟s Party‟s (Dansk Folkeparti) vote rate exceeded 12% in Denmark; Progress Party‟s (Fremskrittspartiet) vote rate was close to 23% in Norway, fascist Jobbik‟s in Denmark, and Party for Freedom – PVV‟s, which is known with its leader Geert Wilders,in Netherlands exceeded 15%; National Democratic Party (NDP) received 1.5% vote in Germany; however, Alternative for Germany (AfD), which was recently established, succeeded getting into parliament with three states (Kallis, 2015:11-15, Çetin, 2015). All those developments are proofs of the fact that extreme right in Europe has reached scary and alarming dimensions. This case unavoidably brings forward these questions: what is going on in Europe and where is Europe going. In other words, the basic question to be answered is that rise of extreme right in Europe an indicator of Europe‟s being about to collapse? Targeting to reveal the rise of extreme right in Europe and the underlying reasons for this rise, this study comprises of three sections. In the first section, the reason for the rise of extreme right is tried to be revealed in general sense. The question of that whether this rise is limited with the culturally disadvantaged section of the society or not is analyzed on electors‟ profile basis in the second section. And in third section, the question of do these developments in Europe mean end of Liberalism is discussed. 2. Rise of extreme right It is observed that different factors or reasons have played effective roles in different ways in the emergence and rise of extreme right in Europe.It is probable to summarize the leading causes as in the following (Mudde, 2011; Öner, 2014; Çetin, 2015; Elmas ve Kutlay, 2011; Kallis, 2015): 1) There is a widely-accepted consensus on that one of the most important reasons for extreme right movement, which is on the rise in Europe, is generated by global financial crisis. Having started in USA in 2008 and subsequently having taken hold of entire world as a domino, crisis showed it most destructive effects in EU countries. Crisis caused rapid increase in unemployment figures in whole Europe and then xenophobiaalso rapidly increased as a result of re-actualization of the link between unemployment stock in the minds of ordinary people and xenophobia. In this sense, the influence of socio-economic and political crisis is substantial in strengthening of extreme right in Europe. It is stated that center parties or presently named as “old” type parties gradually are broken away with people, focus on their interests rather than the problems and interests of people, and therefore are not representatives of “common man” in Europe. On the contrary, extreme right parties achieved to enchain, especially, proletariat and middle class with low-income claiming that they are representatives of “common man” or “real sound of people”. 2) Another opinion set forth in the discussions is the thesis of “losers of modernization. According to this thesis, extreme rightis rising with the votes of the masses thinking that they

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN got harmed with the results of modernization. Cultural (immigrant), economic (unemployment) and political (European integration) distrust generated by globalization has caused an increase in the votes of extreme right (Mudde, 2011:9). In this context, concerns on future with the effect of globalization have important role in the rise of extreme right parties. 3) Another element that plays a role in the rise of extreme right is the problem of immigrants. As of the end of 1980s and beginning of 90s, the population of immigrantin Western Europe has shown an increase with the migrations from Former Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Extreme right parties associate employment opportunities and facilities of welfare state with the fear of immigrant. According to Delanty (2008), class and nation as fundamental ground for solidarity are weakens and the concerns on future arising from this turn into xenophobia. While nation and class not fundamental base for collective identity any more in one hand, globalization and Europeanisation processes increase the concerns among European people about their future and identities on the other hand. Anti-immigrant extreme right parties address the thesis that immigrants increase unemployment and crime rates, and thus achieved to pull the masses complaining about these problems to their side (Karapin, 1998:214). 4) It is also specified that political dissatisfaction and alienation factors against center or “old” type political parties also have significant role in the rise of extreme right parties. The fact that political corporations and politicians lose their reputations before the electors creates an opportunity for extreme right parties to increase their votes. Being alienated to the system and desiring to protest the order, electors vote for extreme right parties and/or show their reactions by supporting these parties (Rydgren, 2007: 251). Far-right political parties offers political discourses that will please the electors regarding crime, corruption, European integration and immigration, ignored by center political parties but worrying the large part of the electors. Therefore, distrust and dissatisfaction of numerous electors against the political attitudes of rooted parties about growth, unemployment, corruption, crime, drugs and immigration give chance to extreme right parties to lead up (Karapin, 1998:214). From this point of view, international terrorism, increasing immigrant flows and economic crisis are important elements in growing popularity of radical right wing; but these element help radicalization, legalization and easily expression of the things that are already part of bourbon conscious, particularly (Kallis, 2015:19).

5) Xenophobia increasing in Europe, and failure of center parties in solution of socio-economic problems are also efficient in the rise of extreme right. Economic crisis experienced in Europe since 2008 and increasing unemploymentrates have influence on the increase in the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN anti-immigrantopinions. Extreme right parties claim that there are several socio-economic problems and immigrants cause a decrease in the wages of the people of their countries by making immigrants “scapegoat” in European countries. The discourses of politicians and the discourses on media about immigration and Islam in Europe also affect the support rate for extreme right. 6) Together with the terrorist attacks in USA in 11th of September and later on, to the symbolic structures and cities of Europe, anti-foreigners and xenophobia in Europebe come the main topic of conversation and minds again. In this respect, September 11 had a critical role in strengthening of extreme right movements as well as several other terms. September 11 caused the sense of West as Muslims, functioning as external founder elements, threaten the west and therefore formation of a suitable basis for populist discourses of extreme right, historically (Gökçe, 2006).

Each of these factors is efficient in the rise of extreme right parties in Europe. However, we consider that these factors shall be enlarged. Especially, the discourses of political and economic elites and the role of media (traditional and social media) shall not be ignored in the rise of extreme right movements and parties. Fear for the future, social insecurity and suchlike worries and concern for identity come into the prominence in certain part of the society particularly because of economic crisis which has become chronic. Within this period, center parties also take on the discourses of extreme right parties to receive the votes of this group taking the easy way out and try to use in their favor. Ultranationalistand even racist discourses by means of media, which is side-by-side with politics, are spread to the entire society.

As a result, there are several issues among the causes that accelerate the rise of extreme right in Europe in the 21st century. However, Islamphobia, increased after September 11,increasing migration from East to West after EU‟s enlargement to Central and Eastern European Countries in 2004 and 2007and economic crisis in 2008 and the increase in the rate of unemploymentin Europe, dissatisfaction and displeasure against center political parties and their representatives come into prominence among these causes. 3. Who votes for extreme right parties and why? Extreme right parties gain strength day by day in Europe. First case to reveal the rise of extreme right parties was European Parliament election results held in 22-25 May, 2014 in all European Unionmember countries. According to election results, extreme right winger Front National Party, under the leadership of Marie Le Pen, received 24.95% of votes in France and achieved being first party.UK Independence Party became the first party with 26.77% vote rate in England. Party for

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Freedomsucceeded 20%vote rate in Austria, and Party for Freedom, under the leadership of Geert Wildershas vote rate exceeding 15% in Netherlands. “Anti-Turkish minority and anti-Semitist ATAKA in Bulgaria and Swiss People‟s Party-SVP in Switzerland reached 26% vote rates. Danish People‟s Party (Dansk Folkeparti)‟s vote rate was about 23% in Denmark. Vote rate of fascist Jobbik exceeded 15% in Denmark.” Candidate of right parties in Europe, Jean-Claude Juncker was elected as EU Commission President. These results show that extreme right was spread to Europe-wide (Çetin, 2015).

The rise of extreme right in Europe continues without slowing down. The most present examples of this are Presidential Election held in Austria a few months ago, local elections held in three states in Germany and local elections held in 2015 in France.

After the local elections held in France last year, Front National Party leader Marine le Penused the slogan “we are the new labor party”. When the results of elections are considered, it was seen that Le Pen was rightful to use this slogan. This slogan cannot be deemed as unjustly used. For long time, Front National achieved binding the people living far away from center, middle class, with low level of education, worker young men and generally coming from low or lower-middle class to itself. Indeed, Front Nationalreceived 43% of votes of this group in 2015 local elections. Front Nationalsupporters are not only limited with this group. There are also high educated and high-income ones being in the upper ranks in social stratification hierarchy who also vote for Front National and the number of these gradually increases. For instance, 14% of the academicians stated that they voted for Front National in the recent state elections. One of the countries in Europe where extreme right has reached high vote rate is undoubtedly Austria. In the Presidential Election held a short while ago in Austria, Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), which is extreme right winger, received 51.93% of total voters. FPÖ received 29% of votes of women and 45% of men. When vote distribution is taken into account in terms of age ranges, FPÖ received 58% of men up to 29 years old and 33% of women up to 29 years old. The rate of workers and civil servants within this group was 72%; when only considered in terms of workers, 86% of workers voted for FPÖ. The rate of high educated and high income group among the ones vote for FPÖ was a considerable amount. 19% of the ones belong to these groups preferred this party (Die Zeit, May 14, 2016). Alternative Party for Germany (AfD), being one of the extreme right winger political movements, gradually gain strength gradually in Germany. In the elections held in three states a short time ago, AfDachieved a great success. Receiving more than 20% votes in Saxony-Anhalt state, Alternative Party for Germany succeeded getting into parliament also in Baden Württemberg and Rheinland Pfalz states. It is expected that the party will get into federal parliament in the general elections to be held in 797

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2017. There are also some people with high education and high income among AfDsupporters.In the past, it was considered that “if a person is high educated and has high income”, he will vote for fundamental parties, and especially, social democratic parties. This perception is started to be broken. A respectable rate among people with high education and high income start to sympathize with extreme right movements (Die Zeit, May, 14, 2016). The rate of the upper section of the society who votes for extreme right parties in Austria, France and Germany is increasing gradually. This development reveals that rooted parties or in new saying “old” type parties abandon political sphere to extreme right parties more and more and extreme right parties fill this void successfully and have the power to mobilize the electorate, who lost their trust in politics and system, over new issues and gradually gain strength in Europe (Karapin, 1998:214). Increase in extreme rightorganizations and movements and increase in the extreme rightgroups‟ and individuals‟ in violence also take place among the indicators of the rise of extreme right in Europe as well as the increase in vote rates in local, national and European Parliament (EP) elections. 19 extreme right parties were founded in Western Europe in the period between 1965 and 1995.Power of extreme right parties has been increasing in Western Europe since 1980s. They cannot have the majority to found one-party government in any elections yet (Minkenberg, 2011:42).However, this will not continue so. It lost the Presidential Election in Austria not because it received less votes but because of a case arising from the system. The case is not so different in other countries of Europe. Therefore, the more center parties are isolated from the society, the more populist extreme right wingerparties have the scene. For that reason, it is necessary to estimate that these parties will be in power in the following years. To summarize, extreme right winger parties in Europe have continuously enlarged their electors‟ portfolio in the recent 10 years. This case points out that there have been serious shifts in the political standing of Europe. The more current permanent settlement parties are inadequate about the solution of the problems, the more electors seek for alternative parties and it may result in their being dispersed to radical right parties such as AfD. Western politicians and intellectuals act as if the rise of extreme right parties and movements did not take place in their society but in another planet. In this scope, they think that these developments are in association with the marginal groups of the society and this is not specific to entire society. However, many sociologists drew the attention to these kinds of developments and gave warning in the ends of 19 century. For example, Ralf Dahrendorfpredicted that “globalizationwill cause generation more of authoritarian regimes rather than democratic regimes and problems that cannot be solved with normal democratic models”. In other saying, sociologists assume that these developments are systematic and/orstructural problems and unavoidable conclusion (Die Zeit,May 27, 2016). Hence, tendency towards ultra-nationalismin question in west and Europeis not a phenomenon which is limited to marginal groups but it reveals in society-wide. This is the basic problem. But this case is not perceived by center political and social actors in this way.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4. Does rise of extreme right mean end of Liberalism? The throne of neoliberalism presented as end of history thesis was tarnished in 2008 with world financial crisis seriously. Today critics about that neoliberalism cause developments of territorial wars, rise of extreme right currents, increase in the gap between rich and poor are loudly uttered by every segments of the society (see Gökçe, 2011).In this respect, the question of whether neoliberalism cause rise in extreme rightmovements, particularly and correspondingly, there is a return to 1930s is frequently been put into agenda. Is it really possible to return to 1930s or in other words, does history repeat itself? Even though it is general state that economic crises happened arise from the structure of neoliberalism and these crises will repeat at regular intervals and as a result of these developments, extreme right currents have gradually gained strength in Europe, nobody thinks that there is a possibility that fascism will return to the present world as in 1930s (Kallis, 2015). In 1929, collapse of capitalism brings with serious social and political problems to entire world particularly to Europe (Şimşek, 2014). These problems have a substantial influence on rise of fascistparties in Europe. The reason for that is;increased as a natural result of crisis, unemployment drew the attention to fascist parties and provided vote. But, above all, permanent settlement parties and actors of that time did not fight with fascist movement, which is on the rise in Europe and did not show necessary reaction and thus ensured the conditions required for the victory of fascism and as a result, totalitarianism, war and mass violence came out (Kallis, 2015). In this sense, Şimşek (2014) clarifies Hitler‟s coming to power in Germany as in the following. The number of unemployed being in 2 million in 1928 in Germany reached to 3 million in 1930; 5 million in 1931 and 6 million in 1932. Almost parallel with these numbers, having 12 seats in German Parliament in 1928, Nazi Party of Hitler enhanced the number of seats it had to 230 in July 1932 elections in a while. Another factor in the rise of Nazi Party was the moral and material support it took from German and USA capital. This is because,the interest to Socialist and Communist movements increased among working class, having lost their jobs and eatings with crisis. European capital was scared of this case. Therefore, American capital gave sizable amount of financial support to Nazi party of Hitler due to fear of Communism. In the end, not only extreme right-fascistwave rose with the first collapse of liberalism but also, socialist wave also rose. Besides, the thing scaring Europeanand American capital was that. Started to rise since 1980 and even claimed as lived its golden era up to 2008, Neoliberalism‟s crisis brought and continue to bring extreme rightmovements power. The reason for that it comes with crisis, unemployment, social in security and therefore concern for future. This result in increase in the reaction of society against market economics saved by means of state intervention, billed to people, constituting contrariety to the philosophy neoliberalism itself and defended by political and economic elites and result in tendency to nationalist formations. To put it in different way, people in Europe also give similar reaction in response to economic and political crisis. Extreme rightformations and parties in Europe are welcomed increasingly. The most obvious example of that was2014 European Parliament elections. As of that election, extreme right parties have been increasing supports. If permanent main stream political and economic actors do not show sufficient ambition to fight with ever increasing extreme right parties and movements, Europe may turn into a field of dire. The signals of these kinds of developments are available. Extreme rightmovements has overreached being marginal which several Europeans persist on not perceiving as a threat and this case threatens both

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN immigrants and foreigners living in Europe and European people itself. Main stream political and social actors cannot perceive this case well or act as if they did not perceive as this serves the purpose da (Die Zeit, May 27, 2016). Europe was saved by state in person in 2008 in the process of neoliberalism, global financial crisis (Gökçe, 2011). But, as the structure of neoliberalism is convenient for generation of crisis, the intervals of the crises started to become shorter and the fight started to become long-termed and costly each time.For instance, Europe could not eliminate the influences of 2008 financial crisis yet. For that reason, there has been a serious reaction and resistance against immigrants, Muslims, European Unionproject and market economy as a result of crisis that becomes chronic in Europe. As a result of the referendum held in England about “shall be stay in EU or leave”, English people‟s making decision on “we shall leave” reveals that both neoliberalism and EU project have failed. It is possible that other EU countries may hold referendum one by one in the following years taking this decision of England example. EU will experience quite difficult process. If EU does not make any alteration in neoliberal policy, does not fight against extreme populist right-wing arguments, it is faced with the risk of disperse in the future. England served a facilitating function to make the feelings current in EU but not turned into action become apparent. Furthermore, this case has increased EU‟s potential to be threatened. The states that are not satisfied with EU policies will try to get what it wants with the threat of “I will leave”. The spell of EU was broken and the polish of it was taken. It is for certain that these developments will cause strengthening of extreme right parties in whole continent European. Permanent center political party leaders also have huge faults on this. As long as they choose convenience and attempt to advance all the discussions over Turkey rather than finding and presenting solution for their society, and struggle with the destructions caused by neoliberal policies, it is highly-likely that extreme right winger parties may come to power in the next periods in Europe. This is because; center political parties are quite unsuccessful. This failure continues; this is the thing what is dangerous. EU did not choose solving the factors causing immigrant flow on-site, and it was unwilling to fight against Islamophobia. In fact, the basic problem in Europe, as Elmas specified, lies beyond the rise of extreme right (2011:4). The problem is extreme right winger discourses and slogans‟ shift to center as center parties desire to use nationalist tendencies in their favor. The base of this underlies this fact: there is a settled prejudice towards Islam in general of European societies, no matter educated or not, including all political and social actors. This structure is immediately applied in case of crisis or in cases where concern for vote comes into prominence. The example of England has shown that political and social actors in Europe forge ahead at the point of delivering entire European continent to extreme right to an extent they cannot get result with this strategy, and they do not find solutions to the destructions that neoliberal policies caused. 5. Conclusion One of the most significant reflections of economic crisis and identity crisis that Europe experienced as a result of neoliberal policies it applied is raising extreme right parties and movements. Extreme rightformations, gradually rising in many countries of Europe have reached a dimension threatening peace and tranquility of entire Europe seriously. As expressed by Öner (2014), extreme right partieschose using discourses related to culture-based exclusionism instead of classical racist discourse and slogan. In this way they ensure that the sense of nationalism becomes distinctive in the society and therefore, their ideas and discourses become determinant even they are not distinctive politically. Such 800

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN that, center political parties embrace discourses of extreme right wingerto receive votes and thus carry those to center and spread extreme righttendencies to society and politics wide. At this point, extreme rightis not a temporary, cyclical fact; on the contrary, it turns into a structural problem. To put it different way, extreme rightsettles into center by going over social problems and take the support of wide groups. Current center-right parties are also affected by this situation. Center-right parties also express that European nations are declining as a result of immigration and demographic oppressions and toughen their immigration policies not to lose the elections. Strengthening the laws other is ingimmigrants in general, particularly the Muslims provides a basis for rise of extreme right parties and movements without doubt. These developments point out that general atmosphere in Europe does not take side with “European Society” united and integrated under a single roof but on the contrary, takes side with formation of new body politics prioritizing national identities and arguing against European Community. Actually, the thing which is dangerous is that. Mostly, it is concluded that extreme right is far away from endangering considering the proportional frame. This is quite narrow explanation and deduction. The main concern is the fact that extreme right tendencies have started to spread to whole society. Center political and social elites and the media have a significant contribution in this process. These groups consciously avoid from facing with formation and discourses of extreme rightfor various reasons. However, the delays experienced in the phase of preventing the former threaten primarily Europe itself and its values. In conclusion, it can be claimed that the fact that center-right parties cannot respond to the concerns and future anxiety of the society in association with social devastations and outcomes caused by immigrants, Muslims, European integration, neoliberal policies on time and in efficient way lies under the rise of extreme right in Europe. Center-right parties‟ willingness to use future anxiety in their favor rather than struggling with it also facilitates extreme rightmovements and parties‟ receiving support from a large variety of socio-economic profiles of society. Above all, center political parties in Europe shall apply to methods that will prevent extreme right current. Europe could not implement critical result-oriented preventive policies regarding struggling with extreme right-fascistinclinations after World War II. In the recent years, there has been loosening in these policies. For that reason, center partiesshall develop and implement methods compliant with the zeitgeist to fight against extreme right inclinations. The success of the struggle depends on current political parties‟ coming together with the society again to a great extent and repairing the relationship broken off. Center political parties in Europe have focused on implement neoliberalism and save it post-crisis after 1980s. Indeed, 2008 global financial crisis symbolizes the collapse of neoliberalism. But, west‟s allowing collapse of neoliberalismis not possible as it would mean end of idea and ideology of Westernism and Europeanness. So and so, this has become so. Neoliberalism was rescued by the hand of state, which it cursed as guilty of everything. Social devastations of Neoliberalism were ignored in this process and on top of it, the cost of saving neoliberalism was burdened to the society. And this paved the way for the rise of extreme rightmovements. Center political parties have to create solutions for the outcomes of the crisis caused by neoliberalism quickly and have to ensure a new dimension and form to neoliberalism. It is not possible for them to manage the period and prevent the radicalization of the society to the extent that they are late. The problem of Europeis that center political parties do not have many leaders to overcome this. The only leader showing determination, standing and having vision in Europe is Chancellor of Germany. It cannot be said that Chancellor of Germany is approved and welcomed permissively both in its country and EU countries. This case is 801

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN enough to show that the atmosphere of the public opinion which is dominant in Europe is not all pleasant. The primary way to struggle against extreme rightformations is political leaders‟ avoid from extreme rightdiscourses and enlighten the society about the effects of these kinds of formations. Center parties‟ bettering the relationships with the society which was broken off and rebuilding the trust they lost are necessary for that. References Çetin, Sena (2015), Arvrupa‟nın Yükselen Aşırı Sağ ile İmtihanı,

Akademik Perspektif, www.

Akademikperspektif.com/2015/01/16/avrupanin-yükselen-asiri-sag-ile-imtihani. Delanty, Gerard (2008),

Fear of “Other‟s: Social Exclusion and the European Crisis of Solidarity, Social Policy

and Administration, C. 42, S. 6, ss.676-690. Die Zeit (14 Mayıs 2016), Wer waehlt die Populisten?, ZeitOnline Ausland. Die Zeit (27 Mayıs 2016), Ein autoritaeres Angebot, ZeitOnline Kultur. Elmaz, Fatma Yılmaz ve Kutluay, Mustafa (2011), Avrupa‟yı Bekleyen Tehlike: Aşırı Sağın Yükselişi, USAK Analiz, No: 11, Temmuz 2011. Gökçe, Gülise (2011), Neoliberalizmin Krizi ve Yeni Devlet/Yönetim Modeli Arayışları, Türk İdare Dergisi, Yıl 83, S. 471-472, Haziran-Eylül 2011, ss. 99-116. Gökçe, Gülise (2006), Türkiye – AB İlişkileri, AB Üyelik Sürecinin Türk Kamu Yönetimi Sistemi Üzerine Olası Etkileri, Gökçe, O. /Demiray, U. /Sözen, E. (eds.), Türkiye’nin ABD ve AB Denklemi, Çizgi Kitabevi, Konya, ss. 243 – 288. Kallis, Aristotle (2015), Avrupa’da Radikal Sağın Yükselişi, Mart 2015, Sayı 119, SETA, Ankara. Karapin, Roger (1998) Radical Right and Neo-Fascist Political Parties in Western Europe, Comparative Politics, 30 (2): 213-234. Mudde, Cas (2011), Radical Right Parties in Europe: What, Who, Why?, Participation (Bulletin of the International Political Science Association), Cilt 35, Sayı 1, Ekim 2011, ss.12-15. Öner, Selcen (2014), Avrupa‟da Yükselen Aşırı Sağ, Yeni „Ötekiler‟ ve Türkiye‟nin AB Üyeliği, Ankara Avrupa Çalışmaları Dergisi, C. 13, S. 1, ss. 163-184. Minkenberg, Michael (2011), The Radical Right in Europe Today: Trends and Patterns in East and West, Langenbacher, Nora and Britta Schellenberg (Hrsg.), Is Europe on the “Right” Path?: Right-wing Extremism and Right-wing Populism in Europe, Forum Berlin, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, ss.37-55. Rydgren, Jens (2007), The Sociology of Radical Right, The Annual Review of Sociology, 33, ss. 241-62. Şimşek,

Hasan

(2014),

Yeni

Liberalizm

Çöküyor,

Avrupa

Aşırı

Sağa

Çekiyor!,

Hasansimsek.net/files/Yeni%20Liberalizm%20Çöküyor%20Avrupa%20Asırı%20Saga%20Cekiyor!.pdf.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

MEDIA AND TERRORISM– IS MEDIA A TOOL RENDERING SERVICE TO THE PURPOSE OF TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS?

Prof. Dr. Orhan GÖKÇE Selçuk University Konya, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Department of Public Administration [email protected] Abstract The issue of Mediaand Terrorism has started to draw the attention of science environment after September 11 more and more. The researches before September 11 were rather about terrorist actions’ way of appearance on media. After September 11,the issue turned into the question of whether media is instumentalized by terrorists or not. In this respect, the studies cover a wide field such as way of media’s construction and presentation of terrorist incidents, the language it uses, broadcasting policy, perception management. As a result, it is possible to mention about significant publications in the issue of media-terrorism qualitatively and quantitatively in our day. The researches point out that terrorist incidents or actions have extraordinary media interest. As such, terrorist incidents (September 11 attacks, London attacks, Paris attacks, Ankaraattacks etc.incidents) on national and international scale have occupied media for days and weeks. Even, it will be a little bit assertive, but it can be said that terrorist actionsare products/child of media. Touch competition conditions lived in our day witness a bitter struggle in attracting audience/rating among media. This case forces media staff to pursue sensational incidents and particularly, terrorism, traffic accidents, martyr funeral ceremonies and suchlike emotional incidents (scenes of people darting about, crying, lamenting, with torn dresses in welter of blood, and tearful people scenes) and to report as news. Being aware of that, terrorist organizations use this case unmercifully. Within the direction of “the more the number of victims are and the closer the case to media centers, the more that incident will be on the news” rule, terroristsguarantee appearing on the media by moving their actions or attacks to the city centers and therefore, attain their goals easier. Therefore, both terrorists gain a profile as political actor and use media as a scene that they announce their messages in this way. Hence, mediaturns into a tool rendering service to the goals of terrorists. The relationship between media and terrorism will be discussed and truth of this claim alleged concerning that media embraces terrorism will be researched in this study. 1.

Introduction

The relationship of mediaand terrorism is a subject discovered by science environment after September 11. There had been several terrorist actionsin the world before September 11; but these did not reach global dimension and remain more of local as these were not oriented to the west and did not threaten west. When we look back, we see that there has been numerous terrorist organization. ETA, IRA, ASALA, RED BRIGADES, PKK, BAADER MEINHOF, TIGERS OF TAMİLare only a few of them.These terrorist organizationscarried out newsworthy incidents in terms of media such as assassination,kidnapping,hijacking, murder, bank robbery etc. but these did not reach the attention of 803

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN global public opinion as none of these incidents targeted places, deemed as symbolic values of the world.As for September 11,it differentiates itself from the previous terrorist attacks at this very point.September 11targeted Twin Towers, being symbolic representation of the world and super power, that is to say the heart of west. When the target is the super power itself, the interest of world media was quite high, consequently. The attention of world media was locked to these attacks and emergence and flow of the attacks were presented to the whole world moment by moment as watching a film. Furthermore, AL-QA’IDAwas imprinted on the memories as the most dangerous and unmerciful terrorist organization. Media’s way of presenting the attack is shown as the basic reason for September 11’s being imprinted on the memories of people in such persistent manner and still preserving its aliveness.Hence, a new subject came into the world. This is the relationship between mediaand terrorism. Therefore, terrorist attacksare started to be questioned and discussed in a new perspective, in terms of media’s contribution to terrorism. In this respect, the studies cover a wide range of field such as media’s construction and presentation of terrorist incidents, the language it uses, broadcasting policy, perception management. As a result, it is possible to mention about significant publications in the issue of media-terrorism qualitatively and quantitatively in our day.

The issue of terrorismwas handled and analyzed as more of event-based until September 11. As globalizationand globalization of media in this context, was in the phase of infancy, terrorist actionsreached to daily life of the society and gained quality of being a subject interesting everyone. The case changed with the globalization of media. Terrorists’ changing their strategies also has a substantial role in this process. Terroristsalso realized the power of media, solved its logic of operation and afterwards, moved their actions from mountains to metropolis by taking impression creating and accessibility criteria in terms of mediainto consideration. As impression creating actions and the images that media easily reach guarantee being visible on media, terroristshave started to organize their actions according to this. Terroristshave realized that they cannot reach their goals and cannot create the perception of fear and threat without media. For that reason, they have started to do all action plans considering mediafactor. This is because basic aims of terrorist organizations are to attract notice or give a message. The way of transmitting this message to the masses is media. Media is the fastest and efficient way of reaching people in the world. Everything is announced through or over media any longer. Terrorist organizationsalso spread their messages through and over media.Mediaprovides them the public opinion that they need. Public opinion is vital for terrorists. It is quite difficult to find the staff they need, obtain volunteers for their actions and ensure financial resource without public opinion. Accordingly, terrorismis at the same time a war of propaganda. Terrorists do their action in subhuman and wild manner in a way that those actions will be spoken on news and programs. Terrorist actions’ being subject of news intensely means that numerous people are

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN reached at the same time and in parallel with this, they increase their efficiency area and become powerful. And this facilitates procurement of human and financial resources that terrorist organization continuously in need. Mediais in a race so to speak, to be the first one to announce these unmerciful and sub-human incidents.This is because terrorist incidentsinterest the society in general not only a segment of it and thus affect the circulation of the newspaper. In other saying, while mediais providing terrorist actions’ reaching to large masses, terrorist incidentsincite media’s being demanded more. Terrorists reach their aims without making much effort due to rating anxiety of media. Hence, they play into terrorists’ hands. At the same time, mediais a political actor, that is to say, medianot only narrates what is going on but also actively contributes to the process of creating a public opinion and thus, has an important role in fulfilling the objectives of terrorist organizations. Thereby, a symbiotic relationship between mediaand terrorismis created. At this very point, mediais criticized severely as renders services to the goals of terrorists. The critics regarding media renders service to the goals of terroristshave started to frequently be expressed both by scholars and political actors in the recent periods. This is because, this study deals with the relation of terrorismand media and questions the way of terrorism’s appearing on media. In this context, the primary target of this study is to find answers of these questions: 1) How do media report terrorist actions as news? 2) Do mediabecome tool and putty of terrorists? In other words, do terrorists instrumentalize media? 3) What kind of a news making strategy shall media pursue towards terrorists’ attempts to instrumentalize? These questions are tried to be answered based on the findings and data of various studies carried out on this issue. 2.

The concept of terrorism

Everybody agrees that the word of Terrorismwas firstly used in France after French Revolution and the meaning and scope of the concept of terrorism have enlarged and changed since its first usage. However, it is not possible to find a definition regarding the concept about which everyone comes to terms. There are tens of definition of terror and terrorism made by various scholars, philosophers, experts and politicians and it is observed that different standings and points of views are reflected in these definitions.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Terrorism was derived from the word of “terreur” in French and contains acts of violence aiming at disturbing public order and general health, demolishing political and economic order, destroying national unity, splitting the unity of the country, collapsing legal administration and weakening fundamental order of the society by means of threat, violence, oppression, suppression, intimidation and threatening as word meaning. In this sense, terrorismis a language, discourse, tool, method and strategy that is used in planned way to reach political goals and is an act of violence containing stress, fear, anxiety, worry, panicand terror feelings (see Yayla, 1990; Orhon, 2004; Muratoğlu, 2007; Küçükcan, 2010; Fendoğlu, 2012; Akçay ve Çelenay, 2012, Devran, 2015). Besides this, mostly confused with the word of terror and used in the same meaning, terrorismwas derived from “terre" word in Latin and is a way of violence carried out with the aim of causing fear on public opinion to lean on political groups, government or state (Akgün, 2006:34; Topal, 2005:7). Terrorism tries to influence the attitudes of the enemy by means of attacking symbolic values that enemy has rather thanmaterial value. Together with the fact that its victims are generally civilians, it is not necessary for an action to be a terrorist action to cause individual harm (death or injury) absolutely (Schlagheck, 1998:1; Wilkinson, 1997:51-64). In this regard, terrorism is an element of psychological warfare. While terror states a status of action causing intimidation in individuals and spreading terror in general sense, terrorismstates the situation of adopting organized, systematic and continuous terrorist actions as a method to change present condition for political reasons (Türkkaya, 2003:14). In this scope, terrorism is form of planned and having politic purpose violence. Its aim is to provide masses’ being influenced by the actions. Terroris a complex method and wild way that use fear, fright, violence, death and massacre to reach the target (Akçay and Çelenay, 2012). Terror has three elements asideological, organizational and violence (Akçay and Çelenay, 2012:184).Organization determines its strategy by acting within the direction of the ideology it adopted. According to organizational element, being the second factor, terrorist organizationsare generally comprised of organization leaders, chiefsunder the leaders and the low-level responsibles. And the last element, violence, comes into prominent compared to other two elements.The basic reason for that is terrorist organizations see violence as a significant tool to reach the targets they determine within the direction of their ideologies and terrorist actions which they name “armed propaganda” as an avoidable method to change the present constitutional order. 3.

Significance of media in terms of terror

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Media is the eye and ears of people. It is not possible to understand the work getting complex and becoming different more and more without media.People watch and observe media to understand what is going on around them, to have position concerning the incidents, to organize their daily lives, and to learn what other people think. Being aware of this importance of the media, political and social actors are in fight with all their power to appear on media. This is because it is widely believed that no one and no incident that does not enter and appear on media is perceived, known and recognized as exist in reality. Correspondingly, everyone desire to appear on media by some means or other (Gökçe, 2004a). Terrorists want to give message with actions primarily. The most efficient tool for giving a message is media. In this sense, the ultimate aim of terrorist actions is to attract the notice of media. In other saying, the purpose of terrorist organizations is to appear on media or be in the center of public attention and interest. For this purpose, terroristsplan and implement their targets, timing of the act, the position of the targets as being easily accessed by media both in terms of spatial and image. However, terrorist organizationsare aware of the fact that they can find militants who will fight for them primarily and they can increase their money sources as well as many other purposes thanks to this.This case reveals that terrorist organizations become quite professional about the operation of media and propaganda and they can direct media within the direction of their goals. For that reason, media is accepted as the most suitable tool rendering service to the goal of terror (Fidan, 2004; Orhon, 2004; Yüksel, 2004; Gökçe vd., 2004b ve 2004c). It is observed that terrorist organizations establish their own media in the recent years to increase their influence, being aware of media’s power of molding public opinion. For instance, PKK terrorist organizationwants the written and visual information and documents related to their actions to appear in discussion programs, newspaper columns and writings of these organs by entering those to delivery channel of both social media and traditional media thanks to the news agency, television, radio and websites. And it is seen that they are quite successful on that. Terrorist organizations build relationships with media staff with the aim of appearing on media and give them interviews, take them to their places, and in short, try every single thing to be on media as they think that media establishes reputation and legality to them, and encourages terror staff and sympathizers. This is because terrorist organizationsknow that appearing on media will provide them the advantage of becoming legal representative of the segments of the society for which they do actions, as claimed by them. And also they know that this will facilitate their providing financial resource and new terrorists. Furthermore, the way how organization leader’s being defined on media and the language used within this direction also contribute to this legitimization process. 4.

Weakness of media concerning violent incidents

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Thousands of even millions of incidents occur daily in social life. However, only some of those are shown in the news and others fall in trash box. It is required for an incident to be selected to be turned into news that it shall have one or more of the news factors. News factors are professional codes that are efficient in the selection of events as news. The codes such as conflict/violence (war, armed/bombed assault, sudden attacks, verbal abuse, fight, battle), abnormality andbeing oriented to the society-wide come into the prominence as most efficient factors in selection of news (seeGökçe, 1988). Terroristshave highly become professionals in terms of communication strategies and thus know the weaknesses of media quite well. Being aware of the fact that the biggest weakness of media is the subject of violence, terrorists recognize that their attacks and actions are not momentary subjects and will not fall off the agenda immediately. Violence is extremely attractive for media. It is for certain that the most important tool of terrorist organization is violence. Even, it can be said that it is the basic communication strategy of terrorist organization. Terrorist organizations are conscious about that they will be on media and perpetuate a show effect with this communication strategy. For that reason, violence (bombed attack, suicide bomb, and sudden attacks) and the events and actions having high potential of violence (kidnapping, brigandage, busts etc.) are main tools of terrorist organizations. A substantial factor of the logic of terrorism is shock effect. This is why violence and blood are most important communication strategy of terrorism. The place of terrorists on media is under guarantee as long as they shed blood. Ultimately, a symbiotic relation between mediaand terrorismis created unavoidably. While terrorism is trying to cause social in dignance by using media, mediadesires to increase its audience rate by exaggerating terrorist incidents and making it manipulation material, and repeating the same scenes continuously. Media is in a race so to speak, to be the first one to announce these unmerciful and sub-human incidents. This is because terrorist incidents interest the society in general not only a segment of it and thus affect the circulation of the newspaper. In other saying, while media is providing terrorist actions’ reaching to large masses, terrorist incidents incite media’s being demanded more. Terroristsdo not deem their aims as limited with the incidents’ they created being in the first rank in present news programs or being on the first pages of newspapers. The main purpose of them is to trigger latest political developments and even crisis with these eventsand to lead to organization of discussion programs and panels related to the attacks lasting for days on TV. Mediastages terrorist attacksextremely emotional and dramatizes to increase their market share. Jenkins (1975) indicated thatterrorist organizations plan their actions meticulously in a manner that media will notice the action and used the concept of “Terrorism Drama” for that. That is in briefterroristsplan and implement their attacks in a way that it will surround the agenda day after day and therefore advertise themselves.This is because, an attack or action is only successful in terms of terroristswhenit appears on media and

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN afterwards there are condemnation statements take place on media. In this context, media is in the center of all actions of terrorist organization. In other words, terrorists or terrorist organizationof our dayconsider media as a stage for all of their actions within the framework of “Terrorism Drama” and take each step as per this stage. Therefore, it is not seem possible that media not to fall in that trap with the recent structure of media (Orhon, 2004; Gökçe, 2004b; Yüksel, 2004).Furthermore, such case also in question. Most of the time, media does not perceive this trap or ignore consciously. The reason for that is generally media thinks that it takes the opportunity to turn terrorist incidents into “significant nationaland international mediaevent” easily (Hoffmann, 2001).For that reason, mediareacts quite fast without understanding the cause and source of the incidents and consideringthe potential outcomes it may generate due to the competition, particularly with social media (Orhon, 2004).This generally means falling into the trap of terrorists. In conclusion, terrorist organizations have inversely proportional clout to their sizes in international and nationalpublic opinion. It is for certain that terrorist attacks are newsworthy. However, media has easily become an instrument in fulfilling the goals of terrorists with its reporting these as news in exaggerating and moving the emotions. 5.

Criticism on media’s reporting terrorist incidents as news

The existence of symbiotic relation between mediaand terrorism, that it to say, these are dependent to one another reciprocally is a commonly-held sense in scientific public opinion. It is said that media cannot be separated with the fact that media is being instrumentalized by terrorism and it turns into a kind of spokesmen of terror basing on the principles of freedom of press of media and people’s right to obtain information. In fact, it is frequently expressed that this is not originated not only from media staff but more of the structure of media. As it was specified before, the aim of terrorist actions is to scare andintimidate. It is generally uttered that media’s presenting the news and images related to suffer, blood, tear, shock, and devastation caused by terrorist action as is without filtering and presenting those frequently makes it an instrument of terror. Terroristshave analyzed the logic of operation of media quite well, and realized that dramatizedevents attract the notice of media. In this regard, terrorist organizationsplan and implement their actions thinking and calculating all possibilities. This is becauseterrorist organizationsknow that they are weak against state in every sense. They focus on actions or attacks difficult to prevent, oriented to devastation and creating tremendous impression to meet this weakness and show themselves strong before public.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Media’s presenting these attacks by attaching extraordinary importance and dramatizing will cause anxiety and fear in the society. People try not to go out and be in crowded areas. It is observed that the anxiety of “falling victim” among people after the terrorist attacks happened in Turkey and Europe in the recent years. It is undeniable fact that the contribution of media in creation of this perception is quite high. In this sense, it can be said that mediais the best friend of terrorists. To put it in different way, mediahas become an important instrument for terrorist organizations’ making their purposes and voices heard to the world (see Weichert, 2002; Neverla, 2003). The science environment is divided into two concerning media’s reporting terrorist incidents as news. While some are criticizing media due to its way of reporting the incident and presentation and its comments and define as the fundamental reason for strengthening of terror, some others defense the opposite. The ones who criticize media because of news about terrorismspecify that media shall take the responsibility of the news into consideration while preparing the news on the issue and shall not give explicit or implicit support for terror; even some suggest that news shall not be reported about those. The ones who have opposing view express that media reports and shall report news about terrorist incidents just as other incidents. According to them, the world is not only comprised of terrorists or terrorist organizations. Media does not become servant of anyone by choosing and reporting an incident as news and does not render service to their purposes. Mediahas to report news about terror within the scope of society’s right to obtain information and freedom of press.In this context, everyone who report terrorist incidents as news, do not do favor to terrorists and do not render service to their goals. Media’s ignoring terrorist incidents is out of question. If you ignore terrorist incidents and do not show it, terroristshave the possibility to announce this to public by means of alternative communication tools. Furthermore, this kind of an attitude and approach will give harm to the trust to both political power and media to a large extent and will incite distrust environment in the society. For that reason, it is not possible for media to ignore terrorist incidents. However, it is also not necessary for to present these incidents in extremely emotional and dramatizing way in a manner that it will cause speculations and provocations. Likewise, media shall rapidly abandonthe understanding of presenting the actions for minutes and rewinding again and again every time or headlining and in a manner that it will cover whole page referring to the concept of freedom of press. Within this framework, live broadcast is pretty dangerous. This is because incidents hold media captive not media staff hold incidents captive in this case. For that reason, media reports actions and events as news, it shall do so, but it always has to analyze the news in terms of its outcomes. The understanding of “everything is news” shall not be the case in any case and environment (Yüksel, 2004). 6.

Conclusion

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN It is not possible for media to ignore and not to report the incidents oriented to the society such as terrorist attacks. Reporting these kinds of incidents is both necessity of journalism and right to society’s obtaining information. However, as long as mediacontinue its incidents and explanations indexed understanding of journalism also in terrorist incidents, and this is in question most of the time,it is unavoidable for it to become a passive actor of terroristactions and become instrument of terror. What can media do concerning instrumentalization strategy of terrorists? It will be suitable that media shall handleterroristattacks within the framework of crisis not from incidents as war, disaster while reporting news. In other words, media shall alter its framing strategy aboutterrorist attacks and shall move away classical news factors in theming terrorist incidents.Moreover, great care is needed in use of images. Images are rather effective weapons. As terrorists know that media thematises over images, they plan their actions in a way that media will have may images. Therefore, mediashall limit itself while using the materials that terrorists present to them. The number of victims is not too important for terrorists; the thing which is important for them is the psychological effect generated. Terrorists achieve this psychological effect over or by means of media. The level of an action’s appearing on media and its reflections are indicators of that action in terms of terrorists. Media shall approach terrorist actions from this perspective, and thematize and present the events in a manner that media will not be an instrument of goals of terrorists. It is quite important to use limited visual images as much as possible in this process.

References Akçay, Ekrem Y. ve Çelenay Ömer E. (2012), Terör ve Medya İlişkisinin 2003 Yılında İstanbul’da Meydana Gelen Saldırılar Örneğiyle İncelenmesi, NEÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi 2 (2012) 183-197. Akgün, Birol (2006). Küresel Terör: Mit mi?, Gerçek mi?, Gökçe, O. ve Demiray, U. (eds.), Terörün Görüntüleri, Görüntülerin Terörü, Konya, Çizgi, 2004, s. 399-429. Alexander, Yonah (2002), Terrorism and the Media, Some considerations, Alexander Y.

et. al. (eds.), Terrorism:

Theory and Pratice, Bouldner, Westgview Pres. Devran, Yusuf (2015),

Medya ve Terör Sorunsalı, Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, C. 3, S.

2 (2015), s. 84-95. Fendoğlu, Hasan T. (2012), Terör ve Medya, SDE, 25.05.2012. Fidan, Mehmet (2004), Terör ve Medya, Gökçe, O. ve Demiray, U., Terörün Görüntüleri, Görüntülerin Terörü, Konya, Çizgi, 2004, s. 55-77. Gökçe, Orhan (2004a),

Terörizm Çağında Düşman İmajları,

Gökçe, O. ve Demiray, U., Terörün Görüntüleri,

Görüntülerin Terörü, Konya, Çizgi, 2004, s. 81-101. Gökçe, Orhan vd. (2004b), 11 Eylül Terör Eyleminin Türk Basınında Algılanış ve İşleniş Biçimi, Gökçe, O. ve Demiray, U. (eds.), Terörün Görüntüleri, Görüntülerin Terörü, Konya, Çizgi, 2004, s. 185-246. Gökçe, Orhan vd. (2004c), İstanbul Terör Saldırılarının Türk Medyasına Yansıması, Gökçe, O. ve Demiray, U. (eds.), Terörün Görüntüleri, Görüntülerin Terörü, Konya, Çizgi, 2004, s. 247-300. Gökçe, Orhan (1988), Das Bild der Türken in der deutschen Presse, Giessen, Schmitz Verlag. Hoffman, Bruce (1998), Inside Terrorism, New York: Columbia University Press 1998. Jenkins, Brian, M. (1975), Will Terrorists Go Nuclear?, The Rand Corporation, Sant Mocica, California. Küçükcan, Talip (2010), Terörün Sosyolojisi: Toplumsal Kökenleri Anlama İmkanı, Uluslararası İlişkiler, C. 6, S. 24 (Kış 2010), s. 33-54. Muratoğlu, Enver (2007), 11 Eylül Sonrası Terörizmin Kazandığı Yeni Boyut ve Uluslararası Terörizmin

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Türkiye’ye Yansımaları, SDE, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Neverla, Irene (2003), Zasur und Kompetenz, Thesen zur journalistischen Krisenberichterstattung, Beuthner, Michael et al. (Hrsg.), Bilder des Terors-Teror der Bilder?, Köln, Herbert von Halem Verlag, 2003, s. 158-170. Orhon, Nezih (2004), Terörün Anlamı ve Görselleştirilmiş Terör”, Gökçe, O. ve Demiray, U. (eds.) Terörün Görüntüleri, Görüntülerin Terörü, Konya, Çzigi, 2004, s. 159-182. Schlagheck, Donna M. (1988), International Terroism: An Introduction to The Concepts and Actors, Lexington: Lexington Books. Topal, Ahmet H.

(2005),

Uluslararası Terörizm ve Terörist Eylemlere Karşı Kuvvet Kullanımı, İstanbul: Beta

Yayınları. Türkkaya, Ataöv (2003), 11 Eylül: terörle Savaş mı Bahane mi, İstanbul, Alkım. Yayla, Atilla (1990), Terörizm: Kavramsal Bir Çerçeve, Ankara Üniversitesi, Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi (1990), s. 335-385. Yüksel, Erkan (2004), Gerçek Yaşam, Medyadaki Gerçek ve Terör Haberciliği, Gökçe, O. ve Demiray, U. (eds.) Terörün Görüntüleri, Görüntülerin Terörü, Konya, Çizgi, 2004, s. 21-53. Weichert, Stephan Alexander (2003), “Von der Live-Katastrophe zum Medien-Denkaml: Das mediatisierte Kriesenereignis <11. September>”,

Beuthner, Michael et al. (Hrsg.), Bilder des Terors-Teror der Bilder?”, Köln,

Herbert von Halem Verlag, 2003, s. 74-102. Wilkinson, Paul (1997), “The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment”, Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 9, No.2, 51-64.

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THE EFFECT OF SPOUSAL SUPPORT ON EMOTIONAL EXHAUSTION FOR MARRIED ACADEMICIANS: THE MEDIATING ROLE OF JOB SATISFACTION Asst. Prof. Dr. Ozan BUYUKYILMAZ Karabuk University, Faculty of Business, Department of Business Administration [email protected]

Abstract Married coworkers are an important population for both organizations and researcher because this population seems to be growing and already constitutes a substantial part of some working groups. Support between married coworkers gaining much attention by researchers in recent years, because social support has been characterized as a particularly salient and important resource in the stress process. For this rationale, this study aims to investigate how spousal support perceived by married academicians affects the level of emotional exhaustion and whether there is a mediating effect of job satisfaction in spousal support and emotional exhaustion relationship. Data for the sample was collected from 219 full time academicians from Bulent Ecevit University in Turkey. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to test the hypotheses. The results show that spousal support has a negative and significant effect on emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction mediates the relationship between spousal support and emotional exhaustion. By examining the relationship between spousal support, emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction, this study suggests potential benefits to employees in work-linked relationships. Keywords: Spousal Support, Job Satisfaction, Emotional Exhaustion.

1. Introduction The past decades have witnessed dramatic changes in the way family life is viewed by organizations and organizations are showing a growing interest in work and family issues (Theunissen et al., 2003). The growth of two-income families and increasing levels of job stress are two of the most significant work trends affecting organizations and families in recent years. Having just one stressed-out spouse can harm couple's work and home lives. To date, most studies on married coworkers have focused on how such relationships effect marriages (Moen and Sweet, 2002; Janning, 2006; Gudmunson et al., 2009). More recently, researchers focus on worker effects rather than marital effects (Namayandeh et al., 2010; Halbesleben et al., 2010; Halbesleben et al., 2012). However, much research is still needed on the complex relationships inherent in married coworkers, and also on how these relationships affect worker outcomes (Bures et al., 1996). For this rationale, this study aims to investigate how spousal support perceived by married academicians affects the level of emotional exhaustion and whether there is a mediating effect of job satisfaction in spousal support and emotional exhaustion relationship. In examining these relationships, this paper makes contribution to the literature by adding to the limited knowledge of an understudied population in the research. 2. Review of Literature Spousal support is the support an employee receives from his or her partner. Another definition for spousal support as being the level to which one partner offered tangible and emotional aid in the other partner's career (Bures et al., 1996). Aycan and Eskin (2005) defined spousal support as the help, advice, understanding, and the like that spouses provide for one another. Work-related spousal support is the emotional and instrumental support provided by one spouse to the other regarding work related 813

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN activities (Ferguson et al., 2016). Prior research investigated the role of general social support for work from family members and found that it lowers family to-work conflict, burnout, cynicism, and depression, whereas it increases job satisfaction and employee attachment (Baruch-Feldman et al., 2002; Huynh et al., 2012). Rosin (1990) examined the effects of spousal support through a qualitative approach. Results implied a direct relationship between spousal support and job satisfaction. Results indicated that spouse support increases job satisfaction. H1. Spousal support is positively related to job satisfaction. Emotional exhaustion is characterized by energy loss and the feeling that one’s emotional resources have been depleted (Halbesleben et al., 2010). Individuals are likely to experience emotional exhaustion when they feel they no longer have the necessary resources to handle the stressors confronting them. This study focused exclusively on emotional exhaustion because it is widely seen as the “core” dimension of job burnout (Maslach and Jackson (1981). It is believed that spousal support will hinder emotional exhaustion, as it provides the resources needed to cope with stressful work events (Greenglass et al., 1996; Thompson et al., 2005). Findings suggest that spousal support should help reduce emotional exhaustion. H2. Spousal support is negatively related to emotional exhaustion. Findings also suggest that job satisfaction should help reduce emotional exhaustion (Avdija and Sudipto, 2013). H3. Job satisfaction is negatively related to emotional exhaustion. Several studies have demonstrated a relationship between spousal support and emotional exhaustion (Greenglass et al., 1996; Thompson et al., 2005) and spousal support and job satisfaction (Bures et al., 1996; Ferguson et al., 2016). But spousal support has not been examined in the context of both job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion. Specifically, the link between spousal support, job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion among academicians has not been adequately explored. H4. Job satisfaction mediates the relationship between spousal support and emotional exhaustion. 3. Methodology 3.1. Sample and Procedure Data were collected from full-time married academicians labored in Bulent Ecevit University in Turkey via paper-and-pencil survey. The questionnaire assessed demographic variables, degree of spousal support, job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion. According to information from the personnel department of the university it is determined that there are 661 married academicians labored in Bulent Ecevit University, so the population is composed of 661 people. The questionnaire was delivered to married academic staff by sending it to the university's academic units. A total of 245 respondents completed the survey for a response rate of %37. Of the 245 respondents, 219 employees provided complete data on the variables of interest. Therefore, the final sample used to examine the hypotheses was 219 participants. Participants represented a broad range of staff roles such as professor (%9.1), associate professor (%14.2), assistant professor (%35.2), research assistant (%21.5), instructor (12.8) and lecturer (%7.2). Of the 219 participants 124 (%56.6) were male and 95 (43.4) were female. Their average tenure was 10 years. The majority (%60.7) of the participants were within the 31–40 years age bracket, with a mean age of 37 years. 3.2. Measures All measures were anchored on a Likert-type scale. Items coded such that a higher score indicated a greater value for the focal construct. To obtain participants’ scores on the measures, items within each measure were averaged.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Spousal support was measured using subscale of Caplan et al.'s (1975) measure of social support and it consists of 4-items. Responses were made on a 5-point scale (1 = not at all to 5 = a great deal). The internal reliability (α) obtained for this measure was 0.95. Job satisfaction was assessed using a 5-item measure developed by Rusbult et al. (1988). Responses were made on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). This scale yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.91. Emotional exhaustion measured using a 9-item scale adopted from Maslach and Jackson (1981). Responses were made on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The internal reliability of the scale was 0,90. 4. Results Prior to testing the hypotheses, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted using AMOS to examine the construct validity of the studied constructs (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). The results are shown in Table 1. The fit of hypothesized measurement model compared with nested alternative models comprising one and two factors. The results indicate that the best fitting model is the hypothesized three factor model, as the fit is significantly better than the other three nested models (Table 1). Table 1. Comparison of Measurement Models χ2 (df)

Model Three-factors (hypothesized) Two-factors (Emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction Two-factors support combined into(Spousal one factor)

Δχ2 (Δdf) RMSEA

GFI

NFI

TLI

CFI

182.48 (128)

-

0.04

0.91

0.94

0.98

0.98

385.95 (130)

203.47 (2)

0.10

0.78

0.88

0.90

0.92

650.13 (130)

467.65 (2)

0.14

0.65

0.79

0.80

0.83

and job satisfaction combined One-factor (All variables into one factor)

919.92 (131) 737.44 (3) 0.17 0.59 0.71 0.69 0.74 combined into one factor) RMSEA=root mean square error of approximation, GFI=goodness of fit index, NFI=normed fit index, TLI=Tucker-Lewis index, CFI=comparative fit index

The means, standard deviations, internal reliabilities (α), and intercorrelations for the variables used in the study displayed in Table 2. Intercorrelations were all in the expected direction and the Cronbach α for each variable was above the 0.70 as recommended by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994). Also, correlations between variables never exceeded 0.85, suggesting that no bivariate multicollinearity exists between scales (Kline, 2011). Table 2. Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations among Study Variables

1.Age

Mean

SD

α

1

37.42

7.49

-

-

-

0.21**

-

**

-0.16*

**

**

2.Gender 3.Staff role

2

-0.46

4.Tenure

10.84

6.52

-

5.Spousal support

3.70

1.17

0.95

-0.04

6.Job satisfaction

3.38

0.95

0.91

-0.03

7.Emotional exhaustion 2.73 N=219, *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

0.85

0.90

0.84

-0.03

815

3

4

5

6

7

-0.55**

-

0.06

-0.05

-0.02

-

-0.08

0.03

-0.06

0.60**

0.02

**

0.21

0.02

0.06

-0.57

-0.67**

-

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to test the hypotheses (Table 3). Because they may affect the variables and relationships of interest, age, gender, staff role and tenure were included as control variables. Hypothesis 1 predicted that spousal support would be positively related to job satisfaction and hypothesis 2 predicted that spousal support would be negatively related to emotional exhaustion. As shown in Table 3, spousal support was significantly and positively related to job satisfaction (β=0.63, p<0.01) and significantly and negatively related to emotional exhaustion (β=-0.59, p<0.01). Thus, Hypotheses 1 and 2 were supported. Hypothesis 3 predicted that job satisfaction would be negatively related to emotional exhaustion. As displayed in Table 3, job satisfaction was significantly and negatively related to emotional exhaustion (β=-0.66, p<0.01). Thus, Hypothesis 3 was confirmed. Table 3. Hypotheses Testing Job Satisfaction

Control Variables Age Gender Staff Role Tenure Independent Variable Spousal Support Mediator Variable Job Satisfaction F Value R2 Adjusted R2 ΔR2 N=219, *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

Emotional Exhaustion

Step 1

Step 2

β

β

β

β

0.14 -0.11 0.03 -0.13

-0.24* 0.01 0.03 0.23

-0.13 -0.06 0.07 0.15

-0.17 -0.03 0.04 0.17

0.63**

-0.59**

22.624** 0.39 0.38

19.804** 0.36 0.34

Step 3

-0.29** -0.66** 28.942** 0.45 0.44

-0.48** 29.278** 0.50 0.49 0.15**

Three-step mediation regression procedure outlined by Baron and Kenny (1986) was followed to test the mediating role of job satisfaction (Hypothesis 4). Baron and Kenny (1986) stipulate three requirements for establishing mediation effect. 1. The independent variable (spousal support) must be significantly related to mediator variable (job satisfaction). 2. The independent variable (spousal support) must be significantly related to dependent variable (emotional exhaustion). 3. When the mediator variable (job satisfaction) is included in the second step, the effect of independent variable (spousal support) on dependent variable (emotional exhaustion) should be non-significant (full mediation) or significantly weaker (partially mediation). The first and second requirements were met as indicated by the support for Hypotheses 1 and 2 (Table 3, Step 1 and 2). The third requirement for establishing mediation was examined by including job satisfaction (Table 3, Step 3) in the regression equation for emotional exhaustion. When job satisfaction was included in the regression equation as a mediator variable, spousal support still remained as a significant predictor of emotional exhaustion, but its beta weight decreased significantly (β=-0.29, p<0.01). Finally, the Sobel test (Sobel, 1982) revealed that the indirect path from spousal support to emotional exhaustion through job satisfaction was significant (Z= 5.78, p<0.01). Thus, job satisfaction partially mediated the relationship between spousal support and emotional exhaustion, 816

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN providing support for Hypotheses 4. 5. Discussion and Conclusion This study aims to investigate how spousal support perceived by married academicians affects the level of emotional exhaustion and whether there is a mediating effect of job satisfaction in spousal support and emotional exhaustion relationship. Data for the sample was collected from 219 full time married academicians from Bulent Ecevit University in Turkey and hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to test the hypotheses. The results show that spousal support has a negative and significant effect on emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction. This results indicate a spouse given the high level of support to academicians make them no worries at work, then can enhance their job satisfaction. Results indicate also support that receives from his or her partner reduce the academician’s feeling of fatigued, overwhelmed, and emotionally drained by his or her job. Study findings also suggest that job satisfaction mediates the relationship between spousal support and emotional exhaustion. That is, academicians' perception of spousal support may have more powerful impact on emotional exhaustion in the case of the experience of job satisfaction. Results from this study imply that companies may need to rethink strategies for reducing emotional exhaustion and increasing job satisfaction. Currently, most businesses utilize individual intervention techniques. In other words, intervention plans are designed to aid individuals in increasing their own job satisfaction and reducing emotional exhaustion. Companies may need to enact more comprehensive plans to foster the support given by a worker's partner. There were a number of methodological limitations to the current study. First, data were collected at a single point in time. Thus, the use of cross-sectional research design limits the ability to make firm conclusions about the causal relationships among the study variables. Future research can rely on experimental or longitudinal designs and provide more convincing evidence on causation. Secondly, this study focused solely on academicians, which consequently raises the issue of generalizability of the findings. Future studies may be necessary to validate the findings by obtaining data from different employees of different sectors. References Anderson, J. C. and D. W. Gerbing (1988). Structural Equation Modeling in Practice: A Review and Recommended Two-Step Approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411-423. Avdija, A. S. and R. Sudipto (2013). The Effects of Emotional Exhaustion on Prison Employees’ Job Satisfaction and Personal Accomplishments. International Journal of Criminology and Sociological Theory, 6(4), 144-154. Aycan, Z. and M. Eskin (2005). Relative Contributions of Childcare, Spousal Support, and Organizational Support in Reducing Work–Family Conflict for Men and Women: The Case of Turkey. Sex Roles, 53(7/8), 453-471. Baron, R. M. and Kenny, D. A. (1986). The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173-1182. Baruch-Feldman, C., E. Brondolo, D. Ben-Dayan, and J. Schwartz (2002). Sources of Social Support and Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Productivity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(1), 84–93. Bures, A. L., D. Henderson, J. Mayfield, M. Mayfield and J. Worley (1996). The Effects of Spousal Support and Gender on Worker's Stress and Job Satisfaction: A Cross National Investigation of Dual Career Couples. Journal of Applied Business Research, 12(1), 52-58. Caplan, R. D., S. Cobb, J. R. P. French Jr., R. Van Harrison and S. R. Pinneau Jr. (1975). Job Demands and Worker Health: Main Effects and Occupational Differences. HEW Publication No. (NIOSH) 75-160, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. Ferguson, M., D. Carlson, K. M. Kacmar and J. R. B. Halbesleben (2016). The Supportive Spouse at Work: Does

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Being Work-Linked Help?. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 21(1), 37-50. Greenglass, E., L. Fiskenbaum and R. J. Burke (1996). Components of Social Support, Buffering Effects and Burnout: Implications for Psychological Functioning. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 9(3), 185–197. Gudmunson, C. G., S. M. Danes, J. D. Werbel and J. T-C. Loy (2009). Spousal Support and Work–Family Balance in Launching a Family Business. Journal of Family Issues, 30(8), 1098-1121. Halbesleben J. R. B., K. L. Zellars, D. S. Carlson, P. L. Perrewe´ and D. Rotondo (2010). The Moderating Effect of Work-Linked Couple Relationships and Work–Family Integration on the Spouse Instrumental Support-Emotional Exhaustion Relationship. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15(4), 371-387. Halbesleben, J. R. B., A. R. Wheeler and A. M. Rossi (2012). The Costs and Benefits of Working with One’s Spouse: A Two-Sample Examination of Spousal Support, Work–Family Conflict, and Emotional Exhaustion in Work-Linked Relationships. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(5), 597-615. Huynh, J. Y., A. H. Winefield, D. Xanthopoulou, and J. C. Metzer (2012). Burnout and Connectedness in the Job Demands-Resources Model: Studying Palliative Care Volunteers and Their Families. American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine, 29(6), 462–475 Janning, M. (2006). Put Yourself in My Work Shoes: Variations in Work-Related Spousal Support for Professional Married Coworkers. Journal of Family Issues, 27(1), 85-109. Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. 3rd Edition, The Guilford Press, New York, NY. Maslach, C. and S. E. Jackson (1981). The Measurement of Experienced Burnout. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 2(2), 99-113. Moen, P. and S. Sweet (2002). Two Careers, One Employer: Couples Working for the Same Corporation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61(3), 466-483. Namayandeh, H., S. N. Yaacob and R. Juhari (2010). The Influences of Work Support and Family Support on Work-Family Conflict (W-FC) Among Married Female Nurses in Shiraz-Iran. Journal of American Science, 6(12), 534-540. Nunnally, J. C. and I. H. Bernstein (1994). Psychometric Theory. 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, NY. Rosin, H. (1990). The Effects of Dual Career Participation on Men: Some Determinants of Variation in Career and Personal Satisfaction, Human Relations. 43(2), 169-182. Rusbult, C. E., D. Farrell, G. Rogers and A. G. Mainous III (1988). Impact of Exchange Variables on Exit, Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect: An Integrative Model of Responses to Declining Job Satisfaction. Academy of Management Journal, 31(3), 599-627. Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic Confidence Intervals for Indirect Effects in Structural Equation Models. Sociological Methodology, 13, 290-312. Theunissen, B., L. Van Vuuren and D. Visser (2003). Communication of Job-Related Information and Work-Family Conflict in Dual-Career Couples. Journal of Industrial Psychology, 29(1), 18-25. Thompson, B. M., A. Kirk and D. F. Brown (2005). Work Based Support, Emotional Exhaustion, and Spillover of Work Stress to the Family Environment: A Study of Policewomen. Stress and Health, 21(3), 199–207.

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TYPES OF DISPUTES IN LABOR LAW Asst. Prof. Dr. Özgür OĞUZ Anadolu University, Faculty of Law, Labor Law and Social Security Law Dep. [email protected]

Abstract In Turkish labor law, labor disputes could show themselves in very different types. For solving those disputes we have to classfy the disputes. So, we are going to analyse that dispute types. Labor dispute types are separated to two types as dispute of rights-dispute of benefits and individual labor dispute – collective labor dispute. Classification of labor disputes related to rights and benefits will be one based on their subjects. In order to preserve individuals’ benefits worth doing so, the power and the authority provided by the law system are called ‘individuals’ right’. The concept of disputes of benefits should refer to the dispute that occurs depending on the change of a current right or on the struggle to gain a right which the employer has not yet gained. Though these disputes between employees and employers have been classified in several ways, the most popular one is related to the discrimination between individual labor disputes and collective labor disputes. Individual labor disputes are disputes that occur depending on the individual labor relationships between the employer and the employee. If the union structuring, collective bargaining and collective contract process can be associated with the collective rights of the employer, then it will be possible to refer to any related dispute as collective labor dispute. Keywords: Dispute of rights, Dispute of benefits, Individual labor dispute, Collective labor dispute.

1. Introduction To talk of dispute, there should be a current distinction between demands, expectations and viewpoints. This dispute is grouped under different names. The categories in which disputes arising from the labor relations between the employer and the employee are disputes of rights and benefits and individual and collective labor disputes (Çelik, 1994, p. 467; Tunçomağ, 1989, p. 458). The importance of these distinctions is important for determining in what way and with which method the dispute will be solved (Oğuzman, 1967, p. 4). Although it is inevitable to experience dispute in the flow of a labor relation, ILO aims at excluding labor from the factors of competition among countries by allowing the government representatives and the employer and the employee - the two social parties of economy – to standardize labor costs and working conditions as much as possible via social dialogue (Sayın, 2013, p. 12). 2. Dispute of Rights – Dispute of Benefits Classification of labor disputes related to rights and benefits will be one based on their subjects (Demircioğlu and Centel, 2015, p. 305). In our laws, there is no definition provided in relation to this type of dispute. In addition, since there is a clear related explanation provided in practice, it is worth mentioning the distinction between the disputes of rights and benefits (Supreme Court 9th Civil Department: 26.6.1986 T. 1986/4891 E. 1986/6559 K); “In disputes of benefits, special arbitrator‟s decisions are in the form of collective labor contract. As for disputes of rights, special arbitrator‟s decisions are exposed to general provisions. Now that the dispute in question is exposed to general provisions, it is obvious that the intention is to regard this as

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN a dispute of rights and solve it. Then, what is important is to determine whether the dispute is a dispute of rights. Dispute of rights occurs when the employer or the employee with the collective labor contract violates the rights provided for the employee or the employer thanks to legislation or collective labor contract. To talk about violation of a right, first of all, there should be a provision constituting that right in the collective labor contract. If there is no such provision providing a right, then that right cannot be violated. The related article of the collective labor contract did not include any provision which provided the employee with certain rights regarding paid leave, payment for the religious festivals and fuel allowance, and this regulation was postponed. Thus, this provision in the collective labor contract would be determined by parties in future. In other words, any related dispute of benefits was put off. Therefore, there is no dispute of rights but of benefits. As for forwarding the dispute of benefits to the special arbitrator, as mention in Article 58, parties have to agree on selection of the special arbitrator, and if they do so, the special arbitrator‟s decision is not exposed to general provisions. Rather, this decision is a provision of collective labor contract. Seeing that the dispute in question is not a dispute of rights, it is an issue which is not involved in the scope of arbitrators‟ authorities. This required abolition according to the provision of Sub-clause 3, Article 533 of former Code of Civil Procedure (Canbolat, 2013, pp. 251 – 252). In case of a dispute of rights in the period of Law on Unions Number-275, the employee was provided with the right to go on strike, and the employer was allowed to use his or her lockout right. However, in the period of Unions and Collective Labor Contract Law Number-6356, by maintaining the attitude in the period of Collective Labor Contract Strike and Lockout Law Number-2822, parties were provided with the opportunity to apply such struggle methods as strike and lockout to solve disputes of rights and were allowed to take legal action for performance. a. Dispute of Rights In order to preserve individuals‟ benefits worth doing so, the power and the authority provided by the law system are called „individuals‟ right‟ (Özsunay, 1986, pp. 233 – 234). For the purpose of attributing dispute of rights to any dispute, it is necessary to provide parties with a right with the help of related regulations or a contract. Dispute that occurs in relation to an issue which is not covered by regulations or a labor contract cannot be regarded as a dispute of rights (Akyiğit, 2005, p. 506). The Supreme Court put forward an approach regarding the subject and stated that there may not be any violation of a right if there is no provision providing that right (Supreme Court 9th Civil Department: 26.06.1986 T. 1985/4891 E. 1986/6559 K.). Disputes of rights are those that occur in relation to the rights provided for parties with the help of the collective labor contract, the individual labor contract and the regulations which constitute the basis of the labor relationships between the employer and the employee (Kocaoğlu, 1988, p. 161). Dispute of rights involves violation of a current right or a right obtained. This right could be provided via an individual or collective labor contract in line with a law provision. Though its source is different, as of its result, there is somehow a right belonging to one of the parties. Judicial activity can help solve any disagreement regarding an issue which is registered in a source and for which there is no dispute in relation to whether it is a right or not. The reason is that what is necessary is to investigate only the existence of a right not acquisition of it. The performance provision to be established as a result of this investigation will be related to the current right as well. Therefore, there is no result to be obtained in an aggressive manner in such a process. Disputes expected to be solved via jurisdiction are essentially dispute of rights because in this situation, the person has a right, and the other party does not behave as expected in relation to recognizing that right and doing what is necessary. In order to determine the right and to do what is necessary, what a person should do whose right is violated due to unjust enrichment, tort action and a contract based on a current legal principle at the time when the dispute occurred is to apply to jurisdiction (Şişli, 2012, p. 48). Here, the dispute occurs when the other party avoids applying a right provided with the related regulations, a collective labor contract or a labor contract. Disputes that employers cause due to their demands in relation to their wages, overtime payment, annual leave, invalid abolition and re-employment could be given as examples of disputes of rights. Similarly, such examples could also 820

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN be given as the disputes to be caused by the employer due to notice payment, financial damage to corporate and opposition to prohibition of competition based on the contract (Canbolat, 2013, pp. 250 – 251). In addition, such issues as avoidance of payment of rights provided by Collective Labor Act and failure to pay the wage at the time determined by the contract are typical examples of violation of rights. The main source to be applied to for the purpose of solving a dispute of rights will be the norms of law regulating the relationship between the employer and the employee (Sur, 2009, p. 344). Here, the point is not to get a new right or to have the employer get the right which was not previously obtained. In contrast, there is a right previously obtained, and this right is a kind of debt in terms of the employer. For this reason, for the employee, there is a rightful expectation based on the right regarding the execution of the right obtained, and for the employer, there is a debt expected to be paid in time as required. b. Dispute of Benefits The concept of disputes of benefits should refer to the dispute that occurs depending on the change of a current right or on the struggle to gain a right which the employer has not yet gained. These disputes that occur between parties due to the arrangement of such labor conditions as the working time and wage are called dispute of arrangement or economic dispute (Güven and Aydın, 1995, p. 261). In collective benefit dispute, there is no right gained. Therefore, the temporal point in time refers to the process of gaining a right in favor of the employer community. In order to improve the working conditions of employers and all of their other rights and to increase their wages, it is an indisputable fact that struggling is inevitable in a process executed against the employer. For this reason, in disputes of benefits, application of struggling methods was free by law. In fact, what the term collective labor dispute refers to in practice and in the field is the dispute of benefits. In dispute of benefits, since parties try to be successful collectively with pressure methods, there is a problem which cannot be solved via the current law norms (Tuncay and Savaş Kutsal, 2015, p. 314). Disputes that occur due to demands related to increasing employers‟ wages, increasing the annual leave and the notice period, decreasing the weekly working time and deciding on giving bonus payments could be given as examples for disputes which are not related to application of a right but related to gaining a new right (Canbolat, 2013, p. 251). Since these disputes were related to changing the current system, it cannot be possible to solve the disputes in accordance with the provisions in practice. For this reason, jurisdiction cannot help solve the problem in question. These disputes that the current law system fails to solve result from the conflict of benefits in sharing the gains between the capital and the labor (Tuncay, 1999, p. 212). The desire to change the regulations which cause conflict of benefits, or which act as the source of the problem, inevitably bears the conflict. Trying legal ways in cases of conflict of benefits is not a type of individual application. The reason is that in line with the regulations made by Labor Courts Law in relation to the duties of courts, it is possible to solve disputes of rights between only the employer and the employee in courts (Canbolat, 2013, p. 251). The points mentioned about in relation to dispute of benefits not just leads to a result for the parties to apply or the organization to be applied to solve the problem. Since dispute of benefits refers to a process of obtaining gains, the tools to be used to obtain these gains and the procedures to be followed accordingly under certain conditions are important issues. In addition, this concerns not only the business life including the employer and the employee but also the whole social structure. For this reason, the 1st Clause of Article 54 of 1982 Constitution, which is regarded as a basic legal norm, had to put forward a related provision. Hence, the related article states “in case of a dispute during the preparation of the collective labor contract, employers have the right to go on strike. The scope, conditions and exceptions for use of this right as well as for the employer to prefer lockout are regulated by law”. The fact that the procedures to be followed in obtaining benefits have the potential to have influence on economic policies and on economic life has made it compulsory to control this process via an 821

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN effective regulation. Depending on the fact that the procedures and rules regarding the use of the right to go on strike and lockout are regulated by law, both STİSK Number-6356 and Labor Courts Law Number-5521 made detailed regulations in relation to the issue (Canbolat, 2013, p. 251). According to Article 1 of the Labor Courts Law Number-5521, “Labor courts are founded where necessary to solve the disputes of law that occur any kind of violation of rights based on the Labor Law or the labor contract between the employees and the employer”. This law, which does not include any provision regarding dispute of benefits though the dispute of rights is clearly mentioned, implies that disputes of benefits cannot be solved via jurisdiction. 3. Individual Labor Dispute – Collective Labor Dispute Though these disputes between employees and employers have been classified in several ways, the most popular one is related to the discrimination between individual labor disputes and collective labor disputes (Kutal, 1968, p. 220). Discrimination of labor dispute under this heading makes the classification of individual dispute and collective dispute considering the parties of the labor contract. In other words, the distinction between individual labor dispute and collective labor dispute refers to the discrimination made in terms of the positions of the employer, employees and unions. For instance, the dispute that occurs due to dismissal of an employee due to absenteeism at work is an individual labor dispute. Regardless of the subject of the dispute, disputes of both rights and benefits could constitute the subject of individual labor disputes. Since there is no disagreement regarding the current rights in individual disputes of benefits, it is not possible to bring the dispute to jurisdiction or to turn it into a collective dispute. Disagreement between the employer and the employee(s) in relation to the working conditions results in failure to sign the labor contract, avoidance of renewal of the contract or in abolition of the contract by one of the parties (Koç, and Çukur, 2011, p. 9). According to some authors, since the distinction between employer-employee disputes as individual and collective disputes is not clear, it will be a better classification if disputes, whether individual or collective, are classified as disputes of rights and disputes of benefits (Saymen, 1954, p. 322). a. Individual Labor Dispute Individual labor disputes are disputes that occur depending on the individual labor relationships between the employer and the employee (Tunçomağ, 1989, p. 458). In another saying, the dispute which occurs between the employer and one or more than one employee and which basically results from the labor relationship is the individual labor dispute (Şişli, 2012, p. 48). Individual labor disputes occur with the violation of rights provided by the regulations or by the contract regarding the relationships in the process that starts with the establishment of a labor relationship and goes on till its end, and these disputes are disputes of rights in terms of avoidance of recognizing and applying a current right (Demir, 2009, p. 620). In individual disputes of rights, there is opposition to a previously recognized right. This right could have been provided by customary rules, verdicts or by arbitration (Süral, 1982, p. 10). The subject of dispute could result from a problem likely to be experienced by all the employers and employers during the production activity. In addition, since the same dispute constitutes not only the basic approach of the union structuring but also the reason for existence, it could also refer to a situation for which the union is supposed to take action. Besides, in physical situations, the union might have been involved in the dispute as well. For example, the union might have taken legal action as the representative of the employer when the contract has been terminated in the way inappropriate to the procedure. In all these cases, where the subject of the dispute concerns the whole community of employees and where the union takes legal action as the representative of the employees, the individuality of the dispute will not change. Labor contracts or the provisions of regulations provide parties certain rights and include a number of different provisions burdening with debts; thus, there could be violations constituting the cause of an individual labor dispute The following situations could be given as examples of labor dispute: the debts included in a contract or regulations are not paid back in time; the parties do not carry out their responsibilities while terminating the labor contract; the conditions in the contract are not met during 822

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN the termination of the contract; and no compensation is paid in case of termination of the contract though mentioned in the contract. The party violating the right in individual labor dispute may not always be the employee. For instance, the rights of an employer could be violated based on the contract or the regulations as well. The following situations could be given as examples of individual disputes: The employee avoids carrying out any of his or her responsibilities for the employer; the employee damages any production tool or goods in the workplace; the employer terminates the labor contract of an employee despite the related procedure; the employee whose contract has been terminated does not receive any severance payment; and cutting the employer‟s wage without depending on the contract or any on other legal basis. The word individual is related to whether the union – the community of employers – undertakes the dispute or not rather than to the number of employers who constitute one party of the dispute. Whatever the number of employers exposed to the dispute is, unless the dispute is regarded by one of the employer unions as collective labor dispute, the dispute will continue to be individual (Koç and Çukur, 2011, p. 9). Consequently, the fact that individual labor dispute is a type of dispute that occurs due to the regulations or the labor contract between the employer and the employee (Aktay / Arıcı / Senyen Kaplan, 2012, p. 521) causes this dispute to be a dispute of rights as required by its subject. b. Collective Labor Dispute If the union structuring, collective bargaining and collective contract process can be associated with the collective rights of the employer, then it will be possible to refer to any related dispute as collective labor dispute. Previously, it was mentioned that individual labor disputes are disputes of rights. On the other hand, collective labor disputes could occur not only due to avoidance of application of rights obtained with the collective contract but also due to attitude inappropriate to the expectations of the other party as a result of parties‟ different interpretation of the current provision. In addition, collective labor dispute may look like a dispute of benefits. The reason is that during the collective bargaining, a right which has not been obtained before might be demanded, which is the most important factor that makes the dispute collective (Şişli, 2012, p. 48). Experiences acquired by societies in the era of industrialization throughout centuries in the field of labor law cause these societies to interpret collective labor disputes differently. For instance, labor fight in German and Swiss laws and collective labor struggles defined as industrial action in British and American laws are called collective labor disputes in French and Turkish laws (Tuncay and Savaş Kutsal, 2015, p. 287). To sum up, in order for a dispute to be regarded as collective labor dispute, there are two criteria. The first one is that the employee party is made up of a community, and the second one is that the issue of dispute should concern the community. In an individual issue, legal action taken by the union which represents the employee does not move the dispute away from being individual. In other words, involvement of a union in a dispute does not cause this dispute to be associated with a community. Besides, when the interpretation of the collective labor contract is brought into jurisdiction, it should be remembered that there is a right which does not concern a single employee but all the other employees (Sur, 2009, p. 343). Collective labor disputes are those which occur between the employee union and the employers or the employer union due to the differences in the interpretation or violation of rules related to the working conditions or regarding how to change the working conditions (Sümer, 2011, p. 258). The employee community as one of the potential parties of dispute could be a union established on legal basis (Esener, 1973, p. 5001), and it is also possible for that community to be a mere physical community which does not have any legal statue. In addition, in terms of positive law, in our country as well as in most counties in Western Europe, it is only the unions which can constitute one party of this dispute. The fact that a physical community can be regarded as one party of a dispute is a situation only in theory; in other words, it is not a case in practice (Kutal, 1968, p. 220). 1

As the same directive; in Turkish labor law, only the labor organization which has legal personality, could be one of collective labor dispute.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Collective labor disputes could occur as an issue concerning the whole labor community. Furthermore, in terms of time, a dispute that occurs following the collective labor contract between the employer and the employee could also be regarded by the employer union as a dispute. In this case, since the employer union will constitute one of the dispute, the dispute will not be considered to be individual (Uçum, 2000, p. 8). In practice, disputes of benefits that occur only during the collective labor contract belong to this heading. This was also used in this context within the scope of the Unions and Collective Labor Contract Law Number-6356 (Canbolat, 2013, p. 253). 5. Conclusion According to that separation, we must get the classficiation of dispute which is made up in labour law for solving it. In Turkish labor law, two of the most common classification of labor dispute is individual labor dispute – collective labor dispute and dispute of rights – dispute of benefits classification. This classification is quite important because we are going to obtain our method for solving that dispute according to that classification. If classification could not be right labor dispute will be remain as vain. References Aktay, N. / Arıcı, K. / Senyen T. / Kaplan T. (2012). İş Hukuku (5th Edition). Ankara: Gazi Kitabevi. Akyiğit, E. (2005).

Yeni Mevzuata Göre Hazırlanmış İş Hukuku. Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları.

Canbolat, T. (2013). 6356 Sayılı Kanunda Barışçıl Çözüm Yolu Olarak Arabuluculuk, Çalışma ve Toplum 2013/4 (39), p. 253 – 280. Çelik, N. (1994). İş Hukuku Dersleri. İstanbul: Beta Yayınları. Demir, F. (2009). Yargıtay Kararları Işığında İş Hukuku ve Uygulaması (5th Edition). İzmir: Birleşik Matbaacılık. Demircioğlu, M. and Centel, T. (2015). İş Hukuku (18. Bası). İstanbul: Beta Yayınları. Esener, T. (1973). İş Hukuku. Ankara: Ankara Ü. Hukuk Fakültesi Yayını, Number. 315. Güven, E. and Aydın, U. (1995). İş Hukuku Dersleri. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları. Koç, M. and Çukur, M. (2011). Ülkemizde Bireysel İş Uyuşmazlıklarının Çözümünde Özel Hakem, http://www.ceis.org.tr/dergiDocs/makale145.pdf, Access Date: 22.01.2016. Kocaoğlu, M. (1988). Sosyal Politika ve İş Hukuku ve Sosyal Güvenlik. Ankara: Gaye Matbaacılık San. ve Tic. A.Ş. Yayını. Kutal, M. (1968). Toplu İş Uyuşmazlıkları ve Barışçı Yollarla Çözümlenmesi (19. Kitap). İstanbul: Sosyal Siyaset Konferansları. Oğuzman, K.

(1967). Hukuki Yönden Grev ve Lokavt (2nd Edition). İstanbul: Fakülteler Matbaası

Sayın, A. K. (2013). ILO Normlarının ve Örgütün Denetim Mekanizmasının Türk İş Hukukuna Etkisi, Çalışma Dünyası Dergisi, C. 1 (1), Temmuz-Eylül 2013, pp. 11 – 34. Özsunay, E. (1986).

Medeni Hukuka Giriş. İstanbul: Güryay Matbaacılık.

Saymen, F. H. (1954). Türk İş Hukuku, İstanbul: Hak Kitabevi. Sur, M. (2009). İş Hukuku Toplu İlişkiler (3rd Edition). Ankara: Turhan kitabevi. Sümer, H. H. (2011). İş Hukuku (16th Edition). Konya: Mimoza Yayınları. Süral, N. (1982). İş Hukukunda Barışçı Çözüm Yolları. Ankara: Türk-İş Konfederasyonu Yayınları, Number. 142. Şişli, Z. (2012). Bireysel İş Uyuşmazlıkları ve Yargısal Çözüm, Ankara Barosu Dergisi 2012/2, pp. 45 – 67. Tuncay, C. and Savaş Kutsal, B. (2015). Toplu İş Hukuku (4. Bası). İstanbul: Beta Yayınları. Tunçomağ, K.

(1989). İş Hukuku‟nun Esasları. İstanbul: Beta Yayınları.

Uçum, M. (2000). Türkiye‟de Toplu İş Uyuşmazlıklarının Çözümünde Resmi Arabuluculuk (1996-1999), İstanbul: Selüloz-İş Sendikası Yayını.

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REPRESENTATION OF NOTION OF FAMILY AND NEIGHBOORHOOD FOR TURKISH SOCIATY İN TV SERIES “80‟S” Lecturer Ruhi GÜL Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Radio, Television and Cinema Dept. [email protected] Research Assistant Emre GÜL [email protected] Akdeniz University, Faculty of Communication, Radio, Television and Cinema Dept. Abstract Family is the one of most imporatant institituions in all societies. Maybe, it is the first dynamic structure in which an individual learns the values and norms of sociaty he/she belongs to. Similarly, neighborhoods consisted by families are not just places where a group of people know and live with each other, they are taken as social structures in which people are responsible for one another and there is a high sense of helping each other. In our country, protecting and strengthening family has been determined clearly in the 41st article of 1982 constitution. In the framework of protecting and strengthening familiy, the mission of Ministary of Family and Social Policies formed by the 61st Goverment of Turkish Repablic has been determined as ‘In order to raise the wellfare of individual, family and sociaty and giving prioraty to these disadvantaged and with the understanding of aiming sociaty, enacting fulfiling and following fair and demanding social policies. In this respect, in the framework of national policies, either by formal or extensive education programs or through media works in order to form the notion of awareness of protecting and strengthening of family have been going on. Given the mission of media, sensevity for protecting and strengthening of family which is Turkish Sociaty’s main part is higher in TRT which broadcasts with princibles paying attention to public broadcasting and public interest than the other media institutions which broadcast commercially. In this study, the analaysis of ‘80s’ tv series, which addresses the process of family and neighborhood from past to now in a dramatizing style, has been conducted. Keywords: Sociaty, family, neighborhood, media, TRT, 80’s

1. Introduction When history of humanity examined in respect of sociaty and culture, from past to present the reality of family could be seen whereever you are. Eventhough there could be some differeneces from society to society or from period to period, the phenomenon of family goes as back as history of humanity. According to Gidden, ‘Family is human community in which the elders, who are related via family links directly, take the responsibility of taking care of children’ (Giddens, 2008: 246). Turkish Language Institution describes this smallest organization which is pretty important for every society as ‘the smallest organization consisted by relations between siplings, husband, wife based on blood connection and marriage. Eventhough family has undergone some changes over the time, it maintains its existence strongly. Taken as the smallest unit and basic organization, in this respect the most important task of family is reproduction of human beings. Besides, the functions of family is evaluating economic, education, religion and free time activities (Aydın, 2015: 5455). Similarly, family is accepted as the most important place where the face to face communication takes place and the individuals first step into the socialization. On the other words, family plays an important role on 825

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN the formation of individuals personality (Bozkurt, 2015: 123-124). According to Peter Murdock family as an international unit is a social group which is charecterised with common habitance, economical cooperation and reproduction (Haralambos, 1980: 325). When the historical progress of family is studied, in respect of sociology and anthropological approaches, this progress consists of three eras which are patriarchal, matriarchal, equitable. In matriarchal family forms, since reproduction, property and heritage passes to daugthers from mother, the power belongs to women. In patriarchal family forms, because of emergence of waste production in agricultural era and extra production between production and consumption the power has been passed to males. After industrialization, both of these family forms have been replaced with equitable form (Aydın, 2015: 58). The changes relating family are not deffinetly restricted with these. Sociologist did and have been doing some different clasifications about evolution and change of family. These are clasified as big family, small family, traditional family, nuclear family, modern family, slum family. According to Emile Durheim who is considered as the founder father of sociology, family is classifed into six subunits; Matriarchal family, Patriarchal family, father family, family lineage, totem family and modern family (Aydın, 2015: 60). The smallest unit family which keeps the nations standing, In the 16th article of 3 clause of International Human Rights Document which was announced by United Nations General Assembly via 217 law on 10th of December in 1948 includes that Family is natural and basic elemant of sociaty and is protected by state and society. Similarly T.C 1982 Constitution states that ‘Family is foundation of Turkish society. State take precautions in order to provide application and traning of family planning, protection of children and mother and welfare of family, by saying this state has pledged to take necessary precautions for wellfare of Turkish family structure. The importance of the family which is pretty significant for the Turkish society has been stated via establishment of Ministary of Family and Social Policies in 29th of 2011 by saying that the mission of Ministary is improving wellfare of individual, family and society, prioritizing disadvanted groups but aiming all society, producing, applying and following fair and demand-oriented policies and its vision has been stated as in the historical walk towards 2023 for a society which consists of happy individuals and families, the Ministary is going to try to understand the spirit of time, manage the change and evolve accordingly, prevent social risks, develop social policies and apply them. The necessarry investments and attempts to improve and protect the family have been taken up in the 10th Developtment Plan for 2014-2018 of Ministary of Developemnt. Pursuant law 3067 dated 30/10/1984, in the 245 article which was approved by General Assembly of Turkish Parlement in 01/07/2013 state analysis has been conducted. According to analysis made, family training programs has been started in 9.development period, consultence services for families has been extended, social help has been risen for poor families, for the social help and services family-based approach has been taken and in order to find out the problems of families research studies have been extended. In the 248th article of same plan, it is stated that our country has been heading to nuclear family from extended family and relations between the members of family have changed and problems of single parents families have been tried to solve and following and consultance services are going on. In order to protect and strengten the families, in the 253th article it is stated that percautions will be taken to minimize the negative affects of internet and media and it is amied that training programs relating internal communication and interaction will be extended. In the program ‘Protection of Structure of Family and Dynamic Population’which is In the 10th development plan is it stated that because of immigration, urbanization, erosion of culturel values, individualism, shortcoming for the education of family, new communication technology communication between members has declined, divorce has risen, the number of single parents has risen and the families has been weak. In the same program, it has been stated that because of the changes of ages in society some problems such rising of number of unactive people, falling of birth rate and rising of number of old people could emerge. Also in the 10th development program, statements such as protection of dynamic population structe to help the development of Turkey’s economy and society, strengthening family institution and by doing so increasing sociel wellfare and social capital have been put in the plan. In the frame of plan,statements such as; protection of wellfare, education before marriage, activate consultancy for families, sociel help, taking advantage of opportinities created by having a young populations have been underlined. Again in the same program, in order to protect the dynamic population structure,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN aims such as; strenghten the harmony of family and worlk life, extending preschool fecilities and opportinities, curriculim and support the work for non-governmental organizations have been set. As it is seen, both in the activity area of our Constitution and Ministary of Family and Social Policies and Development Ministary important work has been conducted to rise the social wellfare and protection of family. One of the most important issue done by Ministries in question or will be done is necessaty of using media, sociel media affectively. 2. Review of Literature

Awareness of Family, Neighborliness, Neighborhoodness From past to Present families’ staying in close places to each other has brought with itself the obligation of keep in touch. Eventhough it changes from society to society, in respect of order and functioning of social structure, neighborliness and neighborhoodness are very important. Especially in Turkish society, studying neighborliness and neighborhoodness and when their historical evolution is assessed, this study is much more significant in order to understand the social structure. Neighborliness, after family is maybe the most important dynamics of social structure. Prof.Dr. Nihat Nirun describes neighborliness term as, ‘neighborliness is small local structure conists of families which visit each other in an given region, know each other by names or personaly, help each other, lend or borrow, use each others tools, have close-knit relations (Nirun,1991: 169.). Nirun emphsize the role of a lot of factors which are uniting and refers mainly place and face to face communication, privacy, chit-chat, wishper, fun, common interest, culturel links, nation, language, education, economy, mutual help (Nirun, 1991: 175). It possible to refer the sensevity of mutual trust, help and share among factors which are important in order to keep links strong between neighborliness relations. Awereness of neighborliness has been keeping its vividness as an important dynamics which consitutes Turkish sociel structure from Ottoman era to present. People’s, who live togerher for some reasons, having common charecteristics play an important role on the keeping of this vividness. Some of these common charecteristics are; customs, occupation, culturel pattern, economical structure, local similarities. Keeping these charecteristics vivid provides not polarization and seperation in neighborhood life but uniting more. However, especially uncontroled population rise, economical diffuculties, immigration, urbanization affect traditional family structure negatively. Because of the factors above neighborhoods and neighborliness culture which are connected to each other through neigherborliness links have been obliged to take its share. Apartmant blocks which are monitored by cameras instead of neighbors come first in the list. Face to face communication, mutual help, which is unreplaceable for neighborhood and Street culture, face the denger of disappearing even in the family. Especially, developments in mass communication technology have brought development of communication gadgets with itself, and human being in a way has mahe himself lonely in the crowds. Internet connected with expanding of social media applications, smart phones, computers lead people to make themself lonely whereever they are. Sociologist Prof.Dr. Yücel Bulut states that neighborhood relations give differents taste to people, and give feeling of not being alone and he states that the belif that people who can help you when you are in need provide comfort. According to interwiev he gave to Takvim newspaper on 8th Augost 2012 it is stated that modern life is full of opportunities but it takes away a lot of values. These values are mainly neighborhood shopkeepers, debt notebook, vendors, trees decorating streets, people’s knowing each other, children’s play grounds. Like other social dynamics phenomenon of family and neighborliness have undergone some changes over the time. Mainly state officals, media, education associations have big responsibilities towards this change to be positive. While in educational area certain plans and programs of Ministiries are going on, media is used for these works to be more affective. Especially, in Tv Series, taking up connections between family and groups is the clear sign of this. From past to present, it is possible to find these kind of tv series. For example, ‘ Perihan Able’,’Bizimkiler’, Süper Baba’, ‘Baba Evi’, ‘Ekmek Teknesi’, ‘En son bablar duyar’, Çocuklar Duymasın’, and ‘Seksenler’ could be examined in this respect. Most of Tv Series which take up family links have been critizesed by critics seriously.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Thus, tv critic Yüksel Altuğ says, we have decorated stories in tv that much and made them unreachable, we have destroyed ‘reality’ all toghether. We even made ourself believed that we live houses with pools, travel by sports cars.By saying Withouth revenge life can not led, withouth intrigue success can not be reached, without knocking down three rivals love can not achived, he has tried to show the seriousness of state.

3. In Respect of Neighborliness Tv Series „Seksenler‟ ‘Seksenler’ is doubtless the most tengiable example for efforts of keeping alive and protection of Turkish social structure and neighborliness phenomenon which forms the topic of this study too. ‘Seksenler’ which is shot by MINT (Made in Turkey) Motion Pictures has met viewers firs on 24th January 2012 brodcasted on thusdays frist than on Saturdays in prime time in TRT1 and in 2016 it is on its 6th season and very successful Tv series. Each episode lasts between 1.5 and 2.5 and it is shown on the form of Sitcom. Yüksel Aytuğ, in his same article about ‘Seksenler’ says producer and screenwriter of Tv Series Birol Güven answers the question of why this Tv Series is that successful as such; ‘The stories in other tv series are that big, our unimportant,daily stories atract people’, I think we are quite real, by saying that he emphisizes that reality, sincerity and naturality is appriciated by viewers. With Aytuğ’s own words, the success lies in the tv series’ telling structure which is simple and does not have big words. The Mint Motion Picture’s web site has this information about the series: ‘Seksenler Tv series is the past and changing story of events happened in Turkey from 80s to present. Tv series which is trying to show the affects of those years on the clasical Turkish family also shows how socail changes and new things affects us. ‘Seksenler is in a nature that shows us how to pass the forgatten values to new generation. Seksenler atracts people who have experinced those years as well as who have not. A child sees stove, roll machine, stamped letters, survey notbooks, black school uniform, starched collar, wired cars, marble bags for the first time in this tv series. In order to reflect the atmosphere of those years properly, costums and decor have been chosen metacoluesly. Every details such as newspapers, bathroom tube which is heated by wood, jumpers, hair jels when going to tea, grafities, Murat 131 car which is left in front of building without its railed radio have been thought on thoroughly. We had seen restored streets and houses in period tv series but for this tv series for the first time a Street which is quite difficult to distinguish it from the real one was designed. Seksenler actually is the story of Özdemirs family’s moving and funny story. Seksenler Tv Series tells the affects of adventour of continuel change and evolution of Turkey from 1980 on an Turkish family which lives in Çınaraltı Neihborhood in Istanbul. The effects of change and novelty in Turkist society, how the customs and traditions are being eroded and how Turkey is being globilized is told in an simple, understanable language without exegeration. Tv series starts the elder son Ahmet’s out voice giving information about an event or situation happened in 80s. In the Tv series in which mostly flashback method is used to form the narrative structure, one the of characters Ahmet sometimes presents the forword of episode will be watched, and sometimes he speaks about 80s when the real time is 2000s, by doing so he compares present and past. With this, the audience gets informed about the episode. Thus, in the 5th Episode, when Ahmet as an middle-aged father living in the first floor flat left by his father in present Turkey opens his house door, he sees a banner reading ‘Fast Food Pizza’ is at your service soon. When He sees this banners he says with his out voice ‘old days’ he says years ago we used to get out from this door and get among people. This Street witnesed our youth, loves, friendships, joys, sadnesses and our fights. As long as we lived, our Street lived with us. As if evey shop had an heart which gave life to the Street. When he slowly and sadly lifts the banner he sees the sign ‘Tadıgüzel Pastanesi’ Nicetaste Pattiserie. This place in 80s belongs to pastary cook Sami who is loved and has a clourful personality. Over 32 years Tadıgüzel Pastanesi has undergone some changes too and its turning into fast food shop is showed dramaticly together with striking visuals. Events happening in the series take place in Çınaraltı Neighborhood occupied by ordanary people from Istanbul. Çınaraltı Neighborhood in fact is an humble neighborhood anywhere in Turkey. Families living there are far away from exegeration, fixed-income, shopkeepers or retirees. In the series the main family is Fehmi Özdemir and his wife Mrs Rukiye. Other residents are taken up by parallel fiction method around Özdemir family. Besides being core family, Özdemir family is an patriarchial family which reflects charecteristic of Turkish society. Mr Fehmi and Mrs Rukiye has 828

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN three children named Ahmet, Nazlı and Cagatay. Mr Fehmi works in an factory as a worker. Mostly by his family, Mr Fehmi is loved by his fellow workers and residents in the neighborhood. Those who have any problems could ask for help from Mr Fehmi. Eventhough he seems to overreact to events happening, actually he is a family father who has a golden heart and is helpful. Mr Fehmi who always faces problems and difficulties uses these phareses often in the series, ‘whenever I get angry I think, whenever I think I get angry’ ‘I got into vicious circle again’ and when he faces something he would like to be in he says,’ Dont invent an invention’. In the 4th episode the elder son Ahmet gives this information about his father Mr Fehmi ; One of my father’s biggest fear is having debt. Being self-sufficent was his main motto. However, this house that my father bought years ago to get rid of burden of rent fee led us to have life in debt constantly. As it is seen, economic hardships experinced by every Turkish household, dream of having a house, struggle of keeping family standing on its feet despite having dept to localshops and paying instalments is characterized in Mr Fehmi as a person. Thus, eventhough Mr Fehmi gets affected by political, culturel and sociel changes negatively thanks to the supportive spirit in the family he manages to keep standing up in any way. Mr Rukiye is much more than being a lovely, emotional and a mother who does every sacrifice for her children. Thanks to his love and loyality to her children she never loses hope aganist any hardship. Mrs Rukiye is a mediator between children and father about disagreements. Like Mr Fehmi, Mrs Rukiye too is loved by residents in neighborhood and she is listened. Resident’s choosing their house to talk about what is going on in neighborhood and making comments is a clear sign of this. The biggest dream of Mrs Rukiye is that her children work in an insurenced job and get them married to the spouses she finds and seeing their happiness. However tha situation is not like that at all, whilde children get married to whom they want, the dream of insurenced jobs dont come ture as well. The elder son Ahmet is the roughneck lad both for his family and for the neighborhood. Ahmet is in love with his sister’s friend Gülden and he dreams of finding a job and getting married to her. Eventhough at first his mother opposes this over the time they get married. Later on, by working in different jobs, Ahmet makes the end meet. Since Gülden loves Ahmet very much, she gets married to Ahmet despite the opposition of her family and they lead a happy life in spite of ups and downs. Evengthough Ozdemir’s family’s only daughter Nazlı realizes her dream of finishing university falls in love with one of shopkeeprs in the neighborhood who is also her brothers close friend, she gets married to him. Both Mr Fehmi and Mrs Rukiye oppose their marriage because of Ergun’s lack of insurenced job. Family’s youngest son Cagatay has lazy spirit. Both in his school life and work life and love life, there is a lot of disorganization. That is why he often faces critizations of elders. The neighborhood in which Ozdemir family lives is an clasical Turkish neighborhood where ordaniary people lead their simple lives. Residents, even in case of a smallest event inform each other, when they anyone of them has any diffuculty they could organize help immediatly. Besides, grocery,greengrocery, hairdresser, butcher, pattisery, tea shop, fishmonger, music shope which reflect the charecteristic of neighborhood there is post Office, police station, headman Office in the Çınaraltı Neighborhood. Ahmet with his out voice not only informs viewers about his family and residents but about political, economical, sociel upheavels the country has. In the opening of 10th edpisode Ahmet descrbes the neighborhood as such; in every spring, like the waking up nature, our neighborhood too use shakes itself and used to come to itself, in every household the excitement of spring cleaning used to start, not only the was getting warmer als the agenda of contry, in no way the President could be chosen, vioelence could not be prevented, everday there were some escapes from prisons. In the neighborhood of Ozdemir family the events have started in the late 1979 because in series mainly the anarchic events happening before 1980 and economic crisis, political upheavels are taken up, the effects of this on Çınaraltı Neighborhood are presented. In the decor of series this is given as visiually. Graffities like ‘Down with Communism’ ‘Communists go to Moscow’ could be seen on the walls. The anarchic and terro situation happening in the country has been metaforized with Nezvat and Alper charecters. Nevzat is leftist and Alper is rightist who are childhood friends. Nevzat and Alper fight even for the slightest disagreement and disturb the residents. Thus, because of the rising caos in country millatry coup takes place on 12 September 1980. This is explained by Ahmet in the 28th episode as such; ‘the morning of 12 September 1980 was different for all of us, the caos in the country had risen a lot, these strees ecohed with the sound of millatry vecihles like reo, tanks and cracks of palette. The fighting of 829

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN brothers in country, bombings, fires, robberies, political murders finally brought the intervention of Turkish Armed Forces and later on that nothing would be same because things which would have happened. The nightmare of intervention which is taken up strikingly in series effects Çınaraltı Neighborhood deeply as well. Eventhough political bans go on, these dark days end with the acception of 1982 Constitution and elections took place in 1983. Later with blowing of democracy winds in the country and Turgut Ozal’s forming Anavatan Party and coming to power alone, peace and trust situation has been felt in the neighborhood again. The changes happening in country could be understand thorough changes happening in the lives of residents in neighborhood. For example, TRT was brodcastiong black and White starts the coloured broadcast and and second channel is started, firstly Ozdemir family, many families have landline phones, more modern washing machines are being used, pastery cook Sami buys an Anaol car and Grocery Mustafa in 1984 gets elected as town hall President. Cınaraltı police station is not dealing with anarhcic events but simple, daily things and is quite relieved. The situation is different a little bit for shopkeepers. Opening of more and more supermarkets leads to the grocery’s derail. The grocery has diffuculties because residents shop in supermarktes and it does not sell much on debt. This situation causes some problems between some residents and grocery. Similarly buthcher experince same difficulties.The brother and aprentice of butcher Bahtiyar, Sinan first of all after the the death of hairdresser Recep who has a heart attack takes over hairdress shop and than he becomes a çivil cervant. Pastery cook has to look after his old and ill mother, but his wife does not want his mother. This situation causes big problems between them. Thus, his wife leaves home Sami, his daughter and his old mother have to maintain their lives. The main charecter of series Mr Fehmi gets retired in the middle of 1980s and with the desire of residents he gets elected as headman. As Ahmet emphizeses, nothing is same in the neighborhood any more. For Ozdemir family too nothing is like it used to be. Ahmet is married and lives in another house. Nazli is married to Ergun with big hopes but they get divorced at the end. Eventhough Cagatay has served in millatary he still can not find a job and is still single. Cagatay how has big hopes for love is having diffucult days because of the arrival of ex-girlfriends back to country who had to leave county in the caos time. Shortyl, the change happening has effect the neighborhood mostly negatively. For instance, Ahmet explains this situation to viewers in 193th episode as such; Those days when television had just got into our life, when internet was invented, people used to talk much more care each other more. That is why small issuses in small neighborhoods used to leave big effects on residents. Despite lots of hardships, the necessaty of intact of traditional family structure and neighborliness relations is emphisized often. 4. Conclusion Family is one of most important units of ever society. Maybe it is the first dynamic unit in which peopler learn the values of society he/she belongs to. Similarly neighborhoods consist of families are not accepted just places where a group of people live but they are places where people have some responsibilities aganist each other and the spirit of helping each other is high. Thus, in our country, in respect of national policies, some works have been going on to form the awareness of protection and strengthening of families via educational program media. Considering the function of media, it could be said that comparing TRT with other channels, the sensevitiy of protection and strengthening of family is higher in TRT which broadcasts with the mindset of public benefit princibles. Family which constitutes the topic of this study is taken up with representation of awareness of neighborliness and neighborhoodnees in media and with ‘Seksenler’ sitcome which is on its 6th season. This tv series which is trying to show the effects of the 1980s on the Turkish traditonal families in an enjoable way tells the story of how changes in sociel life, new things effect the phenomenon of family structure, neighborhoodness. In the first episodes, the series tells the fragmantations happening right now in our lives, broken families, interests-driven relations. However, thorough flashbak method bye going back to past the, the two ways of change is being presented. Tv series emphisize the positve side of technological and economical changes and its benefits on the 830

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR‟2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN lives. For example, in Ozdemir family the old roller washing machine has been replaced with the more modern one and phone, colur tv has been used. On the contarary, while life is more comfortable thanks to these technological devices, for some reason communication in the family is eroded, neighborhood life is not as atractive as it used to be.Greengrocer’s getting into politics, hardships in the realtionship of Ergun Plac and Nazlı and Ergun’s dissappearence suddenly, Cagatay and Ahmet’s unsuccessfull attempts to find insurenced jobs, weakening of Grocer against supermarkets and others factors have disturbed neighborhood life. The present life which seems to youth very natural does not seem atractive to people who were child, young or middle-aged in 1980s. Especially, for people who are middle-aged and over and for new generationt o understand each other easier ‘Seksenler’ functions in a very benefical way. Phenomenon of Family and Neighborhoodness which is very important in Turkish society has taken and still taking its part from the techonological changes which take place with dizzyning speed. Neighborhoods which were the center of supporting and trusting each other have been replaced with apartmant blocks which are procted the dozens of cemera sets. It has been a long time since the Guards of Neighborhood are something unkown in history, people do not get together even in the case of weddings, funurals, important days, farewells for millitary services. However, smart phones, being able to watch countless tv channels, internet, giant shoping malls in a way cause the right conditons for people to feel lonely. In order not to have these kind of negative situations, and to not lose out culture against values constituted by global culture, both works done by Ministiries in question and TRT1 are appriciated by society pretty much. References Bozkurt, V. (2015). Değişen Dünyada Sosyoloji (Temeller, Kavramlar, Kurumlar), Ekin Yayınevi, Bursa. Giddens. A. (2008). Sosyoloji, Kırmızı Yayınları, İstanbul. Haralambos, M. (1980). Sociology Themes and Pers- pectives, University Tutorial Press: Suffolk. Nirun, N. (1991). Sistematik Sosyoloji Yönünden Sosyal Dinamik Bünye Analizi, Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Yayınları Ankara. e- kaynaklar: http://www.kalkinma.gov.tr/Lists/Kalknma%20Planlar/Attachments/12/Onuncu%20Kalkınma%20Planı.pdf http://www.mint.com.tr/televizyon/seksenler http://www.takvim.com.tr/kultur_sanat/2012/08/08/kaybolan-mahalle-kulturu http://www.sabah.com.tr/yazarlar/gunaydin/aytug/2016/10/16/seksenler-gercegi http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/GENEL/tezcan_aile.pdf

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BİRİNCİ DÜNYA SAVAŞI'NIN OSMANLI-İRAN TİCARETİNE ETKİLERİ Sadık SARISAMAN* Özet İran Türkiye'nin önemli bir komşusudur. Bu sebeple bu ülke ile ticari ilişkiler şartlara göre miktarı değişse de süreklilik arz etmiştir. Birinci Dünya Savaşı yıllarında da dönemin şartları çerçevesinde ticari faaliyetler yürütülmüştür. İki ülke arasında hububat, canlı hayvan, halı, tütün, kömür, turunçgiller vb. emtia ticareti yapılmıştır. Bu ticaret genellikle kara yolu üzerinden kervanlar vasıtasıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bunun dışında deniz yolu da kullanılmıştır. Ancak, İtilaf Devletlerinin denizlere hakim olmasından kaynaklanan sıkıntılar yaşanmıştır. Bu ülkelerin İran bandıralı ticaret gemilerine dahi müdahale ettikleri görülmüştür. Öte yandan savaş döneminde İran'a giren Osmanlı kuvvetleri iaşeleri için gerekli olan gıda maddelerini genellikle mahallinden satın alma yoluyla tedarik etmişlerdir. Yine Van vilayetindeki askeri kuvvetler, memur ve ahalinin iaşesinin temininde de İran önemli bir yer tutmuştur. Bilindiği gibi savaş şartları gıda ve her türlü ihtiyaç maddesini depolama anlayışını da beraberinde getirmektedir. Bu sebeple Osmanlı Devleti de bir kısım emtianın ülke dışına çıkarılmasını yasaklanmıştır. Hatta, transit ticaret eşyası arasında yer alan bakır ve çayın dahi ülke dahilinde ihtiyaç olduğu gerekçesiyle İran'a sevkine izin verilmemiştir. Türkiye kömür açısından zengin rezervlere sahip bir ülke olmasına rağmen kömür ithalatı teşvik edilmiştir. İran'dan getirilecek olan kömürlerden vergi alınmaması padişah iradesi ile emredilmiştir. Bununla birlikte savaş döneminde değerli maden biriktirme politikaları da önem kazanmıştır. Osmanlılar bu sebeple Bağdat'tan İran'a altın çıkışını yasaklamış, İran'a satılan ticaret eşyalarına karşılık altın talep edilmesini önermişlerdir. Diğer taraftan savaş şartları içerisinde ticari faaliyetler pek çok engelle karşılaşmıştır. Bu engellerden bir tanesi tüccarların mallarına el konulmasıdır. Ruslar'ın Osmanlı uyruklu Laskaridis kardeşlerin mal ve eşyalarına el koymaları, Selmas'da Osmanlı Tüccarbaşı Mehmed Rıza'nın para ve mallarının zapt edilmesi örnek olarak gösterilebilir. Türkiye'deki İranlı tüccarlar da sıkıntılar yaşamışlardır. Örneğin Tebrizli Hacı Mehmed Ağa İpek Ticarethanesi adına Avrupa'dan Trabzon gümrüğüne getirilen mallara el konulmuştur. İlaveten tehcir uygulamasından İran uyruklu Ermeni tüccarların da etkilendikleri görülmüştür. Bu çalışmada Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi belgeleri, Genelkurmay ATASE Arşivi belgeleri esas olmak üzere dönemin basını ve araştırma eserler değerlendirilmek suretiyle savaş şartlarının Türk- İran ticaretini ne şekilde etkilediği somut bir şekilde ortaya konulacaktır. Anahtar kelimeler: Ticaret, Tüccar, İran, Türkiye, Savaş,

*

Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü, [email protected]

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EFFECTS OF WORLD WAR I ON TURKISH-IRANIAN TRADE Abstract Iran is an important neighbour of Turkey. Thus business connections with Iran have been continuous although their quantity has changed according to circumstances. During World War I, commercial activities were carried out within the frame of the conditions of this period. Iran and Turkey traded goods including cereals, livestock, carpet, tobacco, coal, and citrus fruits with each other. This trade was generally done over land through caravans. Apart from this, sea routes were also used. However, there were some troubles due to the Allied Powers’ predominance over the seas. These countries often interfered with Iranian merchant ships. On the other hand, the Ottoman troops entering Iran during the war generally obtained necessary food by buying directly from Iran. Moreover, Iran was an important site of food procurement for the civil servants, military forces, and inhabitants living in Van province. As it is known, wartime often requires storing food and other necessities. For this reason, the Ottoman Empire prohibited the export of some of these goods. Moreover, the consignment of copper and tea, which were among the transit trade goods to Iran, was not allowed on account of their necessity within the country. Although Turkey had rich coal reserves, its import was not encouraged. Padishah ordered not to collect taxes from coal brought from Iran. Furthermore, the policy of collecting precious metal during the war period also gained importance. For this reason, Ottomans prohibited the outflow of gold from Baghdad to Iran, and they suggested demanding gold in exchange for trade materials sold to Iran. On the other hand, trade activities faced many obstacles in the scope of war conditions. One of these obstacles was that the materials of traders were confiscated. For example, Russians held the materials and possessions of Laskaridis brothers from the Ottoman nationals. Similarly, the money and possessions of Mehmed Rıza, head of the Ottoman merchants, were kept in Selmas. Iranian merchants in Turkey also had problems. To illustrate this, materials brought from Europe to Trabzon customs on behalf of Hacı Mehmed Agha İpek Trading House whose owner was from Tabriz were confiscated. Moreover, Armenian merchants from the Iranian nationals were also affected by the application of emigration. This study will reveal how conditions of war influenced the Turkish-Iranian trade in a concrete way through the assessment of printed press and research works from that period based on the Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives documents, Turkish Military Archives documents. Key Words: Trade, Merchant, Iran, Turkey, War

GİRİŞ Birinci Dünya SavaĢı baĢladığında Ġran tarafsızlık politikası takip etmeye çalıĢtı. Hatta, Ahmet ġah 1 Kasım1914 tarihinde ülkesinin tarafsızlığını bir ferman ile dünyaya ilan etti Ancak, Ġran'ın tarafsızlığı sözde kaldı. Zira, zaten bu ülkede Rus ve Ġngiliz kuvvetleri mevcut idi. Ġran'ın güneyinde Ġngilizlerin kontrolünde "Güney İran Nişancıları" adlı bir askeri teĢkilât faaliyet gösteriyordu.Rus kuvvetleri ise ülkenin kuzeyini kontrol etmiĢ vaziyetteydiler.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Öte yandan Ġran'ın iki büyük komĢusu Osmanlı Devleti ve Rusya birbirine savaĢ açmıĢtı. Bu durum Ġran'ı daha da sıkıntılı bir hale koydu. Ġran toprakları yabancı ülke silahlı kuvvetlerinin cirit attığı bir coğrafya durumuna geldi. Ruslar Ġran'daki aĢiretleri Türkler aleyhine tahrik ederek sınır çatıĢmalarına sebep oldular. Ġran'daki Osmanlı konsolosluklarını baskı altında tuttular. Bazı konsolosları tutuklayarak görev yapmalarına izin vermediler. Buna karĢılık Osmanlılar da savaĢ girer girmez Ġran üzerinden Rusya ve Ġngiltere'ye darbe vurmaya çalıĢtılar. Musul Mebusu Ġbrahim Fevzi komutasındaki bir müfreze 23 Kasım 1914'de Bâne'ye geldi. Bilahare Bukân, Miyanduab, Maraga ve son olarak 12 Ocak 1915 tarihinde Tebriz'e girdi. Aynı tarihlerde Ömer Naci Bey Müfrezesi de Savuçbulak ve Urumiye'yi ele geçirdi. Bilahare 27 Ocak'ta ağırlıklı olarak aĢiretlerden oluĢan bu kuvvetler Ruslara yenilerek Ġran'ı boĢalttılar. Yine Halil Bey Kuvvei Seferiyesi de 17 Nisan 1915'de Urumiye'ye girdi. Dilman'a kadar ilerledi. Van Ermeni ayaklanması üzerine 13 Mayıs 1915 tarihinde Ġran'ı boĢalttı. Ġran'a giren kuvvetlerden birisi de Rauf Bey Müfrezesi idi. Hindistan'a ulaĢmayı hedefleyen Rauf Bey 11 Mart 1915'de Ġran'a girdi. Korato'yu, Kasr-ı ġirin'i ve Kirind'i iĢgal etmeyi baĢardı. Ancak, daha fazla ilerleyemedi. Bilahare 23 Eylül 1915 tarihinde Rauf Bey Kuvvei Seferiyesi fesh edilmiĢ ve Ġran'ı boĢaltmıĢtır. Ancak, Osmanlı Devleti ve Almanya Ġran ve Hindistan meselesinde iĢbirliği oluĢturabilmek için Goltz PaĢa'yı görevlendirdiler. Bundan sonra Ġran içerisindeki müttefik harekatı Goltz PaĢa'nın idaresine verildi. Goltz PaĢa Ġran'da Miralay Bop'u görevlendirdi. Bop, Ruslar'a karĢı giriĢtiği mücadelede baĢarı sağlayamadı. General Baratov kumandasındaki Rus kuvvetleri Ġran'dan Türk ve Almanları atmayı baĢardılar. Ruslar 7 Mayıs'ta Ġran sınırında yer alan Osmanlı Ģehri Hanekin'e kadar geldiler. Bu arada Rusları durdurmak ve Ġran içerisinde ilerlemek görevi Ali Ġhsan (Sabis) komutasındaki 13. Kolordu Komutanlığı'na verildi. Kolordu 3 Haziran 1916 günü Rusları mağlup ederek Hanekin'den çıkarmayı baĢardı. 9 Haziran'da KasrıĢirin ele geçirildi. 1 Temmuz 1916'da da KirmanĢah ve 11 Ağustosta Hemedan zapt edildi. Bilahare Devletabad- Sultanabad, Bicar tarafları kontrol edildi. Isfahan bölgesinde de Ruslarla mücadeleye grildi. Ancak, Bağdat'ın 11 Martta Ġngilizlerin eline geçmesi üzerine kolordu iki ateĢ arasında kalmamak için Ġran'ı boĢaltma kararı aldı. 1 Nisan 1917 günü Diyale nehri batısına geçerek Ġran'ı tamamen boĢalttı. Bu tarihten itibaren Ġran'da sadece Rus ve Ġngiliz kuvvetleri kaldı. Rusya'daki BolĢevik Ġhtilali sonrasında ise üstünlük Ġngiltere'nin eline geçti. Brest Litowsk anlaĢmalarıyla Rusya savaĢtan çıkınca Rusya'nın boĢalttığı alanı doldurma mücadelesi yeniden baĢladı. Mücadele Ġngiltere, Almanya ve Osmanlı Devleti arasında yaĢandı. 1. TİCARET YOLLARI Ġran Osmanlı Devleti'nin önemli komĢularından birisidir. Bu ülke ticari faaliyetler açısından da kıymet arz etmektedir. Avrupa ülkeleri ile Ġran arasındaki transit ticaret de Osmanlı toprakları üzerinden gerçekleĢiyordu. Buna mukabil Osmanlı Devleti'nin transit ticareti de Ġran üzerinden gerçekleĢiyordu. Bu sebeple Osmanlı tüccarları Ġran'dan baĢlayıp Çin'e ve Hindistan'a kadar uzanan

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN transit ticaret ağı kurmuĢlardı. Kervanlarla Çin'den, Hindistan'dan ve Ġran'dan getirilen ürünler diğer ülkelere de satılmaktaydı1. Özellikle Ġstanbul-Bağdat yolu en önemli transit yolu idi. Buradan Basra körfezindeki limanlar üzerinden ticaret gerçekleĢiyordu. Osmanlı-Ġran ticaretinin yapıldığı belli baĢlı iki istikamet vardı. Birisi kuzey istikameti diğeri ise güney istikametidir. Kuzey istikametinin en önemli yolu Ġstanbul-Tebriz yoluydu. Ġstanbul'da gemilere yüklenen mallar Karadeniz yoluyla Trabzon-limanına ulaĢıyordu. Trabzon üzerinden de Tebriz'e gitmek üzere Erzurum'a sevk ediliyordu. Bu sevk iĢlemi kervanlar vasıtasıyla gerçekleĢtiriliyordu. Trabzon'dan sonra kervanlar GümüĢhane-Bayburt-ErzurumBeyazıt üzerinden Ġran'a gidiyorlardı. Ġran'da ise Hoy üzerinden Tebriz'e hareket ediyorlardı. Bu istikamette Türkiye içerisinde Bayburt ile Erzurum arasındaki Kop Dağı özellikle kıĢ mevsiminde ulaĢıma imkan vermiyordu. Erzurum- Beyazıt yolu ise en bozuk olan yoldu. Ayrıca, yolun bu kısmında tüccarların barınma ve beslenme ihtiyaçlarını karĢılayacak yeterlilikte hanlar da mevcut değildi. Ġlkel bir alt yapı vardı2. Bu yoldaki problemler sadece geçilmesi güç dağlardan ibaret değildi. EĢkıyalık olayları da sıklıkla cereyan ediyordu. Özellikle sınıra yakın bölgelerde eĢkıyalık olaylarına daha fazla rastlanıyordu. Kuzey istikametinde Van-Tebriz yolu da ikinci bir seçenekti. Ancak bu yol TrabzonTebriz yolu gibi iĢlek değildi. Güney istikametinde de iki temel yol mevcuttu. Birincisi Bağdat-Basra yoludur. Ġkincisi ise Bağdat-Hemedan yoludur. Bu iki yol için de Dicle nehri ve ġattülarap'tan faydalanmak gerekmektedir. Söz konusu nehirlerde nakliye için kelekler ve gemiler kullanılmıĢtır. Basra limanı Basra körfezinde yer aldığından dolayı nakliyenin buradan sonrası deniz yolu ile devam ettirilmiĢtir. Ancak Basra'nın hemen savaĢın baĢında, yani 23 Kasım 1914 tarihinde Ġngilizler tarafından iĢgal edilmesi bu yolun kullanılması imkanını ortadan kaldırdı. Güneyde kullanılan en önemli yol Bağdat - KirmanĢah yolu oldu. Bu yol Hemedan'da karargah kurmuĢ olan 13. Osmanlı Kolordusunun iaĢesinin sağlanması açısından da önemliydi. Söz konusu yolun Ġran sınırındaki gümrük iĢlemleri Hanekin'de yapılıyordu. Buradan KasrıĢirin ve KirmanĢah üzerinden Hemedan'a ulaĢılıyordu. Hanekin, sınırda bulunması nedeni ile önemli bir merkezdi. Burası Bağdat üzerinden Ġran’a giden ticaret kervanlarının uğramak mecburiyetinde oldukları bir yerdi. Buradaki karantina dairesi tarafından tutulmuĢ olan raporlar dahi bu yolun önemini ortaya koymaktadır. Buna göre Hanekin üzerinden senede en az elli bin Ġranlı, sınırdan giriĢ çıkıĢ yapmaktadır. Ġran'a giden birçok Avrupalı da bu yolu tercih etmektedir3. Buna rağmen böylesine iĢlek bir yol askeri gerekçelerle 1915 yılı baĢında ticari faaliyetlere kapatılmıĢtır. Ġran'a ticaret mallarının nakline müsaade edilmemiĢtir4. Bu yasağın geçici olduğu ve bir süre sonra yeniden ticaretin baĢladığı anlaĢılmaktadır. Yasak muhtemelen Ġran’da faaliyet gösteren Türk-Alman kuvvetleri ile Ġranlı müttefiklerinin Ruslara mağlup olarak Ġran’ı boĢaltmak zorunda kaldıkları dönemle sınırlı kalmıĢtır. Bilahare Ruslar’ın Hanekin’de mağlup edilerek geri atıldıkları, hatta XIII. Osmanlı Kolordusu’nun Hemedan’a kadar ilerlediği 1916 yılı içerisinde yasak kalkmıĢ olmalıdır. 1

Hayri R. Sevimay, Cumhuriyete Girerken Ekonomi, Osmanlı Son Dönem Ekonomisi,Kazancı Kitap Tic. Aġ, Ġstanbul 1995, s. 105-106. 2 Hayri R. Sevimay, age, s. 114. 3 BaĢbakanlık Osmanlı ArĢivi (BOA). DH. ġFR, D: 502, G:121, 1,1, Lef:1, Tarih: 19 Safer 1334/ 14 Kanunuevvel 1331/ 27 Aralık 1915. 4 BOA. DH.SYS, D: 123-07, G: 7-09, Tarih: 26 Rebiyyülevvel 1333/ 29 Kanunusani 1330/ 11 ġubat 1915.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Diğer taraftan önemli bir ticaret merkezi olan bu Ģehir ile ilgili Ģikâyetler devam etmiĢtir. 1917 yılına ait bir belgede Hanekin Emniyet MüfettiĢinin Ġran'dan Ģehre gelen tüccar ve yolcuların eĢyalarını doğrudan doğruya muayene ederek gümrük iĢlemlerini yaptırmaksızın sahiplerine verdiği, yetkisini aĢan iĢler yaptığı hususunda Ģikâyetler yer almaktadır. Belirtildiğine göre söz konusu müfettiĢ müteaddit defalar uyarılmasına rağmen tutumunda her hangi bir değiĢiklik olmamıĢtır. Sonunda Maliye Nezareti Dahiliye Nezareti’ne müracaat ederek devlet idaresindeki düzen ve intizamı bozduğu gerekçesiyle ilgisiz kiĢilerin gümrük iĢlerine müdahale etmelerinin engellenmesini talep etmiĢtir5. Söz konusu müracaat üzerine ĠçiĢleri Bakanlığı Hanekin Emniyet MüfettiĢi hakkında inceleme baĢlatmıĢtır6. SavaĢ Ģartları, deniz yolu ile gerçekleĢen ticari faaliyetlere de zarar vermiĢtir. Bu konuda asıl zarar görenler Ġttifak devletleri olmuĢtur. Zira, denizlerde üstün ve hâkim olan güç Ġtilaf Devletleri idi. Hatta Ġtilaf devletleri Ġran bandıralı ticaret gemilerine dahi el koymaktan çekinmemiĢlerdir. Örneğin Dörtyol'dan portakal yüklemek üzere Ġskenderun'a gelen Ġran bandıralı Persepolis isimli ticaret gemisinin mutasarrıf senedini beraberinde bulundurmadığı için limanda bulunan Fransız savaĢ gemisi tarafından zabt edilerek ticaret malları müsadere olunmuĢtur. Gemi, Fransız askerleri kontrolünde Mısır'ın Ġskenderiye limanına sevk edilmiĢtir7. 2. TİCARET HACMİ Birinci Dünya SavaĢı dönemi Osmanlı-Ġran ticaret hacmini doğru algılayabilmek için savaĢın hemen arifesindeki duruma bakmak gerekir. Ġran ticaretinde Rusya birinci sırada yer alıyordu. 19131914 döneminde Rusya'nın toplam Ġran ticaretindeki payı % 59.65 idi. Bu ülkeyi Ġngiltere takip ediyordu. Ġngiltere'nin Ġran ticaretindeki payı % 11.87 idi. Hindistan'ın payı ise % 9.44. Ġngiltere'nin sömürgesi Hindistan ile birlikte ise Ġran ticaretindeki payı % 21.31 idi. Üçüncü sırada ise % 5.367'lik pay sahibi olan Osmanlı Devleti yer alıyordu. Osmanlı devletinin ithalattaki payı %3.4, ihracattaki payı ise % 8 idi. SavaĢın baĢlangıcında Ġran'ın Osmanlıdan yaptığı ithalat bir önceki yıla göre %14,5 azaldı. Ġhracat da % 41.9 azaldı. Ġran ile yapılan ticaret hacmi % 4.5'e düĢtü.Toplam ticaret hacmi bir önceki yıla göre % 16 düĢtü. 1914-1915 döneminde Osmanlı-Ġran ticareti bütününde Ġran'ın Osmanlıdan yaptığı ithalat iki ülke ticaretinin % 47.12'sini, ihracat ise %52.88'ini oluĢturmuĢtur 8. Ġran ise Türkiye'nin ticaret hacminde kayda değer bir paya sahip değildi9. 1913-1914 yılı itibarıyla Osmanlı Devleti'nin yaptığı toplam ihracatta %21.6 ile Ġngiltere birinci, % 19.9 ile Fransa ikinci, %10.4 ile Avusturya üçüncü, %6.4 ile ABD dördüncü, % 5.7 ile Almanya beĢinci, % 4.3 ile Ġtalya altıncı ve % 3.9 ile Rusya yedinci sırada yer almaktaydı. Ġran ise toplam %27'yi oluĢturan diğer ülkeler arasında yer alıyordu10. Osmanlı Devletinin ihracatında da Ġran önemsiz bir yer tutmaktaydı. 1913-1914 yılı itibarıyla Osmanlı Devleti'nin yaptığı ithalatta Ġngiltere % 19.4'lük pay ile birinci sırada yer alırken ikinci % 14.7 pay ile Avusturya idi. Üçüncü % 11.2 ile Almanya, dördüncü % 8.7 ile Ġtalya, beĢnci % 8.6 ile

5

BOA. DH.EUM.SSM, D: 10, G: 16, 1,Tarih: 21 Cemaziyelevvel 1335/ 15 Mart 1333/ 1917. BOA. DH.EUM.SSM, D: 10, G: 16, Tarih:24 Cemaziyelevvel 1335/ 18 Mart 1333/ 1917. 7 BOA. DH. EUM. 6. ġube, D:51, G: 24, Lef:1, Tarih: 20 Cemaziyyelevvel 1333/ 23 Mart 1331/ 5 Nisan 1915. 8 Masoumeh Daei, Ġran Osmanlı Ticari ĠliĢkileri (1900-1923), Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara 2011; s. 241,242, 248;. 9 Vedat Eldem, Harp ve Mütareke Yıllarında Osmanlı Ġmparatorluğu'nun Ekonomisi,s. 139. 10 Stefanos Yerasimos, AzgeliĢmiĢlik Sürecinde Türkiye Bizanstan 1971'e, 3. Baskı; (Çev: Babür Kuzucu), Gözlem yaınları, Ġstanbul 1980, s. 518. 6

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Fransa, altıncı % 8.4 ile Rusya, altıncı % 2.6 ile ABD idi. Ġran ise toplam %26.4'lük diğer grup içerisinde yer alıyordu11. Ġran ve Osmanlı ticaret hacmi 1915-1916 yılında % 52 azaldı. Osmanlı Devletinin Ġran ticaretindeki hacmi % 2.16'ya düĢtü. 1915-1916 döneminde iki ülke ticaretinde Ġran'ın Osmanlıdan yaptığı ithalatın payı % 51.35, ihracatın payı ise % 48.65 olmuĢtur.Bunun en önemli sebeplerinden birisi de transit yoluyla Rusya'ya nakledilen derilerle ilgilidir. Osmanlı Devleti'nin bu derileri kendi ihtiyacı yada müttefiki Almanya için kullandığı görülmektedir12. 1916-1917 döneminde Osmanlı-Ġran ticaret hacmi %1.7'ye düĢtü. Ġran'ın Osmanlı'dan ithalatı %1.8, ihracatı ise %1.5 azaldı. 1916-1917'de iki ülke ticaretinde Ġran'ın Osmanlıdan yaptığı ithalatın payı % 57.5, ihracat % 42.5 olmuĢtur.13. 1917-1918 döneminde ise Osmanlı-Ġran ticareti yeniden canlanmaya baĢladı. Bunun nedeni BolĢevik Ġhtilali ile Rusya'nın devre dıĢı kalmıĢ olmasıdır. Bu yıl Osmanlı- Ġran ticareti % 75,5 arttı. Osmanlı Devleti'nin Ġran'ın toplam ticaretindeki payı % 2.95'e yükseldi. Ġran'ın Osmanlıdan ihracatı % 146 arttı. Buna rağmen Ġthalattaki payı ise %24.4 düĢtü. Ġran'ın genel ithalatındaki oranı % 1.4 oldu. 1917-1918'de iki ülke ticaretinde Ġran'ın Osmanlıdan ithalatı % 29.30, ihracatı % 70.70 olmuĢtur. 1918-1919 dönemine gelince ihracat % 21 ve ithalat % 47 arttı. Osmanlı Devleti ile yapılan ticaret Ġran ticaret hacminin % 6.37'sine ulaĢtı. Bu yıl itibarıyla Osmanlı Devleti'nin Ġran'ın toplam ihracatındaki oranı % 13.7, ithalatındaki oranı ise % 2.1 idi. 1918-1919'da ise iki ülke toplam ticaretinde Ġran'ın Osmanlıdan ithalatı % 21.65, ihracatı ise % 78.35 olmuĢtur14. Birinci Dünya SavaĢı dönemindeki ticaret hacmi değerlendirildiğinde 1917 yılına kadar ticaret hacminin düĢme eğilimi içerisinde olduğu görülür. Ticaretin en düĢük olduğu dönem % 1.73 ile 19161917 dönemidir. SavaĢ öncesine göre ticaret hacmi üçte birin altına düĢmüĢtür. 1917 yılından itibaren yeniden hareketlenmiĢ olup savaĢ sonunda % 6.37'ye yükselmiĢtir ki bu oran savaĢ öncesinin bile önüne geçmiĢtir. SavaĢ öncesi ile kıyaslandığında yaklaĢık % 18'lik bir artıĢ söz konusudur. 3. BELLİ BAŞLI İHRACAT VE İTHALAT ÜRÜNLERİ Osmanlı Devleti'nin Ġran'a ihraç ettiği ürünler deri, ipek böceği tohumu, tütün, nargile tütünü, pamuklu dokumalar, meyve, boya, gümüĢ meskukat, tuhafiye ürünleri, Ģeker, dokuma çeĢitleri, yağ, kağıt, kereste, tahta eĢyalar, ilaç, Ģıra, hububat,pirinç, meĢin deri, çay, baharat, halı, portakal baĢta olmak üzere turunçgiller vs .idi. Bunların içerisinde yün ve pamuk dokumalar, çeĢitli boyalar ve tuhafiye eĢyaları gibi mallar Osmanlı ürünleri olarak kayıtlanmıĢ, gerçekte Almanya ve Avusturya'dan transit olarak Osmanlı ülkesinden Ġran'a ithal edilen mallardı. Aynı Ģekilde kuzu derisi, kuru deriler, meyve gibi bazı ürünler gerçekte transit yoluyla Rusya'ya gidiyordu15.

11

Stefanos Yerasimos, AzgeliĢmiĢlik Sürecinde Türkiye Bizanstan 1971'e, 3. Baskı; (Çev: Babür Kuzucu), Gözlem yaınları, Ġstanbul 1980, s. 517. Hayri R. Sevimay, age, Fs. 203. 12 Masoumeh Daei, age, s. 243. 13 Masoumeh Daei, age, s. 244. 14 Masoumeh Daei, age, s. 244-246 15 Masoumeh Daei, age, s. 242, 243,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Görüldüğü üzere Ġran'a ihraç edilen ürünlerin arasında gıda maddeleri de bulunmaktadır. Osmanlı Devletinin savaĢta olmasına rağmen yiyecek maddelerinin Ġran'a ihracına sınırlı bir Ģekilde izin vermesi Osmanlı ordusunun bir kısmının Ġran içerisinde bulunması ile açıklanabilir. Osmanlı Devleti transit eĢyası arasında yer alan bakır ve çayın Ġran'a sevkine izin vermemiĢtir. Bunun sebebi ülke içerisinde bu ürünlere ihtiyaç duyulmasıdır. Hatta, bu hususta Bağdat Valiliği ile bakanlık arasında bir yazıĢma dahi gerçekleĢmiĢtir.16. Osmanlı'nın Ġran'dan ithal ettiği ürünler ise yün halı, petrol, afyon, gümüĢ meskukat, hububat, pamuklu dokumalar, tütün ve tömbeki, Ģıra, meyve, yün ve ipek dokumalar, ilaç, Ģeker, deri, elbise, halis yün, kereste, bitkisel maddeler, canlı hayvanlar, tuhafiye malları, pirinç, ot çeĢitleri, çekirdeksiz üzüm, pamuk, çay, tuz, ipek kozası, kömür vs mallar idi. Aynı Ģekilde Osmanlı ithalatı gibi görünen halıların da bir kısmı Ġngiltere ve Amerika'ya transit yolla sevk ediliyordu17. Bu arada savaĢ yıllarında Ġran'dan kömür ithalinin özellikle teĢvik edildiği görülmüĢtür. Oysa Türkiye kömür açısından zengin rezervlere sahip bir ülkedir. Bunun sebebi ihtiyaç artıĢını karĢılayabilecek üretim miktarının mevcut olmamasıdır. Nitekim, Bağdat vilayeti tarafından Ġran'dan getirilecek olan kömürlerden vergi alınmaması talep edilmiĢtir. Valilik 30 Haziran 1916 yazısında Ġran'dan ithal edilecek kömürün Bağdat bölgesine mahsus olarak gümrük vergisinden istisnasını istemiĢtir. Bu talep Bakanlar Kurulu tarafından onaylanarak yürürlüğe girmiĢtir. Ġrade-i seniyenin icrası görevi dahiliye ve Maliye Nezaretlerine verilmiĢtir.18. Her iki ülke de sanayileĢememiĢ olduğundan dolayı ihracat ve ithalat kalemleri birbirine benzemektedir. Aynı ürünü duruma göre hem almakta hem de satmaktadırlar. buğday, kereste, pamuklu dokumalar, meyve, tütün, ipek, gümüĢ para vb. bu tür ürünler arasındadır. göreceli olarak Ġran'ın Osmanlı'dan satın almadığı sadece satıĢını yaptığı ürünler petrol, halı ve kömürdür. Osmanlı Devletinin ise Ġran'dan almadığı sadece satıĢını yaptığı ürün nerede ise yoktur. 4. VERGİLERLE İLĞİLİ SORUNLAR Tüccarlardan alınan en önemli vergi gümrük vergi idi. 1860 ve 1861 yıllarında birçok ülke ile ticaret antlaĢmaları imzalanmıĢ, bu antlaĢmalar çerçevesince ithalat resmi karĢılıklı %8 olarak tespit edilmiĢtir. Ġhracat resmi ise %1’e ininceye kadar her yıl %1 oranında azaltmak kaydıyla ilk sene için %8 olarak belirlenmiĢtir. Transit vergisinin ise ilk sene sonunda %1'e indirilmesi kabul edilmiĢtir19. Söz konusu kapitülasyon hakları 1878-1878 Osmanlı Rus savaĢı sonunda Ġran'a da tanınmıĢtır20. SavaĢ dönemlerinde ticari faaliyetler zayıfladığından dolayı gümrük gelirleri de aĢırı derecede düĢüyordu. Bunun dıĢında alınan vergilerden birisi de temettü vergisidir. Temettü vergisi için 1907 yılında yeni bir nizamname hazırlanmıĢtır. Bu vergi nispi ve maktu olmak üzere iki kısma bölünmüĢtür21.

16

BOA. DH. ĠUM., D: 771, G: 111, 21 Cemaziyyelahir 1333/23 Nisan 1331/ 6 Mayıs 1915. Masoumeh Daei, age, s. 242 18 Düstur, Tertib-i Sani, C. 8, Ġstanbul Evkaf Matbaası, Ġstanbul 1928, s. 1217. 19 Vedat Eldem, Osmanlı Ġmparatorluğunun Ġktisadi ġartları Hakkında Bir Tetkik, Türk Tarih Kurumu yayınları, Ankara 1994, s. 177; Cezmi Tezcan, Tekalif-i Harbiye ve Tekalif-i Milliye Örneklerinde SavaĢ Dönemleri Mali Politikaları, Ankara Üniversitesi Türk Ġnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü, Ankara 2005, s.26. 20 Hayri R. Sevimay, age, s. 193. 21 Vedat Eldem, Osmanlı Ġmparatorluğunun Ġktisadi ġartları Hakkında Bir Tetkik, s. 179. 17

838

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Bunun dıĢında mekkari vergisi ve damga vergisi gibi vergiler de alınıyordu. Damga vergisi 1905 yılından itibaren yabancı uyruklularla yapılan akit ve iĢlemlerden de alınmaya baĢlanmıĢtır22. SavaĢ yıllarında ticaret vergileri ile ilgili olarak da bir kısım sorunlar yaĢanmıĢtır. Bilindiği üzere Transit ticarette devletin elde ettiği gelir kaynaklarından bir tanesi de nakliyat iĢlemini gerçekleĢtiren deve kervanlarından alınan temettü vergisidir23. Ġran Devletine göre mekkarrilerden alınan vergi yüksek idi. Bu yüzden Ġran Osmanlı Devletine müracaatta bulundu. Söz konusu müracaat nedeniyle Sadrazam ve Hariciye Nazırı Said Halim PaĢa Ġran'ın Ġstanbul Büyükelçisi Mirza Mahmud Han'a bilgi verdi.O, Ġran mekkarilerinin develerinden Erzurum vilayetinde alınan temettü vergisinin transit ticaret iĢlemlerinin eksilmesine sebep olacak derecede önem arz etmediği, bu yüzden develerin temettü vergisinden istisnasına gerek görülmediği cevabını vermiĢtir24. Bu arada Osmanlı Devleti'nin savaĢtan yenik çıkmasından istifade ile Ġran'ın Ġstanbul Büyükelçisi Ġran vatandaĢlarından temettü vergisinin alınmaması için müracaatta bulunmuĢtur. 10 Temmuz 1919 tarihli bu müracaata verilen cevapta Osmanlı Hükümetinin 9 Eylül 1914 tarihinde kapitülasyon anlaĢmasını lağvetmiĢ olduğu, her ülkede yabancı vatandaĢların tabi bulunduğu vergi ve resimleri Türkiye'de de ödeme zorunluluğunun bulunduğu belirtilerek temettü vergisinin kaldırılmasının söz konusu olamayacağı belirtilmiĢtir25. Öte yandan Düyunu Umumiyye de vergi gelirlerinde zarara uğramak istemiyordu. Bu yüzden Düyunu Umumiye Komiserliği Hariciye Nezareti'ne baĢvurarak Ġran'dan gelecek tönbekilerden alınacak gümrük vergisi hakkında Osmanlı ve Ġran devletleri arasında imzalanmıĢ olan 15 ġubat 1880 tarihli anlaĢma hükümlerinin bilinmesine ihtiyaç duyulduğunu, anlaĢmanın tasdikli suretinin kendilerine gönderilmesini talep etmiĢtir26. Hariciye Nazırı Prens Said Halim PaĢa ise anlaĢmanın Divanı Hümayunda bulunduğu, metnin buradan istenilmesi gerektiği cevabını vermiĢtir27. Diğer taraftan Ġranlı tüccar vergiden kurtulmak için her fırsatı değerlendirmeye çalıĢmıĢtır. Örneğin, BolĢevik Ġhtilalı sonrasında 1918 yılı ilkbahar aylarında Rusların boĢalttığı Doğu vilayetlerine Osmanlı kuvvetleri girmiĢti. Osmanlı Devleti Rus iĢgalinden kurtarılan bölgelere özel ayrıcalıklar tanımıĢtı. Bu ayrıcalıklar yöreler halkının mağduriyetini gidermeye yönelikti. Söz konusu ayrıcalıklardan bir tanesi tüccarın damga vergisinden muaf tutulmasıydı. Bölgedeki Ġranlı tüccarlar da bu ayrıcalıklardan faydalanmak istemiĢlerdir. Ġranlı tüccarlardan Hacı Nimet ve arkadaĢları Erzurum Valiliği'ne müracaat etmiĢlerdir. Valilik de söz konusu talebi Maliye Nezareti'ne iletmiĢtir. Bakanlık verdiği cevapta adı geçen muafiyetlerin düĢman iĢgalinden kurtulan yerli halka tanındığını, baĢka ülke tebaasından olan tüccarları kapsamayacağını bildirmiĢtir28. 5. SAVAŞIN PARA POLİTİKASINA ETKİLERİ

22

Stefanos Yerasimos, AzgeliĢmiĢlik Sürecinde Türkiye Bizans'tan 1971'e, 3. Baskı; (Çev: Babür Kuzucu), Gözlem Yayınları, Ġstanbul 1980, s. 531. 23 BOA. HR.ĠD, D: 285, G: 33, 1,Tarih: 17 ġevval 1332/26 Ağustos 1330/ 08.Eylül 1914. 24 BOA. HR.ĠD, D: 285, G: 33, 3, Tarih: 17 ġevval 1332/ 8 Eylül 1330/ 21.Eylül 1914. 25 BOA. HR.HMŞ.İSO. Dosya:124 Gömlek:15, Lef: 7, Tarih:14 Temmuz 1919. 26 BOA. HR.ĠD, D: 307, G:8,5, Tarih:30 Zilkade 1333/ 26 Eylül 1331/ 9 Ekim 1915. 27 BOA. HR.ĠD, D: 307, G:8,1, Tarih: 15 Zilhicce 1333/ 11 TeĢrinievvel 1331/ 24 Ekim 1915. 28 BOA. DH. ĠUM., D:2017, G: 12127, Tarih: 3 Receb 1338/ 23 Mart 1336/ 1920.

839

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Öncelikle Ģu hususu belirtmekte fayda vardır ki Birinci Dünya SavaĢı'ndan önce Ġran ve Hint paraları Bağdat ve Basra'da tedavüle girmiĢ vaziyetteydi29. Osmanlı Devleti bu paraların yerine kendi parasının tedavülde olduğu bir sistem kurmayı arzuluyordu. Öte yandan savaĢ dönemlerinde ülkelerin kıymetli maden biriktirme çabaları bilinen bir gerçektir. Bu dönemlerde genellikle kâğıt para değer yitirir. Benzer durum Birinci Dünya SavaĢı’nda da söz konusudur. Osmanlı Devleti de bu amaçla Bağdat'tan Ġran'a altın çıkıĢını yasaklamıĢtır. Buna karĢılık Ġran'a sevk olunan ticaret eĢyaları için öncelikle altın talep edilmesini istemiĢtir. Bu mümkün değilse havalenamelerin de kabul edilebileceği belirtilmiĢtir30. Ancak sınırlarda yeterli kuvvet bulunmadığı gerekçesiyle altın ihracının engellenmesi kararı tam olarak uygulanamamıĢtır31. Ancak, Ġran'a giren XIII. Kolordu Komutanı Ali Ġhsan PaĢa Ġran'da altın ve gümüĢ satın alarak bu politikaya uyun davranmıĢtır. O, KirmanĢah halkından 50 bin liralık altın ve gümüĢ satın alarak müteahhitlerin iĢini kolaylaĢtırmıĢtır32. Bununla birlikte Bağdat’ın transit ticaretin merkezi olması söz konusu kararın uygulanmasını güçleĢtiriyordu. Buradan Ġran'a sevk edilen ticaret eĢyaları karĢılığında altın yerine Ġran Bank-ı ġahi'si tarafından gönderilen havalenameler kullanılıyordu. Bağdat Valiliği fiili durumun mu devam edeceğini, yoksa mutlaka altın karĢılığında mı ticarete müsaade edileceğini Dâhiliye Nezaretine sorma ihtiyacı duymuĢtur33. Öte yandan Ġran Devleti ise Bağdat’ta ikamet eden Osmanlı tüccarlarının alacaklarının poliçe ile ödenmesini istemiĢtir. Ġran Osmanlı tüccarının Ġranlı tüccarından alacaklarına karĢılık Bank-ı ġahi'nin Türkiye, Fransa ve Ġngiltere'ye gönderdiği vadeli ve vadesiz poliçelerin kabul ve tedavülüne izin verilmesini talep etmiĢtir34. Para ile ilgili bir diğer mesele de Ġran'dan yapılacak ticaret için Ġran parasının temini meselesi olmuĢtur. Bunun için sınır illerinden zaman zaman Ġran parası talep edilmiĢtir. Örneğin 15 Aralık 1918 tarihli bir belgede Erzurum vilayetinin Ġran'dan satın alınacak hayvanlar için merkezden Ġran parası istediği yazılmıĢtır35. Diğer taraftan Osmanlı kâğıt parasının değerinin korunması da temel politikalardan birisi olmuĢtur. Bu konuda sıkıntı yaratan Wankhaus adlı Alman Ģirketi Osmanlı yetkilileri tarafından mercek altına alınmıĢtır. Bu Ģirket Birinci Dünya SavaĢı sırasında merkezi Bağdat olmak üzere kurulmuĢtur. ġirket Irak ve Ġran'da çeĢitli yerlerde Ģubeler de açmıĢtır. ġirketin kuruluĢ amacı Ġran'a giren Türk kuvvetleri ile müttefiklerin yiyecek ve diğer ihtiyaçlarını karĢılamaktı. Diğer bir ifade ile Wankhaus Ģirketi erzak müteahhitliği görevini yürütecek bir kuruluĢ olarak düĢünülmüĢtü. Özellikle Ġran'daki XIII. Kolordu, müttefiklerle iĢ birliği yapan Ġran askeri teĢkilatı ve siyasi çevrelerinin masraflarının ödenmesi Almanya Hükümeti tarafından bu Ģirkete ihale edilmiĢti.

29

Vedat Eldem, Harp ve Mütareke Yıllarında Osmanlı Ġmparatorluğu'nun Ekonomisi, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara 1994, s. 119. 30 BOA. DH. ġFR, D:477, G:24, Tarih: 12 ġaban 1333/12 Haziran 1331/ 25 Haziran 1916. 31 BOA. DH. ġFR, D:477, G:24,1,1, Tarih:13 ġaban 1333/ 13 Haziran 1331/ 26 Haziran 1916. 32 Müverrihüddevle Sepehr, Ġran Der Ceng-i Büzürg, Tahran 1966s.379. 33 BOA. DH. ġFR, D:477, G:24,1,1, Tarih: 13 ġaban 1333/ 13 Haziran 1331/ 26 Haziran 1916. 34 BOA. DH. ĠUM., D: 63, G: 6, Tarih:10 ġevval 1333/ 8 Ağustos 1331/ 21 Ağustos 1915. 35 BOA. DH. ĠUM., D: 31, G: 115, Tarih: 11 Rebiyülevvel 1337/ 15 Aralık 1334/ 1918.

840

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Bu yüzden Wankhaus Bağdat Valiliği ve Ġran'a giren XIII. Osmanlı Kolordusu tarafından imtiyazlı Ģirket muamelesi görmüĢtür. BaĢka Ģirketlere gösterilmeyen kolaylıklara sahip olmuĢtur. Örneğin Ģirkete ait nakliye araçlarına askeri menzillerce dokunulmamıĢ, Ġran'a ihracı yasaklanan ticaret mallarını bu ülkeye pazarlama yetkisi sadece Wankhaus Ģirketine verilmiĢtir. ġirket çalıĢanları da ayrıcalıklı kiĢi muamelesi görmüĢlerdir. Bütün bu sebeplerden dolayı Ģirket kısa zaman içerisinde bölgedeki ticarete ve piyasaya tamamıyla hâkim olmuĢtur. Ancak Wankhaus Ģirketi bütün bu ayrıcalıkları kötü yönde kullanarak, kâğıt paranın değeri ile oynayarak yolsuzluk yapmıĢtır. Bu anlamda Bağdat'ta kıran adı verilen Ġran gümüĢ parasının gerçek değeri ile piyasa değeri arasındaki farktan faydalanarak gümüĢ para toplamıĢtır. Bu sayede Irakta Osmanlı kâğıt parasının değerinin düĢmesine yol açmıĢtır. Bundan dolayı VI.Ordu bölgesinde kâğıt para piyasasının merkezi Bağdat olmuĢtur. ġirket kâğıt para değerini istediği gibi yönetmiĢtir. Wankhaus Ģirketi çeĢitli vasıtalardan ve argümanlardan yararlanarak menfaat sağlamıĢtır. Osmanlı kâğıt parasının değerini düĢürmek istediği zaman Bağdat'ta ve diğer Ģubelerinde ajanları vasıtasıyla 40-50 bin liralık kâğıt parayı arzu ettiği fiyat üzerinden gizlice sattırmıĢtır. Bilahare aynı ajanlar vasıtasıyla peyderpey kâğıt paraları düĢük değerden geri toplamıĢtır. Topladığı paranın bir kısmını Bulgaristan'a çek vermek ve bir kısmını ise farklı bölgelerdeki fiyat farkını dikkate alarak satıĢa sunmak suretiyle kar elde etmiĢtir. Para meseleleriyle yakından ilgili olan Yahudiler bu para oyunlarını Osmanlı yetkililerine Ģikâyet ederek engellemeye çalıĢmıĢlardır. Wankhaus aynı uygulamayı Alman markı için yapmamıĢtır. Örneğin KirmanĢah'ta Alman kâğıt parasını gerçek değeri üzerinden kıran ile değiĢtirmiĢ, bu yüzden alman parası Ġran'da itibarlı bir para haline gelmiĢtir. Dolayısıyla Alman markı Ġran piyasasında kullanılmaya baĢlanılmıĢtır. Oysa Osmanlı kâğıt parası ise değeri düĢtüğü için Ġranlıların uzak durdukları bir para haline gelmiĢtir. Ġlaveten Ģirket Osmanlı altın parasını da piyasadan toplamıĢtır. Wankhaus Ģirketinin yarı resmi bir surette takip ettiği bu uygulamalar sayesinde hem Osmanlı ticareti hem de devletin itibarı ve nüfuzu zarar görmüĢtür. Bu sayede Ġran gümüĢ parası Osmanlı ülkesinde kıymetli ve itibar edilir bir para olarak piyasada deveran etmeye baĢlamıĢtır. Bütün bu sıkıntılar Hanekin Hudut Emniyet MüfettiĢliğinin dikkatini çekmiĢ, müfettiĢlik hükümetten Ģirketin zararlı faaliyetlerinden dolayı lağvedilmesini talep etmiĢtir. MüfettiĢlik 11 Ocak 1917 tarihli müracaatında dönemin siyasi Ģartları gereği lağvı mümkün değilse Osmanlı memleketlerinde Ġran gümüĢ parasının egemenliğine son verilmesi önerisinde bulunmuĢtur. MüfettiĢ Akif Bey, böyle giderse Osmanlı kâğıt parasının en az yüzde elli oranında değer kaybetmesine yol açılacağı uyarısında bulunmuĢtur36. 6. TÜCCARLARIN MALLARINA EL KONULMASI SavaĢ döneminde çeĢitli Ģekillerde tüccarların mallarına el konulması söz konusu olmuĢtur. El koyma devletler ya da eĢkıyalar tarafından gerçekleĢmiĢtir. EĢkıya gaspını konu alan Bağdat Valiliği'nin 26 Nisan 1916 tarihli telgrafına göre Isfahan'da Osmanlı vatandaĢı olan TüccarbaĢı Hacı Muhammed Ġbrahim'in değeri 12.000 liraya ulaĢan malları, mücevheratı ve parası Kerbela-Isfahan yolu üzerinde Lur aĢireti mensupları tarafından yağmalanmıĢtır37.

36

BOA. DH.EUM. 5. ġube, D:32, G:32, Lef:3, Tarih:17 Rebiyülevvel 1335/ 29 Kanunuevvel 1332/ 11 Ocak 1917. 37 Masoumeh Daei, age, s. 97.

841

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Bir baĢka belgede de 21 Nisan 1919 Pazartesi günü ticaret için Taceddin köyüne gelmekte olan bir kafileye ġeyhyol ile Bayezid arasında bilinmeyen kiĢiler tarafından taarruz edildiği, kafileden Ġranlı Sili Muhammed'in çatıĢma esnasında öldürüldüğü, beĢ arkadaĢının mallarını bırakarak firar ettikleri belirtilmiĢtir. Bilahare güvenlik kuvvetleri tarafından takip edilen eĢkiyalar Tendürek Dağı eteklerinde, yalçın kayalıklar arasında gasp ettikleri malları terk ederek kaçmıĢlardır38. Öte yandan Osmanlı toprağında Ġran kervanlarına saldırılması ve yağmalanması sadece Osmanlı uyruklular tarafından değil Rus haydutlar tarafından da gerçekleĢtiriliyordu. Erzurum gümrüğünde gümrük iĢleri tamamlanan ve yola çıkan bir kervan Erzurum-Bayezid yolu üzerinde Ruslar tarafından yağmalanmıĢtı39. Tabii bu durumda her iki devlet de tüccarlarının mallarının yağmalanması nedeni ile birbirlerini suçluyorlardı. Osmanlı topraklarında gerçekleĢen gasp olayları nedeni ile Ġran, Osmanlı Devleti'ni suçlayarak malların tazminini talep ediyor, Osmanlı Devleti de aynı Ģekilde Ġran topraklarında gerçekleĢen gasp olayları yüzünden Ġran'ı suçlayarak tüccarın zararlarının karĢılanmasını istiyordu. Ancak söz konusu gasp olayları devam edip gidiyordu. Bunda iki ülke arasındaki sınır probleminin çözülememiĢ olması önemli bir etkendi. SavaĢ Ģartları da bu olumsuzluğu kat be kat artırmıĢtı. Devletlerin tüccarların mallarına el koyması ise farklı nedenlere dayanmıĢtır. En önemli sebep halkın gıda ihtiyacını karĢılamaktır40. Örneğin 1915 yılında Ġran'dan Tebrizli Hacı Mehmed Ağa Ġpek ticarethanesi adına Trabzon gümrüğüne gelen emtiaya Tekalif-i Harbiye Komisyonunca el konulmuĢtur41. Bilindiği üzere 1912 tarihli Tekalifi Harbiye Kanununa istinaden Tekalifi Harbiye Komisyonu oluĢturulmuĢtu. Bu komisyonlar seferberlik dönemlerinde ahalinin ihtiyacına yetecek miktar dıĢındaki gıda ve emtianın fazlasına el koyabiliyorlardı. El koydukları ürünlere karĢılık sahiplerine ürünün maddi değerinin kayıtlı olduğu bir mazbata veriliyordu. Bu mazbatalar hazırlanırken, bölgedeki en büyük mülki memurun oluĢturduğu komisyon vasıtasıyla gerçekleĢtirilen fiyat taktiri esas alınıyordu42. Tüccarları en çok rahatsız eden ülke ise Rusya'dır. Ruslar özellikle Osmanlı tüccarlarının mallarına yoğun bir Ģekilde el koymuĢlardır. Örneğin Osmanlı uyruklu Laskaridis kardeĢlerin mal ve eĢyalarının gasp edilmesi üzerine bu kiĢiler zararlarının tazmini talebinde bulunmuĢlardır43. Aynı durum Ġran'ın Selmas kasabasındaki Osmanlı TüccarbaĢısı Mehmed Rıza'nın da baĢına gelmiĢtir. TüccarbaĢı da el konulan para ve mallarının karĢılığının ödenmesini istemiĢtir44.

38

BOA. DH. EUM. AYġ, D:7, G: 27, Lef: 1, Tarih:5 Mayıs 1335/ 1919/ 4 ġaban 1337 Masoumeh Daei, age, s. 89-90. 40 Zira, harbin sonuna doğru 1913'e nazaran halkın gıdası kalori bakımından Ġngiltere'de %10, Fransa'da %35, ve Almanya'da %50'ye yakın bir nispette azalmıĢ, hayvani proteindeki azalmalar çok daha mühim olmuĢtur. Bkz. Vedat Eldem, Harp ve Mütareke Yıllarında Osmanlı Ġmparatorluğu'nun Ekonomisi,s.22-23. 41 BOA. DH. ĠUM., D: 932, G: 144, Tarih:10 ġaban 1333/ 10 Haziran 1331/23 Haziran 1915 ; BOA. DH. ĠUM., D: 932, G: 167, Tarih:16 Ramazan 1333/ 15 Temmuz 1331/ 28 Temmuz 1915; BOA. DH. ĠUM., D: 933, G: 16,Tarih: 25 ġevval 1333/ 23 Ağustos 1331/ 5 Eylül 1915. 42 Düstur, Tertib-i Sani, Cilt: 6, Matbaa-i Amire, Dersaadet 1334, s: 1011-1012. 43 BOA. HR.SYS, D: 2406, G:29, Tarih:23 Rebiyülevvel 1333/ 26 Kanunusani 1330/ 8 ġubat 1915. 44 BOA. HR.SYS, D: 2394, G:56, Tarih:12 Safer 1334/ 7 Kanunuevvel 1331/ 20 Aralık 1915. 39

842

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Yine Erdebil'de Osmanlı vatandaĢlarını takip etmek için Rus kazakları Ģehrin muteber tüccarı Hacı Muhammed Hüseyin'in evine saldırıp zarar vermiĢler, bilahare de pazarı yakmıĢlardı. Erdebil tüccarları bu sebeple Tahran'a rahatsızlıklarını bildiren bir telgraf çekmiĢlerdir45. Ruslar BuĢehr'de de Osmanlı tüccarına ait olan mallara el koymuĢtur. Müsadere sırasında el konulan emtianın değeri yaklaĢık 300.000 liradır. Osmanlı tüccarının Ġran Devleti yetkililerine Ģikayet dilekçeleri vermelerine rağmen Rusya Bankası, Osmanlının emlakine, mallarına ve depolarına el koymaktan çekinmemiĢtir. Bu uygulama Osmanlı tüccarının Birinci Dünya SavaĢı'ndan önce bankadan aldığı 25.000 lira avans karĢılığında yapılmıĢtır46. Hatta, Ruslar 6 Ekim 1916 tarihinde ikamet tezkiresi olan Osmanlı tebaası kiĢileri Ģehbenderhane önünde asmaktan da çekinmemiĢlerdir. Bir kısım tüccarları da Urmiye aĢiretleriyle gizli olarak ortaklık yaptıkları gerekçesiyle idam etmiĢlerdir47. Rusların Osmanlı tüccarlarının malalarına el koymaları o derece yoğunlaĢmıĢtır ki tahammül edilemez bir hal almıĢtır. Çok canı yanan Osmanlı tüccarı misilleme yapılması için mektupla Osmanlı makamlarına müracaat etmiĢlerdir. Bu müracaatlarda Osmanlı askerlerinin iĢgali altında olan Azerbaycan'da Rusya'ya ve Rus tüccarlarına ait mallara el konulmasını istemiĢlerdir48. Öte yandan Ticarete uygulanan bu yoğun Rus baskısı nedeni ile bazı Ġranlı tüccarlar mallarını korumak için Rusya himayesi altına girmiĢ, ve isimlerinin sonuna "of" ekletmiĢlerdir49. 7. TİCARETE TEZKERE ENGELİ Birinci Dünya SavaĢı döneminde savaĢ Ģartları gereği olarak tüccarlar da dahil herkesin yer değiĢtirmeleri sıkı bir Ģekilde takip edilmiĢtir. Bu anlamda bir Ģehirden baĢka bir Ģehre giden tüccarlara izin verilip verilmeyeceği ilgili makamlara sorularak sonuçlandırılmıĢtır. Tabii tüccarlara verilecek yol ve ikamet tezkereleri bir incelemeye tabii tutuluyordu. Bu yüzden tezkerenin verilmesi zaman alıyordu. Yapılan yazıĢmalar neticesinde tüccara ticaret yapma izninin verilmemesi de söz konusu olabiliyordu. Tabii ki bu süreç tüccarı rahatsız ediyor ve ticarete zarar veriyordu. Ġlaveten tüccarın transit tezkerelerine el konulması da söz konusu olabiliyordu Tüccarlar gittikleri yerlerde yol yada ikamet tezkerelerini göstermek durumunda idileri. Emniyet teĢkilatı gelen giden tüccarları sıkı bir Ģekilde takip ediyor, duruma göre Emniyet Genel Müdürlüğüne de bildiriyorlardı. Konuyu anlaĢılabilir kılmak için bir kaç örnek vermek doğru olacaktır. Ġran'ın muteber tüccarlarından müteveffa Hacı Ali Ekber Aka Karacadağı'nın oğlu Cafer Bey, kız kardeĢi ile birlikte Manisa'da Ġran tüccarından Hüseyin Efendi'nin yanına gitmek istemiĢlerdir. Bu kiĢiler Rusya tabiiyetinde bulunmalarına rağmen Ġran asıllı oldukları için yolculuklarına izin verilmesi talep edilmiĢtir50. Yapılan inceleme neticesinde Cafer Bey'in kız kardeĢi ile birlikte Manisa'ya gitmelerine izin verilmiĢtir51. Önceden Zonguldak'da kömür ticareti yaparken bilahare Ġstanbul'a gelerek Celal Bey Hanı'nda 3 numaralı odada ticari faaliyetlerinin yürüten Ġranlı Hacı Hasanzade Halil Zonguldak'a gidip gelmek 45

Masoumeh Daei, age, s. 234. Masoumeh Daei, age, s. 35. 47 BOA. HR.SYS, D: 2338, G:1, Tarih: 29 Zilkade 1332/ 6 TeĢrinievvel 1330/ 19 Ekim 1914. 48 BOA, HR.SYS, D: 2406, G:29, Tarih: 23 Rebiyyülevvel 1333/ 26 Kanunusani 1330/ 8 ġubat 1915. 49 Masoumeh Daei, age, s. 235. 50 BOA. DH.EUM. SSM, D: 58, G: 72,3, Tarih: 17 ġaban 1336/ 28 Mayıs 1334/ 1918 51 BOA. DH.EUM. SSM, D: 58, G: 72,1, Tarih: 17 ġaban 1336/ 28 Mayıs 1334/ 1918 46

843

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN için izin istemiĢtir. O, önceden anlaĢmasını yaptığı kömürleri teslim alarak Ġstanbul'a nakledebilmesi için bir iki günlüğüne deniz yolu ile seyahatine izin verilmesini talep etmiĢtir.52 Bu müracaat üzerine adı geçen kiĢi Dahiliye Nezareti tarafından Karargah-ı Umumi Ġstihbarat Müdiriyetine53 ve Ġstanbul Polis Müdiriyeti Umumiyesine sorulmuĢ, her hangi bir sakınca yok ise Zonguldak'a gidip gelmesi için yol tezkeresi verileceği belirtilmiĢtir54. Canik Mutasarrıflığının 14 Kasım 1917 tarihli sorusuna BaĢkumandanlık Vekaletinden 12 Aralık 1917 günü cevap verilmiĢtir. Buna göre Samsun'da ikamet eden Ġran vatandaĢı Hacı Nasrullahzade Muhammed Cafer'in ticaret maksadıyla Ġstanbul'a gitmesinde bir mahzur olmadığı bildirilmiĢtir55. Ġstanbul'da Nuri Osmaniye'de ticaret ile meĢgul olan Oseb Veledi Abraham Trabzon'da aĢçılık yapan erkek kardeĢi Yakob'un yanına gitmek istemiĢ, bununla ilğili yazıĢmalar cereyan etmiĢtir56. Yine Ġran tebaasından halı tüccarı Halid Efendi'nin 23 Mayıs 1918 tarihli müracaatı üzerine Norveç'e gidip gelmesine müsaade edildiğini bildiren ve ilgililere tebligat yapılmasını içeren Dahiliye Nezareti yazısı da 20 Haziran 1918 tarihlidir57. Bir belgede de ikamet etmek amacıyla Edirne'ye gelen Ġran vatandaĢı Nesim Yasef Ġsa adlı Ģahsın getirdiği tasdikli beyannamesini Emniyet genel Müdürlüğüne göndermiĢtir58. Diğer taraftan Ecnebi tüccarların ikamet tezkerelerinden reĢid olan oğulları da yararlanabiliyorlardı. Örneğin Edirne Polis Müdürlüğünün 5 Haziran 1919 Emniyeti Umumiyeye yazdığı bir yazıda 80609 nolu ikamet tezkiresi sahibi Morohay Bahar veledi Sertar Bahar'ın ikamet tezkeresini refakatinde bulunduran oğlu Salamon'un 20 yaĢını tamamladığı, bu yüzden kendisine de tezkere verilebileceği belirtilmiĢtir59.. 8. TÜCCARLARIN ŞEHBENDER OLARAK GÖREVLENDİRİLMESİ Bilindiği gibi Ģehbenderliklerin en önemli görevlerinden bir tanesi vatandaĢı olan tüccarların yabancı ülkedeki menfaatlerini korumaktır. Bu bakımdan Ģehbenderlerin tayininde az çok ticaretten anlamaları tercih sebebi olmuĢtur. Osmanlı Devleti de Ģehbender atamalarında bu hususa özen göstermiĢtir. Hatta görevden aldığı Ġran Ģehbenderlerinin yerine atanan fahri konsoloslarda da bu kurala uymaya özen göstermiĢtir. Örneğin görevde kalması uygun bulunmayarak Ġstanbul'a çağrılan Ġran'ın Halep Konsolosu Mehmet Ġbrahim Bey'in60 yerine mevcut durum nedeni ile ne Ġstanbul'dan ne de Ġran'dan Ģehbender seçilmesi ve tayini mümkün olmamıĢtır. Bunun üzerine Halep tüccarlarından David Efendi'nin Ġran fahri konsolosluğuna tayinine Ġstanbul'daki Ġran Büyükelçiliği tarafından olur verilmiĢtir. Ancak Osmanlı makamları bu kiĢinin atamasının gerçekleĢmesi için güvenilirliğini ve Ģehbenderliğe uygun olup olmadığını soruĢturma ihtiyacı duymuĢlardır61.

52

BOA. DH.EUM. 2. ġube, D: 53, G: 6, Lef: 4, Tarih: 13 Receb 1336/ 4 Nisan 1334/1918. BOA. DH.EUM. 2. ġube, D: 53, G: 6, Lef: 4, Tarih: 13 Receb 1336/ 24 Nisan 1334/1918. 54 BOA. DH.EUM. 2. ġube, D: 53, G: 6, Lef: 4, Tarih: 13 Receb 1336/ 24 Nisan 1334/1918. 55 BOA. DH.EUM. 5. ġube, D:51, G:31, Lef: 7, Tarih: 27 Safer 1336/ 12 Kanunuevvel 1333/ 12 Aralık 1917. 56 BOA, DH.EUM. 2. ġube, Dosya: 51, G: 33, Tarih: 24 Cemaziyelahir 1336/ 6 Nisan 1334/ 1918. 57 BOA. DH.EUM. 2. ġube, D: 56, G: 61, Lef: 22, Tarih: 11 ramazan 1336/20 Haziran 1334/ 1918 58 BOA. DH. EUM. ECB, D:25, G: 03, 1, Tarih: 5 Haziran 1335/ 1919/ 16 ġevval 1337 59 BOA. DH. EUM. ECB, D:25, G: 03, 3, Tarih: 6 Ramazan 1337/ 5 Haziran 1335/1919 60 BOA. DH.EUM. 5. ġube, D: 86, G: 73, Tarih:19 Safer 1337/ 24 TeĢrinisani 1334/ 24 Kasım 1918. 61 BOA. DH. ġFR, D: 91, G: 222, Lef: 1-1, Tarih:28 Zilkade 1336/ 4 Eylül 1334/ 1918. 53

844

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Bu bağlamda ĠçiĢleri Bakanlığı Ġranlı Davutyan Efendi hakkında tahkikat yapılmasını emretmiĢtir62. Halep Valiliğinin incelemeleri neticesinde Vali Vekili Emin Efendi imzasıyla 30 Nisan 1917 tarihinde gönderilen yazıda; Davutyan Efendi'nin Musevi ve ticaret âleminde oldukça nüfuzlu, ahlaklı, ilm irfan sahibi, Osmanlı ve Ġran Devletleri hakkında olumlu hissiyata sahip bir kiĢi olduğu, bütün bu sebeplerden Ġran ġehbenderliği’ne tayin edilmesinin uygun olacağı belirtilmiĢtir63. Benzer bilgiler 14 Ekim 1918 tarihli bir belgede de yer almıĢtır. Bu belgede Halep Ġran fahri konsolosunun adı Davit Dilyan olarak geçmektedir64. Bu belgelerdeki tarih tutarsızlığı Davutyan Efendi ile Davit Efendi'nin farklı kiĢiler olabileceğini düĢündürüyor. Davutyan ile Davit aynı kiĢi olarak düĢünülecek olursa ikinci ihtimal bazı belgelerde tarih yanlıĢlığı olabileceğidir. Bu hususta baĢka örnekler de vardır. Manifatura ticaretiyle meĢgul olan Hacı Resulzade Ali Bey Ġran'ın Ankara ġehbenderliği'ne tayin edilmiĢtir65. Yine Edirne Ġran ġehbenderliği'ne asaleten tayin edilen Ġran vatandaĢı Tebrizi Ali Rıza Bey de ticaretle uğraĢan bir kiĢi idi66. 9. TÜCCARLARDAN CASUS OLARAK YARARLANILMASI SavaĢ sırasında savaĢan taraflar tüccarları, yada tüccar kılığında casuslar kullanmıĢlardır. Bu hususta çok sayıda örnek mevcuttur. Bu durum, devletlerin sadece ticaretle meĢgul olan tüccarlara dahi kuĢku ile yaklaĢmalarına yol açmıĢtır. Örneğin Afganistan ve Hindistan'a gönderilecek heyetler içerisinde tüccar kılığında gönderilenler vardı. Daha heyetin hazırlığı ile uğraĢılırken Mülazim Murat ve Nurettin Efendiler tüccar kıyafeti ile Hidiviye Vapuru vasıtasıyla Hindistan'a sevk edilmiĢlerdir. Bunlar Hindistan'da bazı tanınmıĢ kiĢilerle iliĢkiye girecekler ve karadan gelecek olan heyete vaktinden önce uygun bir ortam hazırlayacaklardı. Bu iki subay Bombay'a yaklaĢtıkları sırada tutuklanmıĢlardır67. Ruslar da ticaret amacıyla Tebriz ve Azerbaycan’a gidip gelenleri sorguya çekmiĢlerdir68. Diğer bir örnek ise Rusların Ġranlı tüccarları casus olarak kullandıklarının tespit edilmiĢ olmasıdır. Savuçbulak’lı tüccarlardan Yakup PaĢa, Hoca Yusuf ve Doktor Hüseyin Efendilerin Musul ve havalisinden aldıkları bilgileri BeĢir adlı birisi vasıtasıyla Tebriz'deki Ruslara ilettikleri tespit edilmiĢtir69. Casus olarak kullanılan tüccarlardan bir tanesi de ġeyh Abdurrahman Seyfeddin'dir. Abdurrahman Seyfeddin Osmanlılar lehine casusluk yapmıĢtır. O, 4 Ağustos 1918 tarihli telgraf ile Tahran Sefareti Seniyyesi AtaĢemiliteri Kaymakam Fevzi Bey'e müracaat ederek geçimini sağlayamadığı gerekçesiyle ekonomik açıdan kendisine yardım edilmesini istemiĢtir. Abdurrahman Efendi bu ekonomik sıkıntılarının sebebini Osmanlı Devleti için yaptığı casusluk faaliyetlerine dayandırmıĢtır. O'nun ifadesine göre Birinci Dünya SavaĢı baĢlangıcında Ġran'da Tahran, ġahrud, Horasan vilayetlerinde Ģubeleri bulunan ticarethanesi mevcut idi. SavaĢın baĢlangıcında ittihadı Ġslam taraftarı olması hasebiyle Osmanlı Devleti adına casusluk yapmaya baĢlamıĢtır. Onsekiz ay boyunca tüccarlığı tamamen terk ederek hiç bir ücret almaksızın Rusya sınırından firar eden Alman ve 62

BOA, DH.ġFR, D: 75, G: 196, Tarih: 28 Cemaziyelahir 1335/ 21 Nisan 1333/ 1917. BOA. DH. ġFR., D: 553, G: 6, Lef: 1; Tarih: 8 Receb 1335/ 30 Nisan 1333/ 1917. 64 BOA. DH. ġFR, D: 598, G: 30, Lef: 1, Tarih:8 Muharrem 1337/14 TeĢrinievvel 1334/ 14 Ekim 1918. 65 BOA. DH.EUM. 5. ġube, D: 37, G: 15, Tarih:23 Receb 1335/ 15 Mayıs 1333/ 1917. 66 BOA. DH. ĠUM.EK, D:110, G: 10, 20, Tarih: Cemaziyelahir 1336/ 2 Nisan 1334/ 1918. 67 K ur tcep h e Ġ sr a f il -B al cıo ğl u M u st a fa, “T ür k B el ge ler i ne Gö r e Al ma n ya ’n ı n Si ya s et i" , OT AM , 3 /3 , M a yı s -1 9 9 2 , s. 2 5 3 . 68 Ġkdam, 5 TeĢrinievvel 1330/ 18 Ekim 1914, Nr: 6.343. 69 ATASEA; K: 195, D:814/824, F:26,- K: 195, D:250/825, F:22. 63

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Avusturya subaylarını Ġran'a geçirmiĢtir. Bu hususta kendi adamlarını da kullanmıĢtır. Müteadid defalarda toplamda 180 kadar er ve subayın Tahran'a, bazılarının da Isfahan'a salimen ulaĢmasını sağlamıĢtır. Bu faaliyetleri yürütürken bin bir türlü güçlüklerle karĢılaĢmıĢ olup bu güçlüklerin hepsini aĢmayı baĢarmıĢtır. Bütün bu geliĢmelerden Tahran Sefareti de haberdardır. Abdurrahman Seyfettin dilekçesinde Ġran'da görev yapan Osmanlı Devleti, Almanya ve Avusturya siyasi memurlarına çeĢitli yardımlarda bulunduğunu, bütün bu faaliyetlerinden dolayı ticarethanesinde Rus kumandanları tarafından tutuklandığını belirtmiĢtir. Onun ifadesine göre bilahare Ruslar'ın elinden kaçmayı baĢararak Tahran'a gitmiĢtir. Buradan KirmanĢah'a hareket etmiĢ, 4 ay süre ile Ġran'daki Osmanlı Kolordusu ile Osmanlı Büyükelçiliği arasındaki haberleĢmenin yürütülmesinde görev yapmıĢtır. Diğer taraftan KirmanĢah'da Osmanlı Devleti, Alman ve Ġran memurları taraflarından bazı önemli iĢlerin yürütülmesi için Afganistan, Türkistan ve Horasana gönderilmiĢtir. Bilahare Ġstanbul'a giderek iki ay kadar burada ikamet etmiĢtir. Ġstanbul'da bulunduğu sırada Halil PaĢa'nın Tahran Büyükelçiliğine önerisi üzerine Bağdat'a ve Ġran'a gönderilmiĢtir. Tahran'da Osmanlı sefaretinin emri gereğince iki defa ReĢt'de bulunan Ġttihadı Ġslam Cemiyeti yetkilileri ile görüĢmek üzere bu bölgeye gönderilmiĢtir. Bu vesile ile buralarda Ġttihadı Ġslam adına açıklamalar yapmıĢ, beĢ ay kadar gerek ReĢt gerekse Tahran'da çeĢitli hizmetlerde bulunarak, tekrar büyükelçiliğin emriyle Ġstanbul'a dönmüĢtür. 70. Casus olarak faaliyet gösteren tüccarların yanı sıra seferberlikten ve askerlikten kaçmak için tüccarlığını kullananlar ya da kendisine tüccar süsü verenler de olmuĢtur. Örneğin Süleymaniye'den Hamza Kaleli ReĢid oğlu Said Ġran'da ticaretle meĢgul olduğunu, kimsesiz kalan ailesine bakabilmek için bedel-i nakdisinin kabulünü talep etmiĢtir71. 10. İRAN DAHİLİNDE ASKERİN İAŞESİ MESELESİ SavaĢ döneminde Ġran'a giren Osmanlı kuvvetleri iaĢeleri için gerekli olan gıda maddelerini genellikle mahallinden satın alma yoluyla tedarik etmiĢlerdir. Örneğin Musul'dan Ġran içlerine ileri harekata geçen Birinci Kuvve-i Seferiyye'nin güzergahında erzak biriktirilip hazır tutulmuĢ, Ġran içerisinde de mahallinde satın alma ya da iane suretiyle temin edilmiĢtir. 72. Ġran içlerine kadar ilerleyen XIII. Osmanlı Kolordusu da ihtiyaçlarını bu ülkede satın alma yoluyla karĢılamıĢtır. Kolordu Ġran içerisindeki ilerleyiĢi sırasında buğday, arpa, koyun gibi iaĢe malzemelerini birliklerinin arkasından KirmanĢah’a götürecek tüccarlara paralarının peĢin olarak ödeneceği taahhüdünde bulunmuĢtur73 Ancak, kolordunun iaĢe masraflarını yükümlenen Alman misyonu görevini layıklıyla yerine getirmemiĢtir. Bu yüzden Ali Ġhsan PaĢa Alman misyonunu ve müteaahhit Braun'u para ödemelerinde gösterdiği gevĢek tutum nedeni ile sıklıkla Harbiye Nezaretine Ģikayet etmek durumunda kalmıĢtır. O, 16 Temmuz 1916 tarihli telgrafında çektiği sıkıntıları Ģöyle anlatmıĢtır: “ İstihzarat hemen hiç yapılmamıştır. Çünkü paraya mütevakkıfdır. Bugün kıtaatım açtır. Müteahhitlere Braun para vermediğinden bugün erzakı kestiler. Braun’a daha 10 para gelmedi. Bana gelmiş paranın hepsini Braun’a verdiğim halde yine mumaileyhin müteahhitlere büyük borcu var.

70

BOA, HR.SYS, D: 2337, G: 5, Lef: 19; Tarih: 4 Ağustos 1334/ 1918. BOA. DH. ĠUM.EK, D:11, G: 39, Tarih: 29 Zilkade 1333 / 25 Eylül 1331/ 8 Ekim 1915. 72 BOA. DH. ĠUM.EK, D:6, G: 99, Tarih: 26 Rebiyülahir 1333/ 29 Kanunusani 1330/ 11 ġubat 1915. 73 ATASEA, K:4274, D : 45/616-A, F: 1-46. 71

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Alman misyonu iaşemizi deruhde ettiği halde buraya hala hiçbir parası vasıl olmadı. Müteahhitler günü gününe erzak alırdı. Hiçbir hubbe depo edilmemiştir. maruzdur.” 74 Bununla birlikte Hemedan'ın Osmanlı kuvvetleri tarafından iĢgali üzerine tüccarların da aralarında bulunduğu Ġranlılar Tahran'ı terk ettiler 75. Muhacirin ile birlikte Ġtilaf Devletleri'nin himayesinde bulunan Avrupalı diplomatlar, tüccarlar, mali müesseselerin yetkilileri, Rus ve Ġngiliz dostu Ġranlılar, Sipehdar Kabinesi’nin bakanları Tahran'ı terk ettiler76. Görüldüğü üzere XIII. Kolordunun Ġran içlerine ilerlemesi ticari faaliyetleri de büyük oranda etkiledi. XIII. Osmanlı Kolordusu 1917 yılında Ġran'ı boĢaltırken Ali Ġhsan PaĢa Hemedan Ovası’nın güneyindeki fazla erzakın bir kısmını Ġran Hükümeti’ne devrederek borç tutanaklarını geri almıĢtır. Ayrıca tüccardan borçlanılarak alınan erzakı da iade ederek borç senetlerini geri almıĢtır.77 Ġran dahilinden iaĢe maddeleri temin etmek sadece askerlerle sınırlı kalmamıĢtır. Ayrıca sınırdaki illerin iaĢesi açısından da Ġran önem arz etmiĢtir. Örneğin bu ülkeye yakınlığı nedeni ile Van vilayetindeki memur, jandarma ve ahalinin iaĢesinin temini de zaman zaman Ġran'dan gerçekleĢtirilmiĢtir. Bir belgede Ġran'dan erzak satın alınma imkanı doğuncaya kadar Van'daki memur ve jandarmanın iaĢesinin miri fiyatla askeriyeden satın alınması gerektiği belirtilmiĢtir78. Devam niteliğindeki diğer bir belgede de Van vilayeti ahalisinin iaĢesi için yardım yapılmasına imkan olmadığı, Ġran içerisinden satın alma yoluyla tedarik edilecek erzakın boĢ dönen askeri nakliye vasıtaları ile taĢınabileceği erzakın bir kısmının kolordunun kalan bölümünün de halkın iaĢesi için kullanılabileceği ġark orduları Grubu Kumandanlığına Harbiye Nezareti tarafından bildirilmiĢtir79. Öte yandan Ġran'a para ulaĢtırmadaki sıkıntı sadece askerlerle sınırlı kalmamıĢtır. Ġran'da görev yapan Osmanlı memurları da benzer problemle karĢılaĢmıĢlardır. Ġran'daki Osmanlı görevlilerine para gönderilmesi ve havale iĢlemlerinde ciddi sorunlar yaĢanmıĢtır. Bu yüzden Ġran'daki Osmanlı memurlarının maaĢ ödemeleri dahi gecikmiĢtir. Hatta, Ġran'daki Osmanlı makamları Ġran Hükümeti'nden borç para almak durumunda kalmıĢlardır. Bilahare bu borcun Maliye Nezareti tarafından Ġran Hükümeti'ne ödenmesi gerekmiĢtir. BaĢbakanlık Osmanlı ArĢivi'nde bu husustaki belgeler de yer almaktadır. Bir belgede belirtildiğine göre Ġstanbul'daki Ġran Büyükelçiliği Osmanlı memurlarının Ġran devletinden aldıkları borç paranın geri ödenmesini talep etmiĢtir. Bu amaçla Bakanlar Kurulu 28 Temmuz 1920 tarihinde toplanarak bir karar almıĢtır. Kararda Tahran ile haberleĢme ve ulaĢım imkanı bulunamamasından dolayı Ġran'daki Osmanlı memurlarının Ġran hükümetinden aldıkları 37.000 tumana mahsub edilmek üzere Maliye Bakanlığı bütçesinden 4.000 Ġngiliz sterlinini gönderilmesine karar verildiği belirtilmiĢtir80. 11. ERMENİ MESELESİNİN TİCARETE YANSIMALARI Bilindiği üzere Birinci Dünya SavaĢı'nın baĢlaması ile birlikte Ermeniler Osmanlı Devleti aleyhine faaliyetlerde bulunmaya baĢladılar. Bu durum Ermenilere karĢı tedbirli davranılması zorunluluğunu ortaya çıkardı. Bu çerçevede Ermeni asıllı tüccarlarla ilgili de bir hassasiyet oluĢtu. Bu hassasiyet Ermeni tüccarların Osmanlı uyruklu olmadıklarını ispat etmeye çalıĢtıkları bir süreci de beraberinde getirdi. Osmanlı Devleti ise yabancı uyrukluluğun bir istismar vasıtası olmasını 74

ATASEA, K: 4274, D: 45/616-A, F: 1-47. Vaveylâ, 26 Ağustos 1332/8 Eylül 1916, Nr:39. 76 Vaveylâ, 26 Ağustos 1332/8 Eylül 1916, Nr:39. 77 , Ali Ġhsan Sabis, Harp Hatıralarım Birinci Dünya Harbi, C.III, Ġstanbul 199, s.348. 78 BOA. DH. ĠUM., D:2018, G: 12063, Tarih:26 ġaban 1336/ 6 Haziran 1334/ 1918. 79 BOA. BEO, D: 4525, G: 339342, 002, Lef: 1, Tarih:11 ġevval 1336/ 21 Temmuz 1334/ 1918.. 80 BOA. MV, D: 219, G: 167, 1,1, Tarih:11 Zilkade 1338/ 28 temmuz 1336/ 1920 75

847

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN engellemek için hassasiyetle konuyu takip etti. Örneğin saat ticareti yapan ve Ġran tabiiyeti iddiasında bulunan Nasib Cezveciyan adlı tüccarın gerçekten Ġran vatandaĢı olup olmadığı hususunda bir inceleme baĢlatılmıĢtır. Bu çerçevede Ġran Büyükelçiliğinin itiraz niteliği taĢıyan müracaatı da değerlendirilmiĢtir. Sonuç itibarıyla Cezveciyan'ın Ġran vatandaĢı sayılması gerektiğine dair ġura-yı Devlet kararı uygun bulunmuĢtur.81. Bununla birlikte Ġran'ın Ġstanbul Büyükelçiliği vatandaĢı olan Ermenileri korumaya yönelik faaliyetlerde bulunmuĢtur. Örneğin 28 ġubat 1916 tarihiyle DıĢiĢleri Bakanlığına yaptığı bir müracaatta Ġran vatandaĢı Kirkor Kürkçüyan'ın Ġzmit'deki mallarının iadesinin sağlanmasını talep etmiĢtir. Bu amaçla adı geçen kiĢinin Ġzmit'e gidip gelmesini sağlamak amacıyla Polis Müdüriyeti Umumiyesi tarafından seyahat belgesi verilmesini istemiĢtir82. Kirkor Kürkçüyan ve eĢi Filor Kürkçüyan taleplerini Mondros AteĢkes AnlaĢması'ndan sonra da yenilemiĢlerdir. Osmanlı Devleti'nin çıkarmıĢ olduğu geri dönüĢ kararnamesi onları bir kat daha cesaretlendirmiĢtir83.Onlar dilekçelerinde geçmiĢte Ġzmit'te tütün ticareti yaptıklarını, Ġran vatandaĢı oldukları halde tehcire tabi tutulduklarını, Ġzmit'de bulunan gayri menkullerini üç ay içinde satmaya mecbur edildiklerini iddia ederek emlaklerinin iadesini talep etmiĢlerdir84. 12. RUSYA’NIN SAVAŞTAN ÇIKMASININ TÜRK-İRAN TİCARETİNE ETKİLERİ Rusya’nın BolĢevik Ġhtilali üzerine Birinci Dünya SavaĢı’ndan çıkma çabası içerisine girdiği bilinmektedir. Bu ülke nihayet Osmanlı Devleti, Almanya ve müttefikleri ile Brest Litowsk anlaĢmalarını yaparak savaĢtan çekilmiĢtir. Bu kararın etkileri ticari iliĢkilere de yansımıĢtır. Nitekim bu dönemde Ġran'ın ihracatı aĢırı Ģekilde azalmıĢtır. Zira, Sovyet Rusya ağır sanayisini geliĢtirmeye yönelmiĢ, halkının alım gücünün azalmasını sebep göstererek bir kısım Ġran mallarının ithalini engellemiĢtir. Öte yandan Osmanlı Devleti Brest Litovsk görüĢmeleri sırasında Ġran'ın menfaatlerini koruyucu bir yaklaĢım göstermiĢtir. Nitekim anlaĢma sonrasında Sadrazamlık makamı tarafından Ġstanbul'daki Ġran Büyükelçiliğine bu hususta bir mektup yazılmıĢtır. Bu mektupta Brest Litovsk görüĢmeleri sırasında Osmanlı Devleti'nin Ġran'ın siyasi ve ekonomik bağımsızlığına riayet edilmesini Rusya'dan talep ettiğini, eskiden olduğu gibi Osmanlı tüccarlarına imtiyazlı ülke tüccarı muamelesi yapılmasını istemiĢtir. Osmanlı tüccarının Almanya ve Avusturya tüccarları gibi iĢlem görmesini talep etmiĢtir. Yine ticaret ve denizcilik hakkında yapılacak anlaĢmalarda Osmanlı Devletine öncelik tanınması istenmiĢtir85. Bu arada Ġran siyasi ve iktisadi bağımsızlığına uygun düĢmeyen bütün anlaĢmaları lağvedilmesine dair Avusturya Macaristan Hükümetine tebligatta bulunmuĢtur. Avusturya Ġran'a verilecek cevap ile ilgili olarak Almanya ile meseleyi müzakere etme kararı almıĢtı. Bu doğrultuda Ġran Hükümeti Osmanlı Tahran Büyükelçiliğine 5 Nisan 1918 tarihinde bir yazı göndermiĢtir. Bu yazıda bundan sonra Ġran'da bulunan Osmanlı vatandaĢlarına Ġran tebaası muamelesi yapılacağını bildirdi. Osmanlı Sefareti bu karara Ģifahen karĢı çıkmıĢ olmakla beraber net tavır için hükümetten cevap bekleme kararı almıĢtır86 Bilahare Ġran Sefaretine müzekkere gönderildi. 21 Ağustos 1918 tarihli 81

BOA. BEO, D: 4338, G:325290, 03, Lef: 1, Tarih: 16 Safer 1333/ 21 Kanunuevvel 1330/ 3 Ocak 1915.. BOA, DH.EUM. 2. ġube, D: 19, G: 3, lef: 8, Tarih: 23 Rebiyülahir 1334/ 15 ġubat 1331/28 ġubat 1916. 83 Geri DönüĢ Karanamesi için bkz. Yusuf Halaçoğlu, Ermeni Tehciri, Babıali Kültür Yayınevi, Ġstanbul 2015. 84 BOA, ġD, Dosya: 3154, Gömlek: 33, Tarih: 29 Receb 1337/ 30 Nisan 1335/ 1919. 85 Masoumeh Daei, age, s. 248-249 86 HR.HMŞ.İSO. Dosya:124 Gömlek:15, Lef: 49, Tarih: 2 Şaban 1336/13 Mayıs 1334/ 1918. 82

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN bu yazıda Osmanlı Hükümeti'nin Rusya ve Ġngiltere tarafından Ġran'ın hakimiyetine, geliĢmesine engel olan kayıtların kaldırılmasını destekleme kararı aldığı belirtilmiĢtir87. Bununla birlikte Ġran ile bir ticaret anlaĢmanın yapılması ve Osmanlıların vatandaĢlarının imtiyazlı yabancı muamelesi görmelerinin temin edilmesi 25 Kasım 1918 tarihinde Tahran Büyükelçiliğine yazılmıĢtır88. Bu arada savaĢ sırasında Osmanlı Devleti ve müttefikleri olan Almanya ve Avusturya Ġran'dan satın alınacak emtiaya iliĢkin bir protokol imzalamıĢlardır. Bu anlaĢma gereğince Ukrayna ile Rusya'nın muhtelif yerlerinden ve Ġran'dan satın alınacak ticaret mallarına iliĢkin protokol yapılmıĢtır. Söz konusu protokol gereğince adı geçen yerlerden hububat, erzak vesaire ithal edeceklerin önceden müttefik devletlerle birlikte kurulmuĢ olan kartele bilgi vermeleri mecburiyeti getirilmiĢtir. Aksi takdirde bu tüccarların satın aldıkları malların müsadere olunabileceği, kayık ve motorlarla Odesa'ya gelip kendi baĢlarına alıĢveriĢte bulunan Osmanlı tüccarlarının zarara uğrayabilecekleri uyarısı yapılmıĢtır. Bu tür yanlıĢlıklara meydan verilmemesi için vilayet ve livalarda tüccarların yapması ve dikkat etmesi gereken iĢlemlere iliĢkin ilgililere duyuru yapılması kararı verilmiĢtir89. Yine bu dönemde merkezi Ġstanbul olmak üzere Osmanlı, Türkistan, Kafkasya ve Ġran ürünlerini Batı Avrupa mamulleri ile mübadele etmek ve bilhassa pamuk ve petrol ticareti ve her tür ithalat ve ihracat ve komisyon iĢlemleri ile meĢgul olmak üzere doksan sene müddet ve 660.000 lira sermaye ile "Beynelmilel Petrol ve Pamuk Ticaret-i Osmanlı Anonim Sirketi" adıyla bir Ģirket kurulmuĢtur. Bu Ģirketin kurucuları avukat Hamayak Hüsrevyan Efendi ile Padokan Zatoryan ve arkadaĢlarıdır. ġirketin kuruluĢ tarihi 22 Eylül 1919'dur. Söz konusu Ģirketin içtüzüğü Bakanlar Kurulu tarafından onaylanmıĢtır. ġirketin teĢkiline ait muamelelerin yürütülmesi görevi Ticaret ve Ziraat Nezaretlerine verilmiĢtir90. ġirket için bir nizamname-i dahili hazırlanmıĢtır91. Bilahare Ģirketin nizamname-i dahilisine ilaveten Ticaret ve Ziraat Nazırlıkları da konu hakkında tezkire hazırlamıĢlardır92 SONUÇ Ġran Türkiye'nin önemli komĢularından birisidir. Bu ülke ile ticarette doğrudan ticaretin yanı sıra transit ticaret de mühim bir yer tutuyordu. Özellikle Ġstanbul-Bağdat yolu en önemli transit yolu idi Bununla birlikte bu yıllarda ticaret yolları hem fiziki, hem de güvenlik açısından problemliydi. SavaĢ nedeni ile bazı yollar zaman zaman ticarete kapatılıyordu. Deniz yolları da çok güvenli sayılmazdı. Ġtilaf devletleri denizlere hakim oldukları için deniz ticaretini istedikleri Ģekilde engelleyebiliyorlardı. Diğer taraftan coğrafi yakınlığın ticarette de bir avantaj olduğu muhakkaktır. Ġran ile Türkiye komĢu oldukları için ticaret hacminin de yüksek olacağı varsayılabilirdi. Oysa Ġran ticaretinde Türkiye'nin payı beklenenin çok altındaydı. Osmanlı Devleti ile Ġran'ın ticaretine bakıldığında her iki ülke de sanayileĢememiĢ olduğundan ihracat ve ithalat kalemleri birbirine benzemekteydi. Aynı ürünü duruma göre hem almakta hem de satmaktaydılar. Buğday, kereste, pamuklu dokumalar, meyve, tütün, 87

HR.HMŞ.İSO. Dosya:124 Gömlek:15, Lef: 29, Tarih: 14 Zilkade 1336/ 21 Ağustos 1334/ 1918. HR.HMŞ.İSO. Dosya:124 Gömlek:15, Lef: 12, Tarih: 25 Teşrinisani 1334/ 25 Kasım 1918. 89 BOA. DH. ĠUM., D:2018, G: 12081, Tarih: 25 ġevval 1336/ 3 Ağustos 1334/ 1918. 90 BOA. MV, D: 251, G:107, Lef: 1, 1; Tarih: 26 Zilhicce 1337/ 22 Eylül 1335/ 1919. 91 Nizamname için bkz. Beynelmilel Petrol Pamuk Ticâreti Osmânlı Anonim ġirketi Nizâmnâme-i Dâhiliyyesidir, Ġstanbul,Matbaai Amire 1337. 92 BOA. A.DVN.MKL, D: 67, G:9, Tarih: 04 Ramazan 1338/ 22 Mayıs 1336/ 19120. 88

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ipek, gümüĢ para vb. bu tür ürünler arasındadır. Göreceli olarak Ġran'ın Osmanlı'dan satın almadığı sadece satıĢını yaptığı ürünler petrol, halı ve kömür idi. Osmanlı Devletinin ise Ġran'dan almadığı sadece satıĢını yaptığı ürün nerede ise yoktur. Oysa Ġran'ın diğer komĢusu Rusya komĢu olmanın avantajını kullanmayı baĢarabilmiĢtir. Bu ülke Ġran ticaretinde birinci sırada yer almıĢtır. BolĢevik Devrimi'ne kadar bu üstünlüğünü korumuĢtur. Bilahare Rusya'nın boĢalttığı alanı Ġran ticaretinde ikinci sırada yer alan Ġngiltere doldurmuĢtur. Ġngiltere, Ġran ile en çok ticaret yapan ülke konumuna gelmiĢtir. Öte yandan Ġran ticaretinde Türkiye'nin payının 1917 yılına kadar düĢme eğilimi içerisinde olduğu görülür. Ġki ülke ticaretinin en düĢük olduğu dönem % 1.73 ile 1916-1917 dönemidir. SavaĢ öncesine göre ticaret hacmi üçte birin altına düĢmüĢtür. Ticaret 1917 yılından itibaren yeniden hareketlenmiĢ olup savaĢ sonunda % 6.37'ye yükselmiĢtir. SavaĢ öncesi ile kıyaslandığında yaklaĢık % 18'lik bir artıĢ söz konusudur. SavaĢ dönemi değerlendirildiğinde baĢlangıç yıllarında Osmanlı-Ġran ticaretinde ithalat ihracat dengesi mevcut iken savaĢ sonunda dengenin Ġran'ın ihracatı lehine değiĢtiği görülmüĢtür. Bilindiği üzere savaĢ dönemlerinde ülkeler kıymetli maden biriktirmek isterler. Bu dönemlerde genellikle kâğıt para değer yitirir. Benzer durum Birinci Dünya SavaĢı’nda da söz konusudur. Osmanlı Devleti de bu amaçla Bağdat'tan Ġran'a altın çıkıĢını yasaklamıĢtır. Buna karĢılık Ġran'a sevk olunan ticaret eĢyaları için öncelikle altın talep edilmesini istemiĢtir. Ġran ise ödemeleri poliçe ile yapmaya çalıĢmıĢtır. Bu dönemde Ġran ticaretinde ayrıcalık verilen Wankhaus adlı Alman Ģirketi ise bu imtiyazı kötüye kullanarak Irak'da Türk kağıt parasının değer yitirmesine yol açmıĢtır. Ticareti engelleyen hususlardan birisi de yolların güvensizliğidir. EĢkıyalık olaylarına sıklıkla rastlanmıĢtır. Hatta savaĢan devletler de savaĢ halinde bulundukları ülkelerin tüccarların mallarına el koymaktan çekinmemiĢlerdir. Bu hususta en acımasız davranan ülke Rusya'dır. Hatta bu yüzden bir kısım Ġranlı tüccar isimlerinin sonuna "of" ekini almıĢlardır. Bu arada devletler tüccarlardan casus olarak da yararlanmıĢlardır. Bu durum bütün tüccarlara potansiyel casus muamelesi yapılmasına yol açmıĢtır. Bu yüzden yol ve ikamet tezkeresi almakta sıkıntı çekmiĢlerdir. Sonuç olarak ticaretin öncelikle güvenlikle bağlantılı olduğu bilinen bir gerçektir. Güvenlik sıkıntısı ortaya çıktığında ticaret de doğal olarak bundan zarar görür. Birinci Dünya SavaĢı döneminde Türk-Ġran ticareti ele alındığında da bu tezin bir kez daha doğrulandığı görülmüĢtür. KAYNAKÇA 1. Arşivler, Gazeteler ve Eski Harfli Yayınlar BaĢbakanlık Osmanlı ArĢivi ( BOA) Beynelmilel Petrol Pamuk Ticâreti Osmânlı Anonim ġirketi Nizâmnâme-i Dâhiliyyesidir, Ġstanbul,Matbaai Amire 1337. Düstur, Tertib-i Sani, Cilt: 6, Matbaa-i Amire, Dersaadet 1334 Düstur, Tertib-i Sani, C. 8, Ġstanbul Evkaf Matbaası, Ġstanbul 1928. Genelkurmay Askeri Tarih Stratejik Etüt Dairesi BaĢkanlığı ArĢivi (ATASEA)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Ġkdam, 5 TeĢrinievvel 1330/ 18 Ekim 1914, Numro: 6.343. Vaveylâ, 26 Ağustos 1332/8 Eylül 1916, Numro: 39. 2. Kitap ve Makaleler BELEN, Fahri, Birinci Cihan Harbi’nde Türk Harbi, C.I, Ankara-1964. DAEĠ, Masoumeh, Ġran Osmanlı Ticari ĠliĢkileri 1900-1923, Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi, Ankara 2011. ELDEM, Vedat, Harp ve Mütareke Yıllarında Osmanlı Ġmparatorluğu'nun Ekonomisi, Türk tarih Kurumu yayınları, Ankara 1994. ELDEM, Vedat, Osmanlı Ġmparatorluğunun Ġktisadi Ģartları Hakkında Bir tetkik, Türk tarih Kurumu yayınları, Ankara 1994. HALAÇOĞLU, Yusuf, Ermeni Tehciri, Babıali Kültür Yayınevi, Ġstanbul 2015. Ġsrafil Kurtcephe-Mustafa Balcıoğlu, “Türk Belgelerine Göre Almanya’nın Ġran Siyaseti", OTAM, 3/3, Mayıs1992, s. 247-269. SABĠS, Ali Ġhsan, Harp Hatıralarım Birinci Dünya Harbi, C.III, Ġstanbul 1991. SEVĠMAY, Hayri R., Cumhuriyete Girerken Ekonomi, Osmanlı Son Dönem Ekonomisi, Kazancı Kitap Tic. Aġ, Ġstanbul 1995 SEPEHR,Müverrihüddevle, Ġran Der Ceng-i Büzürg, Tahran 1966 YERASĠMOS, Stefanos, AzgeliĢmiĢlik Sürecinde Türkiye Bizanstan 1971'e, 3. Baskı; (Çev: Babür Kuzucu), Gözlem yayınları, Ġstanbul 1980

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AUTOMOTIVE SUPPLIERS APPLICATIONS OF 5S WHICH IS ONE OF THE LEAN PRODUCTION METHODS Ümmü Saliha EKEN İNAN*&Münevver ÇİÇEKDAĞI** *Ümmü Saliha EKEN ĠNAN, Lecturar, Vocational School of Social Sciences, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey. E-Mail: [email protected] **Münevver ÇĠÇEKDAĞI, Lecturar, Faculty of Tourism, Selcuk University, Konya, Türkey. E-Mail: münevveryı[email protected] Abstract In the process of production of each manufactured item and in the process of consumption of each consumed item, in our world that resources are limited, the fact that provides the elimination of waste and the common idea above many disciplines is the concept of "lean". The first indicator that introduces business world to "lean" concept is "lean manufacturing" one of the components of "lean manufacturing" is 5S philosophy. 5S philosophy is sum of everything that surrounds business world, increases fruitfulness, shortens the time ,increases the attendance of employees, ensures the conditions that can be standardize like organization, order, discipline. In our studies content’ some touches were done through 5S in an automotive business. Our applied management is exporting to many countries, having business with its innovative structure and quality focused approach. We observed that management employees motivations increased , work accidents eliminated and working atmosphere relaxed with regulations done by our recommendations. In our study, our main purpose is to get sustainable fruitfulness by small touches in working areas. Key words: Lean Manufacturing, 5S, Otomotive Sector

INTRODUCTION As production fact forms according to some needs and the requirements, it can be measured by the manufactured goods and services value that is created. In this regard, value according to Rother and Shook (1998) ,is to create production and services equipped with some aspects in return to a price that customer is willing to pay in particular time periods (transferred by Birgün and others,2006 ). Value flow, on the other hand, is the basic delivery needed on the production process of a single production or services. In this delivery, information, relations with suppliers, goods and semimanufactured goods, delivery, design and production development, in short from the starting point of a production till the last point that a production meets the customer is the flow of all equipment that added or not added value on particularly the production and service. Inside the value flow process to set a course for all the materials and information flow processes from suppliers to manufacturers and finally to the consumer is called ‘Value Stream Mapping’ (VSM) ( Seth and Gupta, 2005). Sources should be used effectively during the creating value process. Using sources effectively will cause to increase the benefit from the point of all partners who take place during the value chain and created value and this can be increased only by purifying from waste. Lean production, as a farreached philosophy, provides elimination of all wastes for programmed, controlled, tabulated and industrial production available for constant improving and developing.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 1. LEAN PRODUCTION To understand the lean production, primarily the project about ‘future automobile’ done by MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) with five million budget and lasted for five years should be examined. After this project was completed Womack and his friends shared all details in their book called ‘Machine that changes the world’. 1.1. The birth of lean production One of the members of Toyota family, Eiji Toyoda’s uncle, sent his nephew to Detroit and asked for investigation after visiting Ford. In Japan at that time government dominated and labour-art dependent production was done . However, Toyoda and Ohno witnessed some malfunctions that were applied on production system and they were worried about the implementation of the same system. Thus, Toyota Manufacturing System, later called lean production, was born as a production system with more different radical components than mass production (Womack and others, 1990). 1.2. Elements of Lean production In the project with the contributions of John O’Donnell, UMAP Programme manager, the elements of lean production were formed. These basic elements are; factory management system, automobile’s designs, the coordination of implementation chain, customer relations management and lean enterprising management. 1.3. Lean production techniques Under the skin of a lean organization there are components that can control chaos by regularity (Jenner, 1998). Some of these components and techniques are; Just In Time ( JIT), Kanban (traction system), Kaizen, 5S Poke-Yoke, Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED), U type line, Jideko or autonomation, total quality management, total productive maintenance. As our study is limited with the 5S other lean production techniques are defined only with one sentence. 1.3.1. Just In Time: It is defined as a management that is oriented at organizing production and whole system of processes (Boone and Kurtz, 2013). It means to go beyond stock control and eliminate everything that doesn’t add value. 1.3.2. Kanban: On the contrary of propulsion system at mass production, the tension system developed at lean production completes just enough for production incomes that each production output needs. Ohno describes this system as ‘Just in Time Implementation’ but it took him for more than twenty years to place this system (Womack and others, 1990). 1.3.3. Kaizen: This compound noun that was suggested by Maasaki Imai means constant improvement and constant development. In organizational structure without level difference all individuals has to develop

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN themselves. This is settled to those individuals life style. According to Imai (1994); Kaizen means constant development at home and at work, private life and social life. 1.3.4. Poke-Yoke: These are the systems that provide to decrease the man-made mistakes minimum and protects against malfunction (Krajewski and others, 2013). These malfunctions show up in the way of tiresome, absent-mindedness, tension under working stress, psychological or metabolic disorders. To make this technique more effective, it should be used with signals that are called ‘andon’. 1.3.5. Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED) Exchange of dies technique is also in mass production. But it takes a lot of time to exchange the tonnes of dies and also worker safety weakens and causes accidents. By applying this technique to the lean production, it is aimed to decrease the time of exchanging the dies, to prevent waste of workforce and possible accident risks. 1.3.6. U Type Line : Besides producing in a short time it provides carrying less, decreasing in buffer stocks, developed coordination, simple tabulating and advantages working in narrow spaces. 1.3.7. Jidoka: It is to cut the process of line automatically for preventing faulty products to pass next level, on the other hand, it is to develop self-control of machines themselves and early warning system. 1.3.8. Total Quality Management: It is to have synchronized team spirit from the bottom employee to the top management and develop coherently. It found its complete meaning by being the component of lean production in Japan and this is what called ‘quality rings’ in the West and evolution that provides to be multifunctional. 1.3.9. Total Preventive Maintenance: In mass production maintenance of machines and equipments routine controls were done periodically. This is because employees work only in one single area. After long studies Ohno provided that every worker could maintain the machine he used without failing the production by suggesting that every employee could maintain the tools he used. 2. 5S METHODOLOGY This methodology is one of the lean production principals that has similar added values like working place aesthetics, relaxing working atmosphere, employee safety, work-time utility, work-safety utility, setting - visuality utility that is used for productive managements. 5S systematic is an appliance that can increase the motivation and team spirit by evaluating the measurable results besides being sustainable by inner touches. Figure 1: 5S Steps

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN SEİRİ (SET): • Set apart the required materials from needless ones

SEİTON (SET IN ORDER): • A place for everything,everthing is in order

SEİSO (SHINE): • Clean the working area ,make it shine

SEİKETSU (STANDARDIZATION): • Standardize the first three steps, make it official.

SHİTSUKE (SUSTAIN): • Make acquisitions sustainable

Source : Krajewski and others ,(2013):s.304. developed from quoting Constitution of 5S philosophy is the result of some regulations that Ohno and Toyoda applied in Toyota factory in the name of correcting some malfunctions that they observed in mass production factory. Some of these observations are the examples that Womack and friends mentioned in their book ‘Machine that Changed the World’. In mass production managements by recording all wasted items such as machines that are waiting to be repaired along the corridors, tools that can never be found when needed, irregular archives, products that are waiting to be stocked particularly because of mass product, employees that are waiting for shift change in the area,each of them is applied as the forms of lean production. These malfunctions in mass production are so many that while in the factory waste of another employee or litters stays, in lean production every employee takes care of eliminating each waste and litter. The reason why this philosophy is called 5S is to achieve the steps of classification, regulation, cleaning, standardization and discipline at work by using the five words’ capital letters in Japan. Same words also found their meanings in English. On the table below, with the definitions of steps, there are English and Japanese meanings. The classification process is done according to the answers, If the tools at work are needed or not and If they are needed how often they will be needed. Products that are grouped in regulation process are formed product identity and inventory by hanging red and white cards on them. All pieces have a place so they can be found when needed. On cleaning step, work place cleaning, machines’ cleaning and polishing is required. By this way area will be purified from bad views and cleaning will be done. To standardize these steps on employees, a score chart that works like auto control or 5S award team should be formed. The last step is to make the provided environment at work place sustainable. 3. 5S SYSTEMATIC APPLIED IN A COMPANY, IN BUSINESS IN AUTOMATIVE SUPPLY INDUSTRY RESEARCH OBJECTIVE:

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Within our study our company chosen for pilot scheme; -

Within its vision to increase the power of international competition in sector to make real intercompany applicable changes and makes these changes sustainable. Telling the passing process to lean production and starting the steps of management, economical and physical transformation process. Giving the starter training and information to management and staff about process. Firstly, making the needed regulations and starting radical transformation.

3.1. Investigation Method: Our investigation method is identified as choosing the company and making an application plan, determining work calendar and results check. 3.2. Management General Information and Selecting Aim: Within our study throughout the years our company that 5S application was executed, started focusing on supplying the needs of local automotive industry. Since 1998, as milestone, our company has believed that with the effect of global fluctuation in our country and world, the fact that constant change and development will increase the competition power and widen the market share besides increasing customer satisfaction, will carry the company to the future. By this means when company’s current position is considered, it is seen that our company is a supplier that exports to eleven countries particularly Europe, South America, Australia and Turkish Republics and it is also seen that as 2023 vision our company aimed to be in the first five producers in the sector. In our management, machining and chipless manufacturing, assembling, quality control and packaging and shipping steps take place. There are sixty-seven different machines scattered in our management. With this equipment Rascal Heater boogies are produced. These boogies are used as a power source and they are an essential material to start the engine. Primarily voltage is given to heater boogies thus boogies heat until over 850 C. By this means engine’s capability of working cold increases however as there is no smoke it is an environmentally friendly product. These designs are performed in the quality management system ISO 9001:2008. The reason why we evaluate this management is that in cooperation’s quality management policy, constant development, constant improvement, involving staff, supporting employees training, maintain company’s continuity with customer satisfaction and focusing on customer takes place so it makes us believe that it needs a serious touch on its current position. In this way, it is predicted that feedback will be taken as the result of improvements and landing up will be easier. 3.3. Operation Mode: As an operation mode company authorities and employees were primarily given 5S training coordinately. Subsequently in the name of studying 5S team was formed and immediately a calendar was determined. While 5S team was forming, employees’ responsibility in the company was considered and primarily areas were determined. Table 1: 5S Steps

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 1 st step 2 nd step Classification Regulations (Seiri) (Seiton) Material picking Determining the process places of materials Determining the Reaching future storage materials in a material short time Materials that will Shortening the be picked out piece operation time Taking safety Forming the precautions general order

3 rd step 4 th step Cleaning Standardisation (Seiso) (Seiketsu) General cleaning Performing at work sustainability

5 th step discipline (Shitsuke) Principles becoming habits

Cleaning all Caring about the material that will performing steps be used Esthetic cleaning Developing the work place culture Purification of the Standardization ground

Periodical checking Informing team about the position Feedback control

During our pre-interviews within our report primarily by informing about predicted time, we stated that they should look over their work plans and support whole participation. Later, by reminding 5S steps and aims for each step, we started application by making a work maps. Process steps that are suitable for 5S systematic are these; Beginning, first step classification namely picking; This step needs two target studies. The first of them is to determine how often the materials are used, materials needed at emergency and materials not needed and will be stored or completely will be closed out by picking. Red and white papers are used to make it significant. Team benefited from taken inventory of all material one by one. Red cards are for the ones that will be stored or transformed to another management or sent for recycling, white cards are for the others. All departments were walked around and each unit is provided to be passed to the red and white card system.

Second step regulation; Machines and materials that limit movement in the area were determined, cables, pipes, iron sticks that are free and threatens safety were sorted out. Material flowchart was examined and in this direction a new settlement plan was offered for machine equipment. Borders were formed not to regulate the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN working areas of employees’ each other by considering the risks of production. Within the rule of a place for each material and every material in its place, no material that needs to be found was left in the middle, everything is regulated according to the answer of the questions ‘where’, ’what’, ‘how many’. To clean the metal pipes, steel sticks from the area, by considering that hand shelf system that is attached to the wall is not safe as it is not ergonomic, it is decided to be packed by two handed shelf system installed on the ground. For small working tools a stable nailed table was asked. Needed materials were positioned suitable to reach in half minute in other words thirty seconds.

Third step cleaning; As our management is doing both machining and chipless production, it is determined that this management needs more frequent cleaning and maintenance as the dirtiness affects work health a lot and to increase the working productivity. First of all the atmosphere and cleanness here was comforted. By placing the wastes separately, it was tried to provide value. A person was appointed in charge of cleaning and maintenance for each machine. Daily supervision is said essential by 5S executives. A frame was formed for ventilation in particular hours, not to leave even a small material on the ground and not to drop oil and its derivatives on the ground. They were informed about difference of the products that may spoil on the ground and how each dangerous material will be cleaned.

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Fourth step standardization; This step is the interlude control for the previous three steps. It is the needed standardization, control and improvement to maintain the classification, regulation and cleaning and by this preventing the possible spaces in between. By this means, posters and illustrations that are positioned on particular places especially about work health and safety to attract. Meanwhile, chairs that employees are sitting for packaging are suggested that they are not ergonomic and not suitable for standards so they are suggested to be changed into revolving electrical comfortable chairs instead. For mentioning the importance of standardization one hour team activity was done but this was suggested to be done out of working hours. Last step Discipline: On this step some studies were done to provide sustainability and increase the motivation of the employees. First of them is to ask the satisfaction and the complaint levels from these touches in the name of proliferation of these 4 steps. Motivation was provided for sharing innovative ideas to continue sustainability. Supervision team presented the results to them. Periodical meetings were planned to present the suggestions and to provide discipline. Particularly in organizational communication not to cause conflict from the point of responsibility requirements and habits acquired within the 5S systematic, new acquirements were gained. RESULT In lean organization every process that is unnecessary and not creating value evaluated as wasted and expressed as ‘Muda’. According to Bayraktar (2007) waste accumulates in the management like cancer cells and managements that delay the treatment take their place in bankrupted company statistics. So the modern managements have to define and cure all kinds of negative dispositions that will cause lost such as unnecessary time, work force and finance. As the management that we did application study wants to follow the competitive atmosphere of modern age, knows the importance of information process as well as producing goods, it started the studies about producing area and document archiving inside the 5S training immediately. After the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN fast spanning picking out activities employees primarily joined the regulation activities in their area. Management relaxed during the regulation step also was cleaned by the participation of top management and employees, maintenance and cleaning of equipments were done. In the name of settling the organization culture in the management following the malfunctions and to form a total point of view at work place cleaning and regulations in other words to standardize, it was followed for three weeks. During this period, from the point of producing, no lost was experienced on the contrary, by 5S the processes flew faster, not a stressful atmosphere occurred in between employees and safer environment were observed. In the company sorting out and counting all materials and adopting the principle of place for each document, each material and everything is in its place the stress because of time losing as a result of document lost and work waiting were decreased at all. For cell type production to take care the suggestion inside the company and U Type setting plan and moreover, ordered flow namely Heijunka technique were considered significant and needed requirements were done. After one month time as a result of interviews with managers it showed up that employees can communicate better with each other and with the management. Among the interview data it is expressed that employee satisfaction increased, health complains decreased, sensitive topics like complains about attention deficit almost decreased very low levels. In areas where particularly employees work by sitting ,buying ergonomic revolving seat with wheels and back instead of stools in terms of supplying employees needs cause devotion on employees. In the application management 5S study was evaluated primarily from the point of company later managers and finally on employees. Expected results were reached. By this way studies were started to synchronize the lean production application on the next step. Thanks We thank to Selda Tuncer and Özgür Altan for their contribution. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bayraktar, Erkan (2007), " Management of Production and Service Processes ", Çağlayan Publishing, İstanbul, 2007, Pp.389-417. Birgün, S., Gülen, K. G.,Özkan, K. (2006), "Using Value Stream Mapping in The Processof Passing Lean Production: An Application in Manufacturing Sector", Ġstanbul Trade Universty Science Magazine, Year:5, Vol.9, Bahar, 2006/1, Pp. 47-51. Boone, Louis E. and Kurtz, David L. (2013), "Contempopary Business", Translation. Azmi Yalçın, Nobel Publishing, 14. Press, Pp.332. Detty, Richard B. and Yingling, Jon C. (2000), "Quantifiying Benefits of Conversion to Lean Manufacturing With Discrete Event Simulation: A Case Study", International Journel of Production Research, Vol. 38, No:2, Pp. 429- 445. Imai, Masaaki (1994). "Kaizen; Key for the Japan's success at Competition". Brisa Publishing , İstanbul, Pp. 3. Jenner, R.A. (1998) , "Dissipative Enterprices, Chaos and The Principles of Lean Organizations", Omega, Vol.26, Issue.3, June, 1998., Pp.397.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Krajewski, Lee J., Ritzman, Larry P. ve Malhotra, Monaj K. (2013), "Operations Management: Processes and Supply Chains", Translation Semra Birgün, Nobel Yayınları, 9.Press, Pp. 294-306. Seth, D. and Gupta, V., (2005), "Application of Value Stream Mapping for Lean Operations and Cycle Time Reduction: An Indian Case Study", Production Planning and Control, Vol.16, No:1, January, 2005, Pp. 44- 59. Womack, James P., Jones, Daniel T. and Roos, Daniel, (1990), "Machine Changes the World", Translation. Automotive Industry Union , USA, Pp.49-284. http://www.nailsan.com/tr/, Date Accessed.15.05.2016.

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THE USE OF ADVERTISING APPEALS THAT ENCHANCES CONSUMER’S PURCHASING TRENDS ON GUERILLA ADVERTISING PRACTICES

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sedat ŞİMŞEK Selçuk University, Faculty of Communications, Radio Tv And Cinema Dept. [email protected] Emine Derya ŞİMŞEK, M.A. [email protected] Abstract Advertising is the most important element that helps the manufacturer to introduce or sale a product or a service. Advertising, also it is considered as a weapon by some experts, can deliver huge profits to the company when it is used effectively. However, advertising is quite expensive to make and broadcast. Therefore, every business makes and broadcasts ads in line with its own budget. As large enterprises do not face any problem in the terms of the costs for production and broadcasting of advertisment, relatively small businesses are trying to reduce these costs. For this, they use advertising practices called guerrilla advertising. As in all advertising practices, in order to increase the interestingness of advertising, appeal elements are used in guerilla advertising, too. In this paper, an application study on guerilla advertising samples will be carried out on behalf of demonstrating the use of advertising appeals and will try to contribute to the field. Keywords: Consumption, Advertising, Appeal, Guerilla Advertising

1.Introduction Many advertising strategies are used in promotion or sales of product and service. Millions of dollars are being spent and 15-30-45 min etc. advertising films are prepared as a result of long periods of time. Some of these serves the sales and promotion of the products and services at the desired level, yet, some of them can not capture the desired success graphic. Producers demand to sale their product or service –i.e.covert them into money, advertisers want to reach success with their creative works and consumers desire to watch commercial in a taste of movie which they can learn the properties of the goods and services they need. Here, guerilla advertising practices come into play with the highest level of creativity. In this study, this advertising strategy is discussed and examples of guerrilla advertising exercises were analyze with application. 2.Advertising Communication is the name of a process of mutual sharing of thoughts and feelings. How this process is well used, it is that much easy to compromise with others and to convince them if it is necessary. Advertising is a convincing communication tool, as well. From this perspective, how good and effective advertising is used, it will be that easy to sell the products and services to consumers who can be considered as the counter part. In this regard, advertising is a promotional tool to improve a property or service or to promote sales, which is to be published in the mass media in exchange for money with a certain taskmaster (Kocabaş and Elden, 2002: 14). Advertising, first, is a phenomenon emerging within modern industrial world and in the developed or developing countries. The need for advertising has emerged due to some reasons such as the population growth, growth of cities and the proliferation of large shopping centers, the use of distribution channels and proliferation of mass media. In addition, advertising is a nonpersonal sales effort, is a method of marketing communications (Cited by Avşar and Freinds from Yaylacı and Cemalcılar, 19). Advertising is a tool that brings producers and consumers together; is a mediator. In our time, advertising is not only a method aimed at guiding consumers to increase providing services or selling products. Yet, it is a form of communication which the manufacturer can establish a 862

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dialogue with consumers, can describe the product or service in use and can transfer information to the target audience such as why, where, in what conditions and for whom they produce the goods. As a result, in today‟s highly competitive environment, advertising is extremely important for manufacturers in terms of consolidating their place in the market, being located in the brains and hearts of consumers and making a robust communication with them (Elden and Freinds, 2010: 10). However, advertising is an indispensable phenomenon to all full-scale or small-scale businesses who want to maintain their presence. 3.Guerilla Advertising Guerilla advertising strategy which is initially designed for small and medium businesses as an interesting and inexpensive advertising strategy, recently makes a name for itself as a strategy preferred by large businesses. In addition, this strategy is also used heavily by non-profit organizations as well (Sasanka and Freinds, 2016: 20). Instead of thinking that communication has to start through Tv or other commercial mediums and converting an idea for this formate is obligatory, forward-thinking agency departments first begin to develop ideas about the brand. At the same time, by feeding a neutral approach against the media channels, they ensure the most appropriate allocation of media channels for each campaign naturally (Lucas and Dorrion, 2006: 16). The guerilla advertising strategy is one them because of attention appeal and cheapness compared to other advertising organs. Guerrilla advertising strategy which is contrary, is able to express very complicated subjects in a very simple way and also it is always useful when used properly (Levinson and Freinds, 2011: 4-5). Therefore, this strategy presents itself in particularly small and medium-sized business by using their creativity and imagination and whether to demoralize the rivals in the market by moving fast to acquire a place for itself or market share expansion. The aim of this advertising strategy, where the timing is very important, is to do a lot of work with a little investment, thus, the current conditions in the market should be thoroughly evaluated. With a good infrastructure work, advertising time and budget is kept in minimum (http://blog.reklam.com.tr, 2016). According to Hutter and Hoffmann, guerrilla advertising strategies vary from traditional advertising strategies in three key factors. These are low cost, diffusion and suprise (singularity). In other words, guerrilla marketing campaign should be different from traditional marketing norms. That should create a surprising and unexpected effect. With the diffusion effect, the message should spread by rumour to more and more individuals as that is also known as Word-of-Mouth (WoM). One of the important factors to spread the message, is to call the feelings of individuals. Low cost is sine qua non for guerilla advertising strategy (Cited by Thesis from Hutter and Hoffman, 2012: 19). Today, sells or promotion of any good or service is impossible without advertising. Since, the divergence distance between existing producers and consumers, as well as the diversity of products and services in market and multiplicity of producers make the advertisments indispensable. However, advertisers are sepending much effort to influence today‟s prima donna consumers who defend themselves against the messages and get bored from advertisements very quickly. They resort to various strategies to attract people's attention, to promote products or services or to increase sales. „Guerilla advertising strategy‟ is one of these strategy (Ertike, 2010: 163). As being an alternative to traditional advertising strategies, with lower cost and effective lash out (Warner, 2011: 104) guerilla advertising –as it can be understood by it‟s name- is an advertisement application that appeared at an unexpected place and noticed suddenly by the people. Because they occur suddenly, they can lead to some dangerous situation by handing the attention of drivers and pedestrians in traffic, their implementation should be done axtremely carefuly by the advertisers. Even taking precautions against the dangers would be a more accurate behavior. In adition to this, children can build from the idea of imitating these ads, thus, they must be created in a way to protect them from danger (Ladkoo, 2016: 248). Since 1990‟s, as one of the advertising medium which draws attention most and has a great benefit, guerrilla advertising is aimed suddenly effective strokes to the opponent without a contact. In this way, it is an attempt to take market share from competitors without the opportunity to recover. In this kind of marketing, achieving profits may not always be the first goal. Sometimes, in order to reach the target audience, it may be preferred because it is an efficient and inexpensive marketing strategy (Aslan, 2016: 68).

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4.The Features of Guerilla Advertising Strategy: 1.It mostly is used outdoor. 2.It is very differnt from traditional advertisements. 3.The cost is low compared to other advertising practices. Since, it is based on the the principle of rawing the most attention with least cost. 4.It is remarkable and catchy. 5.It suddenly catches the consumers unprepared and does not give them an opportunity to develop a defense. 6.As they entertain and suprise people, they spread the word of mouth. 7.Every animate and inanimate object can be a guerrilla advertising material. 8.People are inserted into a place as part of a table, in that way the advertising effect is increased (Ertike, 2010: 164). In addition, the reasons for resorting to guerrilla advertising practices: 9.Reduction of the market 10.Easy practicality 11.Amusingness and differance. The reason for using guerrilla advertising outdoors is to increase attention with small budget. However, guerrilla advertising practices provide an increased creativity and advertising medium when used correctly (Aslan, 2016: 68). 5.Appeal Factors In Advertisements The appeal which is defined as the state of being attractive, purchase, allure and charm according to the Turkish Language Institution Dictionary (www.tdk.gov.tr, 2016), is one of the most important concepts for mankind. Therefore, such as in various medium, appeal usage is a method often preferred in advertisement which is one of the persuasive communication. In particular, sex, fear and humor appeals are most commonly used features in advertising in order to increase sales promotion of products and services. In today's advertising, the use of sex appeals visibly showed an increase (Gülcan and Friends, 2012), besides especially humor and fear, comparison, product service features, savings, famine, magic, music, popularity, security, morality, nationalism, adventure, youth, maturity, curiosity, nostalgia, warmth, modernity, naturalness, health environmentalism, social status, individuality, freedom, honesty, success, shock and guilt factors are among the appeals which are frequently used by advertisers (Elden ve Ark., 2010: 90). As it is a concept where persuasive communication is spoken for thousands of years, appeal is a phonemenon that forms the core of an advertising message, addresses to the consumer's mind and heart and tries to respond to the emotional and rational needs of them. Frequently used in advertising and persuasive communication literature, appeal is referred to in three different ways as message appeal, persuation appeal and advertising appeal. Yet, no matter how they are axpressed, advertising appeals make the consumers act. By addressing the needs and requirements of the consumers, they arouse interest in product or service (Elden and Friends, 2010: 75). The one achieves who capture the awareness in his advertisements in market conditions that many products and services can be found. Appeal factors are among the most important fact applied by advertisers in order to capture the awareness. In application part of this study, some random examples will be examined. This examples are using the sex, fear or humor appeals in order to take the stage as it is mentioned in our study above. In discourse analysis, advertisements will be analyse by poststructural approach –we have to say that, in this approach, the thoughts of the consumers are important, not the advertiser‟s- and a contribution to the field is aimed.

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6.Analysing Samples of Advertisements Which Used Sex, Fear and Humor Appeals On The Frame of Guerilla Advertising Strategy

Advertisement Frame-1 A shop selling shorts uses the legs of women as an advertising medium. By using „sex appeal‟, this advertisement reveals a fine example of guerrilla advertising practice. In this ad, using the bench -a street furniture we commonly use to rest at parks, on streets or at bus stops in short or long terms- a as a main ingredient of advertising medium presents itself as a very creative work. A relief written message of the advertisement is placed to a certain part of the bench. The message presents itself at the back of the legs imprinted from the relief when a woman sits to the bench with shorts and with her beautiful legs. As it is mentioned above, this shorts selling shop‟s advertisement has took place in the literature as a very striking guerilla advertising practise with a small budget and usage of sex appeal.

Advertisement Frame-2 This is an advertisement frame of „ASPE Crime Stories‟. The weapon, the number one tool for committing a crime, has been designed as a bag pull with its handle, „fear appeal‟ is used by the advertisement and it presents itself as a guerilla advertising strategy which is cheap but also very impressive. However, the use of black and gray color at advertisement and at the same time frame bars of the window railings to resemble prison provide additional contributions to that guerrilla advertising practice.

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Advertisement Frame-3 In an advertisement frame of Virgin Airways above, to demonstrate the reliability of the airways, showing sturdy egg packages on conveyor system with other luggages shows itself as quite impressive and reassuring advertisement study. In air travel, many people complains about torn, broken, shattered or spotted luggages. Virgin Airlines has managed to turn into an advantage this issue with a nice message by using „fear and humour appeal‟ both in the advertisement. With unbroken egg packages, they are giving a simple message: “Do not be afraid, your luggages hold harmless if you fly with us”. Beside, beyond this message they also say that “We carry your luggages with that caution but we carry you even more carefully”.

Advertisement Frame-4 This is an advertising frame of a car company that produces small cars. In the ad, in order to try to impress recipients, the main message is “it is so small that you have to lock it to a pole by a bicycle lock to secure” and it is given by using „humour appeal‟. This highly successful guerilla advertising sample also reffers to „fear appeal‟. Since, it contains in itself the message that "if you get this car take precautions against the risk of theft", as well.

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Advertisement Frame-5 A young lady at subway, an old woman walking down the street and a man awaits his turn… They all care a nylon bag which is designed as a beverage crate for 20 bottles. This advertisment displays the ordinary people who carries heavy-weight crates with only one hand easily which is impossible in normal life. This example presents itself as a highly effective guerilla advertising application by using „humour appeal‟ cleverly. With this advertising frame, beverage company puts signature to a cheap but very effective promotion by combining the strikingness and sense of humour.

Advertising Frame-6 This is an advertisement of a car company for a model with a clear massage that it is small but can carry every kind of load. Thereby, it is very impressive practice which use the „humour appeal‟. The Mini Cooper Company emphasizes that model can carry more load than you think by routing the airport‟s luggage conveyor system to the car trunk, and reveals us that guerilla advertising is not a strategy applied by small companies but also by big companies, too. Conclusion The shorter and more striking advertising messages is the more effective it would be on consumer. Also, an advertisement does not have to expensive to be impressive. Guerrilla advertising is surprise advertisement practice made to influence consumer without being too expensive. As it can be seen from the advertisement examples analysed above, advertisements made to affect people and appeared everywhere can be as effective at sales or promotion of a product as very expensive advertisements. Nevertheless, conducting guerrilla advertising applications without deploying people's attention and without causing any danger is extremely important.

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Obviously, there is a need for some measurement mechanism to evaluate advertisement effectiveness. However, an amazement and admiration has been emerged by looking these frames, thus, this can be evaluted as an enlightener measurement sign for advertisements whether they are effective or not. Eventually, as they are astonishing, impressive and inexpensive, guerrilla advertising practices presents themselves as an advertising strategy which is not used not by only small businesses but also by big ones, as a result of analyses in our study. Naturally, it is possible to maximize this frames and expand the study. On the other hand, by the researchers of this study, even this stunning six frames are seen to be suggestive in the sense of guerilla advertising applications and are expected to be instructive for further investigations about the same issue.

References Aslan, İ. (2016) Açık Hava Reklamlarında Çekicilikler, Konya: NKM. Avşar, Z. & Elden, M. (2005) Reklam ve Reklam Mevzuatı, Ankara: Piramit Yayınları. Thesis, B. (2012) Guerrilla Marketing „And its Effects on Consumer Behavior‟ , Spring 2012 Kristianstad University International Business and Economics Program, İsveç: Kristianstad University. Elden, M. & Bakır, U. (2010) Reklam Çekicilikleri, İstanbul: İletişim Yayınevi. Ertike, A.S. (2010) Reklam, Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Kocabaş, F.& Elden, M. (2002) Reklamcılık, İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Ladkoo, A.D. (2016) Guerilla Marketing of Fresh Organic Agricultural Products, Theoretical Economics Letters, 2016, 6, 246-255 Published Online April 2016 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/tel http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/tel.2016.62027. Levinson, J. C. & Levinson, J. (2011) By The Father of Guerrilla Marketing, United States of America: Entrepreneur Media, Inc. Lucas, G. & Dorrian, M. (2006) Gerilla Reklamcılık, İstanbul: MediaCat Yayınları. Sasanka, V.M. & Madhulatha, D. & Rani, P. L. (2016) Guerilla Marketing – A Marketing Tactic with a Limited Budget, but Exponential Creativity, IRACST – International Journal of Commerce, Business and Management (IJCBM), ISSN: 2319–2828 Vol. 5, No.1, Jan-Feb 2016. Şener, G. & Uuztuğ, F. (2012) „Reklamda Cinsel Çekiciliklerin İletişim Etkisi ile Ahlaki Değerlendirmesine Yönelik Tutum Araştırması‟, Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt:12, Sayı:3, (http://localhost:8080//xmlui/handle/anadolu/151). Erişim Tarihi: 15.06.2016, Erişim Saati: 13.20. Wanner, M. (2011) More Than the Consumer Eye Can See: Guerrilla Advertising From an Agency Standpoint, North Carolina: The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications Vol. 2, No. 1 Spring 2011 ………….(2016) „Çekicilik Tanımı‟, www.tdk.gov.tr. Erişim Tarihi: 01.06.2016, Erişim Saati: 12:15. .………….(2016) „Gerilla Reklam‟ http://blog.reklam.com.tr/genel/gerilla-reklam/329/#ixzz4ErAtS9zG Erişim Tarihi: 04.07.2016,Erişim Saati: 13:30.

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KADINA YÖNELĠK ġĠDDETĠN MEDYADA SUNUMU: “ÖZGECAN CĠNAYETĠ ÖRNEĞĠ” Res. Assist. Semanur SĠVRĠTEPE Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Journalism Dept. [email protected]

Özet Kadına yönelik şiddet toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliğinin bir yansıması olarak nitelendirilmekte ve temelinde eşitsiz olan güç ilişkileri yatmaktadır. Bireyin içerisinde bulunduğu sosyal, ekonomik, siyasal yapı şiddetin toplumsallaşmasında bir araç olarak görülmektedir. Her iki cinsiyette toplumsallaşma süreci içerisinde öğrenilmiş rollere sahiptir ve bu roller kadın ve erkekler arasındaki güç ilişkilerinin de bir göstergesi olarak nitelendirilmektedir. Toplum tarafından erkeğe atfedilen baskın, güçlü ve hükmetme özelliği kadınların ikincil plana itilmesine hatta farklı şiddet türlerine maruz kalmasına neden olabilmektedir. Öyle ki; kadın özel ve kamusal olarak nitelendirilen alanlar içerisinde fiziksel, psikolojik, cinsel, ekonomik olmak üzere şiddetin pek çok şiddet türü ile karşılaşmaktadır. Bu tür şiddet vakaları dünyanın hemen hemen her bölgesinde farklı biçim ve yoğunlukta kendisini gösteren önemli bir toplumsal sorundur. Her toplumda olduğu gibi Türkiye’de de kadına yönelik farklı şiddet eylemlerine rastlanılmaktadır. Özgecan Aslan cinayeti de kadına yönelik şiddetin en belirgin örneklerinden biri olarak gösterilebilir. Öyle ki; Özgecan Aslan cinayeti kamuoyunun gündeminde uzun süre yer alarak siyasetten, sanat dünyasına kadar herkesin dikkatini çektiği ve üzerinde konuştuğu bir mesele haline gelmiştir. Bu doğrultuda araştırma kapsamında 14 Şubat 2015 tarihinde meydana gelen Özgecan Aslan cinayetinin yazılı basında; Cumhuriyet, Hürriyet, Yeni Şafak ve Sabah gazetelerinde nasıl temsil edildiği ortaya konulacaktır. Nitekim cinayet sonrası Türk basınında olayla ilgili çok fazla habere yer verilmiştir. Bu haberler ise konularına göre temalara ayrılarak Teun van Dijk’ın haber metinleri için geliştirdiği “söylem çözümlemesi” yöntemiyle incelenecektir. Araştırma dahilinde incelenecek süre cinayetin işlendiği tarihten itibaren bir aylık süreci kapsamaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Şiddet, kadına yönelik şiddet, cinayet, toplumsal cinsiyet Abstract Violence against women is defined as the reflection of the social gender inequality, and there areinequal power relations the center of the problem. Social, economic, and political structure in whichthe individuals live is observed as a tool in socializing violence. Both genders have roles learnt through socializing process.These roles are defined as the indicator of the power relation between both genders. Dominant, powerful ruling characteristics given to men by society may cause women be pushed into background, and sometimes they are exposed to different types of violence, so women face many different types of violence, physical, psychological, sexual and economic one. These violence types are important problems observed in different forms and intensity levels all over the world. As it is the case in every society, many different violence types are observed in Turkey as well. The murder of Özgecan Aslan may be shown as one of the most distinctive examples of violence against women so much so that it was given place in the public opinion for a long time and attracted attention from all layers ofthe society, from politics to the world of art, and everybody talked about it. In this study, the way of introducing the murder of Özgecan Aslan on 14 February, 2015 in Cumhuriyet, Hürriyet, Yeni Şafak and Sabah newspapers will be revealed. After the murder, this event was given too much place in the Turkish Media. The news on this incidence will be classified according to their topics, and will be examined in thelight of the “Discourse Analysis Method”, which was developed for news texts by Teun van Dijk. The duration that will be examined in the scope of the study covers the period between the date of murder and the following one month. Keywords:Violence, violence against women, murder, gender 869

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

1. GiriĢ

ġiddet davranıĢı bir kiĢiye zarar vermek amaçlı yöneltilen güç ve baskı uygulamaları anlamına gelmektedir. ġiddetin uygulayıcısı olanlar ve Ģiddete maruz kalanlar toplumdaki güç iliĢkilerine göre belirlenmektedir (Ünsal 1996: 30). Toplumsal güç iliĢkilerinde dezavantajlı konumda olan kesimlerin baĢında; kadınlar, çocuklar, azınlıklar, yaĢlılar, engelliler, mülteciler, göçmenler gibi gruplar gelmektedir. ġiddet her toplumda uygulanmakta ve toplumların tümünü etkilemektedir. Ancak, Ģiddet tipleri içinde kadına yönelik olanı en sık görülen Ģiddet tipini oluĢturmaktadır (SubaĢı ve Akın 2012). Evrensel bir konu olan kadına yönelik Ģiddet, dünyanın her yerinde görülen insan hakkı ihlalidir ve temelinde cinsiyet ayrımcılığı yatmaktadır. Kadına yönelik Ģiddet, kadının toplumdaki ikincil konumuyla iliĢkili olarak cinsiyet eĢitsizliğine dayanan ve ona zarar verebilecek her türlü davranıĢı içermektedir. Ġster özel alanda isterse kamusal alanda meydana gelsin, temeli cinsiyet eĢitsizliğine dayanan her türlü Ģiddet bu kapsamda değerlendirilebilmektedir. YaĢı, eğitim düzeyi, kültürü, ırkı, medeni durumu farketmeksizin her kesimden kadın babaları, eĢleri, erkek kardeĢleri, sevgilileri, patronları veya hiç tanımadığı yabancı bir erkek tarafından Ģiddete maruz bırakılabilmektedir. ġiddetin bu türünün toplum içerisinde sıklıkla karĢılaĢılması, konunun özel alanla iliĢkilendirilen mahrem bir konu olmaktan çıkıp tüm toplumu ilgilendiren sosyal bir konu haline gelmesine neden olmuĢtur. Toplumsal yaĢamda önemli bir sorun olarak görülen kadına yönelik Ģiddet erkek egemen kültür tarafından beslenmektedir. Bu kültür Ģiddetin varlığının devam etmesine neden olmakla birlikte, kadının ikincil konumunu pekiĢtirmektedir. Kadınlara KarĢı ġiddetin Tasfiye Edilmesine Dair Bildiri”de kadınlara karĢı Ģiddetin erkekler ve kadınlar arasındaki eĢitlikçi olmayan güç iliĢkilerinin tarihsel bir göstergesi olduğuna dikkat çekilmektedir. Bu güç iliĢkileri erkekler tarafından kadınlar üzerinde egemenlik kurulmasına ve kadınlara ayrımcılık yapılmasına yol açmaktadır. Ayrıca kadınlara karĢı uygulanan Ģiddet, erkeklerle karĢılaĢtırıldığında kadınları zorla bağımlı bir konuma sokmanın çok önemli toplumsal mekanizmalarından biri olarak değerlendirilmektedir (http://www.uhdigm.adalet.gov.tr.). Kadınları ötekileĢtiren, zora sokan, fiziksel-psikolojik zarar veren, hatta kimi zaman yaĢama hakkını dahi elinden alan Ģiddete yönelik tepkiler, gün geçtikçe artarak devam etmektedir. Özellikle medya kadına yönelik Ģiddet haberlerine sıklıkla yer vererek, Ģiddetin görünürlülüğünü artırmaktadır. Medya aracılığıyla daha görünür kılanan kadına yönelik Ģiddet haberlerine gösterilen tepki Özgecan Aslan cinayetiyle doruk noktaya ulaĢmıĢtır. YaĢanılan cinayet olayına iliĢkin çok fazla sayıda haber yapılmıĢ ve cinayet aylarca medyanın gündeminde yer almıĢtır. Konuyla ilgili siyasiler, sivil toplum kuruluĢları, ünlüler, halk, dini otoriteler açıklama yapmıĢ ve cinayet pek çok konuyla iliĢkilendirilmiĢtir. Bu çalıĢma kapsamında medyanın ve Türkiye‟nin gündeminde uzun süre yer edinen Özgecan Aslan cinayetine iliĢkin haberler incelenmiĢtir. ÇalıĢmada Ģiddet konusu çeĢitli boyutlarıyla değerlendirilmiĢ, Ģiddet ve toplumsal cinsiyet bağlamında kadına yönelik Ģiddet tartıĢmaları kuramsal olarak ele alınmıĢtır. Özgecan cinayetinin medyada nasıl temsil edildiğini belirleyebilmek için Cumhuriyet, Hürriyet, Yeni ġafak ve Sabah gazetelerinin 14 ġubat 2015-15 Mart 2015 tarihli sayılarında yer alan Özgecan Aslan cinayetiyle ilgili haberler, van Dijk‟ın söylem çözümlemesi yöntemine göre analiz edilmiĢtir. 2.ġiddet ve Kadına Yönelik ġiddet KavramsallaĢtırması

ġiddet, her toplumda ve her dönemde görülen bir davranıĢ biçimidir. Toplum içerisinde hangi davranıĢların Ģiddet olarak kabul edileceği ise o toplumun yapısına, kültürel değerlerine, yasal düzenlemelerine, geçmiĢine göre farklılık gösterebilmektedir. Ancak Ģiddete ve çeĢitlerine yönelik genel kabul gören tanımlar da mevcuttur. ġiddet kavramı sertlik, sert ve katı davranıĢ, kaba kuvvet kullanma olarak tanımlanır. ġiddet olayları ise; insanları sindirmek, korkutmak için yaratılan olay ya da giriĢimler olarak nitelendirilmektedir (Ünsal, 1996: 29). Bugün insan üzerindeki fiziksel ve ruhsal etkileri dolaylı ve somut bir biçimde hissedilen çeĢitli baskılar Ģiddet kategorisine dahil edebilir (Özerkmen, 2012:7). Hukuk alanında Ģiddet kavramı, kanuna uymamak, kiĢiye zarar vermek, hakaret etmek, onuru kırmak, huzura son vermek, birinin haklarını çiğnemek, hırpalamak, incitmek, zor kullanmak (Erten ve Ardalı, 1996: 143) 870

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN gibi anlamlara gelmektedir. Coğrafi olarak çok geniĢ alana yayılan, ekonomik anlamda geliĢmiĢlik düzeyine bakılmaksızın tüm dünya ülkelerinde ve kültürlerinde görülen Ģiddet, Türkiye‟de de önemli bir toplumsal sorundur. Söz edilen Ģiddet olgusu, sosyo-kültürel, toplumsal koĢulardan beslenmekte ve o toplumda yaĢayan bireylerin özellikle de kadınların, kiĢisel özgürlük ve haklarını engellemektedir (Gökkaya, 2011: 102). Toplumda her kesimden insanın maruz kaldığı kötü davranıĢı Ģiddet kategorisinde adlandırmak mümkünken, kadınların maruz kaldığı Ģiddeti biraz daha özelleĢtirip “kadına yönelik Ģiddet” kategorisinde değerlendirmek gerekmektedir. Çünkü kadına yöneltilen Ģiddet çok boyutlu bir süreçtir. Bu kavramın kendisine has farklı tanımlama Ģekilleri bulunmaktadır. 1993 yılında BirleĢmiĢ Milletler Genel Meclisi, kadına karĢı Ģiddetin ortadan kaldırılması hakkındaki beyannameyi kabul etmiĢ ve BirleĢmiĢ Milletler tarafından kadına yönelik Ģiddetin ilk resmi tanımı yapılmıĢtır. Beyannameye göre kadına yönelik Ģiddet Ģöyle tanımlanmaktadır:" Kadına fiziksel, cinsel ya da psikolojik zarar ile sonuçlanan ya da bu ihtimalin mevcut olduğu, ister özel isterse sosyal yaĢamda olsun söz konusu hareketlere iliĢkin tehditler, zorla ya da keyfi olarak özgürlük mahrumiyeti de dahil olmak üzere cinsiyete dayalı her türlü Ģiddet hareketini kapsamaktadır” (Polat, 2002). Kadına yöneltilen Ģiddet tüm dünyada, hemen hemen her bölgede, özel ve kamusal alanı da içerecek Ģekilde çeĢitli biçimlerde varlığını göstermektedir. BM Kadına KarĢı ġiddetin Engellenmesi Bildirisi‟nde, kadına yönelik Ģiddet toplumsal (kamusal) ve özel (aile içi) olarak iki boyutuyla incelenmektedir. Kamusal alanda Ģiddet denildiğinde iĢ yerinde, eğitim kurumlarında veya kamuya açık herhangi baĢka bir yerde kadının karĢı karĢıya kaldığı Ģiddet türü akla gelmelidir. Bunlar tecavüz, cinsel istismar, cinsel saldırı, gözdağı tehdit de dahil olmak üzere fiziksel, cinsel psikolojik Ģiddet Ģeklinde belirebilir. Kadınların özel alan içerisinde karĢılaĢtığı Ģiddet de çeĢitlilik göstermektedir. Kadının hor görülmesi, bir durumu eleĢtirmesine karĢı çıkılması, arkadaĢlarıyla iliĢkisine karıĢılması, cinsel anlamda baskı uygulanması, ev iĢlerini yapması konusunda zorlanması, bedenini beğenmeyip aĢağılanması, baĢkalarının yanında küçük düĢürülmesi, düĢüncelerine önem verilmemesi, maddi anlamda yetersiz bırakılması, kendisine-duygularına ve fikirlerine önem verilmemesi, doğurganlığının kontrol edilmesi gibi her türlü maddi manevi baskı özel alanda kadının karĢılaĢtığı Ģiddet türleri arasında sıralanabilir (Yıldırım, 1998: 27-28). Kamusal alan içerisinde kadınlar genellikle patronlarından, iĢ arkadaĢlarından veya hiç tanımadığı erkeklerden Ģiddet görürken, özel alan içerisinde eĢlerinden, babalarından, ağabeylerinden veya erkek akrabalarından Ģiddet görmektedirler. Kadınların karĢı karĢıya kaldığı istismarların çeĢitlilik göstermesi, onların maruz kaldığı Ģiddet türlerinin de çeĢitli olduğu anlamına gelmektedir. Kadına yönelik Ģiddet denildiğinde bunu sadece fiziksel Ģiddet olarak değerlendirmek sınırlı bir açıklama olacaktır. Fiziksel Ģiddetin yanı sıra kadınlar duygusal, cinsel, psikolojik ve ekonomik olmak üzere farklı Ģiddet türlerine de maruz kalmaktadırlar. Kadınların denetim altına sokulması için genellikle eril güç tarafından yöneltilen Ģiddetin farklı türlerini aĢağıdaki Ģekliyle açıklamak mümkündür: Fiziksel şiddet: KiĢiye fiziksel olarak zarar vermeyi amaçlayan vurma, tokat atma, itme, kol bükme, herhangi bir aletle yaralama, sağlıksız koĢullarda yaĢamaya zorlama vs. gibi hareketleri içermekte ve öldürmeye kadar uzanan çok geniĢ bir kapsama alanı bulunmaktadır (Karal ve Aydemir, 2012: 22). Psikolojik şiddet: Kadının özsaygısına ve kiĢiliğine zarar verecek her türlü ifade bu Ģiddet kapsamında değerlendirilebilir (Uluocak vd., 2014: 20). Psikolojik Ģiddetin vücut üzerinde görülen belirtileri olmamakla birlikte bu Ģiddetin etkileri çok daha uzun süreli ve ağır olabilmektedir (Balcı, 2008: 45). Cinsel şiddet: KiĢiyi istemediği zaman ve Ģekilde cinsel iliĢki konusunda zorlamak, gebelik veya iliĢki esnasında bulaĢan hastalıklara karĢı korunması konusunda engel olmak (Polat, 2000: 114), iĢkence içeren davranıĢlarda bulunmak, kiĢinin cinselliği ile alay etmek (Balcı, 2008: 45) cinsel Ģiddet kapsamına girmektedir. Bu tür aynı zamanda fiziksel Ģiddeti de bünyesinde barındırmaktadır (Kocacık, 2004: 34). Ekonomik şiddet: Kadına yönelik ekonomik Ģiddet, kadını çalıĢmaya zorlamak veya çalıĢmak istemeyen bir kadına çalıĢması yönünde baskı yapmak Ģeklinde gerçekleĢebilir. Kadın çalıĢıyorsa maaĢ kartının elinden alınması, tüm maaĢ ve paraya el konularak çok az harçlık verilmesi ya da hiç verilmemesi ekonomik Ģiddet arasında sıralanmaktadır. Genel anlamda bu Ģiddet, kiĢinin kendi kazancı üzerindeki kontrolünün ortadan kaldırılmasını beraberinde getirir (Balcı, 2008: 43). Kadın toplumsal yaĢam içerisinde hayatını sürdürürken bu Ģiddet türlerinin birine veya birkaçına maruz kalmıĢ olabilir veya kalma ihtimaliyle karĢılaĢabilir. Kadına yönelik Ģiddetin ne anlama geldiğinin yanı sıra bu Ģiddetin altında yatan nedenlerin neler olduğunu sorgulamak konuya 871

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN yaklaĢımda daha doğru olacaktır. Bu nedenle toplumsal cinsiyet bağlamında bir açıklama geliĢtirmek, kadının toplum içindeki ikincil konumunu, rol ve sorumluluklarını sorgulamak gerekmektedir. 3.Toplumsal Cinsiyet Bağlamında Kadına Yönelik ġiddet TartıĢması

Cinsiyet ve toplumsal cinsiyet kavramları özellikle son yıllarda üzerinde düĢünülen önemli iki kavram haline gelmiĢtir. Cinsiyet kadın ve erkek arasındaki biyolojik farklara iĢaret ederken; toplumsal cinsiyet kadın ve erkek olmanın toplumsal rolüne vurgu yapmaktadır. Toplumsal, kültürel, psikolojik pek çok faktöre bağlı olarak Ģekillenen toplumsal cinsiyet algısı, toplumsal yapı içerisinde kadın ve erkeğin nasıl hareket etmesi gerektiğini, kendilerine düĢen rol ve sorumlulukların neler olduğunu belirlemekte ve Ģekillendirmektedir. Böyle bir yapıda toplumsal cinsiyet algısı içerisinde kadınlara yönelik oluĢan dezavantajlı durumu incelemek gerekmektedir. Toplumsal cinsiyete dayalı eĢitsizlik ağırlıklı olarak kadınları etkilemekle birlikte, tek boyutuyla düĢünülemeyecek kadar kapsamlı bir yapıya sahiptir. Kadının geleneksel bakıĢ açısıyla değerlendirilmesi din, aile, medya ve kültür gibi pek çok yapının bu bakıĢı pekiĢtirmesi sonucunda oluĢmaktadır. EĢitsizlikler üzerine kurulan bir toplumda kadının konumunu ikincilleĢtiren baĢka bir faktörde cinsiyetçi söylemlerdir. Böyle bir yapı kadının kendisini ifade etmesine imkan tanımadığı için kadın kendisine biçilen rolleri ve sorumlulukları özümseyerek varlığını sürdürmeye devam eder. Roller ve sorumluluklar toplum tarafından kadın ve erkeğe öğretilmiĢ davranıĢ kalıplarıdır. Her toplumda doğuĢtan gelen biyolojik farklılıklar kültürel olarak Ģekillenir. Bu yolla hangi davranıĢ ve faaliyetlerin kadınlar ve erkeler için uygun olduğu, bu iki cinsin hangi haklara, kaynaklara, güce ne derece sahip olduğuna ya da olması gerektiğine iliĢkin toplumsal beklentiler Ģekillenir (Ecevit, 2003: 83). Toplumun belirlediği senaryoya bağlı kalarak rollerin oynanması beklenir (Dökmen, 2006: 16). SosyalleĢme süreci içerisinde kadın ve erkeğe biçilen roller farklılık göstermektedir. Kadınlara edilgen ve bağımlı olmakla iliĢkili değerler, normlar ve davranıĢ kalıpları öğretilirken erkeklere ise bunun tam tersi olan daha etken, karar verici değerler, normlar ve davranıĢ kalıpları öğretilmektedir (Koray, 1995: 204). Kadına yüklenen cinsiyet rolleri; kadının meslek seçiminden, sosyal iliĢkilerde güç dengelerine, iĢvereninin tutumuna, aile içi iliĢkilerden, kadının evlilikteki yeri ve statüsüne kadar pek çok alanda varlığını hissettirmektedir (Timurturkan, 2009: 139). Bu süreçte kimin kime tabi olacağı, kimin kimin üzerinde tahakküm kuracağı da öğrenilmektedir. Çünkü toplumsal cinseyet yapılanması kendi içerisinde hiyararĢik bir düzene sahiptir. Bu hiyerarĢi içerisinde kadınlar genellikle iktidar konumunda yer almaz ve kadının varlığı erkek üzerinden tanımlanır. Erkeklerin bedensel gücü kadınlardan üstün görülüp “erkeklik” ve “diĢilik”e karĢı yapay bir tavra girilmiĢtir. Bu tavır erkeğin gücünü ve iktidarını pekiĢtirmektedir. Kadın erkek iliĢkilerinde erkeğin üstünlüğünü hemen hemen her toplumda görmek mümkündür. Kadının yazgısı toplumsal olarak kurumsallaĢmıĢ cinsiyetinde yatmaktadır. Bu yazgı onu erkekten aĢağı kılarak, kamusal alandan dıĢlayıp, özel alana hapsetmektedir. Böylelikle toplumsal cinsiyet eĢitsizliği pekiĢtirilmektedir (Reed, 1981:181). Toplumsal cinsiyet eĢitsizliği; güç, haklar, kendini ifade etme, fırsatlara eriĢim gibi pek çok açıdan kadın ve erkekler arasındaki eĢit olmayan durumları ifade etmek için kullanılmaktadır. Var olan eĢitsizliğin dezeavantajlı tarafını genellikle kadınlar oluĢturmaktadır. Kadınların eĢitsiz yapı içerisinde değersizleĢmesi, onlara yönelik psikolojik, fiziksel, cinsel vb. pek çok Ģiddetin artması sorununu da beraberinde getirmektedir. Kadına yönelik Ģiddetin altında onu besleyen pek çok dinamik olmasına rağmen genel olarak kadına yönelik Ģiddet; toplumsal cinsiyet eĢitsizliğinin bir yansıması olarak nitelendirilmekte ve temelinde eĢitsiz güç iliĢkileri ve ayrımcılık yatmaktadır. ġiddetin bu türü kadınların cinsiyetleri nedeniyle maruz kaldığı her türlü kötü davranıĢ ve muamele anlamına gelmektedir. Kadına yönelik Ģiddet hemen hemen dünyanın her bölgesinde farklı biçim ve yoğunlukta kendisini gösteren önemli bir toplumsal sorundur. 4.Yöntem

Bu araĢtırma 14 ġubat 2015 tarihinde meydana gelen Özgecan Aslan cinayetinin yazılı basında; Cumhuriyet, Hürriyet, Yeni ġafak ve Sabah gazetelerinde nasıl temsil edildiğini ortaya koymak amacıyla gerçekleĢtirilmiĢtir. Bu doğrultuda cinayet sonrası Türk basınında yer alan haberler, Teun van Dijk‟ın haber metinleri için geliĢtirdiği “söylem çözümlemesi” yöntemiyle incelenmiĢtir. EleĢtirel söylem analizi iktidar ve söylem arasındaki iliĢkilerin çözümlenmesi üzerine yoğunlaĢarak 872

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN (Van Dijk, 2001: 363) metinlerde yer alan önyargılara, ideolojilere ya da toplumsal inançlara odaklanıp onların nasıl yeniden üretildiğini incelemektedir (Van Dijk, 2009: 111-112). Van Dijk‟ın söylem çözümlemesi modeli “makro” ve “mikro” yapı olmak üzere iki bölümden oluĢmaktadır. Makro yapı ise “tematik ve Ģematik çözümleme olarak iki baĢlık altında değerlendirilmektedir (Özer, 2011: 83). Tematik çözümleme yapılırken; baĢlıklar, spot, haber giriĢi ve fotoğraflar incelenmektedir. ġematik çözümlemede ise durum ve yorum olarak iki bölüm bulunmaktadır. Durum bölümünde; ana olayın sunumu, sonucu ve ardalan bağlam bilgisi incelenirken yorum bölümde ise olay taraflarının olaya getirdikleri yorumlar ve haber kaynakları ele alınmaktadır (van Dijk, 1988a: 54). Yöntemin ikinci bölümü olan “mikro yapı”; sentatik çözümleme, kelimeler arası bölgesel uyum, sözcük seçimi ve haber retoriği olmak üzere temelde dört bölümden oluĢmaktadır. Sentatik çözümleme içerisinde cümle yapıları; etken-edilgen, basit-karmaĢık, uzun-kısa olma durumlarına göre incelenmektedir. Bölgesel uyum ile ard arda gelen cümlelerin nedensel, iĢlevsel ve referans iliĢkileri ortaya konulmak istenmektedir. Haber metnini oluĢtururken seçilen sözcükler en temel ideolojik etmenler arasında yer almaktadır. Haber retoriğinde ise inandırıcılığı artıran unsurlar değerlendirilmektedir. Burada haber fotoğrafı, inandırıcı bilgiler ve görgü tanıklarının ifadeleri incelenen unsurlardır (Özer, 2011: 83). Seçilen örneklem grubunun zaman aralığı cinayetin meydana geldiği tarih olan 14 ġubat 2015 tarihinden itibaren sonrasındaki 1 aylık süreyi (14 Mart 2015‟e kadar) kapsamaktadır. 1 aylık süreçte belirtilen gazetelerde yer alan konuya iliĢkin haberler temalara ayrılarak incelenmiĢtir. Örnekleme dahil edilen bu gazetelerin seçilme nedeni; Yeni ġafak‟ın muhafazakar bir kimliğe sahip olması, Cumhuriyet gazetesinin sol bir çizgiye sahip olması, Hürriyet ve Sabah gazetelerinin de merkez medyayı temsil etmeleri ve tirajlarının yüksek olmasıdır. 5. Bulgular ve Yorum 5.1. Cinayet Haberinin Duyurulması Haber gerçeğe iliĢkin anlatıdır. Gerçeğin anlatılırken, dilin dolayımı ile yeniden kurulması inĢasıdır (Ġnal, 2009: 14). Gerçek aktarılırken belli amaçlar doğrultusunda Ģekillendirilir. Çerçeveleme uygulaması bu amaçları gerçekleĢtirmenin bir yoludur. Haber çerçevelemesi habercilik alanında “herhangi bir olayın sunumunda izleyicinin ya da okuyucunun söz konusu olayı belli bir biçimde algılamasını ve olayla ilgili belli bir biçimde düĢünmesini sağlayan sunum biçimleridir. Çerçeveleme haberin anlatımında öne çıkarılan anahtar sözcükler, mecazlar, kavramlar ve semboller yoluyla yapılır (Kılıç, 2011: 4-5). YaĢanan Özgecan Arslan cinayetiyle ilgili ilk haberlerde de gazeteler tarafından benzer çerçeveleme stratejileri dikkat çekmektedir. BaĢlığa çekilen ve haber metninde kullanılan kelimelerle izleyicilerin yaĢanan cinayetle ilgili ortak düĢüncede buluĢmaları amaçlanmıĢtır. Hürriyet “Özgecan‟ı Yaktılar” manĢetini atarken, Cumhuriyet “Özgecan‟ı Bıçaklayıp Yaktılar”, Sabah “VahĢet! Özgecan‟ı Öldürüp Yaktılar” manĢetini kullanmıĢtır. Yeni ġafak ise olayın ortaya çıktığı ilk gün olan 14 ġubat 2015 tarihinde cinayet haberine yer vermemiĢtir. Gazeteler yapısal açıdan olumsuzluğu vurgulayarak söylemin etkisini artırmaktadır (Ġmançer ve Yurderi, 2010: 144). BaĢlıklardaki benzerlik, haberin içeriğine de yansımıĢ ele alınan gazetelerde cinayet haberi benzer söylemlerle aktarılmıĢtır. Hürriyet, Cumhuriyet ve Sabah gazeteleri 14 ġubat 2015 tarihinde Özgecan cinayetiyle ilgili, olayın ne zaman, nasıl ve kim tarafından gerçekleĢtiğine iliĢkin ayrıntılara yer vermiĢtir. Hürriyet, baĢlığa çektiği “NASIL KIYDINIZ” sorusuyla, Cumhuriyet gazetesinin “VahĢet Kelimesi Az Kalır” ve Sabah gazetesinin “Sabah Üniversiteli Kızı Kaçırıp Yaktılar” baĢlıklarıyla Özgecan kurbanlaĢtırılmıĢtır. Söylemin etkililiğini artırmak için dramatik unsurlar kullanılarak, olayın olumsuz sonuçları vurgulanmaktadır (Ġmançer ve Yurderi, 2010:143). BaĢlıklardan mağdur olan bir tarafın olduğu ve acımasız bir olayın iĢlendiği anlaĢılmakta ancak bunu iĢleyen tarafın kim olduğu anlaĢılmamaktadır. Eril Ģiddet vurgusu haber içeriğinde verilerek detaylandırılmaktadır. (Gökkaya, 2011: 103). Cumhuriyet ve Hürriyet haber metni içerisinde cinayetle ilgili geliĢmeleri baĢlığın aksine, yoruma yer vermeden aktarmıĢtır. Verilen bilgiler arasında “Özgecan‟ın cinayet günü kiminle buluĢtuğu, neler yaptığı, kaçta dolmuĢa bindiği, baĢına neler geldiği, cesedinin tespit edilmesi” yer almaktadır. Ancak Sabah gazetesinin bu bilgileri aktarmanın yanı sıra farklı bir söylem geliĢtirdiği görülmektedir. “MüĢteri Yokken AlmıĢ” alt baĢlığının altında yer alan “Zanlının olay gecesi servisinin bitmesine rağmen Özgecan Aslan‟ı baĢka yolcu bulunmayan minibüse kasıtlı olarak aldığı belirlendi” ifadesiyle, 873

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Altındöken‟in kötü niyetinin en baĢından beri olduğuna dikkat çekmek istenmiĢtir. Haberin devamında henüz yakalanmamıĢ olması nedeniyle ifadesine baĢvurulamayan Altındöken‟le ilgili jandarmanın yorumuna yer verilmiĢtir: “Jandarma evli ve bir çocuk babası Ahmet Suphi Altındöken‟in tecavüz etmek amacıyla aracına aldığı genç kızın direnmesi üzerine öldürüp yaktığı ihtimalini değerlendiriyor.” Jandarmanın varsayımlarında cinayet zanlısının evli ve çocuklu olduğu bilgisi aktarılarak, olay neden sonuç bağlantısıyla verilmiĢtir. Haber içerisinde verilen tecavüz etmek için araca aldığı, direndiği için öldürüldüğü bilgileri, tecavüz giriĢimi ve cinayet olayının anlık bir duyguyla değil, planlı Ģekilde yapıldığına dikkat çekmek için kullanılmıĢtır. Haberde kullanılan cümle yapıları incelendiğinde, yüklemlerin ağırlıklı olarak etken (Ġtiraf etti-Jandarmayı da atlattı…) yapıda kullanıldığı dikkat çekmektedir. Haber metinlerinde suçlu konumunda olanın etken olarak verilmesi, suçun kiĢiselleĢtirilmesi anlamına gelir ve (Ġnal, 1996: 125) suçlulara yönelik olumsuz düĢüncelerin meĢru hale gelmesine dayanak oluĢturmaktadır (Van Dijk, 1988: 82). Haberlerde seçilen kelimeler incelendiğinde ise cinayeti iĢleyenlere yönelik ağır bir dilin tercih edilmediği “Ģüpheliler” ifadesinin kullanıldığı dikkat çekmektedir. Ġlerleyen günlerde cinayeti iĢleyenlerle ilgili haberlerde dikkat çeken ağır söylemin, ilk gün verilen haberlerde olmaması cinayete iliĢkin detayların henüz bilinmemesiyle iliĢkili olabilir. Ġncelenen gazetelerde aynı gün haberin baĢlığı ve içeriğindeki benzerlik fotoğraflarda da görülmektedir. Cumhuriyet ve Hürriyet haberde iki fotoğraf kullanırken, Sabah gazetesi aynı iki fotoğrafının yanı sıra cinayet zanlısı Altındöken‟in küçük bir fotoğrafına da yer vermiĢtir. Özgecan‟ın fotoğrafının yer aldığı görsel, haber konusuna uygun olarak, içeriği destekler nitelikle seçilmiĢ, genç kızın güzelliği ve masumiyeti ön plana çıkarılmak istenmiĢtir. Kullanılan diğer fotoğraf ise cinayet sonrasına aittir. Özgecan‟ın dere yatağında bulunan cesedinin jandarma ekipleri tarafından taĢınırken çekilen fotoğrafı, cinayetin ortaya çıktığına delil olarak düĢünülebilir. 5.2. Eril Gücün ġiddete DönüĢmesinin EleĢtirisi ġiddet içeren suçlardan sanık olan veya hüküm giyenlerin büyük çoğunluğunu erkekler oluĢturmaktadır (Connell, 1998: 37). Erkek kaynaklı Ģiddet, sayısız türüyle, hem erkek iktidarının ve ayrıcalık taĢıma hakkı algısının hem de belirli Ģiddet türlerine onay verilmesinin ve iktidarı kaybetme korkusunun bir sonucu olarak görülebilir (Kaufman, ty.:4). Her toplumda az da çok varlığını hissettiren eril Ģiddet, her durumda ve herkes tarafından onaylanmamaktadır. Özellikle Ģiddet mağduru olan kadınlar tarafından mücadele verilen erkek egemenliği ve Ģiddeti, erkekler tarafından da mücadele edilmesi gereken bir alan haline gelmiĢtir. Kadın erkek arasındaki eĢitliği savunmanın sadece kadınlara bırakılmıĢ bir siyaset alanı olduğu ve erkeklerin gölge etmemesi gerektiğini benimseyen anlayıĢ artık geçerliliğini yitirmiĢtir. Bu düĢüncenin yerine, cinsler arasındaki eĢitliğin ve adaletin sağlanmasında erkeklerin özellikle yer alması gerektiği görüĢü politik olarak kabul görmektedir. Bu durum cinsiyet eĢitliğini destekleme konusunda dikkatlerin erkeklerin davranıĢlarına odaklanmasına yol açmaktadır (Sancar, 2011: 265). 22 ġubat 2015 tarihli Hürriyet Gazetesi „ÖZGECAN ĠÇĠN GĠYDĠK GELDĠK‟ baĢlıklı haberiyle yukarıda anlatılanlara örnek teĢkil etmektedir. Ana baĢlık haber metniyle birlikte okunduğunda durum daha net anlaĢılmakta ve erkek Ģiddetinin sadece kadınlar değil, erkekler tarafından da tepkiyle karĢılandığı ve protesto edildiği aktarılmaktadır. Haber baĢlığında belirtilen „giydik geldik‟ ifadesi haber metninde; “Özgecan Aslan için yaklaĢık 50 erkek etek giyip kadına Ģiddeti protesto etti, etekleriyle yürüyen erkekler kadınlara destek verdi” Ģeklindeki açıklamalarla detaylandırılmıĢtır. Erkeklerin etekli protestosunun nedeni olarak, kadınların kıyafetleri nedeniyle zor durumda kaldıkları ve etek giydikleri için tecavüze uğradıkları söylemleri reklamcı Volkan Çolakoğlu‟nun ifadeleriyle aktarılmıĢtır. Haberde kullanılan fotoğraflarla, haberin içerisinde belirtilen eril Ģiddetin eleĢtirisi daha da görünür hale gelmektedir. Haberin üst kısmında büyük boy kullanılan görsellerden birinde etek giymiĢ erkeklerin kol kola dayanıĢma içinde yürüdüğü gösterilirken, kullanılan diğer görselde kadın-erkek herkesin ellerinde pankartlarla kadına yönelik Ģiddete karĢı isyan ettikleri aktarılmıĢtır. Ancak burada dikkat çeken bir ayrıntı vardır. Erkek Ģiddeti, kadınların büyük çoğunluğu tarafından tepkiyle karĢılanırken, eril Ģiddeti eleĢtiren “erkek dili” henüz çok sessiz, çok fazla yerde temsil edilmemektedir (Sancar, 2011: 267). Protestoda yer alan ve etek giyerek eril Ģiddeti eleĢtiren 874

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN erkeklerin sayısının 50 olarak verilmesi bu duruma örnek gösterilebilir. Aynı gün Cumhuriyet gazetesi konuya iliĢkin haberi “Pantolon Giyerek Erkek Olunmuyor” baĢlığıyla manĢetten vermiĢtir. Haber metni içerisinde Hürriyet gazetesinden farklı olarak (Özgecan‟lar burada, devlet nerede, erkek vuruyor, devlet susuyor) gibi sloganlara yer verildiği görülmektedir. Ġç sayfada detaylandırılan haberde “ġiddeti Aklamayın” baĢlığıyla Ģiddete karĢı takınılacak tavrın benimsenmesi istenmektedir. Haber de kullanılan kipler, dünyayı ve olayları anlatma Ģekliyle iliĢkilidir ve söyleme iliĢkin bilgiler taĢımaktadır (van Dijk, 2004: 52). Haberde büyük puntolarla ön plana çıkarılan “ETEKLĠ BABA: KIZLARIM ĠÇĠN BURADAYIM” ifadesi, etek giyen 3 kız babasının fotoğrafıyla desteklenmiĢtir. Haberde kullanılan diğer fotoğrafta ise eylemci kadınların elindeki pankartlar dikkat çekmektedir. Ön plana çıkarılan pankarttaki “Erkek Vuruyor, Yargı Koruyor” sloganı yine sistemsel bir eleĢtiriyi içinde barındırmaktadır. Sabah ve Yeni ġafak gazeteleri kadına Ģiddet ve Özgecan cinayetini kınamak için etek giyerek yürüyüĢ yapan erkeklerin haberine ve görsellerine yer vermemiĢtir. 5.3. CumhurbaĢkanı ve Hükümete Yapılan Vurgu Hürriyet (18 ġubat 2015) “KADIN BAKANLIĞI 2 ERKEĞĠN AĞZINA BAKIYOR” ifadesini baĢlığa çektiği haberde HDP EĢ Genel BaĢkanı Selahattin DemirtaĢ‟ın hükümete iliĢkin eleĢtirilerine yer vermiĢtir. Haber metninde DemirtaĢ‟ın Kadın Bakanlığı‟nın BaĢbakan ve CumhurbaĢkanı tarafından yönlendirildiği iddiaları yer almıĢtır. Bu durum kadınların siyasal alanda apolitik duruĢu ve sessiz temsillerine iĢaret etmektedir (Sancar, 2013: 280). Kadın çeĢitli mücadeleler sonunda siyasi haklar elde etse de, uygulamaya bakıldığında siyaset içerisinde hala erkeklerin gerisinde olduğu görülmektedir. Haberde Özgecan‟ın katledilmesinin bir minibüs Ģoförüyle açıklamasının mümkün olamayacağı asıl sorunun, zihniyette yani daha derinlerde olduğu düĢüncesi aktarılmak istenmiĢtir. Hürriyet aynı gün CHP Genel BaĢkanı Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu‟nun açıklamalarını haberleĢtirerek vermiĢtir. Haberin baĢlığına taĢınan Kıılıçdaroğlu‟nun “KADINA NEFES ALDIRMIYOR” ifadeleri iktidara doğrudan bir eleĢtiri içermektedir. Spot incelendiğinde Özgecan‟ın baĢına gelen olaydan sonra bütün kadınların, tüm Türkiye‟nin ayaklandığı aynı acıyı ve duyguyu paylaĢtığı genelleme içerisinde verilmiĢtir. Kullanılan „tüm-bütün‟ gibi sözcüklerle öne sürülen görüĢün çoğunluğa ait olduğu algısı yaratılarak, argümanın kanıtsallığı artırılmaya çalıĢılmaktadır. Yine spotta yer alan; “AteĢ düĢtüğü yeri yakar, toplumun vicdanı kanıyor” Ģeklindeki ifadeler, metafor kullanımına örnek gösterilebilir. TartıĢmalarda ortak zemin ve paylaĢılan bilgiye dayanılarak güçlü yan anlamları olan ifadeler kullanılmakta ve söylem güçlendirilmektedir (Ġmançer ve Yurderi, 2010:142). Kılıçdaroğlu‟nun doğrudan aktarılan sözleriyle (bu iktidar size nefes aldırmamaya ant içmiĢ. Bunu sakın unutmayın) olumsuzlama stratejisi üzerinden bir söylem üretilmiĢtir. Haber içerisinde yine hükümetin kadınlar üzerinde baskı ve denetim kurduğu Ģeklindeki iddialar Kılıçdaroğlu‟nun söylemli üzerinden aktarılmaktadır. Aynı haber içerisinde bir baĢka eleĢtiri AKP‟nin iktidarda olduğu tarihten (2002) bugüne kadar geçen süreçte öldürülen kadın sayısının verilmesiyle yapılmıĢtır. Kılıçdaroğlu, bu süreçte 5 bin 406 kadının öldürüldüğünü, kadına yönelik Ģiddetin yüzde 1400 arttığını belirterek, böyle bir tablonun oluĢmasında suçlu olarak iktidar partisini göstermektedir. Açıklamaların sayısal verilerle desteklenmesi, haberin kanıtsallığını artırmaktadır. Haberin fotoğrafına bakıldığında, haberin içeriğinde belirtilen nefret söyleminin görselle desteklendiği anlaĢılmaktadır. Kılıçdaroğulu‟nun yumruğunu sıkarak, sinirli yüz ifadesinin yansıtıldığı fotoğrafla, iktidara yönelik açıklamalarının sertliği daha da görünür kılınmaktadır. 19 ġubat 2015 tarihinde Hürriyet gazetesi tarafından yapılan “„ĠSTANBUL‟ SÖZÜ HAVADA KALDI” baĢlıklı haberde de hükümet eleĢtirisi üzerinden söylemin inĢa edildiği görülmektedir. Kadına yönelik Ģiddete karĢı hazırlanan ve 1 Ağustos‟ta imzalanan “Ġstanbul SözleĢmesi‟nin” sözde kaldığı, o günden bu yana kadın cinayetlerinin devam ettiği haber içerisinde aktarılan bilgiler arasında yer almaktadır. Haberde Özgecan cinayeti iĢaret edilerek, Türkiye‟nin yetkili makamlarının somut adımlar atmadığı ve SözleĢme‟nin gereklerini yerine getirmediği vurgusu yapılmaktadır. CHP Ankara Milletvekili Gülsün Bilgehan, CumhurbaĢkanı tarafından daha önce yapılan “kadın erkek eĢitliği değil, adaletinden bahsetmeliyiz” açıklamasına gönderme yaparak, kadın ve erkeğin eĢit olmadığına iliĢkin söylemlerin SözleĢmeye ve Anayasaya aykırı olduğunu belirtip, isim belirtmeden CumhurbaĢkanı‟na gönderme 875

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN yapmaktadır. Buradaki açıklamalarda ima ve üstü kapalı gönderme dikkat çekmektedir. Herkesin bildiği varsayılan Ģeyleri açıkça söylemek yerine ima ederek, üstü kapalı ve dolambaçlı Ģekilde aktarmak(Ġmançer ve Yurderi, 2010: 137) söylemsel bir strateji olarak dikkat çekmektedir. Cumhuriyet gazetesi kadına yönelik Ģiddet konusunda diğer gazetelere oranla hükümeti daha fazla eleĢtirmektedir. 20 ġubat 2015 tarihinde “Tabutumuz sırtımızda” baĢlıklı haber de bu eleĢtirilerden birini içermektedir. Haberin ana teması baĢlıkta, spotta, fotoğrafta ve metin içerisinde tekrarlanarak, kadına Ģiddet konusunda hükümete yönelik olumsuz düĢünce görünür kılınmaya çalıĢılmaktadır. Özgecan eylemi sırasında gözaltına alınan 4 SDP‟li kadına polisin “Umarım Özgecan‟ın baĢına gelen senin de baĢına gelmez” Ģeklinde uyarıda bulunduğu iddiaları spota çekilmiĢtir. Aynı ifade haber içerisinde alt baĢlıkta tekrar edilmiĢtir. Yinelemedeki amaç olumsuz davranıĢları ve bu davranıĢların kötü sonuçlarını vurgulamaktadır (Ġmançer ve Yurderi, 2010: 143). Haber içerisinde yer alan (Ġrili ufaklı tüm iktidarların sözüm ona kadına Ģiddete olduğu Ģu günlerde, onların yaka paça gözaltına alınıp mahkemeye çıkartılması aslında toplumsal ikiyüzlüğün en iyi kanıtıdır) açıklamalar yine iktidar eleĢterisini içinde barındırmaktadır. BaĢlıkla ve metinle aktarılan düĢünce fotoğrafla daha da görünür hale getirilmiĢtir. Cumhuriyet Gazetesi (20 ġubat 2015) “Komisyon Mor Çatı‟ya tahammül edemedi” baĢlıklı haberiyle yine hükümet ve kadına yönelik Ģiddet iliĢkisini vurgulamıĢtır. TBMM Kadına Yönelik ġiddetin Sebeplerini AraĢtırma Komisyonu‟nda Mor Çatı ve Uçan Süpürge‟nin hükümetin kadın politikalarına yönelik eleĢtirilerinin gergin bir ortama sebep olması haber giriĢine çekilmiĢtir. Mor Çatı temsilcisi tarafından siyasal iktidarın söylem ve uygulamalarının kadın erkek arasındaki eĢitsizliği derinleĢtirdiği ve erkek zeminini meĢrulaĢtırmaya zemin hazırlaması yönündeki açıklamaları, Komisyon baĢkanı tarafından sübjektif açıklamalar olarak nitelendirilip kabul görmemiĢtir. Haber söylemi içinde iktidarın olumsuz özelliklerle iliĢkilendirilerek kadın dernekleri tarafından “ötekileĢtirildiği” anlaĢılmaktadır. Cumhuriyet Gazetesi‟nin 20 ġubat 2015 tarihli haberi “ġiddeti Erdoğan üretiyor” baĢlığıyla CHP‟li Aylin Nazlıaka‟nın Erdoğan‟a yönelik eleĢtirilerine yer vermiĢtir. Nazlıaka kadına yönelik Ģiddetin artmasının nedeni olarak Erdoğan‟ın “kadın erkek eĢitliğine inanmıyorum” sözlerini göstermiĢtir. Haberde Nazlıaka‟nın AKP‟nin söylem ve eylemlerinin kadın katillerine cesaret verdiği ve böyle bir zihniyetin de kadına yönelik Ģiddeti artırdığı değerlendirmelerine yer verilmiĢtir. Gazete bir gün sonraki haberinde yine benzer söylemi üretmiĢtir. “Ġktidar Ģiddeti meĢrulaĢtırdı” baĢlığıyla HDP EĢ Genel BaĢkanı Figen Yüksekdağ‟ın açıklamaları aktarılmıĢtır. Yüksekdağ, iktidarın kadınları öldüren saldırganlığı durduramadığı, hatta siyaset ve hukuk yoluyla teĢvik ettiği yönündeki açıklamaları yine nefret söylemine örnek gösterilebilir. Haberde iktidarı tanımlarken „bu‟ zamirinin kullanıldığı dikkat çekmektedir. Kullanılan zamirler uzaklık belirterek söylemin neye karĢı çıktığını ve neyi desteklediğini ortaya koymanın yanı sıra „biz‟ ve „onlar‟ arasındaki karĢıtlık ve kutuplaĢmayı göstermektedir. Haberde iktidarın „bu‟ zamiriyle tanımlanması, „onlar‟ olarak değerlendirilmesine yol açmaktadır. Söylemde kutuplaĢma ya da karĢıtlığa dayanak, bizim iyi onların kötü yönlerine vurgu yapılmaktadır (van Dijk, 2004: 50). Özgecan cinayetinden sonra taziye için ailenin evine giden Aile Bakanı AyĢenur Ġslam ve CumhurbaĢkanı‟nın kızlarının haberi “Ne yüzle geldiniz” baĢlığıyla verilmiĢtir. O an orada bulunan yaĢlı bir kadının sözleri baĢlığa çekilmiĢtir. Haberin devamında da yine çevrede toplanan kalabalığın Bakan‟a yönelik tepkilerine yer verilmiĢtir. Aynı haberin hemen altında “Davutoğlu tepkiden çekindi” baĢlığıyla aktarılan haberde Ġslamoğlu‟nun aileyi taziyeye gittiği esnada çevredeki kadınlar tarafından protesto edilmesi üzerine Davutoğlu‟nun aileye yapacağı ziyareti iptal ettiği bilgisi verilmiĢtir. Haberde 2 görsel kullanılmıĢtır. CumhurbaĢkanı‟nın kızları ve acılı annenin olduğu fotoğraf, Özgecan‟ın annesinin çektiği acıyı göstermektedir. Haberde kullanılan diğer fotoğraf ise “TOMA‟sız olmaz!” ifadesiyle verilmiĢ, bu ifadeyle ve fotoğraf içeriğiyle de yine bir eleĢtiri geliĢtirilmiĢtir. Kalabalık bir topluluk ve çok sayıda polis ve tomanın yer aldığı fotoğraf, halkın gösterisine izin verilmedi düĢüncesini inĢa etmektedir. Aileye ziyaret haberi Yeni ġafak gazetesi tarafından Bakan Ġslamoğlu‟na yönelik yapılan protestolar verilmeden, sadece CumhurbaĢkanı‟nın kızlarının baĢsağlığı dilekleri ve annenin ziyaret için teĢekkür ettiği bilgileri aktarılarak verilmiĢtir. Annenin “kızım namusunu korumak için kendini feda etti” açıklamaları Özgecan‟ın masumiyetini daha da görünür kılmaktadır.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 5.4. ġiddet ve Eğitim “ġiddet”, insanın birçok nedenle varlığından Ģikâyetçi olduğu ancak devamına ve yaygınlığına isteyerek veya istemeyerek katkıda bulunduğu bir olgudur. Kadına yönelik Ģiddetin sıklığı ve dozu cinsiyet ve eğitim düzeyi gibi faktörler tarafından etkilenmektedir (DiĢsiz ve ġahin, 2008: 55). Ġnsanda doğuĢtan var olan Ģiddet eğilimi, çevresel faktörler tarafından da tetiklenerek artıĢ göstermektedir. Özellikle genç yaĢta öğrenilen Ģiddet eğiliminde, aile ve evde otorite olarak görülen babanın tutumu önemlidir. Ailelerinin terbiye ve düzeninden kendilerinin sorumlu olduğunu düĢünen erkekler gerektiğinde aile fertlerine ekonomik, duygusal, sembolik Ģiddet ve bazen de fiziksel Ģiddet uygulama hakkını kendilerinde bulmaktadır (Sancar, 2011: 127). Genç erkeklerin babanın erkeklik değerleri ile özdeĢleĢmesi hegemonik erkekliğin yeniden üretilmesinde önemli bir mekanizmadır. Genç erkeklerin özellikle babalarından görerek benimsedikleri kadın düĢmanlığı ve eril Ģiddeti kolayca reddetmeleri pek mümkün olmamaktadır (Sancar, 2011: 128). ġiddetten arındırılmıĢ bir toplum için ise aileye büyük sorumluluk düĢmektedir. Aile çocuk eğitiminde Ģiddetin kabul edilemez ve yalnıĢ bir davranıĢ Ģekli olduğunu hem sözleriyle hem de davranıĢlarıyla çocuğuna aktararak, onu Ģiddetten arındırılmıĢ bir eğitimle yetiĢtirmelidir. Hürriyet 18 ġubat 2015 tarihli haberinde cinayet zanlısı Altındöken‟in eĢinin “Suphi‟yle Evlendiğim Güne Lanet Olsun” Ģeklinde yaptığı açıklamayı tırnak içinde baĢlığa çekmiĢtir. BaĢlık ve haber metninde de eĢinin Altındöken‟le evlendiğine piĢmanlık duyduğu ve sürekli Ģiddete maruz kaldığı bilgileri aktarılmıĢtır. Haberin alt baĢlığının (“Babasından ġiddet Gördüm”) devamında failin annesinin açıklamalarına (Babasının Ģiddet eğilimi vardı. Ben kocamdan çok Ģiddet gördüm ayrıldık) yer verilmiĢtir. Annenin oğlunun eylemlerinden babasını sorumlu tutması, Ģiddet ve eğitim arasındaki iliĢkiyi öne çıkarmaktadır. Failin Ģiddet eğilimini babasından öğrendiği haberin aktarılmak istenen temasıdır. Cumhuriyet Gazetesi (18 ġubat 2015) aynı haberi Hürriyet‟e göre daha detaylandırarak vermiĢtir. BaĢlığa çekilen “Çocukken de problemliydi hakkında iyi laf eden yok” yargıları cinayet zanlısının Ģiddete ve saldırganlığa meyilli davranıĢlarının çocukluktan geldiğine iĢaret etmektedir. Zanlının küçükken babası tarafından Ģiddet görmesi, annesinin babasından Ģiddet nedeniyle ayrılması, onun olumsuz bir ortamda yetiĢtiğini ve olumsuz davranıĢları küçük yaĢta babasından öğrendiğini akıllara getirmektedir. Haber içerisinde Altındöken‟e ait olumsuzlukların (UyuĢturucu madde kullanıyor…. EĢini aldattığı ve Ģiddet uyguladığı…Bir çok icra takibi var….Çocukken de problemliydi…Sadece komĢuları değil, yakın akrabalarıyla da iliĢkileri zayıf…. Babasını 2 kez bıçakladı, annesini ve kardeĢini de dövüyordu) yinelendiği dikkat çekmektedir. Haberde yinelemeler kiĢilerin olumsuz davranıĢlarını vurgulamak ya da ifadelerin etkisini artırmak için kullanılmaktadır (Ġmançer ve Yurderi, 2010: 143). Haberde Altındöken‟e ait aktarılan olumsuz yinelemeler annesinin, eĢinin arkadaĢlarının, akrabalarının ve komĢularının gözlemleriyle aktarılmıĢtır. Yine aynı gazetede yer alan bir baĢka haber de benzer içeriklerden oluĢmaktadır. “Zanlının Annesi: Kimse Katil Doğmaz” Ģeklinde oluĢturulan baĢlıktan da anlaĢılacağı üzere, Ģiddetin doğuĢtan gelen değil, sonradan öğrenilen bir davranıĢ olduğu vurgulanmak istenmiĢtir. BaĢlıkla iliĢkili olarak haber metninde de zanlının annesinin “Kimse hırsız, katil doğmaz melek doğar. Benim çocuğumun sağlığı bozuk. Babasıyla beraber büyüdü, o yüzden böyle” açıklamalarında da öne çıkarıldığı gibi kötü davranıĢların asıl nedeni olarak, küçük yaĢta oğluna kötü örnek olan baba gösterilmiĢtir. Sabah Gazetesi (18 ġubat 2015) “Bu Soyadından Utanıyoruz” baĢlıklı haberinde cinayet zanlısının amcasının açıklamalarına yer vererek daha önce babasını 2 kere bıçakladığı ve annesini de dövdüğü bilgileri aktarılmıĢtır. Sabah gazetesinde detaylandırılmadan verilen haber Yeni ġafak Gazetesinde (18 ġubat 2015) de ilk sayfanın altında “SUÇLU babası” baĢlığıyla verilmiĢ, baĢlığın kırmızı harflerle ve „SUÇLU‟ tanımlamasının büyük harflerle aktarılması, konuya dikkat çekilmek istendiği anlamına gelmektedir. Yeni ġafak da diğer gazetelerle benzer Ģekilde annenin açıklamalarına yer vererek, Altındöken‟in babası nedeniyle suça meyilli bir birey olduğuna iĢaret etmektedir. 5.5. Din Temelli Bir Söylem Üzerinden Yapılan Tanımlamalar Özgecan cinayetiyle ilgili haberler incelendiğinde Diyanet‟in kadına Ģiddete yönelik fetvaları ve CumhurbaĢkanı Erdoğan‟ın açıklamaları dikkat çekmektedir. Hürriyet‟in (17 ġubat 2015) ilk sayfadan 877

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN verdiği “bu feministler var ya bunların dinimizle ilgisi yok” baĢlıklı haberi, iç sayfalarda “FEMĠNĠSTLERĠN DĠNLE ĠLGĠSĠ YOK” Ģeklinde oluĢturulan benzer baĢlıkla detaylandırılmıĢtır. Spotta verilen (Kadın, Allah‟ın erkeklere bir emanetidir sözünü eleĢtirenlere sert tepki gösterdi. „Ne demek kadın emanetmiĢ bir hakarettir‟ ya senin bizim inancımızla, medeniyetimizle, dinimizle bir ilgin yok ki) bilgilerle, Erdoğan‟ın neden feministlere yönelik dinsiz ifadesini kullandığı CumhurbaĢkanı‟nın gerekçeleri çerçevesinde aktarılmıĢtır. Cumhuriyet gazetesi de Erdoğan‟ın söylemini ön plana çıkararak haberi “Bu feministlerin dinimizle ilgisi yok” baĢlığıyla aktarmıĢtır. Haberin içeriğinde Erdoğan‟ın feministleri öteki olarak konumlandırarak onların dinle, kültürle, medeniyetle ilgili olmadıkları yönündeki söylemlerine yer verilmiĢtir. Erdoğan‟ın feministlere yönelik yaptığı açıklama Sabah ve Yeni ġafak gazetelerinde yer almamıĢtır. Yine aynı tarihte ve Hürriyet gazetesi‟nde olaya iliĢkin dini içerikli bir haber yapılmıĢtır. “Biliyorsan Fatiha Oku” baĢlığıyla yayımlanan haberde, Özgecan‟ın katledilmesi sonrasında aralarında CHP‟den Aylin Nazlıaka‟nın da bulunduğu bir grup kadın tarafından yapılan danslı protesto Erdoğan tarafından eleĢtirilmiĢtir. Haber metninin tamamı ve ara baĢlıklar (Adeta zevk alıyorlar-Takipçisi olacağım-Alçaktır, zavallıdır-Allah‟ın emanetine ihanet-EĢitsizlikle mücadele ettik-Sizin kızınızda olabilirdi) Erdoğan‟ın açıklamalarının doğrudan aktarımıyla oluĢturulmuĢtur. Yine Erdoğan‟ın yapılan danslı protestoya iliĢkin Türk kültürüyle bağdaĢmadığı ve bunları yapanların kendi kültürüne, değerlerine ve dinine uzak olduğu söylemleri, gösteri yapan kadınlara iliĢkin bir eleĢtiriyi içermektedir. Haberin hemen yan tarafında “DANS ÖZGECAN ĠÇĠN DEĞĠL Ģiddet gören kadınlar içindi” baĢlığıyla Aylin Nazlıaka‟nın Erdoğan‟a cevabı ve tepkisi aktarılmıĢtır. BaĢlığın bir bölümünün büyük puntolarla aktarılması, Erdoğan‟ın gösteriyi Özgecan cinayetiyle iliĢkilendirdiği düĢüncesini ön plana çıkarmaktadır. Metinde bu gösterinin her yıl 14 ġubat‟ta kadına, kız çocuklarına yönelik Ģiddete, tecavüze, enseste, sünnete ve seks köleliğine dikkat çekmek için yapıldığı ve bunu bilmemenin cahillik olduğu aktarılarak, Nazlıaka tarafından Erdoğan “cahillikle” nitelendirilmiĢtir. Nazlıaka tarafından Erdoğan‟a yöneltilen bir baĢka eleĢtiri de, söylemleriyle kadına yönelik Ģiddetin artmasına neden olmasıdır. Bu düĢünceyi desteklemek için haber içerisinde sayısal oranlara yer verilmiĢ, 12 yılda kadına yönelik Ģiddetin 1400 artmasının sorumlusu olarak Erdoğan gösterilmiĢtir. Her iki haber için de ortak görsel kullanılmıĢtır. Fotoğrafta aralarında CHP‟li Aylin Nazlıaka‟nın da bulunduğu bir grup siyah ve beyaz giyen kadının dans gösterilerine yer verilmiĢtir. Hürriyet (12 Mart 2015) “Özgecan‟ın babasına Diyanetten iyilik ödülü” baĢlığıyla aktardığı haberde ilk defa verilecek olan Diyanet Vakfı Uluslararası Ġyilik Ödülleri‟nden birisinin kızının ölümünden sonra topluma ilettiği mesajlar nedeniyle Özgecan‟ın babasına verileceği bilgisi yer almaktadır. Aynı haber Yeni ġafak gazetesinde (12 Mart 2015) benzer baĢlıkla “Bilge babaya „iyilik‟ ödülü” ve benzer haber içeriği ile verilip detaylandırılmıĢtır. 16 ġubat 2015 tarihli Sabah gazetesi tam sayfa verdiği Özgecan Aslan cinayetiyle ilgili Diyanet tarafından yapılan yazılı açıklamaya da yer vermiĢtir. Haberde Diyanet ĠĢleri BaĢkanı‟nın yaptığı açıklamanın doğrudan verilmesi, haberi resmi kaynaklara dayandırmıĢtır. 16 ġubat 2015 tarihli Yeni ġafak gazetesi, Sabah gazetesi gibi Diyanet ĠĢleri BaĢkanı tarafından yapılan açıklamaya yer vermiĢ, ancak farklı ayrıntıları ön plana çıkartmıĢtır. BaĢlıkta kullanılan “Melekler ağladı” ifadesi metafor kullanımına örnek gösterilebilir. Haberde Diyanet ĠĢleri BaĢkanı‟nın açıklamalarında genç kız, “masum-pak kardeĢimiz” olarak, onlar ya da öteki olarak tanımlan kültürel yapı ise “zalim ve gaddar” sıfatlarıyla aktarılmıĢtır. Yeni ġafak gazetesi (21 ġubat 2015) diğer gazetelerde yer almayan “Özgecan Hutbesi” baĢlıklı habere yer vermiĢtir. Haber spotu ve metni okunduğunda Ģiddetin din ekseninde bir çözümlemesinin yapıldığı anlaĢılmaktadır. “Kadına el kalkmaz” mesajının verildiği hutbede Ģiddetin her türlüsü, özellikle de kadına yönelik olanının olumsuzluğuna vurgu yapılmıĢtır. Türkiye genelinde kadına Ģiddete karĢı okutulan hutbede dini söylemlerle her canın kutsal olduğu ve dokunulamayacağının altı çizilmiĢtir. Rengi, dili, cinsiyeti, ırkı farketmeksizin insan olmakla her türlü dokunulmazlık hakkına doğuĢtan kavuĢan insan vurgusu, yaĢanan ayrımcılığın, ötekileĢtirmenin, huzursuzlukların ve Ģiddetin nedeninin doğuĢtan olmadığına iĢaret etmektedir. Haberde seçilen kelimeler incelendiğinde “hayatının baharında olan bir genç kız, hunharca katledilmesi,” bu noktada bir kurbanlaĢtırma yapıldığına dikkat

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN çekmektedir. Cinayete iliĢkin “yüreklerin dağlanması” ifadesi metafor kullanımına örnek gösterilebilir. Kullanılan haber fotoğrafı, haberi destekler nitelikte verilmiĢtir. Cami ortamında ve cemaatin hutbe dinlerken çekilen fotoğrafı, haberin üst kısmında ve büyük boyda dikkat çekici Ģekilde yerleĢtirilmiĢtir. 6. Sonuç Toplumsal yaĢamda Ģiddeti yeniden üreten bir çok yapıdan bahsedilebilir. Bunlardan biri de medyadır. Medya toplumsal gerçekliğin inĢa sürecinde Ģiddeti estetize eden eril habercilik anlayıĢıyla sorunların toplumsal boyutlarını yeterli derecede görünür kılamamaktadır. Haber inĢa edilirken haberin sınırları çizilmekte, okuyucuda istenilen doğrultuda bir algı yaratmaya yönelik çerçeveleme yapılmaktadır. Bu durum aynı haberin farklı yayın organlarında, farklı Ģekilde ele alınmasına neden olmaktadır. ÇalıĢma kapsamında yazılı basını temsilen ele alınan gazetelerde yayınlanan haberler, oluĢturulan beĢ farklı tema altında incelenmiĢtir. Ġlk tema cinayet haberinin duyurulmasına iliĢkindir. Cinayete iliĢkin ilk haberler incelendiğinde, gazetelerin benzer söylemler kullandığı, haberi benzer baĢlık, kelime, bilgiler ve görseller çerçevesinde sunduğu görülmektedir. Ancak ilerleyen günlerde halk, sivil toplum kuruluĢları, siyasiler ve dini otoritelerin olaya iliĢkin söylemleri ve tepkileri basının konuya yaklaĢımda farklılığa neden olmuĢtur. OluĢturulan ikinci tema “Eril Gücün ġiddete DönüĢmesinin EleĢtirisi”dir. Bu tema altında erkeklerin düzenlediği etekli eylem haberleri ön plana çıkmaktadır. Kadına yönelik Ģiddete tepki göstermek için erkekler tarafından yapılan etekli protestoya Cumhuriyet ve Hürriyet gazeteleri geniĢ yer verirken, Yeni ġafak ve Sabah gazeteleri yer vermemiĢtir. Protesto kadına yönelik Ģiddete tepkinin yanı sıra hükümete yönelik tepkiyi de içermesi nedeniyle, hükümet eleĢtirisi ön plana çıkmayan gazeteler tarafından bu tarz haerlere yer verilmemiĢtir. ÇalıĢma kapsamında oluĢturulan diğer bir tema ise doğrudan CumhurbaĢkanı ve hükümetle iliĢkilidir. “CumhurbaĢkanı ve Hükümete Yapılan Vurgu” baĢlığı altında CumhurbaĢkanı ve AKP hükümetinin yer aldığı haberler incelenmiĢtir. Hürriyet ve Cumhuriyet gazeteleri CHP ve HDP yetkililerinin konu ile ilgili söylemlerini daha çok haberleĢtirerek, muhalefetin söylemi üzerinden bir eleĢtiri biçimi daha görünür durumdar. Özellikle Cumhuriyet gazetesinin kadına yönelik Ģiddet konusunda diğer gazetelere oranla hükümeti daha çok eleĢtirdiği dikkat çekmektedir. Yeni ġafak ve Sabah gazetelerinin hükümete iliĢkin haberlerinde eleĢtiri ön plana çıkmamaktadır. Ġncelenen diğer bir tema ise “ġiddet ve Eğitim” iliĢkisine yöneliktir. Ele alınan dört gazetede de bu konuya iliĢkin haberler benzer Ģekilde sunulmuĢtur. Cinayet zanlısının akrabalarının, eĢinin ve annesinin açıklamalarının yer aldığı haberlerde cinayeti iĢleyen kiĢinin hırçın, sapıkça ve acımasızca davranıĢlarının nedeni olarak babası gösterilmiĢ, eğitimin önemine vurgu yapılmıĢtır. “Din Temelli Bir Söylem Üzerinden Yapılan Tanımlamalar” teması altında ise CumhurbaĢkanı‟nın konu çerçevesindeki çeĢitli açıklamaları Diyanet‟in kadına Ģiddete yönelik fetvasına iliĢkin yapılan haberler incelenmiĢtir. Hürriyet ve Cumhuriyet gazetelerinde Erdoğan‟ın yaptığı açıklamalar yine muhalefet partilerinin eleĢtirilerinin aktarılması yoluyla daha görünür hale gelmiĢtir. Sabah ve Yeni ġafak gazeteleri Erdoğan‟ın yaptığı açıklamaları haberleĢtirmemiĢ, bunun yerine Diyanet ĠĢleri BaĢkanı‟nın yaptığı açıklamalar, kadına yönelik okutulan hutbe haberleĢtirilerek din eksenli bir çözümleme yapılmıĢtır. Konu ile ilgili belirlenen gazetelerdeki bir aylık süreçteki haberler incelendiğinde ele alınan konunun tanımlanma biçimlerinde; gazetelerin ideolojik yönelimlerinin ve hükümet politikalarına yaklaĢım biçimlerinin belirleyici olduğu bir çok çalıĢmada ortaya konulduğu gibi bu çalıĢmada da iki önemli değiĢken olarak ön plana çıkmıĢtır. Kaynakça Balcı, Y. (2008). Herkes İçin Adli Tıp Cep Kitabı. EskiĢehir: EskiĢehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Yayınları. Connell R. W (1998). Toplumsal Cinsiyet ve İktidar (Çev: Cem Soydemir), Ġstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. DiĢsiz, M. ve ġahin H. (2008). “Evrensel Bir Kadın Sağlığı Sorunu: Kadına Yönelik ġiddet”, Maltepe Üniversitesi Hemşirelik Bilim ve Sanatı Dergisi, 1(1), 50-58. Dökmen, Z. Y. (2006). Toplumsal Cinsiyet. Ġstanbul: Sistem Yayıncılık.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Ecevit, Y. (2003). “Toplumsal Cinsiyetle Yoksulluk ĠliĢkisi Nasıl Kurulabilir? Bu iliĢki Nasıl ÇalıĢılabilir?” C.Ü. Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi Özel Eki, 25 (4), 83-88. Erten, Y. ve Ardalı, C. (1996). Saldırganlık ġiddet ve Terörün Psikososyal Yapıları, Cogito, 6 (7), 143-164. Gökkaya, V. B. (2011). “Türkiye‟de Kadına Yönelik Ekonomik ġiddet”, C.Ü İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 12 (2), 101-112. Ġmançer, D. ve Yurderi M. M. (2010). “Televizyonda Kadın Programları: Türlerarasılık ve Söylem”. Dilek Ġmançer (Ed), Medyayı Anlamak, Ankara: Deki Basım Yayın, 109-147. Ġnal, A. (1996). Haberi Okumak. Ġstanbul: Temuçin Yayınları. Ġnal, Ġ. (2009). “Haber Medyası, Siyaset ve Terör”, M. ġeker ve T. ġeker (Eds), Terör ve Haber Söylemi, Ġstanbul: Literatürk Yayınevi, 11-26. Ġnceoğlu, Y. ve Sözeri, C. (2012). Nefret Suçlarında Medyanın Sorumluluğu: “Ya sev ya terk et ya da…”, Yasemin Ġnceoğlu (Ed), Nefret Söylemi ve/veya Nefret Suçları, Ġstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları, 23-37. Karal, D. ve Aydemir, E. (2012). Türkiye’de Kadına Yönelik Şiddet. Ankara: USAK Sosyal AraĢtırmalar Merkezi Kaufman, M. (ty). Erkek Kaynaklı Şiddetin 7 Nedeni. (www.michaelkaufman.com). Kılıç, S. (2011). “Tekel Eylemi Haberlerinde Çerçeveleme: Türk Yazılı Basını Örneği”, İletişim Kuram ve Araştırma Dergisi, Sayı: 32, 1-36. Kocacık, F. (2004). Aile İçi İlişkilerde Kadına Yönelik Şiddet. Sivas: Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi Yayınları. Koray, M. (1995). “Kadın Siyaset Kota”. (Ed: Necla Arat), Her Yönüyle Türkiye’de Kadın Olgusu. Ġstanbul: Say Yayınları, 199-244. Özer, Ö. (2011). Haber Söylem İdeoloji. Konya: Literatürk Yayınları Özerkmen, N. (2012). “Topumsal Bir Olgu Olarak ġiddet”, Akademik Bakış Dergisi, 1(28), 1-19. Polat, O. (2000). Adli Tıp. Ġstanbul: Der Yayınları. Polat, O. (2011). Çocuk ve Şiddet. Ġstanbul: Der Yayınları. Sancar, S. (2011). Erkeklik: İmkansız İktidar Ailede, Piyasada ve Sokakta Erkekler. Ġstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Sancar, S. (2013). Türk Modernleşmesinin Cinsiyeti Erkekler Devlet, Kadınlar Aile Kurar. Ġstanbul: ĠletiĢim Yayınları. SubaĢı N ve Akın A (2012). Kadına Yönelik Şiddet: Nedenleri ve Sonuçları. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Kadın Sorunları Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi, http://www.huksam. hacettepe.edu.tr/ Turkce/SayfaDosya/kadina_ yon_siddet.pdf, eriĢim tarihi:15.02.2012 Timurturkan, M. (2009). “Cinsiyet EĢitsizliği Sorunu”. NurĢen Adak (Ed). Sosyal Problemler Sosyolojisi. Ġstanbul: Siyasal Kitabevi, 135-159. Uluocak, ġ., Gökulu G, Bilir O, Etizer K. N., Özbay D. (2014). Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitsizliği ve Kadına Yönelik Şiddet. Edirne: Paradigma Akademi. Ünsal, A. (1996). “Genişletilmiş Bir Şiddet Tipolojisi”, Cogito, 6 (7), 29-36. Van Dijk, T. A. (1988). News Analysis Case Studies of the International and National News in the Press. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Van Dijk, T. A. (2001). Critical Discourse Analysis. Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah Tannen, and Heidi E. Hamilton (Eds). The Handbook of Discouse Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher, 352-371 Van Dijk, T. A. (2004). Ideology and Discourse: A Multidisciplinary Introduction. Barcelona: Universitat Pompeu Farba. Van Dijk, T. A. (2009). Society and Discourse. New York: Cambridge University Press. Yıldırım, A. (1998). Sıradan Şiddet: Kadına ve Çocuğa Yönelik Şiddetin Toplumsal Kaynakları. Ġstanbul: Boyut Kitapları. http://www.uhdigm.adalet.gov.tr.

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STUDENT’S VIEWPOINT TO MEDIA LITERACY LESSON: THE CASE OF KONYA PROVINCE1

Res. Assist. Semanur SİVRİTEPE Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Journalism Dept. [email protected]

Abstract Media, reaching people through written, visual and auditory messages, has an important power in influencing the attitudes and behavior of modern man. The increased time spent with the media during the day and even becoming addicted to the media have made it necessary to consider media tools. This is because media messages driven by various interest groups, contrary to popular belief, are not harmless. Tendency to be aware of the media messages transferred and created for a variety of purposes is the most important reason for the emergence of the concept of media literacy. An education in this field will help students raise awareness about the media. The purpose of this study is to investigate how effective the media literacy course – having a brief history in Turkey – is on students. In this context; questions have been directed to students, and it has been detected whether there is a significant difference between the responses of the students taking media literacy course and those not taking this course. In the light of theoretical knowledge and the findings obtained from research results; the positive and incomplete points of the program have been identified, the points to be completed and considered have been identified and a conclusions and recommendations section has been created. The study universe consists of 7th and 8th grade students of primary schools in the province of Konya; and 513 students from 10 different primary schools in Selçuklu, Meram and Karatay, 3 central districts in Konya, have been selected as the sampling group and field research method has been used. Keywords: Media, Media Literacy, Media Literacy Education

1.Introduction The quick changes happened in technology in recent years, it affected communication tools, correspondingly. Media entered in a quick way of the life of indivuduals that continuously renovate itself with change of technology and improvement in time. The new media concept is arised when the media tools are varied as well as traditional media is still used. In addition to that, power, habbit, operation, prevalence and the effect of media on people are changed. This tool are changed both in terms of quality and quantity and then, invaded all areas of society and dependency of society to media is increased day by day. It is almost impossible to escape from these media tools, because of the number of tools is very high and tools are everywhere. It also shows that the society can easily affected in positive or in negative way from these media tools since society is living so much integrated these tools. The possibility of affecting from these tools is very high among especially for children and young people.Also, they gain information and ability related to life by means of these tools. Communication tools have an important role like that they can affect in a different way, re shape and change of judgement, attitude, and belief of individuals. This is necessary that the right choices could be done, because tools have important operation and serves hundreds of contents. The using of media 1

This study was derived from a master thesis.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN unconsciously causes that indivuduals can become passive and clarified the harm of media. It is curutial that indivuals need to know information about media which is the main actor of social life to make right choices. Become conscious and be active in media is very significant in terms of controlling it. In this way, it is possible to escape and be protected from the undesirable effects of media. Şahin thinks that media texts are raw material to be processed. According to Şahin, reader should divide text into pieces and see the main meanings, emotional factors, intended values and the esthetics of quality. To be happened all of these, this is necessary that individual should have a great knowledge (2011: 8) and the critical point of view. Media literacy education is needed to search media in a correct way, to take advantage of media correctly, and to prevent society from the negative affects of media. To gain media conscious to individuals is aim of education of media legacy is not only for children also it should be given in preschool time and continue in following years. Also, every individual from different ages needs this education with different levels. Media literacy education is qualified as long term change project and within this media era, this education is not a luxury and an alternative but mandatory. With this education intended to gain talent of access of information, analysis, evaluation, and generation. The main idea of this education is to become critical and asking questions. In this way, social and participant individuals are trained and also it improves the democracy. Indivual whom has the conscious of media literacy can access information in a short period of time and check if it is valid or not. Individual can access the information thinks that it is required and believed by eliminating huge amount of information that believed unnecessary or incorrect. One of the most important aim of media literacy is to be aware of individuals that the media messages are fictioned. It is wanted that this fiction is known and act accordingly. Çakmak, defines the media literacy education as how can it be possible the participation of society in different ways and it gives the possibility to be aware of our responsibility (2013: 220). It not only gives conscious to individuals but also directs media institutions need to be careful about publications. With the scope of this study, it is researched that how useful is media literacy education, how efficient the lesson is and what is the point of view of students to this lesson. With the aim of this, 10 secondary schools are researched in Konya city and made a field study. In this research, total 513 students attended and some of them took media literacy lesson and some of them didn’t. With the help of this study, it is tried to be specified how it is affected to be trained in media literacy lesson. In results section, the current situation is stated and some critics and suggesstions are made. 2. The Reasons for Media Concept and Media Literacy Education It is possible to define media as the technological environments that the high number of people can communicate each other at the same time and located far away from source and each other. Media become an irreplaceable item of society and it is necessary the continuation of life of an individual. It shouldn’t be ignored that media has convenience in people lives in so many aspects (Tuncer, 2013: 9). Like Tüzel’s mentioned (2012: 89), media makes life easier by accesing and making desired things with less money, in less time and with less efforts. In addition to mentioned points, it is also known that media has some operations as power of edification, entertainment, education, socialisaiton, detection-critic, and molding public opinion. However, because of the many reasons to contrast media’s positive qualifications it is necessary that “the critical evaluation of media” is arised from the fundamental of media literacy. Accoridng to Sadriu (2009: 13), the opportunities of communication tools and the positive attitude towards them, provides to spend more time with media and to be clarified without condition. In industrial societies, audiences are connected highly with communication tools as information source (Erdoğan ve Alemdar, 2005: 163) and it is thought that the society after arised from industrial revolution, can influenced and become convinced with these tools (Sadriu, 2009: 16). It is also observed when the topic is come to media that the media institution has undeniable power on society and can be under control of some group of people and these group of people wanted have under control of others with media tools (Taşkıran, 2007: 31).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Media which has high importance in capitalist structure in terms of economics, political and cultural is used for not only for benefit and advantage tool but also for directing and leading of conscious (Yaylagül, 2013: 5). Commercial purposes make a distinctness on media values like on other corporative values (Demir, 2006: 56). Media sector aims to make profit and started to concentrate on makin attracting, sensational and magazinish publications, instead of educational publications in order to be preferred more. Tabloidization is a regularity as fabrication, fabrication news and/or misinformation, dope, detortion of knowledge, conditioning of public opinion, false information given with the right information does not to seek of profit of public opinion (Taşkıran, 2007: 75-76). Şahin (2011: 115) tabloidization serves the aim of increasing rating of media instead of giving conscious about important events to the public. Advertisements which are the income source of media, make necessary to research the contents of the media with critical point of view. Media aims to change individuals via calling the consumer side of them instead of meet the requirements of democracy (Uysal, 2006: 121). In addition to that, commercial concerns can make the news sensational. It can be seen that the news is an advertisement itself. Şahin (2011: 123) qualified this kind of news as “advertisement appearance like news”. Bostancı adapted the statement of “the mother of all evil things” to media and he specified that the main purposes of media are to increase the rating to the highest value, to get more profit, and to take more advertisements (Bostancı, 1998). The wideness of information makes necessary to research the media in a critical way. Individuals confront much more information during the day by the communication tools which are getting cheaper and increased in amount. However, individuals don’t realized the messages most of the time. Because of the vastness and quick passage of the information, perception of individuals gets declined and it makes hard to comprehend the deep meanings (Şahin, 2011: 41-44). This makes the “knowledge should be analysed critically” necessity is borned instead of “reaching for knowledge” lost its importance (Özad, 2006: 55). It is possible to sort the monopolization factor as the necessity of media literacy methodology. It should be taken into consideration that the capital flow in the world market, technological improvements, profit situation are linked with the formation of monopolization as well as the political reasons. (Tokgöz, 2003: 31). It seems that media institutions go towards monopolization by purchasing the other media instituations or purchasing shares in order to have a right in management for the reasons of big investments, high costs, government policies, infilation etc. Media owners increased their powers by monopolization (Taşkıran, 2007: 35). Increased power caused the media that serves the highest capital and capitalist order, marketing audiences to advertisers (Demir, 2006: 56). The giving information and education operations lost importance in time when the operations are mentioned of media in first sequences. The content of publications are differentiated because of economical structure of media, be dependent on advertisements, and be the center of power-potency relationships. Media sector changed their priorities to be preferred more from continue publications and need income to make profit. In this environment, publications become to go towards to attractive sensational publications and not giving importance to the aspect of to be educational. For these reasons, media content is constituted and shared with target group with the economical and ideological private purposes. This media environment causes to comprise the media literacy methodology. 3. The Definition, Purpose and Ability to Gain of Media Literacy Media becomes one of the most effective institutions of the era by means of influence circle, power and leading qualifications. Accordingly, communication scientists started to make a research in a wide range in order to comprend the power of institution media which is highly effective and after analyzed media, media literacy is came up (İnal, 2009: 40). Media literacy is defined as the approach of education of 21st centuary (Thoman ve Jolls, 2003), media literacy can be defined as an umbrella term which has the different philosopy of education, hypotheses, frames, applications, environments, methods, targets, aims, and results of the wide spectrum (Hobbs, 2004: 134). According to Kurtoğlu (2006: 64), this concept is a perspective that using to understand better of media messages when confronted. Another explanation is the ability of evaluation of media and living with media (Çetinkaya, 2008: 51). It gives prominences the necessity of developing varied point of 883

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN views to media and its content. It aims to gain the ability to ask of the media comes to meaning of what and what happenings in media. Arar (2006: 132) defines the media literacy that the process of reaching of different messages, analyzing of this messages, evaluation and creating and conveying the messages again using with media. In this way, individuals will be more active and asking questions instead of to be passive to media, and this is a chance for being conscious citizenship which is one of the pre conditions of democracy. Media literacy is important to provide to be participant in democratical societies as well as constitute of the necessity of social justice and critical citizenship (İnceoğlu, 2006: 5). It is necessary to have a good conscious of media literacy to constitute something different from to be victim of media, to change something, at least to make an affect when we think about critical and active literacy frame (Nacaroğlu, 2006: 84). Media literacy lesson which is a long term consciousness raising project has a significant role of constitution of audience with conscious, knows what he/she wants, can create an order to media (Çetinkaya, 2008: 1). The aim of media literacy is both creating an independent media and to make people master in creating and producing of media messages by making easier to comprehend easily the power and limit of each media (Taşkıran, 2007: 91). This kind of education can not have a single purpose, adopt itself gain more than one ability. According to İnceoğlu, “Democracy, consciousness of citizenship and promote the political participation, decreasing the discrimination of nation, level and gender, preventing of drug usage, preventing of using violence, improvement of education level” are stated among of the purposes of media literacy (2006: 12). Providing individuals to be aware of and realise the different media messages, the advertisements on tv, the lyrics of cd music, the text of newspaper, the motto on tshirt are among of the purpose of media literacy education again (Treske, 2006: 18). According to İnceoğlu (2006: 5), media literacy education to be gained the individuals that differentiate reality from fantasy, understanding of media messages are defined ended structures, understanding of role of media in economical, political, social and cultural role on regional/universal societies, understanding of the democratical rights of individuals and the others, reconciliation, and opposition. Uysal (2006: 126) adds the ones above, media makes gaining the ability of how media fictionalize the meanings, how affecting the audiences, how analyzed the codes and traditions, to be aware of how make a comment on meanings served by media. The abilities of the media literacy education want to gain people are accessibility, analysis, evaluation and generating ,respectively: a-Accessibility: “It indicates the usage of different communication tools. Usage of library, usage of the classification way of attention, recognition of databases, knowing of internet structure, recognition of different search engines are the one. b-Analysis: It requires a process of carefully perception. Ability to select of the kind of publication, detecting of violence scenes, detecting of propaganda technique, realizing of balance factor on news are one of the necessity of carefully perception. c-Evaluation:Making an inference from observations is one of the expected features of an individual like the accuracy of news, the objectiveness of the advertisement information, whether product can make the things mentioned in advertisement or not. d-Generating:Taking foto, ability to design web, using of video camera, speking in front of camera, the performance ability etc.” (Şahin, 2011: 6-7). Like mentioned before, Potter (2004: 125) mentioned the seven abilities of someone during process of knowledge and when confronts with message has media literacy. These abilities: “Analyses, evaluation, presenting of general suggestions in special cases, make an inference, synthesizing (making a whole by combining ideas), summarizing”. When confront with some problems most of the time it is expected that using this abilities with different combination and orders. 4. Methodology This study is made to specify how selective media literacy lesson has an affect on students. The main aim of this study which arised from media literacy is to show how media has an affect of 7th and 8th grade students on their habits of using media, reasons for using media, the confidence of media tools, 884

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN thoughts about media and criticism. To show students’ point of view about this education about media, to specifying the affect and sufficiency of lesson are the aims of this study. According to these aims, questionnaire format is generated to ask students and field study is used as a research method. This study is general statistical control and comparative relational statistical control is made between dependent and independent variables of study. The research is made on secondary school students ages between 12 and 16 and some of them are trained media literacy and some of them didn’t. The data are collected to specify if there is a difference between the ones trained media literacy and the ones didn’t train media literacy by questionnaire applied the thoughts of students are known about media and media literacy. The data are processed by using SPSS 15 packet statistical program on electronical environment. With the aim of study, data are processed with statistical analysis, arithmetical mean, frequency analysis and t test of independent sample are used. The sample of research constitutes of 2013-2014 education-learning year 7th and 8th grade students in Konya. 10 schools are chosen in total give training about media literacy and located in central district Selçuklu, Karatay and Meram in Konya for field study. 513 students from 10 schools are the sample of this study selected by using teleological sample technique. To provide teleological sample technique, the schools are chosen according to media literacy education is given or not. In this study, 550 questionnaires are applied face to face to participants and as a result of preview, 513 questionnaires are appropriate for the analysis. 5. Findings and Comments After the information is specified above the method of mentioned study, under this title, survey results are evaluated that this survey is realized with 513 participants in total and made face to face. The results are classified under 3 main titles as socio-demographic qualifications, thoughts about media, and thoughts about media literacy of participants. 5.1. The Socio-Demographic Qualifications of Participants The socio-demographic qualifications distribution of participants is tried to be specified with frequency analysis. In this section, the following questions are asked to students; gender, age, the education level of parents, which class they are continued, whether they took the media literacy class or not etc. and it is specified the socio-demographic qualifications of students included this sample. Within this aspect, below the demographic data of participants are shown below: It is observed when gender distribution is researched within participants that the gender question is replied by all participants. According to that, from 513 participants in total, 48% (246 students) of participants are girl, and 49.6 % (267 students) of participants are boys. When the results are checked it is understand that the participant ratio of girls and boys are closed to each other. When age data is analyzed, 1.4 % (7 students) of participants are age of 12, 41.3 % (212 students) of participants are age of 13, 48.1 % (247 students) of participants are age of 14, 8.6 % (44 students) of participants are age of 15, and 0.6 % (3 students) of participants are age of 16. According the results, most of the participants are 41.3 % age of 13 is specified. When the class distribution is analised, 45.5% of participants are 7th grade students, and 54.6% of participants are 8th grade students. This results are revealed that the distribution of grade of participants is similar. When distribution level of education of mothers are analyzed the outstanding education level is primary school with the percent of 37.6 (193 mothers). The less ratio of education level is graduate student. The percent of 1.8(9 mothers) is just has a graduate student education level. According to results, 3.1% (16) mother is not literate, 1.9% (10) mother is literate, 37,6% (198) mother is graduated from primary school, 28.5% (146) mother is graduated from secondary school, 18.5% (95) mother is graduated from high school, and 8.6% (44) mother is graduated from university. When distribution level of education of fathers are analyzed, the outstanding education level is primary school like mothers with the percent of 26.3 (135 fathers). The less ratio of education level is no literate. The ratio of no literate is just 0.6% (3 fathers). According to results, 2.3% (12) father is literate, 26.3% (135) father is graduated from primary school, 22.0% (113) father is graduated from secondary school, 25.1% (129) father is graduated from high school, 19.7% (101) father is graduated 885

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN from university and 3.9% (20) father is graduate student. When making compare the education level of mothers and fathers, it is analyzed that education level of fathers is higher than mothers. 5.2. The Results of Thoughts of Participants Related with Media In this study, some questions are asked to secondary school students to know their ideas about media. In first part, 11 descriptions about media explained them and determined whether they are agree or not. Also, frequency of using media, the reason of using media, and the degree of trust on communication tools asked during the study to get information. It is tried to show according to results of this study if there is any differences between whom trained about this lesson and whom didn’t trained about this lesson. 5.2.1. The Results of the Frequency of Usage Media of Participants To show the frequency of usage media of students, the questions are asked to participants. Result of this study shows that which communication tools are used and which frequency they use. According to results, the most used communication tool is tv (  =4.04). After tv, there is internet (  =3.46), and after internet there is social media (  =3.43) are the followings. Radio is (  =2.01) 4th one. Students prefer the journal (  =1.96) and newspaper (  =1.04) rarely contrast to other ones. According to results of this study, the most of the participants prefer communication tool as tv, and the less preference is newspaper. When the frequency of media usage is analyzed according to they trained or not in media literacy lesson, significant difference is occurred in terms of internet usage. There is no significant difference between the usage of other media tools and participants. The usage of internet is higher whom trained media literacy lesson (  =3.59) then whom didn’t trained media literacy lesson (  = 3.27) (t=2,30;sd.=511;p<,05). If the data are analyzed generally the result is there is no significant difference between the usage of communication tools and training of media literacy lesson. 5.2.2. The Definition of Media Ideas of Participatiants In this section, the ideas of media of participants are analyzed if there is any difference according to they trained in media literacy or not. According to study, participants are mostly agree on“Smart signs are critical of selection of tv program” (  =3.39). The second one is “Media serves correct and confidential information” (  =3.58). The third one is “The advertisements are directed people to consume” (3.48). The less agreed 2 statements are respectively; “The media publications are aimed more entertainment than giving information” (  =1.18), “The media is affecting the relationship within family negatively” (  =1.10). T-test is applied to specify that trained in media literacy has an affect or not on ideas about media. The results show that there is no difference about media perception of students that trained media literacy and didn’t trained media literacy. 5.2.3. The Results of Reason for Usage Media of Participants One of the aim of this study is to show the reason for usage media is affected by trained in media literacy or not. The reasons for using media are the followings; get information, follow the daily progress, entertainment, usage as spare time are the outstanding reasons when usage of media is improving imagination, become habit, there is nothing else better to do, and getting together with family are the other last stated reasons. Get information (  =3.96) is the most significant reason to use media. The second one is following of daily progress (  =3.90). The less significant 2 reasons are “there is nothing else better to do” (  =2.30) and getting together with family (  =2.18). As a result of this study students are using media highly for getting information and less getting together with family. 2 Sample t test method is applied to show the reason for usage media can make any difference by trained in media literacy or not. The data shows when questions are analyzed the reason for usage of media that there is no significant difference between whom trained in media literacy and whom not. To 886

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN get information (t=,228; sd.=511; p>,05), to follow daily progress (t=1,61; sd.=511; p>,05), to usage as spare time (t=1,77; sd.=511; p>,05), to improve the imagination (t=-,697; sd.=511; p>,05), there is nothing else better to do (t=-,154; sd.=511; p>,05), to get together with family (t=,400; sd.=511; p>,05), to become habit (t=-1,44; sd.=511; p>,05), and for entertainment (t=-,140; sd.=511; p>,05). 5.2.4. The Results of Confidence towards to Communication Tools of Participant Independent sample t test method is applied to show the confidence towards to communication tools can make any difference by trained in media literacy or not. The confidence rate of communication tools is comprised by scale from 1 to 10 (1: Never trusted, 10: Highly trusted). As a result of replies of participants, all participants are replied the confidance rate questions and the lower they gave answer 1 and the highest they gave answer 10. When results are analyzed the participants trusted highly on communication tool as internet (  =6.57). After internet there is tv (  =6.17), newspaper (  =5.94), and social media (  =5,58). The less confidence rate is belongs to radio (  =5.49) and journal (  =5.10). Eventually, participants trust on communication tools is in a mid level. Independent sample t test method is applied to detect the relationship between the confidence towards to communication tools and trained in media literacy or not. As a result of replies of participants, all participants are replied related question and the lower they gave answer 1 and the highest they gave answer 10. The data shows when questions are analised there is no significant difference between the confidence towards to communication tools and whom trained in media literacy or not. There are the results for newspaper (t=-1,49; sd.=511; p>,05), tv (t=-1,49; sd.=511; p>,05), radio (t=-1,49; sd.=511; p>,05), journal (t=-1,49; sd.=511; p>,05), internet (t=-1,49; sd.=511; p>,05), and social media (t=-1,49; sd.=511; p>,05). In other words, the confidence rate of media is almost the same whom trained in media literacy and whom didn’t trained in media literacy. 5.3. The Results of the Ideas about Media Literacy Lesson of Participants Some statements are stated to participants to get know their idea about media literacy education. In accordance with this purpose, 8 questions are asked by 5 likert scale. Another questions under this titles are; the ratio of whom trained in media literacy, the recommendation of the other students by whom trained in media literacy, and whether the lesson is adequate in terms of content or not. 5.3.1. The Percentage Distribution of Trained in Media Literacy and didn’t be Trained in Media Literacy The frequency analysis is made to show the percentage distribution of trained in media literacy and didn’t trained in media literacy. As a result of study, 61.2% of the participants (317) are trained in media literacy and 38.2% of the participants (196) didn’t train in media literacy. 5.3.2. The Evaluation of Ideas about Media Literacy of Participants Some questions are stated to know their ideas about media literacy lesson of students. Arithmetic mean is calculated according to replies to questions and checked is there any difference between answers coming from the ones trained in media literacy and the ones not. The participants are mostly agreed on the statement “The lesson should be given by the teachers have knowledge about media literacy” (  =3.93). The following ones are “The methods should be learnt to students to prevent them from the negative affects of media with media literacy lesson”, and “Media literacy lesson provides to be selective of the selection of usage of media tools (newspaper, journal, internet, tv)”. The last three statements of participants are “I share information learnt in this lesson with my family and friends” (  =3.17), “This lesson is required” (  =3.15), “I think this lesson should be mandatory” (  =2.45). According to results of this study, participants don’t have a positive idea about lesson and the lesson evaluated as not necessary. Because the teachers don’t have enough knowledge and experience of media, the students are mostly selected the statement that lesson should be given by the teachers have knowledge about media. The other analysis is consist of statistical information to show if there is any difference between ideas 887

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN whom trained in media literacy and whom didn’t be trained in media literacy. Whom didn’t be trained in media literacy (  =3.45) thinks that the media literacy lesson is required (t=3,68; sd.=511; p<,05) compare to trained in media literacy (  =2.96). The ones whom didn’t be trained in media literacy (  =2.67) thinks that the media literacy lesson should be mandatory (t=2,90; sd.=511; p<,05) compare to trained in media literacy (  =2.31). The other differenciation is about the statement that media literacy lesson provides to be selective of the selection of usage of media tools (newspaper, journal, internet, tv). The ones whom didn’t be trained in media literacy (  =3.93), the ones whom trained in media literacy (  =3.65) and (t=2,55; sd.=511; p<,05). The statement that the lesson provides a creative and critical point of view to media replied higher as the ones didn’t be trained (  =3.57), the ones trained (  =3.30) and (t=2,29; sd.=511; p<,05). The statement that media is started to evaluate correctly with media literacy lesson is replied outsatanding way as the the ones didn’t be trained (  =3.45), the ones trained (  =3,23) and (t=2,01; sd.=511; p<,05). The last difference is analised is statement of I share information learnt in this lesson with my family and friends. Like in the other statements replied, the ones didn’t be trained (  =3,38), the ones trained (  =3,04) and (t=2,65; sd.=511; p<,05). 5.3.3. The Results of Recommandation of Media Literacy Lesson The question is asked to the ones trained in media literacy lesson that “Do yo recommend this lesson to didn’t be trained in that lesson before? In this study, 513 students in total, 38.6% of students (198 students) didn’t take this lesson and didn’t give any answer and 61.4% of students (315 students) are replied this question. 37.2% (191 students) of the students the ones whom trained in this lesson replied as no and just 4.5% (23 students) replied as yes. Also, 19.7% (101 students) are hesitant. As a general comment, the hight portion of ones whom trained in that lesson 61.4% don’t want to recommend this lesson to others or be hesitant about this. 5.3.4. The Sufficiency State of Lesson Content In this section, data are shown the sufficieny state of lesson content is asked whom trained in media literacy lesson. “Do yo think the lesson is sufficient in terms of content?” question is asked and 38.6% of participants didn’t give any answer and 61.4% of participants gave an answer. According to that, 42.9% (220 students) of trained in media literacy said the lesson is not sufficient in terms of content, and just 3.3% (17 students)of participants said the lesson is sufficient in terms of content. Also, 15.2% (78 students) became hesitant to answer this question. When the evaluation is made, the content of the lesson is insufficient is evaluated by most of the trained in that lesson. 5.3.5. The Results of Criticism towards to Media of Participants One of the question needs to be answered with the scope of this study is to specify which kind of differences between the participant towards to the criticism about media according to variations. In this study, the statements are made in order to measure criticism towards to media of the participant agreed on. According to that, “I can specify the violence content on media like news, movie, tv serie etc.” statement had the highest mean (  =4.07). After this one, “I can realise the negative and positive sides of media publications” statement follows. As a third one, “I can realise that the same news can be constitute differently with different media institutes” with the arithmetic mean of  =3.98. “I can realise that media made publications according to their benefits” statement is the 4th one with the arithmetic mean of  =3.71. The less agreed 4 statements among the students are consequently; “I don’t accept the media messages as it is, I examined with critical point of view (  =3.55), “I discuss the accuracy of the information that I learnt from media with my family, my teacher or my friends” (  =3.47), “I change the channel or page when I think the announced program or a newspaper news does not appropriate for my age” (  =3.45), “ I search the different tv channels and newspapers in order to query the accuracy of the same news” (  =3.41). When the result data is analyzed, students think that they feel themselves as critical but when it comes to apply this criticism they do not. Searching the accuracy of the information get from media, not watching the unappropriate media content contrast to age, or making

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN a comparison between the other communication tools in order to analyze the accuracy of knowledge show the application phase of critism. Some questions are asked to participants in order to measure the relationship between the criticism towards to media and whether trained in media literacy lesson or not. It is wanted to specify according to replies to questions which judgements they are agreed on which degree. According to it is detected that there is a difference on judgements related to be trained in media literacy lesson or not. 11 questions are asked in terms of criticsm. There is a significant difference in 2 question statements, and the rest of the 9 question statements, there is no significant difference. First of all, the statement that has a differentiation respect to be trained in lesson or not is “I can realise the negative and positive sides of media publications”. To be trained in that lesson (  =4.12) are more agreed on this than to be not trained (  =3.92) with (t=2.23; sd.=511; p<.05). “I have enough capability how media affect the individuals” is the 2nd statement that differentiate between the ones trained and the ones didn’t trained. Again the participance of the ones trained in that lesson (  =3.73) is higher than the ones didn’t trained in that lesson (  =3.53) with (t=2,05; sd.=511; p<,05). The result can be reached from data that to be trained in media literacy lesson doesn’t have so much influence on criticism towards to media. 6. Discussion and Conclusion It is necessary to be careful about the content of the media in terms of the the magnitude of collocutors and the power of influence. The education is important in order to take correct benefit of the communication tools. For this reason, its gain importance the media literacy with giving conscious to individuals to be prevented from negative affects of media messages. This conscious aims to contribute the correct perception of the indivuduals don’t accept the media messages immediately and examine with critical point of view. The fundamental of media literacy lesson is indivuals to be highly critical, active, participant, have ability to ask questions. Media literacy lesson is included in curriculum in the beginning of 2000 in Turkey while started to be trained in different times and different areas in the world. Selective Media Literacy lesson is started to be trained in pilot schools in general areas of Turkey when 2006- 2007 education-teaching year with the jointventure of MEB and RTÜK. From 2007-2008 education-teaching year, “Media Literacy” lesson is continued to be selective and trained in 7th and 8th grade students in secondary schools of general areas in Turkey. However, there are some problems detected about implementation of media literacy lesson which thought to be mandatory lesson in following years. This study is important in terms of detecting of these problems. The aim of this study is to specify the success degree of implementation of this lesson to determine that if it is related to be trained in media literacy with if there is a difference between the usage habits of media, the ideas about media literacy, and media messages or not. The mentioned study is comprised in 3 main titles as in order to specify socio-demographic qualifications of students, ideas about media and the ideas of media literacy. When demographic qualifications are examined, the remarkable thing is the distribution of gender and the distribution of grades are similar. The data of age show that the age distribution is from 12 to 16. As a result of which communication tools are used with which frequency shows that students use mostly tv and internet among communication tools, and the less preferences are journal and newspaper. There is a differentiation only about internet usage with regard to frequncy of media usage according to be trained in media literacy. According to that the ones trained in media literacy use internet more than the ones didn’t train in media literacy. Another question is about the definition of ideas about the media of the participants. Some statements about media is constituded and the agreement level of the participants are analyzed whether there is a difference related to be trained or not. As a result of analysis there is no difference on perception of media the ones trained in media literacy. Another subject is trying to be explained are the reasons for using media. To get information, to follow daily progress, entertainment are the ones outstanding, while to become habit, there is nothing else better to do, providing together with family are the last stated reasons. The conclusion can be made from this that students use media to get information while to be together with family is a rarely selected reason. Another conclusion can be made there is no difference on the reason for media usage related to be

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN trained in media literacy. When the results of confidence of communication tools are checked, the participants have trust on tv and internet more among the communication tools while participants have less trust on radio and journal. Another result is that there is no significant difference on to trust of communication tools related to be trained in media legacy. The participants are comprised from the ones trained in media literacy 61.2% and the ones didn’t trained in media literacy 38.2%. The question is asked to the ones trained in media literacy that do you recommend this course to the others. 37.2% of the students the ones whom trained in this lesson replied as no and just 4.5% replied as yes. Also, 19.7% are hesitant. As a general comment, the hight portion of ones whom trained in that lesson 61.4% don’t want to recommend this lesson to others or be hesitant about this. Another question within this study is do you think the lesson is sufficient in terms of content. Almost the half of the participant trained in media literacy think as insufficient, very little portion of the participants think as sufficient. More statements are generated and asked to students to get more detailed results. According to the statistical results, “Lesson should be trained by the teachers have knowledge about media” statement is agreed mostly. Ones of the less agreed statements are I think the lesson is required and lesson should be mandatory. According to data evaluated the result is there is no positive ideas about lesson and the lesson is thought as unnecessary from participants. Because the teachers don’t have enough knowledge and experience of media, the students are mostly selected the statement that lesson should be given by the teachers have knowledge about media. According to results of study, there are so many problems about implementing the media literacy lesson. According to replies of the question of study, there is no difference between the ones trained in media literacy and the ones didn’t trained in media literacy. The expected results are not observed according to study and it shows the lesson didn’t reach it aims. One of the significant problem about media literacy lesson is lacking of teachers qualified about media. In current education programme, teachers give the media literacy lesson whom have the different professionality. During the study it is specified that social sciences, Turkish and mathematic teachers whom don’t have so much lessons give the media literacy lesson. None of them the teachers have media literacy training and are far away from the subject. This situation leads to the result of the teachers don’t give importance enough to media literacy. However, it can make a huge change of the scope of the lesson and application that the directing communication faculty graduate students with formation. The sad result can be inference that media literacy lesson is included in curriculum but there is no application in reality. In hours of this lesson, the other lessons are trained in general or it trained nothing. Also, the decreasing the number of schools train the media lieracy show that the attention of this lesson is decresing. To increase the attention to the lesson, the more promotion should be made and the activities should be organized to attracting the advantages of this lesson. Another obstackle of media literacy lesson is that this lesson is one of the selective courses and there is no grading on school report. This situation makes the decreasing the attention of students. The materials need in the lesson should be supplied from the government or civil society organization. The technical equipment will increase the attention of students and teachers. Teachers have the important responsibilities on training of this lesson. Teachers should develop the critical side of the students by providing the active participatince of students, forgetting the way of memorization education, preparing the ambience with giving an idea to disscuss. The last statement can be said; media literacy is a social change project with the scope of all income, and ages groups, long term, and good well-meaning project. Some plans are made respect to this in years, but these plans didn’t applied as a result the project doesn’t reach the aim of it. For this reason, the serious actions should be taken to implement these plans, the controls should be made about media literacy lesson if it is necessary. References Arar, Y. B. (2006). Televizyon ve Gazete Haberlerinde “1 Mayıs” Temsilleri: Bir Medya Okuryazarlığı Çalışması. Nurçay Türkoğlu (Ed) . Medya Okuryazarlığı. İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Yayınları, 132- 141. Bostancı, N. (1998). Siyaset, Medya ve Ötesi. Ankara: Vadi Yayınları.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Çetinkaya, S. (2008). Bilinçli Medya Kullanıcıları Yaratma Sürecinde Medya Okuryazarlığının Önemi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara. Demir, V. (2006). Medya Etiği. İstanbul: Beta. Erdoğan, İ. & Alemdar, K. (2005). Öteki Kuram. Ankara: Erk Yayınları. Hobbs, R. (2004). Medya Okuryazarlığı Hareketinde Yedi Büyük Tartışma. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 37 (1), 122-140. İnal, K. (2009). Medya Okuryazarlığı Elkitabı. Ankara: Ütopya Yayınevi. İnceoğlu, Y. (2006). Medyayı Doğru Okumak. Nurçay Türkoğlu (Ed). Medya Okuryazarlığı. İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Yayınları, 4-7. Kutoğlu, Ü. (2006). Medya Okuryazarlığı ve Çocuk Eğitimi. Nurçay Türkoğlu (Ed). Medya Okuryazarlığı. İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Yayınları, 62-71. Nacaroğlu, D. (2006). Etkin Bir Medya Okur-Yazarlığı İçin Yerel Olanak ya da Olanaksızlıklar. Nurçay Türkoğlu (Ed). Medya Okuryazarlığı. İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Yayınları, 81-88. Özad, B. E. (2006). Medya Okuryazarlığı ve Yetişkinlerin Öğrenmesi. Nurçay Türkoğlu (Ed). Medya Okuryazarlığı. İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Yayınları, 55-61. Potter, W. J. (2004). Theory of Media literacy. London: Sage Publications. Şahin, A. (2011). Öğretmenler, Öğretmen Adayları ve Medya ile Bağı Olan Herkes İçin Eleştirel Medya Okuryazarlığı. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Taşkıran, N. Ö. (2007). Medya Okuryazarlığına Giriş. İstanbul: Beta Yayınları. Thoman, E. & Jolls, T. (2004).

Media Literacy:

A National Priority for a Changing World.

http://www.medialit.org/sites/default/files/663_ABSThomanJolls_reproversion.pdf

(Access

Date:

09.04.2014). Tokgöz, O. (2003). Temel Gazetecilik. Ankara: İmge Kitabevi. Treske, G. (2006). Medya Okuryazarlığı: Neden Gerekli. Nurçay Türkoğlu (Ed). Medya Okuryazarlığı. İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Yayınları, 8-15. Tuncer, A. (2013). Eğitim Fakültesi Öğrencilerinin Medya Okur-Yazarlık Düzeyleri (İzmir Örneklemi), Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Eğe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir. Tüzel, S. (2012). Medya Okuryazarlığı Eğitiminin Türkçe Dersleriyle ilişkilendirilmesi. Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 9 (18), 81-96. Uysal, M. (2006). “Medya ve Şiddet”, Toplumsal Bir Sorun Olarak Şiddet, Eğitim-Sen sempozyumu. Ankara: Eğitim Sen Yayınları. 121-127. Yaylagül, L. (2013). Kitle İletişim Kuramları. Ankara: Dipnot.

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KADIN AKADEMISYENLERĠN TV ĠZLEME ĠLE ĠLGĠLĠ TUTUM VE DAVRANIġLARININ RTÜK’LE ĠLGĠLĠ KANAATLERĠNE ETKĠSĠ: AFYON KOCATEPE ÜNĠVERSĠTESĠ ÖRNEĞĠ

Dr. Sena COġKUN Afyon Kocatepe University, Department of Cinema and Television [email protected] Özet Televizyon (TV) günümüz toplumlarında haber alma, eğitim, eğlence, kültür ve kamuoyu oluşturma gibi çok farklı ihtiyaçların sağlanmasında yoğun olarak kullanılan en etkili kitle iletişim araçlarından biridir. Televizyonun bireyler üzerindeki etkisi, değişkenlikler gösterebilmektedir. Zira televizyon, yapısı gereği hem göze hem kulağa hitap etmekte, zihni fazla yormadan dünyayı takip edebilmeyi ve haber almayı sağlamaktadır. Televizyondan etkilenmenin izler kitlenin bilişsel ve eğitsel düzeyiyle ilintili olduğu düşünülebilir. Bu nedenle de kadın akademisyenlerin bilinçli bir televizyon izleme eğilimine sahip oldukları söylenebilir. Kadın akademisyenlerin televizyon izlemeyle ilgili tutum ve davranışları ile birlikte Radyo ve Televizyon Üst Kurulu (RTÜK) hakkındaki kanaatleri, çalışmanın konusunu oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmanın amacı, söz konusu kadınların televizyon izlemeyle ilgili tutum ve davranışlarının, Türkiye’de görsel-işitsel medya alanını düzenlemek ve denetlemekle görevli üst kurul olan RTÜK ile ilgili kanaatlerine etkisini ortaya koymaktır. Çalışmanın literatür tarama sürecinde, bireylerin TV izleme eğilimlerini ölçmek amacıyla son dönemde yapılmış özgün bilimsel çalışmalar incelenmiştir. Çalışmanın uygulama kısmında, 2015-2016 eğitim-öğretim yılında Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi’nde görev yapan kadın akademisyenlerin televizyon izleme eğilimleri ve RTÜK’e yönelik kanaatlerini belirlemek amacıyla hazırlanmış anket aracılığı ile veriler toplanacaktır. Sistematik rastlantısal örnekleme yöntemine göre seçilen öğretim elemanlarına uygulanacak alan araştırması, yüz yüze görüşme tekniği ile uygulanacaktır. Toplanan verilerin analizi sonucunda elde edilen bulgular ise ilgili tablo ve şekillerle verilecektir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Televizyon, RTÜK, Görsel-İşitsel Medya, Kadın, Akademisyen

THE IMPACT OF ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS OF FEMALE ACADEMICIANS ABOUT TV WATCHING AND THEIR VIEWS ABOUT RTÜK: SAMPLE OF AFYON KOCATEPE UNIVERSITY Abstract Television (TV) is one of the most effective tools of mass media extensively used in providing several needs such as intelligence, education, entertainment, culture and formation of public opinion in today’s society. Impact of television varies from society to individuals. This is because television appeals to the eye and ear due to its structure and also enables to receive information and help us follow the world without straining the mind. It can be thought that the influence of television on audience is associated with the cognitive and educational level of audience. Therefore, it can be said that female academicians have a conscious tendency to watch television. The subject of this study consists of attitudes and behaviors of female academicians related to watching television and their views about Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK). The aim of this study is to reveal the effect of behaviors and attitudes of female academicians on 892

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN watching television (TV) and their views about RTÜK, which is the responsible for regulation and supervision of audio-visual media area in Turkey. In the literature review process of the study, recently made original scientific studies were investigated in order to measure TV watching tendencies of individuals. In the application part of the study, a questionnaire will be used and data will be collected so as to determine the TV watching tendency of female academicians who worked at Afyon Kocatepe University in the 2015-2016 academic year and their behaviors and attitudes about RTÜK. The survey research that will be applied to academic staffs that were selected by systematic random sampling method will be conducted by face to face interviewing technique. The findings obtained through the analysis of the data gathered will be displayed in the related tables and figures. Keywords: Television, RTÜK, Audio-Visual Media, Woman, Academician

1. GiriĢ Sosyal medya ile televizyonun günümüz toplumlarında başta kamuoyu oluşturulması olmak üzere eğlence, haber, eğitim, kültür gibi çok farklı ihtiyaçların karşılanmasında yoğun olarak kullanılan en etkili kitle iletişim araçlarından biri olduğu düşünülmektedir. Hem göze hem kulağa hitap eden, zihni fazla yormadan dünyayı takip etmeyi, haber almayı sağlayan yapısıyla televizyonun bireylerin tutum ve davranışları üzerindeki etkisi, değişkenlikler gösterebilmektedir. Televizyondan etkilenmenin izler kitlenin bilişsel düzeyiyle de ilintili olduğu düşünüldüğünde kadınların, özellikle ev kadınlarına nazaran daha az boş vakti olan kadın akademisyenlerin sahip oldukları eğitim düzeyiyle bağlantılı olarak bilinçli bir televizyon izleme eğilimine sahip oldukları söylenebilir. Konuyla ilgili literatür tarandığında televizyonda veya diğer kitle iletişim araçlarında genellikle ev içerisinde gösterilen kadının beden imgesi ve cinsel rolleriyle ön plana çıkarıldığını ortaya koyan çok sayıda çalışma yapıldığı görülmekle birlikte çalışma kapsamı içerisinde bu konu ele alınmamaktadır. Zira, çalışmanın konusunu, üretim ve kişilik anlamında edilgen bir konuma oturtulan ve geleneksel rolüyle bu araçlardaki yerini alan kadının medyadaki temsilinden ziyade, kadın akademisyenlerin televizyon izleme eğilimlerinin Türkiye’de görsel-işitsel medya alanını düzenlemek ve denetlemekle görevli üst kurul olan RTÜK ile ilgili kanaatlerine etkisi oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmada televizyon ve kadın ilişkisi ile Radyo ve Televizyon Üst Kurulu üzerinde durulduktan sonra, televizyon izlemeyle ilgili tutum ve davranışların RTÜK’le ilgili kanaatlere etkisi, kadın akademisyenler örneği üzerinden incelenecektir. Örneklem olarak Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi kadın öğretim elemanları seçilmiştir. 5’li Likert (1. Hiç Katılmıyorum, 5. Tamamen Katılıyorum) tarzındaki anket sorularının bulunduğu formlar, SPSS ve LISREL paket programları aracılığıyla değerlendirilerek, çalışma sonlandırılmaktadır. Nicel araştırma yönteminin kullanıldığı bu çalışmanın amacı, araştırmacı tarafından daha önce hazırlanmış olan “Kadın Akademik Personelin TV İzleme Eğilimleri: Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Örneği” adlı çalışmanın (Coşkun, 2016a) da evrenini oluşturan kadın akademisyenlerin televizyon izlemeyle ilgili tutum ve davranışlarının, RTÜK ile ilgili kanaatlerine etkisini analiz etmektir. 2. Televizyon ve Kadın Kamuoyunda yaygın görüşün oluşmasını sağlayarak toplumları etkileyen ve yönlendiren televizyon, özellikle ailelerin kültürel şekillenme sürecinde önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. Günümüzde “Yöndeşme” kavramıyla birlikte artık televizyonun bulunmadığı bir ortamın yok denecek kadar az olması; kadın-erkek, genç-yaşlı tüm bireylere hitap etmesi ve modern toplumun bireylerde yarattığı stres, yorgunluk gibi olumsuz duyguların atılması için yararlanılabilen bir araç olması, televizyonun etkisini ve kullanım oranını arttırmaktadır. Dünyanın en uzak köşesindeki herhangi bir olayı, olduğu anda evinde izleme imkânı sunan televizyon, tıpkı sosyal medyada olduğu gibi sahip olduğu “anındalık” etkisi ile izleyenleri kendisinin oluşturduğu “şimdiki zamana” konumlandırmaktadır. Bu da televizyonun gücüne güç katmakta; diğer kitle iletişim araçları karşısında üstünlük sağlamaktadır (Altun, 2011: 98; Elbir, 2012: 327). Televizyonun bugünkü kullanım biçimi ve yayın politikası ise uzakları yakınlaştırırken, kimi zaman da 893

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN yakın(da) olan her şeyi ustaca uzaklaştırmakta; evin içindeki aile bireyleri arasında dahi yalnız bir kalabalık yaratmaktadır. Toplumu oluşturan kadın ve erkeğin toplumsal yaşantılarındaki ilgi alanlarının, beğeni ve isteklerinin birbirinden farklı olması beraberinde yayınlarda da farklı alternatiflerin oluşmasına yol açmaktadır. Gerek Türkiye’de, gerekse diğer ülkelerde her iki cinsiyet için özel olarak hazırlanan programlar bulunmaktadır. Bu tür programların yayın saatleri ve içeriklerinde hitap edilen grubun özellikleri, beklenti ve gereksinimleri dikkate alınmaktadır. Eğlendirirken aynı zamanda bilgi verici (infotainment) niteliği de bulunan “sağlık ve güzellik sırları, çocuk bakımı, yemek ve ev ekonomisi ile ilgili programlar” genelde kadın izleyicilerin ilgi gösterdikleri yayınlar olarak değerlendirilebilir. Kadınlara yönelik söz konusu özel programların yanı sıra spor yayınları ile belirli meslek gruplarıyla ilgili yayın hizmetlerini, erkeklere seslenen özel programlar arasında saymak mümkündür. Ancak son yıllarda feminizm hareketlerinin de etkisi ile kadınlara yönelik yayınlarda kadının “cinsel bir meta” olarak sunulduğu, cinsiyete bağlı program yapımına çeşitli eleştiriler gelmektedir. Bu bağlamda görsel-işitsel yayın hizmetlerine ilişkin kanun koyucu tarafından tedbir alındığı görülmektedir. 6112 sayılı “Radyo ve Televizyonların Kuruluş ve Yayın Hizmetleri Hakkında Kanun”un 8. maddesinin (s) bendinde yayın hizmetleri, “Toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliğine ters düşen, kadınlara yönelik baskıları teşvik eden ve kadını istismar eden programlar içeremez” şeklinde bir hüküm yer almaktadır (Çiftçi, Kırgıl, 2015: 60). Televizyon, diğer kitle iletişim araçlarından daha kolay takip edilebilir niteliğe sahip olması bakımından da kadınlar tarafından daha fazla takip edildiği söylenebilir. Nitekim televizyonun kadınların hayatında önemli olduğunu belirten Dökmen de, televizyonun kadını, kadının da televizyonu tükettiğine dikkat çekmektedir. Kadınları televizyonun en sadık izleyicisi olarak nitelendiren Zeynep Karahan Uslu’nun “Televizyon ve Kadın” adlı çalışmasında kadınların televizyon izleme eğilimlerini araştırdığını aktaran Dökmen (2010: 135-136), araştırma sonuçlarını şöyle özetlemektedir: “Televizyon kadınların başka ülke ve dünya haberlerine ulaşma, eğlenme, bilgilenme olmak üzere çeşitli ihtiyaçlarını karşılar. Kadınlar, televizyondan sosyoekonomik düzeylerine de bağlı olmak üzere çeşitli şekillerde etkilenirler. Konuşma konularının başında televizyon programları gelir. Televizyondan siyasetteki gelişmeler, moda, yemek, kendilerini ve ilişkilerini nasıl geliştirebilecekleri konularında bilgi edinirler. Kadınlar genel olarak Türk kadınını ve çevrelerindeki kadınları geleneklerine bağlı, namuslu ve çağdaş-modern olarak betimler, ancak televizyonda izledikleri kadınları modern-çağdaş bulmakla birlikte pek de namuslu, geleneklerine bağlı vb. özellikle tanımlamamışlar; kızlarının televizyon dizilerinde doktor-öğretmen ve işkadını rollerinde oynamalarını şarkıcı, manken, ev kadını ya da zengin kadın rollerinde oynamalarına tercih edeceklerini belirtmişlerdir.”

Kadın izleyicilere yönelik yapılan aynı araştırmaya göre kadınların %41’inin televizyon kanallarını tercih etme nedenlerinin “haber bültenleri”, yine %44’ünün tercih ettikleri ilk üç programın “ana haber bültenleri” olduğu görülmektedir. Araştırmaya katılanların yarıdan fazlası da az ya da çok televizyondan etkilendiğini belirtmektedir (Karahan Uslu, 2000: 157-161). Günümüz kadınının (çalışan veya ev kadını) izlediği en gözde programların başında dizilerin geldiğini belirten Taşkıran (2007: 104-108) ise, kadınların günlük yaşamların tekdüzeliğini yine aynı düzlemde yer alan konuları içeren dizileri takip ederek çeşitlendirdiğini, çalışan kadın bile olsa kendi yaşamına benzer bir durumu yansıtan dizi kahramanını eşleştirmeler yaparak izlediğini vurgulamaktadır. Ayrıca kadınlar, konumları ne olursa olsun genellikle aile içinde ve evde gösterilmektedirler. Çalışma yaşamındaki kadınların ise ev kadını ve anne nitelikleri ön plana çıkarılmaktadır (Erdoğan, Civelek, 2012: 14). Görsel-işitsel medyanın izleyicisi konumundaki kadınların, gerçek yaşamlarındaki rollerine uygun davranışlar sergilediklerine dikkat çeken Kaypakoğlu (2004: 98), ev kadınlarının ev dışı yaşama ilişkin olduğu düşünülen haberleri ve belgesel nitelikteki programları erkeklere özgü programlar olarak görüp dışlama; pembe dizi vb. içinde ev kadınlarının görüntülü olarak var olduğu kurgusal programları izleme eğiliminde olduklarını ifade etmektedir. Taşkıran (2007: 108) da, kadınların TV’de üst, orta veya alt sınıfa ait kadınların varlığını izlemekle kendilerini gerçekleştirdiklerini, dizi karakterlerini içselleştirmeleri sonucunda da diziyle bütünleştiklerini vurgulamaktadır. Bu bütünleşme de kadına

894

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN manevi bir haz sağlamaktadır. Bu bağlamda haz yaratabilen dizilerin kadınlara bu hazzı nasıl sağladıklarıyla ilgili tespitlerde bulunan Tania Modleski (1995: 101) de, özdeşleşmeye uygun çok sayıda karakter bulunmasının yanı sıra bir sonraki bölüme ertelenen pek çok sorunun çözümünün de neredeyse hiç sonlanmadığını, daha da karmaşıklaşarak kadının yaşamında bir “bekleyiş hazzı” konumu yarattığını belirtmektedir. Türkiye’deki kitle iletişim araçlarında da Batı’dakine benzer bir şekilde yıllarca kadının yeri, evi olarak gösterilmiştir. Akdoğan’ın (2004, 32) çalışmasına göre, Türkiye’de kadının yeri genel olarak evdir, yaptığı iş ise ev işidir. Ekonomik açıdan erkeğe bağımlılık kadını ev içindeki ve dışındaki toplumsal ilişki ve rollerde arka plana itmektedir. Kadın, evinin işlerini yapan, çocuklarının ve kocasının kıyafetlerini temizleyen, karınlarını doyurandır. Çalışmanın örneklemini oluşturan kadın akademisyenlere ilişkinse Kula ve Kula (2009: 427), mesai saatlerinde derse girmek veya görev yaptıkları akademik birimle ilgili faaliyette bulunmak, bunun yanı sıra akademik yaşamın bir gerekliliği olarak, kitap, tez ve makale yazmak, kongrelerde bildiri sunmak, tez danışmanlığı yapmak gibi görevleri yürütmesi gereken kadın akademisyenlerin bilimsel çalışmalarını mesai saatleri dışında çoğunlukla evde de sürdürmek zorunda olduklarını aktarmaktadırlar. Hâlihazırda TV’nin en yoğun kullanıldığı mekânın ev ortamı olduğu düşünüldüğünde de yukarıda sıralanan nedenlerden dolayı kadın akademisyenlerin TV’yi yoğun bir şekilde izlemesi beklenmemektedir. Nitekim, Özkanlı ve Korkmaz (2000:49), örneklemini kadın akademisyenlerin oluşturduğu çalışmalarında; kadınların %78 gibi büyük bir çoğunluğunun akademik çalışmalarını evde sürdürdüklerini belirtmektedirler. Bu durum, kadın akademisyenler için iş hayatı ve aile hayatı ayrımının çok net olmadığını da göstermektedir. 3. Radyo ve Televizyon Üst Kurulu Görsel-işitsel yayın hizmetleri alanına bakıldığında, yazılı basından farklı olarak Devletlerin bir yandan radyo ve televizyon yayıncılığına devam ettikleri, diğer yandan ise, söz konusu yayıncılık alanının denetimini ve yönlendirilmesini kendi tekellerinde tutukları görülmektedir Özel radyo ve televizyon yayınlarına ruhsat (izin) verilmesi, yayın hizmeti ilkelerinin saptanması, bu ilkelere uyulup uyulmadığının denetlenmesi gibi önemli yetkiler, bizzat Devlet tarafından atanan üyelerden oluşan Konseylere verilmektedir (Coşkun, 2016b: 242). Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devleti’nin yargı yetkisi altında faaliyette bulunan radyo, televizyon ve isteğe bağlı yayın hizmetleri ise, 6112 sayılı “Radyo ve Televizyonların Kuruluş ve Yayın Hizmetleri Hakkında Kanun” hükümleri ile Ülkemizin taraf olduğu milletlerarası antlaşmalara uygunluğu açısından RTÜK tarafından izlenmekte ve denetlenmektedir. RTÜK’ün kuruluşu, görev ve yetkileri ile üyelerinin nitelikleri, seçim usulleri ve görev süreleri ilk defa 3984 sayılı “Radyo ve Televizyonların Kuruluş ve Yayınları Hakkında Kanun”da düzenlenmiştir. 3984 sayılı Kanunun 03/03/2011 tarih ve 27863 sayılı Resmî Gazete’de yayımlanarak yürürlüğe giren 15/02/2011 tarih ve 6112 sayılı Kanunla ilga edilmesi neticesinde, söz konusu hususlara, yeni Kanunda yer verilmiştir. 6112 sayılı Kanunun 34. maddesinin birinci fıkrasında belirtildiği üzere “Radyo, televizyon ve isteğe bağlı yayın hizmetleri sektörünü düzenlemek ve denetlemek amacıyla” kurulan Üst Kurul’un nitelikleri, seçim usulü ve görev süreleri ise, Kanunun 35. maddesinde düzenlenmiştir. Buna göre, RTÜK, en az dört yıllık yüksek öğrenim görmüş, meslekleriyle ilgili konularda kamu kurum ve kuruluşları veya özel kuruluşlarda en az on yıl süreyle görev yapmış, meslekî açıdan yeterli bilgiye, deneyime ve Devlet memuru olma niteliğine sahip, otuz yaşını doldurmuş kişiler arasından Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisince seçilen dokuz üyeden oluşmaktadır. 6112 sayılı Kanunda Üst Kurul, “idarî ve malî özerkliğe sahip, tarafsız bir kamu tüzel kişiliği” olarak nitelendirilmektedir (m.34/1). Üst Kurul’un yukarıda belirtilen yapısı, kurulduğu tarihten bu yana “özerklik” noktasında eleştiri konusu olmaktadır (Cankaya, Batur, 2012: 243). Üyelerin kendilerini aday gösteren siyasî partilerden bağımsız hareket etmeleri güvence altına alınmış gibi görünse de genellikle tam tersi hareket ettikleri görülmektedir. Üst Kurul üyeleri, kendilerini aday gösteren siyasî parti temsilcileri tarafından, partilerine yakın konumda yer alan medya hizmet sağlayıcıları kollamadıkları, bir diğer deyişle, yanlı karar almadıkları için eleştirilmektedirler (Coşkun, 2016b: 236). Üst Kurul’un, üyelerinin atanma sistemiyle “organik bağımsızlığa”, kararları üzerinde vesayet yetkisi 895

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN bulunmamasıyla da “işlevsel bağımsızlığa” sahip olduğunu ifade eden Tutal (2014: 37) da, Kurul’un güçlü düzenleme, denetleme, izin ve yaptırım yetkileriyle donatıldığını belirtmektedir. RTÜK, aynı Kanunun 37. maddesinde ayrıntılı olarak belirtilen görev ve yetkileri ile Türkiye’de radyo ve televizyon yayıncılığı alanında son derece önemli ve güçlü bir durumdadır. Özellikle izin ve lisans verme ve yayınları denetleyerek 6112 sayılı Kanunun 32. maddesinde bulunan idarî yaptırımları uygulama yetkisinin Üst Kurul’a ait olması, Kurul’un bu alandaki gücünü göstermektedir. Yayınların denetimi, “Sayısal Kayıt, Arşiv ve Analiz Sistemi” (SKAAS) kapsamında kayda alınan yayınları düzenli olarak izleyen uzmanlar tarafından yapılmaktadır. Uzmanlar tarafından izlenen yayınlarda tespit edilen ihlâller, Üst Kurula rapor edilmekte; söz konusu raporlar Üst Kurul’da değerlendirilerek karara bağlanmaktadır. Bunun yanı sıra “444 1 178 - RTÜK İletişim Merkezi” ve “rtuk.gov.tr” adresine gelen programlara ilişkin izleyici bildirimleri de ihlâl tespit edilmesi hâlinde karara bağlanmak üzere rapor edilerek, Üst Kurula sunulmaktadır. Yayın ilkelerini ihlâl eden kuruluşlara, 6112 sayılı Kanunun 8. maddesi gereğince ihlâlin niteliği doğrultusunda yaptırım uygulanır. Görsel-işitsel medya hizmetlerinde yani radyo ve televizyon yayıncılığında esas olarak, “yayın sonrası denetim” mevcuttur. Bu durum, 6112 sayılı Kanunun 6. maddesinin 1. fıkrasında da “Yayın hizmetlerinin içeriğine ve yayınlanmasına önceden müdahale edilemez ve yayınların içeriği önceden denetlenemez.” şeklinde hükme bağlanmıştır. Herhangi bir makam ya da mercinin yayın hizmetinin seçimi ve sunumunda medya hizmet sağlayıcı kuruluşlara baskı yapması kanunen mümkün değildir. Yayın hizmetlerini bağımsız şekilde sürdüren medya hizmet sağlayıcıların, program düzenleme serbestliğine sahip oldukları görülmektedir (Coşkun, 2016b: 244). Hatta 6112 sayılı Kanunun 7. maddesinin 1. fıkrasında, savaşlar, terör amaçlı saldırılar, doğal afetler ve benzeri olağanüstü durumların ortaya çıkardığı kriz zamanlarında dahi ifade ve haber alma hürriyetinin esas olduğu, yayın hizmetlerinin önceden denetlenemeyeceği ve yargı kararları saklı kalmak kaydıyla durdurulamayacağı ifade edilmiştir. Kanun koyucu aynı fıkrada, medya hizmet sağlayıcılara yayın öncesi denetimden ziyade “geçici yayın yasağı” getirilebileceğine ilişkin de istisnai bir hüküm getirmiştir. Kanunda bu husus, “millî güvenliğin açıkça gerekli kıldığı hâllerde yahut kamu düzeninin ciddî şekilde bozulmasının kuvvetle muhtemel olduğu durumlarda, Başbakan veya görevlendireceği bakan geçici yayın yasağı getirebilir” şeklinde yer almaktadır. Çalışmanın uygulamalı kısmında kullanılan “CHAID (Chi-Squared Automatic Interation Detection) Analizi” hakkında teorik bilgiye çalışmanın yöntem kısmında yer verilmiştir. 4. Yöntem Çalışmanın uygulama kısmında, kadın akademisyenlerin TV izleme ile ilgili tutum ve davranışlarının RTÜK’le ilgili kanaatlerine etkisini belirlemek amacı ile veri toplama aracı olarak konuyla ilgili literatür taramak suretiyle araştırmacı tarafından anket formu hazırlanmıştır. Hazırlanan bu anket formu, 15-31 Aralık 2015 tarihleri arasında çalışmanın evrenini oluşturan AKÜ’nün farklı birimlerinde çalışmakta olan 422 akademik personel arasından basit tesadüfî örnekleme tekniğine göre seçilen 230 kişiye yüz yüze görüşme tekniği ile uygulanmıştır. Anket soruları, 5’li Likert tarzındadır (1. Hiç Katılmıyorum, 5. Tamamen Katılıyorum). Kadın akademisyenlerin kimi anket sorularını yanıtlarken yaptıkları hatalar ve verdikleri eksik doldurulmuş anket formları çıkarıldıktan sonra, çözümlemeler geçerli olan 201 anket formu üzerinden gerçekleştirilmiştir. Analiz kısmında yer alan çözümlemeler ise SPSS ve LISREL paket programları aracılığı ile yapılmıştır.Çalışmada betimleyici istatistiksel teknikler ve CHAID analizi aracılığıyla ortaya çıkan veriler, tablo ve grafikler aracılığıyla verilmiştir. SmartDrill (2001)’e göre kurulan modeldeki yordayıcılar arasındaki karmaşık etkileşimleri belirleyen ve sonuçları anlaşılabilir bir ağaç diyagramı şeklinde sunan bir teknik olarak ifade edilen CHAID analizi; işlem yaparken değişkendeki farklılığı guruplar içi minimum, gruplar arası maksimum olacak şekilde farklı alt gruplara veya bölümlere tekrarlı olarak ayıran bir tekniktir. Söz konusu yöntem, karmaşık bir veri setindeki yapıyı araştırır ve bu yönden de birtakım avantajlara sahip olduğu söylenebilir. Bu avantajlar; bağımlı ve ilgilenilen olaydaki tüm değişkenlerin ölçü tipleri nominal (kategorik) ordinal veya aralıklı ölçekle ölçülmüş olabilir ve bağımsız değişkenlerin tümünün aynı tip

896

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ölçekle ölçülmüş olmasına gerek yoktur. Ayrıca analiz, bir ağaç diyagramı sunarak yorumların kolay ve anlaşılır bir şekilde yapılmasına olanak sağlar (Saraçlı, Doğan vd., 2006: 184). Çalışmanın uygulama kısmında betimleyici istatistiksel tekniklerle birlikte CHAID Analizi’ne yer verilmesinin nedeni ise, bu analizin bağımlı değişken üzerinde etkili olan etmenleri bir ağaç diyagramı ile ifade ederek, diğer analizlere göre daha görsel bir biçimde yorumlanmasının mümkün olmasının verdiği üstünlüktür. 5. Bulgular ve TartıĢma Ankete katılan bireylerin demografik özelliklerine göre dağılımları Tablo 1’de verilmiştir. Tablo 1. Ankete katılan bireylerin demografik özelliklerine göre dağılımı. DeğiĢken

Grup

f

%

Unvan

Prof. Dr.

9

4,5

Doç. Dr.

14

7,0

Yrd. Doç. Dr.

52

25,9

Öğr. Grv.

32

15,9

Okt.

16

8,0

Uzm.

13

6,5

Arş. Grv.

65

32,3

18-29

53

26,4

30-44

118

58,7

45-59

29

14,4

60 ve üzeri

1

0,5

Evli

127

63,2

Bekâr

74

36.8

Fen Bilimleri

41

20,4

Sağlık Bilimleri

57

28,4

Sosyal Bilimler

103

51,2

1

94

46,8

2

79

39,3

3+

28

13,9

Yaş grubu

Medeni Durum Çalışma Alanı

TV Adedi

Tablo 1 incelendiğinde, ankete katılan bireylerin %32,3 gibi önemli bir bölümünün Araştırma Görevlisi, %25,9’unun Yardımcı Doçent, 15,9’unun Öğretim Görevlisi, %8’inin Okutman, %7’sinin Doçent, %6,5’inin Uzman, %4,5’inin ise Profesör olduğu görülmektedir. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi’nde çalışmakta olan ve ankete katılan bireylerin %58,7 gibi büyük bir çoğunluğunun 30-44 yaş aralığında, %26,4’ünün 18-29 yaş aralığında, %14,4’ünün ise 45-59 yaş aralığında olduğu görülmektedir. Katılımcıların %0,5’i ise 60 ve üzeri yaştadır. En kalabalık grubu 30-44 yaş aralığındaki bireyler oluşturmaktadır. Ankete katılan bireylerin %63,2 gibi büyük bir çoğunluğu evli iken, %36,8’i ise bekârdır. Ankete katılan bireylerin çoğunluğunun 30-44 yaş aralığında bulunmasının medeni durumlarını da doğrudan etkilediği söylenebilir. Katılımcılar çalışma alanlarına göre incelendiğinde ise ankete katılan kadın akademisyenlerin %51,2’si Sosyal Bilimler alanında, %28,4’ünün Fen Bilimleri, %20,4’ünün ise Sağlık Bilimleri alanında çalıştığı görülmektedir. Nicelik bakımından sosyal bilimciler, fen ve sağlık

897

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN bilimcilerden daha fazladır. Ankete katılan bireylerin %46,8 gibi büyük bir çoğunluğunun evinde 1 adet TV bulunduğu, %39,3’ünün evlerinde 2 TV’si olduğu, % 13,9’luk kesimin ise 3 ve daha fazla TV’ye sahip olduğu görülmektedir. Kadın akademisyenlerin RTÜK ile ilgili kanaatleri üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin 6 farklı CHAID analizi yapılmış olup, bu analizlerin sonuçların aşağıda verilmektedir. Çalışmaya katılan kadın akademisyenlerin RTÜK tarafından uygulanan yaptırımların yayıncı kuruluşlar üzerinde etkili olduğu düşüncesi üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin yapılan CHAID analizi sonucu, Şekil 1’de yer almaktadır.

ġekil 1. Katılımcıların RTÜK’ün yaptırımları üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin CHAID analizi sonucu.

Şekil 1 incelendiğinde, kadın akademisyenlerin %51,7 gibi önemli bir çoğunluğunun RTÜK tarafından uygulanan yaptırımların yayıncı kuruluşlar üzerinde etkili olduğu düşüncesine katıldıkları ve tamamen katıldıkları; %7,5’inin ise bu düşünceye hiç katılmadığı görülmektedir. RTÜK’ün uyguladığı yaptırımların etkili olması üzerinde etkili olan değişkenin ise, TV13 “Kadınlar, dünya ve Türkiye’nin gündemini takip etmek için TV izlerler” düşüncesi olduğu görülmektedir. Kadınların dünya ve Türkiye’nin gündemini takip etmek için TV izlediği düşüncesine “hiç katılmayan, katılmayan ve kısmen katılan” kadın akademisyenler incelendiğinde, bu akademisyenlerin de %44,1’inin RTÜK’ün uyguladığı yaptırımların etkili olduğu düşüncesine katıldığı; %12,7’sinin ise bu düşünceye hiç katılmadığı görülmektedir. Diğer taraftan, kadınların dünya ve Türkiye’nin gündemini takip etmek için TV izledikleri düşüncesine “katılan ve tamamen katılan” kadın akademisyenler incelendiğinde, bu akademisyenlerin de %59,6 gibi önemli bir çoğunluğunun RTÜK yaptırımlarının medya hizmet sağlayıcılar üzerinde 898

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN etkili olduğu fikrine katıldıkları görülürken, %2 gibi küçük bir azınlığın bu görüşe hiç katılmadığı söylenebilir. RTÜK’ün yaptırımlarının etkisi konusunda, haber ve bilgi edinme amaçlı TV izlediklerini belirten bireylerin bu amaçla TV izlemeyen gruba nazaran yaptırımların etkili olduğuna dair daha olumlu görüşe sahip oldukları söylenebilir. Nitekim, kadın akademisyenlerin belirli bir eğitim düzeyine sahip oldukları düşünüldüğünde, haber ve bilgi edinme amaçlı TV izliyor olmaları, Dünya ve ülke gündemindeki gelişmelere duyarlı olmalarıyla ilişkilendirilebilir. Kadın akademisyenlerin RTÜK’ün görevlerini tarafsız ve adil bir şekilde yerine getirmediği düşüncesi üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin CHAID analizi sonucu ise Şekil 2’de yer almaktadır.

ġekil 2. Katılımcıların RTÜK’ün görevlerini tarafsız ve adil bir şekilde yapması üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin CHAID analizi sonucu.

Ankete katılan kadın akademisyenlerin RTÜK’ün görevlerini tarafsız ve adil bir şekilde yerine getirmediğine ilişkin kanaatleri incelendiğinde %26,9’unun bu görüşe kısmen katıldıkları; %49,3’ünün katıldıkları ve tamamen katıldıkları; %7,5’inin ise hiç katılmadıkları görülmektedir. Şekil 2 incelendiğinde, kadın akademisyenlerin büyük bir çoğunluğunun RTÜK’ün görevlerini tarafsız ve adil şekilde yerine getirmediği düşüncesine sahip oldukları, ancak yapılan analiz sonucunda bu düşüncelerini etkileyen herhangi bir değişkene rastlanmamıştır. Nitekim, RTÜK eski Başkanı Kayış (2006: 55), Üst Kurul çalışmalarına zaman zaman siyasetin damga vurduğuna dikkat çekerek, her gün en az 10 milletvekiliyle konuştuğunu ve milletvekillerinin genellikle seçmenlerine iş bulabilmek amacıyla kendisini aradıklarına dikkat çekerek, şu tarz cümlelere maruz kaldığını, “Başkanların Başkanı... Nasılsın... Gözlerinden öpüyorum…”; “Vallahi RTÜK’ün başına öyle yakışıyorsun ki, yani bu kadar olur…”; “Az önce kulaklarını çınlattık da, sevgili kardeşimi bir arayıp halini hatırını sorayım dedim…” şeklinde ifade etmektedir. Kurul üyelerinin “tarafsızlık” ilkesinden ayrıldıklarını vurgulayan Aziz (2014: 53)’e göre de, üyelerin aday gösterilmesi aşamasında objektiflikten uzaklaşılmakta; aday üyelerin pek çoğu liyâkate, mesleğin getirdiği bilgi ve donanıma göre değil, siyasî partilere yakınlıklarına göre seçilmektedirler. Hâlbuki, görsel-işitsel yayıncılığın, gerek teknik, gerekse içerik bakımından özelliklerini bilen, iletişim alanlarında uzmanlaşmış kişilere de Kurul üyeleri arasında yer verilmesi gerekmektedir. Çalımada ele alınan kadın akademisyenlerin RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını denetlemesi üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin CHAID analizi sonucu ise Şekil 3’te yer almaktadır.

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ġekil 3. Katılımcıların RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını denetlemesi üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin CHAID analizi sonucu.

Şekil 3 incelendiğinde, kadın akademisyenlerin %71,1 gibi önemli bir çoğunluğunun RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını denetleyen bir kurum olduğu düşüncesine katıldıkları ve tamamen katıldıkları; %7,5’inin ise bu düşünceye hiç katılmadığı görülmektedir. RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını denetleyen bir kurum olması üzerinde etkili olan değişkenin ise, TV6 “TV izlemek, kadınların hayal dünyasını geliştirir” düşüncesi olduğu görülmektedir. TV izlemenin kadınların hayal dünyasını geliştirdiği düşüncesine “hiç katılmayan ve katılmayan” kadın akademisyenler incelendiğinde, bu akademisyenlerin de %59,3 gibi önemli bir çoğunluğunun RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını denetleyen bir kurum olduğu düşüncesine katıldığı ve tamamen katıldığı; %12,8’sinin ise bu düşünceye hiç katılmadığı görülmektedir. Diğer taraftan, TV izlemenin kadınların hayal dünyasını geliştirdiği düşüncesine “kısmen katılan, katılan ve tamamen katılan” kadın akademisyenler incelendiğinde, bu akademisyenlerin de %80 gibi büyük bir çoğunluğunun RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını denetleyen bir kurum olduğu fikrine katıldığı ve tamamen katıldığı görülürken, %3,5 gibi küçük bir azınlığın bu görüşe hiç katılmadığı söylenebilir. TV izlemenin kadınların hayal dünyasını geliştireceği düşüncesine katılan kadın akademisyenlerin, bu görüşe katılmayanlara kıyasla RTÜK’ün yayın hizmetlerini denetlediğine dair düşüncelerinin daha güçlü olması; kadın akademisyenlerin -hayal dünyasını geliştirdiğine inanılan- TV yayınlarının belirli bir denetim sürecinden geçtikten sonra yayınlandığı fikrine sahip olmalarıyla açıklanabilir. Ankete katılan kadın akademisyenlerin RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını düzenlemesi üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin CHAID analizi sonucu ise Şekil 4’te yer almaktadır.

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ġekil 4. Katılımcıların RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını düzenlemesi üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin CHAID analizi sonucu.

Şekil 4 incelendiğinde, kadın akademisyenlerin %30,8’inin RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını düzenleyen bir kurum olduğu düşüncesine katıldığı; %37,3’ünün ise bu düşünceye hiçbir şekilde katılmadığı görülmektedir. Şekil 4’te yer alan durumdan farklı olarak kadın akademisyenlerin, medya hizmet sağlayıcılar tarafından sunulan yayın hizmetlerini denetlemenin yanısıra düzenleme görevi de bulunan RTÜK’ün söz konusu görevine ait farkındalıklarının yeterli düzeyde olmadığı söylenebilir. Zira RTÜK, kurulduğu tarihten bu yana yayın hizmetlerini düzenleme görevinden ziyade üstlendiği denetim rolü ve uyguladığı yaptırımlarla daha çok anılmaktadır. Şekil 4’te görüldüğü üzere, RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını düzenleyen bir kurum olması üzerinde etkili olan değişkenin de, tıpkı Şekil 4’te olduğu gibi, TV6 “TV izlemek, kadınların hayal dünyasını geliştirir” düşüncesi olduğu görülmektedir. TV izlemenin kadınların hayal dünyasını geliştirdiği düşüncesine “hiç katılmayan ve katılmayan” kadın akademisyenler incelendiğinde, bu akademisyenlerin de %48,9 gibi önemli bir çoğunluğunun RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını düzenleyen bir kurum olduğu düşüncesine hiçbir şekilde katılmadığı; %3,5 gibi küçük bir azınlığın söz konusu düşünceye tamamen katıldığı görülmektedir. Diğer taraftan TV izlemenin kadınların hayal dünyasını geliştirdiği düşüncesine “kısmen katılan, katılan ve tamamen katılan” kadın akademisyenler incelendiğinde, bu akademisyenlerin de %44,3’ünün RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını düzenleyen bir kurum olduğu fikrine katıldığı ve tamamen katıldığı görülürken, %8,7’sinin ise bu görüşe hiç katılmadığı söylenebilir. Kadın akademisyenlerin RTÜK’ün en önemli görevini ceza vermek şeklinde görmeleri düşüncesi üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin CHAID analizi sonucu ise Şekil 5’te yer almaktadır.

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ġekil 5. Katılımcıların RTÜK’ün en önemli görevini ceza vermek şeklinde görmeleri üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin CHAID analizi sonucu.

Ankete katılan kadın akademisyenlerin RTÜK’ün en önemli görevini ceza vermek şeklinde görmelerine ilişkin kanaatleri incelendiğinde, %45,2’sinin bu görüşe hiçbir şekilde katılmadıkları; %27,4’ünün kısmen katıldıkları; 27,4’ünün ise katıldıkları ve tamamen katıldıkları görülmektedir. Yapılan analiz sonucunda bu kanaatlerini etkileyen herhangi bir değişkene rastlanmamıştır. Şekil 5 incelendiğinde, RTÜK’ün en önemli görevinin ceza vermek olduğu düşüncesine katılan ve katılmayan kadın akademisyenlerin oranının hemen hemen yarı yarıya olduğu söylenebilir. Bu durum, RTÜK’ün görev ve yetkilerinin kamuoyu tarafından, bu çalışma özelinde de belirli bir eğitim düzeyine sahip oldukları varsayılan kadın akademisyenlerce yeterince bilinmiyor olmasıyla açıklanabilir. Zira, 6112 sayılı Kanunun 34. maddesinin birinci fıkrasında, radyo, televizyon ve isteğe bağlı yayın hizmetleri sektörünü düzenlemek ve denetlemek amacıyla, idarî ve malî özerkliğe sahip, tarafsız bir kamu tüzel kişiliği niteliğinde RTÜK’ün kurulduğu ifade edildikten sonra, Kurul’un görev ve yetkileri, aynı Kanunun 37. maddesinde ayrıntılı olarak (28 bent halinde) belirtilmektedir. Ankete katılan kadın akademisyenlerin RTÜK’ün yaptırımlarının TV programlarının niteliğini arttırması üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin CHAID analizi sonucu ise Şekil 6’da yer almaktadır.

ġekil 6. Katılımcıların RTÜK’ün yaptırımlarının TV programlarının niteliğini arttırması üzerinde etkili olan TV izleme tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin CHAID analizi sonucu.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Ülkemizde güçlü yaptırım yetkileriyle donatılmış görsel-işitsel ve isteğe bağlı yayın hizmetleri alanında faaliyet gösteren RTÜK bünyesinde ihlâlin niteliğine göre “uyarı, idarî para cezası, arttırımlı para cezası, programın yayınını 1-5 kez arasında durdurma ve nihayet yayın izninin iptali”nden oluşan çok aşamalı bir yaptırım mekanizması kurulmuştur. Şekil 7 incelendiğinde de, kadın akademisyenlerin %53,7 gibi önemli bir çoğunluğunun RTÜK’ün uyguladığı yukarıda belirtilen yaptırımların TV programlarının niteliğini arttırdığı düşüncesine hiçbir şekilde katılmadıkları; %5’inin ise bu düşünceye tamamen katıldığı görülmektedir. Dolayısıyla, kadın akademisyenlerin RTÜK’ün aldığı yukarıda sıralanan yaptırım kararlarına rağmen TV programlarının niteliklerinde belirgin bir artış görmedikleri ya da alınan kararların objektif ve tarafsız bir şekilde alınmadığı gerekçesiyle söz konusu yaptırımların yarar sağlamayacağını düşündükleri söylenebilir. RTÜK’ün yaptırımlarının TV programlarının niteliğini arttırması üzerinde etkili olan değişkenin ise, TV10 “TV izlemek, kadınların daha bilinçli ve toplumsal duyarlılığı olan bireyler olmasını sağlar.” düşüncesi olduğu görülmektedir. TV izlemenin kadınların daha bilinçli ve toplumsal duyarlılığı olan bireyler olmasını sağladığı düşüncesine “hiç katılmayan ve katılmayan” kadın akademisyenler incelendiğinde, bu akademisyenlerin de %63,6 gibi önemli bir çoğunluğunun RTÜK’ün uyguladığı yaptırımların TV programlarının niteliğini arttırdığı düşüncesine hiçbir şekilde katılmadıkları; %2,1 gibi küçük bir azınlığın ise bu düşünceye tamamen katıldığı görülmektedir. Diğer taraftan, TV izlemenin kadınların daha bilinçli ve toplumsal duyarlılığı olan bireyler olmasını sağladığı düşüncesine “kısmen katılan, katılan ve tamamen katılan” kadın akademisyenler incelendiğinde, bu akademisyenlerin de %44,7’sinin RTÜK’ün uyguladığı yaptırımların TV programlarının niteliğini arttırdığı düşüncesine hiçbir şekilde katılmadığı görülürken, %7,6’sının bu görüşe tamamen katıldığı söylenebilir. Dolayısıyla, TV izlemenin, kadınların daha bilinçli ve toplumsal duyarlılığı olan bireyler olmasını sağladığı düşüncesine hem katılan hem de katılmayan kadın akademisyenlerin, RTÜK’ün uyguladığı yaptırımların TV programlarının niteliğini arttırdığı düşüncesine önemli oranda katılmadıkları görülmektedir. 6. Sonuç Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi’nde görevli kadın akademisyenlerin, televizyon izleme ile ilgili tutum ve davranışlarının Türkiye’de görsel-işitsel medya alanını düzenlemek ve denetlemekle görevli üst kurul olan RTÜK ile ilgili kanaatlerine etkisinin analiz edilmesi amacıyla yapılan bu çalışmada, betimleyici istatistiksel tekniklerle birlikte CHAID analizine yer verilmiştir. Kadın akademisyenlerin doldurdukları anket formları üzerinde yapılan analizler ve verilerin çözümlenmesi doğrultusunda öne çıkan önemli sonuçlar şöyle özetlenebilir: Kadın akademiyenlerin büyük bir çoğunluğunun RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını denetleyen bir kurum olduğu düşüncesine katıldıkları ve tamamen katıldıkları görülmektedir. Bunun yanısıra RTÜK’ün TV yayınlarını düzenleyici rolü bulunduğu düşüncesine de önemli derecede sahip oldukları görülmekte; ancak, bu göreve ait farkındalıklarının henüz yeterli düzeyde olmadığı söylenebilir. Zira RTÜK, kurulduğu tarihten bu yana yayın hizmetlerini düzenleme görevinden ziyade üstlendiği denetim rolü ve uyguladığı yaptırımlarla daha çok anılmaktadır. Kadın akademisyenlerin önemli bir çoğunluğunun RTÜK tarafından uygulanan yaptırımların yayıncı kuruluşlar üzerinde etkili olduğu düşüncesine katıldıkları, ancak söz konusu yaptırımların TV programlarının niteliğini arttırdığı düşüncesine ise önemli oranda katılmadıkları görülmektedir. Bu durum, kadın akademisyenlerin RTÜK’ün uyguladığı yaptırım kararlarına rağmen TV programlarının niteliklerinde belirgin bir artış görmemeleri ya da alınan kararların objektif ve tarafsız bir şekilde alınmadığı gerekçesiyle söz konusu yaptırımların yarar sağlamayacağını düşünmeleri ile açıklanabilir. Halbuki, yaptırımların, yaptırım uygulanmasına sebebiyet veren fiilin işlenmesinden dolayı sorumluluğu olanları “ıslah etme fonksiyonu” bulunmaktadır (Coşkun, 2016b: 296-297). RTÜK’ün yaptırımlarının etkisi konusunda, haber ve bilgi edinme amaçlı TV izlediklerini belirten bireylerin bu amaçla TV izlemeyen gruba nazaran yaptırımların etkili olduğuna dair daha olumlu görüşe sahip oldukları söylenebilir. Nitekim, kadın akademisyenlerin belirli bir eğitim düzeyine sahip

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN oldukları düşünüldüğünde, haber ve bilgi edinme amaçlı TV izliyor olmaları, Dünya ve ülke gündemindeki gelişmelere duyarlı olmalarıyla ilişkilendirilebilir. RTÜK’ün en önemli görevinin ceza vermek olduğu düşüncesine katılan ve katılmayan kadın akademisyenlerin oranının hemen hemen yarı yarıya olduğu görülmektedir. Bu durum, RTÜK’ün görev ve yetkilerinin kamuoyu tarafından, bu çalışma özelinde de belirli bir eğitim düzeyine sahip oldukları varsayılan kadın akademisyenlerce yeterince bilinmiyor olmasıyla açıklanabilir. Ayrıca, ankete katılan bireylerin büyük bir çoğunluğunun RTÜK’ün görevlerini tarafsız ve adil şekilde yerine getirmediği düşüncesine de sahip oldukları görülmektedir. Kaynaklar Altun, S.U. (2011). İnsanlığın Uzaktan Görme Düşü: Televizyon ve Alternatif Medya Arayışları. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi. S:2. Akdoğan, H. (2004) Medyada Kadın. İstanbul: Ceylan Yayınları. Aziz, A. (2014). 6112 Sayılı Radyo ve Televizyon Kuruluş ve Yayın Hizmetleri Hakkında Kanun Üzerine. İletişim, Anlam, Arayış: Erol Mutlu’ya Armağan. (Haz. D. B. Kejanlıoğlu, E. Ç. Rahte, O. Taş, T. Taş, M. Yergebekov). Ankara: Ütopya Yayınevi. Cankaya, Ö., Batur Yamaner, M. (2012). Kitle İletişim Özgürlüğü. (2. Basım). İstanbul: Beta Yayınları. Coşkun, S. (2016a) Radyo ve Televizyon Yayın Hizmetlerinde Denetim. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara. Coşkun, S. (2016b) Kadın Akademik Personelin TV İzleme Eğilimleri: Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Örneği. Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimlerde Yeni Yönelimler Sempozyumu. Milano. Çiftci, A., Kırgıl, S. (2015) İçtihatlı Türk Basın-Yayın Mevzuatı. Ankara: Adalet Yayınevi. Dökmen, Z. Y. (2010) Toplumsal Cinsiyet. İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. Elbir, M. (2012) Dev Ekranın Minik İzleyicileri. (Der. N. Türkoğlu). Seyirlik Cümbüşler. İstanbul: Parşömen Yayınları. Erdoğan, M., Civelek, S. (2012) Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliğinde Medyanın Rolü Konulu Komisyon Raporu. Ankara: TBMM Kadın Erkek Fırsat Eşitliği Komisyonu Yayını. Karahan Uslu, Z. (2000) Televizyon ve Kadın. İstanbul: Alfa Basım Yayın. Kayış, S.N. (2006). Ben RTÜK Başkanıyken… (Birinci Basım). İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. Kaypakoğlu, S. (2004) Toplumsal Cinsiyet ve İletişim, Medyada Cinsiyet Stereotipleri. İstanbul: Naos Yayıncılık. Kula, N., Kula, S. (2009) Ev-İçi Alan ve Kamusal Alan Çatışması: Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Kadın Öğretim Üyeleri Örneğiyle. Uluslararası-Disiplinlerarası Kadın Çalışmaları Kongresi Bildiri Kitabı. C:1. Modleski, T. (1995) Günümüz Pembe Dizilerinde Geleceği Arama, Kadın ve Popüler Kültür. (Der. ve Çev. S. İrvan, M. Binark). Ankara: Ark Yayınevi. Özkanlı, Ö., Korkmaz, A. (2000) Kadın Akademisyenler. Ankara: A.Ü. Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Yayını, No:586. Saraçlı, S., Doğan, İ. vd. (2006) “Osmangazi Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F Öğrencilerinin Bölüm Değiştirmeyi İsteyip İstememelerinin İncelenmesi”, Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 22. SmartDrill Data Mining. Basic Introduction to https://www.smartdrill.com/analytic-techniques.html, 02.04.2016).

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Taşkıran, N. Ö. (2007) Zihinlerin Yeni Kadın İmgesi: Aliye. İstanbul: Beta Basım Yayın. Tutal, E. (2014). Bağımsız İdari Otoriteler: Radyo ve Televizyon Üst Kurulu ve 6112 Sayılı Kanun. Adalet Dergisi. S:48.

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KAZAKĠSTAN LOJĠSTĠK SEKTÖRÜ VE SEKTÖR PAYDAġLARININ LOJĠSTĠK KÖY ĠLE ĠLGĠLĠ GÖRÜġLERĠNĠN SWOT ANALĠZĠ ĠLE DEĞERLENDĠRĠLMESĠ Doç.Dr. Gülsen Serap ÇEKEROL Anadolu Üniversitesi, Açıköğretim Fakültesi [email protected] Elman GUNYASHEV [email protected] Özet Lojistik köyler; ticari operasyonlarda hem ulusal hem de uluslararası bütünleşik lojistik ile ilgili tüm faaliyetlerin çeşitli işletmeler tarafından yürütüldüğü, iyi planlanmış ve yönetilen, yük taşımalarıyla ilişkili faaliyetlerin kümelendiği ortak alanlardır. Köy, üs, merkez gibi değişik şekillerde tanımlanan bu yerler küreselleşmenin de etkisiyle sürekli kendini yenilemekte ve sektöre ve yeni teknolojiler ile daha kaliteli hizmet sunmaktadırlar. Lojistik köylerin kurulumunda dikkat edilen en önemli konu - ticari faaliyetlerin yoğun olduğu, taşımacılık modlarına yakın yük dağıtım noktalarını bütünleştiren bir noktada konumlanma zorunluluğudur. Bu bağlamda coğrafi konumu itibariyle tarihi İpek Yolu gibi önemli ticaret yollarının üzerinde bulunan, günümüzde de kara, demir ve havayollarında birçok uluslararası transit koridorunu barındıran Kazakistan lojistik potansiyeli ile incelenmeye değerdir. Kazakistan, zengin yer altı kaynakları ve ipek yolu gibi önemli bir konumda bulunması nedeniyle ciddi bir ihracat ve lojistik potansiyele sahiptir. Bu denli ticari avantaja sahip olmasına karşın sadece lojistik köy/üs/merkez değil, lojistik altyapıda dahi henüz emekleme dönemini yaşamaktadır. «Kazakistan lojistik sektörü ve sektör paydaşlarının lojistik köy ile ilgili görüşlerinin SWOT analizi ile değerlendirilmesi», isimli çalışmada, Kazakistan’ın böylesine stratejik bir noktada olmasına karşın lojistik anlamda beklentileri karşılayamaması irdelenmeye çalışılmıştır. Sonuç olarak, Kazakistan’da lojistik sektörünün kara ve demiryolu taşımacılığı ağırlıklı çalıştığı, PL (Parti Lojistik) uygulamalarının ise henüz başlangıç düzeyinde olduğu vurgulanmıştır. Bu noktada Kazakistan’da intermodal taşımacılık ve tam işlevli lojistik faaliyetler gerektiren lojistik köy/üs/merkez yapılanmaları için öncelikle taşımacılık altyapısının yenilenmesi ve geliştirilmesi gerektiği ortaya çıkmaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Lojistik, Lojistik Merkez, Lojistik Köy, Taşımacılık, PL (Parti Lojistik) Uygulamaları, Uluslararası Transit Koridoru, Dış Ticaret, Lojistik Altyapı, Kazakistan. Abstract Freight villages are nicely planned and smoothly operated complexes where all types of activities in the area of freight handling are carried out by different companies providing all types of complex logistic services for both domestic and international trading operations. These logistic centers which are also known as villages, bases or parks keep on changing from time to time under the influence of globalization processes. Logistic centers are introducing into industry and providing services to consumers with a wider range of process solutions. Freight villages are located in areas with intense trade activities, in the intersections of cargo distribution systems and near transport junctions. Kazakhstan has been in the middle of intersections of many trade routes such as the Great Silk Road for a long history. In the present day, many international transit corridors go through Kazakhstan either by Bu çalışma, “Kazakistin Lojistik Sektörü ve Sektör Paydaşlarının Lojistik Köy İle İlgili Görüşlerinin SWOT Analizi ile Değerlendirilmesi” isimli Yüksek Lisans Tezinden üretilmiştir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN motorway, railway or airway. The presence of inexhaustible supplies of material wealth has made Kazakhstan to have a big export potentialIn respect to this, a special attention of the logistic potential of Kazakhstan which is historically located in the node of important trade routes of the Great Silk Way and currently consolidates many international transit corridors that use motor, railway and air routes should be paid attention to. Due to the presence of infinite mineral reserves as well as being located in the center of the Great Silk Road,Way, Kazakhstan has a great potential in export, transport and logistics. Notwithstanding to Kazakhstan possessing great potentials in trade, it is still making its initial steps in improving its freight villages or centers and its logistic infrastructure. This study titled “Evaluation of Logistic Sector of Kazakhstan and Opinions of Participants on Freight Village through SWOT Analysis” presents an attempt to study the problem of the Kazakh logistic sector which regardless of its significant potential is unable to meet the needs of the logistic arena. The conclusion has highlighted that, basically, the logistic center of Kazakhstan includes automobiles and railway transportation and Part Logistics (PL) services are still in an infancy state of development. In this regard, in order to develop logistic centers and freight villages that can be able to provide intermodal transportation and logistics at a full range, it is necessary to modify the system and modernize the transport infrastructure. Key words: Logistics, logistic centers, freight villages, cargo transportation, logistic PL services, international transit corridors, external trade, logistic infrastructures, Kazakhstan.

1. GiriĢ Günümüzde artık anlık yaşanan teknolojik gelişmeler bir yandan sadece bireyleri, toplumu, şirketleri değil ülkeleri de kendine teknolojiye bağımlı hale getirirken, diğer yandan da ihtiyaçlarını daha uygun şartlarda karşılamanın avantajlarını da sunmaktadır. Ticaretin tamamen küreselleştiği, şirketlerin acımasız rekabet arenasında kıyasıya var olma mücadelesi verdiği dünyada, gelişmelere hızlı bir şekilde ayak uydurma potansiyeline sahip olanlar, bu gelişmelerin sağladığı fırsatları da değerlendirme imkânına kavuşmaktadır. Küreselleşmeye bağlı olarak ticari sınırların ortadan kalkması şirketlere bir yandan yeni pazarlara ulaşma yolu açarak yeni fırsatlar yaratırken, sahip olduğu pazarı kaybetme hatta şirketlerin yok olma riskini de beraberinde getirmektedir. Yirminci yüzyılın başında kavram olarak dahi bilinmediğini ifade edebileceğimiz lojistik, 1950’lerden sonra kabul görmeye başlamış, sektöre dönüşmüş, nihayet ticaretin vahşi rekabet ortamında şirketlerin var olma mücadelesinde en önemli kurtarıcı unsur olarak kendini göstermiştir. Tedarik zincirinde, üretici ile son alıcı arasında vazgeçilmez bir halkaya dönüşen lojistik sektörü de doğal olarak ekonominin diğer sektörlerinde olduğu gibi gelişmeleri yakından izlemekte ve alıcıya/ hizmet sunuma, rekabet ortamında daha mükemmelini arama yarışı içinde yer almaktadır. Yakın zamanlara kadar sadece taşımacılık olarak değerlendirilen lojistik, günümüzde dünya ticaretinin odak noktaları haline dönüşmekte, üstlendiği birçok fonksiyonla küresel rekabette işletmelerin varlık/yokluk mücadelesinde asli unsur olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bunun farkında olan ülkeler de hem ulusal ekonomiyi korumak hem de yerli şirketlerin varlıklarını sürdürebilmesine imkân sağlamak için lojistik sektörüne büyük önem vermiştir. Çok büyük maliyetli yatırımlar gerektiren lojistik sektörü altyapısının sadece özel sektör imkânlarıyla gerçekleşemeyeceği gerçeğinin farkına varan ülkelerin, değişik adlarla anılsa da lojistik köyler kurma çalışmaları, kamunun bu konuya verdiği önemi göstermektedir. Bu çalışma, “Kazakistin Lojistik Sektörü ve Sektör Paydaşlarının Lojistik Köy İle İlgili Görüşlerinin SWOT Analizi ile Değerlendirilmesi” isimli Yüksek Lisans Tezinden üretilmiştir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Lojistik sektörü, bu kapsamda lojistik merkez ve köylerin incelendiği çalışmada Kazakistan dış ticareti ve lojistik sektörü incelenmektedir. Çalışmada da görüleceği üzere gerek kara, gerekse demir yolları açısından çok sayıda uluslararası transit koridorunu barındıran Kazakistan, Sovyetler Birliği döneminden kalan altyapılarla bu sektörü ayakta tutmaya çalışırken aynı zamanda bu altyapıyı yenileme ve geliştirme çabası içindedir. En büyük ihracat kalemini yüzde 83 gibi bir oranla petrol, petrol ürünleri ve doğalgazın oluşturduğu Kazakistan’da bu ürünlerin taşınması boru hatları ile yapılmaktadır. Ancak ülkede bu taşımacılık türü lojistik taşımacılık türleri arasında değerlendirilmemektedir. Çok geniş bir coğrafyaya sahip olması ancak nüfusu ve buna bağlı olarak yerleşim yoğunluğundaki ters orantı nedeniyle ülkedeki en önemli sorun ulaşım ağlarının yetersizliğidir. Bu nedenle uluslararası veya küresel anlamda lojistik merkez veya köyler kurulmasından önce bu kapsamdaki yapılanmalara başlanması gerçekçi olmamaktadır. Bu yüzden ülke yönetimi için öncelik; lojistiğin parçalarından biri olan taşımacılık sektörünün altyapısını yenilemek, geliştirmek ve yeni ulaşım ağları oluşturmaktır. 1.1. Kavram Olarak Lojistik ve Uluslararası Lojistik Tarihte eski çağlara kadar uzanan lojistik, işletmeler açısından 20. yüzyılın ortalarında önemsenmeye başlamıştır. 1929'da başlayan Büyük Ekonomik Bunalım, ABD'de borsanın çöküşüne bağlanmakla birlikte 1930'ların sonunda küresel anlamda etkisini göstermiştir. Amerika ve Avrupa merkezli kriz, başta sanayileşmiş ülkeler olmak üzere dünyanın diğer ülkelerinde yıkıcı sonuçlara yol açmıştır. 1929 krizinin ardından, birçok ülkede 1950'li yıllarda yaşanan krizler de işletmeleri, maliyetlerini denetim altına almaları ve hatta azaltma yollarına gitmeye zorlamıştır. Arada yaşanan İkinci Dünya Savaşında askeri alanda başarıyla gerçekleştirilen lojistik faaliyetler, bu alanın sivil hayatta da kullanımına yol açmıştır. 19. yüzyıl sonlarından 1960’lı yılların başına kadar lojistik işlemler, işletmeler için bir rekabet ortamı olarak düşünülmemiş, temel fiziksel dağıtım işlevleri olarak görülmüştür. Lojistik, 1970-1980 yılları arasında, 1973 Arap-İsrail Savaşlarından ciddi şekilde etkilenmiştir. Dünyanın petrol krizini yaşadığı bu dönemde petrol fiyatlarındaki artış, taşımacılık maliyetlerini doğrudan yükseltmiştir. 1980-1990 arası dönemde uluslar arası ticarette kendini gösteren rekabet ve bu rekabette görülen aşırı büyüme, lojistik sektörünü de yakından etkilemiş, “Bütünleşik Lojistik” kavramı da bu dönemde oluşmaya başlamıştır. 1990’lı yıllardan günümüze gelindiğinde, lojistiğin teknolojik gelişmelerle yakından ilişkili olduğu görülmektedir. Uluslararası lojistikte taşımacılık, yoğun olarak uzak mesafeler arasında gerçekleştirilir. Mesafelerin çok daha fazla olması ve coğrafi farklılıkların ortaya çıkardığı bir takım doğal zorluklar nedeniyle, yerel ve bölgesel lojistiğe kıyasla uluslararası lojistikte ulaştırma hizmeti çok daha önemli bir yer tutar. Bu da ulaşım modları seçimini önemli kılar. Yöneticiler ulaşım modlarından en verimli şekilde yararlanabilmek için farklı ulaşım modlarının belirli özelliklerini bilmeli ve taşıyacağı ürünü ve lojistik maliyetleri göz önüne alarak kararını vermelidir. Uluslararası lojistik araçları kullanım türüne göre yük ve yolcu taşımacılığı araçları olmak üzere ikiye ayrılmaktadır. Yolcu taşımacılığında tek modlu taşımacılık gerçekleştirilmektedir. Denizyolu ve karayolu taşımacılığında tek araç kullanımı söz konusu iken, havayolu taşımacılığında özellikle uluslararası uçuşlarda birden fazla araç kullanılabilmektedir. Günümüzde lojistik yönetimi işletmeleri aynı anda hem rekabet hem de maliyet noktasında ortak hareket etmeye zorlamaktadır. Ancak, hizmet sundukları işletmelerin yaşadığı zorluklar, aynı zamanda kendileri de birer işletme olan lojistik sektörü için de geçerli olmaktadır. Diğer bir ifadeyle rekabet ve Bu çalışma, “Kazakistin Lojistik Sektörü ve Sektör Paydaşlarının Lojistik Köy İle İlgili Görüşlerinin SWOT Analizi ile Değerlendirilmesi” isimli Yüksek Lisans Tezinden üretilmiştir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN maliyet, lojistik alanda da geçerlidir. Bu yüzden modern lojistik de, hizmet verdikleri işletmelere yeni yaklaşımlar, uygulamalar ve sistemler sunmak zorundadır. 2. Lojistik Merkezler ve Lojistik Köyler Lojistik köy, merkez veya üs kavramı her ülkedeki gümrük işleyişinin farklı olmasına bağlı olarak “logistical park”, “transport center”, “integrated merchandise center” gibi değişik şekillerde isimlendirilmektedir. Rodrique ve Notteboom'un “lojistik yapıları ve çok yönlü ulaşım ağlarını içeren lojistik bölgeler” olarak tanımladığı lojistik köy tanımının lojistik merkez tanımına çok yakın olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Birçok yerde aynı anlamda kullanılan lojistik merkez ile lojistik köy arasında küçük bir fark vardır. Lojistik merkezler, tek ve yansız yasal diğer bir ifadeyle kurumsal bir yapı olarak karşımıza çıkarken, lojistik köylerin ise yine tek ama özel ya da halka açık yapılar olduğu görülmektedir. Bu küçük farka rağmen lojistik köy ile lojistik merkez arasındaki birçok amaç aynıdır. Bu yüzden aynı anlamda kullanılması çok büyük bir problem olarak değerlendirilmez (Elgün, 2011:203). Lojistik köylerin en önemli özelliği çoklu taşıma sisteminin kullanılması, farklı sektörlerden işletmeleri barındırması ve küresel pazara doğrudan erişim imkânı sağlamasıdır. 2.1. Dünyada Lojistik Köyler Lojistik köyleri/üsleri; ölçekleri, ticaret hacimleri ve sundukları bütünleşik lojistik hizmetlere göre dört gruba ayırabiliriz. (http://docplayer.biz.tr/423283-Lojistik-us-kavrami-ve-turkiye-analizi-doc-dr-murat-erdal.html , Erişim tarihi: 21.02.2016) 1. Yerel Lojistik Köyler/Üsler 2. Bölgesel Lojistik Köyler/Üsler 3. Uluslararası Lojistik Köyler/Üsler 4. Küresel Lojistik Köyler/Üsler Dünyada birçok kıtalararası taşıma hattı bulunmakta olup, küresel lojistik üsler bu hatların temel bağlantı noktaları konumuna sahiptirler. Singapur, Almanya'nın Hamburg, Belçika'nın Antwerp ve Hollanda'nın Rotterdam, Çin'in Hong Kong ve Şanghay, Fransa'nın Marsilya, ABD'nin Los Angeles limanları ile Singapur, ABD'nin Los Angeles, Memphis ve New York, Japonya'nın Tokyo, Almanya'nın Frankfurt, Fransa'nın Paris, İngiltere'nin Londra ve Çin'in Hong Kong ile Hollanda'nın Amsterdam Havalimanları küresel lojistik üsler için örnek verilebilir. (http://www.utikad.org.tr/pdf/Lojistikuskavrami.pdf , Erişim tarihi:02.03.2016) 3. Kazakistan Lojistik Sektörü Kazakistan, başkanlık sistemiyle yönetilen, Sovyetler Birliği'nin dağılmasıyla 16 Aralık 1991 yılında bağımsızlığına kavuşan bir ülkedir. 2 milyon 724 bin 900 𝑘𝑚2’lik coğrafyası ile dünyanın dokuzuncu büyük ülkesi konumundadır. Sahip olduğu petrol rezervleri bakımından dünyanın 9'uncu ülkesi olan Kazakistan, kömür rezervleri açısından 8'inci sırada, uranyum rezervleri açısından ise 2'nci sırada yer almaktadır. (http://www.akorda.kz/kz/republic_of_kazakhstan/kazakhstan , Erişim tarihi: 02.04.2016) Kavram olarak nitelendirilmese de Kazakistan lojistikle esasen Çin'i Avrupa'ya bağlayan tarihi İpek Yolu nedeniyle tanışmaktadır. Doğudan batıya hem ticaret hem de kültür hattı olarak kullanılan binlerce kilometre uzunluğundaki Çin'den başlayan İpek Yolu'nun sonraki durağı Kazakistan toprakları olmuştur. Tarihteki en önemli ticaret yolu olmasının yanında 2000 yıldan uzun bir süre güzergâhı üzerinde bulunan kültür, din ve ırkların etkileşimini de sağlayan İpek Yolu'nu ticaret, tarih ve kültürel Bu çalışma, “Kazakistin Lojistik Sektörü ve Sektör Paydaşlarının Lojistik Köy İle İlgili Görüşlerinin SWOT Analizi ile Değerlendirilmesi” isimli Yüksek Lisans Tezinden üretilmiştir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN değer olarak yeniden canlandırmak amacıyla başta UNESCO olmak üzere çeşitli projeler başlatılmıştır. Ülkede lojistik merkezlerin kurulması, Devlet Başkanı Nursultan Nazarbayev'in 2011 yılında yayınladığı kararname ile Kazakistan Demiryollarının (Kazakstan Temir Jolı – KTJ) sorumluluğuna verilmiştir. Aynı yıl Kazakistan'ı, bölgenin ticaret, lojistik ve işletme ağına dönüştürme planı kapsamında Ulusal Lojistiği Kalkındırma Merkezi A.Ş. (Ulttık Köliktik Logistikanı Damıtu Ortalıgı AK / UKLDO AK) kurulmuştur. (http://portal.kazlogistics.kz/kz/general_section/about/ , Erişim tarihi: 23.04.2016) Ülkenin, lojistik altyapısı tamamen kamu yatırımı olarak gerçekleştirilmektedir, bu kapsamda ülke genelinin ulaşım ağları ile birbirine bağlanması, buna paralel olarak lojistik merkezlerin kurulması projelendirilmektedir. Bu yüzden lojistik merkezlerin kurulması ve yönetimi de kamunun sorumluluğundadır. Ülkede lojistik merkez olarak adlandırılan 50'ye yakın oluşum vardır ancak bunların büyük çoğunluğu sadece depolama ve yükleme merkezi niteliğindedir. Bu merkezlerde lojistiğin temel faaliyetlerinin gerçekleştirildiğini söylemek mümkün değildir. 4. Kazakistan’da Lojistik Köy/Merkez/Üs Gereksinimi GörüĢüneYönelik Lojistik Potansiyeli SWOT Analizi Araştırmanın Amacı; Araştırma, Kazakistan’da lojistik altyapı, lojistik köy/merkez/üs yapılanması, Kazakistan Hükümeti’nin yapılanmadaki rolü, ülkenin lojistik merkez/köy/üs yapılanma potansiyeli, kamu ve özel sektörün bu konuda neler yapabileceği, yabancı girişimcilerin bu yapılanmada nasıl rol alabileceğine dikkat çekmek amacıyla yapılmıştır. Araştırmanın Veri Toplama ve Analiz Yöntemi; Araştırmada lojistik, lojistik yönetimi, lojistiğin gelişimi, dünyada ve Türkiye’de lojistik merkez ve köyler ile Kazakistan’da lojistik merkezlerin durumuna yönelik kapsamlı bir çalışma yapılmış, kitaplar, dergiler, tezler ve internet kaynakları kullanılarak konuyla ilgili güncel veriler toplanmıştır. Elde edilen veriler sonucunda analiz yöntemi olarak SWOT analizinin yapılmasının uygun olduğu görülmüştür. Bir SWOT Analizinin amacı hedeflere ulaşılabilmesi için önemli olan temel iç ve dış faktörleri belirlemektir. SWOT analizin her bir unsurunda;  Güçlü yanları oluşturan özellikler ve bunlardan nasıl yararlanılabileceği,  Zayıf yanları oluşturan özellikler ve bu zayıflıkların nasıl giderilebileceği,  Dış çevrede ne tür potansiyel fırsatlar olduğu ve bunlardan maksimum ölçüde nasıl yararlanılabileceği,  Dış çevrede tehdit unsuru olabilecek konular neler olabilir ve bunlarla nasıl başa çıkılabileceği, sorularının her birine ayrı ayrı yanıt aranmalı ve değerlendirilmelidir. Araştırmanın Bulguları ve Değerlendirme; Kazakistan lojistik altyapısı bakımından modernize olamamış ve yeni sistemlere entegre olma konusunda sorunlar yaşayan ülkeler arasındadır. Hatta lojistik, birçok işletmeci için kavram olmaktan öteye gidememektedir. Bu çalışma ile Kazakistan gibi yüksek potansiyele sahip bir ülkede, kamu ve özel sektörün lojistik ile ilgili görüşleri alınarak sektöre yönelik neler yapılabileceği belirlenmeye ve özellikle sektör paydaşlarının lojistik köy/merkez/üs ile ilgili görüşleri alınmaya çalışılmıştır. Araştırma, geniş coğrafyaya sahip ve Kazakistan gibi gelişmekte olan bir ülkede yapılıyor olması nedeni ile birtakım sınırlılıklar ile karşılaşılmıştır. Öncelikle işletme, kamu kurum ve kuruluşlarına, lojistik ile ilgili görüşleri sorulduğunda geri dönüşler sorun teşkil etmiştir. Bilgi paylaşımı konusunda Bu çalışma, “Kazakistin Lojistik Sektörü ve Sektör Paydaşlarının Lojistik Köy İle İlgili Görüşlerinin SWOT Analizi ile Değerlendirilmesi” isimli Yüksek Lisans Tezinden üretilmiştir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN çekingen tavır izleyen kamu ve özel sektörden bilgi edinme sürecinde de sorunlar yaşanmıştır. Kazakistan lojistik sektörü ile ilgili yapılan açık sorulu anket ve SWOT analizi sonuçlarına göre sektörün güçlü ve zayıf yanları, sektör için var olan tehditler ve fırsatları aşağıdaki gibi özetleyebiliriz. 4.1. SWOT Anal z Değerlend rmes Kazakistan lojistik sektörü ile ilgili yapılan açık sorulu anket ve SWOT analizi sonuçlarına göre sektörün güçlü ve zayıf yanları, sektör için var olan tehditler ve fırsatları aşağıdaki gibi özetleyebiliriz. Güçlü yanlar  Geniş bir coğrafyaya hitap etmesi,  Uluslararası transit taşımacılık hatlarının gelişmiş olması,  Zengin petrol ve doğalgaz kaynakları,  Petrol ve doğalgaz dışında diğer mineraller ile tahıl ve tahıl ürünleri ihracat potansiyeli,  Lojistik sektör için özellikle taşımacılık anlamında gerekli altyapının devletin kalkınma planlarında yer alması,  Demiryolu ray genişliğinin uluslararası standartlara uygun olması,  Ülkenin tek deniz limanı olan Aktau Limanı üzerinden Hazar Denizi üzerindeki diğer limanlara, Volga ırmağı üzerinden Baltık ülkelerine ve Karadeniz’e ulaşma imkânı,  Çin’e kadar uzanan TRACECA koridorunun Aktau Limanı üzerinden Azerbaycan’a uzanması,  Özellikle karayollarında rekabetin geliştiği bir taşımacılık sektörü,  Uluslararası taşımacılık anlaşmalarına taraf olması,  Demiryollarının ağır ve dökme yük taşımacılığı için uygun olması,  Diğer taşıma türlerinin denizyolu bağlantılı altyapısının gelişmiş olması,  Hazar Denizine kıyısı olan ülkeler arasında olan anlaşmaların genişletilmesi. Zayıf yanlar  Nitelikli eleman eksikliği,  Yetersiz ve yıpranmış altyapı,  Yetersiz ve yıpranmış teknolojik altyapı (araç parklarında kullanım süresi geçmiş/aşırı yıpranmış araç sayısı çokluğu ve zayıf teknik durum),  Düşük düzey uluslararası hatlar ile ana hatlar dâhil ulaşım ağı modernizasyonu,  Eksik ulusal ve uluslararası taşımacılık mevzuatı,  Karayolu hatlarında destek veya yardımcı hizmetlerin çok yetersiz olması (dinlenme tesisleri, akaryakıt istasyonları, rekreasyon alanları),  Etkili bir trafik izleme sisteminin olmaması (yol güvenliği, denetimsiz ve düzensiz taşımacılık,  Otomasyon, inovasyon ve teknoloji açısından geri kalmışlık,  Demiryollarında tekelleşme,  Ulusal araştırma merkezlerinin olmaması,  Sınırlarda hizmet ve kuruluşların çalışmalarında koordinasyon ve işbirliğini sağlayacak lojistik teknoloji eksikliği,  Rusya ve Ukrayna üzerinden yapılan ham metal ve metal ürünleri ihracatında, bu ülkelerin limanlarında yeterli depolama alanı sağlanamaması,  Ekonominin tüm sektörlerine hitap edebilecek taşımacılık hizmetleri modelinin eksikliği,  Düşük hizmet kalitesi,  Lojistik hizmet merkezlerinin eksikliği,  Birleşik bilgi sistemi merkezinin olmaması, Bu çalışma, “Kazakistin Lojistik Sektörü ve Sektör Paydaşlarının Lojistik Köy İle İlgili Görüşlerinin SWOT Analizi ile Değerlendirilmesi” isimli Yüksek Lisans Tezinden üretilmiştir.

910

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN  Veri tabanı eksikliği,  İntermodal taşımacılık hizmetlerinin gelişmemiş olması,  Ulusal deniz ticaret filosunun zayıflığı (deniz yolu ulaşımında kullanılan varlıkların aşırı yıpranmış olması ve yeterli teknolojik donanımlara sahip olmaması),  Kullanılabilecek denizyolu yoğunluğunun yeterli olmaması,  Hazar Denizini kullanan güçlü rakiplerle rekabet,  Stratejik ortakların limanlarının altyapısına bağımlılık,  Transit malların gümrüklenmesinde gereksiz süreçler,  Okyanus ve açık denizlere doğrudan ulaşımının bulunmaması,  Havacılık sektörünün kurumsal yapısının zayıflığı,  Havayollarında devletin uyguladığı katı politikalar sebebiyle esnek fiyatlandırmanın olmaması,  Akaryakıtın ülkede yeterli miktarda üretilmemesinden dolayı yakıt fiyatlarının yüksek, kalitenin düşük olması,  Uluslar arası Sivil Havacılık Örgütü (ICAO) ile Kazakistan sivil havacılık standartları arasında uyumsuzluk. Fırsatlar  Coğrafi konum,  Hizmet kalitesinin yükseltilmesi,  Çevre koruma, enerji tasarrufu, ekonomik verimlilik teknolojileri ile sektör güvenliğini artırmaya yönelik teknolojilerin tanınması,  İntermodal ve konteynır taşımacılık oranının artması,  Taşıma ve lojistik sistemlerin geliştirilmesi,  Mevcut altyapının geliştirilmesi ve yeni altyapı oluşturulması,  Sevkiyat merkezi kontrol sisteminin tanınması,  Uluslararası taşımacılığa entegrasyon sağlanması sistemlerinin geliştirilmesi,  Kamu-özel sektör işbirliğinin geliştirilmesi,  Demiryolu taşıma hizmetlerine talebin artması,  Yatırım imkânlarına açık olması,  Toplumsal öneme sahip mal taşımacılığında devlet sübvansiyonları,  Yolcu taşıma araçlarının (vagon) yenilenmesinde devlet sübvansiyonları.  Taşımacılık sektörü pazarının gelişebilme imkânının varlığı,  Kazakistan’ın uluslararası ulaştırma hatlarının geliştirilmesi için ulusal ve uluslararası organizasyonlarla işbirliği,  Sektöre ileri teknoloji ve yeni standartların kazandırılması,  Sektör ile ilgili mevzuatların iyileştirilmesi,  Kazakistan’ın ekonomik potansiyelinin artması,  Kazakistan’ın uluslararası ulaştırma hatlarının geliştirilmesi için ulusal ve uluslararası organizasyonların işbirliği. Tehditler  Taşımacılıkla ilgili mevzuatlardaki eksiklikler nedeniyle yollarda ulaşımın engellenmesi, araçlarla yasadışı taşıma işlemlerinin yapılabilmesi, teknik çalışma kurallarının ihlali,  Aşırı yıpranmış altyapı ve mobilize yapı nedeniyle risklerin artması,  Yolcu taşımacılığında toplumsal önem taşıyan hatlarda devletin yetersiz sübvansiyonları, Bu çalışma, “Kazakistin Lojistik Sektörü ve Sektör Paydaşlarının Lojistik Köy İle İlgili Görüşlerinin SWOT Analizi ile Değerlendirilmesi” isimli Yüksek Lisans Tezinden üretilmiştir.

911

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN  Devletin mevcut demiryolu taşımacılığı politikasında riskleri ortadan kaldırmaya yönelik senaryoların görülmemesi, modernizasyona yeterli finansman ayrılmaması,  Kamu işletmesi olan Kazakistan Demiryollarını (KTJ) korumaya yönelik ayrımcı politikaların sürmesi,  Operasyonel tehditler (trafik güvenliği, iş ve çevre koruma güvenliği, yıpranmış varlıkların kaza riskini arttırması),  Dış ekonomik krizlerin tekrarı ve hammadde fiyatlarının düşmesi sebebiyle taşımacılık potansiyelinin düşmesi,  Dövize bağlı tehditler (yatırımların ABD Doları olarak finanse edilmesi ve dövizde meydana gelebilecek değişiklikler).  Akaryakıt fiyatlarında enflasyona göre daha hızlı artış ve buna bağlı olarak kamu ve özel şirketlerin giderlerinin yükselmesi,  Devlet tarafından yeterli destek verilmemesi,  Komşu ülkelere tahıl ve tahıl ürünleri ihracatında sorunlar ortaya çıkması,  Komşu ülkelerin sektörde izlediği politikaların Kazakistan’ın rekabet gücüne zarar vermesi (özellikle Rusya Federasyonu’nun havacılık politikası ile bağlantılı olarak Kazakistan'ın transit taşımacılık potansiyelini azaltmaya yönelik alabileceği önlemler),  Komşu ülkelerin alternatif transit taşımacılık hatları uygulamaları,  Diğer ülkelerin oluşturacağı yapay engeller nedeniyle Kazakistan firmalarının uluslararası taşımacılık pazarında oranının azalması,  Ekonomik olmayan iç-dış havayolu hatlarının çokluğu. 5. Sonuç Kazakistan lojistik sektörü paydaşlarından gelen yanıtlar doğrultusunda SWOT analizine ilişkin genel bir değerlendirme yapıldığında, şu bulgulara ulaşılmıştır; Kazakistan‟da lojistik sektörünün gelişimi ve çağdaş lojistik merkezlerin oluşturulmasının önündeki en önemli sorun, taşımacılık altyapısı ve ağlarının yetersizliği ve mevcutların da yıpranmışlığıdır. Aynı durum araç parkları için de geçerlidir. Bu yüzden, doğrudan kalkınma planları arasında da yer alan taşımacılık altyapısının geliştirilmesine hız verilmesi, araç parklarının yenilenmesinde devlet desteği, bu sektörün uluslararası alanda rekabetine imkân sağlayacaktır. Kazakistan için sadece küresel lojistik ağda rekabet değil, en önemli ihracat ürünü olan petrol ve doğalgaz ile diğer mineral kaynaklara komşularının da sahip olduğu dikkate alındığında, dış ticarette rekabet edebilmesi için de lojistik sektörü öncelikli olmak zorundadır. Bu kapsamda lojistik sektörün gelişimi ve lojistik merkezlerin kurulmasında, buna paralel olarak küresel pazarda rekabet edilebilirlik bağlamında Kazakistan‟ın zayıf yönleri ve tehditleri ortadan kaldırabilmesi için öncelikleri şöyle sıralamak mümkündür; Ülke genelinde karayolu, demiryolu ve havayolu taşımacılık dengesi oluşturulması ve multimodal taşımacılığa dayalı uluslararası ve ulusal taşımacılık altyapısı kurulması, tüm taşımacılık altyapısındaki kapasite ve kalite yetersizliklerinin giderilmesi, araç parklarının modernizasyonu,  Transit yük taşımacılığına önem verilmesi, gerekli altyapı oluşturularak ortak transit rejimine geçilmesi, 
  Çağdaş lojistik merkezlerin kurulmasında kümelenmenin ön planda tutulması, 
  Başta taşımacılık ve gümrük mevzuatı olmak üzere mevzuatların lojistik 
maliyetleri azaltıcı yönde geliştirilmesi ve hızla uygulanması, 
 Bu çalışma, “Kazakistin Lojistik Sektörü ve Sektör Paydaşlarının Lojistik Köy İle İlgili Görüşlerinin SWOT Analizi ile Değerlendirilmesi” isimli Yüksek Lisans Tezinden üretilmiştir.

912

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN  Gümrük süreçlerinin basitleştirilmesi, otomasyonu, gümrük, taşımacılık, lojistik ve diğer şirketler ile entegrasyonun sağlanması, sınır kapılarının 
modernizasyonu, 
  Taşımacılık araçlarına akaryakıt desteği sağlanması, 
  Komşu ülkelerle ticaretin canlandırılması, ortak şirketler teşvik edilmesi ve 
lojistik entegrasyonlar sağlanması 
  Dış ülkelerde depolama ve lojistik tesisler kurulması, 
  Birleşmeler ve yatırımlar yoluyla ölçek büyütmelerin desteklenmesi, 
  Sektörde yabancı sermaye girişli, özelleştirme, serbestleştirme yoluyla tam 
rekabet ve etkin denetim gerçekleştirilmesi, 
  Lojistik veri tabanı oluşturulması, 
  Lojistik eğitiminin yaygınlaştırılması, kalitesinin yükseltilmesi, lojistik 
eğitiminde uluslararası işbirlikleri (öğrenci-öğretim üyesi değişimi, karşılıklı 
staj, vb.) artırılması,  Lojistik meslek standartları oluşturulması, kurumsallaşma ve 
profesyonelleşmenin teşvik edilmesi, 
  İnternet altyapısı geliştirilerek e-belge ve e-ticaret uygulamalarının 
yaygınlaştırılması ve desteklenmesi, 
  Lojistik merkezler arasında iletişim, planlama, koordinasyon ve izlenebilirliğin sağlanmasına yönelik bir yapılanma gerçekleştirilmesi, 
  Uluslararası kurum ve konvansiyonlara uyum sağlanması, uluslararası 
koordinasyon ve işbirliklerinin artırılması, 
  Küresel lojistik gelişmeler ve uygulamaların yakından izlenmesi ve gerekli 
önlemlerin zamanında alınması. 
Sözkonusu çalışmalar Kazakistan‟ın lojistik sektörde zayıf yönleri ile karşı karşıya olduğu tehditlerin önemli bir kısmını ortadan kaldıracak uygulamalar olarak görülmektedir. Ancak, genel itibariyle büyük bir güçlü yön olarak kabul edilen coğrafi 
konumu ile komşu ülkeler ve küresel kaynaklı zayıflıklar ve tehditler için aynı durumdan söz edemeyiz. Bu noktada, kullanılabilecek denizyolu yoğunluğunun yeterli olmaması, stratejik ortakların limanlarının altyapısına bağımlılık ile okyanus ve açık denizlere doğrudan ulaşımının bulunmaması, ülkenin güçlü yönü olan coğrafi konumu açısından zayıf yön olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Dış ekonomik krizler ve dövize bağlı tehditler sadece Kazakistan için değil dünyadaki diğer ülkeler için de önlem alınamayacak küresel tehditler olarak nitelendirebiliriz. Komşu ülkelerden kaynaklanan tehditler de ülkenin güçlü yönleri veya fırsatlar değerlendirilerek ortadan kaldırılabilecek kapsamda görülmemektedir. Bunları da şöyle sıralayabiliriz;  Komşu ülkelere tahıl ve tahıl ürünleri ihracatında sorunlar ortaya çıkması, 
  Komşu ülkelerin sektörde izlediği politikaların Kazakistan‟ın rekabet gücüne zarar vermesi (özellikle Rusya Federasyonu‟nun havacılık politikası ile bağlantılı olarak Kazakistan'ın transit taşımacılık potansiyelini azaltmaya 
yönelik alabileceği önlemler), 
  Komşu ülkelerin alternatif transit taşımacılık hatları uygulamaları, 
 Diğer ülkelerin oluşturacağı yapay engeller nedeniyle Kazakistan firmalarının uluslararası taşımacılık pazarında oranının azalmasısır. 
 Kaynakça Elgün, M.N. (2011). Uluslararası taşıma ve ticarette lojistik köylerin sağladığı rekabet avantajları: Bir

model

önerisi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Afyon: Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi. http://docplayer.biz.tr/423283-Lojistik-us-kavrami-ve-turkiye-analizi-doc-dr-murat-erdal.html,

Erişim

Bu çalışma, “Kazakistin Lojistik Sektörü ve Sektör Paydaşlarının Lojistik Köy İle İlgili Görüşlerinin SWOT Analizi ile Değerlendirilmesi” isimli Yüksek Lisans Tezinden üretilmiştir.

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tarihi:

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 21.02.2016 http://www.utikad.org.tr/pdf/Lojistikuskavrami.pdf , Erişim tarihi:02.03.2016 http://www.akorda.kz/kz/republic_of_kazakhstan/kazakhstan , Erişim tarihi: 02.04.2016 http://portal.kazlogistics.kz/kz/general_section/about/ , Erişim tarihi: 23.04.2016

Bu çalışma, “Kazakistin Lojistik Sektörü ve Sektör Paydaşlarının Lojistik Köy İle İlgili Görüşlerinin SWOT Analizi ile Değerlendirilmesi” isimli Yüksek Lisans Tezinden üretilmiştir.

914

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

MAUPASSANT'S SOCIAL CRITICISM TROUGH HIS SHORT STORY BOULE DE SUIF Inst. Seyfi Can GÜR Selcuk University, School of Foreign Languages [email protected]

Abstract Literature has often been used as a means of criticism all around the world. Maupassant, one of the most famous French writers of the 19th century, is mainly famous for his short stories. Being a good observer and capable of expressing his opinions brilliantly, Maupassant depicted the manners and characters of his age in a very vivid manner. It can be said that in many of his works it is possible to see him as he criticizes the hypocrisy, materialism, and pragmatism of the society in which he lived. Boule de Suif is one of the most outstanding stories of the author. In this short story, the moral corruption of the society is spotlighted through the heroine Boule de Suif. By creating a story including travelers on a stagecoach, Maupassant finds the opportunity to display different classes of society together. Boule de Suif could be regarded as a bitter criticism of negative aspects of the society. In this short story, the way Maupassant dealt with the social corruption of his age is examined and analyzed. Keywords: Maupassant, Social criticism, French society, Boule de suif, Short story

1. Introduction Boule de Suif is a short story written by Guy De Maupassant in 1880 in the final days of the Second Empire. The story includes some items criticizing the corruption in French society in the certain period and hypocritical factors that he connects to the Franco-Prussian war environment. (Mellerski & Kline, 1945). Included in a war personally, he narrated his experiences in his stories and managed to reflect his own perspective to his novellas. Although Maupassant wrote on a wide range of subjects, the dominant themes in his short stories were war, prostitution, and madness. Even in the very beginning of this story, the scene begins in Rouen where the effect of war still continues (Fess, 1944). This novella first appeared in a short-story collection called “Les Soirées de Medan” published by Zola. Emile Zola was one the most important figure of Parisian literature world and Maupassant was introduced to him by Flaubert who was the most effective person on his literature life (Bloom, H. 2004). By means of Boule de Suif, Maupassant met with an instant and tremendous success and as Flaubert foresaw, this story became a masterpiece. Maupassant is accepted as one of the fathers of the modern short story. He is known as the naturalist and this movement in literature first developed in France in the mid-nineteenth century. “Naturalism is a mode of fiction that was developed by a school of writers accordance with a particular philosophical thesis” (Abrams, 1999, p.153). The aim of this study is to emphasize the corruption, hypocrisy and social criticism referred in this famous novella. This social criticism is so clear in this story that the reader can perceive the situation deeply and easily, as the author connected the reality of that period to the fiction in an effective way. In addition the protagonist Boule de Suif was examined in detail as it is also the name of the story. The author criticized and reflected the society through this main character and other nine characters. During our study, both the original, French, and English versions of the story were used. Moreover the critics of the scholars and studies on this subject were examined and quoted.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

2. 1. Short Biography of Guy de Maupassant Henri-René-Albert-Guy de Maupassant was born in 1850 at the Château de Miromesnil, in France. When Maupassant was eleven and his sibling Hervé was five, his mom, as a different lady of her time, divorced his husband at the risk of all possible social criticism (Gicquel, 1993). After the separation, Laure Le Poittevin kept her two sons with her. Because of his father's absence, Maupassant's mother became the most influential figure in the young boy's life (Bayard, 1998). Especially the upper class identity of her affected him in many aspects which can be apparent in his novellas. She was so well versed lady that she improved herself and in terms of literature she was interested in classical writings, especially Shakespeare. Until the age of thirteen, Guy lived with his mom, at Étretat, in the Villa des Verguies, which was a refined place near the ocean. At the age of thirteen, his mom sent her two children to a Religious Institution in Yvetot. From his initial training he held a questioning approach towards religious concepts and began to judge its customs and orders (Borel, 1951). In 1868, as he entered lycée de Rouen, Maupassant had a contact with Gustave Flaubert who had a critical role in his life by the request of his mom (Meyniel, 2007). The Franco-Prussian War broke out soon after his graduation from college in 1870; he enlisted as a volunteer. The effect of these war years also was seen in his works. In 1871, he left Normandy and moved to Paris where he spent ten years as a clerk in the Navy Department. In 1878, he started to work as an editorial manager for a few daily papers, for example, Le Figaro, Gil Blas, Le Gaulois and l'écho de Paris. He spent his extra time on composing books and short stories. His literary career started professionally in 1880 with his perfect work of art „Boule de Suif‟ which is the scope of this study. The decade from 1880 to 1891 was the most productive years of Maupassant's life. The support of the people around him had influence on creating his works effectively and successfully. His editor, Havard, encouraged him to compose more stories, and Maupassant kept on creating them effectively. With the sense of hate for society, he adored retirement, isolation, and observation. This reaction to the society he lived can be detected in his works clearly. He travelled to lots of places like, Algeria, Italy, England, Brittany, Sicily, Auvergne, and from every trip he came back with another works (Sander, 1951). In his later years he built up a steady desire for isolation, obsession for self-conservation, and an anxiety of death. “On 2 January 1892, he tried to kill himself by slitting his throat with a paper-knife. A few days later he was diagnosed with paresis—the paralysis stage of syphilis—and was committed to a celebrated private asylum in Paris, where he remained until his death on July 6, 1893” (Bloom, 2014, p.17). 2.2. Summary and Characters of the Story This short story begins in the Norman city of Rouen during the Franco-Prussian war in 1870 winter. Many people in try to flee the city are held captive or turned back. However, only some of them were permitted to leave Rouen and in the story, ten so-called lucky passengers from Rouen are allowed to travel by coach to Dieppe by the Prussian general. The story is narrated on them. Their destination is port of Le Havre from which they can leave France for safety in England. Because of the situation of France they hope to start better lives in a free country. It has ten major characters. These ten passengers come together at the coach. In the story, the scene of corruption, betrayal and division between social classes are set through these characters. The Comte and Comtesse Hubert de Breville, gain their title through their ambiguous relation with the royal family. They have one of the most honored names in Normandy. Loiseaus are portrayed as two very different personalities; he is described as cunning and she as a cold frigid woman. Carrie-Lamadon is a corrupt businessman, who manipulates his political power to his benefit, and his wife who is younger than her husband, “beaucoup plus jeune que son mari” (Mauppassant, 2008, p.14) just regards her husband as her financial support and she finds her sexual satisfaction elsewhere. The man traveling alone, Cornudet, is a democrat and a political leftist opposed to the aristocratic government. The two nuns are simple and spend most of the time praying. Boule de Suif who is the 916

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN main character of Maupassant's short story is the woman traveling alone. She is a fat, appealing prostitute. Her birth name is Mademoiselle Élisabeth Rousset; because of her appearance she is given a nickname as Boule de Suif, or in English „The Dumpling‟. These ten passengers begin their long journey the nightlong to Tôtes. The trip is a whole of slow and distressful and everyone begins to experience the end of the line. The hunger and thirst start to cover their bodies. Unfortunately, no one but Boule de Suif has brought supplies for the trip, and the other passengers, who are described as wealthy and respectable upper class of the time, hesitate to ask for food and wine because they have an insulting manner towards Boule de Suif as they label her as immoral. Eventually, Monsieur Loiseau breaks the silence and asks for some food. Boule de Suif quickly and happily complies, eventually feeding everyone in the coach. On that occasion, the respectable individuals‟ attitudes change towards Boule de Suif. After being fed, the higher social class is happy to pay respect to this fat, desirable prostitute. Eventually the coach arrives in Tôtes. In Tôtes, Prussian soldiers greet the passengers at their coach, an event that makes everyone quite nervous. Luckily, they are allowed to continue their travels thanks to the valid documents. The passengers and the driver plan to stay in Tôtes one night and depart for Le Havre in the morning. While having dinner at the inn, the Prussian commandant calls to talk. He propositions her and she refuses angrily but politely. All of the other passengers get also annoyed by this shameless proposal. The next day, the passengers learn that their coach is not ready to start the journey. It soon becomes clear that they cannot depart Tôtes until Boule de Suif has sex with the Prussian commandant. At first, all of the other passengers are behind her decision, because they think that it would be morally undeserved and unethical to force a woman into such a painful sacrifice. However, as the days go by, her fellow passengers try to find a way to force Boule de Suif into sleeping with the commandant. The only person still opposed is the democrat, Cornudet. On the fifth night in Tôtes she has to accept this insulting proposal. The reason of this submission is that other passengers‟ force and degrading speeches at dinner table made by Comte Hubert and the Old Nun. The following morning, nine passengers get up early to pack and get foods. Yet Boule de Suif has no time to collect any food or drink as she stays with the Prussian commandant to save her fellow passengers. She is forced to hurriedly board the coach. The coach is eventually ready to start journey to Le Havre. The critical point here is that no one thanks her for her sacrifice. In this sense, the value of the passengers is revealed by their manner; on the contrary, they despise her. No one remembers the kindness to the other passengers on the road to Tôtes. Boule de Suif is left to cry in hunger and thirst, while the others feast and insult her. While the coach is traveling to Le Havre through the night, cruelty of her fellow passengers and the insulting experience leaves her in tears. 2.3. Social Criticism Revealed in ‘Boule de Suif’ As Patterson (2001, p.36) indicated that “Many of Guy de Maupassant's stories involve issues with women's sexuality. Women's sexuality became more of a controversy with the restructuring of Paris because of the simple fact that women became more visible; Maupassant incorporates issues that came with women's more frequent visibility in his short stories.” In „Boule de Suif‟ Maupassant may try to criticize the French society through a woman character whose sexuality is tried to be insulted at first but then ironically she becomes a respected woman. Unfortunately, because of some unexpected events her kindness is abused again. This story describes personal tragedies that can result from war and military occupation. The attitudes towards the main character of the book reveal the corruption, hypocrisy and class distinction of that time. Mauppassant‟s aim is to use the story as a way to transmit his ideas and views. The character he chooses is the reflection of French society. The nuns represent the church. They refuse to offer any kind of support to Boule de Suif that reveals Guy de Maupassant‟s views of the church, it is suggested that the church is not near the poor and needy and this approach is morally corrupt and against the concept of church. The proof is apparent during the conversation between the nuns and Boule de Suif: In Tôtes when Boule de Suif refuses the commander‟s indecent proposal, they tell old stories about women who sacrificed themselves for their country in the past. The reason of these stories is to pander to Boule de Suif to sacrifice herself and save her fellow passengers. At this point, the social criticism towards the church attracts the attention; the so-called religious people manipulate their statue to 917

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN exploit moral compass. The other passengers represent the upper class of French society. Their hypocrisy is reflected in the way they insult the others who are not belong to upper class. In general, they are immoral, and are tend to let other people suffer, just to get what they want. They are cruel and indifferent to other‟s bad situation when it comes to their benefit. Every action they make is decided by how much they can gain from it and self-gain is the only thing which they are concerned about. . The moral principle is that “the ends justify the means” “La fin justifie les moyens” (Maupassant, 2008, p.62). Another example for this situation is that Comtesse is so manipulative that she shakes hand and thanks respectfully to the prostitute after Boule de Suif accepts the proposal. Boule de Suif is the mirror of the working class and her character greatly contrasts with the other passengers who represent the upper class. She is shown as a helpful, honourable woman, who is kind and thoughtful. She is also depicted as very patriotic and deeply caring for her country. She is willing to fight for her country, and shows great bravery. As the writer stresses in the story that it is the great who makes the war “C‟est les grands qui font la guerre.” (Maupassant, 2008, p.44). This in fact means that although wars begins because of the ego of the upper class, while the wealthy do not risk themselves, the poor throw themselves in the fire. This is another criticism against injustice that is seen in this story. In Tôtes, as mentioned above she sacrifices herself and slept with the Prussian commandant to free herself and her companions. Boule de Suif is emotionally damaged from the event that saves the other travellers, but the actual thing hurting her more deeply is that the attitudes of her companions once again regarding her and her actions as immoral: On the trip out of Tôtes, Boule de Suif is hurried and cannot take any provisions with her, but other passengers do not offer food to her, speak with her, or thank her in any way. Here again the selfishness and hypocrisy of French society upper class people is clear. In addition even the religious concept in France loses moral value. During the first stage of the travel, while the other passengers boast their own questionable sexual life in fact they aim to humiliate Boule de Suif‟s profession, When Boule de Suif shares her food to the other passengers, they accept. In this sense, the writer criticizes the corrupt upper class use and exploits the honest working class to get what they want. They begin to talk to her moreover their insults are turned into compliments, Loiseau refers to her as charming companion “charmante compagne” (Mauppassant, 2008, p.24) and she is warmly congratulated “On la félicita beaucoup” (Mauppassant, 2008, p.28) when she tells her reason for leaving. It seems when it is for their benefit, and they are getting something in return, they do not mind talking to the lower-class passenger. Only Mdm. Loiseau does not accept to talk to Boule de Suif. Because of her cold character it is not surprising that her husband keeps staring admirably at Boule de Suif. When food finishes, the other passengers can no longer benefit from her presence, their attitudes towards her change and a „slightly chillier atmosphere‟ sets in the coach. At this point again the social criticism against upper class that Mauppasant shows in his story attracts the attention. The class distinction of that time is obvious in Comte‟s words: “You should never resist those stronger than you” “Il ne faut jamais résister aux gens les plus forts.” (Mauppassant, 2008, p.24) this claim reflects the social perception of 19th century French society. Poor or lower class people could not oppose to the one who belongs to higher statute. Like other situations this also demonstrates how sharp the class distinction was in France. Another important point is that Comtesse is so hypocrite that she shakes hand and thanks respectfully to the prostitute after Boule de Suif accepts the proposal. Another criticism against the society is about the life style of the French public; German soldiers can stay with French families and they are included in daily routine of the community that French people cannot do anything about the situation and they do not have any right to object. These are the tragedies of the war and corrupted society. 2.4. Reflection of Maupassant’s Own Life in ‘Boule de Suif’ Maupassant started his literary career in 1880. After his father‟s death, Flaubert became a father figure and a teacher for Maupassant. He learned how to be diligent in his narration, patient in imposing the right ways of expression, and meticulous in his choice of words. He also helped his student. During 1970‟s, he was introduced to Ivan Turgenev and Émile Zola who published a naturalist collection called “Les Soirées de Medan” in 1880 including this masterpiece novella (Bloom, 2004). His literary works have lots of items that are related to his own life. „Boule de Suif‟ is perhaps the best

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN demonstration of Maupassant‟s treatment of the Franco-Prussian War can be the most stunning example of this claim. He witnessed to this war so he was affected deeply and consequently mirrored the events to his story. As Wolter, (2014, p.5) stated “he coincided with many naturalists in adopting a pessimistic view of life in response to the Franco-Prussian War, the general decline in society felt at the end of the age, „Boule de Suif‟ is perhaps the best demonstration of Maupassant‟s treatment of the Franco-Prussian War and arguably the best of the Soirées de Médan”. Williams (1970, p.16) indicated that “the beginning of the story is longer when examined the context because Maupassant wanted to give the real scene and historical accuracy of the city”. As mentioned, Maupassant wrote of scenes which he had actually witnessed. Part of the situation is given here: For several days in succession fragments of a defeated army had passed through the town. They were mere disorganized bands, not disciplined forces. The men wore long, dirty beards and tattered uniforms; they advanced in listless fashion, without a flag, without a leader. All seemed exhausted, worn out, incapable of thought or resolve, marching onward merely by force of habit, and dropping to the ground with fatigue the moment they halted. One saw, in particular, many enlisted men, peaceful citizens, men who lived quietly on their income, bending beneath the weight of their rifles; and little active volunteers, easily frightened but full of enthusiasm, as eager to attack as they were ready to take to flight; and amid these, a sprinkling of red-breeched soldiers, the pitiful remnant of a division cut down in a great battle; somber artillerymen, side by side with nondescript foot-soldiers; and, here and there, the gleaming helmet of a heavy-footed dragoon who had difficulty in keeping up with the quicker pace of the soldiers of the line. Legions of irregulars with high-sounding names “Avengers of Defeat,” “Citizens of the Tomb,” “Brethren in Death”— passed in their turn, looking like banditti. Their leaders, former drapers or grain merchants, or tallow or soap chandlers—warriors by force of circumstances, officers by reason of their mustachios or their money—covered with weapons, flannel and gold lace, spoke in an impressive manner, discussed plans of campaign, and behaved as though they alone bore the fortunes of dying France on their braggart shoulders; though, in truth, they frequently were afraid of their own men—scoundrels often brave beyond measure, but pillagers and debauchees (Maupassant, 2008, p.3).

Maupassant was a pessimist by nature, and all around him he saw cruelty and self-indulgence and disloyalty. He saw the faults of human nature, and his stories reveal numerous faults (Patterson, 2001). The theme of this story as the cruelty of the bourgeoisie and the total indifference of the church towards the lower classes was narrated through the eyes of the author. „Boule de Suif‟ is appreciated for the exactness of the descriptions of war-torn Rouen and of human behaviour. The negative aspects of behaviour over-shadow the positive aspects in this story (Williams, 1970). All these elements reflect the representation of the author‟s real experiences, ideas and perspective. 3. Conclusion As a real witness to a war personally, Guy de Maupassant told his experiences in his stories and managed to penetrate his own perspective to his novellas. Although he wrote on lots of different topic, the dominant themes in his short stories are war, prostitution, and madness. In „Boule de Suif‟ Guy de Maupassant uses the story as a medium to transmit his real ideas about his society. It represents the French society in the 19th century that was the time of being exploited the poor by the rich. Guy de Maupassant uses irony to draw the picture of how the upper class are perceived and then he wipes out this image as the characters become gradually more corrupt and interest only in themselves and their gain. In this story, while the disorder that 19th century French was included in is described with a realist manner, corruption, hypocrisy, egoism, selfishness and self-interest of French society is criticised through the ten main characters. These ten characters represent every social class of the French community during the war-time when France was under the control of German army. It can be made an inference simply from the story that during this term because of war and manipulative people, the milestone of the society was no more respect, tolerance, morality or empathy but the cunning thinking. The corruption occurred in the concept of religion is also emphasized in this novella. It is so apparent that self-interests, which waft any society to the corruption, dominated over the values

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN that make a community a peaceful society. In this sense the fact of society in France that Mauppasant tried to enlighten is so obvious in this masterpiece. Therefore during the preparation process of this study as the criticism against the French society was the most remarkable fact. References Abrams, M. H. (1999). A Glossary of Literary Terms. (7th Edition). USA: Heinle & Heinle Publisher. Bayard, P. (1998). Maupassant, Juste Avant Freud. Paris: Minuet Publisher. Bloom, H. (2004). Bloom’s Major Short Story: Guy de Maupassant. USA: Chelsea House Publishers. Borel, P. (1951). Le Vrai Maupassant. Geneve: Pierre Cailler Publisher. Fess, G. M. (1944). Personal Sources for Maupassant's Contes. Modern Language Notes, the Johns Hopkins University Press, 59 (4), 277-281. Gicquel, A.C. (1993). Maupassant tel un météore. Bordeaux : Le Castor Astral. Maupassant, G. D. (2008). Boule De Suif &The Dumpling. Paralel Text. http://www.tclt.org.uk/maupassant/Boule_de_Suif_2011.pdf Mellerski, N. C. & Kline, M. B. (1999). Christian-Jaque's Boule de Suif (1945). The French Review, 72 (5), 867876. Meyniel, N. (2007). Maupassant Boule de Suif : Présentation, Notes, Chronologie et Dossier. Paris: Flammarion. Patterson, J. M. (2001). Realism in Paris: A Partnership between Guy de Maupassant and Baron Georges Haussmann. A Senior Thesis. Texas Tech University, University Honors College. Sander, E. (1951). Maupassant, Biographie. Mannheim: Kessler Williams, M. B. R. (1970). A Comparative Analysis of Selected Short Stories of Guy De Maupassant and of O. Henry (William Sydney Porter). MA Thesis. Atlanta University, ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff. Wolter, J. (2014). Maupassant and the Illusion of Reality in Rethinking the Real. Fiction, Art, and Theatre in the time of Emile Zola. Ohio: Bowling Green State University, Romance and Classical Studies French Faculty Publication.

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THE EFFECTS OF INTRA-ORGANIZATIONAL COACHING PRACTICES ON JOB SATISFACTION, ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AND COMMUNICATION: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY Prof. Dr. Şermin ŞENTURAN Bülent Ecevit University, Çaycuma Vocational School, Department of Hotel, Restaurant and Hospitality Services [email protected] Zekiye Satenik BAŞAK (MBA) Beykent University, Department of Human Resources Management [email protected]

Abstract Through the coaching approach, its positive effects on the institutions and their staff, the way the managerial coaching skills are perceived by employees, the effects of coaching practices on job satisfaction, organizational commitment and communication have been put forward in the study conducted for 986 sales consultant employed in the leading companies of IT sector. Based on the main hypothesis that coaching skill of the company managers, who, involve coaching practices in their education programs, are found to be much more developed compared to other company managers who do not involve such practices in their programs and that it will also positively affect the employee’sattitude, this argument is supported by the results obtained. In this study, that the coach practices have influenced the job satisfaction mostly through the emotional commitment and that communication level in the organizations having coaching practices is comparatively higher than organizations where coaching practices are not available demonstrates the contributive effects of coaching on the employees’ communication levels. Keywords:Coaching, Job Satisfaction, Communication, Organizational Commitment

1.Introduction In a world that is constantly changing and in a competitive environment, today‟s classical management mentality remains incapable in order to meet the changing customer demands, determine the stanadards, possess an active organizational structure and sustain this over the time. These reasons are why organizations adopt people-oriented management patterns instead of classical management mentality. In the people-oriented management pattern, the managers are in the position of „guides‟ that encourage the employees being away from the authoritarian approach and motivate them to reveal and develop their present potentials. Executives that support, focus on the target and give importance to individual competencies rather than those that frighten, threaten and take on the manners of „boss‟. Here, at this point, the coaches take on the role of guiding the pioneers of change reorganize focus on their targets and sustain efficiency constantly. The organizational life quality that increases with the acquired coaching skills turns into an organizational environment where less stressfull, success-oriented, open to communication skills are developed. In this sense, continuity of the job, increasing commitment to the organization and job satisfaction develop with consolidated relation between manager and employee. With this perception,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN revealing the positive effects of the coaching approach on the organizations and employees, the effects of sales consultants within the informatics sector on the job satisfaction, organizational commitment and communication was the main purpose of this study. 2. Review of Literature Coaching and Coaching Approach in the Organizations Coaching is a learning pattern that is based on the individual reveal his/her strengths that should be discovered, correct her/his mistakes by developing their skills and abilities, find solutions by realizing the specialities that set a limit for them (Baltaş 2011, 7). In order to define what coaching means, maybe defining what it doesn‟t mean will be easier. Coaching is not an executive or expert that knows every answer of any question. He/she doesn‟t correct or direct behaviors or attitudes of the individual. But he/she guides the individuals achieve their purposes. (Harvard Business School 2001,17). Comparing Concept of Coaching to Similar Concepts: Coaching is founded equivalent of consultancy studies and called “mentorship” but they are not same concepts. Sperry explains consultancy as an interference designed to help or find solutions for a situation considering various options (Maynard 2006, 28). Coaching is a different process from consultancy. It firstly includes learning new skills and it is more efficient in using communication skills Stevenson (2007, 8) Mentorship, training, therapy and coaching are different from each other. Coach and mentor answer questions of the client and guide him to achieve his object (Ozkalp and others 2006, 58). Both of them actualize the same service from this aspect. However, the most important difference between them is that mentor deals with the person in terms of the task from a big point of view but coach deals with in different fields focusing on certain points. Mentor focuses on performance whereas coach focuses on development of a skill (Starcevich 2014). The most important difference between therapy and coaching is also that therapy studies beginning from the past but coaching begins from present. In addition, coach doesn‟t work on psychological problems in clinical diagnosis (Martin 2009, 36-37). The Benefits of Coaching Approach The change and progress approach that constitutes the basis of coaching supports the managers and employees create their own strategies and develop their competencies by using their potentials acquiring awareness (Rocha, 2013,853). Achieving the individual and organizational aims give support for the necessary changes for the movement of the dynamics in order to resolve the performance problems. According to financial study, it was determined that the ROI (Return On Investment), the return of the investments made in coaching is 5,7 fold of the expenses incurred (Aktinson 2012,23). Benefits of the Client: Constructive effects of the coaching clients applied in the organization on strengthening perception are at an incontrovertible level. It supports to maximize strengths that the client develops new skills and competencies to be more active. ”It makes contributions to the employees get prepared for new responsibilities (for example leadership skills) overcome the individual obstacles (not being able to deliver a speech in front of people, inadequate communication competency) (Pocket Mentor 2011, 18).” Clarifying performance objectives helps the client to determine realistic and achievable objectives and manage himself. It pushes limits of the client to

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN make much more than he thought. It enriches viewpoint of the client against situations (Baltas 2011, 8). Its Benefits For The Executive Coaching: Acquisition develops mutually during the process of coaching. Its benefits for the executive coach as well as its benefits for the employees can be considered as the indicator of the efficiency of coaching process. According to ROI (Return on Investment) research data, 77% of the executives that received coaching services had a convalescence in their relations with their inferiors, 61% had an increase in the job satisfaction, 68% had an increase in team work (Uyar and Bayraktaroğlu 2012,19). Manager adopted coaching can reveal hidden skills of employees. He encourages development, independency and taking responsibility of them, directs them to produce more creative thoughts and increases productivity and performance in departments at a level higher than the expected. Manager whose work-load decreases thanks to the development of his subordinates can have more time for both himself and the company (Artar 2010, 29). Managing and leading qualifications of the managers coaching will develop and they will make difference with their increased communication skills, flexible managing methods and being open for the development. Managers who see values with coaching skills will not have problems because of hesitation and indetermination and they can make time and source for strategic works rather than routines (Uyar and Bayraktaroglu 2010, 38-39). It Benefits For the Organization: Coaching approach has an important place in increasing the performance of the organization. The coaching process that starts with the acquisition of the improvement of individual performance gets beyond the individual and becomes useful for the team and the organization (Barutçugil 2004, 31). The expectations of the employees and the organizations can be detected clearly with the coaching practices. The clearness of the roles and purposes within the organization increases the harmony in attitude, solidarity and organizational communication; the mistakes can be prevented before they are made with the degradation of the levels of the conflicts and problems between the members of the organization (Barutçugil 2004,31). “Thus, energy turns to foreign competition rather than domestic competition.” The positive environment developed at the workplace will assure the increment of success and efficiency (Baltaş 2011, 8). Coaching and Job Satisfaction Relation Administration highly values the job satisfaction of the employees of the organization. Employees who do not have job satisfaction are likely to affect their colleagues negatively as well as reflecting their negative attitudes (such as being non-productive, low productivity, inefficiency) towards the organization (Güney 2007,38). Directors who have this vision focus on exploring the activities which empower and improve the employees by embracing a employee-promoting, cooperating, producing and advisory way of management which is quite different from controlling and command & obey way of traditional management mentality in order to provide job satisfaction for employees (Doğan 2003, 171). It has been confirmed in initial studies which were done to inquire for manner of management at Michigan State and Ohio State Universities that personnel-inclined managers provide more job satisfaction and productivity in the organization. Personnel-inclined managers put emphasis on employee effectiveness and by supporting their subordinates, managers ensure them to run the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN business, to develop their skills and self-confidence by involving them to resolution process of possible problems. Coach managers are also involved in personnel-inclined managers class (Önder 2010,29). There are figures in books and articles that show coaching atmosphere has positive effects in organizations which embrace coaching-oriented administration in different sectors and in studies which examine the relation between coaching and job satisfaction. In the study done by Manchester Company Incorporated in 2001 in which the effects of coaching were examined on 100 managers who were taking coaching courses within Fortune 1000 company, it has been observed that job satisfaction increased 61% in managers who took coaching service (Yeltan 2007,85). In the studies related to this coaching-job satisfaction context, it has been observed that workman who could develop himself and feel himself more precious in the organization thanks to coach managers shows tendency to stay in the organization and that his job satisfaction has increased and that as a result of better communication due to these attitudes, his performance hasincreased. Coaching and Organizational Commitment Relation Whitmore indicates that coaching applied in organizations is a cooperation which increases the mastering between employee and manager, develops the relations, enhances life quality and productivity. “It makes the employees in this company more motivated and also creates confidence to see that coaching managers helps them to develop individualistic skills.” In an environment in which trust exists commitment will flourish more (Whitmore 1993,105). Coaching managers who are in cooperation with the employees for learning and development also reveal hidden skills and support career development of the employees. Employees who develop a career plan for more important roles have a low rate of quitting organization. When employees see that they are important for the organization, their emotional commitment will increase, they will work more and support organization to achieve objective and goals (Dogan 2006, 59). Allen and Meyer (1990) stated in their study that the strongest relation with emotional commitment, which is among the factors that affect the commitment to the organization is job experience. It shows powerful relation between emotional commitment and efficient coaching that there are variables such as organizational support, thoughtful manager, autonomy, a chance to express yourself, sharing decisions, and feeling important in the organization which correspond to efficient coaching applications in the category of work experiences and that they are effective (Meyer and others 2002, 32). According to the results of the survey which was conducted in 38 different countries and sectors on 2532 people to examine the effects of coaching on the attitudes and behaviours of sales representatives by Vincent Onyemah (2009), it has been identified that there is a dilemma decrease in workers, satisfactorily improvement in relation with the manager and increase in emotional commitment to the organization. In the same survey, it has been observed that there is a positive side meaningful relation between coaching process and the change between attitudes and behaviors (Onyemah 2009,954). In the study that 100 managers who had a coaching training by Mancherster Inc. in the company Fortune 1000 in 2001 given in the section which relationship between coaching and job satisfaction is

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN dealt with, it is determined that coaching applications increase organization commitment 44% and decreases rate of release 23% (Uyar and Bayraktaroglu 2012, 19; Yeltan 2007, 85). Coaching And Organizational Communication As the role of the communication to improve the relations both within and outside of the organization cannot be denied, ensuring the worker to use the communication techniques which ensure active participation will ease to perform administrative functions. Efficient communication provides increase in productivity and profit in the organization in the same time. The opposite side may cause insufficient and poor communication, bipolarization and unproductivity (Özutku 2008,88). At this point, the manager is required to promote his current communication skills with other methods to develop organizational communication. In these methods, coaching practices are highly effective near the top ranking. Since some parts of perception of today‟s leadership require to coach as well (Koç 2008,11). Manager Coaches help to remove factors affecting efficient communication, to decrease coordination problems, misunderstandings, conflicts among employees in the organization, to increase commitment, and to provide sharing of individualistic proficiency of the employees. In this way possible relation-based problems between individuals are solved and by improving communication within the group/team, it can be ensured that organizational performances are enhanced (Poussard 2004,43). Many studies show that there is a directly proportional relation between communication skills and self-confidence. Discovering oneself, improving current skills and exhibiting them in working field will promote to boost individual‟s self-confidence and thus, it will ensure that workers‟ communication skills are empowered. At this point, effectiveness of coaching practices at institutions gives observable results (Koç 2008,11). As it is determined in relationship between coaching and organizational commitment in results of the survey that Vincent Onyemah (2009) carried out on 2531 people who are from 38 different countries and different sectors in order to research attitude and behaviors of sale representatives of coaching, coaching applications are recovery at a level satisfying communication of the employee with the manager. Communication skills developed with coaching increase internal motivation. It also affects the work positively. As communication skill of the employee is good, his individualistic behaviors change and his attitude towards events that he can face becomes more constructive and efficient (Onyemah 2009, 954). In another academic study, there is more increase in communication skills of the students who had training of coaching than those of the students who didn‟t have according to the result of the study conducted by Asilipinar on the students in Public Relations and Publicity Department of Communication faculty. In the study at issue, rates are; an increase of 14% in empathic listening skills, 8% in being ready and eager for listening, 29% in being interested and 20% in skill of giving verbal and nonverbal to the opposite person (Asilipinar 2009, 201). Communication skills under the scope of the study that coaching effect is researched on 100 managers who had a training of coaching in the company of Fortune 1000 by Mancherster Company Incorporated in 2001 are as follow; It is stated that there is an increase of 77% of the employees in

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN relationships of top managers with subordinates, 67% in team working, 63% in relationships of the employees working with the ones at the same level, 52% skills of problem solving, and 37% in relationships with the customers (Yeltan 2007, 85). Abovementioned researchers show that deficiencies in identifying message, listening deficiency, responding deficiency, and differences in personal factors affecting organizational communication negatively can be prevented with coaching skills. In the direction of this data, it is possible to say that communication skills in the organization can be developed positively with coaching applications. 3. Methodology Importance of the research: Evaluating “Human Sources” which is most valuable asset of enterprises now in a right way is among leading strategies of the organizations. Organizational life quality increased with the gained coaching skills turns working area to an organization which is less stressful, focused on success, open to communication, and personal skills are improved. In this sense, strengthened relationship between manager and employee or employee and employee improves continuity of the job, organizational commitment and job satisfaction. This study is aimed to determine effects of coaching approach on application and continuation in organizations and reflects on job satisfaction, organizational commitment and communication. Aim of the study This study empirically researches positive effects of coaching approach which is in the first ranks of the means helping to reveal personal skills on organizations, effects of coaching attitudes of the manager on job satisfaction, organizational commitment and organizational communication of the employee. Population, Samples and Data Collection Survey in the application step of the research was carried out with the five of leading foreign information companies in the market of Turkey and two mid-market companies in the same sector and is answered by 986 sales representatives. Coaching applications are done with a regular program in one of the companies. 412 surveys in the study were taken from this company. There is not any regular coaching program in other companies and 568 surveys are taken from them. Gathered surveys were transferred to SPSS 20.0 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) with Excel. Analysis structural equation modeling was done with StataSE.12 and other analyses were done using IBM Spss.20. Research Method and Questionnaire Building There are total 68 questions/statements in four sections in the survey prepared by the research apart from the section including demographic questions. Demographic information asked from participants is gender, age, marital status and education level. Questionnaires which are widely used in researches, valid for our country, thought to give the best result were preferred while choosing to use in this research. Coaching questionnaire consisting of 20 statements included in the research by Yeltan (2007, 146) was used for measuring coaching skills in the first section of the research. Short form of Minessota Job Satisfaction Questionnaire developed by Weiss and friends (1967) consisting of 20 statements was

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN used to measure job satisfaction level in the second section of the research. (Ozsoy and others 2014, 234-235). Organizational commitment developed by Meyer and Allen which is the most adopted commitment rating was preferred in measuring organization commitment level. Communication questionnaire developed by Kazazoglu (2009, 80) which consists of 10 items was used in the last section of the research. “Likert attitude scale of 5” was used in evaluation of the opinions in statements of the surveys. Statements in the Likert scale are graded from 1 to 5. Weighted average (index values) is calculated for each statement considering data obtained in the direction of responses of the participants. Statements in the questionnaire were graded from 1 to 5 as “I completely agree/ completely satisfying/ completely true” were 5 and “I don‟t agree/ Not satisfying/ completely wrong” were 1 while calculating index values related to the statements in the questionnaire. Assumptions and Restrictions of the Research Survey was applied in certain cities although information companies included in the research have sales offices around Turkey. Thus, scope of the research was limited to the employees in the sales offices at issue. More detailed results in coaching applications related to the sector can be obtained in researches done with a wide number of organization and participants. It is assumed that participants understood statements in questionnaires used in the research and gave realistic and sincere answers. It is a restriction to generalize results of the research that they are limited with the sales representatives of the participant companies. Quintet Likert attitude scale was used in this research. For this reason, conducted study is limited with the applied method. Research Model and Assumptions Basic Assumptions of the Research • Including the coaching practices within the training programmes regularly leades to an increase in the success level of the coaching practices. For this reason, there is a considerable difference between the main groups of the research (the companies that embody coaching practises and those that do not)  One of the principal purposes of coaching practices is to provide a healthy communication between the executives and employees. Therefore, the communication between the executives and the employees in the companies that give regular coaching trainings is expected to be healthy. For this reason, the communication level scores of the coaching practises are expected to be higher in addition to the considerable difference between the main groups of the research (the companies that embody coaching practises and those that do not)  A mutual relation is expected to happen between the perceived intercorporate communication level and success level of coaching practises.  As the success level of coaching practises and the perceived intercorporate communication level increases, the emotional commitment that the employee feels for the organization is expected to increase.  The increase of the emotional commitment and perceived communication level felt for the organization will cause the job satisfaction and the Continuance commitment that the employees feel for the organization to increase.  It is expected that the emotional commitment will mediate between the success of coaching practice and job satisfaction and Continuance commitment.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Demographic variables and variables such as working time of the employees with the current managers in the current company and size of the working place thought to affect concepts of job satisfaction, commitment and communication in the company were added to the analysis as control while each relation identified in the abovementioned basic assumptions is tested with regression analysis. Control variables whose significant effect is found on dependent variables during regression analysis are added to the model while testing basic model with Structural Equation Model

Research Model

Coaching Score Communication Score

Emotional

General Job

Commitment

Satisfaction

Descriptive Statistics and Other Controls: The demographic information that was asked from the participants in the research consists of gender, age, marital status and education level. There are two main groups in the research: the company employees that regularly includes coaching practises in their training programmes (withKUEP) and company employees that don‟t include coaching practises regularly in their training programmes (wihoutKUEP). The distribution of gender variable within these groups is given in Table 1. Table 1. The Distribution of Demographic Variable By The Groups of the Research withKUEP* Female Male Married/Living together Bachelor High school and below College Univercity or above Overall

withoutKUEP*

Overall

Frequency 45 387 182 230 181 90 141

Percentage 10.9 89.1 44.2 55.8 43.9 21.8 34.2

Frequency 159 409 159 354 289 121 158

Percentage 28.0 72.0 37.7 62.3 50.9 21.3 27.8

Frequency 204 776 396 584 470 211 299

Percentage 20.8 79.2 40.4 59.6 48.0 21.5 30.5

412

100

568

100

980

100

*withKUEP: Company employees that include regular coaching practises in their training programmes. **withoutKUEP: Company employees that include regular coaching practises in training programmes. Exemplification group consists of 980 people %20.8 of which is female (f = 204) and %79.2 is male (m=776). The ages of people in exemplification group range between 17 and 47 (Avg= 28.44, hh= 4.82). 75% of the sample group are 31 years old and below. It is seen that most of the sample group are young adult men when gender and age distributions are analyzed. It is thought that samples show an expected gender and age distribution because population of the study is sales representatives in

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN technology stores. In the research, another demographic information that was asked to participants is marital status variable. It was observed that the %40.4 (f=396) of the participants is married (or s/he lives with his/her partner), and %59.6 (f=584) of participants is single. The last demographical information that was asked to participants is the educational level information. It was observed that the %48 (F=470) of the participants is high-school graduate or less educated, while the %21.5(f=211) of the participants is college graduate and the %30.5 is at least university graduate. In the research, in addition to the demographical information, five different questions related with working hours and workplace and group sizes were asked to participants by thinking that they may affect the participants‟ thoughts about job satisfaction, the commitment to the institution they work for, the behaviors and attitudes of the executives and communication in-institution. These have been listed in order as total working hour, the working hour in the present institution, the working hour with the present executive, the number of employees dependent on executives and the number of employees working in the workplace. The frequencies, averages, standard deviations, minimum and maximum values and percentages are given in the Table 2. Table 2. The Distribution of The Other Control Variables Variables Overall working time Working time within the present organization Working Time With the Present Manager The Number of Employees Dependent on The Manager

f 980

Ave. 6.47

SS 5.01

Min 0

Max 30

%25 3

%50 5

%75 9

980

3.09

2.83

0

20

1

2

4

980

1.75

1.63

0

15

1

1

2

978

18.71

25.95

0

300

7

11

20

In the research, the number of the employee was asked to the participants as categorical. Because, the %52.3 (f=513) of the participants works in the workplaces of 0-15, this variable was coded again as two categories in order to hold the group distributions on balance. It is stated as „‟15 or less people work‟‟ and „‟16 or more people work‟‟. In terms of the working hours and workplace size of participant, in order to examine whether there is any difference among the groups or not, independent samples t-test was used in the situation of continuous variables examined, and chi square test was used in the situation of categorical variables examined. According to t-test results, is has been determined that there isn‟t a difference in total working hours in groups between two groups in terms of total working hours. (t(978)= 0.70,p > .05). Similarly, in terms of the working hours with the present executive, a meaningful difference between two groups of research as statistically could not be found. (t(978)= -1.26, p > .05). On the other hand, when the working hours in the present institution was examined, it is found that there is difference between the groups of the research. It is observed that as statistically, the working hours in the present institution of the participants in the withKUEP group (Ave. = 3.78, SS = 2.52) is meaningfully more than the working hours in the present institution of the participants in the withoutKUEP group(Ave. = 2.59, SS = 2.94) (t(978) = -6.64, p < .001). One another variable consisted of difference among groups is the number of the employee dependent on executive. It is observed that as statistically, the number of the employee dependent on executive in withKUEP (Ave. = 20.79, SS = 26.86)is meaningfully more than the number of the employee dependent on executive in withoutKUEP(Ave. = 17.20, SS = 25.19)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN (t(976) = -2.14, p < .05). Finally, when the groups were examined in terms of the number of the employee in workplace, the difference between groups was observed. It was observed that in withKUEP group, they work in the workplaces of 15 or less employees compared to withoutKUEP group (χ2 = 201.92, p < .001). Because the loading coefficients of the four items that are not in harmony with the factors that they belong to conceptually and with original factor distribution are over the value of 0.30, to which factor they belonged was determined comparing the Confirmatory Factor Analysis of different models. Three different models were tested with confirmatory analysis. As the first four questions in three models were excluded as a result of the Principle Component Analysis, they were not included in this analysis. The original factor distributions (except for the first four questions) in the first model, the factor distributions that show up as a result of the Principal Component Analysis above in the second model and four items whose factor distributions are not in conformity were excluded and tested. In order to determine the most suitable model, the Comparative Fit Index and Tucker-Lewis Index model fit indexes were used. The fit indexes of the three models tested are given in Table 3 Table 3. The Fit Indexes of Three Models That Were Compared For The Purpose of Determining the Factor Distribution of Job Satisfaction Scale. RMSEA CFI value TFI value

Model 1 0.118 0.859 0.842

Model 2 0.104 0.920 0.907

Model 3 0.105 0.934 0.921

It was seen that among the model fit index results, RMSEA value for no model could exceed the model fit criteria. Yet, the other two fit values took place over the criteria in both 2 nd and 3rd models. The 3rd model was selected as the most suitable model as it had better CFI and TFI values. As a result of the analyses that were carried out, it was decided that 12th, 15th, 16th and 20th questions in addition to the first four questions should also be excluded while the job satisfaction scale is divided in two factors. Cronbach Alpha coefficient was checked in order to measure the reliability value of Minnesota job satisfaction scale. Being comprised of all of the 20 items, Cronbach Alpha coefficient was found as 0.963 for general job satisfaction. The Alpha coefficient that is close to 1 shows that the validity value of the scale is high. besides, “The Corrected Item-Total Correlation” for every question in the scale and “Alpha Ifıtemdeleted” values were calculated in case that the question is deleted. As a result of the analyses, it was seen that the corrected item-total correlation coefficients of the questions ranged between 0.595 and 0.819 and that the exclude of any question out of the scale doesn‟t increase the alpha coefficient and for this reason there is no question that should be excluded out of the scale. The Cronbach Alpha value that exists for Internal job satisfaction is found as 0.907. item-total coefficient of the questions in the scale range between 0.665 and 0.821. and as any exclusion of any question out of the scale doesn‟t increase the current alpha coefficient considerably, it was seen that there is no question that should be excluded out of the scale. Cronbach Alpha value of External job satisfaction was found ad 0.915. It was discovered that the exclusion of any question out of the scale doesn‟t increase the current alpha coefficient. The general job satisfaction score was calculated by dividing the whole score received from the items within the scale into 20 (the number of all questions). Internal job satisfaction score was calculated by dividing the score that was received from the questions between 7 and 11 into 5 while the External Job Satisfaction score was calculated by dividing the score received from the 5th, 6th, 13th, 14th, 17th 18th

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN and 19th questions into 7. For all factors, the minimum score to take is 1 while the maximum one is 5. As the scored point increases, the perceived job satisfaction increases. Communication Scale The studies within the literature show that he communication scale that was used has a single-factor structure. In order to correct this single-factor structure, Principle Component Analysis was carried out. The KMO coefficient (0.943) that was found as a result of the analysis shows that the exemplification was suitable for factor analysis. It was not subject to rotation as it was single-factor. Cronbach Alfa coefficient was calculated for the reliability scale of communication scale. The alpha coefficient which is 0.950 indicates that the reliability of communication scale is quite high. It was observed that the values of Corrected Item-Total Correlation which are calculated separately for all of the questions in the scale range between 0.736 and 0.830 and that the exclude of any problem didn‟t increase the current alpha coefficient. The communication score of the participants was calculated by dividing the scores received from the items in the scale into 10. The minimum score to make is 1 while the maximum one is 5 and as the scored point increases, the satisfaction felt for the intra-organization communication increases. Correlation Analysis: The linear relationship between the scales used in the research and working time and group size variables was examined with Pearson Correlation. The results of correlation analysis are indicated in Table 4. There is a tendency that results of analysis give significant conclusion even at relationship levels required to be neglected because sample of the research is big. Therefore, efficient level is neglected because it is insufficient even if relationship is statistically significant when correlation coefficient is up to (+/- ) 0.150. When table 8 is analyzed in the light of this information, it is seen that relationships between scores of the questionnaires used in the research are significant and all relationships are positive. On the other hand, it is observed that there is not any significant relationship among questionnaires and variables of working times and big ones in the group apart from (r = 0.281) blind sided positive relationship between communication score and working time in the present organization.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Table 4. Correlation Matrix 1 1.Coaching 0.629 2.Emotional (<.001) Commitment 0.300 3.Normative (<.001) Commitment 0.531 4.Continual (<.001) Commitment 0.446 5.Internal (<.001) JobSatisfaction 0.576 6.External (<.001) JobSatisfaction 7.General Job 0.567 (<.001) Satisfaction 0.611 8.Communication (<.001) 9.Working time in -0.048 (.131) the organization 10. Working time -0.027 (.394) with the manager 11. Overall working -0.009 (.778) time 12. The Number of 0.001 Dependent (.965) Employees

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

0.363 (<.000) 0.693 0.545 (<.000) (<.000) 0.556 0.248 0.566 (<.000) (<.000) (<.000) 0.527 0.289 0.586 0.792 (<.000) (<.000) (<.000) (<.000) 0.606 0.305 0.636 0.913 0.947 (<.000) (<.000) (<.000) (<.000) (<.000) 0.549 0.247 0.554 0.639 0.753 0.745 (<.000) (<.000) (<.000) (<.000) (<.000) (<.000) -0.012 0.040 -0.029 0.002 -0.048 -0.022 (.703) (.212) (.366) (.945) (.134) (.485) -0.037 0.009 -0.007 -0.052 -0.065 -0.055 (.241) (.790) (.830) (.105) (.041) (.086) 0.039 0.036 0.016 -0.014 -0.051 -0.026 (.226) (.264) (.606) (.652) (.114) (.421)

0.281 (<.000) -0.097 (.002) -0.028 (.385)

0.281 (<.000) 0.508 (<.000)

0.169 (<.000)

-

<.000 (.997)

-0.025 (.431)

0.172 (<.000)

0.018 (.577)

0.133 (<.000)

0.014 (.651)

-0.028 (.374)

0.028 (.380)

-0.001 (.973)

932

0.002 (.957)

-

-

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Among the scales used in the research, the relations between Coaching scale and Emotional commitment (r=0.629), Continual commitment (r=0.531), General job satisfaction (r=0.567), External job satisfaction (r=0.576) and perceived Communication score (r=0.6111) were medium. It was seen that there was a low-level, statistically meaningful relations between the Normative commitment (r=0.300) and Internal job satisfaction (r=0.446) of coaching score. It is seen that the relations between the coaching scale and other scales are on an expected level. When the three sub-dimensions of organizational commitment scale, it was found out that Coaching scale was related with Emotional commitment in maximum and was related with Normative commitment in minimum. The reason behind the fact that coaching scale has the highest relationship with Emotional commitment can be that the employees who can know themselves better with the coaching practises within the organizations can find opportunities to improve their career objectives and thus increase their emotional commitment towards the organizations they are working in. Being another scale that was used in the research, when the relationship between the three dimensions of commitment scale is examined, it was observed that thre relationship between the Continual commitment and other two commitments (Emotional and Normative) (r=0.693, r=0.545, respectively) are on a medium level and that its relationship with Emotional commitment is higher than its relationship with Normative commitment. It was seen that the relationship between the Emotional commitment and Normative commitment (r=0.363) is on a low level. When the dimensions of the Commitment scale are compared with the other scale scores, Emotional commitment and Continual commitment have medium relations with the other scales scores while Normative commitment has low-level relations with the other scales. The weak relations between coaching and Normative commitment can be explained in this way: The requirement and liabilities come to the forefront in normative commitment. The employee should devote himself/herself to the organization in this commitment type. Wheras, the coaching practises provide opportunities for the employees to improve themselves with their own will and through collaboration and cooperation with others. For this reason, the weak relationship between coaching and normative commitment is an expected one. When the General job satisfaction score and the two sub-dimensions (Internal and External job satisfaction) of Job Satisfaction which is the third scale used in the study are examined together, it was seen that both of the sub-dimensions had a very high relations(r=0.913, r=0.947, respectively) with the General job satisfaction. Because using variables having such relations with each other within the same analyzes will create the problem of multicollinearity, it was decided that only the General job satisfaction score should be used in the analyzes. As was recited above, there is a mediumlevel relationship between the General job satisfaction score and Coaching, Emotional commitment and Continual commitment scales while this relationship turns into a low-level relationship between the Normative commitment scale. It is also notable that the relationship between general job satisfaction and communication score (r=0.745) is on a high-level. When the dynamics of the organizational life within the organizations are taken into account, the importance of “human” factor takes place on the top. For this reason, the relations in the operation are important in organization employees being satisfied with their jobs. It is possible to say that the healthy connection between the executives and the employees with the relations conducted with communication channels will bring along a general job satisfaction and maximize the communication relations. Being the last scale used in the study, there is a medium relationship between the communication scale and Coaching Emotional and Continuance Commitment scores, a high level of relationship

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN between the General job satisfaction, low-level of relationship between the Normative commitment and the work times in the present organization. The Examination of The Differences Between The Groups In Terms of Scale Scores : A series of Independent Group t-Test were conducted in order to find out whether there is a difference between the company employees whose program includes a regular coaching training and the company employees whose program doesn‟t include a regular coaching training. When the test results are examined from the Table 5, it is seen that there are differences between the two groups in terms of Coaching scores and Emotional Commitment scores. The coaching scores of the organization employees whose education programs includes a regular coaching training (Average=3,91, SS=1.08), are considerably higher than the company employees whose education program doesn‟t include a regular coaching training (Average=3,65, SS=1.01). Similarly, the emotional scores (Average=3.93, SS=1.03) of the company employees that conduct a regular coaching training are considerably higher than the other group. No considerable difference was found between the two groups in terms of the other scale used in the study. Table 5. Independent Group t-Test Where The Differences In Terms of Scale Scores Between the Groups Are Examined

Coaching score Emotional commitment Normative commitment Continuance commitment General job satisfaction Communication score

t -3.744 -2.574

Sd** 978 916.34*

p değeri <0.001 0.010

%95 confidence interval Düşük Yüksek -0.384 -0.120 -0.310 -0.040

-1.219

978

0.223

-0.241

0.056

0.092

978

0.927

-0.132

0.145

-0.782

825.26*

0.434

-0.182

0.078

-0.120

978

0.904

-0.130

0.115

*Because the test result of Levene was meaningful, the df value that is compatible with it was used. **DF: Degree of Freedom The principal hypothesis that the study is based on is that the coaching skills of the company managers that include coaching practises within their education programs will be more improved when compared with the other companies. between the two groups of the study, the meaningful between the coaching scores supports the general thesis of the study. Results of Structural Equation Model (SEM) Analysis Structural Equation Model Analysis was carried out with the program StataSE.12 in order to control relationships found as a result of regression analysis done to reveal effects of research groups on questionnaire scores in a single model. Coaching score, perceived communication score, emotional commitment, general job satisfaction and attendance commitment are analyzed together in the model. Regression results are considered

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN determining variables to predict each independent variable in the model. Variables whose significance level is above (p value) 0.10 as a result of regression analysis are not added to the model. Adhesion coefficients of the model tested with SEM analysis show that model is valid; value of CFI 0.967; value of TLI 0.966; value of RMSEA 0.067. Value of R2 of the complete model is 0.432. It is seen that model clarifies 35% of the change in coaching score, 26% of the change in perceived communication score, 43% of the change in emotional commitment, 60% of the change in general job satisfaction scores and 59% of attendance commitment scores when R2 values of each dependent variable are analyzed separately. That is to say, it is seen that model clarifies general job satisfaction and attendance commitment scores best. Percentage of the model to clarify communication scores is lower than others but communication score has still R2 at an acceptable level within the scope of social sciences. Standardized beta, standard error, z and significance values and 95% confidence intervals of the model are given in Table 6. It is seen that the relationships in the model support relationships revealed as a result of regression analysis. Table 6. Coefficients and Significance Values of Structural Equation Model %95 Confidence Interval Std. Beta

Std. Error

z

p

Low

High

Group Effect

0.117

0.026

4.55

<0.001

0.067

0.168

Communication Score

0.430

0.130

3.30

0.001

0.175

0.685

Number of Employees

-0.088

0.028

-3.11

0.002

-0.144

-0.033

Working time with the manager

-0.085

0.026

-3.22

0.001

-0.136

-0.033

Coaching Score

0.250

0.145

1.72

0.086

-0.035

0.534

Gender

0.041

0.025

1.67

0.095

-0.007

0.091

Coaching Score

0.438

0.045

9.77

<0.001

0.351

0.527

Communication Score

0.254

0.043

5.88

<0.001

0.169

0.339

Normative Commitment

0.179

0.028

6.38

<0.001

0.124

0.234

Coaching Score

Communication Score

Emotional Commitment

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN General Job Satisfaction Age

-0.032

0.020

-1.60

0.109

-0.073

0.007

Coaching Score

0.050

0.036

1.40

0.162

-0.020

0.121

Communication Score

0.578

0.034

16.81

<0.001

0.511

0.646

Normative Commitment

0.066

0.024

2.69

0.007

0.018

0.113

Emotional Commitment

0.239

0.033

7.26

<0.001

0.175

0.304

0.030

0.021

1.41

0.159

-0.012

0.071

0.024

-1.49

0.136

-0.083

0.011

Attendance Commitment Age Working time organization

in

this -0.036

Coaching Score

0.010

0.040

0.25

0.801

-0.069

0.089

Communication Score

0.078

0.045

1.72

0.085

-0.011

0.167

Normative Commitment

0.329

0.026

12.87

<0.001

0.279

0.380

Emotional Commitment

0.391

0.033

12.03

<0.001

0.327

0.455

General Job Satisfaction

0.260

0.039

6.69

<0.001

0.183

0.336

Table 6 shows coefficients of total effects in the mode. Total effect is total of indirect effect and direct effect of independent variable on dependent variable. For example; group difference doesn‟t have direct effect on emotional commitment. Group differences have indirect effect on emotional commitment because group difference has a significant effect on coaching score and coaching score has a significant effect on emotional commitment. For this reason, it has statistically significant effect on emotional commitment. When beta coefficient is lower than (+/- ) 0.10 considering tendency that sample is big and analysis results are statistically significant, efficient level is neglected because of being insufficient even if relationship is statistically significant. When total effects in the model are analyzed, it is seen that perceived communication score have a high effect on perceptions regarding coaching applications (0.525) and group difference has an average effect ın variable (0.279). In the direction of these results, coaching applications can be more efficient and can achieve their aims more easily if organizational communication works well.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN When looked at total effects of variables affecting perceived communication score, coaching score and difference between groups don‟t have an effect on variable unlike expected. It is found that number of employees has an average effect (-0.190) and working time with the current manager has a low level negative effect (-0.056) on communication score. However, as it is mentioned above, effect level of working time with the current manager can be neglected. When total effects of variables affecting emotional commitment are analyzed, it is seen that coaching score (0.555) and perceived communication level (0.533) have a high effect on variable. In addition, differences between groups (0.138) and normative commitment (0.158) have a low but positive effect on emotional commitment. In other words, it is seen that coaching conducted with organization communication leads to voluntary commitment of the employee to the organization. When variables affecting general job satisfaction of the employee are analyzed, it is found that perceived communication level has really high effect on variable (0.813). Apart from this variable, it is seen that emotional commitment (0.229) and success level of coaching application (0.332) have an average effect on general job satisfaction and group difference (0.138) has a low effect on dependent variable. It is found that communication has both direct and indirect effect on job satisfaction as a result of analyses. This result expresses that efficient usage of organization communication channels improves job satisfaction and coaching skills support positive increase of job satisfaction by increasing emotional commitment to the organization. Finally when variables affecting attendance commitment are analyzed, it is found that perceived communication score (0.526) has a high effect on dependent variable, and emotional (0.451) and normative (0.375) commitment levels, general job satisfaction (0.270) and coaching score (0.338) have an average effect on variable. As it is stated above, high effect of organizational communication on job satisfaction increases attendance commitment. Employee who is satisfied with his job wants to continue his job. Table 7. Total Effects of Variables in the Model %95 Confidence Interval Std. Beta

Std. Error

z

p

Low

High

Group Effect

0.279

0.063

4.45

<0.001

0.156

0.401

Communication Score

0.525

0.159

3.30

0.001

0.213

0.836

Number of employees

-0.089

0.044

-2.05

0.041

-0.175

-0.004

Working time with the manager

-0.026

0.010

-2.50

0.012

-0.047

-0.006

Coaching Score

Communication Score

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Group Effect

0.064

0.044

1.46

0.145

-0.022

0.150

Coaching Score

0.256

0.149

1.72

0.085

-0.036

0.549

Number of employees

-0.190

0.060

-3.20

0.001

-0.307

-0.074

Working time with the manager

-0.056

0.017

-3.19

0.001

-0.090

-0.022

Gender

0.106

0.064

1.67

0.094

-0.018

0.231

Number of employees

-0.090

0.034

-2.67

0.008

-0.157

-0.024

Working time with the manager

-0.027

0.009

-3.05

0.002

-0.044

-0.010

Group Effect

0.138

0.038

3.59

<0.001

0.063

0.213

Coaching Score

0.555

0.083

6.69

<0.001

0.392

0.717

Communication Score

0.533

0.088

6.06

<0.001

0.361

0.706

Normative Commitment

0.158

0.025

6.36

<0.001

0.110

0.207

Age

-0.007

0.004

-1.61

0.108

-0.015

0.001

Gender

0.024

0.015

1.63

0.103

-0.005

0.054

Number of employees

-0.138

0.044

-3.11

0.002

-0.225

-0.051

Working time with the manager

-0.040

0.013

-3.21

0.001

-0.065

-0.015

Group Effect

0.083

0.036

2.31

0.021

0.012

0.152

Coaching Score

0.332

0.113

2.94

0.003

0.111

0.554

Communication Score

0.813

0.059

13.82

<0.001

0.697

0.928

Normative Commitment

0.091

0.022

4.22

<0.001

0.049

0.134

Emotional Commitment

0.229

0.031

7.34

<0.001

0.168

0.290

0.005

0.005

1.01

0.312

-0.005

0.013

Emotional Commitment

General Job Satisfaction

Attendance Commitment Age

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Gender

0.048

0.029

1.67

0.095

-0.008

0.104

Number of employees

-0.089

0.031

-2.92

0.004

-0.149

-0.029

Working time with the manager

-0.026

0.008

-3.16

0.002

-0.042

-0.009

this -0.013

0.009

-1.49

0.136

-0.030

0.004

Working time organization

in

Group Effect

0.084

0.028

2.99

0.003

0.029

0.139

Coaching Score

0.338

0.082

4.06

<0.001

0.175

0.501

Communication Score

0.526

0.069

7.61

<0.001

0.390

0.661

Normative Commitment

0.375

0.025

15.07

<0.001

0.327

0.424

Emotional Commitment

0.451

0.034

13.08

<0.001

0.383

0.518

General Job Satisfaction

0.270

0.042

6.48

<0.001

0.188

0.351

Results obtained in this study and effect values in the model of research are given in Figure 1. It is observed that coaching applications which are subject of the study affect mostly on job satisfaction through emotional commitment. Bi-directional relationship between coaching and communication observed in the model emphasizes importance of communication for the success of coaching and also states that coaching model supports communication. Group Effect

Communication

General Job

Score

Satisfaction

Coaching

Attendance

Score

Commitment

Emotional

Normative

Commitment

Commitment

*statistically insignificant

Figure 1. Statistical Values of Research Model

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN It is seen that this study model can express 35% of the change in coaching score, 26% of the change in perceived communication score, 43% of the change in emotional commitment, 60% of the change in general job satisfaction scores and 59% of the change in attendance commitment. Lower value of the communication change than others is at a level acceptable in social sciences but sensitivity in measurement criteria in the studies worries. For this reason, additional questions can be added to current criteria in communication questionnaire of this study and it can be reevaluated for other scientific studies. Medium-term coaching results are evaluated in this experimental study. When continuity of coaching applications which is new for development model is provided in organizations, coaching effect can increase in long-term. Employee coaching is new in management literature, especially in our country. Coaching life draws attention with positive effects of manager coaching applied in the organization. 4. Results Today, managers are conscious of the fact that a management method meeting expectations of the employees and providing job satisfaction for the employees is the first of factors required for the employees to behave in accordance with the organization objectives and they adopt new applications rather than classic understanding with their employees. At this point, coaching application which is an improvement model makes working area less stressful and more focused on success. The information sector in which the research has been fulfilled, as we see the examples in all the world, is sector that develops fast, the rivalry has been lived very much and the performance demonstrated by employees in organization success is largely effective.Also the effect of the commitment of the employees‟s to their institution, communication relations and job satisfaction level is becoming more important in this intense sector. The research that has been made show that a clear majority of the sales representatives working in this sector is Y generation. It frequently reveals in the studies made that the managers ,far from the traditional management understanding, of this generation employees also prefer the coaching life. In our country, the information sector which takes place near the top among the sectors includes in-institution the coaching practises to development programs has been preferred for this reason. Within the research, the company employees (withKUEP) who regularly accommodate the coaching practises in the education programs within the research and the company employees (withoutKUEP) who don‟t accommodate regular coaching practises to education programs has been handled. Being the main hypothesis that the research bases upon, the opinion of that the coaching skills of the company managers who has the coaching practises in their education programs will be more developed compare to other company managers and the results of this will positively affect to the employee behavior, has been supported in accordance with he results obtained. In this study, it has been observed that demographic features - age, gender, marital status and education level- are not influenced by the perceptions related to coaching practises. Besides, it has been also observed that the number of the employee dependent on manager hasn‟t any effect upon the success of the coaching practices. When these results are evaluated from a different aspect, it is possible to comment that coaching practises, as independent from the demographic elements and the factors supporting it, can affect positively the organizational commitment, communication and job satisfaction. A similar result was seen in the study that Rıza Feridun Elgün (2007) has been made. In this situation, it can be concluded that coaching practises also can be effective upon job satisfaction in different structured business.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Besides the demographic elements, the questions about the workplace and the size og the group were asked by thinking that they may affect the views of the employees about job satisfaction, commitment to the institution they work in, the behavior and attitudes of the managers and ininstitution communication. It is possible to evaluate as the constructive effect of the coaching approach that the working hours of the participants in the withKUEP group are much more. Coaching model which began to use in the world long before are adopted as an improvement model in organizational life like a number of fields in Turkey. When application samples in the organizations are handled, it is seen that it is not internalized yet but studies on this subject show that importance of coaching model will increase in the next years with increased interests and professional attitudes of the organizations towards coaching. It is evidence that a number of corporate companies began to use coaching model in their training programs. In this study, the handling of the affets of the perception of the in-institution manager coaching by the employees upon communication, organizational commitment to the job satisfaction with the limited number of company partaking in the information sector and only in the sales representatives. It will be possible to compare the perceptions in the organizations and the success level of the coaching approach which is new in our country with the result that will be obtained in the situation of that similar studies are fulfilled in different sectors and with the wide participation. 5. Discussion and Conclusion In the next studies that will be made, it can be offered to the researchers to evaluate the manager and employee together by thinking that it will reach to more detailed data with the comparative examination of the effects of the coaching approach both on the manager and on the employee. Morover, in order to exactly examine the effects of the coaching skills, besides it is handled with the short, medium and long term organizational outputs, it can be offered, for the studies that will be done, to evaluate the effects of easiness of learning, development of the skills, motivation racing, which are not in this study and but in the variables thought to be effective to coaching practises. As an efficient model in cooperation between manager and employee, coaching enables employee to analyze himself better, to develop skills, to abolish obstacles for his aims, to assess opportunities, to develop perceptions in communication and to feel valuable. Employee who feels valuable and has a chance to develop becomes happier with the relationship which he founds with the manager guiding him to use his potential and emotional commitment of him to the organization and increasing job satisfaction of him are expected results. Organization lives of the employees who are devoted to the organization and have a job satisfaction will be longer and it prevents work force and financial loses resulting from job cycle. Managers who adopted identity of “coach manager” develop attitudes of the employees towards them and job using their coaching skills, can decrease current work load of the manager in the new responsibilities and additional works, and so manager can have a chance to work in a wider time period for the new projects. Finally, this will increase success of the manager. In the direction of organizational acquisitions shortly mentioned above, coaching applications can be suggested to managers. Consequently, manager who deals with coaching model with all aspects can support creating high performance and successful organizations.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN When the positive effects of the coaching gains on the organization and employee are considered, it will not be wrong to indicate that the coaching will be one of the important services in the next periods. The development of high level of workforce can be provided by the managers by recognizing the strengths of the employees by using coaching skills and contributing to development of this, by supporting the employees to discover themselves and to use this with parallelism of institution goals. Thus, with the emotional commitment, increasing communication and job satisfaction developing in the employee who sees him/herself as a part of organization, he/she can more easily reinforce his/her presence and success in the working life that the rivalry with „‟human factor‟‟which is the most valuable element and determiner in the development and maintenance of his/her presence among the important goals of the organization, gets harder gradually. References Abu Mansor, N.N.,Syafiqah A.R., Mohamed, A.,Idris, N., (2012) "Determinates of Coaching Culture Development: A Case Study", The 2012 International Conference on Asia Pacific Business Innovation &Technology Management, Social and Behavioral Sciences, 40, p.485 - 489 Aktinson P. (2012) "Return InvestmentIn Effective Organisational", Institute of Management Services, Anghela A.,Camelia Voicub (2013) "Coaching and Mentoring in Bachelor‟s Degree Programs for Social Workers and Teachers", Lumen International Conference Logos Universality Mentality Education Novelty (LUMEN 2013), Procedia – Science Direct, Social and Behavioral Sciences, 92, p.36 - 40 Artar D. (2010) The Secrets of Succesfull Coach, Sepya Publications, İstanbul Aşılıpınar G. (2009) The Use of Basic Coaching Skills in The Field of Public Relations: The Effects of Basic Coaching Competencies On Education, Question Asking and Observation Ability, Unpublished Master‟s Thesis, Istanbul Univercity S.B.E Public Relations and Publicity Department, İstanbul Baltaş Z. (2011) Intra-Organşization Coaching, Remzi Bookstore, İstanbul Barutçugil İ. (2004) Strategical Human Resources, Kariyer Publishing, İstanbul Doğan S. (2006) “A Research on How Much Willing and Prepared The Human Resources Managers in The Large-Scale Enterprises To Create A Reinforced Framework”, Management and Economy Journal, Celal Bayar Univercity, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, p.165-189 Gale, Liljenstrand, Pardieu and Nebeker (2002) "Coaching Survey: An In-Depth Analysis of Coaching Practices: From Background Information to Outcome Evaluation" California School of Organizational Studies at Alliant International University Güney S. (2007) Management and Organization Handbook, Nobel Publishing, Ankara, 2.publishing Harvard Business School (2011) "Pocket Mentor-Coaching”, (Translate:Kardam A.) Press, Optimist Publishing, İstanbul Harvard Business School, (2011) "What is Coaching?" Harvard Business Press Kaya N. (2013) The Relations Between Job Satisfaction and Organization Commitment: An Application, Marmara Univercity, Social Sciences Instutition, Department of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, Master‟s Thesis That Was Published On Management and Psychology of Employment, İstanbul

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kazazoğlu O. (2009) A Study On The Effect Of Communication on Coaching Process, Marmara Univercity, SBE Department of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, Management and psychology of Employment, Unpublished Master‟s Thesis İstanbul Koç S. (2008) Mastering in Communication, Kuraldışı Publishing, İstanbul Martin C. (2009) Life Coaching Hand Book , (Translate:Erol B.), Paloma Publishing House, İstanbul Maynard S. (2006) Personal and Professional Coaching: A Literature Review, Degree of Master Thesis, Walden University Meyer P.,Stanley, J., Herscovitch, L., ve Toponytsky, L. (2014) "Affective, Continuance, and Normative Commitment to the Organization: A Meta- Analysis of Antecedents, Correlates and Consequences". Journal of Vocational Behavior, V.61, http://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-vocational-behavior/ E.T: Onyemah V. (2009) "TheEffect of Coaching On Salespeople'sAttitudesandBeheviors A ContingencyApproach", Babsonollage, Massachusetts USA, EuropeanJournal of Marketing Vol.43 No.7/8, p. 938-960 Önder M. (2010) The Relations Between Emotional Intelligence and Motivation in Leaders and An Application, Gazi Univercity, Social Sciences Instutition, Published Master‟s Thesis Özkalp E., (2004) Organizational Attitude, Anadolu Univercity Publising, Eskişehir Özutku H. (2008) “The Examination of the Relations Between Work Performance and Emotional, Continuance and Normative Commitment”. İstanbul Univercity, The Journal of School of Business Administration, p.79-85 Özsoy E., Uslu O., Karakiraz A., and Aras M. (2014) “iş Tatminini Ölçümünde Ölçek Kullanımı: Lisanüstü Tezleri Üzerinden Bir İnceleme“ İşletme Araştırmaları Dergisi(6/1), p.232-250 Poussard J. (2004) A New Kind of Coaching in Management, Morpa Publishings, İstanbul Rosha A. (2013) "Peculiarities of manifestation of coaching in organisations" Contemporary Issues in Business, Management and Education Social and Behavioral Sciences, p.852 - 860 Starcevich Matt M. "CEO Center For Coaching&Mentoring, Coach, Mentor: Is there a difference Inc." Stevenson, H. (2007) “What Do You Need To Know”, Abaut Coaching Services Uyar D. and Bayraktaroğlu G.A. (2012) Yönetimde Koçluk Yaklaşımı, Sistem Publishment, İstanbul, 3rd Edition Walker A. (2011) "An HR Perspective on Executive Coaching for Organisational Learning", International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring" Vol. 9, No. 2, p.67-79 Wasti A. (2000) “Validity and Reliability Analysis of Three Dimensional Organizational Commitment Scale” XVIII. National Management and Organization Congress Westerbrink M. (2001) "Business Administration: Innovation&Entrepreneurship Leadership Behaviors and Values for Effective Leadership" University of Twente Master of Science Thesis .Netherlands Whitmore J. (2009) Coaching for Performance: A Practical Guide to Growing Your Own Skills, Nicholas Brealey Publishing, London, 4th. Press Wright S. ve Mackinnon, C. (2007) Coaching: " A Leadership Style", Leadership Magazine for Managers, 4 (10), p.22-33.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Yeltan A.(2007) "Effect Of Coaching On JobSatisfaction" Marmara Univercity, Social Sciences Institution Department of Public Administration Human Resources Management AndDevelpoment Department, Published Master‟s thesis

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SOSYAL BĠLGĠLER PROGRAMINDAKĠ DEĞERLERE ĠLĠġKĠN SOSYAL BĠLGĠLER ÖĞRETMEN ADAYLARININ DEĞER ÖNCELĠKLERĠ VE GEREKÇELERĠNE ĠLĠġKĠN GÖRÜġLERĠ1 Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tekin ÇELĠKKAYA Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Education, Social Studies Education Dept. [email protected] Özet Sosyal bilgiler dersi değer öğretiminde önemli bir misyona sahiptir. Bu ders kapsamında öğrencilere kazandırılması gereken 20 temel değer belirlenmiştir. Bireyler için ise bu değerlerin bazıları daha önemli olabilmektedir. Hangi değerlerin öğrencilere doğrudan verilmesi gerektiği programda belirtilmiş olsa bile son karar, öğretmenin sahip olduğu bilgi, beceri ve değerleri tarafından belirlenir. Bu açıdan bakıldığında araştırma, hizmet öncesinin son aşamasında olan sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının değer önceliklerini, bunların gerekçelerini ve ayrıca katılımcıların sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında yer alan değerler içinde en fazla önem verdikleri değerler ile en az önem verdikleri değerleri belirleme açısından önemlidir. Bu düşünceden hareketle bu araştırmada sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretim Programı’nda yer alan değerleri kendilerince önem derecesine göre (ilk 5 değer) sıralamaları ve gerekçelerini ifade etmeleri istenmiştir. Ayrıca numaralandırılan bu değerlerin nasıl kazandırılması gerektiğine ilişkin örnekler vermeleri istenmiştir. Araştırmanın örneklem grubunu ulaşılabilirliğinin olması nedeniyle uygun örnekleme yöntemi kullanılarak 2015- 2016 eğitim-öğretim bahar dönemi Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi bölümü son sınıf öğrencileri (n:77) oluşturmuştur. Çalışmada veri toplamak amacıyla yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılmış olup içerik analizi ile kod ve temalar belirlenmiştir. Sonuç olarak, toplamda ilk beş sıralamada en çok yer alan değerler sırasıyla kızlar için vatanseverlik, dürüstlük, sorumluluk, adil olma ve saygı iken erkekler için ise vatanseverlik, dürüstlük, sorumluluk, saygı ve hoşgörü değerleridir. Programdaki 20 değerden estetik değeri hiçbir öğretmen adayı tarafından sıralamaya dâhil edilmemiştir. Ayrıca misafirperverlik, sağlıklı olmaya önem verme ve temizlik değerleri sadece bir kişinin ifadesi ile sıralamaya dâhil edilmiştir. Sevgi ve duyarlılık değerleri erkek öğretmen adayları tarafından sadece 1 kez sıralamaya dâhil edilmiştir. Sosyal bilgiler programında var olan değerlerin kazandırılmasında izlenecek yöntemler konusunda, en çok örnek olay, kavramsal açıklama, gösteri (film, video izleme),model olma, yöntemleri gelmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Sosyal Bilgiler, öğretmen adayı, değer, değer önceliği

THE OPINION FOR REASONS AND VALUE PRIORITY OF SOCIAL STUDIES PRESERVICE TEACHERS REGARDING VALUE IN SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM Abstract Social studies course has an important mission to teach values. Within the scope of this course, 20 fundamental values were determined for students to gain. Considering the assumption that some of these values may be more important than others for individuals. Even so the value of which should be given directly to students in the curriculum, the final decision to be determined by the teacher’s the knowledge, skills and values. In this respect, research is important in identifying the value priorities of social studies 1

Bu çalışma Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Koordinasyon Birimince Desteklenmiştir. Proje Numarası: EGT.E2.16.048 (This work was supported by the Ahi Evran University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit. Project Number: EGT.E2.16.048)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN and their reasons Also the participants were determined the values given maximum importance and less importance for the value in the social studies curriculum Therefore, participants were asked to put values which are included Social Studies Education Curriculum into order based on their importance level and to state the first five values. Also ıt have been asked give examples of how to gain enumerated these values shouldIn this study, case study method as a qualitative research method. It was created period 2015- 2016 academic spring Ahi Evran University Faculty of Education Social Studies teacher section of senior students (n : 77) due to the accessibility. In this study was used to collect data structured questionnaire with content analysis code and themes was determined. As a result, in total, the top five rankings of most located, respectively, the values of patriotism, honesty, responsibility, be fair, respect for girls and the values of patriotism, honesty, responsibility, respect and tolerance for boys are values.Aesthetic value of the 20 values in the program have not been included in the ranking by any preservice teachers. Also hospitality, concern for healthy and cleaning values were included in the ranking with just one person's statement. Love and sensitivity values by male teachers were included only 1 time rankings. Most case studies method, conceptual explanations method, show (film, video) method, the model method are becoming about the procedure to be followed in bringing the values inherent in the social studies curriculum. Keywords: Social Studies, Preservice Teacher, Value, Value Priority

1. GiriĢ Son yıllarda tüm dünyada olmakla birlikte, Türkiye’de de yaşanan olumsuz toplumsal olayların meydana gelmesindeki nedenlerinden biri olarak insanların değerleri yeterince kazanamamış olmasından kaynaklandığı söylenebilir (Deveci ve Ay, 2009:168). Toplumları olumsuz yönde etkileyen durumları önlemenin en etkili yolu, toplumun devamlılığını sağlayan ve toplumu ayakta tutan unsurların başında gelen değerleri kazandırmak olacaktır. Değerler bakımından olgunlaşmamanın sonucunda, insanlar yalnızca çevrelerine karşı değil, kendilerine ve diğer kişilere karşı da zarar verici eylemlerde bulunabilir (Doğanay, 2009: 227). Bu sebeple değerler eğitimi, eğitim sistemi içinde çok önemli bir yere sahip olup temel insani değerleri benimsemiş bireyler yetiştirmek, aile, toplum ve okulların başlıca misyonları arasında yer almaktadır (Ekşi, 2003: 79). Değerler ömür boyu sürecek bağlılıklarımızı üretir ve hatta nasıl ölmemiz gerektiğini bile söyleyebilir (Kilby, 1993:Akt. Sarı,2005: 76). Değer kavramı bazen kıymetli olarak kabul edilen objeler (para, makam, şöhret, başarı vb.) somut bir faaliyet için kullanılabilirken bazen de insanların önem verdiği inançlar gibi soyut faaliyeti içine alabilir. İşte önem verilen bu durumlar yani değerler yaşantılar sonucuyla, yani öğrenmeyle oluşmaktadır. Değerlerin öğrenilmesinde bilgi ve düşünce boyutu da önemlidir. İnsanlar tercihlerini ve yargılarını yeni öğrendikleriyle değiştirmekte ve şekillendirmektedir. Sonuçta değerler genetik olarak aktarılmazlar. Değerler sosyal rollerle öğrenilerek bir sonraki kuşaklara aktarılırlar. Sosyal roller içinde mesleki, cinsel, sosyal, kişisel gibi kimlik yapıları da yer almaktadır. Sosyal rollerle biçimlenen kimlik yapılarının oluşmasında değerler önemli bir yere sahip bulunmaktadır. Belirli bir sosyal rolde kişilerin neler yapması, neler yapmaması ve nelere kıymet vermesi gerektiği öğrenilir ve bunlar bir yaptırım da olabilir. Değerler çeşitli sosyal rollerde bize neler yapmamız gerektiğini de söylemektedir. Örneğin, cinsel kimlikle ilgili değerler kız ve erkek çocuklarında farklı oluşur. Bir erkek için cesaret, azim, sebat ve soğukkanlılık önem verilen değerler olurken kızlar için koruyuculuk, duygusallık ve bağlılık daha önemli değerler olarak karşımıza çıkar. Değerlerin oluşmasında sosyal destekler ve pekiştireçler önemlidir. Bir değer diğer insanlar tarafından onaylanır ve takdir görürse bireydeki etkisi yüksek olur. Değerler arkalarındaki toplumsal destekleri kaybettikçe değişmeye veya etkisiz olmaya başlamaktadır. (Sarı, 2005:77). Sosyal bilgiler dersi değerler eğitimi açısından önemli bir işleve sahiptir. Bu dersin genel amacı bireylere öncelikle kendini, fiziksel ve sosyal çevresini anlamalarına yardımcı olmaktır. Ayrıca bireylerin kendilerine ve sosyal-fiziksel çevrelerine karşı olumlu değer ve tutum geliştirmelerine de 946

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN yardımcı olmaktadır (Doğanay, 2009:226). Bu bağlamda sosyal bilgiler dersinin en önemli amacı çocuğu topluma hazırlamak, onu iyi ve sorumlu bir vatandaş olarak yetiştirmektir (Keskin, 2008:3). Aynı zamanda sosyal bilgilerin tanımlarının ortak özelliği de sosyal bilgilerin öğrencilere ve sosyal sorunlara çözüm üretmede ihtiyaç duyacakları bilgi, beceri, tutum ve değerleri kazandırmayı amaçlayan bir yurttaşlık eğitim programı olduğunu göstermektedir (Öztürk ve Otluoğlu, 2002:6) Sosyal Bilgiler dersi bir değer eğitimi dersidir. 2005 yılında gerçekleştirilen köklü program değişikliklerinde dikkati çeken hususlardan biri de değer eğitimi konusunun programlar içinde vurgulanmasıdır. Sosyal Bilgiler öğretim programı incelendiğinde öğrencilere toplamda 20 değerin kazandırılması hedeflenmektedir. Bu değerler; “Adil olma, aile birliğine önem verme, barış, bağımsızlık, bilimsellik, çalışkanlık, dayanışma, duyarlılık, dürüstlük, estetik, hoşgörü, misafirperverlik, özgürlük, saygı, sağlıklı olmaya önem verme, sevgi, sorumluluk, temizlik, vatanseverlik, yardımseverlik” olarak belirlenmiştir (Başol, Ünal, Azer, Yıldız ve Evirgen, 2012:35-38; Birbiçer, 2015:28; Komisyon, 2012a:33-36; Komisyon, 2012b:29-30). Çapri ve Çelikkaleli’ye (2008:34) göre ülkemizde son yıllarda eğitim sistemiyle ilgili en önemli sorunlardan biri, öğretmen yetiştirme ve yetiştirilen öğretmenlerin niteliğidir. Bu durumdan hareketle, öğretmen yetiştiren kurumlarda verilen eğitimin sorgulanması yerinde olacaktır. Eğitim sisteminin tüm basamaklarında değerler eğitimini gerçekleştirecek öğretmenlerin değerler eğitimi yaklaşımları konusunda bilgi sahibi olmaları gerekmektedir. Bunun için öğretmenlerin hizmet öncesi eğitimleri büyük önem taşımaktadır. Üniversitelerin, eğitim fakültelerinin, öğretmen yetiştiren bazı bölümlerinde, değerler eğitimi ile ilgili zorunlu bir ders yer almamaktadır. Ancak bazı üniversitelerin eğitim fakültelerinde (Örn:Abant İzzet Baysal,Bülent Ecevit, Erzincan, Gaziosmanpaşa, Uludağ ve Marmara Üniversitesi gibi) “Değerler Eğitimi” ya da “Ahlak ve Değerler Eğitimi” adı altında seçmeli ders olarak okutulmaktadır. Değerler eğitimi konusunda yeterli eğitim verilmemesi geleceğin öğretmenleri olacak öğretmen adaylarının, değer yargıları ve değerler eğitimi konularında yeterince eğitimsel bilgiye sahip olmamaları sorununu ortaya çıkarabilir. Değer eğitiminin en önemli paydaşları öğretmen, çocuk ve ailedir. Bugünün öğretmen adayları yarının öğretmenleri olacağı için bu paydaşlardan birisi de öğretmen adaylarıdır. Geleceğin öğretmenleri olarak öğretmen adaylarının değer yargılarının bilinmesi yani nasıl bir kültürlenme ve sosyalleşme içerisinde olduklarının bilinmesi önemlidir. Allport, Vernon & Lindzey (1951), değerleri, gazete okumak, film seyretmek veya oy vermek gibi olağan faaliyetlerle ilişkilendirerek daha somut, yaşama ait anlamlar yükleyen ilk bilim adamlarıdırlar. Bu araştırmacılar, bireylerin tüm özel ve toplumsal davranış tercihlerinin sıralandığı bir değerler tipolojisinden söz etmişlerdir. Zamanla, ayrı ve istikrarlı unsurlar gibi sabit değerlere sahip bir tipoloji fikri, yerini her insanın varolan değerlerden kendine has, kişisel ve esnek hiyerarşiler oluşturduğu düşüncesine bırakmıştır. Bir kimsenin değerler sıralamasının birinci veya en üst sırasında bulunan değer onun temel değeri sayılabilir. Teorik olarak, varlığı mümkün olan bütün değerler bir kişiye verilip onların bir sıralaması yaptırıldığında, kişinin en yukarıya koyduğu değer onun her şeyden daha fazla değer verdiği şeydir (Akt: Debats & Bartelds, 1996:47). Bundan dolayıdır ki insanlar değerler konusunda tarafsız olduğu düşünülse de, çoğunlukla benimsedikleri kendi değer yargılarını daha çok öne çıkarırlar. Bu noktada geleceğin öğretmeni olacak olan öğretmen adaylarının sahip oldukları değerler dünyasının profilini çıkarabilmek için onların değer hiyerarşilerini bilmemiz önem arz etmektedir. Alandaki konuyla ilgili çalışmalara bakıldığında; öğretmen adaylarının (Akın ve Özdemir, 2009; Altunay ve Yalçınkaya, 2011; Bacanlı,1999;Başçiftçi, Güleç, Akdoğan ve Koç, 2011; Coşkun ve Yıldırım, 2009; Çelikkaya ve Demirbaş,2013; Dilmaç, Bozgeyikli ve Çıkılı, 2008; Fidan,2009; Koca, 2009; Demirtaş ve Çelikkaya, 2012; Oğuz,2012;Özdemir ve Sezgin, 2011;Sarı, 2005; Şahin ve Katılmış, 2016; Tay, 2009;Yapıcı, Kutlu ve Bilican,2012; Yapıcı ve Zengin, 2003), öğretmen ve velilerin (Acun, Yücel, Önder ve Tarman, 2013;Tay ve Yıldırım, 2009; Yiğittir, 2010) öğretmen ve öğrencilerin (Aktepe ve Yel, 2009; Aslan,2007; Balcı ve Yelken, 2010; Balcı ve Yelken, 2013; Baydar, 2009; Can, 2008;Çengelci, 2010; Deveci ve Dal, 2008; Deveci ve Ay, 2009; Fidan, 2013; Katılmış, 2010; Meydan, Aktepe ve Durmaz, 2015; Nalçacı ve Beldağ, 2015; Prencibe, 2001; Samancı, 2009; Sezer, 2008; Taşdemir, 2012; Turan ve Aktan, 2008; Yaman, Mermer ve Mutlugil,2009; Yaşar ve Çengelci, 2012; Yiğittir, 2009; Yiğittir, 2012; Yiğittir ve Öcal, 2010) değer algıları, değer tercihleri ve değer kavramına ilişkin görüşlerini ortaya koyan birçok çalışma olmasına rağmen bu çalışmaların 947

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN çoğunda sosyal bilgiler programında var olan değerler üzerinden değil de Schwartz Değerler Ölçeği kullanılarak yapılan çalışmalardır. Bu doğrultuda alandaki çalışmaların bir kısmı araştırmanın tartışma kısmına katkı sağlamıştır. Karatekin, Gençtürk ve Kılıçoğlu (2013) tarafından yapılan çalışma öğretmen, öğretmen adayı ve ilköğretim öğrencileri üzerine yapılmış olup, sosyal bilgiler programındaki değerlerden ilk üçünü seçmeleri istenmiş olup, sadece 30 öğretmen adayı ile bu değerleri seçme gerekçeleri üzerinde durulmuştur. Bu araştırmada ise farklı olarak öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler programında var olan 20 değer içinden ilk 5 değer tercihini sıralamaları, bu değerleri niçin seçtikleri istenmiş olup değerlerin cinsiyete göre farklılık gösterip göstermediği ve bu değerlerin öğretim yöntemine ilişkin önerileri daha fazla örneklem grubu (n:77) alınarak belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca bu çalışma ile katılımcıların sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında yer alan değerler içinde en fazla önem verdikleri değerler ile en az önem verdikleri değerler tespit edilecektir. 2. Yöntem Bu araştırmada sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının sahip oldukları değer hiyerarşilerini nedenleri ile ortaya koyabilmek için nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden durum çalışması kullanılmıştır. Durum çalışması, güncel bir olguyu kendi gerçek yaşam çerçevesi içinde inceleyen, olgu ve içinde bulunduğu içerik arasındaki sınırların açıkça belli olmadığı, değişik kaynaklardan edinilen kanıtların kullanılarak sistemli ve derinlemesine incelendiği görgül bir araştırma desenidir (Yin,1989: 23). 2.1.AraĢtırma Grubu Araştırma grubunu, 2015-2016 eğitim-öğretim bahar döneminde Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü son sınıfında öğrenim gören uygun örnekleme yöntemi ile belirlenen 46 (%59,75) kız ve 31 (%40,25) erkek olmak üzere toplam 77 öğretmen adayı oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmaya Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi bölümü son sınıfı öğretmen adaylarının dâhil edilmesinin nedeni; örneklem grubuna ulaşılabilirliğinin olması, okul deneyimi yaşamış olmaları ve sosyal bilgiler lisans programında değer ve değer eğitimine yönelik formal eğitim almış olmalarıdır. 2.2.Veri Toplama Aracı ve Analizi Araştırmada veriler yapılandırılmış görüşme formu ile toplanmıştır. Görüşme formu hazırlanırken konu ile ilgili alan yazın incelenmiş olup elde edilen veriler ışığında görüşme formu hazırlanmıştır. Bu form eğitim programları ve öğretim alanından bir ve sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanın da bir olmak üzere değerler eğitimi ile ilgili çalışmaları olan toplam iki öğretim üyesine incelettirilerek onların görüşleri ve önerileri doğrultusunda son hâline getirilmiştir. Örneklem dışında tutulan 5 öğrenci ile de ön görüşmeler yapılarak soruların anlaşılabilirliği ölçülmüştür. Araştırmada kullanılan yapılandırılmış görüşme formu açık uçlu 3 sorudan oluşmaktadır. Görüşme formu adayların (iki grup) uygun bir ders saatinde ders hocasının izni alınarak gerekli açıklamalar yapıldıktan her grup için ayrı zamanlarda 30 dakikalık bir zaman diliminde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmanın verilerini toplamak amacıyla öğretmen adaylarına aşağıdaki 3 açık uçlu soru sorulmuştur; 1.Sosyal Bilgiler Programında kazandırılması gereken 20 değerden ilk beş değeri seçip 1 ile 5 arasında sıralayınız? 2.Öğretmen olduğunuzda ilk beş ile numaralandırdığınız değerleri öğrencilerinize nasıl kazandırmaya çalışırsınız? Buna ilişkin önerilerinizi her bir değer için örnek vererek açıklayınız. 3.Ġlk beĢ ile numaralandırdığınız değerlerin kazandırılması sizce niçin önemlidir? Buna ilişkin gerekçelerinizi her bir değer için örnek vererek açıklayınız Araştırma kapsamında elde edilen verilerin çözümlenmesinde içerik analizi türlerinden tümevarımcı analiz kullanılmıştır. Tümevarımcı analiz kodlama yoluyla verilerin altında yatan kavramları ve bu kavramlar arasındaki ilişkileri ortaya çıkarmak amacıyla yapılmaktadır (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2013: 259). Görüşme formlarının doğrulanması için bir alan uzmanından yardım alınmıştır. Uzman, araştırma verisinin %20’sini bağımsız olarak incelemiş, daha sonra araştırmacının yaptığı dökümler ile karşılaştırılmıştır. Yapılan karşılaştırmalar sonucunda dökümlerin birbiri ile tutarlı olduğu belirlenmiş,

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN temaların belirlenmesinde araştırmacı ile uzman arasında görüş birliğine varılmıştır. Araştırmacı tarafından yapılan yorumları desteklemek ve öğrencilerin bakış açılarını yansıtmak amacıyla doküman metinlerinden alıntılara yer verilmiştir. Yapılan içerik analizinde temalar, ilgili kavramları kapsayacak kadar geniş ve ilgisiz kavramları dışarıda bırakacak kadar dar kapsamda belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Bu temalar ve temaları oluşturan alt temaların kendi aralarındaki ilişkisi ile her bir temanın diğerleriyle ilişkisi kontrol edilerek bütünlük sağlanmıştır. 3. Bulgular Bu bölümde, araştırma kapsamında sorulan sorulara verilen cevaplar tablolaştırılarak sunulmuştur. Bulguların sunulmasında, görüşme formunda yer alan soruların sıralaması esas alınmıştır. Verileri destekler nitelikte öğrencilerin görüşlerine yer verilmiştir. Görüşlerin kime ait olduğu belirtilirken, erkek öğretmen adayları için E1,E2,E3,…E31 kız öğretmen adayları için K1,K2,K3,…K46 kodları kullanılmıştır. Tablo 1. Cinsiyete Göre Öğretmen Adaylarının İlk 5 Değer Hiyerarşisi Kızlar Erkekler Değer Değer Değerler f % % sıralaması sıralaması

f

18

39,13

1. Değer

Vatanseverlik

1. Değer

22,58

7

8

17,39

2. Değer

Dürüstlük

2. Değer

12,90

4

8

17,39

3. Değer

Sorumluluk

3. Değer

22,58

7

11

23,91

4. Değer

Adil olma

7

15,21

5. Değer

Saygı

4. Değer

12,90

4

HoĢgörü

5. Değer

19,35

6

Öğretmen adaylarının “Sosyal Bilgiler Programında kazandırılması gereken 20 değerden ilk beş değeri seçip 1 ile 5 arasında sıralayınız?” sorusuna verdikleri cevaplar incelenip tablolaştırılmış ve Tablo 1’de verilmiştir. Tablo 1 incelendiğinde, kız ve erkek öğretmen adaylarının 20 değer içinden ilk beşe yerleştirdiği değerlerden ilk üçü (toplamda 4 değer) aynı olup 4. ve 5. sıradaki değer tercihlerinde adil olma ve hoşgörü değerleri açısından farklılık göstermektedirler. 1.sıradaki vatanseverlik değerini kızlar %39,13, erkekler ise %22,58 oranla; 2.sırada dürüstlük değerini kızlar %17,39, erkekler %12,90 oranla; 3.sırada sorumluluk değerini kızlar %17,39, erkekler ise %22,58 oranla ifade etmişlerdir. 4. ve 5.sıradaki değerler kız ve erkek öğretmen adayları arasında farklılık göstermekte olup kızlar 4. sırada adil olma değerini %23,91 oranla, 5.sırada ise saygı değerini %15,21 oranla ifade ederken; erkekler ise 4.sırada saygı değerini %12,90 oranla, 5.sırada ise hoşgörü değerini %19,35 oranla ifade etmişlerdir. Ortak olan değerlerden vatanseverlik, dürüstlük ve saygı değerlerini kız öğretmen adayları erkek öğretmen adaylarına göre daha fazla vurgulayarak öne çıkarırken sorumluluk değerini ise erkek öğretmen adayları kız öğretmen adaylarına göre daha fazla vurgulayarak öne çıkarmışlardır.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Değerler

1.Değer

2.Değer

3.Değer

4.Değer

5.Değer

Tablo 2. Değerlerin Öğretmen Adaylarının Tercihlerine Göre İlk Beşe Girme Durumuna İlişkin Bulgular Toplam (f)

Adil olma Aile birliğine önem verme Bağımsızlık Barış Bilimsellik Çalışkanlık Dayanışma Duyarlılık Dürüstlük Estetik Hoşgörü Misafirperverlik Özgürlük Sağlıklı olmaya önem verme Saygı Sevgi Sorumluluk Temizlik Vatanseverlik Yardımseverlik

5 6 8 1 2 3 1 2 13 1 1 6 3 1 25 -

6 5 4 3 3 2 3 1 12 4 1 1 1 7 2 6 14 1

7 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 6 2 4 8 2 15 8 3

11 4 5 3 2 5 6 1 6 5 2 6 2 8 1 6 4

6 3 4 1 4 6 4 3 4 8 4 8 5 4 11 3

35 20 24 11 14 20 17 12 41 20 1 12 1 35 12 34 1 64 11

Tablo 2 incelendiğinde öğretmen adaylarının programda var olan değerleri sıralamaya koyduklarında ilk beşe giren değerlerin frekansları verilmiştir. Öğretmen adaylarının birinci sırada gelen değerlerine bakıldığında 15 değere yer verilmiş olup birinci sırada gelen değerlerinin başında vatanseverlik (25) değerinin olduğu belirlenmiştir. Bu değerin ardından dürüstlük (13) ve bağımsızlık (8) değerlerinin öne çıktığı görülmektedir. İkinci sırada 18 değere yer verilmiş olup ikinci sırada kazandırılması gerektiği düşünülen değerlere bakıldığında ise yine vatanseverlik (14) ve dürüstlük (12)değerlerinin yanı sıra saygı (7) değerinin öne çıktığı görülmektedir. Üçüncü ve beşinci sırada 16 değere yer verilmiş olup üçüncü sırada sorumluluk (15),saygı (8)ve adil olma (7) şeklinde beşinci sırada ise vatanseverlik (11), saygı ve hoşgörü (8) değerlerinin öne çıktığı görülmektedir. Dördüncü sırada 17 değere yer verilmiş olup dördüncü sırada adil olma (11) ve sorumluluk (8) değerinin öne çıktığı bir sıralamanın olduğu görülmektedir. Tablo 2'ye göre öğretmen adaylarının programda yer alan değerlere yönelik sıralamalarının oldukça farklılık gösterdiği, programdaki 20 değerden estetik değeri hiçbir öğretmen adayı tarafından sıralamaya dâhil edilmezken misafirperverlik, sağlıklı olmaya önem verme ve temizlik değerleri sadece bir kişinin ifadesi ile sıralamaya dâhil edilmiş olup bu kişi ise bir kız öğretmen adayıdır. Bunun yanı sıra bahsedilen bu üç değer ise erkek öğretmen adayları tarafından sıralamaya dâhil edilmemiştir. Sevgi ve duyarlılık değerleri erkek öğretmen adayları tarafından sadece 1 kez sıralamaya dâhil edilmiş olup bu değerler daha çok kız öğretmen adaylar tarafından sıralamaya dâhil edilmiştir.

950

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Tablo 3. Değerlerin Nasıl Kazandırılması Gerektiğine İlişkin Kız Öğretmen Adaylarının İlişkin Görüşleri Sıra no Değerler Yöntem f Örnek olay 15 Kavramsal açıklama 8 Gösteri (Film,video izleme) 3 1.Değer Vatanseverlik Tarihi yerlere gezi düzenleme 7 Drama 3 Kaynak kişi 3 Örnek olay 6 Kavramsal açıklama 6 Gösteri (Film,video izleme,gazete, dergi haberleri) 1 2. Değer Dürüstlük Model olma 11 Ödüllendirme 1 Drama 1 Örnek olay 1 Kavramsal açıklama 5 3. Değer Sorumluluk Uygulama (Ödevlendirme,Grup Çalışması,Ders dışı) 16 Ödül-ceza 2 Örnek olay 5 Kavramsal açıklama 1 Gösteri (Film,video izleme,gazete, dergi haberleri) 1 4.Değer Adil olma Model olma 11 Uygulama (Ödevlendirme,Ders dışı) 2 Drama 2 Örnek olay 7 Kavramsal açıklama 5 Gösteri (Film,video izleme,gazete, dergi haberleri) 2 5. Değer Saygı Model olma 6 Uygulama (Ödevlendirme,Ders dışı) 9 Drama 1 Empati 3

Öğretmen adaylarının “Öğretmen olduğunuzda ilk beş ile numaralandırdığınız değerleri öğrencilerinize nasıl kazandırmaya çalışırsınız? Buna ilişkin önerilerinizi her bir değer için örnek vererek açıklayınız.” sorusuna verdikleri cevaplar incelenip tablolaştırılmış ve Tablo 3 ve 4’te verilmiştir. Tablo 3 incelendiğinde; değerlerin kazandırılması sürecinde izlenecek yöntem konusunda vatanseverlik için örnek olay(15); dürüstlük ve adil olma değerleri için model olma (11); sorumluluk ve saygı değerleri için uygulama yaptırma (16,9) yöntemleri öne çıkmaktadır. Ayrıca değerlerin öğretiminde örnek olay, kavramsal açıklama ve gösteri ortak yöntemler arasında yer alırken vatanseverlik için tarihi yerlere gezi düzenleme (7) ve saygı değeri için model olma (6) yöntemleri öne çıkmaktadır. Vatanseverlik değerinin; Örnek olaylarla anlatılması gerektiğini ifade eden K1 bu durumu “Öğrencinin, Türk Milletini top yekün omuzladığı vatanımızın kurtuluşunu sağladığı, bu vatanı kurtaran önderimizi tanıması için Atatürk’ten, askerlerimizden, tarihimizdeki önemli kişiliklerden örnekler verirdim” Gösteri yöntemi ile ilgili olarak K29 “Derste I.Dünya Savaşı işleniyorsa Çanakkale Savaşı ile ilgili bir film izletebilirim.” Gezi yönteminin kullanılması ile ilgili olarak K12 “ …tarihi sadece anlatmak ile değil imkân olduğu sürece öğrencilere tarihi yerleri göstermekle öğretmek gerekir.” Kaynak kişi ile ilgili olarak K28 “Savaş ortamını görmüş ya da mübadeleye maruz kalmış kişileri sınıfa getirip etkili olmaya çalışabilirim” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Dürüstlük değerinin; Örnek olaylarla anlatılması gerektiğini ifade eden K10 bu durumu “…tarihteki insanların hayatlarından örneklerle aşılamaya çalışırım” Gösteri yöntemi ile ilgili olarak K23 “Dürüst davranmayan insanların hayatlarının nasıl ilerlediği ile ilgili onlara kısa filmler izlettiririm.” Model olma ile ilgili olarak K9 “Çocuklara dürüstlüğü en çok benim davranışlarımda, konuşmalarımda, hâl ve hareketlerimden nasıl bir kimlikte olduğumu aşılamaya çalışırdım” K19 ise “Bu değeri ben öğrencime kazandırırken ilk olarak kendim bunu gerçekleştirmeye çalışırım. Çünkü öğrenci sen ne yaparsan onu yapar.” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Sorumluluk değerinin; Örnek olaylarla anlatılması gerektiğini ifade eden K34 bu durumu “Bu davranışların gelişmediği kişiler hakkında bilgi verir iyi ve kötü örnekler arasındaki farkı gösteririm.” Uygulama yöntemi ile ilgili olarak K12 “… öğrencilere sorumluluk almasını sağlamak için grup ile çalışma yaptırırım. O grup içinde herkesin bir görevi vardır. Öğrencide bu sayede sorumluluk bilinci oluşur ve görevi aksatmadan yerine getirir.” Ödül-ceza ile ilgili olarak K2 “ … ödevini yapmayan öğrenciye kızmak bir çözüm değil. Bu nedenle ödevin tüm sınıfta yapılmadığı herhangi bir günde ödev yapmış olan kişiye /kişilere şeker, kalem, kitap gibi etkili maddelerle ödüllendirme yapılabilir” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Adil olma değerinin; Örnek olaylarla anlatılması gerektiğini ifade eden K11 bu durumu “ Haksızlığa uğradıklarında yaşayacakları sıkıntıları anlayacakları örnekleri gösteririm.” Uygulama yöntemi ile ilgili olarak K24 “Bir ders boyunca onlara adil davranmazdım. Diğer derste ise adil davranırdım. Ve hangi tür davranışın hoşlarına gittiğini sorarak adil olmaya ulaşmalarını sağlardım. ” Model olma ile ilgili olarak K5 “ Öncelikle bu değer benim için çok önemlidir. Öğrenciye kazandırmak için önce model olmam gerekli, öğrenci de beni örnek alacaktır zaten. Bir öğrenci adaletine inanmadığı bir öğretmene güvenmez.” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Saygı değerinin; Örnek olaylarla anlatılması gerektiğini ifade eden K18 bu durumu “Atatürk’ün çalışmalarını, arkadaşlarını, hayatını, hizmetlerini anlatırım, yaşatırım. Bu sayede öğrenir büyük adamlara saygıyı.” Uygulama yöntemi ile ilgili olarak K3 “Saygı değerini derste söz verme yöntemiyle kazandırabilirim. Parmak kaldıranlara sadece söz verebilirim. Parmak kaldırırken aynı zamanda öğretmenim diyerek atılanlara söz hakkı vermem” Gösteri ve empati ile ilgili olarak K29 “Örneğin saygının olmadığı bir düzende insanların nasıl hareket ettiğine dair bir animasyon izleterek empati kurdurmaya çalışırım” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Tablo 4. Değerlerin Nasıl Kazandırılması Gerektiğine İlişkin Erkek Öğretmen Adaylarının Görüşleri Sıra no Değerler Yöntem f Örnek olay 17 Kavramsal açıklama 1 Gösteri (Film,video izleme) 3 1.Değer Vatanseverlik Tarihi yerlere gezi düzenleme 6 Uygulama (Ders dışı etkinlikler) 1 Drama 3 Örnek olay 7 Kavramsal açıklama 2 2. Değer Dürüstlük Gösteri (Film,video izleme,gazete, dergi haberleri) 2 Model olma 5

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

3. Değer

Sorumluluk

4. Değer

Saygı

5.Değer

Hoşgörü

Örnek olay Kavramsal açıklama Uygulama (Ödevlendirme, Grup Çalışması, Ders dışı) Ödül-ceza Örnek olay Kavramsal açıklama Uygulama (Ödevlendirme, Ders dışı) Kaynak kişi Empati Örnek olay Kavramsal açıklama Gösteri (Film, video izleme, gazete, dergi haberleri) Model olma Empati

2 6 10 1 3 4 2 1 1 5 2 1 2 1

Tablo 4 incelendiğinde; değerlerin kazandırılması sürecinde izlenecek yöntem konusunda vatanseverlik (17), dürüstlük(7) ve hoĢgörü(5) değerleri için örnek olay; sorumluluk için uygulama (10) ve saygı değeri için ise kavramsal açıklama (4) yöntemleri öne çıkmaktadır. Ayrıca değerlerin öğretiminde örnek olay, kavramsal açıklama ortak yöntemler arasında yer alırken vatanseverlik için tarihi yerlere gezi düzenleme (6); dürüstlük değeri için model olma (5) yöntemleri de öne çıkmaktadır. Vatanseverlik değerinin; Örnek olaylarla anlatılması gerektiğini ifade eden E14 bu durumu “Vatan için önemli işler yapan kişilerin önemi ve değerini benimseterek (II. Abdulhamit, Fatih, Atatürk’ün hayatları)” Gezi yöntemi ile ilgili olarak E20 “Çanakkale Savaşı’nda elde edilen büyük zaferin ne şartlarda kazanıldığını nasıl mücadele edildiğini göstermek maksadıyla Çanakkale’ye gezi düzenleyebilir bire bir yerinde gözlemleme fırsatı tanınabilir.” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Dürüstlük değerinin; Örnek olaylarla anlatılması gerektiğini ifade eden E18 bu durumu “ Bunu en iyi ifade etmenin yolu yalancının mumu yatsıya kadar yanar ve yalancının evi olmaz gibi örnekler üzerinden anlatmaya çalışırm”, E25 ise “dürüstlük kavramının insan yaşamı, kişinin kendi hayatı ve başkalarının hayatı üzerinde nasıl etkili olduğunu zihne kazırdım.” Gösteri yöntemi ile ilgili olarak E29 “Dürüstlüğün konu edindiği fabl, hikâye, gazete haberleri vb sınıf ortamına getiririm.” Model olma ile ilgili olarak E5 “Bu konuda ilk olarak öğrencilerimin beni örnek alacağını bilerek hareket ederim. Davranışlarımı, konuşmalarımı, bilgi ve düşüncelerimi saygılı ve anlamlı bir biçimde ifade etmeye çalışırım.” E2 ise “ öncelikle bizler rol model olmalıyız. Ayrım yapmadan, hakka hukuka derse giriş-çıkış saatine dikkat ederek rol model olmalı bu değeri böyle vermeliyiz.” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Sorumluluk değerinin; Örnek olaylarla anlatılması gerektiğini ifade eden E12 bu durumu “Ödevlerini yapma, verilen görevleri yerine getirme gibi konularda onları bilinçlendiririm. Ailesine, arkadaşlarına, topluma olan sorumluluklarını bu konuda bilgisi olan, başarılı olmuş olan insanlardan örnekler vererek kazandırmaya çalışırım” Uygulama yöntemi ile ilgili olarak E13 “her öğrenciye bir ödev veya iş vererek o konuda çalışma yapmasını ve üstüne düşen görevi yerine getirmesi için gereken çalışmaları yapmasını sağlarım.” Ödül-ceza ile ilgili olarak E3 “ödevlendirme yapmak sorumluluk yüklemektir. Sorumluluklarını yerine getirmeyen öğrencilere küçük çaplı ceza veririm” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Saygı değerinin; Örnek olaylarla anlatılması gerektiğini ifade eden E17 bu durumu “Sınıf ortamında birbirine, evde

953

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ailesine, sokakta başka insanlara saygılı olan insanların toplum gözündeki değerlerini, nasıl sevildiklerini başkalarının da kendilerine nasıl saygı duyduklarını günlük hayattan örnekler vererek kazandırırım” Empati ile ilgili olarak E24 “ Empati sağlayarak bu gibi değerler verilebilir. Sayfalar dolusu metinle saygıyı anlatmak hiçbir değer kazandırmaz ama öğrenciyi kendisini içinde bulacağı olaylarla karşı karşıya getirerek empati yapmasını ve o durumu daha iyi anlamasını sağlarım.” HoĢgörü değerinin; Örnek olaylarla anlatılması gerektiğini ifade eden E12 bu durumu “ … bu değeri kazandırmaya çalışırken ülkemizde farklı insanlar olduğunu, farklı kültüre, farklı dine, farklı ırklara sahip insanlar olduğu ve hoşgörü sayesinde bir arada yaşadığımızı anlatırım.” E16 ise “ Bu değeri verirken dinimizin bir gereği olduğundan din büyüklerinin hoşgörüsünden bahsederim.” Empati yöntemi ile ilgili olarak E3 “Öğrenciler arasında sorunlar olduğunda kendilerini karşıdaki kişinin yerinde olduğunuzu ve olaya birde onun açısından değerlendirmesini isterim. Empati kurmalarını sık sık sağlarım.” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Tablo 5. Değerlerin Niçin Kazandırılması Gerektiğine İlişkin Kız Öğretmen Adaylarının Görüşleri Sıra no Değerler Gerekçe f Her şeyden öncelikli olduğu için 13 Topluma faydalı olmak için 13 1.Değer Vatanseverlik Devletin devamlılığı için 8 Birlik, beraberlik için 5 Toplumda kabul görmek için 12 2. Değer Dürüstlük Kişilik gelişimine katkı için 8 İnsan olmanın gereği olduğu için 4 Kendi başına iş yapma becerisi kazanmaları için 10 3. Değer Sorumluluk Toplumsal düzeni sağlamak için 7 Toplumda kabul görmek için 3 Toplumsal düzeni sağlamak için 9 4. Değer Adil olma Toplumda kabul görmek için 4 İnsan olmanın gereği olduğu için 3 Toplumda kabul görmek için 10 Toplumsal düzeni sağlamak için 10 5.Değer Saygı İnsanlar arası iletişimin sağlıklı olması için 7 Dini açıdan önemli olduğu için 1

Öğretmen adaylarının “İlk beş ile numaralandırdığınız değerlerin kazandırılması sizce niçin önemlidir? Buna ilişkin gerekçelerinizi her bir değer için örnek vererek açıklayınız.” sorusuna verdikleri cevaplar incelenip tablolaştırılmış ve Tablo 5 ve 6’da verilmiştir. Tablo 5 incelendiğinde kız öğretmen adayları vatanseverlik değerini her şeyden öncelikli olması (13), topluma faydalı olunması (13), devletin devamlılığın sağlanması (8) ve birlik, beraberliğin sağlanması (5) için; dürüstlük değerini toplumda kabul görmek (12), bireyin kişilik gelişimine katkı (8) ve insan olmanın gereklerinden biri olduğu için (4); sorumluluk değerini bireyin kendi başına iş yapma becerisi kazanabilmesi (10),toplumsal düzeni sağlamak (7) ve toplumda kabul görmek için (3); adil olma değerini toplumsal düzeni sağlamak (9) toplumda kabul görmek için (4) ve insan olmanın gereklerinden biri olduğu için (3); saygı değerini toplumsal düzeni sağlamak (10) toplumda kabul görmek için (10), insanlar arası iletişimin sağlıklı olması(7) ve dini açıdan önemli olduğu için (1) öncelikli olarak kazandırılması gerektiklerini ifade etmişlerdir. Vatanseverlik değerinin; Her şeyden öncelikli olmasından dolayı kazandırılması gerektiğini K18 “Vatansever olmayan bir insan, milleti için hiçbir değere sahip olmaz. Bu değeri kazanmayan hiçbir öğrenci diğer değerlere yatkın olamaz.Ancak vatansever bir çocuk anlar ki saygı nedir,özgürlük için neler yapılmıştır,…” 954

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Topluma faydalı olmak için K29 “Vatansever olmalı ki devlete ve millete faydalı birer birey olsun.” K25 ise “Vatansever olmalıdır. Çünkü vatansever olmayan bir öğrenci vatanına ve topluma yararlı olamaz” , K13 ise “Çünkü vatanını ve milletini sevmeyen bir insan ne kadar iyi biri olursa olsun ne kendine ne insanlara ne de vatana bir hayrı olmaz.” Devletin devamlılığının sağlanması için K10 “Vatanseverlik önemli, çünkü milli değerlerimizin, milletimizin devamı istikbali vatansever birbirine bağlı birlik içinde olan bir toplumla alakalı ve ancak bununla mümkündür.” Birlik, beraberlik için K40 “Vatanseverlik duygusu bir toplumu bir arada tutan toplumda refahı huzuru sağlayan unsurlardır.” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Dürüstlük değerinin; Toplumda kabul görmek için kazandırılması gerektiğini belirten K34 bu durumu “ Bu değerin toplum tarafından saygı ve kabul görmek için ön koşul olduğunu düşünüyorum.” K35 ise “ Çevresindeki ilişkilerin olumlu yönde olması için verilmesi gerekir.” Bireyin kişilik gelişimine katkı sağlaması ile ilgili olarak K45 “ Toplumumuza gerçek kimliğini kazanmış doğru bireyler kazandırmalıyız.” K40 ise“Kişilik özelliği olarak dürüstlük sağlam bir karakter oluşturulması için en önemli özelliklerdendir. Dürüst birey ahlaklı ve saygılı birey olur.” İnsan olmanın gereklerinden biri olduğu için kazandırılması gerektiğini belirten K27 bu durumu “Dürüst olmayan bir insanın hayatı zaten yalan dolan üzerine kuruludur. Onun dış çevre ile ilişkileri iyi değildir. Dürüst olmadığından insanlar ile ilişkileri iyi olmaz ve diğer değerlere sahip olma olasılığı da gerçeği yansıtmayacaktır. Dolayısıyla dürüstlük insan gibi yaşamanın insan olmanın bir gereğidir.” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Sorumluluk değerinin; Bireyin kendi başına iş yapma becerisi kazanabilmesi için kazandırılması gerektiğini belirten K7 bu durumu “ Her şeyi becerebilen bir kişi bile olsak ilk olarak onları yapma isteği içimizde olmalıdır. Başkalarının yardımıyla iş yapmanın yanı sıra kendi başına üzerine aldıkları işleri başarabilen bireyler yetiştirmek gerekir. Bu değeri kazanan bireyde diğer değerlerde kazanılmış olur.” Toplumsal düzeni sağlamak için gerekli olduğu K21 tarafından “Sorumsuz bir insan ihmalkâr bir toplum yaratır. Bu yüzden sorumluluk önemlidir.” K35 tarafından ise “ Sorumluluk yaşadığı çevreye karşı sergilediği davranışlarının iyi yönde olmasını sağlayan değerdir. Bireye yapması gereken doğru davranışlar öğretilir.” Toplumda kabul görmek için gerekli olduğu K3 tarafından “Toplumdaki güveni sağlayabilmek için bu değer önemlidir. Sonuçta hiç kimse sorumsuz güvenmediği biriyle iletişim içinde olmak istemez.” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Adil olma değerinin; Toplumsal düzeni sağlamak için kazandırılması gerektiğini belirten K9 bu durumu “ Adil olmazsak bu dünyanın çarkı dönmez” K20 ise “ Bir ülkede, bir evde, bir sınıfta, bir ortamda adalet çok önemlidir. Eğer bir yerde lider adil olmazsa bu lider patron da olabilir, öğretmen de olabilir, o ortamda asayiş bana göre bozulmaya çok müsaittir.” K15 “Adaletin, adil insanın olmadığı yerde her türlü zulüm, savaş, anarşi ve insanı toplumu karanlığa sürükleyecek durumlar oluşur.” Toplumda kabul görmek için K34 “…toplum tarafından saygı ve kabul görmek için ön kabul olduğunu düşünüyorum.” K13 ise “Kişiler arasında ayrım yapan adil olmayan birey kendini lider ilan eder ve yine sevilmeyen kimsenin sohbet etmeye bile tenezzül etmediği kişi haline gelir.” İnsan olmanın gereklerinden biri olduğu için K10 “Adillik önemli çünkü insanlığın gereğidir adil olmak hak yememek, hangi makamda olursa olsun benim öğrencim ilerde torpil yapmayacak bir insan olmalı.” Saygı değerinin; Toplumsal düzeni sağlamak için kazandırılması gerektiğini belirten K8 bu durumu “Günümüzde gerek siyasi görüşümüzden, gerek mezhebimizden, şivemizden, giyiniş tarzımızdan dolayı ötekileştiriliyoruz. Bu ayrımcılığın son bulması ve toplumsal huzurun sağlanması için saygı değerinin kazandırılması gerekir.” K40 ise “ İnsanların birbirine saygı duyduğu bir toplumda her birey daha mutlu, daha

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN güvenli bir hayat sürme imkânı bulur”. Toplumda kabul görmek için K36 “Karşısındakine ve onun düşüncelerine saygı duyan birey toplumda saygı ve takdir görür. Toplumun huzurunu bozmaz” İnsanlar arası iletişimin sağlıklı olması için K3“Saygı en önemli değerlerden biridir. Çünkü insanların birbirine saygısı olmadığında aralarında da hiçbir şekilde iletişim veya bir bağ olmayacaktır. Bu nedenle önce bunu kazandırmaya çalışırım.” Dini açıdan önemli olduğu için K1 “ Bir insan duruşunu hatta bir Müslüman duruşunu gösteren en önemli değer” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Tablo 6.Değerlerin Niçin Kazandırılması Gerektiğine İlişkin Erkek Öğretmen Adaylarının Görüşleri Sıra no Değerler Gerekçe f Devletin devamlılığı için 12 Topluma faydalı olmak için 8 1.Değer Vatanseverlik Herşeyden öncelikli olduğu için 6 Birlik,beraberlik için 3 İnsan olmanın gereği olduğu için 7 2. Değer Dürüstlük Toplumda kabul görmek için 3 Kişiliğin gelişimine katkı için 3 Kendi başına iş yapma becerisi kazanmalarını için 6 3. Değer Sorumluluk Toplumda kabul görmek için 4 Toplumsal düzeni sağlamak için 4 Toplumsal düzeni sağlamak için 5 4. Değer Saygı Toplumda kabul görmek için 3 Diğer değerlere öncülük ettiği için 4 5. Değer Hoşgörü Toplumda kabul görmek için 2 İnsan olmanın gereği olduğu için 1

Tablo 6 incelendiğinde erkek öğretmen adayları vatanseverlik değerini devletin devamlılığın sağlanması (12) topluma faydalı olunması (8), her şeyden öncelikli olması (6) ve birlik, beraberliğin sağlanması (3) için; dürüstlük değerini insan olmanın gereklerinden biri olduğu (7), toplumda kabul görmek (3),bireyin kişilik gelişimine katkı sağlamak için (3); sorumluluk değerini bireyin kendi başına iş yapma becerisi kazanabilmesi (6),toplumsal düzeni sağlamak (4) ve toplumda kabul görmek için (4); saygı değerini toplumsal düzeni sağlamak (5) ve toplumda kabul görmek için (3); hoĢgörü değerini diğer değerlere öncülük ettiği (4) toplumda kabul görmek (2) ve insan olmanın gereklerinden biri olduğu için (1) öncelikli olarak kazandırılması gerektiklerini ifade etmişlerdir. Vatanseverlik değerinin; Devletin devamlılığın sağlanması için kazandırılması gerektiğini belirten E9 bu durumu “Toplumları ayakta tutan ortak bir tarih, bir toprak veya idealdir. Bunların gerçekleşmesi için birey ülkesini vatanını sevmelidir. Vatan olgusunu bilmeyen bir millet dağılmaya mahkûmdur.” E1 ise “Vatanına sahip çıkmayan ve vatanını sevmeyen çocuk gelecekte vatansız yurtsuz kalır.” Topluma faydalı olunması ile ilgili olarak E17 “Toplum için faydalı işler yaparak vatanseverliklerini ortaya koymaları sağlanmalıdır.” Vatan sevgisinin her şeyden öncelikli olduğunu ifade eden E28 “Vatansever olmayan bir insan ne yapabilir, ülkesine ne kazandırabilir. Benim için vatanseverlik çoğu değeri içinde barındıran başlı başına bir değerdir.” E4 ise “Bu değer TC vatandaşı olan her aklı başında olan kişide olması gereken bir durum.” Birlik, beraberliğin sağlanması ile ilgili olarak E9 “Toplumları ayakta tutan ortak bir tarih bir toprak veya idealdir. Bunların gerçekleşmesi için birey ülkesini vatanını sevmelidir. Vatan olgusunu bilmeyen bir millet dağılmaya mahkûmdur.” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Dürüstlük değerinin; 956

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN İnsan olmanın gereklerinden biri olduğu için kazandırılması gerektiğini belirten E29 bu durumu “ …iyi bir insan olmanın temel esaslarını oluşturmaktadır.” şeklinde ifade ederken E27 ise “Her bireyde olması gereken bir değer olduğu için” Bireyin kişilik gelişimine katkı sağlaması ile ilgili olarak E28 “Dürüst birey aynı zamanda adil, saygılı, beyefendi vb. olacağından o da seçmiş olduğum diğer değerler gibi bireyin karakter gelişiminde etkili olmaktadır.” E14 ise “Bu değerin kazanılması kişiyi benlik duygusu ve ahlaki yönden geliştireceği için önemlidir” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Sorumluluk değerinin; Bireyin kendi başına iş yapma becerisi kazanabilmesi için kazandırılması gerektiğini belirten E11 bu durumu “Çocuğa ufak ve onun kaldırabileceği sorumluluklar yüklenirse en azından ileri ki yaşamında buna hazırlıklı olur. ” şeklinde ifade ederken E25 ise “sorumluluk değerini kazanan bir insan yaşamı için, insanlık için gerekli olan üzerine düşen tüm görevi yerine getirir. Her insan sorumluluk aldığı sürece yaşam daha kolay şekillenir” toplumsal düzeni sağlamak için gerekli olduğu E23 tarafından “İnsanlarda sorumluluk duygusu gelişirse herkes kendi sorumluluklarını bilerek hareket ederse bozulmayacak bir düzen kurulabilir.” Toplumda kabul görmek için gerekli olduğu E4 tarafından “Aldığı görevi sorumluluğu yerine getirmeyen kişilere güven olmaz. ” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. Saygı değerinin; Toplumsal düzeni sağlamak ve toplumda kabul görmek için gerekli olduğu E17 tarafından “Saygı değerine sahip insanlar sınıf ortamında birbirine, evde ailesine, sokakta başka insanlara saygılı olduğu zaman bu durum insanların toplum gözündeki değerlerini arttırdığı gibi aynı zamanda toplumsal huzuru da katkı sağlamaktadır” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. HoĢgörü değerinin; Toplumda kabul görmek için gerekli olduğu E10 tarafından “Toplumumuzun ahlaki değerlerine uygun davranışlar sergilemesi adına bu değer önemlidir” cümleleri ile ifade etmişlerdir. 4. Sonuç ve TartıĢma Sosyal Bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler programında var olan değerlerden öğrencilerde görmek istedikleri değerlere ilişkin önem sırasının incelendiği araştırmada değer hiyerarşisinin ölçülmesi amacıyla değer sıralama yöntemi kullanıldığı için bir dizi değer, önemine göre sıraya konulmuş ve değerler arasında bir öncelik-sonralık ilişkisi söz konusu olmuştur. Bu nedenle, bir değerin sıra olarak daha sonlarda yer alması, onun önemli olmadığı anlamına gelmemekte aksine diğer değerlere göre daha sonlarda tercih edildiği anlamına gelmektedir. Toplamda ilk beş sıralamada en çok yer alan değerlere bakıldığında ise 77 öğretmen adayının 64’ü vatanseverlik değerini ilk beş içerisine aldığı ve bu değerin en çok tekrarlanan değer olarak birinci sırada yer aldığı, bu değeri sırasıyla dürüstlük (41), adil olma(35), saygı (35) ve sorumluluk (35) değerlerinin takip ettiği belirlenmiştir. Erkek öğretmen adaylarının tercih sıralamasında beşinci sırada yer alan hoĢgörü değeri genel sıralamada ilk beş değere giren değerler içinde 7.sırada yer almıştır. Kız ve erkek öğretmen adaylarının 20 değer içinden ilk beşe yerleştirdiği değerlerden ilk beşteki değerlerden dördü (vatanseverlik, dürüstlük, sorumluluk ve saygı) aynı olup bunlardan ilk üçünün (vatanseverlik, dürüstlük, sorumluluk )sıralaması aynı olup 4. ve 5. sıradaki değer tercihlerinde adil olma ve hoşgörü değerleri açısından farklılık göstermektedirler. Araştırmada ortak olan değerlerden vatanseverlik, dürüstlük ve saygı değerlerini kız öğretmen adayları erkek öğretmen adaylarına göre daha fazla vurgulayarak öne çıkarırken sorumluluk değerini ise erkek öğretmen adayları kız öğretmen adaylarına göre daha fazla vurgulayarak öne çıkarmışlardır. Özdemir ve Sezgin (2011) tarafından yapılan çalışma araştırma sonuçlarıyla saygı açısından paralellik göstermekte olup sorumluluk değeri açısından ters yönde bir durum söz konusu olup kızlar erkeklere göre sorumluluk değerini daha öncelikli olarak öne çıkarmışlardır. Bu bulgular, öğretmen adaylarının farklı değerlere ya da değer sistemine ilişkin önem algılarının farklılık gösterebileceğini ortaya koymaktadır. Araştırmanın sonuçlarına dayanarak öncelikli olarak çoğu katılımcının vatanseverlik, dürüstlük ve saygı gibi değerlerin benimsemesi öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin bakış açılarını 957

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ve göreve başladıklarında da sadece bireysel değil toplumsal olarak da önemli olan değerlere öncelik verecekleri söylenebilir. Nitekim öğretmen adaylarının kendi değer hiyerarşisinde vatanseverlik, dürüstlük ve saygı değerlerinin öne çıkması Karatekin, Gençtürk ve Kılıçoğlu (2013) tarafından yapılan çalışmayla paralellik göstermektedir. Bu durumun nedeni olarak eğitimini aldıkları programın onların değer tercihlerini belirlemesinde etkili olabilmesi ihtimali gösterilebilir. Nitekim Yapıcı ve Zengin, (2003) tarafından yapılan çalışmada gençlerin değer tercih sıralamalarında genelde benzerliklerin olduğu görüldüğü tespit edilmiş olup, bu durumu din eğitimi alan gençlerin ortak kültür etkileşimi ve din eğitiminin biçimlendirici etkisiyle izaha çalışmak mümkün olduğu ifade edilmiştir. Bu durum Vatanseverlik değerinin bu araştırmada ilk sırada yer almasının nedeni olarak katılımcıların sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayı olmasından kaynaklandığı gösterebilir. Ayrıca Bulut (2012) tarafından öğretmen adayları ile yapılan araştırmanın sonucunda saygı ve dürüstlük değerinin öğretmen adaylarının öncelikli değerlerinin arasında olduğu görülmektedir. Öğretmen adaylarının tercihleri ayrıca Aktepe ve Yel (2009) tarafından öğretmenler üzerine yapılan çalışma ile de paralellik göstermekte de olup öğretmenlerin en çok tercih ettiği değerlerin başında adalet, dürüstlük ve sorumluluk gelmektedir. Özdemir ve Sezgin (2011) tarafından öğretmen adaylarının bireysel ve örgütsel değerler ile öğrencilerde görmek istedikleri değerlere ilişkin önem sırası algılarının incelendiği araştırmada dürüstlük, saygı ve güven gibi değerlerin daha öncelikli aktarılması gerektiğine sonucuna varılmıştır. Acun, Yücel, Önder ve Tarman (2013) tarafından öğretmen ve veliler üzerinde yapılan çalışmada elde edilen sonuçlar bu çalışmada elde edilen sonuçlarla benzerlik göstermektedir. Araştırmada öğretmenlerin en önemli gördükleri değerlerin sırasıyla “vatanseverlik”, “sorumluluk” ve “adil olma” değeri olduğu, velilerin en önemli gördükleri üç değerin “dürüstlük”, “çalışkanlık” ve “saygı” değeri olduğu görülmüştür. Buradan öğretmenlerin ve velilerin en önemli gördükleri değerlerle öğretmen adaylarının en önemli gördükleri değerlerin sadece çalışkanlık değeri yönüyle örtüşmediği görülmektedir. Bunun nedeni olarak ailelerin çocuklarından ders çalışmalarını gerektiği yönünde beklenti içinde olmalarından kaynaklanmış olabilir. Programdaki 20 değerden estetik değeri hiçbir öğretmen adayı tarafından sıralamaya dâhil edilmezken misafirperverlik, sağlıklı olmaya önem verme ve temizlik değerleri sadece bir kişinin ifadesi ile sıralamaya dâhil edilmiş olup bu kişi ise bir kız öğretmen adayıdır. Bahsedilen bu üç değer ise erkek öğretmen adayları tarafından sıralamaya dâhil edilmemiştir. Sevgi ve duyarlılık değerleri erkek öğretmen adayları tarafından sadece 1 kez sıralamaya dâhil edilmiş olup bu değerler daha çok kız öğretmen adaylar tarafından sıralamaya dahil edilmiştir. Karatekin, Gençtürk ve Kılıçoğlu (2013) tarafından yapılan çalışmada öğretmen adaylarının sağlıklı olmaya önem verme, estetik, temizlik değerlerine hiç yer vermedikleri belirlenmiş olup misafirperverlik ve bilimsellik değerlerine ise sadece birer adayın yer verdiği görülmüştür. Karatekin, Gençtürk ve Kılıçoğlu (2013) ve Sarı (2005) tarafından yapılan çalışmalarda bilimsellik değeri en az olan değerler arasında yer alırken bu çalışma da bilimsellik değerine çok olmasa da yer verildiği görülmektedir. Demirtaş ve Çelikkaya (2012) tarafından yapılan çalışmada da bu çalışmaya paralel olarak sağlıklı olmaya önem verme ve temizlik değerleri sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının değer derecelemelerine girememiş değerler olup, çalışmadaki sonuçların aksine misafirperverlik ve sevgi değerlerini ise derecelemeye aldığı görülmektedir. Acun, Yücel, Önder ve Tarman (2013) tarafından yapılan çalışmada da hem öğretmenler, hem de veliler en az önemli gördükleri değerleri “estetik”, “misafirperverlik” ve “bilimsellik” olarak belirtmişlerdir. Öğretmen, veliler ve öğretmen adayları arasında en az önemli görülen değerler açısından bir benzerlik bulunmuştur. Estetik değerinin en az önemsenen değer olmasının nedeni olarak estetik kavramının toplumda farklı anlamlara gelmesi, başka bir neden olarak Türk toplumunun gelişmekte olan bir toplum olarak daha hayati ihtiyaç ve öncelikleri olduğundan dolayı estetik değerinin toplumun bilincinde önemli bir yer teşkil etmemesi olabilir. Zaman içerisinde ve farklı gruplarla yapılan çalışmalarda benzer durumlar sonuçlar elde edilmiştir. Sarı’nın (2005) öğretmen adaylarının değer tercihlerini belirlemek amacıyla yaptığı araştırmada öğretmen adaylarının en az estetik değerine önem verdiği sonucuna ulaşmıştır. Ancak Türk milletinin kendine özgü en önemli değerlerinden birisi olarak bilinen misafirperverlik değerinin en az önem verilen değerlerden biri olarak bulunması, Türk milletinin kültürel değerler yönünden farklılaşma içinde olmasından, küresel etkilerin toplumu etkilemiş olmasından kaynaklanmış olabilir. Acun, Yücel, Önder ve Tarman’da (2013) araştırmalarında estetik ve misafirperverlik değerlerinin öğretmenlerin en az önemsedikleri değerler arasında olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. Yiğittir (2010) tarafından veliler üzerinde 958

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN yapılan çalışmada elde edilen sonuç çalışmayla benzerlik göstermekte olup Türk toplumunda önemli bir düzeyde benimsenen misafirperverlik ve dayanışma değerlerinin çok az sayıda tercih edilmesi de yine bu değerlerin ailelerce önemsenmediği sonucunu ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Her sosyal kesitin kendince öncelediği değerleri vardır. Sözgelimi sporcunun değerleriyle bilim adamının değerleri birbirinden farklılık gösterir. Birisinde başarının, diğerinde özgürlüğün önceliği vardır(Aydın,2003:125).Bir nesnenin ya da durumun değeri sadece insanların onu algılamalarına bağlı olarak bir anlam kazanmakta olup görecelidir. Bu açıdan bakıldığında birisi için değerli olan bir şey bir başkası için değerli olmayabilir, hatta bu değerli olma durumu zamana göre değişiklik gösterip belli bir anda değerli olan şey bir başka zaman değerli olmayabilir. Buna göre neyin değerli olduğu ya da neye ne zaman değer verileceği meselesi içinde bulunulan sosyal, psikolojik, kültürel ve fiziksel durum gibi şartlara bağlı olarak şekillenmektedir. Sosyal bilgiler programında var olan değerlerin kazandırılmasında izlenecek yöntemler konusunda, örnek olay, kavramsal açıklama, gösteri (film, video izleme),tarihi yerlere gezi düzenleme, model olma, ödül-ceza, uygulama (ödevlendirme, grup çalışması, ders dışı),empati, kaynak kişi, yöntemleri kız ve erkek öğretmen adaylarının ortak yöntemleri iken drama yöntemini sadece kız öğretmen adayları ifade etmişlerdir. Ayrıca ödül-ceza yöntemi ile ilgili olarak erkek öğretmen adaylarından biri sorumluluk değerinin kazandırılmasında sorumluluklarını yerine getirmeyenlere ceza vereceğini ifade ederken kız öğretmen adayları ise sorumluluğunu yerine getirene ödül verilebileceğini ifade etmektedir. Çelikkaya ve Demirbaş (2013) tarafından öğretmen adayları üzerine yapılan çalışmada da aynı değerlerin öğretiminde kullanılması gerektiği ifade edilen yöntemler benzerlik göstermekte olup özellikle vatanseverlik değeri için tarihi yerlere gezi düzenleme (özellikle Çanakkale),sorumluluk için aile içinde ve okulda görevler verme yöntemlerinin kullanılması gerektiğinin ifade edilmesi dikkat çekmektedir. Elde edilen sonuçlarla benzerlik gösteren çalışmalardan, Fidan(2009) tarafından sınıf ve sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları üzerinde yapılan çalışmanın sonuçlarında öğretmen adayları değer öğretiminde öğrencilere örnek olunması, değerleri teşvik eden güzel sözler seçilerek öğrencilerle paylaşılması, değer öğretiminde ders verici hikâyeler anlatılması, öğrencilerin kendi değerlerinin farkına varmalarını sağlamak için sorular sorulması, değer öğretiminde değer boyutu olan sinema filmi, tv filmi ve tiyatro önerilmesi gerektiğini belirtmişlerdir. Öğretmen adaylarının değer hiyerarşisinde ilk beşe aldıkları bu değerlere yönelik gerekçelerine bakıldığında; Vatanseverlik değerine yönelik; devletin devamlılığın sağlanması, topluma faydalı olunması, her şeyden öncelikli olması ve birlik, beraberliğin sağlanması için gibi gerekçelerle Çelikkaya ve Demirbaş (2013) ve Demirtaş ve Çelikkaya (2012) tarafından yapılan çalışmalarda benzer sonuçlar elde edilmiştir. Karatekin, Gençtürk ve Kılıçoğlu (2013) tarafından yapılan çalışmadaki vatanseverlik değerine yönelik gerekçelere bakıldığında; sosyal bilgiler dersinde verilmesi gereken temel değer olarak görülmesi, programın amaçlarından biri olması ve kendisinden beklenen davranış olması gibi gerekçeler öne çıkarken, vatan sevgisinin de bu konuda belirleyici olduğu görülmüştür.Bu sonuçların çalışmada elde edilen sonuçlarla farklılık göstermesinin nedeni olarak içinde bulunulan zamanda yaşanmış olan,sosyal,ekonomik,siyasal vb. olayların meydana getirdiği sonuçların etkili olması gösterilebilir. Dürüstlük değerine yönelik olarak; insan olmanın gereklerinden biri olması, toplumda kabul görmesi, bireyin kişilik gelişimine katkı sağlaması için gibi gerekçelerle Çelikkaya ve Demirbaş (2013) ve Karatekin, Gençtürk ve Kılıçoğlu (2013) çalışmaları ile benzer sonuçlar elde edilmişken insanların birbirlerine güvenmelerini sağlamak (Çelikkaya ve Demirbaş,2013) ve aile ve okulda çok vurgulandığı, dini inançları gereği (Karatekin, Gençtürk ve Kılıçoğlu,2013) gibi gerekçelerle diğer çalışmalarla farklılık göstermektedir. Sorumluluk değerine yönelik olarak; toplumsal düzenin sağlanması ve toplumda kabul görmesi için gibi gerekçelerle Çelikkaya ve Demirbaş (2013) tarafından yapılan çalışma benzer sonuçlar elde edilmişken bireyin kendi başına iş yapma becerisi kazanabilmesi için gerekçesi ile farklılık göstermektedir. Adil olma değerine yönelik toplumsal düzenin sağlanması, toplumda kabul görmesi ve insan olmanın gereklerinden biri olduğu için gibi gerekçelerle Çelikkaya ve Demirbaş (2013) tarafından yapılan çalışma benzer sonuçlar elde edilmişken çocukların adaletli ve dürüst davranışlar kazanmaları için (Çelikkaya ve Demirbaş (2013 gerekçesi ile farklılık göstermektedir. 959

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Saygı değerine yönelik; toplumsal düzeni sağlanması, toplumda kabul görmesi, insanlar arası iletişimin sağlıklı olması ve dini açıdan önemli olduğu gibi gerekçelerle Çelikkaya ve Demirbaş (2013), Karatekin, Gençtürk ve Kılıçoğlu (2013) ve Demirtaş ve Çelikkaya (2012) tarafından yapılan çalışmalarda benzer sonuçlar elde edilmiştir. Hoşgörü değerine yönelik olarak da diğer değerlere öncülük etmesi, toplumda kabul görmesi ve insan olmanın gereklerinden biri olduğu için öncelikli olarak kazandırılması gerektiklerini ifade etmişlerdir. Öneriler Çalışma ile elde edilen bilgiler doğrultusunda katılımcıların değer sıralamasında yer bulmayan değerlere yönelik irdeleyici araştırmaların yapılması önerilebilir. Benzer türdeki araştırmalarda aile ve öğretmen boyutunun da değer hiyerarşisi irdelenebilir. References Acun,İ.,Yücel,C.,Önder,A. ve Tarman,B.(2013) Değerler: Kim Ne Kadar Değer Veriyor?, Uşak Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 6 (1), 191-206 Akın, U. ve Özdemir, M. (2009). Öğretmen Adaylarının Demokratik Değerlerinin Çeşitli Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Örneği, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 42(2),183-198. Aktepe, V. ve Yel, S. (2009). İlköğretim Öğretmenlerinin Değer Yargılarının Betimlenmesi: Kırşehir İli Örneği, Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 7(3), 607-622. Altunay, E. ve Yalçınkaya, M. (2011) Öğretmen Adaylarının Bilgi Toplumunda Değerlere İlişkin Görüşlerinin Bazı Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi, Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 17(1), 5-28. Aslan, R. (2007). Öğretmen Görüşlerine Göre İlköğretim Birinci Basamaktaki Öğrencilerin Temel Bilgi, Beceri Ve Değerleri Kazanma Düzeyleri, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Aydın, M. (2003).Gençliğin Değer Algısı: Konya örneği. Değerler Eğitimi Dergisi, 1 (3), 121- 144. Bacanlı,H.(1999)Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Yönetimi,Sayı:20,597-610

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Oğuz, E.(2012) Öğretmen Adaylarının Değerler ve Değerler Eğitimine İlişkin Görüşleri, Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 12 (2), (Ek Özel Sayı),1309-1325

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Özdemir, S. ve Sezgin, F.(2011)Öğretmen Adaylarının Bireysel ve Örgütsel Değerler ile Öğrencilerde Görmek İstedikleri Değerlere İlişkin Önem Sırası Algıları, Uşak Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 4(2), 1-21 Öztürk, C. ve Otluoğlu, R. (2011). Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretiminde Edebi Ürünler ve Yazılı Materyaller. Ankara: Pegem Akademi Prencibe, A. (2001). Children’s Reasoning About The Teaching of Values.(Master’s Thesis, Univeristy of Toronto,2001). ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis, AAT.MQ58877. Samancı, O. (2009). İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Sosyal İlişkilerinde Önem Verdikleri Değer ve Beklentiler. III. Sosyal Bilimler Eğitimi Kongresi içinde (s. 287-291). Ankara: MEB Devlet Kitapları Sarı, E. (2005) Öğretmen Adaylarının Değer Tercihleri: Giresun Eğitim Fakültesi Örneği, Değerler Eğitimi Dergisi, 3(10), 73-88. Sezer, A. ve Çoban, O. (2016). Ortaokul Öğrencilerinin Sorumluluk Değeri Algıları, Uşak Üniversitesi Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(1), 22-39. Şahin, T. ve Katılmış, A.(2016) Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretmen Adaylarının Değerler Eğitimi Öz-Yeterlilikleri, Eğitimi Araştırmaları Dergisi (ALEG),2(1), 1-16.

Alan

Taşdemir, A. (2012). Değerlere İlişkin Türkiye, Irak ve Suudi Arabistan Örneklemindeki Türk Öğrencilerin Görüşlerinin İncelenmesi, Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 12(3), 1-30. Tay, B. (2009). Prospective Teachers’ Views Concerning The Values To Teach In The Course Of Social Sciences, Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1, 1187-1191. Tay, B. ve Yıldırım, K. (2009). Sosyal Bilgiler Dersinde Kazandırılması Amaçlanan Değerlere İlişkin Veli Görüşleri, Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 9(3), 1499-1542. Turan, S. ve Aktan, D. (2008). Okul Hayatında Var Olan ve Olması Düşünülen Sosyal Değerler, Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 6(2), 227-259. Yaman, E., Mermer, E. Ç. ve Mutlugil,Ş. (2009). İlköğretim Okulu Öğrencilerinin Etik Davranışlara İlişkin Görüşleri: Nitel Bir Araştırma, Değerler Eğitimi Dergisi, 7(17), 93-108. Yapıcı, A. ve Zengin, Z. S. (2003). İlahiyat Fakültesi Öğrencilerinin Değer Tercih Sıralamaları Üzerine Psikolojik Bir Araştırma: Çukurova Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Örneği, Değerler Eğitimi Dergisi, 1(4), 173-206. Yapıcı,A.,Kutlu,M.,O. ve Bilican,F.I.(2012) Öğretmen Adaylarının Bilimler Dergisi,11(42), 129-151.

Değer Yönelimleri,

Elektronik Sosyal

Yaşar, Ş. ve Çengelci, T. (2012). Sosyal Bilgiler Dersinde Değerler Eğitimine İlişkin Bir Durum Çalışması, Uluslararası Avrasya Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 3(9), 1-23. Yıldırım, A. ve Şimsek, H. (2013). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. (9. Genişletilmiş Baskı) Ankara: Seçkin Yayınevi. Yiğittir, S. (2009). İlköğretim Sosyal Bilgiler Dersi 4 ve 5. Sınıf Değerlerinin Kazanılma Düzeyi, Doktora Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Yiğittir, S. (2010). İlköğretim Öğrenci Velilerinin Okullarda Kazandırılmasını Arzuladığı Değerler. Değerler Eğitim Dergisi, 8 (19), 207-223. Yiğittir, S. (2012). İlköğretim 5.Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Değer Yönelimlerinin Rokeach ve Schwartz Değer Sınıflandırmasına Göre Değerlendirilmesi, Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 19, 1-5. Yiğittir, S. ve Öcal, A. (2010). İlköğretim 6. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Değer Yönelimleri, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 24, 407-416. Yin,R.K.(1989) Case Study Research:Design and Metohds. Sage Publications. Retrived from https://books.google.com.tr/books/about/Case_study_research.html?id=gxy2AAAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y

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SOSYAL BĠLGĠLER VE TARĠH ÖĞRETMEN ADAYLARININ “TARĠH” KAVRAMINA ĠLĠġKĠN ALGILARININ METAFORLAR YOLUYLA ANALĠZĠ Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tekin ÇELĠKKAYA Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Education, Social Studies Education Dept. [email protected] Özet Sosyal Bilgiler ve Tarih öğretmen adaylarının “tarih” kavramına ilişkin algılarının ne yönde olduğunu ve bu algılarını hangi metaforlarla açıkladıklarını incelemeyi amaçlayan bu çalışma, nitel araştırma yöntemine uygun olarak tasarlanan betimsel bir alan araştırmasıdır. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu 2015-2016 eğitim-öğretim yılında Ahi Evran Üniversitesi sosyal bilgiler eğitim ve tarih bölümleri son sınıflarında öğrenim gören 155 öğretmen adayı oluşturmaktadır. Veriler, araştırmacı tarafından geliştirilen “Tarih Kavramına Yönelik Öğretmen Adayı Metaforları Anketi” aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. Çalışma grubunun “tarih” kavramına ilişkin sahip oldukları metaforları ortaya çıkarmak amacıyla onların her birinden “Tarih ………….. gibidir. Çünkü ………..”cümlesini tamamlamaları istenmiştir. Bu amaç için öğretmen adaylarına bu cümlenin yer aldığı bir form verilmiş ve onlardan bu ibareyi kullanarak ve sadece tek bir metafor üzerinde yoğunlaşarak düşüncelerini dile getirmeleri istenmiştir. Bu araştırmada “çünkü” kavramına da yer verilerek, katılımcıların “ tarih” kavramına ilişkin ürettikleri metaforları için bir gerekçe sunmaları istenmiştir. Katılımcıların tarihe ilişkin ürettikleri metaforlar ve mantıksal dayanakları, araştırmanın temel veri kaynağı olarak kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinden, üretilen bu metaforların geçici bir listesi oluşturulmuş, listesi çıkarılan bu metaforların belli bir metaforu net bir şekilde ifade edip etmediği incelenmiştir. Üretilen tüm metaforlar ve gerekçeleri incelenerek, ortak özellikleri tespit edilmiş ve bunları temsil edebileceği düşünülen kategoriler oluşturulmuştur. Anahtar Kelimeler: Sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları, tarih öğretmen adayları, tarih metaforu.

ANALYSIS THROUGH METAPHORS OF SOCIAL STUDIES AND HISTORY TEACHER PRESERVICE’ RELATION WITH “HISTORY” CONCEPTS Abstract This study aims to investigate in what direction social studies and history preservice teachers’ perceptions related to “history” concept and metaphors which illustrate these perceptions. It was designed as a descriptive quantitative research comprising of 155 preservice teachers.The research data was collected from those undergraduates registered in history department and social studies education department of Ahi Evran University in 2015-2016 academic year through “Metaphors Preservice Teacher Survey Towards History Concepts” developed by researcher.To be able to clearly articulate the metaphors, research group was asked to fill in the blanks in the following statement: “History is like a/an ......, because ......”. For this purpose, preservice teachers were given the form and they were asked to concentrate only on one metaphor at a time. The term "because" is also included in the research since the reasons for the associated metaphors are needed for further analysis. The data gathered is used as the major source of information for the study. Using the analysis of data, temporary list of metaphors is made, and is cross checked if a metaphor in the list is a known term in the literature. All the metaphors captured and causes of them are investigated for identification of the commonalities for creating categories they 963

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN represent. Keywords: Social studies preservice teachers, history preservice teachers, history metaphore

1. GiriĢ Sosyal bilgiler disiplinler arası bir yaklaşıma sahip olduğu için diğer tarih, coğrafya, felsefe, sosyoloji ve ekonomi gibi sosyal bilimleri bünyesinde barındırır. Sosyal bilgiler içerisinde tarih, kapsadığı konular bakımından da son derece önemli bir yere sahiptir. Tarih, kolektif bellektir, insanların kendi toplumsal kimlik kavramlarını ve geleceğe ilişkin beklentilerini oluşturmalarını sağlayan deneyimlerin toplamıdır (Jenkins, 1997:30). Tarihte, sadece insana dair verileri değil, bilimin ve doğanın geçmişine ait verileri de bulmak mümkündür. Bu açıdan bakıldığında diğer bilim dallarına kıyasla sosyal bilgiler içerisinde tarih konuları daha ağırlıklıdır (Er ve Budak,2013:611-612). Sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümlerinde tarih derslerinin yoğunluğu aşikârdır. Bu bölümün, birinci sınıfından son sınıfına gelinceye dek tarihin farklı alanlarına ilişkin dersler lisans programında yer almaktadır. Bu derslerden bazıları şu şekilde sıralanabilir: Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi I-II, Eskiçağ Tarihi ve Uygarlığı, İslam Öncesi Türk Tarihi ve Kültürü, İnsan Hakları ve Demokrasi, Türk Eğitim Tarihi, Ortaçağ Tarihi, Osmanlı Tarihi ve Uygarlığı I-II, Yeni ve Yakınçağlar Tarihi, Çağdaş Dünya Tarihi, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Tarihi I-II gibi derslerin sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği bölümde ağırlıklı olarak yer aldığı görülmektedir. Sosyal bilgiler dersi içerisinde de özellikle yedinci sınıfta tarih konularına yoğun şekilde yer verilmektedir. Sekizinci sınıfa gelindiğinde ise başlı başına bir tarih dersi olan Türkiye Cumhuriyeti İnkılap Tarihi ve Atatürkçülük dersi işlenmektedir ve bu durum sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin tarih konuları için ciddi bir zaman harcamaları gerektiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Geçmiş ve geçmişin bilimsel bir bakış açıyla incelenmesi olarak tanımlanan tarih, sosyal bilimlerin önemli disiplinlerinden biridir(Demircioğlu ve Tokdemir, 2008:70). Bununla birlikte tarihin bugünümüz ve yarınımız için bize bakış açıları kazandırabileceğini bilmemiz gerektir(Dilek, 2007: 32). Tarih, milli, sosyal ve ahlaki değerlerin öğretiminde önemli bir yere sahiptir. Tarih kavramının ilköğretim sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde önemli rol oynadığı bir gerçektir (Yalçınkaya, 2013a:274). Sosyal bilgilerin tarih öğretimiyle ilgili amaçlarının öğrencilere kazandırılabilmesi için öncelikle tarihin ne olduğunun ve niçin öğretildiğinin bilinmesi gereklidir. “Tarih nedir?”: Tarih, hem geçmiş hem de geçmişteki olayların nasıl gelişip sonuçlandığına ilişkin yapılan yazılı açıklamalardır. Tarih, doğası itibariyle yoruma dayalı bir çalışma alanı ve geçmişe ilişkin yapılmış bir argümandır ve bu argüman tarihçiler arasında, geçmiş ile günümüz arasında ve geçmiş ile gelecek arasında olabilir (Arnold; 2000: Akt. Arthur, Davies, Wrenn, Haydn & Kerr, 2001). Öğretmen adaylarının tarihe nasıl baktığı, hangi anlamları yüklediği son derece önemlidir. Öğretmen adaylarının tarihe ilişkin geliştirdikleri metaforlar aynı zamanda onların tarihin misyonu, yapısı ve işlevinden ne kadar haberdar olduklarını ve tarihin derslerdeki yeri ve önemini nasıl gördüklerinin belirlenmesi açısından da kıymet taşımaktadır. Tarih öğretmeni eğitimi sürecini tamamlayan adaylardan beklenen, tarih bilgisinin pasif aktarıcıları olarak değil, çok yönlü ve karmaşık bilgi bütününe sahip olan ve bunları aktif bir şekilde öğreten profesyoneller olarak yetişmeleridir (Karabağ, 2010:440). Burada bilgiden kastedilen tarih öğretmeni adaylarının sadece kuramsal bilgi ile donatılmaları değil, öğretmenlik mesleğinin kendine has özelliklerinin farkına vararak bu yolda elde edilen yeni bilgi ve becerileri edinmeleri ve bunları günümüzdeki olaylarla ilişkilendirip aktarmalarıdır. İlköğretimde basit ve temel düzeyde ortaöğretimde alansal düzeyde bir takım tarihi bilgilerle karşılaşan öğrencilere iyi bir tarih eğitiminin verilebilmesi için sosyal ve tarih öğretmenlerinin bu alanda iyi yetişmiş olmalarıyla alakalıdır. Öğretmenlerin ve öğretmen adaylarının tarih kavramına yönelik bakış açıları da doğrudan sosyal bilgiler ve tarih eğitimini etkilemektedir. Öğretmen adaylarının, öğretmen eğitimi programlarına başlamadan önce beraberlerinde getirdikleri inançları, tutumları, beklentileri ve algılarının neler olduğu ve bunların nasıl geliştiği ya da gelişmediği öğretmen eğitimi sürecini temelden etkileyen faktörlerin başında gelmektedir. Bu tür

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN araştırmalarda metaforlar sıklıkla kullanılan bir araştırma türüdür (Saban, 2004; Saban, Koçbeker ve Saban, 2006, Cerit, 2008). Metaforlar, yeni bilginin daha önceden bilinen eski bilgilerle benzerliklerini bularak ilişkiler kurulmasını sağlar ve böylece yeni bilginin somut olarak açıklanmasına yardım ederler (Senemoğlu, 2005: 564). Metaforlar öğrenmeyi geliştirmek için son derece değerli araçlardır: eğer ki yeni bir şeyler keşfetmek istiyorsak, ilk olarak bunu hayal edebilmeliyiz. Ayrıca metaforlar, belirsiz bir kavramdan ziyade açık ve net fikirler inşa etmede bizim hayallerimizin anlamı olduğu için sezgisel bir değere sahiptir. Analojiler ve metaforlar, kavramsal sistemimizi ve öğrencilerin gördüğü dünyayı değiştirme gücüne sahiptir (Sanchez, Barreiro & Maojo, 2000:358). Metafor, durumları ve olayları algılama yollarımızı etkilediği için gerçekleri yeniden tanımlamak ve problem durumlarını yeniden kavramsallaştırmayı teşvik etmek için de kullanılabildiği gibi (Goldstein, 2005:9) öğretmen eğitiminde teori ile uygulama arasındaki uçurumu birleştirmede de kullanılabilir (Leavy, McSorleya & Bote, 2007: 1219). Öğretmen eğitiminde ise metaforlar, öğretim uygulamalarını yönlendirmede ve öğretmenlerin rollerinin yeniden düşünülmesinde, öğretmenlerin modern eğitim anlayışındaki yerlerini belirlemede bir araç konumundadır (Tobin, 1990; Tobin & LaMaster, 1995, Akt:Vadeboncoeur & Torres, 2003:88). Metaforlar, insanların hayatı, çevreyi, olayları ve nesneleri nasıl gördükleri; farklı benzetmeler kullanarak açıklamaya çalışmada kullandıkları bir araç olarak düşünülmektedir (Cerit, 2008: 694). Metafor kullanımı ile ilgili pek çok araştırma yapılmıştır. Gerek ilköğretim, ortaöğretim öğrencileri üzerinde gerekse de öğretmen ve öğretmen adayları üzerinde “Tarih” kavramına yönelik metaforlar ile ilgili yapılan araştırmalar incelendiğinde, ele alınan konular: edebiyat bölümü öğrencilerinin tarih kavramına ilişkin metaforları (Mutluer, 2014), sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının tarih kavramına ilişkin metaforları (Er Tuna ve Budak, 2013 ), sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının tarih kavramına ilişkin metaforları (Yalçınkaya, 2013b) ve ilköğretim 8. sınıf öğrencilerinin tarih kavramına ilişkin metaforları (Yalçınkaya, 2013a) bunun yanı sıra tarih öğretmen adaylarının tarih öğretmenliğine ilişkin inançlarının metafor analizi yoluyla incelenmesi (Özbaş ve Aktekin, 2013) olarak sıralanabilir. Ancak bu çalışmalar arasında örneklem olarak tarih ve sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünün birlikte olduğu, bunların karşılaştırıldığı ayrıca cinsiyete göre farklılığın ele alındığı bir çalışmaya rastlanılmaması bu çalışmayı önemli kılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada aşağıdaki sorulara cevaplar aranmıştır;  Sosyal Bilgiler ve Tarih öğretmen adaylarının “tarih” kavramına ilişkin sahip oldukları metaforlar nelerdir?  Bu metaforlar, ortak özellikleri bakımından hangi kavramsal kategoriler altında toplanabilir?  Bu metaforların bölüm ve cinsiyete göre dağılımı nasıldır? 2. Yöntem Sosyal Bilgiler ve Tarih öğretmen adaylarının “tarih” kavramlarına ilişkin algılarının ne yönde olduğunu ve bu algılarını hangi metaforlarla açıkladıklarını incelemeyi amaçlayan bu çalışma, nitel araştırma yöntemine uygun olarak tasarlanan betimsel bir alan araştırmasıdır. Veri toplama ve yorumlama sürecinde nitel araştırma yöntemleri desenlerinden biri olan olgubilim (fenomenoloji) deseni kullanılmıştır. Olgubilim deseni, günlük yaşamda farkında olduğumuz ama derinlemesine ve ayrıntılı bir anlayışa sahip olmadığımız olgulara odaklanmaktadır (Patton, 2014: 104; Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2011: 72). Metaforlar çalışılan konu, olgu, olay ve duruma ilişkin çok sağlam ve zengin bir resim sunma konusunda oldukça yararlıdır (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2011: 212). Schmitt (2005:360) de özellikle nitel araştırmalarda ulaşılan karmaşık bilgilerin açık ve anlaşılır örüntülere dönüştürülmesinde, metaforların çok kullanışlı olduğunu belirtmektedir. 2.1.ÇalıĢma Grubu Araştırma, 2015–2016 öğretim yılı bahar döneminde Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi, Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı’nın son sınıfında öğrenim gören 47’si kız 31’i erkek toplamda 78, aynı üniversitede pedagojik formasyon eğitimi alan Tarih Bölümü’nün son sınıfında öğrenim gören 42’si kız 35’i erkek toplamda 77, öğretmen adayının katılımıyla gerçekleşmiştir. Araştırmaya, genel olarak 965

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 89 kız 66 erkek olmak üzere toplamda 155 öğretmen adayı katılmıştır (Tablo 1).

Tablo 1. Öğretmen Adaylarının Demografik Özellikleri Bölüm Sosyal Bilgiler Tarih Bölümü Eğitimi Cinsiyet n 47 42 Kız % 60,25 54,55 n 31 35 Erkek % 39,75 45,45 Toplam 78 77

Toplam

89 57,42 66 42,58 155

2.2.Veri Toplama Aracı Veriler, araştırmacı tarafından geliştirilen “Tarih Kavramına Yönelik Öğretmen Adayı Metaforları Anketi” aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. Hazırlanan formda öğretmen adaylarının cinsiyetlerini ve bölümlerini belirtebilecekleri kişisel bilgiler bölümü de yer almaktadır. Çalışma grubunun tarih kavramına ilişkin sahip oldukları metaforları ortaya çıkarmak amacıyla onların her birinden “Tarih ………….. gibidir. Çünkü ………..”cümlesini tamamlamaları istenmiştir. Yıldırım ve Şimşek’e (2011: 213) göre “mecazın kendisi tek başına mecazların betimsel ve görsel gücünü ortaya çıkaramayacaktır. Bunu takiben mutlaka “niçin” veya “neden” sorusu da sorulmalıdır. Benzetmelerin gücü asıl bu “sıfatlarla” ilgili olan kısımdadır”. Bu amaçla “çünkü” kavramına da yer verilerek, katılımcıların “ tarih” kavramına ilişkin ürettikleri metaforları için bir gerekçe sunmaları istenmiştir. Katılımcıların “tarih” kavramına ilişkin ürettikleri metaforlar ve mantıksal dayanakları, araştırmanın temel veri kaynağı olarak kullanılmıştır. Bu uygulama, her bir sınıf (toplamda 4 sınıf) için 1 ders saatinde (toplamda 45*4=180 dakika) gerçekleştirilmiştir. 2.3. Verilerin Analizi ve Yorumlanması Çalışma grubunda yer alan öğretmen adaylarının “Tarih” kavramına yönelik ürettikleri metaforların çözümlenmesi içerik analizi yöntemi ile yapılmış olup elde edilen bulgular tablolara dönüştürülmüştür. Bu süreç beş aşamada gerçekleştirilmiştir: 1. Adlandırma Aşaması, 2. Tasnif Etme Aşaması, 3. Kategori Geliştirme Aşaması, 4. Geçerlik ve Güvenirliği Sağlama Aşaması, 5. Nicel veri analizi için verileri SPSS paket programına aktarma aşaması. 1. Adlandırma AĢaması: Çalışmada öncelikle araştırmaya katılan öğretmen adaylarından toplanan anket formları dikkatlice değerlendirildikten sonra oluşturulan metaforlar öncelikle bir Excel tablosu oluşturularak olduğu gibi bilgisayara aktarılmış, alfabetik sıraya göre genel bir liste yapılmıştır. 2. Tasnif AĢaması: Bu aşamada‚ metafor analizi (Moser, 2000; Patton, 2014:505;Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2011:213-218) ve içerik analizi (Patton, 2014:453;Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2011:227-252) teknikleri kullanılarak her metafor ayrıştırılmış ve diğer metaforlarla olan benzerlikleri/ortak özellikleri bakımından analiz edilmiştir. Forceville (1996), herhangi bir şeyin metafor olarak kabul görmesi için en az şu üç sorunun yanıtlanması gerektiğini ifade etmiştir (Akt: Forceville, 2002:2). Bunlar: “1- Metaforun konusu nedir?

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2- Metaforun kaynağı nedir? 3-Metaforun kaynağından konusuna atfedilmesi düşünülen özellikler nelerdir?” Bu amaç için öğrencilerin kaleme aldıkları metaforlar tekrar tek tek okunup gözden geçirilerek, her metafor imgesi (1) metaforun konusu, (2) metaforun kaynağı ve (3) metaforun konusu ile metaforun kaynağı arasındaki ilişki bakımlarından analiz edildi. Ayıklanma süreci başlıca dört kritere dayalı olarak gerçekleştirildi: (a) sadece tanımlamaların yapıldığı veya herhangi bir metafor kaynağını içermeyen kağıtlar, (b) belli bir metafordan söz edilmesine rağmen metafor için herhangi bir gerekçenin (mantıksal dayanağın) sunulmadığı kağıtlar, (c) birden fazla kategoriye ait özellikleri içeren metaforlar ve (d) mantıksız veya “Tarih” kavramının daha iyi anlaşılmasına herhangi bir katkısı olmayan metaforlar. Çalışma grubunda yer alan 155 öğretmen adayının etkinlik kâğıtları metafor ve gerekçeleri ile birlikte sıra numaralarına göre listelenmiştir. Zamanın yeterli olması, uygulamanın araştırmacının bizzat kendisi tarafından uygulanması, uygulamadan önce gerekli açıklamaların örnek(farklı kavramlarla) verilerek yapılması gibi durumlardan dolayı tüm öğretmen adayları geçerli metafor üretmişlerdir. Öğretmen adaylarının kendi el yazılarıyla kaleme aldıkları metafor ifadesinin çok uzun olduğu durumlarda, öğretmen adaylarının kendi sözcükleri ve anlatım dili korunarak metaforun sadece en çarpıcı boyutları aktarılmıştır. Aktarılmayan sözcükleri, cümleleri veya paragrafları simgelemek için metafor ifadesinde üç nokta (. . .) kullanılmıştır. Son olarak, bir metafor ifadesinin kimin tarafından üretildiğine ilişkin kişisel bilgiler, söz konusu metafor ifadesinin hemen sonundaki parantez içinde kodlanmış olarak verilmektedir. Bu kodların anlamları şunlardır: “E” ve “K” harfleri öğretmen adaylarının cinsiyetlerini, “S” ve “T” harfleri bölümlerini, en sondaki sayı ise kaçıncı kişi olduklarını belirtmek için kullanılmıştır. Örneğin; SE2 (Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Erkek Öğretmen Adayı 2. kişi), TK34 (Tarih Bölümü Kız Öğretmen Adayı 34.Kişi) 3.Kategori GeliĢtirme AĢaması: Bu aşamada, temel olarak katılımcılar tarafından üretilen metaforlar, “tarih” kavramına ilişkin sahip oldukları ortak özellikler yönüyle incelenmiştir. Bunun için öncelikle, özellikle ikinci aşamada 55 ve 36 adet metafora ilişkin olarak oluşturulan örnek metafor listesi baz alınıp her metafor ifadesi incelenip belli bir kodla ilişkilendirilerek, 7’si her iki bölüm için ortak olup geriye kalan 3’er tane kategori sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ve tarih bölümleri tarafından ayrı ayrı olmak üzere toplamda 13 kategori oluşturulmuştur. 4. Geçerlik ve Güvenirliği Sağlama AĢaması: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik, araştırma sonuçlarının inandırıcılığını sağlamak veya artırmak için araştırmalarda en yaygın olarak kullanılan iki ölçüttür (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2011:255). Araştırma sonuçlarının geçerliliğini sağlamada iki önemli süreç gerçekleştirilmiştir. (a) Veri analiz süreci detaylı bir şekilde açıklanmıştır. (b) Bulguların işlenmesinde ve yorumlanmasında öğrencilerin kendi el yazıları ile yazdıkları metafor ifadeleri, temel veri kaynağı olarak kullanılarak her kavramsal kategoriyi oluşturan alt özelliklerin her biri en az bir öğrenci metafor ifadesiyle yani doğrudan alıntılarla desteklenmiştir. Araştırmanın güvenirliğini sağlamak için de araştırmada geliştirilen metaforların söz konusu kavramsal kategorileri temsil edip etmediğini teyit etmek amacıyla uzman görüşüne başvurulmuştur. Bu amaç doğrultusunda, aynı fakültede görev yapan bir öğretim üyesine iki liste verilmiştir: (1) 55 ve 36 adet öğrenci metafor ifadelerinin alfabetik sıraya göre dizili olduğu bir liste ve (2) kavramsal kategorinin (kısa açıklamalarıyla birlikte) rastgele dizili olduğu bir liste. Uzman bu iki listeyi de kullanarak birinci listedeki metafor ifadelerini ikinci listedeki kategoriyle (hiçbir metafor ifadesini dışarıda bırakmayacak şekilde) eşleştirmiştir. Daha sonra, bu uzmanın yaptığı eşleştirmeler araştırmacının kendi kategorileriyle karşılaştırılmıştır. Bütün karşılaştırmalarda görüş birliği ve görüş ayrılığı sayıları tespit edilerek, araştırmanın (iç) güvenilirliği Miles ve Huberman’ın (1994:64) formülü (Güvenirlik = Görüş Birliği / Görüş Birliği + Görüş Ayrılığı) kullanılarak hesaplanmıştır. Miles ve Huberman’a (1994:64) göre, uzman ve araştırmacı değerlendirmeleri arasındaki uyumun % 90’a yaklaşması ya da % 90’ı geçmesi durumunda arzu edilen düzeyde bir güvenilirlik sağlanmış olmaktadır. Bu araştırmaya özgü olarak gerçekleştirilen güvenirlik çalışmasında sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümü için % 94 tarih bölümü için ise % 93 oranlarında bir uzlaşma sağlanmıştır. 5.Nicel Veri Analizi için Verileri SPSS Paket Programına Aktarma AĢaması

967

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Bütün veriler SPSS istatistik programına aktarıldı. Bu işlemden sonra her bir metaforu ve kategoriyi temsil eden öğrenci sayısı (f) ve yüzdesi (%) hesaplandı. 3. Bulgular Bu bölümde ilk olarak araştırmada elde edilen ve öğretmen adaylarının “tarih” kavramına ilişkin ileri sürdükleri metaforlara değinilmektedir. Daha sonra, tarih kavramına ilişkin olarak araştırmada geliştirilen 13 farklı kategori, katılımcıların ürettiği örnek metaforlarla desteklenerek açıklanmıştır. Tablo 1’de tarih kavramıyla ilgili öğretmen adayları tarafından oluşturulan metaforlar alfabetik sıraya göre listelenerek her bir metaforu temsil eden öğretmen adayı sayısı bölüm ve cinsiyet için frekans sayıları (f) ve toplam yüzdesi(%)ile gösterilmiştir.

Sıra

Sıra

Tablo 2. Öğretmen Adaylarının Tarih Kavramına İlişkin Geliştirdiği Metaforlar Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Metaforları Tarih Bölümü Metaforları Geliştirilen Cinsiyet Toplam Geliştirilen Cinsiyet Toplam Metaforlar Metaforlar E K f % E K f % 1. Ağacın kökleri 1 1 1,28 1. Anı 1 1 2 2,60 2. Ağaç 2 1 3 3,84 2. Aslan 1 1 1,30 3. Akarsu 3 1 4 5,12 3. Ayna 4 4 8 10,4 4. Anı defteri 1 1 2 2,56 4. Bukalemun 1 1 1,30 5. Aşure 1 1 1,28 5. Bulut 1 1 1,30 6. Ayna 1 1 2 2,56 6. Cesaret 1 1 1,30 7. Buz dağı 1 1 1,28 7. Çınar ağacı 1 1 1,30 8. Cinayet filmi 1 1 1,28 8. Deniz 1 2 3 3,90 9. Deniz 1 2 3 3,84 9. Film 1 1 2 2,60 10. Dipsiz kuyu 1 1 1,28 10. Gökyüzü 1 1 1,30 11. Dünya 1 1 1,28 11. Güneş 4 1 5 6,50 12. Evren 2 2 2,56 12. Günlük 1 1 2 2,60 13. Futbol oyunu 1 1 1,28 13. Hafıza 1 1 1,30 14. Gece 1 1 1,28 14. Hard disk 1 1 1,30 15. Geleceğin anahtarı 1 1 1,28 15. Hayat 1 2 3 3,90 16. Gökyüzü 1 1 1,28 16. Hazine 2 2 2,60 Sandığı 17. Gündüz 1 1 1,28 17. Işık 2 1 3 3,90 18. Güneş 1 3 4 5,12 18. İnsan 2 5 7 9,10 19. Günlük 1 1 1,28 19. İnternet 1 1 1,30 20. Hard disk 1 1 1,28 20. Kılavuz 1 1 1,30 21. Hayat 1 1 2 2,56 21. Kitap 1 2 3 3,90 22. İklim tipleri 1 1 1,28 22. Köprü 4 4 5,20 23. İnce ip 1 1 1,28 23. Kuş 1 1 2 2,60 24. İnternet 1 1 1,28 24. Meyve ağacı 1 1 1,30 25. Kalp 1 1 1,28 25. Okyanus 3 3 3,90 26. Karakutu 1 1 1,28 26. Oyuncak tren 1 1 1,30 27. Kılıç 1 1 1,28 27. Özgür kuş 2 1 3 3,90 28. Kilitli kutu 1 1 1,28 28. Pusula 2 2 2,60 29. Labirent 1 1 1,28 29. Saat 1 1 1,30 30. Makine çarkları 1 1 1,28 30. Su 1 1 1,30 31. Mevsimler 1 1 1,28 31. Şoför 1 1 1,30 32. Nakarat 1 1 1,28 32. Tecrübe 4 4 5,20 33. Nehir 1 1 1,28 33. Teknoloji 1 1 1,30 34. Okyanus 7 7 8,96 34. Tiyatro 1 1 1,30 sahnesi 35. Orman 1 1 1,28 35. Uzay 1 1 1,30

968

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 36. Öğretmen 37. Piramitler 38. Rehber 39. Saat 40. Saray 41. Sarmaşık 42. Sebze yemeği 43. Sırlar 44. Tarla 45. Tiyatro oyunu 46. Uzay 47. Yağlı boya tablo 48. Yara izi 49. Yaş pasta 50. Yazı(Harfler) 51. Yeni keşfedilen yer 52. Yüzümüzdeki çizgiler 53. Zaman çizgisi 54. Zaman makinesi 55. Zincir Toplam

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 31

2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 47

2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 78

2,56 1,28 1,28 2,56 1,28 1,28 2,56 1,28 1,28 1,28 1,28 1,28 1,28 1,28 1,28 1,28 1,28 1,28 1,28 1,28 100

36.

Yaşlı ağaç

Toplam

-

1

1

1,30

35

42

77

100

Tablo 2 incelendiğinde sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümü (n:78) tarafından 55, tarih bölümü(n:77) tarafından ise toplam 36 metafor üretilmiştir. Bu metaforlardan 9 tanesi (ayna, deniz, gökyüzü, güneş, günlük, hard disk, internet, okyanus, saat)her iki bölümde de benzerdir. İki bölümün sayıları hemen hemen aynı olmasına rağmen sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümü tarih bölümüne göre daha fazla metafor(19) üretmişlerdir.Sosyal Bilgiler eğitimi bölümünde üretilen en fazla metaforlar okyanus (7), güneş (4),akarsu (4)olup;tarih bölümünde ise ayna (8),insan (7) ve güneş (5) metaforlarıdır.Diğer metaforların büyük bir kısmı sadece 1 kişi tarafından üretilmiş olup sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünde erkekler 28, kızlar 35; tarih bölümünde ise erkekler 23 ,kızlar 25 farklı metafor üretmişlerdir. Genel olarak katılımcı sayısı dikkate alındığında erkekler kızlara göre daha fazla sayıda farklı metafor üretmişlerdir. Öğretmen adayları tarafından üretilen metaforların, hangi kavramsal kategoriler altında toplanmasını ortaya koymak amacı ile yapılan içerik analizi sonucunda ise oluşturulan metaforlar ortak özellikleri dikkate alınarak tarihin farklı yönlerini ortaya koyan toplam 13 farklı kategori altında toplanmıştır. Bu kategorilerin 7 si her iki bölüm için ortak olup geriye kalan 3 er tane kategori sosyal ve tarih bölümleri tarafından ayrı ayrı oluşturulmuştur. Tablo 3. Tarih Kavramıyla İlgili Metaforlara İlişkin Kategoriler Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Kategorileri Tarih Bölümü Kategorileri Cinsiyet (f) Kategori Kategori E K Gizemli Tarih* 4 5 Sorgulayıcı/Araştırmacı Tarih* Tekrarı Olan Tarih 4 6 Tekrarı Olan Tarih Gerçeği Yansıtan Tarih 3 7 Gerçeği Yansıtan Tarih Kapsayıcı Tarih 7 Kapsayıcı Tarih Geleceğe Yön Veren/Rehber 4 3 Geleceğe Yön Veren/Rehber Olan Tarih Olan Tarih * İz bırakan tarih 2 Öznel Tarih* Kaydedici Tarih 3 2 Kaydedici Tarih Değişen ve Sürekliliği Olan 8 3 Değişen ve Sürekliliği Olan Tarih Tarih Yaşam Kaynağı Olan Tarih* 3 4 Gücün Sembolü Olan Tarih*

969

Cinsiyet (f) E K 4 4 2 5 13

2 4 3 11

1 4 4

1 1 7

1

1

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Başı-Sonu Tarih Toplam

Belli

Olmayan

2

8

31

47

Başı-Sonu Tarih Toplam

Belli

Olmayan

1

8

35

42

*Farklı olan kategoriler

Tablo 3 incelendiğinde tekrarı olan, gerçeği yansıtan, kapsayıcı, geleceğe yön veren/rehber olan, kaydedici, değişen ve sürekliliği olan ile başı-sonu belli olmayan olmak üzere 7 kategori her iki bölümün ortak kategorileri olup; gizemli/sırlı ,iz bırakan ve yaşam kaynağı olan tarih kategorileri sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümü öğretmen adayları tarafından; sorgulayıcı/araştırmacı ,öznel ve gücün sembolü olan tarih kategorileri ise tarih bölümü öğretmen adayları tarafından oluşturulmuştur. Sosyal Bilgiler eğitimi bölümünde oluşturulan en fazla kategori değişen ve sürekliliği olan tarih kategorisi olup (11) en fazla metafor erkekler (8) tarafından; en az kategori ise iz bırakan tarih kategorisi olup (2) bu kategoride sadece kızlar tarafından oluşturulan metaforlardan ibarettir. Tarih bölümünde oluşturulan en fazla kategori geleceğe yön veren/rehber olan tarih kategorisi olup (24) en fazla metafor erkekler (13) tarafından; en az kategori ise gücün sembolü olan tarih kategorisi olup (2) bu kategoride kızlar ve erkekler tarafından oluşturulan birer metaforlardan ibarettir. Oluşturulan her bir kategori ve bu kategori altında incelenen metaforlar ve frekans dağılımları ayrı başlıklar altında incelenmiştir. 1. Kategori: Gizemli Tarih ile Sorgulayıcı/Araştırmacı Tarih Gizemli Tarih kategorisi altında incelenen metaforlarda tarihte yıllar geçmesine rağmen bilinmeyen, nedenleri açıklanmayan birçok olayın olduğuna, zamanla olaylara ilişkin yeni bilgiler ortaya çıktıkta başka olayların nedenlerinde bilinmezliğine doğru bir gidişatın olduğuna ilişkin benzetmeler sadece Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü öğretmen adayları tarafından yapılmıştır. Sorgulayıcı/Araştırmacı Tarih kategorisi altında incelenen metaforlarda gerçeğe ulaşmak için çaba sarf ederek sorgulama yapılması, yeni araştırmaların yapılması ile yeni bilgilere ulaşılabileceği, geçmiş ile şuan yaşanılanlar arasında ilişki kurulmasına ilişkin benzetmeler sadece Tarih Bölümü öğretmen adayları tarafından yapılmıştır. Tablo 4. Gizemli Tarih ile Sorgulayıcı/Araştırmacı Tarih Kategorisinde Oluşturulan Metaforlar Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Metaforları Tarih Bölümü Metaforları Cinsiyet Cinsiyet Geliştirilen Metaforlar Geliştirilen Metaforlar Toplam (f) (f) (Sorgulayıcı/Araştırmacı Toplam (Gizemli Tarih) (f) E K E K Tarih ) (f) Buz dağı Cinayet filmi Gece Kilitli kutu Labirent Okyanus Piramitler Sırlar Yeni keşfedilen yer Toplam

1 1 1 1 4

1 1 1 1 1 5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9

Ayna Hazine sandığı İnsan Kitap Kuş

1 1 1 1

2 2 -

1 2 1 3 1

Toplam

4

4

8

Tablo 4 incelendiğinde gizemli tarih kategorisinde 9 katılımcı tarafından 9 farklı metafor geliştirilmişken sorgulayıcı/araştırmacı tarih kategorisinde 8 katılımcı tarafından 5 farklı metafor geliştirmiştir. Sorgulayıcı/araştırmacı tarih kategorisinde en fazla kitap(3) ve hazine sandığı (2) metaforlarının kullanıldığı görülmektedir. Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarında gizemli tarih kategorisine ilişkin dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir: “Tarih labirent gibidir. Çünkü ne kadar tamamlandığını ve anlaşıldığını düşünürsen 970

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN düşün her defasında farklı bir yol çıkıyor ve her şeyi değiştirebiliyor…”(SK15 ) “Tarih gece gibidir. Çünkü gece her taraf karanlık olduğu için her yer bilinmezlerle doludur. Işığı yaktığınız zaman bilinmezler, tahminler aydınlanır. Tarihte de bilinmez olay çoktur. Bunları aydınlatmak, bunlardaki gizemi çözmek için ışığa ulaşmak gerekir.” (SE8 ). “Tarih okyanus gibidir. Çünkü okyanusun içinde o kadar bilinmeyen ve keşfedilmeyi bekleyen şeyler vardır. Tarihte de bilinmeyen ve keşfi beklenen çok şey vardır.” (SK11) Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarında Sorgulayıcı/Araştırmacı tarih kategorisine ilişkin dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir: “Tarih hazine sandığı gibidir. Çünkü hazine sandığına ulaşmak için araştırma yapmak, gidilecek yolları araştırmak gerekir. Tarihte de olayların nasıl, niçin meydana geldiği anlamak için sorgulama yapmak gerekir. Böyle yapılırsa hazineye ulaşılmış olur.” (TK38). “Tarih kitap gibidir. Çünkü, kitaplar olayları derinlemesine ele alarak inceler. Bu incelemenin sonucunda hangi sonuca niçin ve nasıl ulaştığınızı anlarsınız. Tarihteki olaylarda araştırılarak ele alınırsa olayların nedenleri daha iyi anlaşılmış olur.” (TE2). 2. Kategori: Tekrarı Olan Tarih Bu kategori altında incelenen metaforlarda olayların üzerinden yıllar geçse bile zaman, mekân ve kişi farkı ile olayların tekrarlandığı, yapılan hatalar bilinmesine rağmen tedbirsizlikten dolayı aynı olayların yeniden yaşandığına ilişkin benzetmeler yapılmıştır. Tablo 5. Tekrarı Olan Tarih Kategorisinde Oluşturulan Metaforlar Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Metaforları Tarih Bölümü Metaforları Cinsiyet Cinsiyet Toplam (f) (f) Geliştirilen Metaforlar Geliştirilen Metaforlar (f) E K E K Ağaç 1 1 Güneş 1 1 Futbol oyunu 1 1 İnsan 1 Güneş 1 1 Oyuncak tren 1 Hayat 1 1 Makine çarkları 1 1 Nakarat 1 1 Saat 1 1 Sarmaşık 1 1 Tiyatro oyunu 1 1 Toplam 4 5 9 Toplam 2 2

Toplam (f) 2 1 1

4

Tablo 5 incelendiğinde bu kategori ile ilgili olarak sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünden 9 katılımcı tarafından 9 farklı metafor geliştirilmişken; tarih bölümünden 4 katılımcı tarafından 3 farklı metafor geliştirilmiştir. Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarına ilişkin dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir: “Tarih güneş gibidir. Çünkü yaşandıkça tekrar ve tekrar doğar. Her gün bitsede sabah yeniden çıkacağı kesindir. Tarih de dün vardı bugün de var yarında olacak.” (TE1). “Tarih oyuncak tren gibidir.Çünkü,oyuncak tren hep aynı rayda dönüp durur.Tarihte de meydana gelen olaylara ilişkin hatalar bilinmesine rağmen çoğu zaman benzer olaylar yeniden gerçekleşir….”(TE24 ). “Tarih tiyatro oyunu gibidir. Çünkü bazen yıllarca hep aynı oyunlar sahne alır. Yıllar geçse bile oyun değişmez ama oyuncular, sahne, dekor değişir. Tarihteki benzer olaylar kişi, zaman, mekân farklı olarak yeniden gerçekleşir.” (SK36 ) 971

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN “Tarih ağaç gibidir. Çünkü rüzgâr yapraklarını dökse bile tekrar tekrar yaprak çıkar. Yapraklar dökülse bile ağaç denince aklımıza yaprakları gelir. Tarih de denince geçmişte olaylar olduğu aklımıza gelir. Bu olay ne kadar geçerse geçsin tarihimize damga gibi düştüğü için sürekli o olaylar ile hatırlanır tarih.”(SK12 ) 3. Kategori: Gerçeği Yansıtan Tarih Bu kategoride katılımcılar, tarihte önemli dönüm noktaları olduğunu özellikle bu dönemlere ait çok sayıda kaynak olduğu için her şeyin gerçek olduğu ve kimsenin bu tarihi gerçeklerden kaçamayacağını vurgulamışlardır. Tablo 6. Gerçeği Yansıtan Tarih Kategorisinde Oluşturulan Metaforlar Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Metaforları Tarih Bölümü Metaforları Cinsiyet Cinsiyet GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar Toplam Toplam (f) (f) GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar (f) (f) E K E K Anı defteri 1 1 2 Anı 1 1 2 Ayna 1 1 2 Ayna 3 3 6 Gündüz 1 1 Güneş 1 1 Güneş 1 1 Günlük 1 1 İnce ip 1 1 Yağlı boya tablo 1 1 Yaş pasta 1 1 Toplam 2 7 9 Toplam 5 4 9

Tablo 6 incelendiğinde bu kategori ile ilgili olarak sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünden 9 katılımcı tarafından 8 farklı metafor geliştirilmişken; tarih bölümünden 9 katılımcı tarafından 3 farklı metafor geliştirilmiştir. Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarına ilişkin dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir: “Tarih ayna gibidir. Çünkü nasıl bir insan aynaya baktığında kendini görebiliyorsa bir toplumda geçmişine baktığında kendi atalarının nasıl bir yolda olduğunu öğrenir ve bunlardan örnekler ve dersler alarak kendini geliştirme ve ilerleme yolunda ilerler.” (TE31 ). “Tarih ayna gibidir.Çünkü ayna alanı olduğu gibi gösterir.Tarih bize ışık tutar.Ne olduğumuzu gösterir…. ” (SK38 ) “Tarih anılarımız gibidir. Çünkü tarih bizim annemizin,babamızın,dedelerimizin hikayelerini dönemlerini anlatır.Onların dönemlerine hayranlıkla bakmamızı sağlar….(TK41) “Tarih anı defteri gibidir. Çünkü anı defterine yaşanılan önemli olayları kaydederiz. Geçmişte yaşadığımız olayı anımsamak için deftere baktığımızda daha iyi hatırlamış oluruz. Tarihte geçmişte yaşanmış önemli olayları kayıt altına alınıp belgelendiği için olayların doğrusunu bu kaynaktan öğreniriz.”(SE1 ) “Tarih ince ip gibidir.Çünkü ince ip gerildi mi kopar,tarihte de kopma noktaları vardır.Ve ipi kopan yerden birleştirmeye çalışırsan mutlaka o noktada bir şeyin olduğu bellidir.Tarihte de önemli dönüm noktaları vardır…..”(SK33) “Tarih güneş gibidir.Çünkü siz tarihi ne kadar yanlış yazsanız ne kadar çarpıtsanız tarih bir güneş gibi mutlak doğrularıyla ortaya çıkar….” (TE3). 4. Kategori: Kapsayıcı Tarih

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Bu kategoride birçok şeyi içinde barındıran ve bunların birbirinden ayrı düşünülemediği tarih benzetmesi katılımcılar tarafından farklı metaforla yapılmıştır.

Tablo 7. Kapsayıcı Tarih Kategorisinde Oluşturulan Metaforlar Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Metaforları Tarih Bölümü Metaforları Cinsiyet Cinsiyet Toplam Toplam (f) (f) GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar (f) (f) E K E K Aşure 1 1 Hayat 2 2 Dünya 1 1 Saat 1 1 Evren 1 1 Okyanus 1 1 Orman 1 1 Sebze yemeği 2 2 Toplam 7 7 Toplam 3 3

Tablo 7 incelendiğinde bu kategori ile ilgili metaforlar her iki bölümde de sadece kız öğretmen adayları tarafından oluşturulmuş olup sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünden 7 katılımcı tarafından 6 farklı metafor geliştirilmişken; tarih bölümünden 3 katılımcı tarafından 2 farklı metafor geliştirilmiştir. Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarına ilişkin dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir “Tarih hayat gibidir. Çünkü insanların yaşamları kültürleri, giyimleri, ekonomik bunalımları, dili ve dini her şeyi içine alır. Tarihte hayatın bu parçalarını içine alır. Geniş ve zevkli bir bilim dalıdır.” (TK25) “Tarih saat gibidir. Çünkü saatin içinde mekanizmayı oluşturan birçok parça var. Bu mekanizmaların birlikte çalışması ile saat çalışır. Tarihteki birçok unsur (siyaset, ekonomi, savaş, kadın vb) bir araya gelerek olayların meydana gelmesine sebep olur.” (TK2) “Tarih aşure gibidir. Çünkü aşurenin içinde tatlı, ekşi yiyecekler vardır. Tarihte de acı, tatlı, hüzünlü olaylar mevcuttur. Aşurenin içindeki malzemeyi ayırmaya kalktığınızda aşure olmayacağı gibi tarihteki olayları birbirinden ayıramayız.”(SK47) “Tarih evren gibidir. Çünkü evren içinde birçok şeyi barındırır. Geçmişiyle, bugünüyle, yarınıyla herkes aynı evren içindedir. Aynı havayı içine çeker, ortak yaşanmışlıklar vardır. Eğer evrenin dengesi bozulsa insanlar zarar görür. Tarihte de istenmeyen durum olsa tüm insanlar zarar görür.”(SK4 ) “Tarih dünya gibidir. Çünkü içinde insanların yaşadığı maddi, manevi her şey vardır. Coğrafya da vardır, savaşlarda vardır, kültürler, medeniyetler her şey içindedir.” (SK3). 5. Kategori: Geleceğe Yön Veren/Rehber Olan Tarih Bu kategoriye ait metaforlar incelendiğinde tarihin, geçmiş ile gelecek arasında köprü kurarak geleceğe ışık tutma ve yol gösterme gibi bir misyona sahip olduğu, gelecek adına plan yapabilmek için insanlara rehberlik edebileceği ile ilgili benzetmeler yapılmıştır. Tablo 8. Geleceğe Yön Veren/Rehber Olan Tarih Kategorisinde Oluşturulan Metaforlar Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Metaforları Tarih Bölümü Metaforları Cinsiyet Cinsiyet Toplam Toplam (f) (f) GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar (f) (f) E K E K

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Geleceğin anahtarı Kılıç Öğretmen Rehber Saray Zaman makinesi

1 1 1 1 -

2 1

1 1 2 1 1 1

Ayna Çınar ağacı Deniz Film Güneş Işık Kılavuz Köprü Özgür kuş Pusula Şoför Tecrübe

1 1 1 2 2 2 4

1 1 1 4 1 2 1 -

1 1 1 1 2 3 1 4 3 2 1 4

Toplam

4

3

7

Toplam

13

11

24

Tablo 8 incelendiğinde bu kategori ile ilgili olarak sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünden 7 katılımcı tarafından 6 farklı metafor geliştirilmişken; tarih bölümünden 24 katılımcı tarafından 12 farklı metafor geliştirilmiştir. Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarına ilişkin dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir “Tarih tecrübe gibidir. Çünkü tecrübe her koşulda insana bilgi veren onu yanlış yoldan uzak tutan ve doğruya yönlendiren bir olgudur. Tarih de yaşanmış olaylar hakkında bilgi vererek gelecekte yapmayı planladığımız işlerde hata yapma durumumuzu en aza indirerek başarılı olmamızı sağlar. ” (TE6 ) “Tarih bir köprü gibidir. Çünkü köprü bir yeri başka bir yere bağlar. Tarihte geçmiş ile gelecek arasında köprü vazifesi görür. Şimdi içinde yaşadığımız zamanı anlamak istiyorsak geçmişe dönüp bir bakmak gerekir. O köprü ki bütün sarsıntılara rağmen dimdik ayakta kalabilmiş ve bugüne kadar gelebilmiş ne pahasına olursa olsun. İş artık bundan sonrasında” (TK6) “Tarih pusula gibidir. Çünkü bize doğru ilerleyeceğimiz yolu ayan beyan gösterir. Tarihteki olaylara bakarak aynı hataları tekrar etmezsek geleceğimiz aydınlık olur.” (TK42) “Tarih şoför gibidir. Çünkü arabayı sürmeyi bilmeden nereden gideceğini nelere dikkat edeceğini bilemezsin. O yüzden tarihini de bilmeyen geleceğine nasıl yön vereceğini de bilemez. Geçmişini bilmeli ki geleceği aydınlık olsun.” (TK20) “Tarih deniz gibidir. Çünkü denizdeki dalganın şiddetini ve yönünü bilirsek boğulma olasılığımız azdır. Tarihteki olayları ve geçmişi öğrenirsek geleceğimiz daha sağlam ve güçlü olur.”(TE35) “Tarih öğretmen gibidir. Çünkü nasıl ki öğretmenler bize bilgi aktararak geleceğimizi aydınlatmaya bizi yanlış yola düşmekten koruyorsa tarihte yaşanılmış olaylar bize geleceğimiz adına yol gösterir.” (SK46 ) “Tarih rehber gibidir. Çünkü rehberler bir gezi esnasında kaybolmayı önlediği gibi gezilen yeri daha iyi da anlamamızı sağlar. Tarihte insanların geçmişlerini doğru okumaları ile güzel bir gelecek inşa edilebilir.” (SE23 ) “Tarih kılıç gibidir. Çünkü tarihini parlatan bileyen, değer veren milletler keskinleşip yükselirler, parlatmayıp bilemeyen milletler ise kınında paslanmaya mahkûmdur, geçmiş geleceğin aynasıdır gösterir.” (SE14) “Tarih saray gibidir. Çünkü saray görkemli,ihtişamlıdır.Her odasında ayrı bir hikaye her taşında ayrı bir geçmiş saklıdır.Eğer sarayı restore etmez,onu korumazsak yıkılabilir.Kendi sarayımızı korumalıyız ki geçmişimize sahip çıkalım.Yorulmadan daha sağlam gelecek kurmuş oluruz.” (SE27 )

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 6. Kategori: İz bırakan Tarih İz bırakan kategorisi altında incelenen metaforlarda zaman içerisinde farklı olayların yıllar geçse bile unutulmayacak izler bırakması ve bu izlerin sürekli o olayı anımsatmasına ilişkin benzetmeler sadece Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü öğretmen adayları tarafından yapılmıştır. Öznel tarih kategorisi altında incelenen metaforlarda tarihsel bilgi ve yorumların kişiye göre değişebilen bir yapısının olduğuna ilişkin benzetmeler sadece Tarih Bölümü öğretmen adayları tarafından yapılmıştır. Tablo 9. İz bırakan Tarih ile Öznel Tarih Kategorisinde Oluşturulan Metaforlar Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Metaforları Tarih Bölümü Metaforları Cinsiyet Cinsiyet GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar Toplam GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar Toplam (f) (f) (İz Bırakan Tarih) (f) (Öznel Tarih) (f) E K E K Yara izi 1 1 Bukalemun 1 1 Yüzümüzdeki çizgi 1 1 Bulut 1 1 Toplam 2 2 Toplam 1 1 1

Tablo 9 incelendiğinde iz bırakan tarih kategorinde sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünden 2 katılımcı tarafından 2 farklı metafor geliştirilmişken; öznel tarih kategorsinde tarih bölümünden 2 katılımcı tarafından 2 farklı metafor geliştirilmiştir. Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarına ilişkin iz bırakan tarih kategorisindeki dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir: “Tarih yüzümüzdeki çizgiler gibidir. Çünkü zamanla farklı yaşantılarla izler bırakır hayatımızda. Her yaşanılan olumlu ve olumsuzluklar yüzümüzde bir üzgün ifade ve gülümseme bırakır. Bunlar birleşir ve bizim yaşantılarımızı oluşturur. Çizgiler bazen olumlu bir olayla bazen de olumsuz olaylarla yüzümüzde zamanla yer edinir.” (SK42 ) “Tarih yara izi gibidir. Çünkü vücudumuzdaki yara izleri önceden yaşanılmış bir olayı ifade eder. Yara tamamen iyileşse de izi ömür boyu kalır. O iz bizim geçmişimizdir, yaşanmışlığımızdır. Nereye gitsek bizimle gelecektir, bizimle var olacaktır tarihimiz gibi.” (SK31 ) Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarına ilişkin öznel tarih kategorisindeki dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir: “Tarih bukalemun gibidir. Çünkü bukalemun hangi renge dokunursa o nesnenin rengini alır. Tarihteki olayların bize yansıması da anlatan kişiye göre değişmekte. Kim nasıl anlatırsa kendi düşüncelerini katarak anlatıyor. Bu da tarihi öznelleştiriyor.” (TK26). “Tarih bulut gibidir. Çünkü bulutlar gökyüzünün bir parçasıdır. Tarihte hayatın, geçmişin bir parçasıdır. Bulutlar şekil itibari ile kişilerce farklı yorumlanır. Tarihte ise olayları, yaşamları nasıl görmek istersen öyle görürsün.” (TE14 ). 7. Kategori: Kaydedici Tarih Bu kategoriye ait metaforlar incelendiğinde hiç bir olayın kapalı kalamayacağı, inkar edilemeyeceği, sözün değil yazının kalıcı olduğu ve yaşanılmış olan her şeyin kayıt altına alındığı ile ilgili benzetmeler yapılmıştır. Tablo 10. Kaydedici Tarih Kategorisinde Oluşturulan Metaforlar Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Metaforları Tarih Bölümü Metaforları Cinsiyet Cinsiyet Toplam Toplam (f) (f) GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar (f) (f) E K E K Hard disk 1 1 Günlük 1 1 2 İnternet 1 1 Hafıza 1 1

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kara kutu Yazı (Harfler) Zaman çizgisi Toplam

1 1 3

1 2

1 1 1 5

Hard disk İnternet

1 1

-

1 1

Toplam

4

1

1

Tablo 10 incelendiğinde bu kategori ile ilgili olarak sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünden 5 katılımcı tarafından 5 farklı metafor geliştirilmişken; tarih bölümünden 5 katılımcı tarafından 4 farklı metafor geliştirilmiştir. Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarına ilişkin dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir: “Tarih harddisk gibidir. Çünkü harddiske her şeyi kaydedersiniz. Bilgileri silseniz bile eski bilgilere tekrar ulaşmanın bir yolu vardır. Tarihte de yaşanılmış olan her şey kaydedilir. Siz kimse bunu bilemez deseniz bile bir gün mutlaka ortaya çıkar.” (TE16) “Tarih günlük gibidir. Çünkü geçmişte yaşanan olaylar yer zaman gösterilerek neden-sonuç ilişkileriyle yazılmıştır. Günlükte böyledir. Günü gününe yaşanılan her şey yazılır.” (TE19) “Tarih internet gibidir. Çünkü internette hangi siteye girerseniz girdiğiniz siteler kayıt altına alınır. Siz bilgisayarınızdan bunları bunlardan elde ettiğiniz verileri silseniz bile bunlara istenildiği takdirde ulaşılabilir. Tarihte de hiçbir şey gizli saklı kalmaz. Yeter ki istenilsin yaşanılmış olan her şeye bir şekilde ulaşılır.” ( TE8) “Tarih karakutu gibidir. Çünkü karakutu uçuş esnasında her şeyi kayıt altına alır. Tarihteki gizemli olaylara ulaşmanın yolu o döneme ait kara kutulara yani belgelere, kaynaklara ulaşmak gerekiyor.” (SE6 ) 8. Kategori: Değişen ve Sürekliliği Olan Tarih Bu kategoriye ait metaforlar incelendiğinde yaşam sürdüğü sürece bilgi akışının devam edip durmayacağı, sürekli gelişen ve ilerleyen bir durumun söz konusu olduğu ile ilgili benzetmeler yapılmıştır. Tablo 11. Değişen ve Sürekliliği Olan Tarih Kategorisinde Oluşturulan Metaforlar Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Metaforları Tarih Bölümü Metaforları Cinsiyet Cinsiyet Toplam (f) (f) GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar (f) E K E K Ağaç 2 2 Hayat 1 Akarsu 2 1 3 İnsan 1 4 Deniz 1 1 Meyve ağacı 1 Hayat 1 1 Su 1 İklim tipleri 1 1 Teknoloji 1 Mevsimler 1 1 Tiyatro sahnesi 1 Yaşlı ağaç 1 Nehir 1 1 Zincir 1 1 Toplam 8 3 11 Toplam 4 7

Toplam (f) 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 11

Tablo 11 incelendiğinde bu kategori ile ilgili olarak sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünden 11 katılımcı tarafından 8 farklı metafor geliştirilmişken; tarih bölümünden 11 katılımcı tarafından 7 farklı metafor geliştirilmiştir. Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarına ilişkin dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir: “Tarih insan gibidir. Çünkü insan vücudu sürekli gelişen, büyüyen, yenilebilen bir olgudur. Örneğin vücudumuzda bir yara oluşsa o yara ilerleyen zamanda kapanacak ve kaybolacaktır. Tarihte bu şekildeki gibi sürekli gelişen, ilerleyen ve devamı sürekli olan 976

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN bir olaylar gibidir. Birbirleriyle bağlı olan birçok olay olduktan sonra bir yerde o geçmişte kalacaktır.” ( TK37) “Tarih tiyatro sahnesi gibidir. Çünkü dünyada bir tiyatro sahnesidir. İnsanlar geçmişten günümüze kadar tiyatro sahnesi dediğimiz bu dünya üzerinde tarihi canlandırırlar. Her dönem farklı oyunlar sahneye konulduğu gibi hayatta da yeni yeni olaylar gerçekleşmektedir. (TK22) “Tarih mevsim gibidir. Çünkü mevsimler ilkbahar, yaz, sonbahar, kış olarak dörde ayrılır. Önce ılık, sonra sıcak sonra yavaş yavaş soğumaya başlar ve en sonunda her yeri dondurucu soğuklar kaplar. Tarih de böyledir. Olaylar soğuktan sıcağa doğru ilerler. Bir olay dondurucu soğuk yaşatırken sonra yavaş yavaş ısınma başlar.” (SK35) “Tarih ağaç gibidir. Çünkü ağaçlar aynı dönemlerde birçok meyve verir. Tarihte aynı zaman diliminde farklı farklı insanlıkları içinde barındırır. Bizlere farklı olayları gösterir yaşatır.” (SK25 ) 9. Kategori: Yaşam Kaynağı Olan Tarih ile Gücün Sembolü Olan Tarih Yaşam Kaynağı Olan Tarih kategorisi altında incelenen metaforlarda geçmişte yaşanmış olayların gelecek adına fayda sağlaması, topluma hayat vermesine ilişkin benzetmeler sadece Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü öğretmen adayları tarafından yapılmıştır. Gücün sembolü olan tarih kategorisi altında incelenen metaforlarda tarihin yazılabilmesi için cesur insanlara, gücü göstermek için şan, şeref dolu bir tarihe ihtiyaç olduğuna ilişkin benzetmeler sadece Tarih Bölümü öğretmen adayları tarafından yapılmıştır. Tablo 12. Yaşam Kaynağı Olan Tarih ile Gücün Metaforlar Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Metaforları Cinsiyet GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar Toplam (f) (Yaşam kaynağı olan (f) tarih) E K Ağacın kökleri 1 1 Akarsu 1 1 Güneş 1 1 Kalp 1 1 Okyanus 1 1 Tarla 1 1 Toplam 3 3 6

Sembolü Olan Tarih Kategorisinde Oluşturulan Tarih Bölümü Metaforları Cinsiyet GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar (f) (Gücün sembolü olan tarih) E K Aslan 1 Cesaret 1

Toplam

1

1

Toplam (f) 1 1

2

Tablo 9 incelendiğinde bu kategori ile ilgili olarak sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünden 6 katılımcı tarafından 6 farklı metafor geliştirilmişken; tarih bölümünden 2 katılımcı tarafından 2 farklı metafor geliştirilmiştir. Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarına ilişkin yaşam kaynağı olan tarih kategorisindeki dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir: “Tarih kalp gibidir. Çünkü insan kalbi olmadan yaşayabilir mi? İnsanlıkta tarihi olmadan ayakta duramaz. Kalp nasıl ki özen ve koruma isterse tarihte öyledir. İnsan organlarının yapı taşı kalptir. Tarihte bu yüzden kalbe benzer. Kalbine iyi bakmayan milletler esarete mahkumdur.” (SE16 ) “Tarih tarla gibidir. Çünkü tarlayı sulamazsan sana pek fayda sağlamaz. İnsan ise tarihini bilmeyip kendini tarih ile aşılmazsa hayatından verim alamaz.” (SE11) “Tarih ağacın kökleri gibidir. Çünkü biliriz ki bir ağacın kökleri olmadan yeşeremez. Gökyüzüne kafa tutamaz, dallanıp budaklanamaz ve rüzgâra karşı koyamaz. Tarih bizim dünyaya duruşumuzdur, farklılığımız, kültürümüzdür ve en önemlisi gurur kaynağımızdır. Ağacı nasıl kökünden koparınca yaşayamazsa, tarihine sahip çıkmayan bir millet yok 977

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN olmaya mahkûmdur.”(SE17) Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarına ilişkin gücün sembolü olan tarih kategorisine ilişkin dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir: “Tarih aslan gibidir. Çünkü, aslan ormanın hakimidir, en güçlüsüdür. Tarihte bizim atamızdır. Ecdattır. Aslan gibi şanlı tarihimiz vardır. Aslanda yaşlanır ama yeni aslanlar hâkimiyeti devam ettirir. Tarihimizi devam ettirmek için aslanlar gibi olmalıyız.” (TE26) “ Tarih cesaret gibidir. Çünkü tarih cesur olanları yazar. Cesaret olmadan hiçbir şey olmaz. Birşeyleri yapmak, bir fikri paylaşmak için önce cesur olmak gerekir. Tarih yazmakta, yapmakta cesur insanların işidir. Tarih zaten bunları hatırlar sadece” (TK5) 10. Kategori: Başı –Sonu Belli Olmayan Tarih Bu kategoriye ait metaforlar incelendiğinde, keşfedilmeyi aydınlatılmayı bekleyen birçok olayın olduğu, ucu bucağı olmayan bir bilim dalı olduğu, nerede başlayıp nerede biteceği tam olarak bilinmediği ile ilgili benzetmeler yapılmıştır. Tablo 13 . Başı -Sonu Belli Olmayan Tarih Kategorisinde Oluşturulan Metaforlar Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü Metaforları Tarih Bölümü Metaforları Cinsiyet Cinsiyet Toplam Toplam (f) (f) GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar GeliĢtirilen Metaforlar (f) (f) E K E K Deniz 2 2 Deniz 2 2 Gökyüzü 1 Dipsiz kuyu 1 1 1 Evren 1 1 Kuş 1 1 Gökyüzü 1 1 Okyanus 3 3 Okyanus 4 4 Uzay 1 1 Uzay 1 1 Film 1 1 Toplam 2 8 10 Toplam 1 8 9

Tablo 13 incelendiğinde bu kategori ile ilgili olarak sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünden 10 katılımcı tarafından 6 farklı metafor geliştirilmişken; tarih bölümünden 9 katılımcı tarafından 6 farklı metafor geliştirilmiştir. Öğretmen adaylarının tanımlamalarına ilişkin dikkat çekici metafor örneklerinden bazı ifadeler aşağıda verilmiştir “Tarih okyanus gibidir. Çünkü tarihi araştırdıkça tıpkı okyanus gibi yeni şeyler öğretirsiniz. Okyanusta her an yeni şeyler bulunabilir. Tarihte okyanus gibi derindir. Okyanusun bilinmeyen ve keşfedilmeyi bekleyen yanları olduğu gibi tarihte de keşfedilmeyi bekleyen bir durum söz konusudur.” (TE36) “Tarih okyanus gibidir. Çünkü ucu bucağı yoktur. Bir olayın altında birçok farklı şey çıkabilir. Okyanusların derinliklerinde neler olacağı belli olmadığı gibi okyanustaki bir anda ortaya çıkan olaylar gibi tarihte de çok keskin bir çok şeyi etkileyen olaylar vardır. Derin izler bırakır.” (SK40) “Tarih gökyüzü gibidir. Çünkü daima vardır ve var olacaktır. Her zaman geniştir. Ucu bucağı yoktur. Tarihinde öncesi vardı sonrası da olacak. Hergün üzerine yeni şeyler koyarak devam edecektir .” (TK31 ). “Tarih gökyüzü gibidir. Çünkü ucu bucağı olmayan gittikçe gideceğin bir yer. Araştırdıkça yeni şeylerin çıktığı ve o yeni bilgiler ışığında daha bilmediğimiz sonuçların olduğunu göreceğiz. Hiç bir zaman bitmeyen bir gökyüzü. Merak üstüne merak yeni yeni bilgiler” (SK19). “Tarih evren gibidir. Çünkü evrenin başı sonu belli olmayıp uçsuz bucaksızdır. Tarihinde nerede başlayıp nerede bittiği belli değildir.” (SK18). 978

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

4. Sonuç ve TartıĢma Öğretmen adayları tarafından “tarih” ile ilgili oluşturulan metaforlar incelenmiş ve her bir metafor temsil ettiği anlam bakımından kategoriler etrafında toplanmıştır. Oluşturulan kategoriler ve bu kategoriler altında ele alınan metafor ve açıklamaları, öğretmen adaylarının “tarih” ile ilgili algılarını net bir biçimde ortaya koyar niteliktedir. Tarih ile ilgili Sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümü tarafından 55, tarih bölümü tarafından ise toplam 36 metafor üretilmiştir. İki bölümün sayıları hemen hemen aynı olmasına rağmen sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümü tarih bölümüne göre daha fazla metafor(19) üretmişlerdir.Bu durum sosyal bilgilerin birçok disiplini (tarih,coğrafya,ekonomi,sosyoloji,psikoloji,… gibi) içinde barındırıyor olması ve öğretmen adaylarının olaylara çok yönlü bakış açısından kaynaklamış olabilir. Sosyal Bilgiler eğitimi bölümünde en fazla üretilen metaforlar daha çok doğal unsurlar olup (okyanus, güneş ve akarsu)olup; tarih bölümünde ise beşeri (ayna, insan) unsurlardan oluşan metaforlardır. Diğer metaforların büyük bir kısmı sadece 1 kişi tarafından üretilmiş olup genel olarak katılımcı sayısı dikkate alındığında erkekler kızlara göre daha fazla sayıda farklı metafor üretmişlerdir. Er ve Budak (2013) tarafından sadece sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları üzerine yapılan çalışmada üretilen metaforlar arasında araştırmada elde edilen metaforlar arasında benzerlikler bulunmaktadır. Örneğin; Aşure, ayna, dipsiz kuyu, gökyüzü, güneş, hayat, karakutu, okyanus, saat,sarmaşık, , tiyatro oyunu, uzay boşluğu gibi. Edebiyat (Mutluer, 2014) ve sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının (Yalçınkaya, 2013b)tarih kavramına ilişkin ürettikleri metaforlardan ağaç,ayna, ,ışık, insan,hayat, kitap,köprü, okyanus,pusula, zincir çalışmada elde edilen sonuçlarla benzerlik göstermektedir. Ayrıca ilköğretim öğrencileri tarafından üretilen (Yalçınkaya, 2013a) ağaç, hayat, okyanus ve zincir metaforları çalışma elde edilen sonuçlarla benzerlik göstermektedir. Oluşturulan metafor sayısı öğretmen adaylarının tarihi somutlaştırarak benzerlikler kurmakta zorlanmadıklarını göstermektedir. Ayrıca kullanılan metaforların zenginliği ve çeşitliliği öğretmen adaylarının tarih algılarının kuvvetli ve gelişmiş olduğunun somut bir ifadesidir. Öğretmen adaylarının kullandıkları metaforlar incelendiğinde gündelik hayatta sıkça karşılaşılan veya çok bilinen kavramlardan ziyade katılımcıların eğitim seviyeleri ve branşları dikkate alındığında daha zengin ve daha farklı metaforların (buz dağı, cesaret, dipsiz kuyu, ince ip, kilitli kutu,hard disk, yüzümüzdeki çizgiler gibi) kullanıldığı görülmektedir.Tarih bölümünde daha çok hayvanlara (aslan, bukalemun, kuş, özgür kuş,) ilişkin yapılan benzetmeler varken sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünde böyle bir benzetme yoktur. Tarih bölümünde erkekler tarafından 23,kızlar tarafından 25 farklı metafor; Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi bölümünde erkekler tarafından 28,kızlar tarafından ise 35 farklı metafor üretilmiştir. Öğretmen adayları tarafından üretilen metaforların ortak özellikleri dikkate alınarak tarihin farklı yönlerini ortaya koyan toplam 13 farklı kategori oluşturulmuştur. Bu kategorilerin 7 si her iki bölüm için ortak olup geriye kalan 3 er tane kategori sosyal ve tarih bölümleri tarafından ayrı ayrı oluşturulmuştur. Tekrarı olan, gerçeği yansıtan, kapsayıcı, geleceğe yön veren/rehber olan, kaydedici, değişen ve sürekliliği olan ile başı-sonu belli olmayan olmak üzere 7 kategori her iki bölümün ortak kategorileri olup;gizemli/sırlı tarih,iz bırakan tarih ve yaşam kaynağı olan tarih kategorileri sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümü öğretmen adayları tarafından, sorgulayıcı/araştırmacı tarih,öznel tarih ile gücün sembolü olan tarih kategorileri ise tarih bölümü öğretmen adayları tarafından oluşturulmuştur.Konu-kaynak ilişkisi dikkate alınarak oluşturulan kategorilere bakıldığında, tarihin anlamının yapısının ve işlevinin ne olduğunun öğretmen adayları tarafından bilinmesi tarihin anlaşılmış olduğunun bir göstergesi olarak ifade edilebilir. Bölümler arasında farklı kategorilerin oluşması ve kategorilerin sıralamasının farklı olması tarih bölümünün tarihi bir bütün olarak görüp algılamaları, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünün ise tarihi sosyal bilgilerin bir parçası olarak görüp algılamalarından kaynaklanmış olabilir. Metaforların kaynak ve anlam bütünlüğü göz önüne alınarak yapılandırılmış olan kategorilere bakıldığında ise, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümünde birinci sırada “değişen ve sürekliliği olan tarih” kategorisi iken tarih bölümünde ise birinci sırada “geleceği aydınlatan ve rehber olan tarih” kategorisine yönelik metafor oluşturulduğu görülmüştür. Her iki bölümde en çok olan kategorideki metaforlar erkekler tarafından oluşturulmuştur. Tarih öğretmen adaylarının ağırlıklı olarak bu kategoriye ait metafor oluşturmuş olmaları, onların tarihi bir rehber olarak, geçmiş ile gelecek arasında köprü kurarak geleceğe ışık tutma ve yol gösterme gibi bir misyona sahip olduğunu gördüklerinin bir kanıtıdır. Sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümü öğretmen adayları ise daha çok değişen ve sürekliliği olan 979

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN tarihe ait metaforlar oluşturmaları yaşam sürdüğü sürece bilgi akışının devam edip durmayacağı, sürekli gelişen ve ilerleyen bir durumun söz konusu olduğu değişim ve sürekliliğin kaçınılmaz olduğu gerçeğini ifade etmeleri öğretmen adaylarının tarih algılarında değişebilirliğin ve sürekliliğin kabul edilmesi gerektiğini bildikleri anlamına gelmektedir. Sosyal Bilgiler programında öğrencilere doğrudan kazandırılacak beceriler arasında yer alan değişim ve sürekliliği algılama becerisi öğretmen adaylarının bu yönde kategori oluşturacak metaforlar oluşturmalarında etkili olmuş olabilir. Tarihi olaylardaki değişim ve sürekliliği anlamak, tarihi olaylara ilişkin yorumlamaların net ve anlaşılır bir şekilde ortaya konmasını sağlamak demektir. Her şeyin değişebileceğinin bilinmesi ve bunun da doğal bir süreç olduğunun öğretmen adayları tarafından anlaşılmış olması aynı zamanda geçmişin dikkate alınması gerektiğini de sağlayabilir. Ortak olan kategorilerden kaydedici tarih ile başı-sonu belli olmayan tarih kategorilerinde her iki bölümde de hemen hemen aynı sayıda metafor oluşturulmuştur. Kaydedici tarih kategorisindeki metaforların çoğunluğu erkekler tarafından oluşturulmuşken başı-sonu belli olmayan tarih kategorisindeki metaforların büyük çoğunluğu ise kızlar tarafından oluşturulmuştur. Ortak olan kategorilerden kapsayıcı tarih kategorisi her iki bölümde de yalnızca kızlar tarafından üretilen metaforlardan oluşmaktadır. Çalışmada oluşturulan “tekrarı olan tarih” kategorisinin aksine Er ve Budak (2013) tarafından yapılan çalışmada “tekrarı olmayan tarih” kategorisi oluşturulmuştur. İki çalışma arasındaki farklılığın nedeni olarak çalışma yılı gösterilebilir. Er ve Budak (2013) tarafından yapılan çalışma 2011-2012 yılında yapılmış olup mevcut çalışma ise 2015-2016 akademik yılında yapılmıştır. Aradan geçen 5 yıllık zaman dilimi içinde meydana gelen olaylar tarihin tekrar tekrar gerçekleştiği algısını öğretmen adaylarının zihninde canlanmasına vesile olmuş olabilir. Edebiyat (Mutluer, 2014) bölümü üzerine yapılan çalışmada benzer kategori “tekrarlar yığını olarak tarih” olarak, sınıf öğretmenliği bölümü (Yalçınkaya, 2013b) üzerine yapılan çalışmada ise “tekerrür eden tarih” olarak ele alınmıştır. “Gerçeği yansıtan tarih” kategorisi, Er ve Budak (2013) tarafından yapılan çalışmada “gerçekliği yansıtan tarih” olarak ifade edilmiş olup, ayna, güneş metaforları her iki çalışmada da ortak olarak kullanılan metafor arasında yer almaktadır. Tarih bölümü tarafından oluşturulan metaforların hepsi sosyal bilgiler eğitimi bölümü tarafından da oluşturulmuştur. “Kaydedici Tarih” kategorisi Er ve Budak (2013) tarafından yapılan çalışmada “Her şeyi kaydedici tarih” olarak ifade edilmiş olup, karakutu ve hafıza metaforları her iki çalışmada da ortak olarak kullanılan metaforlar arasında yer almaktadır. “Başı –Sonu Belli Olmayan Tarih” kategorisi Er ve Budak (2013) tarafından yapılan çalışmada “Başı ve sonu olmayan engin tarih” olarak ifade edilmiş olup, deniz, okyanus ve uzay metaforları her iki çalışmada da ortak olarak kullanılan metaforlar arasında yer almaktadır. Deniz, gökyüzü, okyanus ve uzay metaforları her iki bölüm tarafından oluşturulan ortak metaforlardır. Çalışmada dikkat çeken bir diğer nokta ise Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Bölümü öğretmen adayları tarihi “yaşam kaynağı, iz bırakan ve gizemli olarak” görürken; Tarih Bölümü öğretmen adayları ise tarihi “ sorgulayıcı, öznel ve gücün sembolü olarak” görmektedir. Elde edilen sonuçlar doğrultusunda şu önerilere yer verilebilir;  Öğretmen adaylarının tarih kavramına ilişkin algılarını ortaya koymak için farklı bölümlerden öğretmen adayları ile metafor çalışması yapılabilir.  Tarih kavramına ilişkin geliştirilen metaforlarda elde edilen bulgular ve sonuçlar, akademisyenler ve tarih ile ilgilenen araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilerek kullanılabilir.  Farklı bölgelerdeki öğrencilerin tarih kavramına yönelik oluşturdukları metaforlar araştırılabilir. Elde edilen sonuçlar ile farklı bölgelerdeki öğrenciler arasındaki benzerlikler ve farklılıklar karşılaştırılabilir. References Arthur, J., Davies,I., Wrenn,A., Haydn, T. & Kerr,D. (2001), Citizenship Through Secondary History, London:RoutledgeFalmer. Retrived from https://www.questia.com/read/107616072/citizenshipthrough-secondary-history

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Cerit, Y. (2008) Öğretmen Kavramı ile İlgili Metaforlara İlişkin Öğrenci, Öğretmen ve Yöneticilerin Görüşleri, Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 6(4) 693- 712. Çelikten, M. (2006).Kültür ve Öğretmen Metaforları. Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 21(2), 269-283. Demircioğlu, İ. H. ve Tokdemir, M. A. (2008). Değerlerin Oluşturulma Sürecinde Tarih Eğitimi: Amaç, İşlev ve İçerik. Değerler Eğitimi Dergisi, 6 (15), 69-88. Dilek, D. (2007). Tarih Derslerinde Öğrenme ve Düşünce Gelişimi. Ankara: Nobel Er, T., Y. ve Budak, F. (2013) Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretmen Adaylarının “Tarih” Kavramına İlişkin Algılarının Metaforlar Yardımıyla Analizi, Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 6(4) 610-642. Forceville, C. (2002). The identification of Target and Source in Pictorial Metaphors. Journal of Pragmatics, 34(1), 1-14. Goldstein, L. S. (2005). Becoming a Teacher as a Hero’s Journey: Using Metaphor in Preservice Teacher Education. Teacher Education Quarterly, 32 (1), 7-24. Jenkins, K. (1997). Tarihi Yeniden Düşünmek. Çev. Bahadır Sina Şener. Ankara: Dost Kitabevi Karabağ, Ş.G. (2014). Tarih öğretmenlerinin Mesleki Becerilerini Şekillendiren Unsurlar M.Safran (Ed.), Tarih Nasıl Öğretilir? Tarih Öğretmenleri İçin Özel Öğretim Yöntemleri(Genişletilmiş 3.Baskı) içinde (437-440), İstanbul: Yeni İnsan. Leavy, A.,M., Mcsorleya, F.,A. & Bote, L.,A., (2007). An Examination of What Metaphor Construction Reveals About the Evolution of Preservice Teachers’ Beliefs About Teaching and Learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(7), 1217-1233. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2006.07.016 Miles, M. B., & Huberman, Publications

A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks,London

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Moser, K. S. (2000). Metaphor Analysis in Psychology - Method, Theory, and Fields of Application. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 1 (2). Mutluer,C.(2014) Edebiyat Öğrencilerinin Tarih Kavramına İlişkin Algılarının Metaforlar Aracılığıyla Analizi, Tarih Okulu Dergisi (TOD) 7(XIX), 699-718. DOI No: http://dx.doi.org/10.14225/Joh549 Özbaş, B. ve Aktekin, S. (2013) Tarih Öğretmen Adaylarının Tarih Öğretmenliğine İlişkin İnançlarının Metafor Analizi Yoluyla İncelenmesi, Eğitimde Kuram ve Uygulama, 9(3), 211- 228. Patton,M.,Q.(2014)Nitel Araştırma ve Değerlendirme Yöntemleri (Çeviri Editörleri:M.Bütün-S.B.Demir) Ankara:Pegem. Saban, A. (2004). Giriş Düzeyindeki Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının Öğretmen Kavramına İlişkin İleri Sürdükleri Metaforlar, Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 2/2, 131-155. Saban, A., Koçbeker, B. N. ve Saban, A. (2006). An Investigation of the Concept of Teacher Among Prospective Teachers through Metaphor Anaysis. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 6(2), 506-522. Sanchez, A., Barreiro, J., M. & Maojo, V. (2000). Desing of Virtual Reality Systems for Education : A Cognitive Approach, Education and Information Technologies, 5(4),345-362 Schmitt, R. (2005). Systematic metaphor analysis as a method of qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 10(2), 358-394. Senemoğlu, N. (2005). Gelişim Öğrenme ve Öğretim: Kuramdan Uygulamaya, Ankara: Gönül Tuna Er, Y. ve Budak, F. (2013) Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretmen Adaylarının “Tarih” Kavramına İlişkin Algılarının Metaforlar Yardımıyla Analizi, Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 6(4) 610-642. Vadeboncoeur, J.A.&Myriam N. T. (2003). “Constructing and Reconstructing Teaching Roles : A Focus On Generative Metaphors and Dichotomies”, Discourse : Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, Carfax Publishing, 24(1),87-103 DOI: 10.1080/01596300303034 Yalçınkaya, E. (2013a) 8th Grade Students’ Metaphors For The Concept Of History. Eğitim Araştırmaları-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research,51,273-290. Yalçınkaya, E. (2013b) Tarih Kavramına Yönelik Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının Ürettikleri Metaforların İncelenmesi, Journal of World of Turks, 5 (3), 96-111. Yıldırım, A. ve Şimşek, H. (2011). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri.(8.Tıpkı Basım)Ankara: Seçkin

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

TÜKETİCİLERİN ONLİNE ALIŞVERİŞ DAVRANIŞINDA ALGILADIKLARI GÜVENE YÖNELİK BİR İNCELEME Prof. Dr. Süleyman KARAÇOR Selçuk Üniversitesi, İletişim Fakültesi, Reklamcılık Bölümü [email protected] Yrd. Doç. Dr. M. Barış YILMAZ İnönü Üniversitesi, İletişim Fakültesi, Gazetecilik Bölümü [email protected] Öğr. Gör. Yasemin KESKİN YILMAZ İnönü Üniversitesi, İletişim Fakültesi, Gazetecilik Bölümü [email protected] Özet Türkiye’de son yirmi yıl içerisinde hızla yaygınlaşan internet kullanımı beraberinde insan davranışlarında da farklılaşmalara neden olmuştur. Özellikle tüketim ve alışveriş kavramlarının online süreçler içerisinde yer almasıyla birlikte, internet kullanan tüketiciler çeşitli sebeplerle bu yeni alışveriş tarzına yönelmeye başlamıştır. Geleneksel alışveriş alışkanlıklarının yerini almaya başlayan online alışveriş ile tüketiciler, online alışverişin avantaj ve dezavantajlarını göz önünde bulundurarak bu davranışa yönelik tutumlarını da olumlu veya olumsuz yönde belirlemektedirler. Her geçen gün hızla gelişen yeni iletişim teknolojilerinin gerek hız, gerekse güvenlik açısından aşama kaydettiği yadsınamaz bir gerçeklik olsa da özellikle güvenlik noktasında yaşanan her yeni gelişme beraberinde yeni sorunları da doğurmaktadır. Online alışveriş yapan tüketicilerin dört değişken olan güven, zahmet, maddiyat ve ilgi üzerinden alışveriş yapma nedenlerini araştıran bu çalışma özellikle günümüz tüketici davranışlarına yönelik bir profil çizmeyi ve bu bağlamda pazarlama araştırmalarına yön vermeyi amaçlamaktadır. Online alışveriş alışkanlıklarının tüketiciler üzerinde etkisini inceleyerek, alışveriş yapma sıklık ve miktarları ile özellikle güven duygusu arasındaki ilişkiyi belirlemek adına İnönü Üniversitesi bünyesinde çalışan 100 öğretim elemanına faktörlere ilişkin ifadelerden ve demografik özellikleri belirlemeye yönelik sorulardan oluşan anket uygulaması yapılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler SPSS 17.0 programında analiz edilmiştir. Akademisyen olan tüketicilerin online alışveriş deneyiminin güven duygusunun artmasıyla doğru orantılı olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Anahtar Sözcükler: Online Alışveriş, Tüketici Davranışı, Güven.

1. Giriş İletişim teknolojilerindeki gelişmeler, pazarlama iletişiminde farklı ve yenilikçi uygulamaları da beraberinde getirmiştir. İnternetin hayatımıza girmesiyle pazarlama ve özellikle reklam alanında üreticilerin, tüketicilere ulaşabilme ve ürün ya da markayı satın almaya ikna edebilme gücü de artmıştır. 1993 yılında ülkemizde internetin ilk kullanımıyla birlikte pazarlama ortamında farklılaşan dağıtım kanalları, rekabet ortamı ile online alışveriş kavramını doğurmuş, markalar arasında fiziki ortamlardan sanal ortamlara kayan bir rekabet oluşmuştur. İnternetin günümüzdeki yaygınlığını göstermesi açısından Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu‟nun (TUİK) Hanehalkı Bilişim Teknolojileri Kullanma Araştırması önemli sonuçlar sunmaktadır. Araştırmanın 2015 Nisan ayı sonuçlarına göre Türkiye genelinde internet erişim imkânına sahip hanelerin oranı %69,5 iken, hanelerin %96,8‟inde cep telefonu veya akıllı telefon bulunmaktadır (http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=18660). Birer tüketici olan bireylerin internete erişim imkânının kolaylaşmasıyla birlikte alternatif bir pazarlama anlayışı da gelişmiştir. Geleneksel alışveriş alışkanlıklarının internet teknolojisiyle birlikte değişmeye başlamasıyla online alışveriş tüketiciler açısından tercih edilir olmuştur. Pazarlama karması unsurlarının da yeniden değerlendirilmesini gerekli kılan online alışveriş ile tüketiciler, internet ortamında alışveriş yapmayı keşfetmişlerdir (Özgüven, 2011: 47).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN İnternet, pazarlamacılar için gittikçe artan birçok olanak sağlarken aynı zamanda ticari bir statü sembolü olarak da ifade edilmektedir (Katz ve Aspden, 1997: 171). Bu nedenle birçok farklı seçeneğin internet ortamında tüketicilere sunulması nedeniyle kıyasıya rekabet eden işletmeler, hedef tüketicilerini memnun etmek, onlarda güven oluşturarak sadakati sağlama amacındadır. Güvenilirlik ve gizlilik unsurlarına duyarlı olma koşulu taşıyan bir online pazarlama sistemi kurmak, pazarlamada temel koşul olarak ifade edilebilir (Belanger vd., 2002: 246). Tüketiciler, satın alma kararı verme süreçlerinde verimliliği artırmak, bilgi işlemeyi azaltmak, kararlarında daha fazla bilişsel tutarlılık elde etmek ve gelecekteki seçimlerle ilgili algılanan riskleri azaltmak için ilişkisel davranışlara dâhil olma eğilimindedir. (Sheth ve Parvatiyar, 1995: 413). Çalışmada tüketicilerin online alışverişe duydukları güven ve bu bağlamda online alışveriş alışkanlıklarını belirleyen faktörler araştırılmıştır. Tüketiciler için internet ortamında pazarlamanın sağladığı faydalar ve kolaylıkların belirlenmesi amacıyla demografik özellikleri bakımından „eğitim seviyesi yüksek bireyler‟ olarak nitelendirilen akademisyenlere yönelik bir alan araştırması yapılmıştır. 2. Kavramsal Çerçeve Online (Çevrim İçi) Alışveriş İletişim teknolojilerindeki gelişmelerin bir parçası olan internetin yaygınlaşmasıyla birlikte geleneksel pazarlama yöntemlerine bir yenisi ekleyen üreticiler, online alışveriş uygulaması ile tüketicilere küresel anlamda çok daha fazla sayıda ulaşabilmeyi ve kitlesel satış yapabilmeyi başarmıştır. Günümüzde internet üzerinden yapılan satın alma işlemleri her geçen gün artarken tüketiciler içinse online alışveriş tercih edilir hale gelmiştir. Tüketiciler için aradıkları her türlü bilgiye çabuk ulaşabildikleri, satın alma sürecine interaktif olarak katılabildikleri ve aynı zamanda çok hızlı hareket edebildikleri dijital bir ortam olan internet, giderek daha fazla kullanılmaktadır (Kotler ve Armstrong, 1999: 520). Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu‟nun (TUİK) 2014 yılı Nisan ile 2015 yılı Mart aylarını kapsayan araştırmasında internet kullanan bireylerin internet üzerinden kişisel kullanım amacıyla mal ya da hizmet siparişi verme, satın alma oranı bir önceki yıla oranla (%30,8) artarak %33,1 olarak tespit edildi (http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=18660). Uluslararası alanda yapılan bir başka araştırma olan ve Paypal‟in Ipsos KMG ile birlikte toplam 22 ülkede yaptığı „PayPal Global Mobile Research 2014-2015‟ isimli araştırmasının sonuçları da online alışverişin artışına dikkat çekmektedir. Özellikle mobil iletişimin yükselişiyle birlikte Türkiye‟de e-ticaret tüketicilerinin %53‟ü alışverişlerini akıllı telefonlar üzerinden gerçekleştirdikleri ortaya konulmuştur (http://webrazzi.com/2015/02/23/paypal-arastirmasi-turkiye-online-alisveris-mobil-rapor/). Araştırma verilerinin de işaret ettiği üzere bireylerin geleneksel alışveriş alışkanlıklarının değişime uğrayarak internet üzerinden doğrudan alışverişi tercih ettiği sonucu çıkarılabilir. Online alışveriş, genel olarak ürünün, üreticilerin ve satıcıların çevrim içi olarak bulunduğu, ödeme seçeneklerinin, alışverişle ilgili iletişimin ve ürünü satın alma işleminin de yine bu yolla gerçekleştirildiği alışveriş türü olarak tanımlanır (Cai ve Cude, 2008: 137). Tüketicileri internet aracılığıyla ürün ya da hizmeti satın almaya ikna eden birtakım kolaylıklar bulunmaktadır. Online alışverişi tercih etme nedenleri arasında internette bulabildikleri ürünlerin kolaylığı, mevcut ayrıntılı ürün bilgisi ve sunulan seçeneklerin çeşitliliği sayılabilirken markalı ürünlerin tüketicilere sunulması da online satın alma kararını etkilemektedir (Ward ve Lee, 2000: 6). Ayrıca online alışveriş ortamı, tüketicilere geniş seçim, bilgi eleme, güvenilirlik ve ürün karşılaştırma imkânı sağlayarak karar verme çabalarını azaltmalarına olanak verir (Alba vd., 1997: 44-45). Dijital ortamda alışveriş yapma imkânı sunması nedeniyle potansiyel tüketicilerin fiziksel olarak ürünlere dokunamamaları ve gerçekten hissedememeleri nedeniyle satın alma kararlarını online mağaza tarafından elektronik olarak sağlanan bilgilere göre alırlar. Bu nedenle ürün ya da markaya ilişkin bilgi kritik önem taşımaktadır. Ürün ya da hizmete ilişkin bilginin tüketiciye uygunluk ve kişiselleştirme düzeyi de göz önüne alınmasıyla online alışveriş mağazaların bilgiyi tüketicilerin ihtiyaçlarına uygun hale getirebilmeleri gerekir (Park ve Kim, 2003: 16). Online alışveriş, fiziksel alışveriş seyahati olarak adlandırılan geleneksel alışverişle karşılaştırıldığında tüketici davranış bilgileri hakkında daha ayrıntılı bilgi toplamalarına imkân sağlar. Online alışveriş ortamı sunan markalar, tüketicilere ilişkin sadece kimlik, kredi geçmişi, istihdam durumu, yasal statü

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN gibi birçok fiziksel işlemde bulunan aynı bilgiyi toplamakla kalmaz aynı zamanda elektronik adres, aranan ve talep edilen diğer mal ve hizmetler gibi ilave bilgiler, ziyaret edilen diğer internet siteleri, tüketici veri depolama araçlarının içeriği gibi ilave bilgileri toplayabilmektedir (Hoffman vd., 1999: 83). Üreticiler için pazara kolay ve düşük maliyetle girmeyi kolaylaştıran e-ticaret ile çok az bir giderle çok daha yoğun reklam kampanyası gerçekleştirilebilir (Rowley, 1996: 30). Markaların hedeflerine ulaşmasında onlara interaktif bir iletişim seçeneği sunarak alışveriş yapmalarını amaçlayan üreticiler için online alışverişin tüketiciler açısından bir takım dezavantajları da bulunmaktadır. Online alışverişin gün geçtikçe yaygınlaşması ve hızlanmasına rağmen, tüketicilerin online alışverişe ilişkin bir takım kaygıları bulunmaktadır (Enginkaya, 2009: 12). Bu kaygılar, online alışveriş süresince elektronik işlemlerin güvenliği, doküman/arşivlerin geçerliliği ve elektronik sözleşmelerin yasal geçerliliği konularında tüketicilerin önünde engel teşkil etmektedir (Aksoy, 2006: 80). Online Alışverişe Duyulan Güven Güven, online alışverişte satın alma karar sürecini hızlandıran bir olgudur (Tolon ve Zengin, 2011: 88). Güven duygusu, kişilerarası ve ticari ilişkilerin merkezinde yer alır. Çünkü dijital platformlarda yapılan alışverişlerde risk ve belirsizlik mevcuttur. Ayrıca online alışveriş sırasındaki işlemlerin karmaşıklığı da koşulları daha belirsiz hale getirmesi nedeniyle tüketicilerin alışveriş sitelerine duyacakları güvene yönelik ihtiyaç da artmaktadır (McKnight ve Chervany, 2002: 36). Yapılan araştırmalarda belirsizliği sağlayan nedenlerden biri, tüketicilerin kredi kartı bilgileri ile ilgili duyduğu güvenlik endişeleridir. Güvenlik özelliklerinin bankalar tarafından geliştirilmesiyle kredi kartı kullanılarak yapılan online alışveriş oranlarında artış yaşanmıştır (Palumbo ve Herbig, 1998: 258). Literatürün geniş bir bölümünde, e-pazarların başarısında güvenin merkezi bir rolü olduğu vurgulanmaktadır (Aksoy, 2006: 81). Tüketicilerin mağaza ortamında markaya duydukları güven online alışveriş sırasında o markanın web sitesine yönelik duyacağı güveni de etkilemektedir. Özellikle online alışveriş ödemelerinde tüketicilerden kredi kartı gibi bilgileri vermeleri istendiğinde tüketici, ürünleri online satın almada belirsizlik ve kararsızlık hissedebilir. Bu durumda tüketicinin markaya yönelik duymuş olduğu güven tüketicinin online satın alma konusunda duyduğu belirsizliği azaltmada önemli rol oynayabilir (Chaudhuri ve Holbrook, 2001: 91). Eğer tüketici bir markaya güven duyuyorsa sadece bilgi almak için o markanın internet sayfasına güven duymakla kalmaz aynı zamanda markanın internet sayfasından ürün satın alma konusunda da markaya güven duyar. Online tüketicilerin ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak için markaların ürün bilgilerine yönelik doğru ve zamanında sunum sağlamaları ve müşteri hizmetlerine zamanında cevap vermeleri de markaya duyulan güven seviyesini artırmada önemlidir (Hanh ve Kim, 2009: 137). Tüketicilerin algıladıkları risk, aynı zamanda güven seviyesini de belirlemektedir. Risk algılaması yüksek olduğunda güçlü bir güven oluşturmak uzun zaman ve çok fazla çaba gerektirmektedir (Aksoy, 2006: 82). Online alışveriş sitelerinin sağlayacağı güvenlik önlemleri, tüketicilerin algıladıkları riski azaltacağı gibi müşteri sadakatini de oluşturacaktır. Altuğ ve Özhan‟ın (2012: 1-10) Trakya Bölgesi‟ndeki üniversitelerde görev yapan 510 öğretim elemanına yönelik yaptıkları araştırmada, bireylerin online alışverişe yönelik algıladıkları risk ve faydanın online alışveriş sıklığının artmasıyla maddi risk algılaması ile alışveriş sürecinin kendisine yönelik risk algılamalarının azaldığını belirlemiştir. Online alışveriş sıklığı ve harcama miktarı arttıkça da, ürün ve dağıtıma ilişkin algılanan fayda ile online alışveriş sürecinin kendisine yönelik algılanan faydanın arttığını ortaya koymuşlardır. Tolon ve Zengin (2011: 87-96), Ankara ilinde 492 tüketiciye yaptıkları alan araştırmasında daha önce online alışveriş deneyimi olan tüketicilerin online alışverişi daha az riskli bulduklarını, ayrıca tüketicilerin kişisel bilgilerini paylaşmaya tereddüt ettiklerini ancak tüketicilerin online alışveriş sitelerine güven duydukları taktirde kişisel bilgilerini paylaşma eğilimi gösterdiklerini ve alışveriş yaptıklarını ortaya koymuştur. 3.Araştırmanın Yöntemi Geleneksel alışveriş ortamlarının günümüz teknolojisinin ve pazarlama anlayışının getirdiği değişim tüketicilere farklı mecralarda alışveriş yapma imkânını sunmaktadır. İnternet ortamında farklı pazarlama tekniklerinin kullanımıyla birlikte cazip hale gelen online alışveriş, tüketicilerin dijital ortama yönelik algılarını ve davranış şekillerini de etkilemiştir. Bu bağlamda yeni bir alışveriş mecrası

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN olarak karşımıza çıkan online tüketim, kimi tüketici tarafından tercih edilirken kimileri tarafından da uzak durulması gereken yeni bir pazar türü olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Bu çerçevede araştırmanın dört amacı vardır: (a) Günümüzde geleneksel alışveriş alışkanlıklarına alternatif olarak gelişen online alışveriş alışkanlıklarının tüketiciler üzerinde etkisini incelemek (b) Tüketicilerin alışveriş yapma sıklığı, miktarı ve nedenlerini ortaya koymak (c) Tüketicilerin alışveriş yapma sıklığı ve miktarı ile özellikle güven duygusu arasındaki ilişkiyi belirlemek (d) Ayrıca tüketicilerin online alışverişe yönelik yaklaşımlarının farklı değişkenler (Güven, Zahmet, Maddiyat, İlgi) üzerinden de değerlendirilmesi amaçlanmış olup online alışveriş yapmayı tercih eden tüketicilerin farklı dört değişkenden etkilenip etkilenmediğini belirlemektir. Araştırmanın evreni olarak İnönü Üniversitesi bünyesinde bulunan 1612 öğretim elemanı belirlenmiştir. Eğitim seviyesi ve maddi geliri yüksek tüketiciler olarak nitelendirilen akademisyenlerin online alışverişe yatkın olmaları tercih edilme nedeni olarak gösterilebilir. İnönü Üniversitesi bünyesinde çalışan 1612 öğretim elemanının tamamına ulaşmanın getireceği maddi yük, zaman sınırı ve personel ihtiyacı nedeniyle belirli sayıda öğretim elemanına ulaşılmıştır. 1612 öğretim elemanını temsil etmesi amacıyla örneklem olarak 100 kişi üzerinde nicel bir araştırma yöntemi olan anket uygulaması gerçekleştirilmiştir. İnönü Üniversitesi bünyesinde yer alan iki farklı yerleşke alanında 23-28 Ocak 2016 tarihleri arasında kolayda örneklem yöntemiyle katılımcılara toplam 25 soruluk anket uygulaması yapılmıştır. Bu kısıtlamaya rağmen, bu araştırma sonuçlarının, gerek sanal alışveriş sitelerinin yöneticilerine gerekse bu konuda daha sonra araştırma yapacak akademisyenlere katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir. Anket formunun ilk dört sorusu demografik özellikleri, sonraki iki soru internet kullanma sıklığını ölçmeye yönelik hazırlanırken; sonraki dört soru ise online alışveriş yapma sıklığını ölçmektedir. Geriye kalan 15 soru 5‟li Likert Ölçeği‟ne göre dizayn edilerek katılımcıların online alışverişe yönelik yaklaşımları ölçülmeye çalışılmıştır. Söz konusu ölçek Kim, Zhao ve Yang‟ın (2008) yaptığı “An empirical study on the integrated framework of e-CRM in online shopping: evaluating the relationships among perceived value, satisfaction, and trust based on customers' perspectives” isimli çalışmadan Türkçeye çevrilerek hazırlanmıştır. Araştırmanın güvenilirliği Alpha Katsayısı (Cronbach Alpha) ile ölçülmüş ve 0.918 olarak hesaplanmıştır. Söz konusu oran araştırmanın oldukça güvenilir olduğunu ve istatistiksel analiz yapılabileceği sonucunu göstermektedir. Araştırmanın analiz kısmında güvenilirlik analizi, frekans analizi, çapraz tablo analizi ve merkezi eğilim analizleri yapılmıştır. 4.Bulgular Ve Yorumlama Tablo 1. Soru Formunun Güvenilirlik Değerler

Tablo 1 soru formunun alt ölçeklerine ait güvenilirlik değerlerini içermektedir. İlgili tabloda da Değişkenler Zahmet Faktörü Maddiyat Faktörü Güven Faktörü İlgi Duyma Faktörü Genel Güvenilirlik

Madde Sayısı 5 3 5 2 15

Cronbach Alpha ,777 ,777 ,867 ,756 .918

görüldüğü gibi ölçeklerin güvenilirlik değerleri. 77- ile. 91 arasında değişmektedir. Ölçeğin genel güvenilirlik değeri ise .91 olarak hesaplanmıştır.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Tablo 2. Cinsiyet Dağılımı Cinsiyet

Yüzde

Frekans

Erkek

50

50,0

Kadın

50

50,0

Total

100

100,0

Tablo 2 ankete katılan bireylerin cinsiyetlerine göre dağılımını göstermektedir. Buna göre erkek ve kadın katılımcıların sayılarının eşit olduğu gözlemlenmektedir. Tablo 3. Yaş Dağılımı Yaş

Yüzde

Frekans

24-28

23

23,0

29-33

17

17,0

34-38

25

25,0

39-43

16

16,0

44-+

19

19,0

Total

100

100,0

Tablo 3 katılımcıların yaş dağılımlarını göstermektedir. Çalışmanın örneklemi İnönü üniversitesi Öğretim Elemanları olduğu için 24 yaşın altında katılımcı mevcut değildir. Bununla birlikte 34-38 yaş aralığı %25 oranla en fazla yüzdeye sahiptir, sırasıyla 24-28 ve 44 ve üstü yaş aralıkları en fazla yüzdeye sahiptir. Tablo 4. Medeni Durum Medeni Durum

Yüzde

Frekans

Evli-Çocuklu

54

54,0

Evli-Çocuksuz

5

5,0

Bekar

41

41,0

Total

100

100,0

Medeni durum açısından bakıldığında Evli ve Çocuklu katılımcıların %54 oranında yer alırken; %41‟inin ise bekar katılımcılardan oluştuğu göze çarpmaktadır. 100 katılımcıdan sadece 5‟inin evli ve çocuksuz kategorisinde yer aldığı görülmektedir. Tablo5. Gelir Düzeyi Gelir Düzeyi

Yüzde

Frekans

3500-4499

54

54,0

4500-5499

28

28,0

5500-6499

7

7,0

11

11,0

100

100,0

6500-+ Total

Çalışmanın örneklemi gereği gelir düzeyinin en alt sınırı 3500 TL olarak belirlenmiştir. Buna göre dağılımlar 3500-4499 TL aralığı %54 ile en fazla oranı oluşturmaktadır. 4500-5499 TL aralığı ise %28 ile ikinci sırada yer almaktadır.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Tablo 6. İnternet Kullanım Süresi İnternet Kullanım Süresi

Yüzde

Frekans

0-2 Saat

42

42,0

3-5 Saat

39

39,0

6-8 Saat

14

14,0

5

5,0

100

100,0

9 Saat ve üstü Total

Katılımcıların internet kullanma sürelerine bakıldığında %42‟sinin 0-2 saat aralığında internet kullandığı göze çarpmaktadır. Bununla birlikte 3-5 saat aralığında internet kullananların oranı ise %39 ile 2. sırayı oluşturmaktadır. Tablo7. Online Alışveriş Yapma Online Alışveriş

Yüzde

Frekans

Evet

88

88,0

Hayır

12

12,0

Total

100

100,0

Tablo-7‟ye göre ankete katılanların %88‟inin online alışveriş yaptıkları görülmektedir. Tablo 8. Son 1 Yıl İçerisinde Yapılan Online Alışveriş Son 1 Yıl İçerisinde Yapılan Alışveriş

Yüzde

Frekans

Hiç

12

12,0

1-3 Kez

29

29,0

4-6 Kez

15

15,0

8

8,0

36

36,0

100

100,0

7-9 9 Kez ve üstü Total

Tablo-8 ve Tablo-7 birlikte ele alındığında son 1 yıl içerisinde online alışveriş yapanların oranıyla; online alışveriş yapanların oranlarının örtüştüğü görülmektedir. Bu durum bize online alışveriş yapan bireylerin bu alışkanlıklarını son 1 yıl içerisinde de sürdürdüklerini ortaya koymaktadır. Bununla birlikte 9 kez ve üzeri online alışveriş yapmış bireylerin %36 oranla 1. sırada yer aldığı göze çarpmaktadır.

988

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Tablo 9. Online Alışveriş Sırasında En Fazla Satın Alınan Ürün En Çok Satın Alınan Ürün

Yüzde

Frekans

Kozmetik-Kişisel Bakım

9

9,0

19

19,0

Bebek-Çocuk

3

3,0

Aksesuar-Takı

2

2,0

Tekstil-Kıyafet

20

20,0

3

3,0

30

30,0

Gıda-Süpermarket

1

1,0

Mutfak ve Ev Eşyaları

1

1,0

12

12,0

100

100,0

Elektronik Araçlar

Hobi-Eğlence-Sanat Kitap-Kırtasiye

Hiç Total

Online alışverişte en fazla tercih edilen ürünlerin sırasıyla “Kitap-Kırtasiye”, “Tekstil-Kıyafet” ve “Elektronik Araçlar” olduğu görülmektedir. Araştırmanın evren ve örnekleminin özellikleri göz önüne alındığında “Kitap-Kırtasiye” ürünlerinin ilk sırada yer alması doğaldır. Tablo 10. Online Alışverişe Aylık Olarak Harcanan Miktar Aylık Online Alışveriş Miktarı

Yüzde

Frekans

Hiç

12

12,0

100 Tlden Az

21

21,0

100-299

49

49,0

300-499

7

7,0

500-699

3

3,0

700 ve üzeri

8

8,0

100

100,0

Total

Son 1 ay içerisinde online alışverişe harcanan paranın dağılımına bakıldığında %49 oranıyla 100-299 TL‟nin ilk sırada yer aldığı gözlemlenmektedir. 100 TL den az harcama yapanlar ise %21 oranıyla ikinci sırada yer almaktadır. Tablo 11. Online Alışverişin Zahmetsiz Olması N Online Alışveriş her Türlü ürünü Bulma İmkanı Sağlıyor Online Alışveriş Zahmetsizdir Online Alışveriş Diğer Alışveriş Türlerine Göre daha Hızlıdır Mağzadaki ürün Yerine Online Ürünü tercih Ederim Online Alışveriş Sırasında Daha Az Sorun Yaşıyorum Valid N (listwise)

Min. Max.

Ortalama

Std. Sapma

100 100 100

1,00 1,00 1,00

5,00 5,00 5,00

3,9800 4,0000 3,3900

1,06344 1,08246 1,23005

100 100 100

1,00 1,00

5,00 5,00

2,4900 2,8800

1,25927 1,11265

Tablo 11 deki sonuçlara göre katılımcıların online alışverişin zahmetsiz olduğuna dair genel indeks ortalaması 3.28 olarak gerçekleşmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre katılımcıların online alışverişin zahmetsiz olduğuna dair inanç düzeylerinin “orta” düzeyde olduğu söylenebilir (Söz konusu sınıflandırmada,

989

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN kullanılan beşli likert ölçeğinden esinlenilmiştir. Katılım düzeyine en düşük 1, en yüksek de 5 puanı ifade eden yanıtlar verildiği ve toplam bir katılım indeksi oluşturulduğu için 4/5 = .80 puan aralığında 1‟den başlamak üzere derecelendirme yapılmıştır. (1,00-1,80 = çok düşük; 1,81-2,60 = düşük; 2,613,40 = orta; 3,41-4,20 = yüksek; 4,21-5,00 = çok yüksek). Tablo12. Online Alışverişin Güvenilirliği N Online Alışveriş En Az Diğer Alışveriş Türleri Kadar Güvenlidir Online Alışveriş Sırasında Hiç Güvenlik Sorunu Yaşamadım Online Alışveriş için Sadece Güvendiğim Siteleri Kullanırım Online Alışveriş Sitesinin Güvenilirliği Önceliklidir Online Alışveriş Sitelerinin Güvenlik Önlemleri Etkilidir Valid N (listwise)

Min. Max.

Ortalama

Std. Sapma

100

1,00

5,00

3,2500

1,15798

100

1,00

5,00

3,8600

1,17224

100

1,00

5,00

4,2600

1,04078

100 100 100

1,00 1,00

5,00 5,00

4,4500 3,3500

1,01876 ,96792

Tablo 12 deki sonuçlara göre katılımcıların online alışverişin güvenilir olmasının önemine dair genel indeks ortalaması 3.78 olarak gerçekleşmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre katılımcıların online alışverişin güvenilir olmasının önemi “orta” düzeyde olduğu söylenebilir. Bununla birlikte bu seviyenin online alışverişin zahmetsiz olduğuna dair inançtan daha yüksek olduğunu belirtmek gerekir. Tablo 13. Online Alışverişte Maddi Avantajlar N

Min. Max.

Ortalama Std. Sapma

Online Alışveriş Ürün Karşılaştırmama Yardımcıdır

100

1,00

5,00

3,8300

Online Alışveriş daha Fazla İndirim İmkanı Sağlıyor

100

1,00

5,00

3,7400

Online Alışveriş daha Fazla Taksit İmkanı Sağlıyor

100

1,00

5,00

3,3800

Valid N (listwise)

100

1,03529 1,10664 1,14398

Tablo 13 teki sonuçlara göre katılımcıların online alışverişin maddi olarak kazançlı olduğuna dair inanç genel indeks ortalaması 3.60 olarak gerçekleşmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre katılımcıların online alışverişin güvenilir olmasının önemi “orta” düzeyde olduğu söylenebilir. Tablo 14. Online Alışverişte Müşteri İlişkileri N Online Alışveriş Sırasında Karşımda Muhatap Buluyorum Online Alışveriş Sırasında Müşteri Hizmetleri Yeterlidir Valid N (listwise)

100 100 100

Min. Max. 1,00 1,00

5,00 5,00

Ortalama 3,0900 3,1000

Std. Sapma 1,08334 ,92660

Tablo 14 teki sonuçlara göre katılımcıların online alışverişin sırasında müşteri ilişkilerinin yeterli olduğuna dair inanç genel indeks ortalaması 3.09 olarak gerçekleşmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre katılımcıların online alışverişin güvenilir olmasının önemi “orta” düzeyde olduğu söylenebilir. Ancak yukarıdaki diğer faktörler göz önüne alındığında en düşük oranın bu faktörde oluştuğunu belirtmek gerekir. Tablo15. Cinsiyet ve Online Alışveriş İlişkisi OnlineAlışveriş Hayır

Evet Cinsiyet

Toplam

Erkek

43

7

50

Kadın

45

5

50

990

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN OnlineAlışveriş Hayır

Evet Cinsiyet

Toplam

Erkek

43

7

50

Kadın

45 88

5 12

50 100

Total

Tablo-15 incelendiğinde cinsiyet farklılığın online alışveriş üzerinde anlamlı bir farklılık yaratmadığı görülmektedir. Tablo16. Cinsiyet ve Satın Alınan Ürünün Türü KozmetikKişisel Bakım Cinsiyet

Elektronik Araçlar

Aksesuar-Takı

Tekstil-Kıyafetl

Erkek

1

19

0

4

Kadın

8 9

0 19

2 2

16 20

Total

Tablo 16 cinsiyet ve online alışveriş sırasında satın alınan ürünler arasındaki farklılığı açıkça ortaya koymaktadır. Buna göre kadınlar daha çok “Kozmetik ve Kişisel Bakım” ve “Tekstil, Kıyafet” ürünlerini tercih ederken; erkeklerin “Elektronik Araçlar” satın aldıkları ortaya çıkmaktadır. Tablo17. İnternet Kullanım Süresi ve Online Alışveriş Yapma OnlineAlışveriş Hayır

Evet KaçSaat

Total

0-2 Saat

32

10

42

3-5 Saat

37

2

39

6-8 Saat

14

0

14

9 Saat ve üstü

5 88

0 12

5 100

Total

Tablo 17 internet kullanım süresinin düştükçe online alışveriş yapma oranının da düştüğünü göstermektedir. Tablo18. KMO and Bartlett's Test Faktör Analizi yapmaya uygundur Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square

,893 851,349

df

105

Sig.

,000

991

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Tablo19. Faktör Analizi Component 1 Güven4 Güven3 Güven2 Çaba2 Maddi1 Güven5 Güven1 Çaba4 İlgi1 İlgi2 Çaba5 Çaba3 Maddi3 Maddi2

2

3

,918 ,913 ,819 ,723 ,687 ,627 ,460

,365 ,477

,331 ,780 ,780 ,770 ,713 ,488

,310 ,833 ,599

5. Sonuç Ve Öneriler Gelişen iletişim teknolojileriyle birlikte insanların yaşam şekilleri ve alışkanlıkları da farklılaşmaktadır. Bu bağlamda günlük hayat içerisinde yürütülen alışveriş faaliyetinin de bilişim ve iletişim teknolojilerinde yaşanan bu hızlı gelişime göre değişiklik göstermesi kaçınılmazdır. İnternet sayesinde farklılaşan tüketici istek, ihtiyaç ve yaşam biçimleri de satın alma davranışlarında kendini göstermektedir. Tüketicilerin online alışverişe dair algıladıkları güven, ilgi, zahmet ve maddiyata ilişkin alışveriş yapma sıklıkları ve miktarını belirlemeye yönelik yaptığımız çalışmanın sonuçları kayda değer veriler sunmaktadır. İnönü Üniversitesi Öğretim Elemanları arasında yapılan alan araştırmasında %88 gibi yüksek bir oranda online alışverişin kullanıldığını görmekteyiz. Bununla birlikte online alışveriş yapan bireylerin %36 gibi bir kesiminin son bir yıl içerisinde dokuz kez ve üzerinde online alışverişi kullanmış olmaları kayda değerdir. Zira bu sonuç, söz konusu bireylerin sadece bir defaya mahsus olarak değil, online alışverişi düzenli olarak kullandıklarını göstermektedir. Bununla birlikte son bir yıl içerisinde hiç online alışveriş yapmamış olanların oranı ise %12‟de kalmıştır. En fazla satın alınan ürünlere baktığımızda ise evrenin özellikleriyle doğru orantılı bir ilişki gözümüze çarpmaktadır. Cinsiyet faktörü gözetilmeksizin bakıldığında kitap-kırtasiye ürünlerinin en fazla tercih edilen ürünler olduğu ortaya çıkmakta; bu durum ise katılımcıların akademisyen olmalarından dolayı normal karşılanmaktadır. Bununla birlikte cinsiyet ve ürün tercihi karşılaştırıldığında ise kadın katılımcıların tekstil ve kıyafet ürünlerini tercih ettiği, erkeklerin ise elektronik ürünlere yöneldiği görülmektedir. Bu anlamda erkek ve kadınların internetten alışveriş alışkanlıklarının ve ürün seçimlerinin farklı olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Online alışveriş sitelerinin erkek ve kadın profiline göre farklı satış stratejileriyle tüketicilerin karşısına çıkması online alışveriş hacmini etkileyeceği gibi müşteri sadakatini de artıracaktır.

992

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Online alışverişe harcanan miktar ise %49 oranında 100 ile 300 TL arasındadır. Evreni temsil eden bireylerin belli bir gelir düzeyine sahip olması bu skaladaki yoğunlaşmayı açıklayabilir. Online alışverişi etkileyen faktörler ve bireylerin bu faktörlere yönelik yaklaşımlarına bakıldığında, ön plana çıkan faktörün güvenilirlik olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. Gerek online alışverişe duyulan güven gerekse de bu güvenin artmasıyla online alışverişin de artıyor olması çarpıcı bir sonuçtur. Güven noktasında tüketicilerin tatmin edilmesi online alışveriş sıklığını artıracaktır. İkinci sırada gelen faktör ise online alışverişin geleneksel alışveriş yöntemlerine karşı daha fazla maddi avantaj (ödeme koşulları, kampanyaları, web sitelerinin güvenlik önlemleri, müşteri hizmetleri, iade imkanları ve diğer tüketicilere tanınan haklar) sunuyor olmasıdır. Bireyler ne kadar çok maddi avantaj elde ettiklerini düşünürlerse online alışverişi o düzeyde tercih etmektedirler. İfade edilen kolaylıklar, dijital ortamdaki alışverişin gelişimini hızlandıracaktır. Üçüncü faktör ise online alışverişin geleneksel alışverişe göre daha zahmetsiz olduğuna yönelik inançtır. Son alarak müşteri ilişkileri faktörü gelmektedir. Tüm bu sonuçlar online alışverişin özellikle müşteri ilişkileri noktasında geliştirilmesinin gerekliliğini ortaya koymaktadır. Bununla birlikte güven ve maddi avantaj unsurlarının arttırılması online alışveriş oranının da artmasını sağlayacaktır. Genel olarak internet kullanımın gittikçe yaygınlaşması, tüketicilerin online alışveriş yapma sıklığı ve miktarına yansıyacak ve tüketicilerin bu alana daha fazla ilgi göstermesine neden olacaktır. Araştırmanın sonuçları değerlendirilirken ileride yapılacak benzer diğer araştırmalar için dikkate alınması gereken birtakım kısıtlar söz konusudur. Elde edilen bulgular araştırmanın örneklemi ile sınırlı kalmış olup tüm tüketicileri kapsayacak şekilde genelleştirilememektedir. Bu tür çalışmaların farklı bölge ve yörelerde gerçekleştirilmesi online alışveriş pazarının gelişmesine ve tüketicilerin güven odaklı alışveriş yapma sıklığına katkı sağlayacaktır.

Kaynakça Aksoy, R. (2006). Bir Pazarlama Değeri Olarak Güven ve Tüketicilerin Elektronik Pazarlara Yönelik Güven Tutumları, ZKU Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2 (4), 79-90. Alba, J., Lynch, J., Weitz, B., Janiszewski, C., Lutz, R., Sawyer, A. ve Wood, S. (1997). Interactive Home Shopping: Consumer, Retailer, And Manufacturer Incentives To Participate In Electronic Marketplaces, The Journal of Marketing, 38-53. Altuğ, N. ve Özhan, Ş. (2012). Trakya Bölgesi’ndeki Üniversitelerde Görev Yapan Öğretim Elemanlarının Online Alışverişten Algıladıkları Risk Ve Fayda Üzerine Bir Araştırma, Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Öneri Dergisi, Cilt 10, Sayı 38 (19). Belanger, F., Hiller, J. S. ve Smith, W. J. (2002). Trustworthiness In Electronic Commerce: The Role Of Privacy, Security, And Site Attributes, The Journal Of Strategic Information Systems, 11(3), 245-270. Cai, Y. ve Cude, B. J. (2008). Online Shopping, In Handbook Of Consumer Finance Research Springer New York. 137-159. Chaudhuri, A. ve Holbrook, M. B. (2001). The Chain Of Effects From Brand Trust And Brand Affect To Brand Performance: The Role Of Brand Loyalty, Journal of Marketing, 65(2), 81-93. Enginkaya, E. (2006). Elektronik Perakendecilik ve Elektronik Alışveriş, Ege Akademik Bakış Dergisi, 6(1), 1016. Hoffman, D. L., Novak, T. P. ve Peralta, M. (1999). Building Consumer Trust Online, Communications Of The ACM, 42(4), 80-85. Hongyoun Hahn, K. ve Kim, J. (2009). The Effect Of Offline Brand Trust And Perceived İnternet Confidence On Online Shopping Intention In The Integrated Multi-Channel Context, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 37(2), 126-141. Katz, J. ve Aspden, P. (1997). Motivations For And Barriers To Internet Usage: Results Of A National Public Opinion Survey, Internet Research: Electronic Networking Applications and Policy, 7(3), 170-188.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kotler, P. ve Armstrong, G. (1999). Principles Of Marketing, 8 Th. Ed. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. McKnight, D. H. ve Chervany, N. L. (2001). What Trust Means In E-Commerce Customer Relationships: An Interdisciplinary Conceptual Typology, International Journal Of Electronic Commerce, 6(2), 35-59. Özgüven, N. (2011). Tüketicilerin Online Alışverişe Karşı Tutumları İle Demografik Özellikleri Arasındaki İlişkinin Analizi, KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 13 (21), 47-54. Palumbo, F. ve Herbig, P. (1998). International Marketing Tool: The Internet, Industrial Management & Data Systems, 98(6), 253-261. Park, C. H. ve Kim, Y. G. (2003). Identifying Key Factors Affecting Consumer Purchase Behavior İn An Online Shopping Context, International Journal Of Retail & Distribution Management, 31(1), 16-29. Rowley, J. (1996). Retailing And Shopping On The Internet, International Journal Of Retail & Distribution Management, 24(3), 26-37. Tolon, M. ve Zengin, A. Y. (2011). The Effect Of Web Vendor Trust On Turkish Online Shoppers Buying Behavior, Australian Journal of Business and Management Research, 1(6), 87. Ward, M. R. ve Lee, M. J. (2000). Internet Shopping, Consumer Search And Product Branding, Journal Of Product & Brand Management, 9(1), 6-20. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=18660 (Erişim tarihi: 15.01.2016) http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=18660 (Erişim tarihi: 16.01.2016) http://webrazzi.com/2015/02/23/paypal-arastirmasi-turkiye-online-alisveris-mobil-rapor/ (Erişim tarihi: 16.01.2016)

Ek 1 Anket Soruları Değerli katılımcı, bu anket “Selçuk Üniversitesi Reklamcılık A.B.D Doktora Programı” kapsamında “Tüketicilerin Online Alışveriş Davranışında Algıladıkları Güvene Yönelik Bir İnceleme” konulu bilimsel çalışmada veri toplanması için İnönü Üniversitesi Öğretim Elemanlarına yönelik düzenlenmiş bir ankettir. Soruları dikkatlice okuyarak düşüncenizi tam olarak yansıtan seçeneği işaretlemeniz önemlidir. Vereceğiniz cevaplar sadece akademik amaçlar için kullanılacak olup, bilgileriniz üçüncü kişiler ile paylaşılmayacaktır. Araştırmaya bulunacağınız katkılar ve ayırmış olduğunuz zaman için teşekkür ederim. Danışman Prof. Dr. Süleyman KARAÇOR Selçuk Üniv. İletişim Fak.

Öğr. Gör. Yasemin KESKİN YILMAZ İnönü Üniv. İletişim Fak.

S1. Cinsiyet Erkek Kadın S2. Kaç Yaşındasınız? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

24-28 29-33 34-38 39-43 44 ve üstü

S3. Medeni Durumunuzu Belirtiniz? 1. 2.

Evli – Çocuklu Evli – Çocuksuz

994

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 3.

Bekar

S4. Aylık Toplam Geliriniz Yaklaşık Kaç Liradır? Lütfen Belirtiniz. 1. 2. 3. 4.

3500 – 4499 Tl 4500 – 5499 Tl 5500 Tl – 6499 6500 ve üstü

S5. İnternet Kullanıyor musunuz? Evet Hayır S6. İnternette Günlük Kaç Saat Vakit Geçiriyorsunuz? 0-2 saat 3-5 saat 6-8 saat 9 saat ve daha fazla S7. İnternetten (Online) Alışveriş Yapıyor musunuz? Evet Hayır S8. Son 1 Yıl İçerisinde İnternetten Ne Sıklıkla Alışveriş Yaptınız? Hiç Yapmadım 1-3 Kez 4-6 Kez 7-9 Kez 9 Kez ve üstü S9. İnternetten En Çok Hangi Ürünü Satın Alıyorsunuz? (Lütfen En Sık Satın Aldığınız Ürünü İşaretleyiniz) Kozmetik-Kişisel Bakım vs Elektronik Araçlar Bebek-Çocuk Ürünleri Aksesuar-Takı vs Tekstil/Kıyafet vs Hobi/Eğlence/Sanat Kitap/Kırtasiye Gıda/Süpermarket Otomobil/Araç Mutfak ve Ev Eşyaları Diğer Hiçbir Ürün Satın Almıyorum S10. İnternette Aylık Ne Kadar Alışveriş Yapıyorsunuz? 1. Hiç Yapmıyorum 2. 100 Tl den az 3. 100-299 Tl 4. 300-499 Tl 5. 500-699 Tl 6. 700 Tl ve üzeri S11. Aşağıda online alışveriş sitesi kullanımıyla ilgili çeşitli yargılar bulunmaktadır. Belirtilen bu yargıların her birine ne ölçüde katıldığınızı, yani bu yargıların sizin düşüncelerinizi ne ölçüde yansıttığını lütfen belirtiniz.

995

1.Online alışveriş sitelerinde istediğim her türlü ürünü bulabiliyorum 2.Online alışveriş zahmetsizdir 3. Online alışveriş sırasında ürün özelliklerini daha kolay karşılaştırabiliyorum 4.Online alışveriş daha fazla indirim imkanı sunuyor 5.Online alışveriş daha fazla taksit imkanı sunuyor 6.Online alışveriş en az diğer alışveriş türleri kadar güvenilirdir 7.Bugüne kadar online alışveriş sırasında hiçbir güvenlik sorunu yaşamadım 8. Online alışveriş için sadece güvendiğim siteleri kullanırım 9. Benim için online alışveriş yaptığım sitenin güvenilirliği önceliklidir 10. Online alışveriş için günümüzde çok etkili güvenlik önlemleri mevcuttur 11.Online alışveriş diğer alışveriş türlerine göre daha hızlıdır 12.Online alışveriş sırasında karşımda muhatap bulabiliyorum 13.Online alışveriş sonrasında müşteri hizmetleri yeterlidir 14.Online alışveriş sırasında bulduğum ürünü mağazada da bulsam online almayı tercih ederim 15. Online alışveriş sırasında yaşadığım sorunların normal alışveriş sırasında yaşadığım sorunlardan daha az olduğunu düşünüyorum

996

Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum

Katılıyorum Ne Katılıyorum Ne Katılmıyorum Katılmıyorum

Tamamen Katılıyorum

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

5

4

3

2

1

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS ANALYSIS WITH DATA MINING APPLICATIONS Yılmaz AĞCA Atatürk University, Social Sciences Institute, Management Information Systems, Doctoral Student [email protected] Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdulkadir ÖZDEMİR Atatürk University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Management Information Systems Dept. [email protected]

Abstract The study aims to examine which leadership behaviorus impact the leadership style of the manager. Thus, the sample has been applied a survey with the purpose of assessing the leadership behaviours of their managers. The obtained results have been processed using the decision tree algorithm which is a data mining method. According to the results of the study; the factors underlining the behaviours corresponding to all the three models could have been highlighted. The most significant factor for employee oriented leadership has come as consideration towards the thoughts of the personnel whereas the manager ensuring the order has understood to be more important than the other factors for production oriented leadership. Besides, it is seen that encouraging the new ideas has been the most important factor of the model when the case is change oriented leadership. Morever, the study has also evaluated as that which demographic factors are in the foreplan through perception of the behaviours. Keywords: leadership behavior, data mining, decision trees, survey. Jel Codes: M1, C8

1. INTRODUCTION The leader is a person who can cause his followers to perform works, direct them and impact the behaviours thereof not only with official authorities at hand but thanks to certain abilities and skills (Luthans, 2011, p. 414). In the modern business world where the change is continuous and fast, the persons of a quality not only holding the mangerial power due to their positions but also for the sake of their personal abilities and skills, which affect others and increase performances thereof, carry a great significance for the organization. Under the heavy competition conditions of the present day, the management alone by the persons only powered with formal authorities seems not sufficient to obtain the performance expected from the employees (Bass & Riggio, 2006, p. 74-75). Thus, the leader and the leadership have been important topics with regard to the business world and management science. The computers have taken role nearly in all the positions of the business life thanks to the developing technology. Their basic function ihad been to ease the life; however, many different concepts have also arisen together with the advanced development of these devices. And one of such concepts is data mining. The data mining consists of the methods and techniques to obtain the unknown, valid and applicable information from the databases and to process them for using through the decision making processes (Silahtaroğlu, 2013, p. 11-12). The data mining practices are in use in the recent years in many different areas such as decision assistance, market strategy, financial estimations etc. The use of data mining together with statistics have also generated many valuable and useful information by means of the enterprises (Çalış, Kayapınar, & Çetinyokuş, 2014, p. 3).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

In our study, we have in the first place defined the concepts of leadership and data mining as to ensure a better understanding of the wording. Following, the purpose and significance of the study has been stressed. Then, we have explained the scales used for measuring the leadership behaviours, the sample of the study, the data mining methods used and the findings of the study. The study ends with the analysis of the data obtained from the findings, the conclusion and, finally, the recommendations. 2. THEORETICAL FRAME OF THE STUDY 2.1. Leader and Leadership Human beings live as societies. Since their very existence, they have continued such social structure of their own. Maybe the biggest reasons for humans to preserve their existence up to now iis their ability of adaptation to social life better than other living creatures. Human acts collectively and has indeed established villages, cities; whereas, has achieved many targets in a very short time thanks to joint efforts and wisdom which otherwise a single individual would spent thousands of years on its own. While performing all such activities, certain individuals within the said social structure have gathered others as for the common purposes, directed and managed them (Ağca & Döven, 2016). The persons who may direct other individuals in a group, gather them for the realization of targets and pioneeri the group in action are called leaders (Daft, 2008, p. 4). 2.1.1. Leadership Models used in the Study The stud has employed a 36 questions scale which evaluates the leadership behaviours with regard to three models. The questions are asked to the employees and effor is made to understand under which leadership model the manager is included. The three leadership models are as follows in general. 2.1.1.1. Employee Oriented Leadership The leadership model which focuses on building up good and mutuall desired relations with the subordinates. The leaders under this classification generate a bond with their subordinates characterized with good relations and high level of mutual trust. The employee oriented leader aims to suffice the social and emotional needs of the employees (Özdevecioğlu and Kanıgür, 2009, p. 55). The leader generates a trust for its follows whereas considers their ideas and demonstrates a tendency to build up a friendship with them (Wagner and Hollenbeck, 2010, p.198). The employee oriented leader's priority is to be liked by its subordinates whereas the performance of the task is pushed to second plan. (George and Jones, 2011, p. 348). 2.1.1.2. Production Oriented Leadership The production oriented leadership focuses on the technical details or task-performance features of the job. The production oriented leaders demonstrate an authoritarian and controlling approach. Not only the technical features of the job, but also the success matters for these leaders (Kange, 2006, p. 37). The leadership behaviour titled as initiating of structure in the Ohio State University studies have meant that the leader performing accurately its tasks within the organization, planning, determining the targets of the task and organizing other members. These sort of leaders determine the success standards and expect from their followers to achieve such standards (Hellriegel and Slocum, 2011, p. 302). 2.1.1.3. Change Oriented Leadership The present economic and social world performs a fast change; whereas, for adapting to the same, requires a response in an equal pace. Thus, the organization needs kind of leaders who may adapt the organization to such change and ensure the same to survive under such dynamic conditions. These sort of leaders motivate and develop the human resources and express the productive manners of the employees (Arvonen and Pettersson, 2002, p. 103). The change oriented leadership has its sub-branches as transformational leaders and charismatic leaders (Gil, Rico, Alcover and Barrasa, 2005, p. 313). Ekvall and Arvonen (1991) have defined the similarities between two such behaviors. Both the transformational and charismatic leaderships focus 998

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on new horizons and visions. However, the distinguishing feature among them comes as the transformational leaders focus on transforming its followers whereas the latter concentrates on changing the organization in its entirety (ref. by Golm, 2009, p. 18). The transformational and charismatic leadership studies with regard to the organizations have been performed after 1980s. Bass (1985), Bennis and Nanus (1985), Kouzes and Posner (1987) and Tichy and Devanna (1986) have placed the concept of change into the basis of the transformational leadership studies they had performed. (ref. by Conger, 1999, p. 145). The change oriented leader is interested with change, creativity and new methods for the performance of existing tasks. Such sort of leaders assists the change and development whereas seek new ways to solve the problems. They take risks and they may future plans (Bass and Bass, 2009, p. 501). 3. DECISION TREES AND ALGORITHMS FOR DECISION TREES The decision tree method is one of the common data mining methods which is used for classification and estimation (Chien & Chen, 2008, p. 282). A tree is formed for classification by means of taking each item in the tree and accordingly the total results determine the classification of the respective items (Silahtaroğlu, 2013, p. 68). The decision tree models are included in the classification models and these techniques have a common use since easy to form and interpret, may be integrated in database systems and employ a high reliability (Bilen, Hotaman, Aşkın, & Büyüklü, 2014, p. 82). The decision tree algorithms are highly preferred since they visualize the significance and direction of the relations between the dependent and independent variables as with understandable and interpretable results (Yerdelen Kaygın, Tazegül, & Yazarkan, 2016, p. 150). There are many algorithms developed as basing on the decision trees. These algorithms distingusih from each other according to their root, knot and branching parameter selections. Some decision tree algorithms are as follows (Silahtaroğlu, 2013, p. 74).      

ID3 Algorithm C4.5 and C5 Algorithms CART Algorithm SLIQ Algorithm SPRINT Algorithm Variable Based Decision Tree Algorithm

3.1. C4.5 and C5 Algorithms This algorithm is a changed version of ID3 algorithm however, as a difference from the latter, includes the lost data in the calculation. This then makes C4.5 and C5 algorithms superior to ID3 algorithm. The trimming is performed in two ways in this method. The first way requires placing of sub-tree and the error of the leaf being lesser than the error of the sub-tree to be removed. The second way is performed as a sub-tree replacing the tree which uses most frequently the sub-tree. This method also lessens the error. Thus, as a result of the algorithm, the variable with smallest value is appointed as the root (Silahtaroğlu, 2013, p. 74). We used C4.5 algorithm in our study whereas we concentrate on the same hereinafter. C4.5 algorithm is an extended version of ID3 algorithm which had been developed by Quinlan (1993). C4.5 algorithm used the entropy reduction or information gain methods as to select the most suitable sorting (Larose, 2005, p. 116). According to this method, an information theory including entropy rules is used for determining which features shall be the basis for split in the decision tree. The entropy is the parameter of irregularity or uncertainty of a system. For the single variable decision trees, ID3 algorithm use information gain approach whereas, the advanced, C4.5 algorithm uses calculated gain ratio approach which is

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calculated by making use of division information concept and information gain concept at a time (Kavzoğlu & Çölkesen, 2010, p. 40). ID3 and C4.5 algorithms using the concept of entropy form the decision tree in the first place by means of calculating the values corresponding to each characteristic and the entropy of the characteristic; i.e. for the purpose of generating generalized rules from the given sample set. Considering such entropy values calculated, the information gains are calculated separately and, following, the characteristics with highest gain is selected as the root of the tree. Thus, the other characteristics are re-arranged depending on the root. The same process is applied for all the other subsets (Akgöbek & Kaya, 2011, p. 239). the split information is calculated as follows (Quinlan, 1993, p. 23);

( )

∑

| | | |

| | ( ) | |

This value represents the potential information formed by splitting. The gain ratio is then used as the new parameter (Wong & Leung, 2002, p. 15).

( )

( ) ( )

The self-feature (attribution) with highest value over the gain ratio (X) shall be selected as the branching characteristic.

4. ANALYSIS OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS THROUGH DATA MINING PRACTICES 4.1. The Purpose and Significance of the Study This study aims to use the decision tree model, a data mining method, for understanding which leadership behaviors are important for determining the leadership model in use. The study targets to underline the most basic behaviors of the respective leadership behavior models. The leader is in a position that may have significant impacts on the attributes of its followers. The leader is not only a representative of the legal personality of the organization but it is also effective on the motivation of its followers. The findings will be important sources for the entrepreneurs and managers to obtain more efficiency from their employees; thus, to increase the general performance of the organization. Moreover, the study will contribute to the academicians and researchers who may perform future studies. 4.2. Sample of the Study The sample group of the study consists of the employees working the Aegean Region stores of a chain enterprise retailing electronic white goods, carpets, furniture etc. commodities. While forming the sample, the convenience sampling method is preferred. We have used the survey method for data collection purposes. 246 employees of total 275 employees have participated the study. The exaggerated and deliberately reverse-responded 14 surveys are not included in the analysis.

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4.3. Method of the Study and Scales The first part of the survey used for data collection consists of 36 questions and is used for classifying the leadership behaviour of line manager. The second party includes demographic questions intending to classify the participants. As to measure the leadership behaviour model, the scale developed by Ekvall and Arvonen (1991), which has been adapted to Turkish by Tengilimoğlu (2005) has been used. The expressions used in the survey form in relation with the leadership behaviours consist of the questions that have been prepared for understanding the leadership behaviour features of the manager. The questions are asked in mixed order. 14 items relate to the employee oriented leadership behaviour features. 12 items relate to the production oriented leadership behaviour features and 10 items relate to the change oriented leadership behaviour features.

Table 1: Leadership Behaviors Scale Item (Question) Distributions Leadership Behaviour Dimensions

Number of Items

Items

Employee oriented

14

Production oriented

12

1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 32, 34 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36

Change oriented

10

5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 29, 35

The 5 point Likert scale is used for understanding in what level the participants agree with the leadership behavior judgement expressions. 4.4. Analysis The internal stability coefficients (Cronbach Alpha) has been calculated to assess the reliability of the Behaviors Scale and sub-dimensions thereof. The calculations have shown that all the scales and subdimensions are reliable (Ağca & Döven, 2016). Table 1: Cronbach Alpha Coefficients for Leadership Behaviors and sub-dimensions Employee orientation dimension Production orientation dimension Change orientation dimension Leadership Behaviors Scale Sub-Dimensions

Alpha Coefficients 0.942 0.916 0.900 0.971

IBM SPSS Statistics 23 software has been used for arrangement of the data and calculation of internal stability coefficients1. Knime v3.1 software is used for implementing the decision tree algorithm2. The Likert type responses given by the participants in relation with their managers are scored from 1 to 5; whereas the average scores of the participants in relation with their perceptions towards the leadership of their manager s have been calculated using such responses. We have measured at what level the managers of the participants perform (or not perform) the leadership behaviours for each of three leadership models. The Auto-Binner tool of Knime software has been used to convert the average Liker scores to a nominal scale. The tool enables us to gather the date under 5 groups (Bin1, Bin2, Bin3, Bin4 and Bin5).

1 2

IBM SPSS Statistics v22: http://www-01.ibm.com/software/tr/analytics/spss/ Knime v3.1: https://www.knime.org/

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This process is applied separately for each leadership model (employee oriented, production oriented and change oriented). Gini Index and Gain Ratio (C4.5) have ben used for decision tree algorithm. The trimming of the tree is performed with , MDL (Minimum Description Length) (Mehta, Rissanen, & Agrawal, 1995; Shafer, Agrawal, & Mehta, 1996). The first step of C4.5 algorithm, information gain, consists of two steps. The information is calculated in the first step and accordingly the gain is calculated by making use of the information obtained in the first step. This operation is conducted according to the following formula (Quinlan, 1993, p. 23; Ruggieri, 2002). ( )

( )

∑

∑

(

| | | |

)

| |

( )

(

( | |

) )

SMOTE (Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique) is made use of to enrich the data. This technique adds artificial lines to the introductory data and enriches the training data which then increases the performances of C4.5, Ripper and Naive Bayes etc. algorithms (Chawla, Bowyer, Hall, & Kegelmeyer, 2002).

4.5. Study Findings The scores related to the leadership behaviors have been divided to 5 groups using Auto-Binner tool. The score intervals of such groups are given under Table 2. Table 2: Groups and Score Intervals of the Leadership Behaviors Scale Leadership Behavior Employee oriented Production oriented Change oriented

Bin1

Bin2

Bin3

Bin4

Bin5

1,00-1,71 1,00-1,75 1,20-1,90

1,85-2,57 1,83-2,58 2,00-2,70

2,64-3,35 2,66-3,33 2,80-3,40

3,42-4,14 3,41-4,16 3,50-4,20

4,21-5,00 4,25-5,00 4,30-5,00

The groups are formed as from lowest score (Bin1) to highest score (Bin5). A manager having the highest score in a model means that such manager demonstrates the leadership behaviors of the respective model most frequently. The decision trees are formed for three separate leadership models after such grouping work. The following findings are obtained through the conducted analysis. 4.5.1. Findings related to the Employee Oriented Leadership Behavior The employee oriented leadership model focuses on building up good relations with the subordinates. The scale includes 14 items to measure this leadership model. It is seen that the most determinant behavior is included in the item (question) 19: “He considers the ideas of the others”. This item had a score <=1,50 whereas placing the same inBin1 group with 78% and Bin5 group with 20%. The second branches of the employee oriented leadership model are understood to be in item 4 and item 34. Item 4: “He/she has confidence in his/her subordinates” and item 34 “He/she respects his/her subordinates as individuals”. These two items happened to be the second most important behaviors for determining the employee oriented leaders.

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4.5.2. Findings related to the Production Oriented Leadership Behaviors The production oriented leader focuses on the technical features or task-performance points of the job. The production oriented leaders demonstrate authoritarian and controlling approaches. There are 12 items to measure this leadership model. The most important role for determining such leadership behavior has been placed in item 3: “He/she ensures the order”. This behavior seems to be the most important factor for production oriented leadership. The second branch is found in item 24: “He/she is keen in auditing the work”. The score of this item <=1,01 whereas points out Bin2 with 44,8% and Bin1 with 51,7%. That is to say, if the manager is not keen on auditing the works, then he/she is not a production oriented leader in 96%. The other branch comes with the item 27: ““27. He/she clearly defines and expresses the requirements of the task”. 4.5.3. Findings related to the Change Oriented Leadership Behavior The change oriented leader is interested with change, creativity and new methods for the performance of existing tasks. Such sort of leaders assists the change and development whereas seek new ways to solve the problems. They take risks and they may future plans (Bass and Bass, 2009, p. 501). Our scale includes 10 questions to measure if a manager is change oriented or not. The most important item for the change oriented leadership model is understood to be the item 8: “He/she encourages the new ideas”. The score of this item is greater than 3,94 whereas points out Bin4 with 55,3% and Bin5 with 36,2%. The second branches are item 14 and item 20 namely and respectively: “He/she makes future plans” and “He/she develops new projects”. 4.5.4. Leadership Perception Findings with regard to the Demographic Factors While forming decision trees according to the demographic factors, the Likert groups from 1 to have been separated to sets from Bin1 to Bin5. The decision tree analysis for employee oriented leadership perceptions has shown the education level as the most important factor. The ratio of the participants perceiving their managers as excessively employee oriented has been 36,8% i.e. two year degree graduates. For the production oriented leadership, likewise employee oriented leadership, it may be seen that the most important factor is again the education level of the participants. The second branch comes as the gender. The total ratio (Bin4 and Bin5) of the female participants for perceiving their managers as production oriented is greater than the male participants (Female; Bin4=49,1 and Bin5=38,2 Male; Bin5=41,5 and Bin4=27,7). The most important factor for perceiving the manager as change oriented has been the age variable. That is, the ages of the participants have formed the first branch to perceive the managers as change oriented leaders. The participants between 20 to 30 years interval have perceived their managers as changed oriented with 33% Bin4 and 31,9% Bin5. The participants between 31 to 40 years interval have perceived their managers as changed oriented with 34,1% Bin4 and 24,4% Bin5. And finally the perceptions for a change oriented leadership by the participants between 41 to 50 years old have been as 33,3% Bin4 and 50% Bin5. The second branch has formed as the years of working. The most important factor for perceiving the leadership behaviours of the managers has understood to be the education level. 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study has performed the analysis of the perceptions of the Aegean Region employees of a chain retailer enterprise making business at national level towards the leadership behaviours of their line managers. The study has utilized the decision tree technique for such analysis which is one of the data mining methods.

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In the first place, the most important factors impacting the perceptions of the employees towards employee oriented leadership, production oriented leadership and change oriented leadership models have been established. Accordingly, the factors underlining the behaviours have been revealed for all three models. The employee oriented leaders are perceived as considering the ideas of the employees whereas the production oriented leaders are perceived as ensuring the order more frequently than the other factors. The change oriented leaders, in turn, are perceived as encouraging the new ideas as their most eminent behaviour. The decision tree analysis has shown that the second important behaviour for employee oriented leadership is condience in his/her subordinates. The third important behaviour has come as respect to subordinates as individuals. The employee oriented leaders focus on their relations with the employees. Besides, they tolerate the individual differences of the subordinates (Robbins, Judge, Odendaal, & Roodt, 2009, p. 295). The study has summed that the most important behaviour for such kind of leadership have been considering the ideas of others, confidence in subordinates and respecting the subordinates as individuals. The most important behaviour in production oriented leadership has been understood as ensuring the order. In addition; being keen on auditing of the works and defining and explaining clearly the requirements of the work have been understood as the other two important behaviours. This leadership style, aka task oriented leadership, to the contrary or employee oriented leadership, the relation between the leader and the employees is in the second plan. The real target of the leader here is the conduct of the works (jobs, tasks) as they had been planned (Ağca & Döven, 2016). For the change oriented leadership, the most important behaviours are seen as encouraging the new ideas, making future plans and developing new projects. These leaders are examined so frequent in the studies of the recent years and they are distinguished with their abilities of changing the organization and the followers (Daft, 2008, p. 356). When considered the demographic factors of the participants with regard to the leadership perceptions towards their managers, it may be seen that the education level of the participants is the most important factor for the employee oriented leaders and production oriented leaders. The most important demographic factor of the participants towards their perception on change oriented leadership has been understood as the gender of the particiant. The obtained results did not generate any surprises. The behaviours which reflect the characteristics of all three leadership models are concreted. These results prove that the data mining method may be used for this kind of studies and researches. We have used the data mining and decision tree techniques, which are alternatives to the other statistical methods more common in social science studies, and achieved to determine the most important behaviour types. This study contributes the literature thanks to its such preference. The most efficient use of technology under the fast changing conditions of the information age brings an important competitive advantage for the enterprises. Thus, use of these methods and techniques become more important day by day. If the subsequent studies are performed with samples and in different industries, the limitedness of these studies will be lesser. Despite several practical limits, the study has generated significant findings. The development of the research but not solely depends on such findings. If the study can be performed on other leadership scales and with more data, the limitedness factors shall be reduced significantly.

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References Adhatrao, K., Gaykar, A., Dhawan, A., Jha, R., & Honrao, V. (2013). Predicting Students’ Performance Using ID3 And C4.5 Classifıcation Algorithms. International Journal of Data Mining & Knowledge Management Process, 3(6), 39-52. doi:10.5121/ijdkp.2013.3504 Ağca, Y., & Döven, M. S. (2016). Liderlik Davranışının Örgütsel Vatandaşlığa ve Alt Boyutlarına Etkisi: Perakende Sektöründe Bir Araştırma. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 21(3), 845-864. Akgöbek, Ö., & Kaya, S. (2011). Veri Madenciliği Teknikleri İle Veri Kümelerinden Bilgi Keşfi: Medikal Veri Madenciliği Uygulaması. New World Sciences Academy, 6(1), 237-245. Arvonen, J., & Pettersson, P. (2002). Leadership behaviours as predictors of cost and change effectiveness. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 101-112. Bass, B. M., & Bass, R. (2009). The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications (4 ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=UTZ2npL2HHgC Bass, B. M., & Riggio, E. R. (2006). Transformational Leadership (2 ed.). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bilen, Ö., Hotaman, D., Aşkın, Ö. E., & Büyüklü, A. H. (2014). LYS Başarılarına Göre Okul Performanslarının Eğitsel Veri Madenciliği Teknikleriyle İncelenmesi: 2011 İstanbul Örneği. Eğitim ve Bilim, 39(172), 78-94. Chawla, N. V., Bowyer, K. W., Hall, L. O., & Kegelmeyer, W. P. (2002). SMOTE: Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 16, 321-357. Chien, C.-F., & Chen, L.-F. (2008). Data Mining to Improve Personnel Selection and Enhance Human. Expert Systems with Applications, 34, 280-290. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2006.09.003 Conger, J. A. (1999). Charismatic and transformational leadership in organizations: An Insider's Perspective on These Developing Streams of Research. The Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 145179. Çalış, A., Kayapınar, S., & Çetinyokuş, T. (2014). Veri Madenciliğinde Karar Ağacı Algoritmaları ile Bilgisayar ve İnternet Güvenliği Üzerine Bir Uygulama. Endüstri Mühendisliği Dergisi, 25(34), 2-19. Daft, R. L. (2008). The Leadership Experience (4 ed.). Mason: Thomson South-Western. George, J. M., & Jones, G. R. (2011). Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior (6 ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education. Gil, F., Rico, R., Alcover, C. M., & Barrasa, A. (2005). Change-oriented Leadership, Satisfaction and Performance in Work Groups Effects of Team Climate and Group Potency. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20(3/4), 312-328. Golm, H. (2009). Examining the Relationship Between Transformational, Transactional, and ChangeOriented Leadership and Their Influence on Leadership Effectiveness (Vol. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi). Columbia University, New York. Hellriegel, D., & Slocum, J. (2011). Organizational Behavior (13 ed.). Mason: South-Western Cengage Learning. Kange, A. E. (2006). Governance Challenges and Opportunities: A Qualitative Exploration of Leadership in Cameroon (Vol. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi). Capella University, Minnesota. Kavzoğlu, T., & Çölkesen, İ. (2010). Karar Ağaçları İle Uydu Görüntülerinin Sınıflandırılması: Kocaeli Örneği. Harita Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi, 2(1), 36-45.

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Larose, D. T. (2005). Discovering Knowledge in Data: An Introduction to Data Mining. New Jersey, USA: John Wiley & Sons. Luthans, F. (2011). Organizational Behavior (12 ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Mehta, M., Rissanen, J., & Agrawal, R. (1995). MDL-based Decision Tree Pruning. KDD, 21(2), 216221. Özdevecioğlu, M., & Kanıgür, S. (2009). Çalışanların İlişki ve Görev Yönelimli Liderlik Algılamalarının Performansları Üzerindeki Etkileri. KMU İİBF Dergisi(16), 53-81. Quinlan, J. R. (1993). C4.5: Programs for Machine Learning (1 ed.). San Mateo, California: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A., Odendaal, A., & Roodt, G. (2009). Organizational Behaviour: Global and Southern African Perspective (2 ed.). Cape Town: Pearson South Africa. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=9-jcsiS8RSoC Ruggieri, S. (2002). Efficient C4.5. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 14(2), 438-444. doi:10.1109/69.991727 Shafer, J., Agrawal, R., & Mehta, M. (1996). SPRINT: A Scalable Parallel Classifier for Data Mining. Very Large Data Bases (pp. 544-555). Bombay, India: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. Silahtaroğlu, G. (2013). Veri Madenciliği Kavram ve Algoritmaları (2 ed.). İstanbul: Papatya Yayıncılık. Tengilimoğlu, D. (2005). Hizmet İşletmelerinde Liderlik Davranışları ile İş Doyumu Arasındaki İlişkinin Belirlenmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi(1), 23-45. Wagner, J. A., & Hollenbeck, J. R. (2010). Organizational Behavior. Oxon: Taylor and Francis. Wong, M. L., & Leung, K. S. (2002). Data Mining Using Grammar Based Genetic Programming and Applications. New York, USA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Yerdelen Kaygın, C., Tazegül, A., & Yazarkan, H. (2016). İşletmelerin Finansal Başarılı ve Başarısız Olma Durumlarının Veri Madenciliği ve Lojistik Regresyon Analizi İle Tahmin Edilebilirliği. Ege Akademik Bakış, 16(1), 147-159. Retrieved from http://www.onlinedergi.com/makaledosyalari/51/pdf2016_1_11.pdf

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

is friendly listens the ideas and recommendations of others ensures the order has confidence in his/her subordinates takes risk through his/her decisions knows always who is responsible for what performs an open and honest method encourages the new ideas is stable is open to criticism likes to discuss new ideas gives importance for complying the rules and principles is trustworthy makes future plans provides information about th results obtained by the units appreciates the good work encourages growth has eminent targets considers the ideas (thoughts) of others develops new projects very keen on the ongoing plans defends his/her subordinates is closed to innovations (R) is keen on auditing the works generates a friendly environment avoiding quarrels generates the means to eliminate the conflictws defines and explains the requirements of the work in a clear manner is fair towards his/her subordinates takes fast decisions when necessary makes careful plans gives his/her subordinates the chance of expressing their ideas in decision taking process is flexible and open to changes gives the instructions in a clear manner shows respects to his/her subordinates as individuals

1007

Agree

Definitely Disagree

Your line manager;

Neutral

Survey Form

Disagree

Definitely disagree

ANNEX

                                 

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

35 finds new and different ideas for the performance of the works 36 examines the incidences and gives his/her decisions after figuring out the facts

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 

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

EVALUATION OF MOTIVATION AMONG INDIVIDUALS VOLUNTARILY ASSIGNED IN RECREATIVE ACTIVITIES

Yusuf Barsbuğa1

Abstract The concept of volunteering has increasingly become more of an issue since both it makes extra contributions to participants and it provides benefits to management and functioning of organizations. The aim of the study was tore search and comment on their reasons for participation in these activities among the individuals voluntarily involved in organizations. The research group consisted of 224 students who are members of various student communities operating in the body of Selçuk University and willingly assign edin recreative organizations. Based on the survey model, within the relevant study, Volunteer Motivation Inventory(VMI) which was developed by Mc Ewinand Jacobsen-D’Arcy(2002) and updated by Esmond and Dunlop (2004), and also validated and made reliable in Turkish by Gürsel (2012), was used. In evaluation of data and estimation of values, the SPSS 16.0 statistical package program was utilized. Data was summarized with averages and standard deviations. Since data showed a normal distribution, independent samples t-test was used for paired comparisons as well. The significance level was regarded as 0.05 in this study. As a result of the study; it was clear that all sub-dimensions of the Volunteer Motivation Inventory did not significantly differ in the variables of gender and in come status but only the Social Interaction subdimension of the inventory had significant differences in favour of the participant sagged 20 and below in accordance with the age variable among the students willingly participated in organizations Key Words: Recreation, Volunteering, Motivation.

Introduction As social human beings, people’s non-governmental activities have been increasingly important due to both their internal motivation and their positions in society. In the 21th century, the idea “reactivating the concept of civil society within academic and public discourse and making it one of the basic and primary actors of social change” has been accepted by many persons (Edwards 2014). Non-governmental organizations take an active and effective place at each point of life, this helps to reveal and develop the volunteering concept. The volunteering concept originated from the word “voluntes” in Latin represents people who admit to engage in any activity as a responsibility with their will in order to help others without getting paid expect for time allocated to work and their families (Sentedalps 2006). Volunteering may be described as supporting activities within the body of legal, institutional structures which provide opportunities for a social initiative, a non-govermental 1

Selcuk University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Department of Sports Management. Konya/TURKEY.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN organization or a volunteer involvement with a belief considered to be accurate and be done in order to improve people’s life quality in general words, provide public benefit without expecting any financial return or having another interest expectation (Palabıyık 2011). Even if volunteer involvements were mostly confronted in private sector organizations until recent history, today it has been observed in many organizations such as independent federations, state institutions and organizations giving service at public field. Especially, the benefit rate from volunteers in internationally involved and full-scale organizations has been also increasing in our country day by day. But this rate is highly low as opposed to European countries. In accordance with the World Donation Index 2014 published by the Charities Aid Foundation, Turkey was on the 132nd rank among 135 countries in terms of participation period in volunteering activities (CAF 2014) In accordance with 2012 data by General Directorate of Foundations, 618 foundations in Turkey had 1 million 7 thousand 143 volunteers totally. Almost 41 percent of non-governmental organizations (NGO) had 6-20 volunteers. For 57% of NGOs having no paid workers, volunteers’ contributions were of great importance (TÜSEV 2016). In accordance with Çevik and Gürsel (2015), people became volunteers because of various and complex reasons. Therefore, it was difficult to understand the reasons for becoming volunteers. In accordance with Yaman (2005), factors which guided individuals to be volunteers, varied from person to person, from society to society and were basically classified into five groups. These are ; Individual Factors, Socio-Cultural Factors, Economic Factors, Legal and Political Factors and other factors. Fairley, Kellet and Gren (2007) revealed basic motivation of ones willingly included in activities in such ways ; having prestige, becoming a part of an issue and involving in a movement, socializing with people who had common interest areas, meeting other people and learning something about them (Fairley et al.2007). Volunteering is an activity which requires to be encouraged before anything else, even to be visually learnt. In this regard, with a view to enhance the quality of social life, volunteering must be supported by state, private sector, volunteer institutions and families under formal or informal structures. In particular, creating appropriate programs for volunteer involvements at schools and in other social activities will lead to the development of volunteering quantitatively and qualitatively (Palabıyık 2011). Materials and Methods Based on the survey model, the Volunteer Motivation Inventory (VMI) developed by Mc Ewin and Jacobsen-D’Arcy (2002), updated by Esmond and Dunlop (2004), with Turkish validity and reliability by Çevik (2002) was used in this study. The relevant questionnaire consisted of 44 items, 10 sub-scales. These sub-scales are ; Values, Reciprocity, Recognition, Understanding, Self-Esteem, Reactivity, Social, Protective, Social Interaction, Career Development. Each sub-scale was made up of

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN various numbers of items. Also, some personal information was obtained about the participant individuals while data was collected with the Volunteer Motivation Inventory. These were age, gender and income. The research group consisted of total 224 students including 159 (71%) females and 65 (29) males who were dutied as members and volunteers at various organizations of several student communities operating in Selçuk University and chosen aat random. The scale forms were given to the volunteer participants to respond to the forms after making necessary explanations by the researcher. In evaluation of data and estimation of values, the SPSS 16.0 statistical package program was benefited from. Data was summarised with averages and standard deviations. Kurtosis – Skewness coefficient intervals helped to check whether data showed a normal distribution, since the relevant interval did not exceed the values of +2.0 ve -2.0, data was clarified to have a normal distribution (George and Mallery 2010). Since data showed a normal distribution, the independent group t-test was used for pair comparisons. Within the research, the significance level was regarded to be 0.05.

Findings The participant students consisted of 71% (n=159) females, 29% (n=65) males. As a result of the analysis about the age groups of the participants, of the relevant persons, 30,4% (n=68) was aged 20 and below, 69,6% (n=156) was between 21-30. As a result of the analysis about the income status of the students as community members voluntarily involved in recreative organizations, 56,7% (n=127) had an income of 500 TL and below it, 43.3% (n=97) had an income of 501 TL and over it. Table 1. T-Test Results Of Point Averages In Sub-Dimensions Of Volunteer Motivation Inventory In Accordance With The Gender Variable Of The Students Participated In The Research

Values Recogition Social Interaction Reciprocity Reactivity Self-Esteem Social

Gender Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male

N 159 65 159 65 159 65 159 65 159 65 159 65 159 65

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X 4,250 4,166 3,529 3,700 4,089 4,096 4,128 4,230 4,056 3,926 4,095 3,959 3,581 3,738

Ss 0,538 0,681 0,573 0,696 0,568 0,800 0,700 0,696 0,553 0,727 0,521 0,650 0,743 0,707

Sd

t

P

222

0,980

0,380

222

1,890

0,090

222

0,070

0,950

222

0,990

0,330

222

1,450

0,200

222

1,650

0,140

222

1,490

0,150

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Career Development Understanding Protective

Female Male Female Male Female Male

159 65 159 65 159 65

3,522 3,646 4,289 4,184 3,746 3,723

0,597 0,650 0,531 0,737 0,682 0,826

222

1,380

0,190

222

1,200

0,300

222

0,220

0,840

When Table 1 was examined, there was not a statistically significant difference in all subdimensions as a result of the analysis about the gender variable of the volunteers participated in the research.

Table 2. T-Test Results Of Point Averages In Sub-Dimensions Of Volunteer Motivation Inventory In Accordance With The Age Variable Of The Students Participated In The Research

Values Recognition Social Interaction Reciprocity Reactivity Self-Esteem Social Career Development Understanding Protective

Age Aged 20 and below Between 21-30 Aged 20 and below Between 21-30 Aged 20 and below Between 21-30 Aged 20 and below Between 21-30 Aged 20 and below Between 21-30 Aged 20 andbelow Between 21-30 Aged 20 and below Between 21-30 Aged 20 and below Between 21-30 Aged 20 and below Between 21-30 Aged 20 and below Between 21-30

N 68 156 68 156 68 156 68 156 68 156 68 156 68 156 68 156 68 156 68 156

X 4,280 4,200 3,610 3,560 4,230 4,030 4,220 4,130 4,080 3,990 4,020 4,070 3,610 3,630 3,580 3,550 4,330 4,230 3,790 3,720

Ss 0,550 0,600 0,670 0,590 0,580 0,660 0,700 0,700 0,590 0,620 0,540 0,580 0,740 0,730 0,590 0,630 0,560 0,610 0,720 0,730

Sd

t

P

222

0,990

0,340

222

0,560

0,600

222

2,230

0,040*

222

0,890

0,380

222

1,080

0,290

222

0,700

0,500

222

0,160

0,870

222

0,310

0,760

222

1,150

0,270

222

0,690

0,490

When Table 2 was examined, as a result of the analysis about the age variable of the students participated in the research, while there was a statistically significant difference in favour of the participants aged 20 and below in the sub-dimension of Social Interaction [t(222)=4,230; P<0,040], there were not any statistically significant differences in other all sub-dimensions.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Table 3. T-Test Results Of Point Averages In Sub-Dimensions Of Volunteer Motivation Inventory In Accordance With The Income Status Variable Of The Students Participated In The Research

Values Recogition Social Interaction Reciprocity Reactivity Self-Esteem Social Career Development Understanding Protective

Income 500 TL and below 501 TL and over 500 TL and below 501 TL and over 500 TL and below 501 TL and over 500 TL and below 501 TL and over 500 TL and below 501 TL and over 500 TL and below 501 TL and over 500 TL and below 501 TL and over 500 TL and below 501 TL and over 500 TL and below 501 TL and over 500 TL and below 501 TL and over

N 127 97 127 97 127 97 127 97 127 97 127 97 127 97 127 97 127 97 127 97

X 4,250 4,190 3,610 3,540 4,110 4,070 4,220 4,080 4,050 3,980 4,070 4,040 3,620 3,630 3,580 3,520 4,310 4,180 3,730 3,750

Ss 0,500 0,680 0,560 0,680 0,570 0,730 0,640 0,760 0,530 0,700 0,490 0,650 0,720 0,750 0,600 0,630 0,480 0,720 0,700 0,750

Sd

t

P

222

0,860

0,410

222

0,810

0,430

222

0,450

0,670

222

1,520

0,140

222

0,850

0,410

222

0,340

0,750

222

0,150

0,880

222

0,460

0,760

222

1,600

0,130

222

0,270

0,790

When Table 3 was examined, as a result of the analysis about the income status variable of the volunteers participated in the research, any statistically significant differences were not observed in all sub-dimensions. Conclusion The concept of volunteering has become an issue of many researches today and been evaluated in all dimensions. In this study, it was aimed to determine volunteering expectations of the students dutied at various organizations as members and volunteers of various student clubs operating in Selçuk University. According to the results of study; after analyzing the reasons for being dutied at organizations or in other words, the expectations effective for being a volunteer in respect to gender and income status variables among the university students participated in the research, as a statistically significant difference was not found in all sub-dimensions, after analyzing the students participated in the research pursuant to age variable, a statistically significant difference was only observed in the subdimension of social interaction in favour of the participants aged 20 and below it. When assessing in terms of the students’ motivation, the relevant difference may be considered to be related with both

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN having a new environment and increasing opportunities for social interaction with environment as volunteers at this type of organizations. Volunteering issue, which is so great not to ignore its contributions to social concept, has rapidly developed in our country in recent times. But this momentum has still fallen behind European countries when the statistical data was evaluated. Volunteer involvement which is considerably important for both providing resources and increasing life motivation of individuals take part in these activities, must be planned, directed towards expectations and needs of individuals to participate in organizations.

References

CAF, (2016). Charities Aid Foundation Report. Erişim Tarihi: 5.9.2016. www.cafonline.org/pdf/CAF_WGI2014_Report_1555AWEBFinal.pdf ÇEVİK A, Gürsel F, (2015). Gönüllü Motivasyon Envanteri: Türk Popülâsyonuna Uyarlanması. Ankara Üniv Spor Bil Fak Dergisi, 13 (2), 83-92. Edwards M, (2004). Civil Society, Polity Press,Third edition, London. Esmond J, Dunlop E, (2004). Developing the Volunteer Motivation Inventory to Assess the Underlying Motivational Drives of Volunteers in Western Australia. Fairley S, Kellett P, Green BC, (2007). “Volunteering Abroad: Motives for Travel to Volunteer at the Athens Olympic Games”, Journal of Sport Management, 21:43. George D, Mallery M, (2010). SPSS for Windows Step by Step: A Simple Guide and Reference, 17.0 update (10 aed.) Boston: Pearson. Gürsel F, (2012).Gönüllü motivasyon Envanteri Türk Popülasyonuna Uygulanması, Ankara Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Mc Ewin M, Jacobsen-D’Arcy L, (2002). Developing the volunteer motivation inventory to assess the underlying motivational drives of volunteers in Western Australia: Final report. Perth: Lotterywest and CLAN WA Inc. Palabıyık H, (2011). Gönüllülük ve Yerel Hizmetlere Gönüllü Katılım Üzerine Açıklamalar, Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi, 9;1: 87-114. Sentedalps (2006). Sports Event Network for Tourism and Economic Development of the Alpine Space, Guide book for the management of sport event volunteers.''How to manage human ressources?'' Alain Ferrand (Editor), Nicolas Chanavant et al. Chavannes-Lausanne: IDHEAP.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN TÜSEV, (2016). Türkiye Dünya Gönüllük Sıralamasında Sondan 3’üncü. Erişim Tarihi: 5.9.2016. http://www.tusev.org.tr/usrfiles/files/2014_4_Aralik_Dunya_Gonulluler_Gunu.pdf Yaman Y, (2005). Gönüllülük Psikolojisi ve Gönüllü Yönetimi, Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları İçin Yönetim Rehberi, Kaknüs Yayınları, 1. Basım, İstanbul.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

ÜZERLĠK OTUYLA YAPILAN DUVAR SÜSLERĠ VE ÜZERLĠK OTUNUN HALK KÜLTÜRÜNDEKĠ YERĠ

Öğr. Gör. Zahide ġAHĠN Erciyes Üniversitesi, Mustafa ÇIKRIKÇIOĞLU M.Y.O. El Sanatları Bölümü [email protected],[email protected]

WALL DECORATIONS MADE WITH HARMAL GRASS AND THE IMPORTANCE PLACE OF IT IN FOLK CULTURE

Abstract Wall decorations which are made of harmal a grass and importance of it, has deepened in Sarıoğlan and İncesu of Kayseri. Seeds of harmal are harvested in spring when they are green. Four yarn group is adjusted. It’s begun to construction of the wall decoration with 5-6 harmal grass according to the top of the triangle is farmed. Then the fence is adjusted according to the size of wall. Remarkable fabric is covered to fence. The ropes of decorations, which are knitted with harmal grass, are stitched on the fabric. Hence, the top part of the rope and the bottom of moulding should be symmetrical. Diamond form is completed too. Harmal seeds are prepared which are attached to ropes with the other decorative elements and the eaves. The eaves are fixed to the wall decorations. After completion of it, the decoration is left on floor for 4-5 days. When the seeds dry, it’s hang the room as ornament. They’re taken to markets of Kayseri and it surroundings to be sold. Its construction and usage is widespread in İncesu and Sarıoğlan. Anahtar Kelimeler: Kayseri, El Sanatı, Üzerlik, Nazarlık, Duvar Süsü, Örgü Keywords: Kayseri, Craft, Harmal Grass, Mascots, Wall Decorations, Knitting

The Usage of Harmal Grass Against to Evil-eye It is harvested and made into bundles. It‟s hang on the entrance of the houses and work places with the idea of evil eyes. And also someone puts some seed of harmal and some flour into a pan and roast them. To avoid touching the bad eyes, it is put as a leash on animals‟ neck.

1.GiriĢ Üzerlik (Peganum harmala), Nitrariaceae familyasından Afrika, Asya ve Amerika'nın sıcak bölgelerinde yetiĢen bir bitki türüdür. Türkiye'de halk arasında nazardan korunmak için kurusunu yakarak çıkan dumanı nazardan korumak istedikleri kiĢinin üzerine üflerler. Üzerlik, tek tek beyaz çiçekli, çok dallı bir bitkidir. 35 cm kadar boyunda, çok yıllık, otsu bir step bitkisidir. Çiçekleri yeĢilimsi beyaz renktedir. Meyvesi basık küre Ģeklinde bir kapsüldür. Tohumlarının içeriğinde harmalin, harmin, harmalol, peganin

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN adlı glikozitler ve kırmızı boya maddesi vardır1. AraĢtırma konusu üzerlik otundan nazarlıklar ülkemizde üzerlik otunun yetiĢtiği çoğu yörede farklı biçimlerde yapılmaktadır. Sivas‟ın ġarkıĢla ilçesi, Ağrı gibi. Bu araĢtırma, özellikle Kayseri‟nin Ġncesu ilçesinde elle yapılan üzerlik otundan nazarlıkları kapsamaktadır. Ġncesu: Kayseri‟nin en eski ilçelerinden biridir, Ģehir merkezine 30 km. uzaklıkta Develi, YeĢilhisar ve Ürgüp ilçelerinin ortasındadır. Ġlk defa M. 1670 yılında Osmanlı Sadrazamlarından Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa PaĢa tarafından kervansaray, cami, hamam, çeĢme ve çarĢıları ihtiva eden bir külliyenin yaptırılmasıyla kurulan ve aynı bölgedeki bir akarsudan ismini alan Ġncesu, XIX.yy ortalarında bucak daha sonrada ilçe merkezi olmuĢtur. Kayseri-Adana kara ve demiryollarının içinden geçiyor olması ayrıca Kayseri Organize Sanayi Bölgesinin hemen yakınına kurulmuĢ bulunması, Ġncesu‟nun sinai ve ticari hayatına hep canlılık kazandırmıĢtır. Özellikle 1968 yılında kurulan ÇĠNKUR, GARĠB-Su, TAKSAN gibi kuruluĢların yanında, halkın büyük kısmı halıcılık, hayvancılık ve bağcılıkla uğraĢır. 2000 yılı sayımına göre merkez nüfusu 8.511 olan Ġncesu‟ya bağlı 15 köy bulunmaktadır. Köylerle birlikte toplam nüfusu 22.616 „dır2. Geleneksel el sanatları yönünden çok zengin olan yörede; semer ustası semer yapmaya devam etmektedir. Halı, kilim, cicim, zili, sumak, çarpana, kolan, atkı adı verilen Ģallar, kese, dizlik, sepet örücülüğü, hasır dokumacılığı vb bir çok tekniğin yanında Ġncesu ilçesinde üzerlik otundan nazarlıklarda yaygın Ģekilde yapılmakta, satılmakta ve yöre halkı tarafından evlerinde kullanılmaktadır. Ġncesu‟da yapılan nazarlıklarda üzerlik otundan baĢka ip, kumaĢ, boncuk vb. malzemeler de kullanılmaktadır3. Nazarlık: Nazar değmemesi için üstte taĢınan boncuk vesaire gibi tılsımlar. Buna nazar boncuğu veya nazar takımı da denir. Nazar boncuğu daima mavi olur. Buna göz boncuğu da denir. Nazar takımı diye de böyle mavi boncuk, muska, çörekotu, maĢallah gibi birkaç nazarlığın bir arada olarak bir takım teĢkil edenlerine tabir olunur. Nazarlık olarak takılan Ģeyler muhtelif nesnelerden olur ki baĢlıcaları; böcek boynuzu, hakik, kurt diĢi (bunu ekseriya bir gümüĢ sapa geçirirler), tosbağa gözeği, yedi gözlü boncuk, tazı boncuğu (denizden çıkar), gibi Ģeylerdir4. Nazarlık: Nazara karĢı alınan önlemlerin bir bölümü nazarı uzaklaĢtıracağına inanılan “nazarlık” taĢımadır. Öte yandan çocukları pis ve kirli gezdirme, çocuklara yırtık-pırtık giysiler giydirmek de baĢvurulan çareler arasındadır. Nazarın temelinde yatan “haset” ve “çekememezlik” duygusunu uyandırmamak için, elden geldiğince çocuksuz ya da çocukları hastalıklı ailelerle beraber olmaktan kaçınmak da nazar değmemesi için alınan önlemler ve çareler arasındadır5. 2.Literatür AraĢtırması Anadolu‟da çok yaygın Ģekilde nazar inancı ve nazarlıklar olmasına karĢın, halk kültüründe nazar ve nazarlıklar konusunda yeterli araĢtırma yapılmamıĢtır. Üzerlik otundan yapılan nazarlıklar konusunda kaynak azdır. Üzerlik otundan yapılan nazarlıklarla ilgili videolar tespit edilmiĢ ve izlenmiĢtir. 1

www.wikipedia.org; Üzerlik (Bitki), 05.09.2016 tarihli araĢtırma. Abdullah SATOĞLU; Kayseri Ansiklopedisi, T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı Kültür Eserleri, Ġncesu maddesi, birinci Baskı, Ankara, 2002, s.184. 3 Zahide KAYIġOĞLU ġAHĠN; Kayseri Yöresi Geleneksel El Sanatları, Erciyes‟in Rüyası Kayseri, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, I. Baskı, Ġstanbul, Aralık 2013, s.443. 4 Celal Esad ARSEVEN; Sanat Ansiklopedisi, Cilt III, Nazarlık Maddesi, Milli Eğitim Basımevi, Ġstanbul, 1983, s.1500-1501. 5 Yüksel ġAHĠN; Konya BeyĢehir Ġlçesi Karaali Beldesi Çocuk Giyim KuĢamı; II. Türk Halk Kültürü AraĢtırma Sonuçları Sempozyumu Bildirileri, T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, 2000, Ankara, s. 99-100. 2

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Sivas‟ın ġarkıĢla, Ağrı ve ġanlıurfa yörelerindeki üzerlik otundan nazarlıklar konusunda bilgi toplanmıĢtır. Kayseri yöresinde, Ġncesu ve Sarıoğlan ilçelerinde üzerlik otundan nazarlıkların yapıldığı tespit edilmiĢtir. Bu iki yörede de nazarlıklar malzeme, teknik vb özellikleriyle benzerlikler göstermektedir. Üzerlik otundan nazarlıkların kullanımı ve yapımı Ġncesu yöresinde daha yaygın olduğu için araĢtırmalar, Ġncesu yöresinde yapılmıĢtır. Yöreye farklı zamanlarda gidilerek önce evlerde asılı üzerlik otundan yapılan nazarlıklar incelenmiĢ, fotoğrafları çekilmiĢtir. Yöre halkından Üzerlik otu nazarlıkların halk kültüründeki yeri konusunda bilgiler derlenmiĢtir. Önceden yapılmıĢ üzerlik otundan nazarlıklar incelenerek bu nazarlıkların ortak özellikleri ve farklılıkları analiz edilmiĢtir. Üzerlik otunun meyvesinin toplandığı ve nazarlıkların yapıldığı temmuz ve ağustos aylarında Ġncesu yöresine gidilerek üzerlik otu meyvesi toplanmıĢ ve bu meyvelerle yöre halkından nazarlıkların yapılıĢı en ince ayrıntısına kadar öğrenilmiĢtir. 3.Metot Üzerlik otundan Nazarlıkların yapılıĢı: Üzerlik otunun yetiĢtiği doğal ortamlarda üzerlik otu dalı ile toplanır. Nazarlığın yapılacağı yerde, üzerlik meyvesi tek tek dalından ayrılır. Kötü olan meyveler varsa elenir. Üzerlik meyvesi toplanır toplanmaz yeĢil haldeyken nazarlıklar yapılmalıdır. Meyve taneleri kuruyunca kırılır ve dağılır6. Üzerlik otunun meyveleri yeĢil iken keskin kokusu vardır. Bu kokudan rahatsız olanlar nazarlık yapımında görev almak istemezler. Üzerliğin, kokusundan dolayı da nazarı önlediği düĢünülmektedir7. Üzerlik otundan nazarlık yapımı için gerekli malzemeler: iğne (orta boy), yorgan ipi veya merserize ipi, boncuk, pul, ahĢap çıta, canlı renklerden kumaĢ, isteğe göre süslemede kullanılacak aksesuarlar. Nazarlık yapımına çıta seçmekle baĢlanır. Çıtanın uzunluğu nazarlığın ebadını belirlemektedir. Çıtanın üzerine genellikle canlı renklerden seçilen kumaĢ el ile dikilir. KumaĢlar yeni ya da kullanılmıĢ olabilir. BakıĢları üzerine daha çok çekeceği düĢüncesiyle kırmızı ve mavi renkler daha çok tercih edilir. Düz renk veya desenli kumaĢ olabilir8. Çıtanın alt ve üst tarafına belli sayılarda üzerlik tanesi geçirilerek “kafes” adı verilen baklava dilimine benzer bölümler tamamlanır. Çıtanın altında ve üstündeki kafesler tamamlandığında üçgen formunda gözükürler. Bu üçgenlere yörede “çatı” adı verilir. Ġncesu yöresinde genellikle çıtanın alt tarafındaki kafes kısmı önce yapılır. Sonra çıtanın üst tarafındaki kafes yapılır. En son yörede “Saç” adı verilen saçak kısımları eklenir. Son süsleme iĢlemleri ile nazarlık tamamlanır. Son süsleme iĢleminde düğme, deniz kabukları, kumaĢlar vb. kullanılır. Nazarlık için genellikle ince yorgan ipi kullanılır. Alt çatı kaç kafesten oluĢmuĢsa, üst kafeste aynı sayıda yapılır9. Nazarlıklar tamamlandıktan sonra 3 gün kadar yerde kuruması için bekletilir. Duvara asılmaz. Yörede 40 yaĢın üzerindekiler genellikle Üzerlik otundan nazarlık yapımını bilirler. Üzerlik otundan nazarlık yapımını genellikle kadınlar annelerinden, komĢularından öğrenmiĢtir. Nazarlıkların yapım süresi, nazarlıkların büyüklüğü ile doğru orantılıdır. Orta büyüklükteki nazarlıklar genellikle 2 saatte biter. Nazarlığın ebadı çok büyük ise 2 günde sürebilir. Üzerlik otunun meyveleri Ġncesu‟da temmuz ayının sonu, Ağustos ayı gibi toplanır. Yörede buğdayların hasat zamanında nazarlık yapılır Ģeklinde ifade edilir. Üzerlik meyvesi toplanır toplanmaz nazarlık yapımında kullanılır. Bekletilirse kurur. Ġğneden geçirilmesi zor olur. Toplanan üzerlik meyveleri kimin için yapılacaksa o kiĢinin evinin bahçesine dökülür, kötü olan meyveler ayıklanır. Ġmece usulü kadınlar bir araya gelerek bir birlerinden fikir ve yardım alarak üzerlik otundan nazarlıklar yapılır. Nazarlıklar ev halkının kendisi için,

6

Senem GÜRBÜZ; 63 yaĢında, tahsili yok. Ağrı yöresinde Nazarlık yapımını öğrenmiĢ, Kayseri‟de ikamet etmektedir.

7

Zeynep ATĠK; 65 yaĢında, ilkokul mezunu, Ġncesu ilçe merkezinde ikamet etmektedir.

8

Hava Dudu SAÇLIER; 1967 doğumlu, 49 yaĢında, Ġlkokul mezunu. Ġncesu merkezde ikamet etmektedir. 9 Müzeyyen ÇETĠNKAYA; 59 yaĢında, Tahsili yok, Ġncesu‟da Semerkent Mahallesinde ikamet etmektedir.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN çocuklarının çeyizi için, komĢu ve akrabalarına hediye etmek için ya da satmak için yapılır. Son yıllarda yöredeki kadınlara ulaĢıp sipariĢ verenlere de bu nazarlıklardan yapılmaktadır. Ġncesu yöresi halk kültüründe diğer nazar inanıĢları ise Ģöyledir: Tavaya üzerlik otunun çörek otuna benzer tohumu, un, soğan kabuğu, sarımsak kabuğu, tuz vb. konur. Kavrulur. Kavurdukça duman çıkar, nazar değdiği düĢünülen kiĢi tavanın üzerine eğilerek dumanı içine çeker. Böylece nazardan kurtulur. Tava evin içinde gezdirilir, evin her yerine duman ulaĢır. Böylece evin diğer yerlerinde de nazar varsa nazardan kurtulmak hedeflenir. Üzerlik otu tohumu su ile hap gibi içilir, baĢ ağrısına iyi geldiğine inanılır. Üzerlik otu toplanır, demet haline getirilip ahıra asılır. Ahırdaki hayvanların nazardan korunması umulur. Ġnek süt vermeyince göz değdiği düĢünülür. Ġpe üzerlik meyvesi geçirilip, ineğin boynuzlarına bağlanır. Ġneğin boynuzlarına kumaĢ parçaları da asılır. Yörede üzerlik meyveleri sadece büyükbaĢ hayvanlara asılır. KüçükbaĢ hayvanlara dağdağan ağacının dalı asılır. Dağdağan ağacı kadınlar tarafından eĢlerinin cebine, ceketinin astarına, çocuklarına vb. nazara karĢı önlem olarak asılır10. Mavi renk kumaĢ, zeytin yağına batırılır. Tasa su konur. Zeytinyağlı kumaĢ yakılır. KumaĢtan damlayan damlalar su dolu tasa akıtılır. Tasa madeni para konur. Nazar değen kiĢinin yüzüne bu tastan su alınıp yüzüne serpilir. Tastaki su yörenin meydanına dökülür. Parayı kim bulursa onun olur. Nazarının değdiği düĢünülen kiĢinin Ģalvarından Ģalvar sahibinin haberi olmadan bir parça kesilir. Kesilen parçaya Ģalvarın sahibinin adı söylenir, Fatiha ve Ġhlas süreleri okunur. O kiĢinin adı söylenerek “gözün çıksın tü tü tü” denilir. Nazar o kiĢiye gönderilir11. KurĢun Dökme: Herkese yapılır. KurĢun satın alınır. Tavaya kurĢun konur, ateĢin üzerinde tava gezdirilerek kurĢun eritilir. Nazar değdiği düĢünülen, kurĢun dökülecek kiĢi oturtulur. Üzerine bez örtülür. Kafasının üzerine kalbur konur. Tasa, su konur. Eriyen kurĢun tastaki suya dökülür, kurĢun dökülen kiĢinin üzerinde bu iĢlemler gerçekleĢtirilir. Eriyen kurĢun tastaki suya dökülünce soğur, donar. Sonra tekrar eritilir, ortamdaki nazarda gitsin inancıyla, eriyen kurĢun kapının eĢiğine dökülür12.

4.Sonuç Hemen hemen her eve üzerlik otundan nazarlıklar, evlerin giriĢ kapılarının üzerine asılır. Günümüzde üzerlik otundan yapılan nazarlıkların kullanımı azalmıĢsa da nazar ve süs için kullanılmaya devam etmektedir. Özellikle 50 yaĢ üstü yöre halkı yeni ev alındığında, ev yaptırıldığında nazar değmesin inancıyla mutlaka üzerlik otundan nazarlık asar ya da astırır. Son yıllarda gençler üzerlik otunun kuruyunca dökülüp evi kirletmesinden dolayı ya da modası geçti anlayıĢından nazarlıkları çöpe atmakta ve yenisini astırmamaktadırlar. Üzerlik otundan Nazarlıklar sadece nazarlık veya süs amaçlı üretilmemiĢtir. Yörede kadınlar tarafından uygulanan bu ürünler evin beyleri tarafından Niğde, Adana gibi yörelerde pazarlanmıĢtır. Ġncesu yöresindeki kadınlar, çevrelerinden aldıkları sipariĢlerden dolayı veya hediye etmek amaçlı Üzerlik otundan nazarlıklar yapmaktadırlar. Önceki yıllarda üzerlik otunun meyvesini bulmak çok kolaydı ancak bağ, tarla, ev yapılan arazilerde artık üzerlik otu bulmak zorlaĢmıĢtır. Üzerlik otu bulmak için dağlara, uzak yerlere gitmek gerekmektedir. Üzerlik otundan nazarlıkların kopyaları satın alınan boncuklarla da yapılmaktadır. 10

Mustafa YAġAR; 1941 doğumlu, Karakoyunlu Mah. Sabahattin ÇAKMAKOĞLU Cad. No:90, Ġncesu adresinde ikamet Ediyor. Postaneden emekli. 11 Hatice YAġAR; 1942 doğumlu, 74 yaĢında, tahsili yok. 12 Hayriye YAġAR; 36 yaĢında, lise mezunu. Ġncesu‟da ikamet ediyor.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 5. TartıĢma ve Sonuç Anadolu‟da halk kültüründe nazar ve nazarlıklar geniĢ yer tutmaktadır. Üzerlik otundan nazarlıkların yanı sıra evlere asılan büyükbaĢ hayvanların kafa iskeleti, kaplumbağa kabukları, at nalları, yılanların deri değiĢtirme mevsiminde attıkları derileri, nazar boncukları vb. birçok unsur nazardan korunmak için kullanılmıĢtır. Ġncesu yöresi halkı araĢtırma sırasında ellerinden geldiğince yardım etmiĢ, evlerinin kapılarını açmıĢ kendisinde, komĢularında olan üzerlik otundan nazarlıkları göstermiĢ ve bilgi vermiĢtir. Üzerlik otunun meyvesini toplamak için otun kendi baĢına yetiĢtiği alanlara götürüp toplanmasında ve nazarlıkların yapılıĢında yardımlarını esirgememiĢtir. Yörede doğal olarak yetiĢen üzerlik otunun yetiĢtiği alanlar; ev, arsa, tarla vb. dönüĢtürüldüğü için azalmıĢtır. Yakın gelecekte üzerlik otunu bulmak sorun olabilir. Üzerlik otundan nazarlık yapanların sayısı azalmıĢtır. Yöresel el sanatının yaĢaması için yetkili kurumlar kurslar açarak bu sanatı yaĢatmalı ve yörede bu sanatın yaĢaması için yöre halkı teĢvik edilmelidir. Yörede önceki yıllarda çok faklı ebat ve özelliklerde yapılmıĢ üzerlik otundan nazarlıklar koruma altına alınmalı, mümkünse yörelerde, yöresel el sanatlarının örneklerinin korunduğu ve tanıtıldığı müzeler kurulmalıdır. Gezi programları, yöreleri tanıtan dergi vb. basın-yayın kuruluĢları unutulmaya yüz tutmuĢ bu sanatları kayıt altına alarak gelecek nesillere ulaĢtırabilir.

KAYNAKÇA -www.wikipedia.org; Üzerlik (Bitki), 05.09.2016 tarihli araĢtırma. -ARSEVEN, Celal Esad; Sanat Ansiklopedisi, Cilt III, Nazarlık Maddesi, Milli Eğitim Basımevi, Ġstanbul, 1983. -KAYIġOĞLU ġAHĠN, Zahide; Kayseri Yöresi Geleneksel El Sanatları, Erciyes‟in Rüyası Kayseri, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, I. Baskı, Ġstanbul, Aralık 2013. -SATOĞLU, Abdullah; Kayseri Ansiklopedisi, T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı Kültür Eserleri, Ġncesu maddesi, birinci Baskı, Ankara, 2002. -ġAHĠN, Yüksel; Konya BeyĢehir Ġlçesi Karaali Beldesi Çocuk Giyim KuĢamı; II. Türk Halk Kültürü AraĢtırma Sonuçları Sempozyumu Bildirileri, T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, 2000, Ankara.

AĞIZDAN KAYNAKLAR - ATĠK, Zeynep; 65 yaĢında, ilkokul mezunu, Ġncesu ilçe merkezinde ikamet etmektedir. ÇETĠNKAYA, Müzeyyen; 59 YAġINDA, Tahsili yok, Ġncesu‟da Semerkent Mahallesinde ikamet etmektedir. -GÜRBÜZ, Senem; 63 yaĢında, Ağrı yöresinde doğmuĢ ve nazarlık yapımını Ağrı‟da öğrenmiĢtir. Kayseri merkezde ikamet etmektedir. -SAÇLIER, Hava Dudu; 1967 doğumlu, 49 yaĢında, Ġlkokul mezunu. Ġncesu merkezde ikamet etmektedir. -YAġAR, Mustafa; 1941 doğumlu, Karakoyunlu Mah. Sabahattin ÇAKMAKOĞLU Cad. No:90, Ġncesu adresinde ikamet diyor. Postaneden emekli. -YAġAR, Hatice; 1942 doğumlu, 74 yaĢında, tahsili yok. -YAġAR, Hayriye; 36 yaĢında, lise mezunu. Ġncesu‟da ikamet ediyor.

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FOTOĞRAFLAR

Fotoğraf No:1-Üzerlik Otu

Fotoğraf No:2-Üzerlik Otunun toplanması

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Fotoğraf No:3-Üzerlik Otunun meyvesinin ayıklanması

Fotoğraf No:4-Üzerlik Otundan nazarlık yapımında kullanılan malzemeler

Fotoğraf No:5-Nazarlık ebadını belirleyen çıtanın süslenmesi

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Fotoğraf No:6-Nazarlığın alt tarafındaki kafes kısmının yapım aĢaması

Fotoğraf No:7-Nazarlığın alt tarafındaki kafes kısmının tamamlanıĢ hali

Fotoğraf No:8-Nazarlığın alt taraftaki kafes kısmının saçakların yapım aĢaması

tarafındaki kafes ve üst tamamlanmıĢ hali,

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Fotoğraf No:9-Nazarlığın tamamlanmıĢ hali

Fotoğraf No:10-Üzerlik otundan nazarlıklar konusunda Ġncesu yöresindeki halktan bilgi derlenmesi

Fotoğraf No:11-Üzerlik otundan nazarlıkların Ġncesu ilçesinde kullanım Ģekline örnek

Fotoğraf No:12-Üzerlik otundan nazarlıkların Ġncesu ilçesinde kullanım Ģekline örnek

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Fotoğraf No:13-Üzerlik otundan nazarlık örneği

Fotoğraf No:14-Üzerlik otundan nazarlık örneği

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Fotoğraf No:15-Üzerlik otundan farklı ölçülerde nazarlık örneği

Fotoğraf No:16-Üzerlik otundan nazarlıkların fabrikasyon malzemelerle yapılmıĢ örneği

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Fotoğraf No:17-Üzerlik otunun çörek otuna benzer tohumları, soğan ve sarımsak kabuğu, tuz, un karıĢımının tavada kavrularak dumanının nazara karĢı kullanılması

Fotoğraf No:18-Üzerlik otunun demet halinde ev ve ahırlara, nazardan korunmak amacıyla asılması

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Fotoğraf No:19-Kayseri ve çevresinde dağdağan ağacı Ģeklinde ifade edilen ağaçtan nazara karĢı korunacağı inancı ile yapılıp asılan aksesuar örneği

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EL DOKUMA ÜRÜNLERĠNĠN PATCHWORK (KIRKYAMA) YÖNTEMĠYLE MODERNLEġTĠRĠLMESĠ

Öğr. Gör. Zahide ġAHĠN Erciyes Üniversitesi, Mustafa ÇIKRIKÇIOĞLU M.Y.O. El Sanatları Bölümü [email protected],[email protected]

Özet Patchwork ya da Kırkyama; bir dönem yoksul kesimin giyim gereksinimini karşılamak adına çeşitli bez parçalarının bir araya getirilerek ve değişik şekillerde desenler verilerek dikilmesi sonucunda ihtiyaç için yapılan bir el sanatıdır. Yapılması zor ve zaman isteyen bir elişidir. Yamama işinden doğan kırkyama, günlük hayatın bir zorunluluğu olarak gelişme göstermiştir. Bu zorunluluk, farkında olmadan bir sanatı başlatmıştır. Ayrıca parça bohça, kırk pare gibi adları da vardır. Genellikle kumaşlardan ve örgüden yapılan patchwork (kırkyama)

ürünler bilinir. Ülkemizde dokuma restorasyon ustalarının olduğu

Aksaray’ın Sultanhanı ilçesinde patchwork (kırkyama) dokumalar yapılmaktadır. Bu tekniği Kayseri’de de yapan ustalar vardır. Patchwork tekniği halı tekniğinden yapılacaksa genellikle Isparta halıları tercih edilmektedir. Dikiş işlemlerine bu halılar daha uygundur. Halıların kırkımı hav yüksekliği kalmayacak şekilde yapılır. Halı, kilim gibi görünüyor. Kırkımı yapılan halı; yıkanır, boyanır ve parça parça kesilir. Parçaların nasıl yerleştirileceği tasarlanıp sonra dikilerek birleştirilir. Düz dokumalar şeklinde genellenen; kilim, cicim, zili, sumak dokumalarda patchwork tekniğinde yeni dokuma ürünlerine dönüştürülmektedir. Son yıllarda Kayseri’de el dokumacılığı ile uğraşan esnaf ve halı restorasyon ustaları tarafından patchwork (kırkyama) ürünler yapılmakta ve pazarlanmaktadır veya Aksaray’ın Sultanhanı ilçesinden patchwork dokumalar alınıp pazarlanmaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Kayseri, Kırkyama, Halı, Kilim, Dikiş, Restorasyon.

MODERNIZING OF HAND-WOVEN PRODUCTS WITH PATCHWORK METHOD

Abstract Patchwork (Kırkyama) is a handicraft which was a necessity for poor people in the past. They used to bring old cloths together, sew them and use them than for their necessity. It is difficult to do it and requires long time. Patchwork made progress as a compulsory of daily life. In time, this compulsory has activated a new art. Also, it is known as “parça bohça, kırkpare”. Generally made with knitting and swatches products are known. In our country, more patchwork products are made in Sultanhanı of Aksaray. There are lots of

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN weaving restoration experts in Kayseri who make this Patchwork technique. If it will be made by carpet method, Isparta carpets are generally preferred. These carpets are more appropriate for sewing process. Shearing of carpets are made by keeping the pile height. First, the carpet seems like a rug. Secondly, sheared carpet is washed, coloured and cut into pieces. Finally, it is designed how you want and sewed. Rug, cicim, zili and Sumak, which are known as plain weavings, can be converted to new weaving by using patchwork technique. In recent years, hand-woven products are made and sold by experts of carpet restoration in Kayseri. On the other hand, these products are taken and marketed from Sultanhanı of Aksaray. Keywords: Kayseri, Papchwork, Carpet, Rug, Stitch, Restoration.

1.GiriĢ Adı nedeniyle batı kökenli olduğu izlenimi uyandırsa da, sanıldığının aksine doğu kökenli bir el iĢi olan patchwork, çeĢitli iĢlerden artan kumaĢ parçalarını yeniden yararlı kılmak için, tasarrufa yönelik olarak ortaya çıkmıĢtır. Farklı renk, desen ve dokumadaki kumaĢ parçalarının, çeĢitli dikiĢ ve birleĢtirme teknikleriyle bir araya getirilmesi esasına dayanan bu el iĢi, ortaya çıkarılan ürünlerin niteliğine bağlı olarak giderek bir sanata dönüĢmüĢtür. Batıda yaygınlaĢıp oldukça büyük bir sanayi oluĢturmasına karĢın, doğuda, özellikle de Çin, Hindistan ve Pakistan’ın yanı sıra Ortadoğu bölgesinde Mısır gibi yorgan yapımında önde gelen ülkelerde ortaya çıkan bu el iĢi tekniği, 18.yüzyılda Ġngiltere’ye ulaĢmıĢtır. Sanat niteliğine de ilk kez bu ülkede, Kraliçe Victoria döneminde kavuĢmuĢtur. Avrupa’dan Amerika’ya baĢlayan göçler sırasında bu kıtaya taĢınan patchwork, ABD’nin ulusal sanatlarından biri olarak bilinmektedir. Ancak, bir Amerikan el sanatı olarak kabul görüyor olması bu ülkede oluĢturduğu sanayiden kaynaklanmaktadır. Patchwork için, “Ģu veya bu ülkeye aittir” diye kesin bir yargıya varmak da doğru değildir. Çünkü el iĢinden sanata uzayan evrim çizgisinde hemen her ülke kendisine has bir patchwork yorumu mevcuttur. Patchwork yüzyıllardır Anadolu’da üretilen bir el iĢi ve sanattır. Kırkpare, Yamalı Bohça, Hanım Dilendi Bey Beğendi, Kırkyama gibi adlarla bilinen bu el iĢi, halen pek çok bölgede tasarrufa yönelik bir uygulama olarak yaĢamaktadır1. Genellikle kumaĢlardan yapılan patchwork (kırkyama) örgü ve el dokumalarında da kullanılmaya baĢladı. AraĢtırma konusu olan dokumacılık; eski söyleyiĢi ile tokımak bugünkü söyleyiĢi ile dokumak sözü, tokmak kelimesinden kaynaklanan bir fiildir. Herhangi bir Ģeyi tokmaklayarak, tokmak ile döverek imal etmek anlamına gelmektedir. Gerçekten bizde Osmanlı döneminin aĢağı yukarı sonuna kadar, tokmak ile dövülmek suretiyle imal edilen kılıç ve benzeri silahlar için de halı, kilim gibi tezgahta iplik düğümleri bir tokmak ile sıkıĢtırılarak yapılan Ģeyler için de dokumak fiili

1

Günsu GÜNGÖR; Örtülerle BarıĢ-Uluslararası Kırkpare Sergisi, T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı Güzel Sanatlar Genel Müdürlüğü, 1. Baskı, Mayıs-2002, Ankara, Balkan Cilt Evi, s.10.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN kullanılırdı. Bugün ise bu tabir yalnız halı, kilim ve kumaĢ imal etmek için kullanılmaktadır2. Ġnsanların dıĢ etkenlerden korunmasını ve yaĢadıkları çevrenin güzel bir Ģekilde döĢenmesini sağlamak gibi önemli gereksinimlerini sağlayan dokumacılık, insanlığın en eski sanatlarındandır kuĢkusuz3. Çözgü iplikleri (dikey yönde) üzerine çeĢitli tekniklerde düğüm (ilme) atılıp, kirkit adı verilen avadanlıkla sıkıĢtırılarak, oluĢturulan düğüm sıralarının üzerine alt ve üst atkının (yatay yönde) atılıp tekrar kirkitlenmesi ve düğüm sıralarının uçlarının halı makası ile düzeltilmesi ile oluĢan havlı dokumalara halı adı verilir. Havlı dokumalarda düğüm atılması ve atılan düğümlerle hav yüksekliğinin oluĢması halıyı, düz dokumalardan ayıran en önemli özelliktir. Düz dokuma yaygılar ise, düğümlü halı dıĢında kalan, enine ve dikey, iki veya daha çok iplik grubunun birbiri arasından değiĢik Ģekillerde geçerek meydana getirdikleri dokuma yaygı türleridir4. Düz dokumalar kendi aralarında kilim, cicim, zili, sumak Ģeklinde gruplara ayrılırlar. Düz dokuma tekniklerinde dokunan dokumalara çoğunlukla yaygı denir. Ġki iplik grubu (çözgü ve renkli atkı) kullanılan, atkıların çözgüleri sararak kamuflesiyle oluĢan, atkı yüzlü dokumalara kilim denir. Dikey yönde olan çözgü ipliklerine, yatay yönde renkli atkı iplikleri sarılarak kabartmalı motifler oluĢturulan dokumalara ise cicim adı verilir. Cicim tekniğindeki dokumalarda, dokuma tekniğinin zorunluluğundan, çapraz hatlardan oluĢan motifler tercih edilir. Renkli ipliklerin ise, çözgü ipliklerinin arasından yatay yönde geçirilmesiyle; isteğe göre bir, iki, üç vb. çözgü teli üzerinden atlamalı olarak oluĢturulan dokumalara zili (sili) adı verilir. Motifleri meydana getiren renkli ipliklerin çözgü ipliklerine bir tur sarılması ile oluĢan dokumalara sumak denir. Düz dokumalar da desenlerin dokumaya aktarılması, halıyla kıyaslandığında çok daha özgürcedir. Halıda olduğu gibi sıra takibi söz konusu değildir. Geleneksel tarzda yapılan düz dokumalarda desenler tasarlanıp çizilmez. Dokuyucu ya içinden geldiği gibi ezberlediği motifleri dokur ya da önceden dokunmuĢ bir dokumayı ters çevirerek onu dokumaya aktarır. Motifler, dokuma tekniğinden dolayı geometriktir. Kilim ve düz dokuma türlerinin gerçek bir halk sanatı olarak yakın tarihe kadar varlığını bozulmadan sürdürmesini sağlarken, salt bir günlük kullanım eĢyası olarak bakılmaktan ötürü, eski örneklerin özenle saklandığı ortamları olmamıĢtır5. Halı ve düz dokumaların konservasyon, restorasyon iĢlemleri gibi konular son yıllarda önem kazanmaya baĢlamıĢtır. “El dokumalarının hammaddesi olarak organik yapıda liflerden mamül olmalarının sonucunda uzun yıllar yaĢaması söz konusu değildir. Bozulmaya neden olan en temel faktörler ıĢık, sıcaklık, nem ve atmosferik gazlar gibi çevresel faktörlerdir. Bunun yanında reaktif maddelerle temastan kaynaklanan kimyasal hasarlar, mikroorganizmalar, böcekler ve hayvanlardan *AraĢtırmalarımda yardımlarını esirgemeyen sevgili eĢim Cihat ġAHĠN’e, canım kızım Derin ġAHĠN’e, kardeĢim AyĢe KAYIġOĞLU’na, emeği geçen öğrencilerime, emeği geçen halı esnafına, emeği geçenlere sonsuz teĢekkürlerimle. 2 GENÇ, ReĢat; KaĢgarlı Mahmud’a göre XI. Yüzyılda Türklerde Dokuma ve Yaygı iĢleri, ArıĢ Üç Aylık Halı, dokuma ve ĠĢleme Sanatları Dergisi, Yıl:1, Sayı:3, Ankara, Aralık 1997, s.8. 3

AYTAÇ, Çetin; El dokumacılığı, Ankara, 1989, s.1-2.

4

BALPINAR ACAR, Belkıs; Kilim, Cicim, Zili, Sumak Türk Düz Dokuma Yaygıları, Eren Yayınları, s.7. Nazan ÖLÇER; Türk Ġslam Eserleri Müzesi Kilimler, Eren Yayıncılık, Ġstanbul, 1998, s.15.

5

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN gelebilecek biyolojik hasarlar, ayrıca yanlıĢ taĢıma ve uygun olmayan desteklerin kullanılmasından kaynaklanabilecek mekanik hasarlar da bozulmaya neden olan faktörler arasında sayılabilir6”. Konservasyon, nesnenin (objenin) çevre koĢullarını kontrol altına alarak bozulmasını yavaĢlatma iĢlemidir. Bu iĢleme,

objeyi çürümeye ve bozulmaya karĢı stabil hale getirmek de girer 7.

Konservasyonun amacı ise, geri dönüĢümü olabilecek iĢlemlerle objeyi bulunduğu haliyle koruyarak bozulmasını, çürümesini durdurmak veya yavaĢlatmaktır. Halkı koruma konusunda bilinçlendirmek için ilkokuldan baĢlayarak yükseköğretime kadar her düzeyde bilgi vermek ve kamuoyu oluĢturmak önemlidir. Ayrıca uygulamaların doğru yapılmasına özen gösterilmelidir8. El dokumalarında genellikle koyun yünü, keçi kılı, deve tüyü, ipekböceği salgısı vb. daha çok hayvansal elyaf kullanılmaktadır. Hayvan kökenli lifler mantarlara karĢı genellikle bitki kökenlilerden daha dirençlidirler9. Restorasyon ise, objenin eksik parçalarını tamamlayarak orijinal objeden ayırt edilmesi hemen hemen imkansız bir onarım yapma iĢlemidir. Amacı ise, eğer olanak varsa objeyi eski fonksiyonuna ulaĢtırmaktır10. Ülkemizde halı ve düz dokuma yapılan yörelerde restorasyon iĢiyle uğraĢanlar genelde bulunmaktadır. Restorasyonun ülkemizde en iyi Ģekilde yapıldığı yöre ise Sultanhanı’dır. “Aksaray’ın 42 km batısında yer alan Sultanhanı Kasabası’nda bulunan kervansaray 1229’da I. Alaeddin Keykubad tarafından yaptırılmıĢtır. Sultanhanı, adını bu kervansaraydan almaktadır. Sultanhanı Kasabası bugün antika ve eski halıların restorasyonunun merkezi konumundadır. Birçok ülkeden gelen halıların onarılarak gönderildiği dünyanın en büyük halı onarım merkezlerinden birisidir. Bu ülkelerin baĢında Amerika, Ġngiltere, Fransa ve Ġtalya gibi ülkeler gelmektedir. Sultanhanı Kasabası’nda 200’e yakın iĢletme ve bu iĢletmelerde çalıĢan yüzlerce usta ve çırak bulunmaktadır. Günümüzde yöre halkının büyük çoğunluğu halı restorasyonu ile geçimini sağlamaktadır. Halı ve düz dokuma onarımı konusunda giriĢimci ve geliĢimci politikaları vardır11. El dokumalarının konservasyon ve restorasyon iĢlemleriyle uğraĢan esnaf koruyamadığı veya onarılamayacak kadar eskimiĢ dokumaları tekrar değerlendirmek adına patchwork tekniğini el dokumalarına uyarlamıĢtır. KumaĢ ve örgülerde çokça gördüğümüz patchwork tekniği el dokumalarına uyarlanıp ürüne dönüĢtürüldükten sonra oldukça talep görmüĢtür. Patchwork ürünlerinin elde edildiği asıl merkez Aksaray’ın Sultanhanı ilçesindeki el dokumaları 6

Gonca KARAVAR; Halı, Kilim Restorasyonunda Kullanılan Teknikler ve Bir Örnek KuruluĢ, Tekstil Ürünlerinde Konservasyon ve Restorasyon ĠĢlemlerinde Karar Verme Ölçütleri, 2000’li yıllarda Türkiye’de Geleneksel Türk El Sanatlarının Sanatsal, Tasarımsal ve Ekonomik Boyutu Sempozyumu bildirileri, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara, 1999, s.134. 7 Elvan ANMAÇ; Tekstil Ürünlerinde Konservasyon ve Restorasyon ĠĢlemlerinde Karar Verme Ölçütleri, 2000’li yıllarda Türkiye’de Geleneksel Türk El Sanatlarının Sanatsal, Tasarımsal ve Ekonomik Boyutu Sempozyumu bildirileri, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara, 1999, s. 9. 8 Zeynep AHUNBAY; Tarihi Çevre Koruma ve Restorasyon; Yem Yayın, Nisam 1996, Ġstanbul, s.143. 9 Ayhan YÜCEL-A.Serdar KANTARCIOĞLU; Müzelerdeki Eserlerin Bozulmasında Mikropların Rolü; T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Anakara, 1997, s. 27. 10 Elvan ANMAÇ; Tekstil Ürünlerinde Konservasyon ve Restorasyon ĠĢlemlerinde Karar Verme Ölçütleri, 2000’li yıllarda Türkiye’de Geleneksel Türk El Sanatlarının Sanatsal, Tasarımsal ve Ekonomik Boyutu Sempozyumu bildirileri, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara, 1999, s. 9. 11 Fikri SALMAN, Gülben ÖZTÜRK; Aksaray Sultanhanı Kasabası Halı Restorasyonunda Örnek Bir ĠĢletme: “Sultan Saray Halı”, ArıĢ Halı, Düz Dokuma, KumaĢ, Giyim, KuĢam ve ĠĢleme Sanatları Dergisi, Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu, Atatürk Kültür Merkezi, Ankara, Mart-2013, s.74.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN restorasyonu ile uğraĢan ustalarıdır. Kayseri’de de bu yöntemi uygulayan restorasyon ustaları vardır. Patchwork tekniğini uygulamayan Kayseri’deki esnaflar, patchwork ürünleri Sultanhanı’na giderek satın alıp Kayseri’de pazarlamaktadır. Kayseri’de patchwork ürünler yaklaĢık 10 yıl önce piyasaya sürülmüĢtür. Restorasyon ustaları patchwork ürünler için “ömrü biten dokumaya, yeniden ömür vermek” Ģeklinde tanımlamaktadırlar. Restorasyon ve dokuma esnafı, önceki yıllarda “ömre sürer” yani ölene kadar sana eĢlik eden dayanıklı anlayıĢının değiĢtiğini insanların eĢyalarını daha sık değiĢtirdiğini belirtmektedir. DeğiĢen bu anlayıĢtan dolayı tüketicinin dayanıklı, kaliteli ürün alıp gerektiğinde restorasyon yaptırmak yerine ürünü tamamen değiĢtirme eğiliminde olduğunu belirtmektedir. Patchwork yöntemiyle önceki dokumalara modernlik kazandırarak tüketiciye tekrardan sunulmaktadır. Patchwork yöntemi el dokumalarında: 1-Halı, 2-Düz dokumalara (kilim, cicim, zili, sumak) uygulanmaktadır. 1-Halı dokumaların patchwork tekniğiyle modernleĢtirilmesi: Patchwork halıyı, Ġstanbul’da yaĢayan Bankacı Celal isimli halı esnafı üretmiĢtir. Halıların havları, kırkım makinası ile tamamen kazınır. Kırkımı yapılan halı yıkanır ve kurutulur. Genelde Isparta halıları tercih edilir ve halı istenilen renge boyanır. Halı kalın olduğu için el ile kesmek zor olur, makine bıçağı Ģeklinde ifade edilen alet ile halılar geometrik Ģekilde kesilir. Genelde kare ve dikdörtgen Ģeklinde kesilir. Ġstanbul’da farklı geometrik Ģekillerde denenen patchwork halılar bulunmaktadır12. Daire, yıldız, üçgen, kalp, ay vb. sipariĢe göre farklı geometrik Ģekillerde ürün geliĢtirme yapılmaktadır. Kayseri’de de patchwork halı yapan ustalar bulunur ve kalıplar yardımıyla değiĢik geometrik Ģekiller denemektedirler. Genellikle kare ve dikdörtgen kesilen halı parçalarının onarım gereken yerleri varsa onarılır, kenarlarına overlok makinası ile overlok geçirilir. Overlok iĢleminde kadınlarda görev alabilmektedir. Halıdan patchwork yapılacaksa dikiĢlerin tutması için halı ve astarlık kumaĢ arasına tela konulur, telalar ütüyle sabitlenir13. Overlok çekilen parçalar restorasyon ustaları tarafından halı restorasyonunda kullanılan aletlerle el ile dikilerek birleĢtirilir. El ile dikiĢi yurt dıĢındaki müĢteriler özellikle istemektedir14. Patchwork halılara genellikle saçak yapılmaz. Overloklu kenarları ve el dikiĢi ile görsellik arttırılır. El dokuması halı onarımında kullanılan araç ve gereçler: 1-Tezgah (Çerçeve), 2-Çekiç, 3-Çivi, 4-Bıçaklı tığ (yan ilme atmak için kullanılır), 5-Diğdik (düğümleri sıkıĢtırmak için kirkit yerine kullanılır), 6Tığ, 7-Pense, 8-DikiĢ iğnesi, 9-Tel fırça, 10-Biz, 11-Pürmüz, 12-Makas, 13-Ütü15. Kesilen parçalar bu Ģekilde birleĢtirilerek istenilen en ve boyda tek parça ürün haline getirilir. Parçaları birleĢtikten sonra ürünün arkası fabrikasyon kumaĢlarla astarlanır. Astar geçirilirken ara ara kumaĢ ve dokuma dikilir. Astar ürünün dıĢına böylece kaymaz. Patchwork halıların ebatları çok farklılık gösterir. Esnaf büyük 12

Ercan EFĠLTĠ; Efilti halıcılığın sahibi. Adem SEÇĠL; 1973 doğumlu, ilkokul mezunu. Kayseri Kilims iĢletmesinin sahibi. 08.10.2016 tarihli görüĢmede verdiği bilgilere göre. 14 Ömer TUNA; Tuna Halı iĢletmesinde iĢveren, 1972 doğumlu, lise mezunu. 30.09.2016 tarihinde verdiği Ģifahi bilgilere göre. 15 Fikri SALMAN, Gülben ÖZTÜRK; Aksaray Sultanhanı Kasabası Halı Restorasyonunda Örnek Bir ĠĢletme: “Sultan Saray Halı”, ArıĢ Halı, Düz Dokuma, KumaĢ, Giyim, KuĢam ve ĠĢleme Sanatları Dergisi, Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu, Atatürk Kültür Merkezi, Ankara, Mart-2013, s.76. 13

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ebatlı ürünlerden daha iyi kazandığını belirtmektedir. 2X3m, 6X12m gibi ebatlar kullanılır16. Metrekare üzerinden satıĢ yapılır. Yurt içinden genelde talep yoktur. YurtdıĢına metrekaresi 90-95 euroya pazarlanmakta ve genelde internet üzerinden satıĢ yapılmaktadır. Kimyasal yıkama yapılan, renkleri soldurulan halılarda patchwork halılarda kullanılmaktadır. YurtdıĢında yaĢayanlar evlerinde genellikle ayakkabı ile dolaĢtığından havları iyice kesilen patchwork halılarda daha rahat dolaĢır. El dokuması halılardan patchwork halı yapıldığından yurtdıĢından çok talep görmektedir. Özellikle Amerika’ya ihracat yapılmaktadır. Lacivert renk Almanya’ya, Mavi renk Japonya’ya, Amerika’ya ise her renk sevdikleri için gönderilmektedir. Amerika, Kanada, Avrupa ülkeleri, Avustralya, Yeni Zelanda, Meksika gibi ülkelerden daha çok sipariĢ gelmektedir. 2-Düz dokumaların (kilim, cicim, zili, sumak) Patchwork tekniğiyle modernleĢtirilmesi: Düz dokumalar, düz dokuma yapılan yörelere gidilerek toplanır ya da Kayseri’de pazar günü hariç diğer günlerde saat 13.30’da yapılan açık arttırma ile restorasyon ustaları tarafından satın alınır. Toz dolabında dokumaların tozları arındırılır. Toz dolabında dokumalar birbirine sürtündüğünden dokumalar parlaklıkta kazanır. Yıkanıp, kurutulur ve geometrik Ģekillerde kesilir. Her parçanın etrafına overlok çekilir. Overlok çekilen parçalar, restorasyon ustaları tarafından restorasyonda kullanılan aletlerle, halıda uygulanan patchwork tekniğindeki gibi dikilerek birleĢtirilir17. Keçi kılından dokunan bez ayağı dokumalar, eski kumaĢlardan dokunan çaput dokumalar ile de patchwork ürünler elde edilmiĢtir. Düz dokumalarla yapılan patchwork ürünlerin arkaları da astarlanmıĢ ve saçak kısmı yapılmamıĢtır. 2.Literatür AraĢtırması Patchwork tekniği ile yapılmıĢ birçok ürün bulunmakta ancak bu konuyla ilgili yazılı kaynak sınırlıdır. Konuyla alakalı kitap ve dergilere ulaĢılmıĢtır. Konuyla ilgili bilgisi olan, çalıĢmalar yapan kiĢilere ulaĢılıp yüz yüze görüĢülerek bilgiler toplanmıĢtır. 3.Metot Patchwork tekniği, dokuma restorasyon ustaları tarafından yapıldığından restorasyon ve konservasyon konuları da araĢtırılmıĢtır. KumaĢlara uygulanan patchwork ürünler, örgü tekniğinde patchwork örnekleri incelenmiĢtir. AraĢtırma konusu olan el dokumalarında patchwork tekniği bu iĢi yapan atölyelere gidilerek gözlemlenmiĢ ve bilgiler alınmıĢtır. Patchwork tekniğinde yapılan ürünler incelenmiĢ ve fotoğrafları çekilmiĢtir.

16

Bilal DURAK; Orient Halı’da iĢveren, Halı-Kilim restorasyon ustası, 1953 doğumlu. 30.09.2016 tarihinde verdiği Ģifahi bilgilere göre. 17 Mehmet YILMAZ; Yılmaz halı iĢletmesinin sahibi, 1964 doğumlu, lise mezunu. 10 Ağustos 2016 tarihinde verdiği Ģifahi bilgilere göre.

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4.Sonuç Genelde hammaddesi; yün ya da yün-pamuk olan onarılamayacak kadar eskimiĢ halılar, patchwork halılarda kullanılmıĢtır. FloĢ halıların en çok dokunduğu yerlerden biride Kayseri’dir. Suni ipek adıyla bilinir. Ġpek dokumalara çok benzer ancak ipek dokumalara göre daha kalitesizdir. Ġpek halıların renk ve desen özellikleri floĢ halılarda aynı Ģekilde kullanılır. Kayseri’de floĢ malzemeden dokunmuĢ kilimlerde mevcuttur18. FloĢ halı ve kilimler, patchwork ürünlerde kullanılmamıĢtır. Bunun sebebi floĢ malzemeden dokunan dokumaların günümüzde Kayseri’de neredeyse yapılmıyor olmasıdır. Ġpek malzeme çok pahalı olduğundan ipek halı ve ipek kilimlerde patchwork ürünlerde kullanılmamıĢtır. 5. TartıĢma ve Sonuç Evinde dikiĢini kendi diken becerikli Anadolu kadını, bu dikiĢlerden artan parçalara konu komĢudan topladıklarını katmıĢ; yetmemiĢse bir kısmı yıpranmıĢ giysilerin sağlam kısımlarını eklemiĢ; hiç masrafsız elde ettiği bu birikimle yaratıcılığını kullanarak bohçalar, seccadeler, örtüler, yastık ve giysiler üretmiĢtir. Kırkyama ülkemizde yapıldığı ilk zamanlarda, savaĢların hüküm sürdüğü yokluk dönemlerinde hep bir ihtiyacı gidermek, bütçeyi ferahlatmak için tasarruf amaçlı yapılmıĢ; dolayısıyla bir sanat olarak düĢünülüp ele alınmamıĢtır. Annelerden, ninelerden el yordamı ile öğrenilen bu el iĢi o zamanlar öyle imkansızlıklarla yapılmıĢ ki becerikli, yaratıcı Anadolu kadınları kullandıkları dikiĢ ipliklerinde bile, kendi tarlalarında yetiĢen pamuğu kullanmıĢlardır. Patchwork Anadolu’da yüzyıllardır geleneksel bir uğuru simgelemiĢtir. Evlilik çağına gelmiĢ genç kızlara, mutlu evlilikler yapmıĢ komĢulardan ve gelinlik kızın evinden toplanan parçalarla dikilen Kırkyama’nın kızın kısmetini açacağına ve mutlu bir evlilik yapacağına inanılmıĢtır. Kan uyuĢmazlığının risk oluĢturduğu dönemlerde, çeĢitli nedenlerle bebeklerini kaybetmiĢ genç anne adaylarının, sağlıklı bebeklere sahip, kolay doğumlar yapmıĢ annelerden topladıkları parçalar ile diktikleri bebek örtüleri ve zıbınlarında bu inanıĢla bağı olduğu düĢünülmektedir. Hatta, nazara karĢı kullandığımız “Kırk bir kere maĢallah” deyiĢindeki “Kırk bir” ile Kırkyama, Kırkpare tanımlarındaki kırk sayısının böylesi bir Ģans ve uğur dileği ile bağlantısına inanılmaktadır19. Anadolu halk kültüründe bu kadar önemli ve geniĢ yere sahip patchwork (kırkyama) uygulamasının el dokumalarına da uygulanması bu halk kültürünün el dokumalarında yaĢamasını sağlamıĢtır. El dokumalarının patchwork tekniğine uygulanması rastgele olmamıĢ bu tekniği uygulayan ustalar dokuma parçalarını birbiriyle birleĢtirirken renk uyumuna, motif ve desen uyumuna son derece dikkat etmiĢlerdir. Genelde motifli olan parça sade parça ile birleĢtirilmiĢ ve hareket sağlanmıĢtır. El dokumalarından patchwork tekniğinde sadece yaygılar

18

Zahide ġAHĠN; Kayseri Yöresi Geleneksel El Sanatları, Erciyes’in Rüyası Kayseri, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, I. Baskı, Ġstanbul, Aralık 2013, s.429. 19 Günsu GÜNGÖR; Örtülerle BarıĢ-Uluslararası Kırkpare Sergisi, T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı Güzel Sanatlar Genel Müdürlüğü, 1. Baskı, Mayıs-2002, Ankara, Balkan Cilt Evi, s.10-17.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN üretilmemiĢ farklı sandalye, koltuk örtüsü, yastık, çanta, kırlent vb. ürünlerde yapılmıĢtır. Dizilerde, iç mekan çekimlerinde vb. patchwork ürünlere geniĢ ölçüde yer verilmektedir. KAYNAKÇA -ACAR BALPINAR, Belkıs; Kilim, Cicim, Zili, Sumak Türk Düz Dokuma Yaygıları, Eren Yayınları, Ġstanbul, 1982. -AHUNBAY, Zeynep; Tarihi Çevre Koruma ve Restorasyon; Yem Yayın, Nisan 1996, Ġstanbul. -ANMAÇ, Elvan; Tekstil Ürünlerinde Konservasyon ve Restorasyon ĠĢlemlerinde Karar Verme Ölçütleri, 2000’li yıllarda Türkiye’de Geleneksel Türk El Sanatlarının Sanatsal, Tasarımsal ve Ekonomik Boyutu Sempozyumu bildirileri, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara, 1999. -AYTAÇ, Çetin; El dokumacılığı, Ankara, 1989. -GENÇ, ReĢat; KaĢgarlı Mahmud’a göre XI. Yüzyılda Türklerde Dokuma ve Yaygı iĢleri, ArıĢ Üç Aylık Halı, dokuma ve ĠĢleme Sanatları Dergisi, Yıl:1, Sayı:3, Ankara, Aralık 1997. -GÜNGÖR, Günsu; Örtülerle BarıĢ-Uluslararası Kırkpare Sergisi, T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı Güzel Sanatlar Genel Müdürlüğü, Balkan Cilt Evi, 1. Baskı, Ankara, Mayıs-2002. -KARAVAR, Gonca; Halı, Kilim Restorasyonunda Kullanılan Teknikler ve Bir Örnek KuruluĢ, Tekstil Ürünlerinde Konservasyon ve Restorasyon ĠĢlemlerinde Karar Verme Ölçütleri, 2000’li yıllarda Türkiye’de Geleneksel Türk El Sanatlarının Sanatsal, Tasarımsal ve Ekonomik Boyutu Sempozyumu bildirileri, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara, 1999. -ÖLÇER, Nazan; Türk Ġslam Eserleri Müzesi Kilimler, Eren Yayıncılık, Ġstanbul, 1998. -SALMAN, Fikri-ÖZTÜRK, Gülben; Aksaray Sultanhanı Kasabası Halı Restorasyonunda Örnek Bir ĠĢletme: “Sultan Saray Halı”, ArıĢ Halı, Düz Dokuma, KumaĢ, Giyim, KuĢam ve ĠĢleme Sanatları Dergisi, Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu, Atatürk Kültür Merkezi, Mart-2013, Ankara. -ġAHĠN, Zahide; Kayseri Yöresi Geleneksel El Sanatları, Erciyes’in Rüyası Kayseri, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, I. Baskı, Ġstanbul, Aralık 2013. -YÜCEL, Ayhan-KANTARCIOĞLU, A.Serdar; Müzelerdeki Eserlerin Bozulmasında Mikropların Rolü; T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Anakara, 1997. AĞIZDAN KAYNAKLAR -DURAK, Bilal; Orient Halı’da iĢveren, Halı-Kilim restorasyon ustası, 1953 doğumlu, 30.09.2016 tarihinde verdiği Ģifahi bilgilere göre. -EFĠLTĠ, Ercan; Efilti halıcılığın sahibi. -SEÇĠL, Adem; 1973 doğumlu, ilkokul mezunu. Kayseri Kilims iĢletmesinin sahibi. 08.10.2016 tarihli görüĢmede verdiği bilgilere göre. -TUNA, Ömer; Tuna Halı iĢletmesinde iĢveren, 1972 doğumlu, lise mezunu. 30.09.2016 tarihinde verdiği Ģifahi bilgilere göre. -YILMAZ, Mehmet; Yılmaz halı iĢletmesinin sahibi, 1964 doğumlu, lise mezunu, 10 Ağustos 2016 tarihinde verdiği Ģifahi bilgilere göre.

FOTOĞRAFLAR

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Fotoğraf No-1 KumaĢtan elde edilen patchwork (kırkyama)

Fotoğraf No-2 Örgüden elde edilen patchwork (kırkyama)

Fotoğraf No-3 KumaĢtan elde edilen patchwork (kırkyama)

Fotoğraf No-4 Halı Restorasyon Ustası

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Fotoğraf No-5 Halı Restorasyon Ustası

Fotoğraf No-6 El Dokumalarının Depolanması

Fotoğraf No-7 El Dokumalarının Restorasyonunda Kullanılan Aletler

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

Fotoğraf No-8 Halılardan yapılan Patchwork

Fotoğraf No-9 Halılardan yapılan Patchwork tekniği, el dikiĢi ile birleĢtirilmesi detayı

Fotoğraf No-10 Halılardan yapılan Patchwork tekniği, el dikiĢi ile halı kenarlarının çevrelenmesi detayı

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Fotoğraf No-11 Halılardan yapılan Patchwork tekniği ürünün arka tarafının astarlanması detayı

Fotoğraf No-12 Patchwork Dokumaların incelenmesi

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Fotoğraf No-13 Düz Dokumaların Patchwork ürüne dönüĢtürülmesi

Fotoğraf No-14 Düz Dokumaların Patchwork tekniğinde modernleĢtirilmesi detayı

Fotoğraf No-15 Düz Dokumaların Patchwork tekniğinde kırlente dönüĢtürülmesi

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Fotoğraf No-16 Düz Dokumaların Patchwork tekniğinde kırlente dönüĢtürülmesi, Keçi kılı ve yün malzemeden dokumalar kullanılmıĢtır.

Fotoğraf No-17 Düz Dokumaların Patchwork tekniğinde kırlente dönüĢtürülmesi, kilim tekniği ve zili tekniği kullanılmıĢtır.

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Fotoğraf No-18 Caput Dokumaların Patchwork tekniğinde ürüne dönüĢtürülmesi.

Fotoğraf No-19 Caput Dokumaların Patchwork tekniğinde ürüne dönüĢtürülmesi detayı.

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Fotoğraf No-20 Caput Dokumaların Patchwork tekniğinde ürüne dönüĢtürülmesi ve ürünün arka tarafına astar geçirilmesi detayı.

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REAL WAGE -LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY RELATIONSHIP IN TURKISH MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY Prof.Dr.Zeynep KARAÇOR Selcuk University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Economics Dept. [email protected] PhD Candidate Emel Selcuk Selcuk University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Economics Dept. [email protected] Assoc.Prof.Dr.Bilge AFŞAR KTO Karatay University,Faculty of Business and Management Sciences, International Trade Dept. [email protected] Abstract In this study analyzing the relationship between real wage and labor productivity in Turkish manufacturing industry, panel cointegration method is used with quarterly series of 22 manufacturing sectors from 2005:1 to 2015:4. In this way, we try to answer the question whether it is possible to improve the productivity of labor by increasing real wage. The panel cointegration tests imply that there is a positive long term equilibrium relationship between real wages and labor productivity and this relation runs from real wage to productivity. Also FMOLS estimation results show that this significant and positive relationship between the two holds for almost all of the manufacturing sectors. Keywords:Real Wage,Manifacturing Industry,Labour Productivity,Turkey

1. Introduction In recent years, the Turkish economy which manages to maintain a certain level of economic growth despite the global crisis, has failed to reflect this growth to the employment rate unfortunately. Despite an average annual growth rate of 4% approximately, unemployment rate has not yet been drawn down by 10%. The relationship between the real wages and labor productivity has become even more important as the arrangements related to increasing the minimum wage in Turkey came into question. Economic theory accepts that at aggregate level the increase in real wages is a relationship between labor's share of production and labor terms of trade, which is determined by the increase in labor productivity. In the long term, only labor productivity may lead to an increase in real wages which can cause a rise in living standards. On the other hand, the increase in real wages, according to new Keynesian economists, also leads to an increase in the productivity of labor. Therefore, empirical studies on real wages and productivity find sometimes two-way and sometimes one-way relationship between the two. With this study, differently from previous studies in Turkey, manufacturing industry data was used for the period 2005-2015 and thus by forming a panel data set, real wage-labor productivity relationship was analyzed with panel co-integration method. Furthermore evaluation of this relationship also conducted on a sectoral basis, potential effects of wage increase has been investigating on labor productivity.

2.COURSE OF REAL WAGE AND LABOR PRODUCTIVITY IN THE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN When we look at how real wages and labor productivity change in the manufacturing industry since 1980s (Graphic 1), the real wage sometimes has made quick rises, sometimes decreases, but we see that despite small fluctuations, the productivity of labor in general, follow an increasing trend. Graphic 1: 1988-2015 Manufacturing Real Wage Index(U) and Labour Productivity(EV) (1997 base year) 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

EV imalat

U imalat

Kaynak 1 Turkstat Real wage index following a steady path in 1980s showed a rapid increase after 1987. While the average manufacturing industry real wage index was 58 in 1988, it reached 136 in 1993, ie an increase by 134% in real wages in the manufacturing industry. Taymaz et al (2014) accepted the 1987 referendum as the date of transition to democracy in Turkey and explained the rises in real wages starting from that date as a result of populist policies in the intense political competition of the time. But in 1994, with the crisis, level of wages experienced a serious decline, although an increase was realized in 1999 and 2000, along major decline in real wages in 2001, the wage level remained below the 1997 level until 2006. Real earnings per worker in manufacturing declined by 15%, real wage per hour worked in production decreased by 7 percent. (Saracoglu, 2008) Labor productivity, which records a rapid increase in 1985, decreased by about 10% annually for the coming three years and then has fallen to 2.7% level by the end of 1988. However, in the period from 1988 to 1993, labor productivity growth rate has reached a record level with 14% annual. (Taymaz et al; 2014: 8) During the crisis in 1994, together with labor productivity, real wages also declined, but afterward recaptured the previous upward trend. The changes in real sector in the period of 1997-2007 shows a 62 percent increase in labor productivity. (Saracoglu, 2008)

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Graphic 2: 2005-2015 Manufacturing Real Wage Index (UE) and Labour Productivity (EV) base year 2010) 250 200 150 100 50

EV İmalat

2012Q3 2013Q1 2013Q3 2014Q1 2014Q3 2015Q1

2009Q3 2010Q1 2010Q3 2011Q1 2011Q3 2012Q1

2006Q3 2007Q1 2007Q3 2008Q1 2008Q3 2009Q1

2005Q1 2005Q3 2006Q1

0

UE İmalat

Kaynak 2 Turkstat When Graph 2 showing the in last decade’s trend of real wages and labor productivity in manufacturing industry is analyzed, while real wages especially after 2009 was seen to be in a trend of rapid growth, productivity of labor also shows an increasing trend but it appears to rise at a lower rate than the wages. Real wage index increased by 82% in manufacturing industry between 2010 and 2015, but the average labor productivity in the same period increased by only 12%. 3.LITERATURE According to Solow's effective wage model, as long as the rate of real wage paid to the workers by the company increases up to a certain level, willingness and efforts of the workers increase in the same direction. Labor Force Cycle model which was developed based on Effective Wage Model, when companies make real wage payments to the workers above the market level, this will increase their commitment to their current jobs and workers will be more efficient (Salop, 1979: 93101). Based on this model, the company, by paying higher wages to its workers, will reduce the frequency of workers quitting the job, thus surpass the costs of recruiting and training new workers caused by the departure of experienced workers. Gordon (1986) showed that the movement of the wage-productivity ratio over time is one of the most important factors behind the acceleration and slowdown of the increase in the efficiency in Europe, Japan and the US. Another branch of the literature has shown that higher wages encourage firms to develop labor-saving technology. Chennells and Van Reenen (1997) reached the conclusion that substitution effect may be an important factor from the analysis of British workplace level data. Wages are a major component of variable costs. While other variables are constant, increase in real wages leads to increased production costs which push companies to improve production efficiency in order to keep unit production costs under control. In this case, firstly the reorganization of production, distribution and marketing activities comes to mind in order to eliminate the inefficiencies that are undermined until that day (Taymaz et al, 2014: 2). Gordon (1986) indicates that in the periods real wage growth slows down in the US, EU and Japan, productivity also shows a limited increase. Marquetti (2004) who examine the relationship between real wages and labor productivity series between 1869-1999 in USA by using co-integration and Granger causality tests, have found a long term positive relationship from real wages to labor productivity and explained this situation by the growth in real wages make companies compelled to increase labor productivity. Narayan-Smyth (2009) who analysed the impact of real wages on labor productivity by panel cointegration test developed by Pedroni (1997), with the annual data of 1960-2004 periods, concluded that in all of G-7 countries except Canada, an increase in real wage has a significant and positive effect on labor productivity.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN EĢiyok (1999), in his analysis of real wage-labor productivity using 1970-1995 data for public and private sector, while he could not find a significant relationship between real wages and labor productivity in the public sector, he found that there is a positive relationship from real wages to productivity in the private sector. GüneĢ (2007) with cointegration analysis using 1988-2006 data in the manufacturing sector in Turkey showed that there is a long-term equilibrium relationship between real wages and labor productivity. According to the results of this study, the direction of causality is from productivity to wages, which cannot be said to support the predictions of effective wage model. However, there also found a weak causality from wage to productivity. Türedi ve Terzi (2009) in their study with manufacturing industry data from 1950 to 2001, they identified a one way relation from wages towards the productivity in public sector, while they found a two-way relationship in private sector. As a result, they state that there is need to increase real wages to increase labor productivity in both public and private sector. In econometric analysis they made based on the employment, productivity and wages series of manufacturing industry in 1988-2006 period, Saraçoglu and Suiçmez (2008) investigate the issue of whether wages explain the productivity and according to the results, a 1% increase in wages is found to increase the labor productivity by 10.4%. Taymaz et al (2014) who start from the 1988-1993 political and economic developments in Turkey, have tested the hypothesis that real wages rises forced companies, that do not want to lose their competitive edge, to increase the labor and total factor productivity and Granger causality tests using time series data at the workplace level revealed that the causality is from real wages to productivity. In his study of the quarterly data on employment, productivity and real wages covering 1988:1-2012:2 periods, Yıldırım, Z. (2013) found that the key variable is real wages in Turkish labor market, there are rigidities in employment and the real wage-productivity linkage is weak. Çetin and BakırtaĢ (2014) investigate the long-term relationship between growth rate of real wage and growth rate of labor productivity with 34 OECD countries’ 2000-2010 data and panel cointegration method and determine a linear relationship between an increase in the average real wage and the increase in labor productivity. Akyildiz and Karabıçak (2002) in their study of the relationship between the wage and productivity, they state that the relationship is not always from productivity to wages; on the contrary, wage increases can also lead to an increase in labor productivity. They have pointed out that the relative importance of the contribution of labor productivity as a component of the growth may change and this could be reflected in the wage-productivity relationship. In addition, they emphasized that this relationship is not only determined by economic factors, but also the state, labor unions and institutions such as employment agencies can have impact on this relationship. The results of previous studies show that the relationship between real wages and labor productivity is sometimes one-way and sometimes a two-way process and apart from the economic factors, political factors and institutions also have an impact on this relationship. In this study, which is prepared to investigate this relationship by using the current data of manufacturing industry and evaluating the situation in different sectors, it seeks to answer the question whether increase in real wage improves the labor productivity. 4.DATA AND METHOD The data set used for this study are quarterly series of average labor productivity, real wages and hours of production for 22 manufacturing industry sectors, taken from Turkstat and CBRT for the years 2005-2015. Since it is not easy to measure the marginal productivity in real life, the average efficiency criteria should be used. The average productivity of labor is calculated by dividing total real output to the amount of total labor (hours of labor in this study). It is possible to calculate productivity index showing the change in the efficiency of labor from this data. Therefore, the series selected are in the form of indices created by taking 2010 as base year. ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Cointegration analysis is carried out to see if there is a long-term relationship between two or more variables. For this study, these two variables are real wage (UCR) and labor productivity (EV) and the possible relationship between these two variables can be written as in equation (1). EVit = β0 + β1UCR ................................................................................................................................(1) In this equation, EV is the average labor productivity per hour, the UCR shows real wage, i is the index showing manufacturing sector, t is the time index. In order to make cointegration analysis, series in the panel must be examined by panel unit root tests to see if they are stationary. Panel unit root test results are summarized in Table 1. Table 1 Panel unit root test results Levin, Lin &Chu Stat EV

Prob

ADF Fisher Stat

Prob

PP Fisher Stat

Prob

2,12

0,9829

14,88

1,0000

7,72

1,0000

∆EV

-36,12

0,0000

1239,91

0,0000

4132,45

0,0000

UCR

17,69

1,0000

0,09

1,0000

0,0023

1,0000

∆UCR

-4,13

0,0000

106,40

0,0000

281,64

0,0000

As it can be seen from Table (1), while series have unit root in level, they become stationary when their first difference are taken. This indicates that both variables are I(1), in other words, they are integrated in the first degree, and thereby panel co-integration analysis can be continued. In order to test whether there is cointegration between EV and UCR, the ideal lag is determined as 6 according to AIC and SIC criteria and after the most appropriate model determined by these criteria again, panel co-integration tests developed by Pedroni (1997), are carried out. The results are given in Table 2. Table 2 Panel Cointegration test results (EV dependent variable) Pedroni Residual Cointegration Test Series: EV UCR Date: 12/21/15 Time: 19:25 Sample: 2005Q1 2015Q2 Included observations: 924 Cross-sections included: 22 Null Hypothesis: No cointegration Trend assumption: No deterministic trend Automatic lag length selection based on SIC with a max lag of 6 Newey-West automatic bandwidth selection and Bartlett kernel Alternative hypothesis: common AR coefs. (within-dimension) Weighted Statistic Prob. Statistic Panel v-Statistic 0.526404 0.2993 0.706503 Panel rho-Statistic -15.94684 0.0000 -17.32336 Panel PP-Statistic -13.57124 0.0000 -14.25679 Panel ADF-Statistic -8.344365 0.0000 -7.337672

Prob. 0.2399 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Alternative hypothesis: individual AR coefs. (between-dimension)

Group rho-Statistic Group PP-Statistic

Statistic -13.85901 -16.24800

Prob. 0.0000 0.0000

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-7.035619

0.0000

While EV is dependent variable, 6 of 7 statistics specified according to Pedroni panel cointegration test rejects the hypothesis that there is no cointegration relationship between two variables at 1% critical level. This proves that a cointegration relationship exists between the two variables. To determine the direction of this relationship, we can repeat the same test while UCR is dependent variable. Table 3 Panel Cointegration test results (UCR dependent variable) Pedroni Residual Cointegration Test Series: UCR EV Date: 12/23/15 Time: 10:12 Sample: 2005Q1 2015Q2 Included observations: 924 Cross-sections included: 22 Null Hypothesis: No cointegration Trend assumption: No deterministic trend User-specified lag length: 1 Newey-West automatic bandwidth selection and Bartlett kernel Alternative hypothesis: common AR coefs. (within-dimension) Weighted Statistic Prob. Statistic Panel v-Statistic -2.887007 0.9981 -2.834325 Panel rho-Statistic -0.108710 0.4567 -0.401781 Panel PP-Statistic 0.539436 0.7052 0.159421 Panel ADF-Statistic 4.119246 1.0000 3.518715

Prob. 0.9977 0.3439 0.5633 0.9998

Alternative hypothesis: individual AR coefs. (between-dimension)

Group rho-Statistic Group PP-Statistic Group ADF-Statistic

Statistic 0.200289 1.380066 5.295043

Prob. 0.5794 0.9162 1.0000

When UCR is the dependent variable, panel co-integration test results are as shown in Table 3. Unlike the previous test, none of the seven statistics can reject the hypothesis that there is no cointegrating relationship. So when the dependent variable is considered as UCR, co-integration cannot be found between two. Accordingly, we can say that there is a unidirectional realtionship between real wages and labor productivity and direction of causality is from real wages to labor productivity. Once a cointegrating relationship and the direction of this relationship between these two variables is determined, we can estimate the long-term panel using FMOLS. For the FMOLS estimation, a panel formed by i = 1,2, ..., 22 sectors and t = 1,2, ...,44 time periods can be thought as an integrated system as follows: EVit = β0 + β1UCRi UCRit= UCRit-1+µit

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Table 4 FMOLS estimation results Dependent Variable: EV Method: Panel Fully Modified Least Squares (FMOLS) Date: 12/23/15 Time: 10:16 Sample (adjusted): 2005Q2 2015Q2 Periods included: 41 Cross-sections included: 22 Total panel (balanced) observations: 902 Panel method: Pooled estimation Cointegrating equation deterministics: C Coefficient covariance computed using default method Long-run covariance estimates (Bartlett kernel, Newey-West fixed bandwidth) Variable UCR R-squared Adjusted R-squared S.E. of regression Durbin-Watson stat

Coefficient

Std. Error

t-Statistic

Prob.

0.101607

0.018283

5.557500

0.0000

0.239944 0.220921 15.80829 0.954704

Mean dependent var S.D. dependent var Sum squared resid Long-run variance

99.54942 17.90993 219663.8 537.1183

According to the estimation results in Table 4, there is a positive and significant long term equilibrium relationship between real wages and labor productivity. Accordingly, labor productivity is expected to increase as real wage rises in the long term. Although it is possible to speak of a positive relationship from real wages to labor productivity for the whole industry, we can see whether this is valid for all the manufacturing sectors by making separate estimates for different sectors. Table 5 Manufacturing Sectors Estimation results Long-term coefficient estimate

t-stat

0,1049***

4,2638

-0,0535

-1,3976

0,2763***

3,7672

-0,0715***

-4,3330

14. (Manufacturing of Apparel)

0,1121***

4,2413

15. (Manufacture of leather and related products)

-0,0876**

-2,6362

16. (Wood, wooden products and cork Products Manufacturing (Except furniture) 17. (Paper and Paper Products Manufacturing)

0,2067***

3,4181

0,2439***

7,6544

18. (Printing and reproduction of recorded media)

0,5168*** 20,1027

Manufacturing Sector 10. (Manufacture of Food Products) 11. (Manufacture of beverages) 12. (Manufacture of Tobacco Products) 13. (Manufacturing Textiles)

19. (Manufacture of coke and refined petroleum products)

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-0,0774

-0,8553

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 20. (Manufacturing of chemicals and chemical products)

0,1792***

4,3064

0,9791***

6,5916

0,0626***

2,4470

0,0719**

2,4941

24. (Basic Metal Industry)

0,0977***

4,1062

25. (Manufacture of fabricated metal products (except machinery and equipment)

0,1074***

3,4210

26. (Manufacturing of computer, electronic and optical products)

-0,0704

-0,9513

27. (Electrical Equipment Manufacturing)

0,0938***

3,6214

28. (Machinery & Equipment Manufacturing nec)

0,0994***

2,7975

0,1650***

3,6850

-0,2996

-1,4122

0,3137***

5,6575

21. (Manufacture of basic pharmaceutical products and pharmaceutical materials related) 22. (Manufacture of Rubber and Plastic Products) 23. (Other Non-Metallic Mineral Product Manufacturing)

29. (Motor vehicles, trailers (trailer) and semi-trailers (semitrailers) Manufacturing) 30. (Manufacture of Other Transport Equipment) 31. (Furniture Manufacturing) ** significant at 0,05 *** significant at 0,01

Table 5 showing the results of FMOLS estimation for each of the manufacturing sector, the positive relationship between real wages and labor productivity that applies to overall manufacturing industry is also valid for many of the manufacturing sectors. Among 22 sectors, while no significant relation is found in beverage manufacturing industry, manufacture of coke and refined petroleum, manufacture of computers and electronics and other means of transport manufacturing, a negative relationship is found only in the manufacture of leather and related products. Thus, the finding of that an increase in real wages will positively affect labor productivity in the manufacturing industry in long term, can be said to apply to the majority of the manufacturing sectors. 5.CONCLUSION According to the results of this study on Turkish manufacturing sectors with quarterly real wages and labor productivity panel data of 2005-2015, it was found a positive relationship operating from real wages to labor productivity in the industry. Furthermore, sectoral assessments indicate that this relationship holds for the majority of the manufacturing sectors. These results also support the Effective Wage Theory. These findings are in line with Saracoglu and Suiçmez(2008), Taymaz et al (2014) and in terms of the findings in the private sector EĢiyok (1999) and Türedi and Terzi (2009) which are previous studies of Turkish manufacturing industry. On this basis, it is expected that an increase realized at the level of real wages will increase labor productivity in the long term, and thus contribute to economic growth.

References Türedi, S., & Terzi, H. (2009). Türkiye’de Kamu-Özel Ġmalat Sanayinde Ücret ve ĠĢgücü Verimliliği ĠliĢkisi. EskiĢehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 10(1).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016), October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN AKYILDIZ, H., & KARABIÇAK, M. (2002). VERĠMLĠLĠK ANALĠZĠ. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Ġktisadi Ġdari Bilimler Fakültesi,7(2).

ÜCRET

ĠLĠġKĠSĠNĠN

ÇETĠN, A., & BAKIRTAġ, Ġ. (2014). OECD ÜLKELERĠNDE REEL ÜCRETLER VE EMEK VERĠMLĠLĠĞĠ ARASINDAKĠ ĠLĠġKĠ: PANEL VERĠ ANALĠZĠ. Dumlupinar University Journal of Social Science/Dumlupinar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (39). Gordon, Robert J., 1986, “Productivity, Wages and Prices Inside and Outside of Manufacturing in the U.S., Japan and Europe,” European Economic Review 31, 685-733. Sharpe, A., Harrison, P., & Arsenault, J. F. (2008). The relationship between labour productivity and real wage growth in Canada and OECD countries. Center for the Study of Living Standards. Chennells, Lucy and Van Reenen, John, 1997, “Technical Change and Earnings in British Establishments,” Economica 64, 587-604. GüneĢ, ġ. (2007). Ġmalat Sektöründe Verimlilik ve Reel Ücret ĠliĢkisi: Bir Koentegrasyon Analizi. Yönetim ve Ekonomi: Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Ġktisadi ve Ġdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 14(2), 275287. Marquetti, A. (2004). Do rising real wages increase the rate of labor‐saving technical change? Some econometric evidence. Metroeconomica, 55(4), 432-441. EĢiyok, B. Ali, (1999), Ġmalat Sanayinde (Kamu-Özel Sektör Ayrımı Ekseninde Ücret ve Verimlilik Serilerinin Ġstatistiki ve Ekonometrik Bir Analizi, Türkiye Kalkınma Bankası AraĢtırma Müdürlüğü, Ankara. Salop, S. C. (1979). A model of the natural rate of unemployment. The American Economic Review, 117-125. Saraçoğlu, B., & Suiçmez, H. (2008). Türkiye Ġmalat Sanayiinde Büyüme, Ġstihdam ve Verimlilik Sorunları. TISK Academy/TISK Akademi, 3(6). Taymaz, E., Voyvoda, E., & Yilmaz, K. (2014). Demokrasiye geçiĢ, reel ücretler ve verimlilik: Türk imalat sanayiinden bulgular. Koç University-TÜSĠAD Economic Research Forum Working Paper Series. Narayan, Paresh, and Russell Smyth. "The effect of inflation and real wages on productivity: new evidence from a panel of G7 countries." Applied economics41.10 (2009): 1285-1291.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

THE LANGUAGE OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION: PHOTOGRAPH

Doç.Dr. Feyyaz Bodur Anadolu University/Open Educatıon Faculty, Eskişehir, Turkey [email protected]

Abstract

Language is a type of communication that people have develop (use) to communicate with each other. Language is a trait that separates humans from other living creatures. Thus, the definition of language is based on humans. Regarding this, `language is an oral and sometimes written symbol system that is exclusive to a human community and a means that the individuals in the community uses to express their thoughts and feelings and to communicate with each other.` If language is a means of communication and interaction among humans, and if photograph provides the same thing, it can also be accepted as a language. Indeed it does and photograph is a language. However photograph has its own language. This language allows more people to communicate than spoken language. Those who use photographs as a language of expression can communicate with all people in a meaningful way. With the development in technology, it has become easier to make changes on photographs. Nevertheless, the thought that photograph shows reality and it is the proof of reality is valid and accepted. Whatever the purpose is, only photograph can create common perception in societies with a common language and cultural diversities. That`s because what an individual perceives is the sensational data that an object creates rather that its own existence. Photograph is a powerful expression means. It tells a story. It can be read like a novel. Photograph is a multilingual communication tool. It is the language of the intercultural communication. Joseph Nicephore Niepce had tried for years to gain recognition for his invention. Today few people knows about him. However, the truth is that the photograph that he invented is the language that is used most. Key words - Language, Communication, Symbol, Culture, Photograph

1. Introduction From humans` point of view, language and communication are two concepts that are inseparable from each other. The sound that some animals utter are also used for communication. It can be stated that these sounds are their language. Humans try to communicate with signs and mimics until they reach the age when they can utter meaningful words. Adults communicate more through speaking. Therefore this question should be answered. Is spoken language the most effective and perfect communication means? Today everything is closer to each other in the world. Now we understand hours and seconds even from distance, not months or days. Time difference is now gone thanks to some communication tools. People, as individuals or organized, have international communication in many areas such as politics, trade, tourism and academic relations. As Mcluhan said, the world is becoming `a universal village`. This rapid change has begun to display fresh examples of a universal culture. ( Inceoglu,2004: 130) 2. Concepts The main concepts that are highlighted in the essay `The Language of the Intercultural communication: Photograph` are language, culture, communication and photography.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Language Language is a way of communication that humans and animals develop (use) to understand each other. However, it is humans that created a communication way by developing it to have meaningful expressions. Language is a trait that separates people from other living creatures. .Thus, the definition of language is based on humans. Regarding this, `language is an oral and sometimes written symbol system that is exclusive to a human community and a means that the individuals in the community uses to express their thoughts and feelings and to communicate with each other.` ( Larousse, 1986:3166). `Language is defined as follows in the dictionary of Turkish Language Institution : ` The communication people have through signs or words to express their thoughts and feelings.` ` Any means of expression that helps expressing thoughts and feelings.` ( TLI, January 2016) There is no sound evidence regarding how humans whose existence goes 500 thousand years back created a meaningful spoken language. As it was apperantly expected, ParisLanguage Science Institution that was founded in 1866, stated at the beginning of its regulations that it would not accept any paper on the origins of language. ( Vendryes, 2001:3) Nonetheless, different theories are put forward regarding the birth of languages. From both metaphysical and positivist point of view, many theories on the birth of languages with proofs based on myths, archaeological findings, experimental studies have taken part in books. The conditions of the birth of languages came to agenda again especially with the ` origins` concept in German Romanticism philosophy in XVIII century. However, The questions like under which conditions it appeared and how the first languages look like at the beginning have not yet been exactly revealed. That is because language somehow was born simultaneously with Homo sapiens. Language is not only a means of communication but also of thinking. That is because it has cognitive content during communication. (Yildiz, 2005:23). When people began to think about language, it is relationship with thought was inevitably discussed too. For Aristotle, beings in the outer world are equivalent of some concepts in human mind. Thus concepts can be interpreted as the projections of outer world in human mind. Although the projections are the same, the way they are expresses change from person to person. Nevertheless, people who live in a community have to agree on a point to come to an understanding. Based on with Aristotle`s theory, we can say that language is the conventional expression of thought. ( Gungor 2011:181). Speaking is expression of thought through symbols created for a purpose. Language is a system of written or spoken symbols that establish communication between people. It would be right to add ` body signs` to this definition. We can also count body signs. Language icons are called `symbols`. The meanings of these symbols do not stem from natural connections but from subtle agreement between individulas in a society. According to the definition above, language is a skill exclusive to humans. Animals communicate with each other with the help of sounds and body signs. In fact, many of them can learn to understand human language to some extent. However, no species except humans, made a clear and consistent system out of the sounds they utter as in human language. Language has an important function to define societies: the language of Turks is Turkish, the language of German people is German, the language of Japanese people is Japanese. The word language literally contains the concept and function of the mutual understanding frame. In this sense, language can be defined as an arrangement of symbols on which the whole communication relationships, which is an important dimension to the definition of society, agree upon (Demiray, 2007:274) We can divide language as visual and oral. Oral languages may include the meaningful sounds people articulate through their mouths (speaking, whistle, etc) and equipment (drum, pipe, etc) As for the visual language, body gestures and mimics, writing which is formed by combining the symbols that we call letters, pictures, drawings, photo, and animated records like film and video can be given as examples. Humans would use sound and body sign to express themselves long before they learnt how to draw and writing. However we can admit that people have always tried to solve their problems through sounds, signs or drawing since their existence. Language played an important role in socialization of people and the population and civilization of today.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Many definitions have been made regarding language. Today many ways of meaning transition and communication are also called ` language`. ( Kucukerdogan,2009:17) To illustrate, we can talk about `photograph language, cinema language, advertisement language, body language or the language of the bees or dolphins. We emphasize the meaning with intonations while reading or speaking. Even if we do not see the face of somebody talking, we can understand the his/her psychological condition or what he/she thinks about the person in front of him/her. Visuals are the most important documents that tell about the evolution of the universe. In ancient Egyptian writing, hieroglyph, the meaning were expressed through pictures. One picture expressed one word, one imposition. In today`s writing systems, the symbols called letters are mostly meaningless on their own. The language we speak affects our perceptions and our ways of thinking and behaving. According to the theory of ` Linguistic Relativity` developed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, which is a natural extension of Linguistic necessity hypothesis, people who speak different languages experience the world differently. ( Sapir, 1958, s.97) In fact, it is known that even those who speak the same language experience the world differently, give different names to the images they create altogether and have different images for the common name. ( Yildiz, 2005,s.16). Culture As the target audience of our study is humans, the definition of culture will also be based on humans like the definition of language. Culture is a being that exceeds individuals, shapes them, gives them guidance and personality. The German philosopher Hegel calls this `objectif geist` = materialized spirit. The philosophers after Hegel call it ` culture`. (Kaplan , 2008 : 26). Culture does not only contain elements such as speaking, literature, music, photograph, dance, architecture. Culture also includes family, law systems, working habits, production, consumption, transportation types. It is humans that create and sustain culture. People maintain the culture that created themselves partly or exactly repeating it or partly changing it.The culture that is slightly or drastically changed each time affects the characteristics of the personalities it creates and the process keeps going like this. (Guvenc, 1985 : 88). The only thing that does not change is the change itself. One of the main elements that creates change is human needs. Everything produced to meet the needs make an effect on people`s lives. The differences are found surprising when life behaviors of individuals and societies, which can not be measured in a short period of time, are analysed in the long term. The thing that changes tends to change the things that it affects. The dominant one tries to make the other one resemble itself. This kind of societal changes that we call cultural changes can be seen as the developments inside countries. Moreover, international relations also create cultural changes. The main factors creating cultural changes are mass media tools, tourism sector, cultural centers teaching foreign languages, translation activities, import-export activities, art branches and art ambassadors. (Unalan, 2010:161). Culture is a principles system based on interpretation. Therefore, culture can be seen as a frame where behaviors, words and thinking ways of other people are evaluated and there are one`s own deductions, opinions and beliefs. Nonetheless, it should be remembered that every individual might have a different cultural frame, otherwise misinterpretations appear in intercultural communications. As it is quite easy today for people from different cultures to come together despite all these drawbacks, this intercultural interaction gets people closer in every respect. Communication Although communication has existed since humans appeared, the second part of twenty-first century has been accepted as the communication age due to the drastic developments in communication technologies.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN We can define communication as ` the exchange of information that humans and animals do through any methods they can use and any object around them.` Another definition is that communication is sharing the emotions. With these definitions in mind, when we are able to answer the question of how people first communicated, we will have information about the date of when humanity began. In other words, communication history is the history of the humans. Although communication means the interaction of the living with their surroundings, human communication is more emphasized from the viewpoint of sociology. Thus, human communication can be defined as performing the exchange and transmission of the accumulated information, thoughts and feelings through symbols on mutual and different time and place dimensions. `Transmission of accumulated information` and ` exchange of information` mentioned in the definition above are patterns of behavior that are particular to humans. There is communication everywhere there is human. There is appropriate communication everywhere there is success. Communication is a tool to manage perceptions, to create patterns of behavior and to reach business goals. However, if communication does not get one to his/her goals or if one simply fails, the main reason is perception. (Saydam, 2005:86). Whatever the reason on the surface, the main goal of communication is to be dominant in one`s surroundings, develop, determine and change the attitudes and behaviors of others. A frame of common understanding is quite important when it comes to the behavior change aimed with the exchange of messages. To have a common understanding means that experiences gained by living altogether find meaning in mutual symbols. ( Demiray, 274). Whereas there have been different definitions of communication with periodic conditions, it is understood that there is a consensus that the main ingredients of communication are interaction and sharing.(Gungor,37.) Photograph The attempts to save image on a surface as we understand it today started in 17. century. It was the French inventor Joseph Nicepce who recorede image, which we call photograph today. People have been using the language of the images to communicate with each other for thousands of years. Transmission of information by recording similar versions of objects on a surface took place in 19. century. Used only as an entertainment tool before (Diorama of Daguerre), photograph has become a meta that is employed to create art works, for documentation and in every area of trade including media. A product of industrial revolution era, photograph has been affected by technological developments. There have been changes on its use as well as its production. What we call language is generally a speaking tool that people use to communicate. Therefore, people who are not able to speak are called ` mute`. However, this expression is a thing of past now. Today everybody has a kind of language. Any way of communication or information transmitting is a language. ( The presenter in the documentary “Super Humans” on Nationa Geographic, a documentary TV channel, states that we communicate only half of our thoughts through words. This makes one question what other ways of communication we use for the rest % 50 of our thoughts). Is photograph a language or does it have a language? It is now an unnecessary discussion. In fact it did not take too long to realize that photograph is a means of expression. Since its invention, photograph has become a passion for people. It has become a tool like a mirror which reflects individuals, society and life. Actually it was more than a mirror. Unlike a mirror, it has become permanent, portable and transmittable. With the ability to communicate with images, people actually found a method to have a silent communication. Visuals can accurately show the objects or the topic that needs to be presented. For instance, a word may not have the same connotations for everyone. However, if a visual of an object is shown, then everybody perceives it the same way. In other words, visual materials make sure that what needs to be thought is perceived the same way by everybody and it eliminates different interpretations. (Aydın, 2006: 53, quoting from Heinich ).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Photograph is encoded. Symbols, icons, traffic signs and other signs are common language and they are international. Photograph is also one of these common languages. Reading and speaking are actions that requires effort. However, perceiving a photograph is as easy as looking at it. (Arıcan, 2014: 45).

Photograph 1: Different languages, similar menu

Even if we do not understand what is written on a menu in a restaurant in a country whose language we do not understand, we can still order food by looking at the picture. For this reason, menus are generally reinforced with pictures in this kind of service industry. (Photograph 1-2). Photographs both give visual attraction to a written text and make the meaning more clear. Communication through visuals is a kind of silent communication. We can find out if people are feeling hatred, sadness or joy by looking at their pictures. Photograph is obviously not a spoken language. It has its particular language. Thanks to this language, people from every culture can understand each other. It is possible to express anything we want through photograph. Making the arrangements of the objects and their positions that will be inside the frame of the photograph, an expression is created. It is important to create the composition of the photograph accurately. In other words, the objects used for the expression should come together with the right arrangement inside the frame of the photograph. A person facing us and a person whose back is facing us tell different things.

Photograph 2 : Different languages and similar photograph

Whatever expression tool we choose, may it be spoken or written or any other, everything gains meaning in our minds. Therefore\ the photographs that address our thoughts help us understand each other. Visuals bring about right and fast communication. It is indisputable that the intelligibility will be reinforced when sound, writing, visual and motion come together. After all these steps, communication 1058

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN takes place more accurately. In other words, what needs to get across ( the message sent) and what gets across ( the message received) reach the target without any loss. Written words are abstract. However, photographs are concrete reflections of the world where everybody lives.(Freund, 2007: 96). It has been mentioned above that language is also a thinking tool. As photograph also addresses thoughts and gives messages that make people think and reflect, it can be said that photograph has linguistic characteristics. Photograph is the language of visuals. Photograph maker records what needs to be inside the frame of a photograph by consciously choosing and arranging the objects. This work of choosing and arranging objects stems from the concern of the photographer to tell a story. Big images make the space smaller. Moreover, it makes them portable and practical. Objects that are arranged for a specific aim and whose sizes are smaller inside the frame of the photograph make it meaningful. Photograph maker uses different arranging methods while making these arrangements. Artists make different arrangements depending on the movement they choose. To illustrate, H.P.Robinson`s composition like a play scene in Fade Away is an example from 19. century. (Photograph 3)

Photograph 3: Henry Peach Robinson, “Fading Away” (1858)

3. Purpose and Method The aim of the essay under the title `The Language of Intercultural Communication` is to prove that photographs, if made in accordance with its aim, give similar messages to all people regardless their cultural backgrounds and that photograph is an intercultural communication tool through examples from some areas where photographs are used. To reach this aim, photographs that have been taken from many national and international media institutions and advertising photos have been analysed. One of the areas where photograph is used most in international communication field is media. Some news photos that had an international effect when they were used have been analysed content-wise and the essay tries to determine if they were used with similar goals. Media photos are the visuals that summarize the news and prove their reality. Media tries to draw the attention of the public through the news and photos they publish or broadcast. Due to their publishing policies, newspapers may use different photos for the same news. The fact that they use similar photos means that that photo gives the same message to the readers no matter what country they are from or what kind of cultural background they have.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Advertising photos are produced in order to advertise a product, to convince the audience that it is better than the others and to prove it. The photos that are used on the menus of restaurants are made to illustrate what are the food made in the restaurant and how they look like so that customers can see what the food look like on the photos. It goes without saying that the visuals of the books that are translated into foreign languages and that contain many visuals do not change depending on the society. Similary, same visuals are used in illustrated novels no matter in which country they are published. Likewise, films give similar messages to the audience of the country where they are on. Exhibitions of many famous photographers are displayed in many countries around the world and they have lots of audience. This article aims at showing that photograph is a common language through sample presentation photos. Photograph is a powerful communication tool. The message to be transmitted is formed thanks to the photo`s power of persuasion and expression. All these take place through its particular language. Before explaining how powerful the language of photograph is, it would be meaningful to emphasize the main concepts and bring it to a conclusion. 4. Media and Photograph Media is one of the institutions that employ photograph the most. Except for the exclusive news, the time when the media was competing with each other and skipping news has passed. In other words, now an important news report and its photograph can appear in every newspaper. The developing technology makes it easier to spread the news and reach the its source. We see similar photographs in every newspaper as well as similar newspaper reports. Newspapers can reach many different news photos in a very short time through their staff of photographers or photograph agencies. These photos are available to them to use in their news. However, the important thing is to find the appropriate photos for the content of the news and the publishing policies of the newspaper. Still, we see that both local and national newspapers use similar photos for similar news. In fact, it can be seen that other countries` newspapers use similar photos for international news.

Photograph 4: When the South Vietnamese police chief Nguyen Ngoc Loan was killing the boy who he suspected to be a spy

Although the reason for this might be thought that there is a limitation to the photos that photograph agencies provide, it can be stated that what they do is right as it is the newspaper administration board that decides whether to use a photo or not. That`s because news agencies do not serve the news photos

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN that will not be used or sold. Any newspaper from any country publish a photo for an international news as the newspaper administration chooses and uses the photo that their people and society can understand. In this regard, when we have a look at the news and the photos that the newspapers use, we can in fact see that many news photos are used in almost the same way in other international newspapers. For instance, the photo that AP reporter Eddie Adams took in 1968 while a South Vietnamese army officer was executing a man from Viet Kong who was accused of being a spy was published in the whole world media. (Photograph 4) It has become a world famous, unforgettable photo. The photo ` The vulture and the kid` taken by Kevin Carter during the famine in South Africa, which brought him the Pulitzer Award in 1994, was published in the whole world media and it had a similar effect. We can talk about such examples for every area. Today photograph has an important role in many areas of visual culture and visual language from news photography to fashion, from archaeology to police records, architecture to geography, health to film industry, studios to amateur works, social projects to advertising industry and so on. Photograph is, in some sense, the language of feelings. To be able to have a communication, It is necessary to know the language of people who have a different written or spoken language\ or they have to know your language. The common language is sign and indication language. Everybody has an equipment (camera, video recorder or smart phone) to record what they see in a sightseeing tour. Everyone shares the photos of the places they have seen. This sharing among the people that speak the same language has gained an international dimension thanks to internet. Social networking sites have become the ground where people share photos. The site where only photos are shared are increasing more and more. For instance, hundred of sites like 1x, flickr, deviantart, fotocommunity, photosiq, photo, photodom, photokritik have been founded and more is on the way. People transmit their feelings not through words but by sharing images. Besides the amateur photo sites, there are also professional sites where photos are sold. In addition, since the end of 19. century, there have been news photograph agencies that were found in order to meet the needs of media. Magnum, the oldest and most famous of them, can be given as an example. Moreover, there are institutions like Black Star, Associatet Pres, VII Photograph Agency that make and sell only photos and news.

Photograph 5: Omayra Sanchez

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN As the examples illustrate, the media involves in this sharing. International news are published with similar photos. The language of the photos is common though the written language is not understood. The photograph of Omayra Sanchez in the media where the news of the volcano disaster in Colombia in 1985. (Photograph 5) In the news about the Syrian refugees who were on the boat that sank near Turkey on September 2, 2015, the photo of a Syrian kid were on the news around the world. It was on the international news. The headline of the news on may newspaper was ` The photo is self-revealing. No need for words` (Photo 6) The same photograph was on dozens of published and online news. Nonetheless, it should not be concluded from these arguments that photograph can completely replace the spoken and written language. However, it is claimed that illiterate people and those who speak only their mother tongue can have an easy communication through photos. Photograph is more efficient than writing when introducing someone. Therefore, it has been used in areas such as forensic science, criminology, medicine and botanic since its developing phases. Today it is still widely employed. These are the situations where words are insufficient. The resort is photograph.

Photograph 6 : The news of the Syrian refugee kid that came to the shore in Turkey was published in the world press.After what happened,the whole world mourned and it was on the international news.The headline of the news on may newspaper was ` The photo is self-revealing. No need for words` (September 3,2015)

5. Discussion and Conclusion As the literal meaning of photograph is to write with light, we can say it is a kind of writing. If it sends the message completely and in a frame of rules, it can be accepted as a language. Photograph uses the visual language. Written language is also a visual language. Both are nothing more than reading some images and giving meaning to them. In writing, we form words by composing letters and sentences by composing words. Similarly, we make a composition with the objects in the photo frame and make a meaning photo. In other words, a photograph is made that tells a story. The important difference is that language of writing is accumulated, and the language of the photos is shrunk. If a photograph tells a similar thing to a Turk, French, German, Indian, Egyptian person, then it means that it is written in all languages. If language is the tool of communication between people, photograph can be accepted as a language if it does the same thing. Indeed it does and it is a language. However, it has a particular language. It is a language that helps more people to communicate than spoken language. Those who can use photograph as a way of expression can have a meaningful communication with all people. The word table is written as ` masa` in Turkish, `tisch` in German, ` mesa` in Spanish, `tavola` in Italian and read differently. 1062

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN However a photo of a table means the same thing even if you speak a different language or you come from a different culture. For Metz, an image can mean something else besides its first meaning. However it never is in contradiction with the literal meaning or it never reject it. The indicator and the indicated are together. A photographer who wants to show a tree has to show a tree no matter what country he is from. Photograph has a very efficient language that can help a lot more people communicate than spoken or written language. That`s because one photograph is worth a thousand words. With the developments in technology, it has become easier to make changes on a photo. However, the idea that photos still reflect reality and they are the proofs of reality is still valid. And it is accepted so. It may be believed that to make photos that will be reminiscent of the same thing ( and elicit the same feelings) are difficult. However, if the objects are composed in the photo frame according to photo composition rules, it is possible that people from different cultural, educational and language backgrounds receive the same message. The composition of the objects in a photo frame creates a language. Press photos, political propaganda photos and advertisement photos are prepared in this fashion. Whatever the purpose is, only photograph can create a common perception between societies that have culture and language differences. That is because what an individual perceives is the sensational data that the object creates rather than the object itself. What Secil Buker says for the language of the cinema is also valid for photograph. In fact, cinema was born out of photograph. Cinema, in some sense, is constructed form of photos. In other words, cinema is the animated version of photos. ` The language of the cinema is universal`, says Secil Buker. ( Buker, 1985:40) ` To perceive an image is a phenomenon that changes little around the world. That`s because there is no double articulation in the language of photograph. Spoken languages are different in terms of graphemes. As a result people who speak different languages can not understand each other. Graphemes can not be translated into other languages. Each language can be defined within the frame of its own phoneme characteristics. It is impossible to translate the image which does not have graphemes. As photograph does not have graphemes, it is translated to all languages. Therefore, it is universal.` When written works are published in different countries, they are translated into the languages of the countries. However, photograph is published and exhibited the same way in every country. Photograph carries the language characteristics of every culture. Nevertheless, it should be stated that we should exclude the photos where objects are composed to have a figurative expression from the arguments above. We talk about the photos with direct message. In summer, there are tour buses lined up in front of historical monuments. Tourists go and see every part of them. They speak different languages, they do not know each other, however they have a common point; a camera hangs crosswise down their shoulders. (Freud, 179) Photograph is a powerful way of expression. It tells a story. It can be read in a long period of time like a novel. Photograph is a multilingual communication tool. It is the intercultural language. Joseph Nicephore Niepce, the inventor of photograph, tried hard to get his idea accepted. Today few people knows him. The truth is the photograph that he invented is the most common language of our civilization. ( Freud,192) References

Arıcan, M.Z. (2014). Press Photography, Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey. Aydın, C.H. (2006). Teaching Technologies and Material Evaluation and Development, Ed. Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Open Education Publications, Eskişehir, Turkey. Barthes, R. (1992). Camera Lucida, Trl. Reha Akçakaya, Altıkırkbeş Publications. İstanbul, Turkey. Büker, S. (1985). Essays on the Language of the Cinema, Dost Publications, Ankara, Turkey. Demiray, U. (2007). General Communication: Communication beyond Communication, Ed. Uğur Demiray, Pegem A Publications, Ankara, Turkey. Freund, G. Photograph and Society, Trl. Ş.Demirkol, Sel Publications, İstanbul, Turkey.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Güngör, N. (2011). Communication- Theories and Approaches, Siyasal Publications, Ankara, Turkey. Güvenç, B. (1985). Culture Issue and Our Problems, Remzi Publications, İstanbul, Turkey. İnceoğlu, M. (2004). Attitude Perception Communication, Kesit Tanıtım Ltd. Ankara, Turkey. Kaplan, M. (2008). Culture and Language, Dergâh Publications, İstanbul, Turkey. Küçükerdoğan, G.R. (2009). Interculturality in Advertisements, Es Publications, İstanbul, Turkey. Saydam, A. (2005). Mental and Emotional Window of Communication: Perception Management, Rota Publications, İstanbul, Turkey. Ünalan, Ş. (2010). Language and Culture, NobelPublications, İstanbul, Turkey. Vendryes, J. (2001). Lanmguage and Thought, Çv. Berke Vardar, Multilingual, Istanbul, Turkey. Yıldız, Ş. (2005). Language, Culture, Communication and Media, Sinemis, Ankara, Turkey. Büyük Larousse; Milliyet Publications,, 1986, Cilt. 6, p. 3166 Turkish Language Institution, (January 2016), http://www.tdk.gov.tr/index.php?option=com_gts&arama=gts&guid=TDK.GTS.569de804693955.55274584. 07 July 2016, The News Minute; 14.20 http://www.thenewsminute.com/article/after-aylan-4-year-old-syrian-refugee-drowns-will-it-move-eu-now-3441 9. 08 October 2015, The News Minute; 23.46

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN THE NEWS OF THE LOCAL TELEVISIONS IN TURKEY: FOR EXAMPLE KONYA1 PHD. Selman Selim Akyuz Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, Radio-Television and Cinema Dept. [email protected]

Abstract Television focused on general problems. It brought thoughts of monotony broadcasting effect of consisting of consumption culture, disappearing localization, degeneration of culture. On the contrary local televisions are seen alternative to the worldwide televisions. On the other hand local televisions can’t broadcast well and they can’t their duties related the society. It’s seen that a lot of local televisions try to broadcast under difficult condition with insufficient economic resources and stuff problems. In this work, it is tried to be shown how five channels work in the context of giving information, how they help democracy, how they transfer control and critics of the managements, how they transferred problems. News bulletin of local televisions had been studied with way of discourse analysis and number, type and time of news are detected in the bulletins. When the consequences of the investigations are commented, It’s known that local televisions in Konya, transfer the events that take place in Konya to audiences. Besides that they give importance to security event and politic news. On the other hand It’s seen that the local TVs don’t give importance to investigated information. The problems of the city and people are not shown in the news. Also they don’t give importance to the news related to the control of the local managements and activities of civil organizations. Keywords: News, Local Television, Local Democracy, Turkey

1.

Introduction

When we think about the place of the media in social life, principle of conformability has gained much more importance. While people are interested in their immediate vicinity, they also want to know what‟s going on around, follow the subjects which creating local agenda, and have opinion about problems. In Turkey, the local media, which can not make progress when it is compared with national media, has a lot of problems. Vural (1999: 11) says that; In Turkey, there is a local media existence which can not be effective in forming public opinion and local agenda due to being inadequate, unqualified and weak. Recently, the local televisions have broken through, but they keep broadcasting in such a pattern that doesn‟t do it‟s own duty in terms of solving current problems. The extent of the local televisions‟ power in forming cities‟ agenda, operability of democracy and solving the problems, is expressed by the universities located in Konya, according to surveys and observations. In this survey, KONTV, KONYA TV, KTV, SUNTV and UNİTV, which are broadcasting in Konya, are tested according to their extent of reflecting people‟s problems to the media and also degree of doing their own duty in terms of annunciation. These tests are done by the method of content analysis.

1

This study is a summary of master‟s thesis which was accepted by Selcuk University Institute of Social Sciences in 2010.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2. The Media System in Turkey Considering the media systems‟ current process, different models are seen. Hallin and Mancini examined 4 extents of the media in North America and Western Europe in order to compare media systems; development of media market, relation of media and politics, development of professional journalism and extent of goverment‟s interference on media system and its nature (from Hallin and Mancini, Arsan, 2005; 148). Arsan (2005: 149) states that the most suitable model for Turkey is; Mediterranean or Polarized Pluralist Model; and then, mentions its characteristic features;  There is a media which is characteristically elit based.  Freedom of the press and development of the commercial press occured too late.  Circulations are low.  Newspapers are usually economically marginal and get state subvention.  There is a media which is politics indexed  Rather than informatics, commentary-weighted journalism are being done and idea of public‟s advocacy is dominated.  It is too common that media is an instrument of government, political parties or politicians.  The professionalisation process of journalism have not been completed and not common. The journalism can not be seen different from a political activity and freedom of press is limited.  The state has an important role as owner of the media, editor and founder. However, the state doesn‟t make an effective regulation, but limited regulations. 2.1. Television Reporting in Turkey In Turkey, as well as the whole world, the television reporting showed up after radio reporting. Some journalists are attented to some television reporting courses in BBC. And in 31 December 1968, the first television news bulletin which was presented by Zafer Cilasun, was broadcasted (Uyguç and Genç, 1998: 106). Television reporting in Turkey has gained a different pattern since 1990 when the private television channels began to broadcasting. This process caused media to be a commercial activity instead of public service, just like its counterparts in Europe countries. Commodification of television programs and news, viewer‟s process of being a customer have changed news with regards to content, mode and selection of news (Cankaya, 1997:121). The private television channels which imitiate the American channels since they were founded, make the news clips and edit them by musics and finctions. Except the state of emergency, the similar news orders of the television channels are as follows; starts with politics news, continues with acitivities of political party leaders, then news from the abroad and ends with economy news and weather forecast.Duration of news bulletin in Turkey is much more longer than America news‟ 30 minute duration and reaches 50 minutes. In Turkey, the duration of each news can be 3 or 4 minutes while in America this duration is 45-90 seconds. In order to make the news interesting, effective news readers are looked for and the news readers comment by using their gestures and body language while reading news (Kars, 1996: 510). A large number of national channels in Turkey offer lots of options for viewers to watch but they are not different from each other in terms of content. Recently, rising number of people using satellite receiver and direction of political movements caused increase in variety of ideologies in media. In the early 2000‟s, magazinish news broadcasting which is also called as „Televole Reporting‟, has given its place to the news bulletins which gives primacy to political news, due to polarization in media. The structural differences are not just about technology and monetary power. Just like the structure of Turkey‟s media, some part of the private radios and television channels, are controlled by some powerful capitals, different communities and political parties (Bay, 2007; 84). 3. Local Television Broadcasting in Turkey In Europe, after 1980‟s, by the European communities, some lobbying works was started in order to support the some small countries and areas‟s media industry, with local organizations‟ contrubitions.Thus, some funds are trying to be found in order to help local media foundations to be able to broadcast without „rating‟ concern, within a horizontal organization form. For example, they

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN tried to help broadcasting corporations which is broadcasting in local language, not to become inoperative just because of they have limited audience. And also they tried to challenge the strategies which are followed by the global media companies. Because it was the only way for local media corporations to create an alternative broadcasting policy and language, in other words, to follow the new cultures and identities, cooperate with these new cultures and identities and help to those who are suffering from inequality in government relations, in such organization network (Güven, 2007: 336). Local media reveals the socail, economical, cultural and political structure of the place where they are belong to, by its mission and function. Thus, helps people to gain the feeling of „living space‟(Bekiroğlu, 2006; 92). Formation of broadcasting activies and globalizing world are the reasons of process of getting congenerous in globalization. It is required to have alternative courses, places and instruments in order to go beyond the broadcasting activities which are monotype.Local media organizations, especially local televisions, can be an alternative and resistance spot against the boradcasting activities which are congenerous. It is possible to response the process of getting congenerous due to globalization, by getting different. Considering the relations of global/territorial media with the governments, there are lots of thing to do for local media in terms of localisation and proliferation of democracy and protection of multiplism. Global or territorial media puts a journalism concept which is offered by similar sources, on the agenda. Generally, it focuses on global problems and a reporting filter system is activated against the people on the street and those which are local (Güven, 2007: 332). In this context, the time periods when the local media and televisions were not that popular, give us critical notes about importance of local broadcasting. Local reporting directly effects people‟s lives who lives in a city or region. In local reporting, local televisions which have important function in solving local problems, democratic participation, contrubition to local democracy, also contribute to the region in terms of forming a collective identity, local agenda and operation of local economy. It seems that in local televisions, reporting consists of security, policy, social society and municipality news. Its required to improve news sources, reporting, and journalism concept towards informing people more than ever. Because it is important to knowthat people believes that „The most close one is the most important one‟ and also they know that the things happening around them directly effect them (Bayram, 2002). Considering the historical process of local media, it seems that it has an important role and responsibility in the foundation of Republic of Turkey. It has been contributing to the democracy since the period of National Struggle (Solak 2005, 134-136). Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was also aware of the importance of the media and benefited it by directing people to be object to imperialist occupation, thanks to media‟s connective manner. Thus, the local media is called as „Anatolian Media‟ (Girgin, 1997: 39). Anatolian Media, is like a mirror that reflects the economical, cultural, social, political features of Turkish people. Anatolian Media mostly forms the substructure of political parties in political organizations. Owners and managers of the Anatolian newspapers are usually social leaders of their own regions and political and social focal points of the region (Kurşun, 2007: 378). In Turkey, private television broadcasting has been developed in a short time, althought it strated too late.The reasons of this situation are; social need of this kind broadcasting, existence vast audience, political propaganda, political parties‟ using these televisions in order to communicate with the voters, media bosses‟ desire to benefit from televisions which they see it as an useful tool for their personel profits (Aziz, 1999: 153-154). Number of the local televisions in Turkey, (by year 2010), has gone beyond 200, with the televisions which broadcasted temporary. Local televisions have expended their audience and broadcasting area thanks to satellite. And this situation redetermined the extent of the locality which is geographically identified in Turkey. The televisions which broadcasting for specific groups in an area or city, now are able to reach to people which shares same toughts, language, race, religion with the people in these regions, thanks to satellite. Thus, televisions become socially local instead of geographically local which is limited with the satellite transmitter. Nearly all of the cities‟ television channels have taken place in satellite. Especially, the televisions of the cities in Blacksea Region, have gotten the chance of reaching to the people living in metropol cities, thanks to satellite. This televisions which are broadcasting about religion‟s news and culture, also increased their advertising revenue.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Missions and Functions of Local Media 3.1. There are missions and responsibilities of reporting for the public benefits as part of general principles of press profession.The rules that media has to obey in order to inform people, are also valid for local media and televisions. However, the local media and televisions are supposed to be more sensitive for its responsibilities and missions because of the mainstream media‟s commercial concerns which are exposed to critics. Kalender (2000: 59) states that; local media has an important role because, in extraordinary situations, it can declare mobilization and give a fillip to people. Also, in natural disasters such as flood, earthquake and fire, the local media can organize people to help each other, in terms of blood or organ donations and donation campaigns. And this features of local media has an important role in the state of war, as well. It‟s the local society‟s election that determines the municilapity. Furthermore, all the local extensions of public organizations work for this local or regional area. Considering this system, we can see that local media reflects to the people what they see and forms the molds public opinion. The basic fields in forming state‟s policy are public opinions. There is no democracy without localness. The national policy is formed in local areas (Gerçeker, 2002). Yalın (2004) stresses the importance of local media in terms of democracy‟s factors, as follows;  In Turkey, in the development of democratic polyphony, and forming of public opinion freely, the local media has the primary role.  It has an important role in the protection of cultural and local heritages.  Helps the non-governmental organizations to develop and be effective.  It is the most important factor in the inspection of local government in the name of public.  It has the feature of being guardian of multiplism.

In this context, the missions and responsibilities of local media are; to inform people, provide the inspection and criticism in political system, contribute to the public formation when the public Accord is required and entertain people in order to get them away from their problems. Also these subjects are evaluated in the functions of media; contrubition to the democracy, transfer of the cultural heritage, contrubition to the economy, informing people, being bridge between cultures and being exhorter. News sources of the local medias are limited with; municipality, governorship, courthouse, local authority, provincial heads of political parties, and chambers of commerce, artisans, industry. They‟re characterized as primary news sources and they produce raws of news and reporting these foundations‟ actions and discourses is a problem. The news sources which is limited with economical and political powers causes problems in inspecting people who has economical power and people who are governing society. These news sources present the news in such a way that sustains their own power and potency (Şeker, 2007: 79). One of the important problems in local media is that reporter‟s/newspeople‟s communication and distance problem with source people or instutions. Kolaylı (1998) states that, in local areas, reporters are contacting with the politicians, breucrats, business men and thus, the distance between reporters and these people nearly disappeared. And Kolaylı continues that; this problem is still at the high extent in local media. The local media in Turkey has advantage for actualisation of citizen journalism. Because in Turkey, the intended population is not apolitic which means they‟re not reckless for politics as people in U.S.A. On the contrary, in Turkey the people are quite sensitive for politics and society problems. Thus, it is the best way that recognize and hand the microphone to the people who dont have an opportunity for expressing themselves, because the civil organizations are not that developed yet (Cangöz, 2005: 121). Local Media and Televisions in Konya 3.2. 3.2.1. City Profile of Konya Konya‟s deep-rooted history, historical and social background let it to be capital of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate for a long time. After this time period, Konya contiuned it‟s own existence as the socialpolitical center. Today, Konya is still an economic, educational, cultural and commercial center (Arabacı, 2008: 22). Konya was one of the important cities of Ottoman Empire, as well. Its location which was on the Silkroad route and its important part in cereal production in Anatolia, helped the city to be one of the

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN important city of Turkish Republic within the Republic Period. Alongside the agriculture, in Konya, the agro-industries, manufacturing industry and turism has gained momentum lately.With its central population which is nearly 1 million, and general population which is nearly 2 million, Konya is the 6th biggest city of Turkey. Also, Konya is getting bigger day by day by the migrations from Anatolian county sides or other regions. Konya has been home to many civilisations and it bears the traces of history which goes back to 700 B.C. The city which was the capital of Seljuk Sultanate, is also home of the Celalleddin Rumi who is famous all over the world. 3.2.2. Local Televisions in Konya There are 5 televisions in Konya which are broadcasting. One of this channels is regionally and other 4 channels are locally broadcasting. Konya has an powerful view in Anatolia in terms of its local broadcasting as well as its local printed media. After the private televisions began to broadcasting, the first local television channel in Turkey, the SUNTV, has begun to broadcasting in 15 April 1991, in Konya. This television channel is still keeping broadcasting with the same name. The KONTV which began to broadcasting in 1992, by broadcasting in terrestrially on Central Anatolia Region; the triange of Konya, Karaman, Aksaray, became a regional television channel. Also, The KONTV, is the only television channel in Konya that satellite broadcasting and it began in 2005. The ÜNİTV, has begun to broadcasting in 1998, as practice unit of Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication. The university television whose broadcasting reaches to city center and some district, provide an opportunity for students to take their practising education, and also contribute to local television channels in Konya by both training educated personnels and providing broadcasting contents. KTV television was constituted in 1995 by an aggregate Corporation and then bought by Özkaymak Incorporated Company which is a family company. The channel which is managed by Konyat Communication Corporation, is broadcasting for 24 hours. KonyaTv (Kanal 42) is broadcasting with the frequency of Çağrı TV which was constituted in 1994 (Köseoğlu, 2008: 176). 3.2.3. Problems of Local Televisions Local televisions in Turkey have begun to broadcasting without a determined substructure since the time they founded. Also, in the foundations of private televisions there were some problems such as institutionalisation, qualified personnel, besides jural problems as especially frequency assignment. The televisions which are broadcasting nationally, have covered a distance thanks to TRT‟s qualified personnel transer and in the early periods of private broadcasting, the problem of institutionalisation was solved thanks to high advertising revenue. Gap in laws, supervisions and frequency allotment are still being discussed. Yet, a big amount of local televisions can not overcome these problems since the early 1990‟s. In the brochures of activities such as education seminars, panel discussions and congress, prominent problems of local media are stressed. In these sources, it seems that local journalists are mostly suffering from absence of qualified personnels, inadequecy of formal advertising support, lack of technical infrastructure, manners of news sources, input costs and problems caused by some legal regulations (Şeker, 2007: 70). Güreli (1998) refers that; problems of local media are basically caused by political Powers. Güreli supports that some politicians care about mostly their own political future and when their failures are mentioned by media, they behave like an enemy aganist media. Also, Güreli stresses that politicians are not able to secure the justice in formal advertising, and they open a credit for large media organizations, while Anatolian media is on the rack. The biggest problems of local media are economical problems and income sources. Also there are problems such as professional staff and education which are caused by the economical problems. And finally, local media suffers from technologic equipment and infrastructure, management, organizational structure and jural problems.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4. Content Analysis of Main News Bulletins of Local Televisions Broadcasting in Konya. In this survey, numeric datas are obtained by analysing contents of main news bulletins of local televisions broadcasting in Konya, the datas was recorded for a week. Channels‟ number of news, duration of news, duration of bulletins, types of news, subjects in news, ways of making news, political party news, subjects in advertising factors was categorised by using the prepared coding form. Table 1. Content Analysis Coding Form Varieable Code no

Content

1

Number of the researching unit (Three graded)

001- …

2

Date (Day)

01-07

3

Month

April

4

Year

2009

Name of the television KONTV (1) SUNTV 5

(2)

1-5

ÜNTV (3) KTV (4) KONYA TV (5)

Source of the news Instructions of primary sources

(1)

Chanells‟ own special news

(2)

Agency News

(3)

Unknown Sources

(4)

Others

(5)

6

1-5

Type of News 7

1-2

National News (1) Local News (2)

8

1-11

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Column

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Type of News Security News

(1)

Local Management News

(2)

Civil Society News

(3)

Economy News

(4)

Magazine News

(5)

Problems of City and Citizens

(6)

Political News

(7)

Environment & Healty News

(8)

Education News

(9)

Agricultural News

(10)

Others

(11)

Distrubitions of Political Parties News (1)

AKP 9

(2)

CHP

1-6 (3)

MHP

(4)

DSP

(5)

Others

Preparing of the News 10

Researching News

(1)

Except Researching News

(2)

1-2

Factors out of Bulletin There is advertising factor

(1)

There is no advertising factor

(2)

11

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1-2

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4.1.

News Bulletin and Durations of News

As it it seen in Figure 1; there are differences among the televisions channels in terms of main news bulletin‟s duration.

Table 2. Bulletin and News Durations KONTV

ÜNTV

SUNTV

KTV

KONYA TV

Duration

Duration

Duration

Duration

Duration

1 April 2009 Wednesday

43‟30”

31‟20”

52‟07”

22‟59”

40‟35”

2 April 2009 Thursday

35‟19”

25‟49”

42‟37”

14‟52”

27‟38”

3 April 2009 Friday

37‟59”

24‟36”

39‟26”

14‟44”

27‟25”

4 April 2009 Saturday

34‟20”

35‟15”

43‟10”

16‟19”

24‟45”

5 April 2009 Sunday

41‟58”

30‟35”

50‟27”

15‟10”

24‟15”

6 April 2009 Monday

33‟33”

21‟01”

43‟11”

18‟13”

28‟55”

7 April 2009 Tuesday

34‟15”

32‟48”

35‟11”

14‟27”

22‟45”

Total

260‟54"

201‟24”

306‟09”

116‟44”

196‟18”

Average Bulletin Duration

37‟14”

28‟38”

43‟40”

16‟31”

28‟03”

Average News Duration

1‟58”

1‟58”

2‟21”

1‟47”

2‟06”

Weekend Average News Duration

38‟09”

32‟55”

46‟44”

15‟45”

24‟30”

News Durations of Channels

4.2.

Channels’ Number of News

Table 3. Number of news in Bulletins Number of News in Bulletins of Channels

Number

KONTV

132

ÜNTV

102

SUNTV

130

KTV

65

KONYA TV

93

Total

522

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

KONTV is the channel that gives wide coverage to bulletins most and KTV is the channel that gives coverage to bulletins least. ÜNTV and KONYA TV are averagely broadcasting 13-16 news for each day. 4.3.

Distribution of News Sources According to Channels

Table 4. Distrubition of News Sources

Distribution of NewsAccording to Channels

ÜNTV

KONTV

SUNTV

KONYA TV

KTV

Total

Number

%

No.

%

No.

%

No

%

N

%

No.

%

37

28

24

23,5

22

17

26

40

30

32,2

139

26,6

68

51,5

63

61,7

48

37

23

35,3

34

36,5

236

45,2

Agency News

7

5,3

8

7,8

50

38

11

17

19

20,4

95

18,1

Unknown Source

14

10,6

1

1

6

4,6

-

0

4

4,3

25

4,7

Others

6

4,5

6

5,8

4

3,1

5

7,7

6

6,4

27

5,1

Total

132

100

102

100

130

100

65

100

93

100

522

100

Instructions of primary sources Chanells‟ own special news

Considering the Table - 4, the channels are mostly broadcasting their own special news. Some channels (SUNTV and KTV) which does not concrete on local news, are focusing on agency news mostly, while instructions of primary sources has an important place within news sources. Its defined that KTV is the channel that looks to instructions of primary sources most (%40) and ÜNTV is the channel that uses its own special news mostly. 4.4.

Distributions of News Types According to Channels

Table 5. Distrubiton Of News Types Distributions of News Types According to Channels

ÜNTV

KONTV

SUNTV

KTV

KONYA TV

Total

Number

%

no

%

no

%

no

%

no

%

no

%

Local News

125

94,7

95

93,1

47

36,1

42

64,6

64

68,8

373

71,4

National and World

7

5,3

7

6,8

83

63,8

23

35,3

29

31,1

149

28,5

Total

132

100

10 2

100

130

100

65

100

93

100

522

100

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Considering the Table 5, 373 of the total 522 news,which is broadcasted by all of the channels, (%71,4) is local news. 125 of KONTV‟s news (%94,4), 95 of ÜNTV‟s news (%93,1), 47 of the SUNTV‟s news (%36,1), 42 of KTV‟s news (%64,6) and 64 of KONTV‟s news (%68,8) are local news. Distribution of News Subjects According to Channels 4.5. In this surver, the news subjects were examined within 12 categories. Considering the Table 6, it seems that security news form the %21, local management news form %11, civil society news form %4, economy news form %15, magazine news form %3, news that refers to problems of city and citizens form %6, environment and healty news form %8, political news form %16, educational news form %6, culture-art news form %8, agricultural news %0,5 and the other news categories form nearly %3 of all the news bulletins. Table 6. Distribution of News Subjects ÜNTV

KONTV

SUNTV

KTV

KONYA TV

Total

Distrubition of News Subjects According to Channels.

no

%

no

%

no

%

no

%

no

%

no

%

Security news

30

22,7

17

16,6

38

29,2

6

9,2

20

21,5

111

21,2

Local Management News

21

15,9

10

9,8

12

9,2

5

7,7

7

7,5

55

10,5

Civil Citizen News

6

4,5

4

3,9

3

2,3

4

6,1

4

4,3

21

4

Economy News

15

11,3

17

16,6

16

12,3

13

20

17

18,2

78

14,9

Magazine News

6

4,5

1

0,98

1

0,76

4

6,1

1

1,07

13

2,5

Problems of City and Citizen

3

2,2

5

4,9

12

9,2

5

7,7

5

5,3

30

5,7

Environment & Healty News

10

7,5

10

9,8

7

5,3

8

12,3

5

5,3

40

7,7

Political News

14

10,6

17

16,6

26

20

8

12.3

18

19,3

83

15,9

Education News

13

9,8

4

3,9

3

2,3

5

7,7

6

6,4

31

5,9

Culture-Art News

7

5,3

15

14,7

8

6,1

4

6,1

8

8,6

42

8

Agriculture News

1

0,75

1

0,98

1

0,76

-

0

-

0

3

0,5

Others

5

3,8

2

1,9

3

2,3

3

4,6

2

2,1

15

2,9

Total

132

100

102

100

130

100

65

100

93

100

522

100

As it is seen in Table 6, in the news bulletins of local television channels in Konya, the most popüler news types are security, policy and economy. SUNTV is the channel that uses security news most (%29,2). One of the conspicuous things in the table 6 is that the news about problems of city and citizen are not being broadcasted that much. SUNTV is the channel that is broadcasting this kind of news the most and KONTV is the channel that is broadcasting this kind of news the least (%2,2). Magazine news also are not that popular in local televisions in Konya.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

4.6

Distribution of Political Party News According to Channels

Table 7. Distribution of Political Party News

ÜNTV

KONTV

SUNTV

KTV

KONYA TV

Total

Distribution of Political Party News

No.

%

No.

%

No.

%

No.

%

No.

%

No.

%

AKP

7

33,3

4

23,5

5

16,6

2

22,2

1

5,5

19

20,6

CHP

-

0

-

0

-

0

-

0

1

5,55

1

1,08

MHP

4

19

4

23,5

5

16,6

2

22,2

3

16,6

18

19,5

DSP

3

14,3

3

17,6

5

16,6

2

22,2

1

5,5

14

15,2

Others

7

33,3

6

35,3

15

50

3

33,3

12

66,6

43

45,6

Total

21

100

17

100

30

100

9

100

18

100

95

100

In this surver, there are 92 political parties that are examined. In local televisions in Konya, AKP which is also government of the state, forms %21, CHP forms %2, MHP forms %20, DSP forms %15, other parties and analysis news after election form %46 of the all the news. Considering the voters in the Konya, it seems that the voters are conservative people thats why AKP and MHP are that popular. 4.7 Categorization which is made according to Ways of Preparing news, According to Channels. Table 8. Way Of Preparing News

KONTV

ÜNTV

SUNTV

Way of Preparing News

KONYA TV

KTV

Total

Sayı

%

Sayı

%

Sayı

%

Say ı

%

Sa yı

%

Sayı

%

Research News

10

7,5

13

12,7

3

2,3

1

1,5

3

3,2

30

5,74

Except Research News

122

92,4

89

87,2

127

97,7

64

98,5

90

96,7

492

94,2

Total

132

100

102

100

130

100

65

100

93

100

522

100

As it is seen in Table 8, only %6 of the news that are broadcasted in a week in Konya, are research news. Some research news referring to subjects such as corruption, infraction of rules, social problems, datas based on economy, were broadcasted in KONTV after University Television (ÜNTV) .

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 4.8 Number of Personnels in News Bureaus of Local Televisions Table 9. Number of News Personnel Number of Personnels in News Bureaus of Channels

KONTV

ÜNTV

SUNTV

KTV

KONYA TV

News Director

1

2

1

1

1

News Editor

1

1

1

-

1

Editor

2

2

-

1

-

Reporter-Cameraman

6

10

3

4

6

Assembler

2

3

2

1

2

Speaker

4

4

2

2

3

Total

17

22

9

9

13

In the Konya, at news bureaus of channels, number of working personnels are varies from 9to 22. ÜNTV has the most number of personnels thanks to its abudance of trainees, while KTV and SUNTV has the least number of personnels. Also it seems that the channels that are focusing on local news have more reporter and cameramans while the channels that are focusing on agency news and national news, have less number of personnels. Some channels do not employ editors or news editors due to economical problems. Also, due to same problems, in some channels which have no reporters, cameramans also working as reporters. 5. Discussion and Conclusion Considering the location of local media in Turkey, the survers show that Turkish media is much more far away from effectiveness and powerful local medias in developed countries. National medias and televisions which are broadcasting rating-oriented with the important advertising revenue and supports, are criticised for being uninterested to problems of citizens. Yet, the local media is struggling to survive in all the areas of Turkey as both written and visual media. Also, the local medias are not able to broadcast sufficently due to problems of income sources, employment of educated personnels and lack of technical opportunities. In Konya, which is one of the cities those local medias and televisions are known as powerful, the local televisions are suffering from same problems. The local televisions are keeping up the matters at hand but in news bulletins, they are not able to get the consciousness of broadcasting that is coming directly from citizens. KONTV is the channel that broadcasting news of AKP the most while KONYA TV is broadcasting the news of this political party least. Also KONYATV is the only channel that broadcasting news of CHP. News of MHP are mostly broadcasted by SUNTV, while KTV is the channel that is broadcasting news of MHP least. The KONTV which conveys its broadcasting to its audience by the satellite besides the terrestrial broadcasting system, was stopped to broadcasting for 2 days, by Radio and Television Supreme Council, for not broadcasting political party news equally before the election. Its tought that, after the election, KONTV did not broadcast a lot of political party news in comparison of other channels, due to this reason. The local televisions in Konya does not broadcast news about problems of citizens and local management at the expected level, concordantly, the local televisions are broadcasting research news less. Thus, the local media are not able to do its own duty of being brigde and exhorter and contributing to democracy.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN The local medias which have problems in generating an income , have to broadcast the activities of public relations, opening of branches, overviews of new productions of the companies which gives advertisements, in news bulletins. Broadcasting of unwilled advertisement elements in news is caused by lack of montage opportunities. Usually the local reporter have no time for bowdlerizing these elements totally, owing to their race against the time. Also this bowdlerizing problem is caused by inadequacy of personnels working in montage units. In local televisions, the least number of personnels are working in montage units. Local televisions in Konya are broadcasting the things that close to the people, however, they‟re supposed to develop their consciousness of broadcasting in terms of molding public opinion, inspection of managers and establishment of democracy. References Arabacı, Caner (2008). Cumhuriyet Devri Konya Basını ve Gazetecileri, Konya Book XI Special Copy, The Konya Chamber of Commerce Publications, December 2008. Arsan, Esra (2005). Gazetecilik Üzerine Düşünmek Habercinin El Kitabı Dizisi:4, Publications of IPS Communication Foundation, İstanbul. Aziz, Aysel (1999). Türkiye’de Televizyon Yayıncılığının 30 Yılı, TRT General Secretary Printing and Broadcasting Management, Ankara. Bay, Nurettin (2007). Radyo ve Televizyon Yayıncılığı, Nuve Culture Center Publications, Konya. Bayram, Fatih (2002). Yerel Televizyon Haberciliğinin Haber Verme İşlevi Açısından Değerlendirilmesi ve Eskişehir İlinde Bir Uygulama Örneği, Unpublished Master Thesis, Anadolu University, Eskişehir. Bekiroğlu, Onur (2006). Yerel Kamuoyunun Oluşumunda Yerel Basının Rolü, Institutes of Social Sciences, Master Thesis, Konya. Cankaya, Özden (1997). Radyo ve Televizyon Haberciliği, Marmara University Press-Broadcasting High School Lesson Notes, İstanbul. Gerçeker, Mustafa (2002). Yerel Basın Nasıl Olmalı, Neler Yapmalı?, IX. Local Media Education Seminar, 09-10 Mayıs 2002, Tunceli. http://www.byegm.gov.tr/seminerler/tunceli_ix/tunceli_19.htm Girgin, Atilla (1997). Türkiye’deki Yerel Basının Gelişmesi, Publications of Journalists Association of Turkey, İstanbul. Güreli, Nail (1998). Yerel Medyanın Sorunları, I. Local Media Education Seminar, 12-13 Mart 1998, Diyarbakır. http://www.byegm.gov.tr/seminerler/konusma6.htm Güven, O. Özgür (2007). Küreselleşme Yerelleşme ve Yerel Medya, Journal of Communication Faculty, İstanbul İstanbul. Kalender, Ahmet (2000). Siyasal İletişim, Seçmenler ve İkna Stratejileri, Çizgi Publications, Konya. Kars, Neşe (1996). Televizyonda Sermaye ve Haber, Yeni Türkiye Dergisi Medya Özel Sayısı, Vol: 11, Year: 2, Ankara, 1996. Kolaylı, Nuri (1998), Bursa Basını ve Medyaya Genel Bakış, http://www.byegm.gov.tr/seminerler/BurKonusma7.htm, 1998. Köseoğlu, Ahmet (2008). Konya’da Medyanın Tarihi ve Gelişim Seyri, Konya Book XI Özel Special Copy, The Konya Chamber of Commerce Publications, December 2008. Kurşun, Ahmet Kadri (2007), “Yerel Basının Yerel Siyasi Katılıma Etkisi”, Journal of Communication Faculty, İstanbul. Solak, Mehmet Ali (2005). Medya Konsantrasyonu ve Görüş Çeşitliliği, Rekabet ve Medya, 19. TürkAlman Gazeteciler Semineri, Publications of Conrad Adenauer Foundation, İstanbul. Şeker, Mustafa (2007). Yerel Gazeteler, Tablet Kitabevi, Konya. Türkiye Gazeteciler Cemiyeti Hak ve Sorumluluk Bildirgesi, (2008). Erdini Basım ve Yayınevi, İstanbul. Uyguç, Ünal ve GENÇ, Ali (1998). Radyo Televizyon Haberciliği, İ.Ü.S.B.E. Yayınları, İstanbul. Vural, Ali Murat (1999), Yerel Basın ve Kamuoyu, A.Ü. Açıköğretim Fakültesi Yayınları No: 607, Eskişehir. Yalın, Etem (2004), Elazığ’da Yerel Medya Sorunları ve Çözüm Önerileri, Sözün Yalını, http://www.elaziz.net/yazar/etem/elazigda yerelmedya sorunlari.htm (01.07.2004).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Internet http://www.kontv.com http://www.konya.gov.tr http://www.konyatv.com.tr http://www.ktv.com.tr http://www.rtuk.org.tr http://www.suntv.com.tr http://www.universitetelevizyonu.com

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN

ĠÇ KONTROL SĠSTEMĠNĠN ETKĠNLĠĞĠNĠ ARTTIRMADA KISITLAR TEORĠSĠNĠN ROLÜ Yrd.Doç.Dr. Hakan VARGÜN Karabük Üniversitesi, Ġşletme Fakültesi, Uluslararası Ġşletmecilik Bölümü [email protected] Özet Yoğun rekabet ortamında faaliyetlerini sürdüren işletmelerin başarı sağlamaları için iyi bir iç kontrol sistemine ihtiyaç bulunmaktadır. İç kontrol sistemi, işletme faaliyetlerinin belirlenen amaç ve hedefler doğrultusunda yürütülmesi, varlıkların korunması, muhtemel risklerin belirlenerek ortadan kaldırılması ve bunun gibi birçok konuda işletmelere fayda sağlayan önemli bir sistem olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Ancak iç kontrol sisteminin işletmelere bahsedilen faydaları sağlayabilmesi için sistemin amaçlanan şekilde kurulmasının yanı sıra etkin bir şekilde çalışması da son derece önemlidir. Bu açıdan iç kontrol sisteminin uygulanması sürecinde mevcut kısıtların belirlenmesi ve bu kısıtların ortadan kaldırılarak sistemden beklenen başarılı sonuçların sağlanması gerekmektedir. Bu amaçla işletme ortamında iç kontrol sistemini destekleyecek diğer yönetsel modellerin de kullanılması önemlidir. Bu çalışmada işletmelerin finansal raporlarının tam, doğru ve zamanında sunulması ve finansal raporlarda oluşabilecek hata ve hilelerin önlenmesi açısından iç kontrol sisteminin kısıtlar teorisi ile birlikte kullanılmasının işletmelere sağlayacağı muhtemel katkılar üzerinde durulmuştur. Ayrıca çalışmada kısıtlar teorisi ile temellendirilen iç kontrol sisteminin etkin bir şekilde nasıl uygulanacağına yönelik önerilerde bulunulmuştur. Anahtar Kelimeler: İç Kontrol, İç Kontrol Sistemi, Kısıtlar Teorisi. Abstract The entity needs the good internal control system to be succesfull at intense competitive atmosphere. The internal control system is the important and beneficial system to hold assets, conduct the operation of entity in the direction of determined purposes and targets, to remove probable risks as many topics. Also, the efficiency of the internal control system is quite important to provide these mentioned benefits. From this point of view, in the process of the implementation of the internal control system, determining available constraints and thereby provide expected successfull results from the system are necessary. With this aim, different managerial models supporting the internal control system is significant. In this study, submitted financial reports of the entity in exact and right time and the usage of the theory of constraint and the internal control system together to prevent fraud and defects in the financial reports are laid emphasis on. Also, in this study, there are many suggestions how to perform the internal control system grounded with the theory in an efficient way. Keywords: Internal Control, Internal Control System, Theory of Constraints.

1. Giriş Sermaye piyasaların geliştiği günümüz dünyasında işletmeler yatırımcılara, kredi sağlayanlara, çalışanlara ve diğer paydaşlara işletme faaliyetleri hakkında daha sağlıklı bilgiler vermelidir. Bunun için işletmelerin kurumsallaşma perspektifinde bilgi sistemlerini geliştirmeleri ve söz konusu sistemlerin kompleks yapıdaki işletme faaliyetleri hakkındaki bilgileri ihtiyaca uygun şekilde 1079

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN dönüştürmesi gerekmektedir. Bilgi sistemleri aracılığıyla elde edilen veriler aracılığıyla işletme faaliyetlerinin istenen düzeyde gerçekleştirilip gerçekleştirilmediği ve faaliyetlerin işletmenin amacına, stratejisine, mevzuata ve diğer yasal düzenlemelere uygunluk sağlayıp sağlamadığı hususunda önemli sonuçlar da edinilmektedir. Bu durum özellikle iç kontrol sistemine sahip olan işletmelerin sistemden bekledikleri başarının sağlanmasında kilit rol oynamaktadır. İşletmelerde kaynak optimizasyonunun sağlanması, hata ve hilelerin önlenerek mali tabloların güvenilirliğinin arttırılması, faaliyetlerin etkinliğinin geliştirilmesi ve bunun gibi birçok alanda işletmelerin sürekliliğinin sağlanabilmesi için etkili bir iç kontrol sistemine ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. Ancak iç kontrol sisteminin amaçlanan bir şekilde kurulması ve sisteme işlerlik kazandırılabilmesi için öncelikle işletme ortamında gerçekleştirilen tüm faaliyetlere ilişkin doğru bir bilgi akışının sağlanması gerekir. Daha sonra iç kontrol sisteminin etkinliğine olumsuz etkide bulunabilecek muhtemel risklerin belirlenmesi ve söz konusu risklerin azaltılması veya ortadan kaldırılması gerekmektedir. Böylelikle gerekli ve doğru bilgilerle etkin hale getirilen iç kontrol sistemi kısıtların yönetilerek azaltılması veya ortadan kaldırılmasıyla işletmeleri daha kontrol edilebilir bir yapıya dönüştürecektir. Çalışmada iç kontrol sisteminin kısıtlar teorisi ile birlikte bir işletme ortamında uygulanmasının iç kontrol sistemine ilişkin kısıtların azaltılması veya ortadan kaldırılmasında etkili olup olmayacağı araştırılmıştır. Bu çerçevede kısıtlar teorisi perspektifinde iç kontrol sistemini uygulayacak olan işletmelere çeşitli önerilerde bulunulmuştur. 2. Ġç Kontrol Sistemi İç kontrol sistemi, işletmelerin üst yönetimi tarafından yönlendirilen ve finansal raporların güvenilirliğini sağlamak, faaliyetlerin verimliliği ile etkililiğini arttırmak ve mevcut yasal düzenlemelere uygunluğu sağlama çerçevesinde makul güvence elde edilmesi amacıyla oluşturulmuş bir süreçtir (Yurtsever, 2008:17). Bu çerçevede iç kontrol sistemi, finansal raporlamanın zamanında ve doğru şekilde hazırlanması, muhasebe kayıtlarının gerçeğe uygun şekilde ve eksiksiz yapılması, hata, hile ve yolsuzlukların belirlenmesi, önlenmesi, varlıkların korunması ve bunun gibi birçok konuda işletme faaliyetlerinin belirlenen amaçlar çerçevesinde organize edilmesi ve yürütülmesi konusunda üst yönetim tarafından kabul görmüş olan politikalar olarak değerlendirilebilir (Alagöz, 2008:98). İç kontrol sisteminin işletme ortamında etkin bir şekilde uygulanmasını gerekli kılan birçok amaç bulunmaktadır. Bu amaçları kısaca aşağıdaki gibi özetlemek mümkündür (Ataman vd., 2001:61; Erdoğan, 2009:25; Pehlivanlı, 2010:31; Türedi, 2012:28). Varlıklarının Korunması ve Kayıpların Önlenmesi: İşletme varlıklarının çalınması, çalışanlar tarafından amaç dışı kullanılması ve hatalı işlemler sonucu varlıkların israfı gibi olumsuz durumların ortaya çıkmasını önleyebilmek amacıyla iç kontrol sistemine ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. Muhasebe Kayıtlarının Doğruluğunun ve Güvenilirliğinin Sağlanması: Kaliteli bir finansal raporlama yapılabilmesi ve finansal raporlardaki bilgilerin bilgi kullanıcılarının ihtiyacına uygun olarak doğru ve güvenilir bir şekilde sunulması oldukça önemlidir. Bu amaçla iç kontrol sisteminin varlığı ile finansal raporlamanın temel kaynağı olan muhasebe kayıtlarının ve dolayısıyla muhasebe kayıtlarına temel teşkil eden bilgi ve belgelerin doğruluğu ve güvenilirliğini arttırmak amaçlanmaktadır. Faaliyetlerinin Etkinliğinin Arttırılması: İç kontrol sistemi araçlığıyla işletme ortamında gerçekleştirilen tüm faaliyetlerin belirlenen amaç ve hedefler doğrultusunda yürütülmesinin sağlanması için belirlenen faaliyet etkinliği ve verimliliği ölçütlerinin dikkate alınması ve gerekli iyileştirmelerin yapılması önemlidir. Üst Yönetim Tarafından Belirlenen Politikalara Bağlılığın Sağlanması: İç kontrol sistemi ile üst yönetim tarafından belirlenen politikalara organizasyonun tüm kademesindeki çalışanlar tarafından en üst seviyede bağlılığın sağlanarak faaliyetlerin amaçlanan şekilde gerçekleştirilmesi mümkün hale gelmektedir. COSO tarafından yapılan çerçeveye göre iç kontrol sistemi kontrol ortamı, risk değerlendirme, kontrol faaliyetleri, bilgi ve iletişim ve izleme faaliyeti olmak üzere beş temel unsurdan oluşmaktadır (McNally, 2013:5).

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Kontrol ortamı: Kontrol ortamı, bir organizasyon içerisinde kontrolü gerekli olan tüm faaliyetleri, iş süreçleri ve çalışanları kapsamaktadır. Bu açıdan bir işletmenin üst yönetimi tarafından etki altına alınan çalışanların kontrollere ilişkin farkındalık düzeyleri kontrol ortamının da belirleyicisi olmaktadır. Dolayısıyla çalışanların kişisel ve mesleki dürüstlük eğilimleri, üst yönetimin etik değerlere yaklaşımı, iç kontrol sisteminin organizasyon genelinde etkin şekilde uygulanmasına yönelik yaklaşımları ve beşeri sermaye unsurları kontrol ortamını etkileyen önemli unsurlardır (Akyel, 2010:87). Risk değerlendirme: Risk değerlendirme, bir organizasyonda meydana gelebilecek muhtemel risklerin belirlenmesi, söz konusu risklerin ölçülmesi ve risklerin ortadan kaldırılmasına yönelik olarak alınması gereken önlemlerin belirlenmesi açısından önemlidir. Özellikle iç kontrol sisteminin uygulanması sürecinde istenen başarı düzeyinin sağlanması amacıyla risklerin değerlendirilmesi gerekmektedir. COSO tarafından belirlenen çerçevede risk değerlendirme kapsamında uygun amaçların belirlenmesi, risklerin belirlenmesi ve analizi, hile riskinin değerlendirilmesi ve önemli değişikliklerin belirlenmesi ve analiz edilmesi gerekliliği üzerinde durulmuştur (McNally, 2013:5). Kontrol faaliyetleri: Kontrol faaliyetleri, bir kontrol uygulamasının olması halinde söz konusu kontrol uygulamasının etkin bir şekilde gerçekleştirilip gerçekleştirilmediği hususunda iç kontrol sistemini uygulayanlara makul güvence sağlayan faaliyetler bütünüdür. Bu kapsamda düzeltici önlemler kontrol faaliyetleri kapsamında değerlendirilmektedir. Dolayısıyla kontrol faaliyetlerinin iç kontrol sisteminin diğer dört unsuru için de bütünleşik olarak değerlendirilmesi sistemin başarılı sonuçlar vermesinde etkili olacaktır (Akyel, 2010:87). COSO tarafından belirlenen çerçevede kontrol faaliyetleri kapsamında kontrol faaliyetlerinin belirlenmesi ve geliştirilmesi, genel kontrollerin teknoloji kullanımı aracılığıyla belirlenmesi ve geliştirilmesi, politika ve prosedürlerin uygulanmasının sağlanması gerekliliği üzerinde durulmuştur (McNally, 2013:5). Bilgi ve iletişim: İç kontrol sisteminin etkin bir şekilde çalışabilmesi için işletme ortamında doğru bilgi üreten ve yeterli ölçüde bilgi akışını sağlayabilen bir bilgi sistemine ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. Ayrıca organizasyon genelinde dikey ve yatay yönde iletişim kanallarının geliştirilmesi sistemi oluşturan yönetici ve çalışanların takım ruhuna uygun şekilde çalışabilmelerine imkan sağlar. COSO tarafından belirlenen çerçevede bilgi ve iletişim faaliyeti kapsamında ilgili bilgilerin kullanılması, iç ve dış bilgi sisteminin kurulması gerekliliği üzerinde durulmuştur (McNally, 2013:5). Ġzleme faaliyeti: Bir sisteminin çalışabilmesi için gerekli uygulamaları hayata geçirmek söz konusu sistemin başarılı olacağını ortaya koymamaktadır. Bu nedenle İç kontrol sisteminin işletme ortamında etkin bir şekilde çalışabilmesini sağlayabilmek amacıyla teknoloji desteğiyle uygulamadaki eksiklik ve başarısızlıkların belirlenmesi ve bu tür olumsuzlukların giderilmesi suretiyle iç kontrol sistemi sürekli olarak izlenmelidir (Kızılboğa ve Özşahin, 2013:226). 3. Ġç Kontrol Sisteminin Önemi İşletmelerin giderek büyümesi ve faaliyetlerin karmaşık hale gelmesi hatalı ve hileli işlemlerin sayısını da kaçınılmaz olarak arttırmıştır. Bu nedenle artık günümüzün dünyasında işletmelerde iç kontrol sisteminin kurulması temel bir gereklilik olarak kabul görmektedir. Ayrıca işletme yöneticilerinin işletme ortamında ortaya çıkan ve faaliyet risklerini arttıran olumsuzlukları iç kontrol sistemi tesis etmeksizin yönetmeleri veya ortadan kaldırması mümkün değildir (Tüm, 2015:112-113). Dolayısıyla etkin bir iç kontrol sisteminin varlığı ile işletmelerde ortaya çıkabilecek önemli hata, hile ve yolsuzlukların engellenmesi, üst yönetimin hatalı kararlar almasının önlenmesi ve kaynakların daha optimal şekilde kullanılması mümkün hale gelmektedir (Kızılboğa ve Özşahin, 2013:223). İç kontrol sistemi, olası hata ve hilelerin önlenmesinde işletme yönetiminin sorumluluklarının da istenen şekilde yerine getirmelerine yardımcı olmaktadır (Hatunoğlu vd., 2012:171). Bu çerçevede etkin bir iç kontrol sisteminin kurulması ve uygulanabilmesi amacıyla üst yönetim tarafından sorumlulukların net bir şekilde dağılımı görevlerin ayrılığı ilkesine işlerlik kazandıracaktır. Bu amaçla görev ve sorumlulukların fonksiyonlara dağılımında görevlerin ayrılığı ilkesine dikkat edilmesi ve çeşitli bilgi sistemleri aracılığıyla sistemin etkin şekilde çalışmasına zemin hazırlanmalıdır (Dabbağoğlu, 2009:114). İç kontrol sistemi genel olarak işletmelerin finansal ve finansal olmayan performanslarının geliştirilmesine katkı sağlayarak işletme varlıklarının korunması ve kayıpların önlenmesi çerçevesinde 1081

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN güvenilir finansal raporlamanın yapılmasına temel teşkil etmektedir. Bu sistem aracılığıyla işletmelerin tabi olduğu kanunlara, diğer yasal düzenlemelere ve belirlenen amaçlara uygunluğunun sağlanarak işletme kredibilitesinin sürdürülebilir hale gelmesine de yardımcı olmaktadır (İbiş ve Çatıkkaş, 2012:99). Ayrıca bağımsız denetime tabi olan işletmelerde yapılacak olan dış denetimlerin kapsamı daraltılacağından ötürü denetim maliyetlerinde de tasarruf sağlanmış olacaktır (Kızılboğa ve Özşahin, 2013:223). 4. Kısıtlar Teorisi Kısıtlar teorisinin temeli tüm organizasyonlarda oluşturulan sistemlerin en az bir kısıta sahip olmasına dayanmaktadır. Teori, bir sistemin uygulanması sürecinde karşılaşılan bir kısıtın ortadan kaldırılsa bile sisteme olumsuz etkide bulunacak yeni bir kısıtın daha ortaya çıkabileceği ve kısıtların ortadan kaldırılmasının bir döngü şeklinde süreklilik arz edeceği üzerine kurulmuştur (Ünal vd., 2005:435). Kısıtlar teorisine göre kısıtların yönetilmesinde beş aşamadan oluşan bir süreç izlenmesi gerekmektedir (Rahman, 1998:338, Goldratt, 1990:5, Tanış, 1998:187, Demircioğlu ve Demircioğlu, 2016:319). 1. Aşama: Kısıtların belirlenmesi 2. Aşama: Kısıtların nasıl düzeltileceğine karar verilmesi 3. Aşama: Tüm çabaların ikinci aşamanın gerçekleştirilmesine tahsis edilmesi 4. Aşama: Kısıtların ortadan kaldırılması 5. Aşama: Birinci aşamaya geri dönülmesi Kısıtların yönetilmesinde izlenecek olan süreçlerin ilk aşamasında öncelikle sistemi etkileyen kısıtların belirlenmesi gerekmektedir. İşletmelerin kısıtları ölçek büyüklüklerine, faaliyette bulundukları sektöre, çalışanların bilgi ve yeteneklerine ve bunun gibi diğer pek çok faktöre bağlı olarak değişmektedir. Kısıt yönetimi sürecinin ikinci aşamasında, belirlenen kısıtların hangi iyileştirme metotları çerçevesinde iyileştirilmesi gerektiği üzerinde durulmalıdır. Kısıt yönetimi sürecinin üçüncü aşamasında, işletme kaynaklarının optimal düzeyde kısıtların düzeltilmesi için kullanılan yöntemlerin hizmetine sunulması gerekmektedir. Kısıt yönetimi sürecinin dördüncü aşamasında tahsis edilmiş olan kaynak ve çabaların etkin kullanılması suretiyle belirlenmiş olan kısıtların ortadan kaldırılması gerekmektedir. Kısıt yönetimi sürecinin son aşamasında ise sistemin başarısını etkileyen yeni bir kısıtın belirlenmesi amacıyla sürecin ilk aşamasına geri dönülmesi gerekmektedir. 5. Ġç Kontrol Sistemi Ġle Kısıtlar Teorisinin Birlikte Kullanımı İşletmelerin faaliyet risklerini iç risk faktörleri ve dış risk faktörleri olarak iki gruba ayırmak mümkündür. İç risk faktörleri işletmeler tarafından kontrol edilebilir olması nedeniyle ortadan kaldırılabilir nitelikteki riskleri ifade etmektedir. Dış risk faktörleri ise işletmeler tarafından kontrolü mümkün olmayan ancak çeşitli kararların alınması aracılığıyla azaltılabilen risklerdir. İşletmelerin faaliyet risklerini arttıran riskleri ortadan kaldırmak amacıyla söz konusu risklerin oluşmasına zemin hazırlayan faktörleri belirlemeleri ve yönetmeleri gerekmektedir. İç kontrol sisteminin işletme ortamında etkin bir şekilde uygulanabilmesi aracılığıyla özellikle iç risk faktörlerinin ortada kaldırılması muhtemeldir. Bu nedenle iç kontrol sistemini oluşturan unsurların da etkin bir şekilde çalışması gerekmektedir. Bir işletmede iç kontrol tesis edilmesine rağmen hatalı veya hileli finansal raporlama yapılması kontrol riskini ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Bunun için iç kontrol sisteminin etkinliğini azaltabilecek ve sistemin başarısız olmasına neden olabilecek kontrol risklerinin de tanımlanması ve bu risklerin ortadan kaldırılması gerekmektedir. Çünkü bir sistemi meydana getiren parçalar tıpkı bir zincirin halkaları gibidir. Zincirin gücü ise uygulanan sistemin başarısını ortaya koymaktadır. Dolayısıyla halkaların gücü ne kadar yüksek ise zincirin gücü de o denli sinerji etkisiyle güçlü olacaktır. Ancak güç açısından zinciri oluşturan en zayıf halka toplam güçteki algının değişmesine neden olacaktır. Diğer bir ifadeyle bu halka oluşturulan sistemin amaçlanan şekilde organize olmasını ve performansını olumsuz yönde etkileyeceği için sistemin en zayıf halkası olarak değerlendirilecektir. Bu doğrultuda, bir sistemin başarılı bir şekilde uygulanabilmesi için sistemi meydana getiren parçaların birbirleriyle

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN olan ilişkisini dikkate alarak kısıtları bulmak ve bu kısıtları ortadan kaldırmak gerekmektedir (Aytekin vd. 2012:41). İç kontrol sistemi unsurlarının ideal bir şekilde uygulanması sistemin başarılı bir şekilde uygulanmasına imkan verecektir. Bu amaçla sistemin her bir unsurunun uygulanmasında ortaya çıkabilecek muhtemel kısıtların kısıt yönetimi sürecindeki aşamalar çerçevesinde ele alınması sistemin her bir unsurunda ortaya çıkan kısıtların da kaldırılmasına zemin hazırlayacaktır. Bu çerçevede Tablo 1’de COSO tarafından her bir iç kontrol sistemi unsuru için belirlenen temel prensipler dikkate alınarak işletmelerde muhtemel kısıtların kısıt yönetimi süreci ile birlikte nasıl değerlendirileceği gösterilmektedir. Tablo 1. İç Kontrol Unsurlarının Kısıtların Yönetimi Süreci İle Birlikte Değerlendirilmesi

2.Aşama

3.Aşama

4.Aşama

5.Aşama

Kontrol Ortamı

-Etik değerlere uygun davranmama -Yapı, otorite ve sorumluluk mekanizması oluşturamama -Sorumluluk gözetiminin yapılmaması -Yetkilendirmenin yapılmaması -Hesap verilebilirliğin işletilmemesi

Alternatif 1 Alternatif 2 Alternatif 3 . .

Kaynak ve çabaların tahsisi

Kısıtların ortadan kaldırılması

İlk aşamaya geri dönülmesi

Risk değerlendirme

-Uygun olmayan amaçların belirlenmesi -Risklerin belirlenmesi ve analizinde hata yapılması -Hile riskinin yanlış belirlenmesi -Önemli değişikliklerin gözardı edilmesi

Alternatif 1 Alternatif 2 Alternatif 3 . .

Kaynak ve çabaların tahsisi

Kısıtların ortadan kaldırılması

İlk aşamaya geri dönülmesi

-Yanlış kontrol faaliyetleri belirlenme -Politika ve prosedürlerin uygulanmaması -Genel kontrollerin yapılmasında teknoloji yetersizliği

Alternatif 1 Alternatif 2 Alternatif 3 . .

Kaynak ve çabaların tahsisi

Kısıtların ortadan kaldırılması

İlk aşamaya geri dönülmesi

-İlgili bilgilerin kullanılmaması -İç iletişimin sağlananaması -Dış iletişimin sağlanamaması

Alternatif 1 Alternatif 2 Alternatif 3 . .

Kaynak ve çabaların tahsisi

Kısıtların ortadan kaldırılması

İlk aşamaya geri dönülmesi

-Ayrı değerlendirme yapmama veya yönetememe -Yetersizlikleri anlatmama ve değerlendirmeme

Alternatif 1 Alternatif 2 Alternatif 3 . .

Kaynak ve çabaların tahsisi

Kısıtların ortadan kaldırılması

İlk aşamaya geri dönülmesi

Ġzleme

Bilgi ve Ġletişim

1.Aşama

Kontrol faaliyetleri

Kısıt Yönetimi Süreci Aşamaları

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 6. Sonuç İç kontrol sistemi finansal başarısızlıklarla karşılaşılmaması, faaliyet etkinliğinin sağlanması, rekabette üstünlük kazanılması ve varlıkların korunması açısından işletmelere büyük faydalar sağlamaktadır. Özellikle giderek karmaşık hale gelen faaliyetler işletme yönetici ve çalışanlarının hata ve hile yapma eğilimlerini arttırmakta aynı zamanda bu durum faaliyet risklerini de kaçınılmaz olarak beraberinde getirmektedir. Bu açıdan artık günümüzün işletmecilik anlayışında sadece belirlenen amaçlara ulaşmak için gerekli olan faaliyetleri yerine getirmek yeterli görülmemekte aynı zamanda gerçekleştirilen faaliyetlerin yasalara ve düzenlemelere uyum sağlaması, kaynakların etkin şekilde kullanılması ve çalışanların organizasyonda yetki ve sorumlulukları dahilinde çalışmaları gibi hususların da azami düzeyde sağlanması önemlidir. Bu bağlamda iç kontrol sistemi işletmelerin amaçlarına ulaşmasında ve işletme sürekliliğinin sağlanmasında adeta bir katalizör görevi üstlenmektedir. İç kontrol sisteminin etkinliğinin sağlanmasında ve arttırılmasında karşılaşılabilecek risklerin ortadan kaldırılması kadar iç kontrol sistemi unsurlarının istenen şekilde gerçekleştirilmesine engel olabilecek kısıtların da belirlenmesi gerekmektedir. Bu amaçla iç kontrol sistemi unsurlarında ortaya çıkabilecek muhtemel kısıtların birbirinden ayrı şekilde kısıt yönetimi süreci dikkate alınarak belirlenmesi iç kontrol sisteminin hangi unsurunun etkili şekilde uygulanıp uygulanmadığı hususunda işletmelere sağlıklı bilgiler verecektir. Böylelikle iç kontrol sistemi unsurlarının uygulanmasında en zayıf halkanın belirlenmesi ile gerekli iyileştirmelerin yapılması sistemin etkinliğini arttırmada yararlı olacaktır. İç kontrol sistemi ile birlikte kısıtlar teorisini uygulamak isteyen işletme yöneticilerinin öncelikle kendi organizasyonlarında iyi bir iç kontrol sistemi kurmaları ve bu sistemin belirli bir süre organizasyondaki tüm çalışanlar tarafından anlaşılmasını ve içselleştirilmesini sağlamaları gerekmektedir. Bu çerçevede kontrol risklerinin önlenmesi ve iç kontrol sisteminin daha etkin hale getirilmesi için kısıtlar teorisinin temeli olan kısıt yönetimi sürecinin entegrasyonu sağlanmalıdır. Kaynaklar Akyel, R. (2010). Türkiye’de İç Kontrol Kavramı, Unsurları ve Etkinliğinin Değerlendirilmesi. Celal Bayar Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F Yönetim ve Ekonomi Dergisi, Cilt 17, Sayı 1, ss. 83-97. Alagöz, Ali. (2008). İşletmelerde İç Kontrol Sisteminin Önemi ve Denetim Komiteleri ile İç Denetim Birimi İlişkisinin Hata ve Hilelerinin Önlenmesindeki Rolü, Editörler: Doğan Zeki, İnal Mehmet Emin, Güncel İşletmecilik Konuları, Konya: Tablet Yayınları, 95-126. Ataman, Ü. Hacırüstemoğlu, R. Bozkurt, N. (2001). Muhasebe Denetim Uygulamaları, Alfa Basım Yayım Dağıtım, İstanbul. Aytekin, F. G., Yörükoğlu, H. ve Akman, G. (2012). Kısıtlar Teorisi Yaklaşımı İle Kurumsal Bilgi Teknolojileri Yönetimi Talep Sistemlerinin İyileştirilmesi. Organizasyon ve Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi, Cilt 4, Sayı 2, ss. 39-49. Dabbağoğlu, K. (2009). İç Kontrol Sistemi. Journal of Qafqaz University, Sayı 26, ss. 109-115. Demircioğlu, E. N. ve Demircioğlu, M. (2016). Üretme-Satma Kararlarında Faaliyete Dayalı Maliyet Sistemi ve Kısıtlar Teorisi: Doğrusal Programlama İle Örnek Uygulama. Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cilt 13, Sayı 33, ss. 316-333. Erdoğan, S. (2009). İç Kontrol Sistemi: Kamu İktisadi Teşebbüsleri İçin İç Kontrol Modeli Önerisi. Yayın No:2799, Ankara Goldratt, E. M. (1990). Theory Of Constraints. North River Press, Great Barrington, Massachusetts. Hatunoğlu, Z., Koca, N. ve Kıllı, M. (2012). İç Kontrolün Muhasebe Sistemindeki Hata ve Hilelerin Önlenmesindeki Rolü Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cilt 9, Sayı 20, ss. 169-189. İbiş, C. ve Çatıkkaş, Ö. (2012). İşletmelerde İç Kontrol Sistemine Genel Bakış. Sayıştay Dergisi, Sayı 85, ss. 95-121. Kızılboğa, R. ve Özşahin, F. (2013). Etkin Bir İç Kontrol Sisteminin İç Denetim Faaliyetine ve İç Denetçilere Katkısı. Niğde Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, Cilt 6, Sayı 2, ss. 220-236. McNally, S. (2013). The 2013 COSO Framework & SOX Compliance. Strategic Finance, June, ss.1-8.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Pehlivanlı, D. (2010). Modern İç Denetim. Beta Basım Yayım Dağıtım, İstanbul. Rahman, S. (1998) Theory of Constraints A Review of The Philosophy and Its Applications. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol.18 No. 4, pp. 336-355. Tanış, V. N. (1998). Yönetim Muhasebesi Açısından Kısıtlar Teorisi ve Süreç Muhasebesi, Çukurova Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi, Cilt:8, Sayı:1, s.185-198. Tüm, K. (2015). Muhasebe Hilelerinin Önlenmesinde İç Kontrol Sisteminin Önemi Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Giresun Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi, Cilt 1, Sayı 1, ss. 105-128. Türedi, S. (2012). İç Kontrol Sistemi ve Toplam Kalite Yönetimi İlişkisi. Uluslararası Alanya İşletme Fakültesi Dergisi, C. 4, S. 1, ss. 27-37. Ünal, E. N., Tanış, V. N. ve Küçüksavaş, N. (2005). Kısıtlar Teorisi ve Bir Üretim İşletmesinde Uygulama. Ç. Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cilt 14, Sayı 2, ss. 433-448. Yurtsever, G. (2008). Bankacılığımızda İç Kontrol. Türkiye Bankalar Birliği Yayınları, Yayın No: 256, İstanbul.

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MUHAMMED BİN HAMZA’NIN SATIR ARASI KUR’AN TERCÜMESİ’NİN ÇORUM NÜSHASI

Ali CİN Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Edebiyat Fakültesi, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü [email protected]

ÇORUM COPY OF MUHAMMED BIN HAMZA’S INTERLINEAR KORAN TRANSLATION Abstract As known, the religion is one of the most important elements that creates nations. Therefore, throughout the history, tribes have tried to clasp around religion and nation concepts by giving an absolute value to religion. Turks have accepted the Islam as the official religion of the state about three centuries later after its emergence and started to translate that religion’s holy scripture, Koran, into Turkish. Various interlinear Koran translation works are seen in different regions of Turkish language and periods in the history of Turkish language. Those first translations are often referred to as interlinear translations. Those translations can both be word by word translations and commented translations, which is not translated word by word. Translations of Koran are significant resources that shows Turkish language’s development of articulation and meaning in the history of Turkish language. Because, in those interlinear translations, every single Arabic word was tried to be translated into Turkish with a single word. This has an importance, in the sense that Turkish language has a rich vocabulary as much as Arabic language that is a religion’s language. Therefore, those type works are valuable for lexicography works. Interlinear translation of Koran, which shows features of Old Anatolian Turkish and is thought to be written by Muhammed Bin Hamza in early 15th c., registered in Museum of Çorum under no: 10.1.72 will be dwelled on in this work. Keywords: Old Anatolian Turkish, Interlinear Koran Translation, Holy Scripture, Translation.

1. Giriş Tarihin eski dönemlerinden günümüze değin Türkler birçok dine mensup olmuşlardır. Türkler Köktürk devleti zamanında Şamanizm inancına mensup iken Uygur Türkleri döneminde Budizm ve Manihaizm gibi dinleri benimsemişlerdir. Karahanlı Türk Devleti zamanında da Abdulkerim Saltuk Buğrahan öncülüğünde İslâm inancını kabul etmişlerdir. Türklerin çeşitli boylarının 10. yüzyıldan günümüze değin de Yahudilik, Hristiyanlık vb. gibi dinleri de benimsediklerini biliyoruz. Günümüz modern dünyasında da halen Hristiyanlık (Gagavuz Türkleri) Yahudilik (Karaim) inancına sahip Türk toplulukları bulunmaktadır. İslâmiyet'in yayılmasıyla birlikte Kur'an-ı Kerim'in öğrenilmesi, temel prensiplerin herkes tarafından daha iyi anlaşılabilmesi için başka dillere tercüme ihtiyacı hissedilmiş, hatta bir rivayete göre Hz. Peygamber zamanında Kur'an-ı Kerim'den bazı sureler Farsçaya tercüme edilmiştir. Günümüzde ise Kur'an-ı Kerim'in yüzlerce dile çevrildiği herkesçe bilinmektedir. Bütün dinlerin dilleri kutsal ve işlenmişliği yüksek olan dillerdir. Diğer diller ise bu dillerle boy ölçüşmek ister, bunu da çeviri yoluyla yapmaya çalışır. Eski Ahit (Tevrat) Yunancaya ilk kez MÖ 3. yüzyılda çevrilmiştir. (Harman, 1989, 495) Tevrat’ın ve İncil’in Türkçeye ilk çevirileri 1666 yılında IV. Mehmed döneminde yaşamış olan tercümanlardan Ali Ufki Bey (Albertus Bobovius/Wojciech Bobowski) tarafından tamamlanmıştır. Bu kişi Kitab-ı mukaddes’i Türkçeye ilk tercüme eden kişi olarak da bilinmektedir. (Kut, 1989, 457) Ufki, çalışmasını Hollanda sefiri Levinus Warner'in isteği ve onun sağladığı maddi imkânlarla yapmıştır. Bugün kullanılan Türkçe Kitab-ı mukaddes, Ali Ufki tarafından tercüme edilen 1086

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN esere dayanmaktadır. (Kut, 1989, 456, 57). Ali Ufki tarafından hazırlanan Arap harfli Tevrat, 1827 yılında Paris'te basılmıştır. Kutsal kitapların çeşitli dillere çevrilme işi, insanlık tarihi kadar eskidir. Kuran-ı Kerim’in ilk çevirisi meşhur Arap alimlerinden Muhammed Bin Cerir-i Taberi’nin Arapça olarak yazdığı kırk ciltlik eserin Emir Mansur Bin Nuh zamanında bir heyet tarafından Farsçaya çevrilmesiyle başlar. (Topaloğlu 1976, 2) Zeki Velidi Togan’a göre bu heyette Türk üyeler de bulunmaktaydı. (Togan 1959, 135) Köprülü ve Abdülkadir İnan Türkçe ilk çevirilerin 11. yüzyılda yapılmış olabileceğini öne sürer. (İnan, 1991,156) Türk edebiyatında İslâm dinin kutsal kitabı Kur’an'ın çevirilerini satır altı kelime bekelime çeviriler, ya da tefsirli çeviriler şeklinde görmekteyiz. Satır altı Kur’an tercümeleri, Kur'an metninin cümleler halinde değil, Arapça kelimeyi Türkçe tek kelime ile karşılayan tercümelerdir. Bu tür tercüme eserlerin pek çok nüshası mevcuttur. (Topaloğlu, 1976-78, 3) Tefsirli çeviriler ise bir Arapça kelimenin tek bir Türkçe kelime ile karşılamaktan ziyade, ayetin tamamının uzun cümlelerle açıklanmasını esas alan tercümelerdir. Bu tefsirlerin çoğu Ebu’l-Leys es-Semerkandi’nin tefsiri esas alınarak yapılan tercümelerdir. (İnan, 1991, 164) Genel olarak satır arası Kur'an tercümeleri doğu ve batı Türkçesi Kur'an tercümeleri biçiminde iki başlık altında incelene gelmiştir. Doğu Türkçesi satır arası tercümeler şunlardır: 1. TİEM 73: Doğu Tercümelerinin ilki 1333 tarihinde istinsah edilen ve bugün Türk ve İslam Eserleri Müzesi 73 numarada kayıtlı bulunan eserdir. (Kök-Üstün, 2004). 2. Süleymaniye Nüshası I (Karışık Dilli Tercüme): Süleymaniye Kütüphanesi, 3966 numarada kayıtlıdır. Eser bilim dünyasına Nuri Yüce tarafından tanıtılmış olup daha sonra eserin tamamını öğrencilerine yüksek lisans tezi olarak yaptırmıştır. (Toker, 2000; Müfettişoğlu 2006; Uyansoy 2006; Uygun 2007; Yılmaz 2007). 3. Süleymaniye Nüshası II (Harezm Sahası): Eserin yazıldığı yer ve müstensihi bilinmemekle birlikte eserin istinsah tarihi miladi 1363 olup 583 varaktır. (Üşenmez, 2013). Eser dokuz satır Arapça, dokuz satır Türkçe olmak üzere on sekiz satırdan oluşmaktadır. (Sağol, 1999). 4. İngiltere Nüshası (Rylands/Manchester/İngiltere): Doğu Türkçesi özellikleri gösteren önemli satır arası tercümelerdendir. (Eckmann 1957, 51-59) Nerede ve kim tarafından istinsah edildiği bilinmemektedir. Eser üzerinde J. Eckman ve A. Ata'nın çalışmaları bulunmaktadır. (Eckmann 1976; Ata 2004). 5. Anonim Tefsir (Rusya/Petersburg): Eserin kim tarafından nerede ve ne zaman yazıldığı bilinmemektedir. Eser 1914 yılında Zeki Velidi Togan tarafından bulunmuştur. (Üşenmez, 2013) Eserüzerinde değişik bilim adamlarınca çalışmalar yapılmıştır. (Borovkov, 1963; Usta, 1989; Mahmudov 2000; Usta 2002). 6. Özbekistan Nüshası: Özbekistan İlimler Akademisi Şarkşinaslık Enstitüsü'nde 2008 numarada kayıtlıdır. Eksik olan bu nüsha, satır arası Türkçe-Farsça olup 273 varaktır. (Üşenmez 2013). Bu nüsha ve çalışmaların yanı sıra Çağatay Türkçesiyle yazılmış satır arası Kur'an tercümelerini unutmamak gerekir. (Zülfikar, 1970). Ülkemiz el yazması kütüphanelerinde Eski Anadolu Türkçesiyle yazılmış pek çok Kur'an tercümesi bulunmaktadır. Kur’an-ı Kerim’in Anadolu Türkçesine çevirileri Beylikler döneminde başlamıştır. (Topaloğlu, 1976-78, 19) Bu satır arası kelimebekelime çeviri geleneğini Moğollar’dan kaçan ya da Moğollar’la birlikte Anadolu'ya gelen Harezmli ve Horasanlı bilginler getirmiştir. (İnan, 1960, 89). Batı Türkçesi satır arası Kur'an tercümelerinden önemli olanlar şunlardır: 1. Bursa Yazma ve Eski Basma Eserler Kütüphanesi Nüshası: İstinsah tarihi bakımından bilinen en eski nüsha bu nüshadır. Miladi 1401 tarihinde Hasan Bin Ali el Bestami tarafından istinsah edilen satır arası Kur’an tercümesi de Eski Anadolu Türkçesi özellikleri gösteren önemli tercümelerdendir. Nüshanın her sayfasında yedi satır Arapça, yedi satır Türkçe metin bulunmaktadır. Eserin bazı sayfalarında açıklamalar şeklinde olan metinler yer almaktadır. Ancak metnin silik olması sebebiyle bu kısımlar okunamamaktadır. (Küçük 2014, 24). 2. TİEM 40: Türk İslam Eserleri Müzesi 40 numarada kayıtlı bulunan ve Ahmet Topaloğlu tarafından üzerinde çalışma yapılan nüsha 290 varak ve 11 satırdan oluşan eserdir. TİEM 40’ın ilk varağında besmelelerle birlikte beşer satır vardır. Burada “besmele ve Fatiha” suresi tefsir edilmiştir. (Topaloğlu, 1976-1978 s,19) Eserin sonunda “DuǾā-i Fāl-i Ķur’an” balığı altında 64 beyitlik bir şiir bulunmaktadır.

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN (Topaloğlu, 1976-1978 s 37). 3. Manisa İl Halk Kütüphanesi Nüshası: Manisa Halk Kütüphanesindeki 931 numrada kayıtlı bulunan eser 451 varak, 11 satırtan oluşmaktadır. (Karabacak 1992; 1994). Eski Anadolu Türkçesiyle yazılmış yukarıda zikrettiğimiz satır arası Kur’an Tercümelerinin dışında Kur’an’dan parçalar halinde İhlās Sūresi (Esatoğlu 1987) Yāsin Sūresi Tefsiri (Kara, 1987) gibi tefsir ve tercümelerin yanı sıra Eski Anadolu Türkçesiyle yazılmış bir satır arası Kur’an tercümesi de bulunmaktadır. Bu eser üzerinde de bir kaç kişinin çalışması bulunmaktadır. (Yılmaz 1992; Akar 1992; Delice 1992; Eminoğlu 1995; Alper 1988). Kısaca Kur'an tercümeleriyle ilgili olarak verdiğimiz bu bilgilerden sonra Türk İslâm Eserleri Müzesi 40 numarada kayıtlı bulunan nüshanın Çorum nüshasına geçebiliriz. TİEM 40 numarada kayıtlı bulunan eserin bir nüshası da Çorum Mezesi 10.1.72 numarada kayıtlıdır. Yazma şirazeli, miklepli, koyu kahverengi meşin ciltlidir. Varakları yer yer tamir görmüş beyaz kağıda yazılmıştır. Yazmanın her sayfası 8 satırdan oluşmaktadır. Yazmada ana metin (Kur’an-ı Kerim) harekeli sülüs kırması, satır arası açıklamalar ise harekeli nesih hatla yazılmıştır. Eser 540 varak ve sekiz satırdan oluşmaktadır. Nüshanın müstensihi ve istinsahıyla ilgili olarak metinde herhangi bir bilgi bulunmamaktadır. Söz konusu yazımıza da konu olan Çorum nüshası diye adlandırdığımız yazma eser, “besmele ve Fatiha” ile başlamış ancak herhangi bir tefsir yapılmıştır. Kur’an'ın ikinci suresi olan “Bakara Süresi” suresiyle birlikte satır arası anlam verilmeye başlanmıştır. Surenin başında bulunan “besmeleye” anlam verilmiştir ancak tamir gördüğü için okunamayan yerleri bulunmaktadır. Kur'an'ın son iki suresi olan 113 (Suretü'l Felak) ve 114. (Suretü'n-Nas) surelerine satır arası anlam verilmemiştir. Ayrıca nüshanın sonunda Fatiha suresi satır arası tercümesi olmaksızın tekrar edilmiştir. TİEM 40 nüshasında sure adları düzenli bir biçimde verilirken, Çorum nüshasında sure adlarının bazen verilip bazen de verilmediği görülmüştür. Çorum nüshasının ses ve şekil hususiyetleriyle ilgili olarak şunları söyleyebiliriz: Nüshada ünlüler Eski Anadolu Türkçesi metinlerinde olduğu gibi genel olarak yuvarlaktır. bizüm Nüshada kapalı /ė/ sesinin değişik kelimelerde kullanıldığı görülmüştür. gėrçek Nüshada Türkçe kelimelerin imlasında /b/, /p/ ayrımı yapılmıştır. Arap harfli Türkçe metinlerde /ç/ ve /c/ seslerinin yazımı her zaman sorun olmuştur. Metinde kelime ve eklerde yer alan /ç/ sesi, bazen /c/ bazen de /ç/ ile gösterilmiştir. Kelime başı /k/ ve /g)/ seslerinin ayrımının yer yer yapıldığı görülmektedir. Eski Anadolu Türkçesi metinlerinde görülen art damak /k)/ sesinin /h/ dönmesi, üzerinde çalıştığımız nüshada da görülmektedir. (daķı/daħı) Genel olarak TİEM 40 nüshası daķı'yı kullanırken Çorum nüshası daħı'yı kullanmıştır. saķınıcıya/saħınıcıya TİEM 40 nüshası, satır arası kelime bekelime çevirilerinin yanı sıra, yani kelimesiyle bazı kısa açıklamalar yaparken, Çorum nüshası yanili açıklamalara yer vermemiştir. Çalışmada, Çorum nüshasının baş ve son kısımlarından bazı bölümler transkribe edilerek aşağıda sunulmuştur.

2. Transkribe Metin Sūretü’l-Bakara1 2r1 allāh adıyla rūzi vėren raĥmet ķılıcı 1. (2r2) rabb allāhdur lām cebrāǿįldür mim muĥammdeddür muĥammed 2. şol kitab yani ķurān ilerü vaǾde olundı2 yoķdur gümān anuŋ içinde yol göstermekdür śaħınıcıya3 3. (2r3) anlar kim inanurlar görünmez nesneye4 daħı ŧurġurdılar…dāyim ķılurlar daħı an… (2r4) rūzi vėrdük anlara nafaķa vėrürler 4. daħı anlar kim inanurlar aŋa kim indürildi5…(2r5) daħı indürüldi senden ilerü yaǾni tevrit incil daħı ķıyāmet gününde6 anlar gümānsuz inanurlar1 1 2 3 4 5 6

Çalışmada Çorum nüshası esas alınmış, Tiem 40 nüshası ile aralarındaki farklar dipnotlarda gösterilmiştir. olındı-y-ıdı saķınıcılara yaǾni tanrıya yā uçmaġa yā ķıyāmata yā ķurāna indürinildi gününi 1088

The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 5. şunlara (2r6) ŧoġrı yol üzerine2 çalablarından3 yaŋa daħı şunlar kim ķurtulmışlardandur 6. (2v1) taĥkįķ4 anlar kim kāfir oldılar berāberdür5 anlaruŋ üzerine ķorķutduŋ mı6 anları …(2v2) yā ķorķutduŋuz7…inanmazlar 7. mühr urdı teŋri göŋülleri üzerine8 daħı ķulaķları9 üzerine (2v3) daħı gözleri üzerine10 örtüdür daħı anlar11 içün vardur Ǿaźāb ulu 8. (2v4) daħı ādemįlerden oldur kim aydur inanduķ teŋriye daħı ķıyāmet12 günine daħı13 degüldür bunlar (2v5) inancılar 9. aldarlar teŋri daħı anlar kim imān getürdiler14 inandılar15 daħı aldamazlar (2v6) illā kendülerin16 daħı bilmezler 10. göŋülleri içinde śayruluķdur yaǾni münāfıķlıķ pes arturdı (2v7)…śayrulıķ daħı aŋlaruŋ içün Ǿazāb aġrıdıcı oldılar anlardan ötri kim yalan söylerler 11. (2v8)… anlara fesād eylemeŋ yėrde ayıtdılar andan ötri kim degülüz (3r1) eyü işleciler 12. taĥķįķ17 anlar fesād eyleyicilerdür velįkin (3r2) bilmezler 13. ķaçan aydılar anlara įmān getürüŋ nite kim …ādemįler ayıtdılar (3r3) įmān getür kim nite kim įmān getürdiler beynsüzler taĥķįķ anlar beyinsizlerdür (3r4) velįkin bilmezler 14. ķaçan ėrseler anlar kim įmān… ayıtdılar įmān getürdük (3r5) daħı keşişler ķaldılar yaluŋuz şeytānlarile ayıtdılar taĥķįķ bize siz gelevüz degülüz biz (3r6) illā yaŋsuya döviniciler 15. teŋri yaŋśuya dutar anları daħı arturavuz18 anlara ĥaddan geçmeklik19…(3r7) ħayrān oldılar20 16. şunlar anlardur kim śatun aldılar azġunlıġı ŧoġrı21…pes (3r8) aśsı eylemedi bāzirgānlıķları22 daħı olmadılar ŧoġrı yol ŧutucılar 17. beŋzer anlara23 (3v1) aŋa kim yandurdı odı pes ol vaķt kim aydın oldı yöresi giderdi teŋri (3v2) aydıġın daħı ķodı anları ķaraķŋulıķ24 içinde görmezler 18. śaġırlardur dilsüzlerdür gözsüzlerdür (3v3) pes anlar dönmezler 19. daħı üstüne yaġmur yaġar25 gibidür gökden anuŋ içindedür ķaraŋulıķ26 daħı gök gürlemek (3v4) daħı yıldırım aldı ķaf27 ķıldılar barmaķlarını ķulaķları içine evlerden28 ötürü kim bulutlardan29 düşer (3v5) 1

bilürler üzeredür 3 daķı şunlar ķurtulmışlardur 4 bayıķ 5 barabardur 6 kim 7 ķorķutmaduŋ mı 8 üzere anlarun 9 ķulaġı 10 üzere anlarun 11 anlarundur 12 śoŋraġı güne 13 daķı 14 getürürler 15 yaǾni küfri göŋüllerinde gizlerler 16 gendüzlerini yaǾni aldamaġun ziyānı anlaradur 17 bayıķ 18 daķı arturur 19 geçmeklikleri içinde 20 olurlar 21 ŧoġru yol-ıla 22 bezirgenlikleri 23 yaǾni münāfıķlar meselesi 24 ķaraŋulıķlar 25 yaġan 26 karaŋulıklar 27 ıldırmak 28 odlardan 29 bulıtdan 2

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN ölüm śaķınmaġından daħı teŋri ķaplamışdur kāfirleri 20. yaķın olur yıldırım kim ķupa1 gözleri anlaruŋ (3v6) her nice kim aydın anlaruŋ içün yürürler aydın içinde ķaçan ķaraŋurdı anlaruŋ üzerinde2 ŧururlar (3v7) eger dileseyidi giderdi ķulaķlarını anlaruŋ daħı gözlerüŋ anlaruŋ taĥķįķ teŋri her nesne üzerine (3v8)… 21. ėy ādemįler ŧapuŋ teŋriŋüze3 ol kim yaratdı sizi (4r1) daħı anlar kim ilerüdür sizden anuŋçün siz4 Ǿazābdan Ǿibādet ile śaķınasız 22. ol kim ķıldı sizüŋçün (4r2) yeri döşek daħı gögi yapılmışdur5 daħı indürdi gökden śu pes çıķardu anuŋla (4r3) yemişlerden sizüŋ rūzıŋuz içün pes ķılmaŋ teŋriye beŋdeşler daħı siz bilürsiz6 kim yaradıcı oldur 23. (4r4) daħı eger olursaŋuz gümān içinde andan kim indirdük ķulumuz üzerine7 getürüŋ bir sūre anuŋ (4r5) gibiden8 daħı oķuŋ ŧanuķlaruŋuzı yaǾni putlar teŋriden ayruķ yaǾni sūre getürüŋ eger olursaŋuz gėrçekler 24. (4r6) pes eger işlemedüŋüz yaǾni sūre hergiz işlemeyesiz pes śaķınuŋ oddan ola kim odını anuŋ (4r7) ādemilerdür daħı9 taşlardur yaraķlanmışdur kāfirler içün 25. daħı muştıla anları kim įmān getür…(4r8) daħı işlediler eyü işler taĥķįķ10 anlaruŋdur uçmaķlar aķar altından (4v1) ırmaķlar her ķaçan11 kim rızıķ vėrinildi andan yemiş rızıķ vėrmek ayıtdılar işbu oldur (4v2) rızıķ vėrinüldük ilerüden yaǾni 12uçmaķda yā dünyāda daħı getürünildi birbirine beŋzer13 daħı anlaruŋdur uçmaķ içinde Ǿavratlar key arınmışlar (4v3) daħı anlar anuŋ içinde ebed14 ķalıcılardur 26. taĥķiķ teŋri utanmaz ura yaǾni beŋzede meŝel (4v4) key sivri siŋek daħı andan yuķarı ammā anlar kim įmān getürdiler bilürler kim taĥkįķ ol ĥaķdur (4v5) teŋrilerinden daħı emmā anlar kim kāfir oldılar pes aydurlar ne nesne dėrler teŋri iş bundan (4v6) mesel eylemedin… azdurur anuŋla illā ŧaǾatdan çıķıçılar kāfirler 27. anlar kim śaldılar teŋri ķavline (4v7) berkitden soŋra daħı keserler anı kim buyurur teŋri ulaşdurunıla(4v8) daħı fesād eyler yėrde şunlar anlardur ziyānludur15 28. nite kāfir olur siz (5r1) teŋriye daħı şol ĥalde kim öldüŋüz ölürdüŋüz pes diri eyledi sizi andan diri göre sizi andan yaŋa (5r2) döndürünildi16 29. ol oldur kim yaratdı sizüŋçün anı kim yėrdedür hep andan faśl17 eyledi (5r3) göge pes ŧoġrı eyledi yedi gökleri daħı ol her nesne18 bilicidür 30. (5r4) daħı ol vaķt kim ayıtdı çalabuŋ feriştelere taĥķiķ eyleciyem yėrde ħālıķa ayıtdılar eyler misiz (5r5) anuŋ içinde anı kim fesād eyleye anuŋ içinde daħı döke ķanlar daħı biz tesbiĥ eyledüŋüz senüŋ ĥamduŋla (5r6) daħı taķdir eyledüŋüz yaǾni āri dutaruz Ǿayublardan arılıġıla aŋaruz seni ayıtdı taĥkik ben bilürem anı kim siz bilmez siz 31. daħı ögretdi ādeme (5r7) isimler dükelin andan arż eyledi adlar ismini feriştehlere pes ayıtdı ħaber vėrüŋ (5r8) şunlaruŋ adlarını eger ola siz girçekler 32. ayıtdılar arlıġun senüŋ yoķdur bilmeŋüz bizüm (5v1) anı kim ögretdüŋ biz taĥkiķsiz sėn bilici dost 1

kapa üzere 3 çalabunuza 4 kim 5 yapılmış yaǾni ev örtüsi gibi 6 siz bilüriken 7 üzere 8 yaǾni kur’an gibiden yā muhammed gibiden dakı 9 dakı 10 bayıķ 11 niçe kim 12 girü 13 bendeş 14 ebedį 15 ziyanlular 16 döndürinilesiz 17 kasd 18 nesneyi 2

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN işlü1 dürüst sözlü 33. ayıtdı ey ādem ħaber vėr anlara(5v2) adların anlaruŋ ol vaķt kim ħaber vėrdi anlara adların analaruŋ ayıtdı teŋri ayıtmadum mu size ben taĥkiķ (5v3) bilürin görinmezini göklerüŋ daħı yėrüŋ daħı bilürin anı kim āşikāre2 eyler siz daħı (5v4) anı kim gizler siz 34. daħı ol vaķt kim ayıtduk feriştehlere secde ķıluŋuz ādeme pes secde eylediler3 (5v5) illā iblįs ėtmedi4 daħı tekebbürlik eyledi daħı oldı kāfirlerden 35. daħı ayıtduk ey ādem (5v6) dolan sen daħı Ǿavratuŋ cennetde daħı yėŋ5 andan dirlik gėŋliginden6 gėŋliginden6 ne yerden kim diler siz7 (5v7) daħı yaķın gelmek işbu aġaca yani buġdaya yani buġday yā incir yā üzüm aġacı pes olasız žālimlerden 36. pes ŧapındurdı8 ol iki yani ādemį ve ĥavvāyı (5v8) şeyŧān uçmaķdan çıķardı ol ikiyi pes çıķardı andan kim olurlardı anuŋ içinde ayıtdı bir niçeŋüz aşaġa inüŋ yaǾni ādem ve ĥavvā ve iblįs ve yılan (6r1) bir niceŋüz düşmāndur daħı sizüŋdür yėrde dutacek yėr daħı gönenmek bir zamāna degin 37. (6r2) pes oldı9 ādem teŋrisinden kelimeler yaǾni rabbenā žalemnā enfüsenā pes tevbe dėrdi aŋa taĥkik pes her kim ol key tevbe vėricidir raĥmet ķılıcıdur 38. (6r3) ayttuk aşaġa inüŋ andan dükeli pes eger gelürse size benden ŧoġrı yol göstermek uyarsa ŧoġrı yola (6r4) yoķtur ķorķu anlaruŋ üzerine ne daħı anlar ķayġulu olalar 39. daħı anlar kim kāfir oldılar (6r5) daħı yalan dutdılar āyetlerümüzi şunlar od issilerdür10 anlar ilk ildem11 anuŋ içinde ebed ķalıcılardur 40. (6r6) ėy yaǾķub oġlanları anuŋ niǾmetüm ola kim sizüŋ üzere yaǾni ķurana daħı yerine getürüŋ ķavlüm yaǾni şeriǾatı (6r7) yerine getürem ķuluŋuzı yaǾni müzd vėrmek daħı benden ķorķuŋ 41. daħı imān getürüŋ ana indürdüm gėrçek dutıcıyiken (6r8) anı kim sizüŋledür yaǾni tevrit daħı ölmek ilkiŋ kāfir aŋa daħı śatun almaŋ benüm āyetlerüm az bahaya (6v1) yaǾni az dünyālik daħı benden ķorķuŋ 42. daħı ķarışturmaŋ ĥaķķı bāŧıla daħı gizlemeŋ ĥaķķı (6v2) daħı şol ĥalde kim siz bilür siz 43. ey buyurmu siz daħı ŧuruŋ ādemiler nemāzı yaǾni peyġamberleriŋ bir nice śıfatına ikrār eyleyüp ve bir nicesine inkār eylemeŋ daħı vėrüŋ zekātı yaǾni rüķu Ǿlu nemāz ķıluŋ daħı arķaŋuz egüŋ (6v3) arķa ėgicilerle 44. yaǾni cuĥūdlar ayıtdılar dostlarına müslümānlardan kim muĥammed dįni ĥaķdur yörüŋ12 dutuŋ yāĥud murdār oruç dutmaķdur eyelük daħı unudur mu siz nefslerüŋüzi (6v4) daħı siz oķur siz kitāb aŋlamaz siz 45. daħı arķa vėrmek isteŋ śabırla yaǾni ŧāǾatlar üzerine13 (6v5) daħı namāzıla daħı taĥķiķ14 ol namāz15 aġırdur olur yaǾni illā ķorķucılar üzerine 46. anlar kim bellü bilürler anlar kim taĥkiķ (6v6) göricilerdür çalablarıŋ daħı taĥkiķ anlar16 andan yaŋa dönicilerdür 47. ėy yaǾķub oġlanları anuŋ (6v7) niǾmetüm ol kim eylük eyledüm sizüŋ üzeriŋüze daħı tahķiķ ben artuķ eyledüm sizi Ǿālemler üzere 1

bilici dürüst işlü eşkere 3 kıldılar 4 onamadı 5 yin 6 ginligi-y-ile 7 dilersenüz 8 tayındurdı 9 aldı 10 isleridür 11 ebed 12 berk 13 üzere yāhud murad bundan oruç dutmakdur 14 bayık 15 uludur yaǾni agırdur 16 anun dapa dönicilerdür 2

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 48. (6v8) daħı ķorķuŋ daħı bir günden kim ĥācetsüz eylemeye bir nefs bir nefsden nesne daħı ķabūllenmeye şefāǾat andan yaǾni nefisden Sūretü’l Ķadr (1) biz indürdik anı yaǾni ķurānı ķadr gėcesi1 (2) ne nesne2 bildürdi saŋa nedür ķadr gėcesi (3) ķadr gėcesi yėgrekdür biŋ aydan (4) iner ferişteler3 cebrāil anuŋ içinde destūriyle çalablarınuŋ dükeli iş içün (5) selāmdur ol4 tā śubĥ belürince Sūretü’l-Beyyine (1) olmadı anlar kim kāfir oldılar ehlinden5 kitābuŋ müşriklerden (2) ayrılıcılar tā gele anlara ĥuccet yaǾni peyġamber6 teŋriden oķur kitāblar (3) arınmış anuŋ7 içinde kitāblardur 8 ŧoġrı (4) olmadı bölük bölük anlar kim vėrinildiler kitāb 9 illā andan soŋra 10 geldi anlara ĥuccat yaǾni muĥammed 11 (5) buyurılmadılar 12 illa tapalar teŋriye iħlās eyleyicilerken aŋa dini müslümānlarken ŧururlar namāzı 13 vėreler 14 zekātı şol dindür ŧoġrı (6) anlar kim kāfir oldılar kitāb ehlinden müşriklerden odındadur cehennemüŋ ebed ķılıcılarken anuŋ içinde şunlardur anlar yavuzuraġı yaradılmışuŋ (7) anlar kim įmān getürdiler işlediler eyü işler şunlardur anlar15 yėgregi yaradılmışuŋ (8) yandı anlaruŋ ķatında çalablarınuŋ aden uçmaķlarında aķar altından ırmaķlar ebed ķalıcılarken anuŋ içinde hemįşe ħoşnuź ol anlardan ħoşnuź oldılar andan şol anuŋdur kim ķorķdı çalabından16 Sūretü'l- Zelzele (1) ķaçan deprenildi yėr depretmek (2) çıķardı yėr ķumaşların17 (3) ayıtdı ādemi ne geldi aŋa (4) ol gün söyleye yėr ħaberlerin18 (5) andan 19çalabuŋ ilhām vėrür20 (6) ol gün döneler ādemįler bölük bölük tā gösterdineler Ǿalemlerin21 (Ǿamel) (7) her kim işleye gėçi ķarınca aġırı yā źerre aġırı ħayr göre 22 (8) her kim işleye 23aġırı źerrenüŋ göre anı Sūretü'l 'Ādiyāt (1) yügüriciler ĥaķķıçün 24 at nefesi üni gelmek 25 (2) od çıķarılar ĥaķķıçün 26 od çıķmaķ 27 (3) yaġlayıcılar 28ĥaķķı śabaĥda (4) ķopardılar ol vaķt29 (5) girdüler ol vaķt bir bölük30 (6) ādemį çalabısına nā-sıpasdur (7) ol şunuŋ üzere ŧanuķdur 31 (8) ol ħayr sevmegine1 ķatıdur (9) ay bilmez mi ol vaķt 1

yaǾni dünyā gögine nese 3 daķı 4 (yaǾni ferişteler müǿminlere selām vėrür) 5 yaǾni yahūdi, nasrāi daķı 6 muĥammed yaǾni ayıttılar “dinimüzü ķomayavuz muĥammed gelince; andan anuŋ dinüŋ dutavuz yalavaç 7 anlaruŋ 8 yaǾni yazılmış āyetler 9 yaǾni kāfirler 10 kim geldi 11 yaǾni bir nėcesi inandı bir nicesi inanmadı 12 yaǾni tevritde inicilde 13 daķı 14 daķı 15 bu kelime TİEM’de nüshasında yok 16 çalabısından 17 ķumaşlarını yaǾni ölüleri daķı gencleri 18 ħabarlarını yaǾni kim n’ittügini 19 ötürü kim bayıķ 20 vėrdi ana yā buyurdı yaǾni göŋline bıraķdı 21 Ǿamellerini 22 anı 23 źerre aġırı şer göre… 24 yaǾni ġāzılar atları 25 segirdürken 26 yaǾni atlar toynaķları-y-ıla 27 çıkarmak 28 yā ėviciler 29 ŧoz 30 yaǾni düşmāna 31 yaǾni işine ikrār eyleye, inkar eylemeye 2

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN 2

depredinildi 3 sinlerdedür (10) ĥāśıl olundı ħeberlüdür

4

gögüzlerdedür

5

(11) bayıķ çalabuŋuz anlara ol gün

Sūre-i Kāriǿa (1) urucı6 ya ķahr eyleyeci7 (2) nedür urucı8 (3) ne nesne9 bildürir saŋa nedür urucı10 (4) ol gün kim ola ādemiler od kelebegi gibi perākende (5) ola ŧaġlar deŋüz renklü yüŋ gibi atılmış (6) emmā her kim aġır ola terāzüleri (7) ol dirlik içindedür ĥoşnuźluķlı (8) emmā ol kim yeyni oldı terāzüleri (9) yėri anuŋ cehennemdür (10) ne nesne11 saŋa bildürir nedür ol (11) oddur key issi Sūretü't- Tekāsür (1) egledi sizi çoķlıġıla birbiŋüze faħr eylemek (2) tā varduŋuz sinlere12 (3) degül eyle tiz bilesiz (4) andan degül eyle tiz bilesiz (5) degül eyle bilmişmissedüŋüz gümānsuz bilmek13 (6) 14göresiz ŧamuyı (7) andan15 göresiz anı gümānsuz16 varlıġını (8) andan17 śorınılasız ol gün diŋlenmekden 18dünyāda hoş Ǿıyş geçürmekden Sūretü'l-ǾAsr (1) ikindü namāzı ĥaķķiçün yā rüzigār ĥaķķı (2) bayıķ ādemį ziyān içindedür (3) 19anlar kim imān getürdiler20 işlediler eyü işler21 birbirine ıśmarladılar ĥaķķı22 ķurānı birbirine ıśmarladılar23 Sūretü'l Hümeze (tisūn) (1) veyldür her bir ādem ardınca yavuz söyleyiciye Ǿayıblayıcıya24 (2) ol kim key dėrdi mālı25 śaydı anı (3) śanur26 mālı anuŋ ebed eyledi anı (4) degül eyle bıraġınıla śayıcı içün (5) 27ne nesne bildürdi saŋa (6) nedür śayıcı28 (7) teŋri odıdur yandurınılmış ol kim muŧŧaliǾ olur ard yürekleri üzere… Sūretü'l-Fîl (1) ay bilmedüŋ mi nite işledi yaǾni ibrāhim yemen meliki nite işledi çalabuŋ pil işlerine29 (2) ay ķılmadum mekrini anların azdurmaķ içinde30 żāyi eyledi (3) veribidi anlaruŋ üzere ķuşlar bölük bölükler (4) atarlar anları31 ŧaşıla32 bişmiş balçıķtan33 (5) ķıldı anları yenmiş ekin topraġı1 1 2 3 4 5

yaǾni māl kim ol kim ol kim

yaǾni ħayri şerri dėrildi, belürdi

6

dögici yaǾni ķıyāmat göŋülleri, ķorku-y-ıla 8 dögici 9 nese 10 dögici 11 nese 12 yaǾni ölünce ölüleri daġı saydunuz 13 yaǾni eger bilmişmissedünüz anlayayıdunuz fahr eylemegi 14 bayıķ 15 bayıķ 16 gümensüz bilmek yaǾni gümensüz varlıgın 17 bayıķ 18 yaǾni 19 daķı 20 daķı 21 daķı 22 yaǾni 23 sabr eylemegi 24 Ǿayıblayıcı 25 mālı daķı saydı anı yā yaraķladı anı 26 sanur kim bayıķ malı 27 daķı ne nese 28 sıyıcı 29 yaǾni ebrehe yemen meliki 30 yaǾni 31 anlara taş 32 taş 33 yā kāfirler defterinden 7

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN Sūretü Ķurayş (1) ögrenmek içün ķureyş ķabilesi (2) anlaruŋ geçmek ķışuŋ yayuŋ (3) ŧapsunlar çalabıŋ işbu evüŋ (4) ol kim yėdürdi anlara açlıķdan2 emin eyledi anları ķorķudan Sūretü'l- Māǿūn (1) ay gördügüm ol kim yalan dutdı cezā vėrmek3 (2) şol oldur kim güçemleyü sürer ögsüz mālından (3) ķandurmaz ŧaǾāmı üzere miskinüŋ (4) veylidür 4 ķatı Ǿaźāb namāz ķılıcılar anlar 5 namāzlarında ġāfillerdür anlar kim riyā eylerler (5) yıġarlar ev āletin yā zekātı Sūretü'l-Kevser (1) biz vėrdük saŋa uçmaķdagı ırmaġı yā çoķ ħayr (2) namāzı ķıl6 çalabuŋ içün7 (3) düşmān dutucı seni ol gücükdür Sūretü'l- Kāfirūn (1) ayt ey kāfirler (2) ŧapmayam aŋa kim ŧaparsız (3) degülsiz ŧapıcılar aŋa kim ŧaparın (4) degülin8 ben ŧapıcı9 ŧapduŋuz (5) degülsiz ŧapıcılar10 ŧaparın (6) size dįnüŋüz11 baŋa dįnüm Sūretü'n- Nasr (1) gele12 yardım teŋriden açmaķ (2) göresin ādemileri girürler teŋri dinine bölük bölükler (3) tesbiĥ eyle ögmegile çalabıŋ 13yarlıķamaķ iste andan 14ol oldı tevbe verici Sūretü Tebbet (1) helāk olsun ebulehebüŋ iki eli15 helāk oldı (2) aśśı eylemedi aŋa16 dükeli kesb eyledi (3) tiz gire oda yaluŋ17 (4) avradı anuŋ götürücü odunı18 (5) boynunda anuŋ ipdür burulmış Sūretü'l İhlās (1) ayt ol teŋri birdür (2) teŋri ĥācet olunur serverdür (3) daħı ŧoġrılmadı daħı olmadı19 (4) olmadı anuŋ beŋdeş kimsene20 Kur'an'ın son iki suresi olan Suretü'l Felak ve Suretü'n-Nas surelerine satır arası anlam verilmemiştir. Ayrıca Fatiha Suresi de metnin sonunda tekrar edilmiş olmakla satır arası anlam verilmemiştir.

3. Sonuç: Gerek Çorum nüshası, gerekse TİEM 40 nüshası, Eski Anadolu Türkçesinin imla, ses, şekil özelliğini göstermektedir. Çorum nüshasını TİEM 40 nüshası ile mukayese ettiğimizde kelime hazinesi bakımından TİEM 40 nüshasının açıklamalarının tamamının olması dolayısıyla daha zengin olduğu görülmüştür. Nüshalar arasında imla, ses ve şekil bilgisi bakımından çok büyük farklılıklar olmamakla beraber bazı kelimeler simetrik bir biçimde farklı kullanmıştır. TİEM 40 nüshasındaki bütün “daķı” kelimeleri Çorum nüshasında “daħı” biçiminde yazılmış yine TİEM nüshasındaki bütün “bayık” kelimeleri Çorum nüshasında “taĥķįķ” şeklinde yazılmıştır. TİEM 40 nüshası “yani” şeklindeki açıklamalarıyla ayrıntılı 1

yapraġı gibi daħı 3 vėrmegi 4 yaǾni 5 kim 6 yaǾni bėş namāz, yā bayrām namāzı 7 daķı deve boġazla 8 degülven ben 9 ana 10 ana kim 11 daķı 12 teŋri yardım vėrmegi daķı açmaķ yaǾni mekke’yi 13 daķı 14 bayıķ 15 daķı 16 mālı daķı ol kim 17 issi 18 yaǾni peyġambar yolına odun diken bıraġıcı, yā şer odın getürüp yandurıcı 19 ŧoġurmadı daķı toġrılmadı 20 kimse 2

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The 2nd International Conference on the Changing World and Social Research (ICWSR’2016) October, 14 – 16, 2016, Barcelona-SPAIN olduğu halde, Çorum nüshasında yer yer “yani”li açıklamaların kullanılmadığı görülmüştür. Söz konusu iki farklı nüsha incelenerek yeni bir çalışmanın yapılması, Türk dilinin zenginliğine katkıda bulunacaktır.

Kaynaklar Borovkov A.K (1963) Leksika sredneaziatskogo tefsira XII-XIII vv. Akademiya Nauk SSSR İnstitut Narodov Azii. Moskova. (Türkçe Çev. Halil İbrahim Usta, Ebülfez Amanoğlu, Orta Asya’da Bulunmuş Kur’an Tefsirinin Söz Varlığı (XII-XIII Yüzyıllar), TDK, Ankara, 2002). Eckmann Janos (1957) “Doğu Türkçesinde Bir Ku’an Çevirisi (Rylands Nüshası)”, Türk Dili Araştırmaları Yıllığı Belleten, s,51-69. Esatoğlu Ahsen (1987) “İhlâs Sûresi Metni, Dil Özellikleri ve Sözlük” ve “Metinden Örnek sayfalar” Ankara Ü., SBE Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara. Harman F. Ö. (1989)

"Ahd-i Atik", İslam Ansiklopedisi , C.1.

İnan Abdulkadir (1960) "Kur’anın Eski Türkçe ve Oğuz-Osmanlıca Çevirileri Üzerine Notlar", Türk Dili Araştırmaları Yıllığı Belleten, s.89. İnan Abdulkadir (1991) "Kur’an’ın Türkçe Tercümeleri Üzerine Bir İnceleme", Makaleler ve İncelemeler II, Ankara, s.156 Kara

Mehmet (1987) “Yâsîn Sûresi Tefsîri: İnceleme-Metin-Sözlük-Tıpkıbasım”, İnceleme-Metin-Sözlük-Tıpkıbasım”, Gazi Üniversitesi, SBE, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara.

Karabacak Esra (1992) Manisa İl Halk Kütüphanesi’ndeki Satır Arası Kur’an Tercümesi: Giriş-Metin-Dizin) I-II, Marmara Ü., Türkiyat Araştırmaları Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi, İstanbul. Kök

Abdullah (2004) Karahanlı Türkçesi Satır Arası Kur’an Tercümesi İnceleme-Giriş-Metin-Dizin) Ankara Ü., SBE, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara.

(TİEM

73235v/2)

Köprülü Fuat (1926) Türk Edebiyatı Tarihi, İstanbul, s.192. Kut Turgut (1989) "Ali Ufki Bey" İslam Ansiklopedisi II. cilt. Küçük

Murat (2014) Eski Anadolu Türkçesi Dönemine Ait Satır Arası İlk Kur'an Tercümesi, TDK Yay. Ankara.

Old Turkish and Persian Inter-Linear Qurǿan Translations II: An Inter-Linear Translation of the Qurǿan into Khawarazm Turkish, Introduction, Text, Glossary and Facsimile (Part I: Introduction and Text), Harvard, (410 pages), 1993; (Part II: Glossary) Harvard, 1995, (310 pages); (Part III Facsimile of the MS Süleymaniye Library, Hekimoğlu Ali Paşa No.2 Section One: 1b-300b), Harvard, 1996; (Part III: Facsimile of the MS Süleymaniye Library, Hekimoğlu Ali Paşa No.2 Section Two:301a-587b),

Sağol Gülden (1999)

Harvard,1999. Togan Zeki Velidi (1959) "Londra ve Tahran’daki İslami Yazmaların Bazılarına Dair", İslam Tetkikleri Enstitüsü Dergisi III, 196-, s.135 Topaloğlu Ahmet (1976) Muhammed Bin Hamza, XV. Yüzyıl Başlarında Yapılmış Kur’an Tercümesi, 1,2 Cilt, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, İstanbul, s.2. Ünlü

Suat (2004) Karahanlı Türkçesi Satır Arası Kur’an Tercümesi (TİEM 73235v/2-450r/7) İnceleme-Giriş-Metin-Dizin) Hacettepe Ü., SBE, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara.

Üşenmez Emek (2013) Türkçe İlk Kur'an Tercümelerinden Özbekistan Nüshası, Akademik Kitaplar, İstanbul. Yilmaz Hikmet (1992) “Eski Anadolu Türkçesi İle Yazılmış Satır Arası Bir Kur’an Tercümesi (Metin-Gramer-Sözlük) 53b-105a”, Cumhuriyet Ü., SBE, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 1992; Akar Ali, (53b-105a) 1992; Delice İbrahim, 105b-170b) 1992; Eminoğlu Emin, (171a-216b) 1995; Alper Mehtap, 217a-262b) 1988. Zülfikar H. (1970) Çağatayca Bir Kuran Tefsiri, Ankara Ü. SBE. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara.

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