Animal Symbolism - Forgotten Books

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CON T E N T S I N T R OD U C T I O N

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hi st or y by Al exan er t h e Gr ea t— S ci en t i ﬁ c spi r i t fost er e b y Ar i st otl e L a k of thi s spi r i t a m on g t h e R om an s—Al exan r i a a s a en t r e of l earn i n g un er t h e P t ol em i es T h e C h r i st i a n t h eor y of t h e r el a t i on of th e B ook of R ev el at i on t o t he B ook of N a t ur e T h e pa t r i st i on ept i on of th e v i sibl e r ea t i on v en

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viol et a n d t he pin k a r e illust r a te t he a t t ra ct ion s o f fem a le bea uty a n d t he a tt r ibu t es o f c on n u bi a l l o ve I n t o Ger m an y whose pa ga n t r ibes see m t o h a ve b een a cqu a i n t e d wit h bees ch i e ﬂy i f n ot e xclusive ly i n t hei r wild st a t e t he a rt O f r ea r i n g t hese i n sec t s wa s i n t r oduc ed wit h Ch r ist ia n ity a n d c a r r i ed on for t he m ost pa r t by Ther e wa s ha r dl y a t he va r i ou s m on a st ic or d e r s cl oist er wit hou t i ts hive which n ot on l y supplied hon ey a n d wa x for c u li n a ry a n d c u l t ic pu r poses b u t a l so ser ved a s a n e x a m pl e t o t he fr i a r s O f a n id ea l li fe O f com m u n ist i c i n d ustry a n d c en obit ic ch a st ity T he su per ior s o f t he con ven t s we re fon d O f e m ph a sizi n g t hi s a n a l ogy i n t he i r e xhor t a t i on s t o t h e r e cl u ses u n d er t he i r ch a r ge a n d o f en for ci n g i t Pet e r o f C a pua c a ll s t he i n t he i r r e ligi ous poet r y “ n s e n r i se n a d a c a pi s ae t he re a d ed S a vi ou r t he sa i n t s fa m ou s for good w or ks a r e c o m pa r e d t o b ees ; e l o q uen t Fa t h er s o f t he Ch u r ch a n d e x pou n d e r s of t he fa i t h— Ch r y sost om A m b rose I sid o re o f S pa i n a n d Be r n a r d O f Cl a i r va u x — a r e sa id t o h a ve li ps ﬂ owi n g wit h h on ey ( m el l ijl u us) ; a n d t he vi r gi n queen o f t he hive i s i n t he hy m n s Of m edi aeva l m a r io l a t er s a fa vo u r i t e t y pe O f t he Vi r gi n Q ueen B u t n ot wi t hst a n di n g t he fre qu en cy O f o f H ea ven t h ese a ll u si on s i n Ch r i st i a n li t er a t u r e a n d t he con se c r a t i on of h on e y a n d w a x t o r i t u a l pu r poses I t i s fou n d t he b ee ﬁ gu r es r a r ely i n Ch r i st i a n a rt o cc a si on a ll y c a r ve d on t o m bs i n t h e c a t a co m bs a s a sy m b ol o f i m m or ta li t y ; i n t hi s c a se howe ve r i t

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d oes n ot ex pr ess a spec i ﬁca lly Ch r ist ia n con cept ion I n a n cien t t i m es but i s a su r viva l O f pa ga n i sm hon ey was su ppose d t o b e a n e ffe ct ive a n t isept ic a n d i t wa s c u st o m a r y t o sm e a r wi t h i t t h e b odi e s o f t he d ea d i n o r de r t o p r ese r ve t he m from p u t r e fa ct ion A lexa n der t he Gr ea t is sa id t o ha ve been t hu s e m b a l m e d a n d t he sa m e u sa ge for m e d a n in t egra l pa rt o f th e M it h r a s cul t a n d ca n be t r a ce d ba ck t o t he sola r worshi p o f t he st ill fa rt her U n d er t he R om a n A ssy r i an s a n d B a by l on i a n s e m pire t he m y st e r ie s o f t h e M i t hr as cul t b e c a m e wid ely di ffused t hr ou gh ou t Western E u r ope ; Ch r i st ia n chu r ches wer e e re cted o ver a l ta r s d edi ca t ed t o t he O l d Pe r si a n su n god a s i n S Cl e m en t e a t R om e a n d t h e gild e d bu l l s h ea d a n d t h r ee hun dred golden bees disco ve r ed a t T ou r n a y i n 1 65 3 i n ki n g t he t om b O f t he M e r ovi n gi a n Chil d er i c I I I ha d t he i r o r i g i n i n t he sa m e sy st e m O f wor shi p Th ese bees which d e co ra te d the r oy a l m a n t l e o f t he livi n g m on a r ch a n d e m b e lli sh ed h i s sh r oud a fte r d ea t h we r e i n vest e d w i t h a t r a di t i on a l sa c red ness i n Fra n c e a s e m bl e m s o f so ve r e ign t y and t h ere fore a d opt e d b y t he ﬁ r st N a ol eo n i n o r d er t o p give a seem in g sh i m m e r o f a n c i en t lust r e t o a n u psta r t d y n asty Ch r ist a s we ha ve seen wa s ca lle d the e t h er ea l bee an d i t i s a n i n t er est i n g co in cid en c e t h a t Vishn u in ca r n a t e i n the for m O f K r ish n a should b e r epresen te d wit h a blue b ee h ove r i n g o ve r h i s h ea d a s a sy m bol o f t he aeth e r I t i s n ot pr oba bl e t h a t thi s si m il a r ity i s t o be e x l a i n ed on t he t h eor p y ,

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whit e a n d bl a ck sy m bols of d ay a n d n ight t h e chie f division s of a l l de vo u r in g ti m e which ul t i M H en r i m a t el y ca u se eve ry t ree o f life t o fa ll Ga i d oz has shown by st r on gly pr esu m ptive if n o t w h olly c on clu sive e v id en c e t h a t t he Vi r gi n o f t he S even S wor d s i s a Ch r i st i a n a ppropr i a t i on a n d a d a pt a t i on of t he Ba by l on i a n A ssy r i a n wa r go dd ess I sta r who i s repr esen t e d on a n cien t m on u m en t s wit h seven d a r ts i n her sho uld er s so a rra n ged as t o form with t he ir sha ft s a h a l o en ci r cli n g he r hea d P i ct u res o f t his god d e ss b r ough t b y m e di e va l I t a lia n m er cha n ts fr om t he E a st wer e suppose d t o r e fer t o t he Vi r gi n M a r y a n d t o t he fulﬁl m en t O f t h e prophe cy o f S i m eon t h a t a swor d should p ie r c e t h r ou gh her soul ; a n d i t wa s n ot u n t i l t he ﬁft een t h cen t u ry t hat i t wa s slight ly m odiﬁ ed t o su it t he G ospel record a n d re ce ive d a per m a n en t pl a ce i n Ch r i st ian icon ogra phy T he e x i sten ce of a r ever e d i m a ge o f t he H oly Vi r gi n i n r e m ot e r e gi on s o f t h e E ast wa s easily a ccou n t ed fo r by t he cl er gy like m a n y ot her st a rtl in g r ese m bl a n ces i n r eligio u s r it e s a n d s m bols a s t he m a r ve ll ou s a n d qui t e m i r a cul ou s y r esu l ts o f the m t hica l m i ssi on of t h e a post l e y Th om a s I n dee d n ot hin g wa s m or e com m on i n t he m iddle a ge s t h a n t hi s Ch r i st i a n iz a t i on o f pa ga n d e i t ie s Thu s t he ea gl e a s a n em blem of Ju piter ca u se d t he son o f K r on os a n d sove re ign of Ol m u s t o be y p m ist a ken for J oh n t he E van ge list Pose id on a n d ; P a ll as wer e rega r d ed a s A d a m a n d E ve ; H er cul es wit h hi s club passed for S a m son wit h t he ja wb on e ,

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r tion s of Ven u s were in gen iousl y con st rued i n t o those Of t he Vi r gin M a ry U n d er t he i n ﬂuen ce O f t he R en a issan ce t he n e wly a wa ke n e d e st h et ic sen se proved st r on g en o u gh t o ove r r ul e t he sc r u l es o f r e ligi ou s sen t i p m en t a n d t he m on u m en t s of cl a ssic a l a n t i qu it y b eca m e m od el s for i m ita t i on i n t h e pr oduct ion s of Chr ist ia n a rt W e h a ve a st r ikin g e xa m pl e o f t his t en d e n cy i n a m a r bl e re li e f of t he A ssu m pt i on O f t he Vi r gi n which b el on ge d o r igi n a ll y t o S a i n t J a cques l a Bouche r ie a n d i s n ow i n t he a bba t ia l chu r ch o f S a in t D en is H er gra ce ful ﬁ gu r e i s a l m ost wh oll y n u d e a n d r ese m bl es V en u s r i si n g fr om t he sea r a ther tha n t he Vi rgi n M a ry a scen d i n g in t o hea ven ; she fo ld s he r h a n ds i n t he a t t i t u d e O f pra y er a n d st a n d s wi t h on e foot on a c l o ud a n d t h e o t her on t he h ea d o f a ch er ub whil e fou r pa ga n gen ii a s a n gel s a ccom pa n y her pl ay in g on m u si c a l i n st r u m en t s I t wa s i n t he Orien t t oo t ha t m y thic a l an d sy m bo lica l z o ol ogy a s t he n a t u r a l o u t grow t h of t he d octr i ne o f m et em psy ch osis a t t a i n ed i ts m ost exuber a n t d e ve lopm en t T he m on st rosi ti es Of I n dia n A ssy r ia n E gy pt ia n a n d a r ch a ic G reek a r t sphi n x es c en t a u rs m i n ot a u rs hu m a n he a d e d bulls lion hea de d kin gs horse hea ded goddesses a n d spa rr ow hea d e d god s a re a l l t h e pl a st ic e m T he sa m e b od i m en t s Of t h i s m et a phy sic a l t en et ﬁ n ds e xpressi on i n h er a ld r y wh er e r ea l n ot i on a n d fa bul ous a n i m a l s a r e bl a z on e d i n whi m sica l d evices on c oa ts of a r m s a n d en sign s as em blem s of

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qu a lit ies su pposed t o b e peculia r t o i n dividu a l s T he m a n a d orn e d h i s or h ere di t a ry i n fa m ili es escu t ch eo n wi t h t he bi r d or t he be ast which he was pr o ud of r esem bli n g or wi she d t o r iva l wh ose r a pi d i t y of ﬂi gh t h e c o vet ed or whose fero ci t y h e fea r ed By t his n a i ve sy m bolism t he pr i m it ive chi e ft a in t hought t o st r ike t error i n hi s foes or t o st ren gt hen t he cou ra ge a n d c on ﬁd en c e o f hi s fr i en ds a n d c on fe derates Out of the sa m e ci r cu m st a n c es a r ose a l so a n u n c a n n y fe e li n g O f a we a s lo wer a n i m a ls a n d a supe rst i t ious r e ga r d s t he Grim m i n his d r ea d of provo ki n g t h e i r en m ity discu ssi on of t his t opic has ca ll e d e xh a u st ive a tt en t i on t o t ha t e a r ly sta ge o f so ci et y wh e n the t he sha ggy bea r r a ven ou s wolf a n d pr owli n g t h r ou gh t he d a r k gl en s a n d su n n y gl a d es o f t he i n t er m i n a bl e for est were looked u pon n ot m e rely as r a pa ci ou s b r ut es whose phy sic a l st r en gt h a n d vora city were t o be fea r ed bu t ra t her a s i n ca r n a t i on s O f m y st er i o u s a n d m a lign a n t for ces c a pa bl e of i n ﬂic t i n g i n ju r i es by occul t a n d m a gic a l i n ﬂ u e n ces a n d t here fo re n ot t o b e en ra ge d or i r r i ta t e d i n a n y m a n n er For t hi s r eason t h ey we re n Ot c a ll ed by t hei r r ea l n a m es but wer e pr opit i a ted by ﬂ a tt e r i n g epit hets such as bl a ck foot blu e foot gold foot sweet foot gr ey be a r d broa d br ow ﬂ a sh ey e for est b r ot h er a n d a va r i et y of sim il a r a ppe ll a t i on s T he d em on soul r e vea l ed i tse lf i n t he ﬁ er ce gl ar e o f the ey e an d t he l on g wei r d h owl which b roke like t he voice o f a n i m pr isoned ﬁ en d on t he m id n ight a i r a s the b ea sts were

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pose d t o b e h o ldi n g c on fer en ce c on c er n i n g t he a ffa i r s a n d d est i n i es o f m en , i n t o which t he i m m en se a ge m a n y of t hem we r e t hought t o a t t a i n ;

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l y per iod O bj e ct s O f wo r shi p a n d m y t hopoet ic Z ool a t ry h a s e xist ed a m on g a l l spe c u l a t i on o n a t i on s b u t t h i s c u l t r ea che d i t s h i ghe st d e ve l p m en t a m on g t he E gy pt ia n s who a d or e d a va st P a n t heon o f d e iﬁe d bull s r a m s c a t s m ice ibises h a wks c ro codil es a n d a m u l t it ud e o f spa r r o ws E ven i n se cts m on gr e l c rea t i on s o f t he i m a gi n a t i on ﬂ i es bees beet les we re e x a l t e d t o divin it ies M on st rosi t i es we r e he ld i n pe c u l i a r ven er a t io n T he u n i on o f h u m a n b od i e s wit h t he h e a d s o f bea sts or bi r d s i s espe ci a l ly cha r a cte r ist ic o f t he E gy pt i a n r eli gi on ; si m i l a r i n c on gr ui t i es a re m et wi t h a m on g t h e m ost a n cie n t d e i t ie s O f G ree ce Thus t h e a n d w e r e d ou b t l e ss O f A si a t i c o r i gi n A r c a di a n D e m e te r wa s r e pre se n t e d w i t h a h o r se s hea d a n d t he C re t a n M i n o ta u r w i t h t he he a d o f bu ll n ot t o m e n t ion th e host s of gor gon s a ha r pie s cen t a u rs t r it on s n er e ids sir e n s a n d sa t y r s for m ed by u n i t i n g a h u m a n h ea d wi t h t he b o d y O f a b e a st or bi r d or ﬁ sh T he G r ee k a l on e wit h h i s su per io r e st h et i c sen se ch a st e i m a gi n a t i on a n d u n su r pa ssa bl e pl a st i c skill k n ew h ow t o gi ve o r ga n ic un i t y t o t h ese he t e ro gen e o u s c o m bi n a t i on s pr u n i n g t he m O f e x c r escen c es pu r gin g th e m o f su per ﬂu i t i e s a n d r e n d er i n g t he b old est vio l a t i on s o f t he l a ws o f n a t u r e b e a u t ifu l a n d h a r m on i o u s a s wor ks of a r t These hy br id c rea t u r es O f t he fa n cy l i ke t h e sphi n x es which gu a r d e d t h e por t a l s O f t he t em pl es o f Thebe s a n d t he c o l ossa l wi n ge d lion s o f N i n e v e h a n d Pe rse o li s or i i n a t e d i n t h e p g pr iest ly pr ocl i v i t y t o sy m bolize a n d t o e x press m y st ic a l ea r

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h a t of t he l a tter t he m oon A bove t h e ga t e wa y t h rough which S t G eor ge i s r idi n g wit h th e d r a gon squi r m in g b en ea t h hi s horse a re t wo bi r d s ha vi n g t a il s r ese m bli n g t he C h ry sa lis o f a n i n sect a n d i t m a y b e a s E b ers suggests t h a t t hey a r e t he l a r va o u t O f which t he r ej uven a t ed I t i s possibl e p h oen i x wa s su ppose d t o e m er ge h owe ver t ha t t h ese qu eer t a ils a r e m erel y t he r esu l t o f a n a w kwa r d a t t e m t t o d r a w fe a t h er s T he p a n n iver sa ry O f S t G e or ge lik e t h a t o f H o r u s i s on t h e t wen ty t hi r d o f A pr i l a n d t h er e i s n o t t he slight est d ou bt t h a t t hi s c a n on iz e d k n ight w ho ﬁ gu r es i n h a gio l ogy a s a Ca ppa d oci a n pr i n ce a n d ble sse d m a rt y r o wes hi s ex iste n ce t o t he Ch r ist ia n i z a t i on Of a n O l d E gy pt i a n m y t h which a fter u n d er go i n g t hi s m et a m o r phosi s m ig r a t ed t o S y r i a wher e t h e sa i n t i s r epu t e d t o h a ve b een b or n i n t h e ci t y o f L y dd a a n d t he n c e gra d u a ll y spr ea d o ve r a l l A sia M i n or H er e t he c r usa d ers beca m e fa m ili a r wit h t h e l e gen d a d opt e d S t G eor ge a s t h e i r pa t r on a n d pa tt er n i n wa gi n g t he h oly w a r a ga in st t he M ussu l m a n ic d r a gon a n d b ro ught hi m t o E u r ope e m bl a z on e d on t he ir ba n n ers I t i s hi ghl y prob a bl e a n d i n d ee d q u i t e cert a i n t ha t m a n y om a m en t a t i o n s o f Ch r i st i a n a r chi t e ct u re w hich a r e n o w m ere l y t r a dit i on a l a n d c on ven t i on a l for m s a n d per for m a pu r el y de cora t ive fun ct i on m ight b e t r a ce d t o E gy pt ia n a n d o t he r O r i en t a l so u r c e s wh e re t h e y h a d di st i n ct si gn iﬁca n ce a s B u t i t i s n ot t he pu r pose of t he sign s a n d sy m bo l s wr iter t o u n dert a ke su ch a st udy i n com pa ra t ive t he

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h a t t her e a re fo ur kin d s o f kn owledge t o b e d er ived fr om B iblica l st ud y : histor ica l t ropologica l a ll e gor ica l and a n a gogic a l T he ﬁ r st o f t hese be in g for t he m ost pa r t per fe ct ly pl a i n wa s of n o i m porta n ce ; on ly the l a st t h ree dese r ve t he n a m e o f sp i r i t u a l k n o wl edge ( i n tel l i en t zam s i r i t u a l em g p ) ; or a s H r a ba n u s M a u r u s e x presse d i t fou r c e n t u r ie s l a te r t he hi st or ic a l sen se i s m ilk for b a b es ; t he t r opo l ogic a l sen se i s n u t r i m en t suit ed t o t h ose m o r e a dva n c e d i n wi sd om ; t he a ll ego r ic a l se n se i s t he st r on g m ea t a d a pte d t o t he r obu st soul s wh ose fa it h i s revea led i n good wor ks ; whil e t he sa in t ly person s who d espise a l l ea r t hl y j oy s a n d ha ve ﬁxe d t he i r a ffe ct i on s who ll y on hea ven l y t hi n gs a re a l on e “ t o r e c iv e h e win e of a n a gogica l i n te r pret a ﬁ t e t a n d t o b e e d i ﬁed t hereby Thi s l a st a n d t i on high est d egree of spi r itua l di scer n m en t i s bey on d t he rea ch O f t he higher c r i t ici sm a n d a s C a ssi an O b se r ves i s n ot a t t a i n a bl e by seve r e st ud y a n d d ee p e ru di t i on b u t c o m e s fr om divi n e ill u m i n a t i on pr o It d uced by fa st i n g pra y er a n d h ol y m e di ta t i on i s a n en light en m en t o f t he u n d e r st a n di n g pro cee din g fr om t he pu r iﬁca t ion o f t he h ea r t a n d n ot from por i n g ove r co m m en t a r i es ; a li ft i n g of t he ve il o f t he pa ssi on s t h a t ob scu r e t he m e n t a l visi on N ot on ly wa s t he H e b r ew c o sm o gon y a ll egor iz ed a n d spi r i t u a liz e d b u t t he sa m e m et hod o f e xposi t i on wa s a ppli ed t o t he whol e sy st em O f n a t u r e O r igen i n d escr ibi n g t he pr ocess of crea t ion e xpla in s t he c r ea tu r es t h a t ﬁll t he wa t er s t he fowl s O f t he a i r a n d t he c r ee pi n g t hi n gs a s sig n ify i n g good o r e vil st a t es

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A n i m al

8

S y m b ol i sm

houghts a n d fee l i n gs a n d ca lls specia l a t ten t ion to t he g r ea t wha l es a s sy m b olizi n g vi ol en t pa ssion s I n t he h e r m en eu t ic a l H exa a n d c r i m i n a l i m pu l ses hem er a of Ba sil t he G r ea t a n d hi s b r oth er G r e go ry of N y ssa t hi s z ool o gi ca l t y po logy i s st ill m ore full y devel oped an d t he va rious cha ra ct er ist ics popul a r ly a tt r ibu t e d t o a n i m a l s ser ve d t o en for ce m ora l t ea ch i n gs or t o illust r a t e t h eologic a l t en ets M o r e i m port a n t i n t hi s r espect a re t he so c a ll e d Cl a w s S cr ipt u r e S a cr a which were t o be u se d a s key s n ot on ly for u n l ocki n g t he spi r it u a l t rea su r es o f H oly Wr it b u t a l so for discl osi n g t he m y st ica l m ea n i n g of a l l n a t u ra l t hi n gs t he G ree k P hy si ol ogu s t he n u m er ou s m e die va l c om pil a t ion s a n d an d poe t ica l pro du ct i on s ba se d u pon i t Of which a n a cc ou n t i s given i n t he se c on d a n d t hi r d ch a pt er s These wor ks con t a i n a n e pit om e of t h i s volu m e o f t he m y t hic a l a n d sy m b o lica l z oo l ogy bo ta n y o rn it h olo gy a n d m i n er a lo gy ga t here d fr om m a n y n a t i on s a n d t ra n sm i t t ed fr o m t he r e m ot e st t i m es Very ea r ly i n t he Ch r i st ia n era t his t ra dit ion a l m a t er ia l i n fu sed itself i n t o pa t r ist ic lit era t u re a n d t hu s gr a du a ll y pa ssed fro m r h et or i ca l d ec ora t i o n i n Ch r ist i a n homilies to a rt ist ic d ecor a t ion i n Ch r ist ia n a r chi t e c t u re whe r e i t fou n d e x pressi on i n fa n t ast ic a n d O ft en m on st r ou s for m s which ca n b e u n d e r st ood on l y b y t r a ci n g t h e m t o the i r sourc es i n t he su per st i t i ou s n ot i on s o f a n ci en t and espe ci a ll y O r ien t a l peoples Wit h the growt h of re ligi ou s scept i ci sm an d schi sm t hi s s m bo li sm gr a du a ll y y an d a l m ost i m er c e t ibl p p y m er ge d i n t o sa t i r e so t

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E cc l es i a st i c al A r ch i t ec t u r e

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h a t i t i s O ft en di fﬁcul t t o d r a w a lin e of d e m a r ca t i o n bet ween t h em M edi e va l hu m ou r wa s c oa r se r a t h er t h a n keen a n d b etter skilled i n wi eldin g bl u d geon s t h a n i n b r a n di shin g r a pi ers E ven t h e gen ius O f R a bel a i s ha r dly su fﬁces t o r elieve i t O f a cer t a in b oor i sh grossn ess a n d b r u ta li ty a n d ren d e r i t t h or ou ghl y en j oy a bl e t o t he re ﬁ n e d a n d fa st idio u s T he Sa t i r e o f t he per i o d O f t he m o d er n r ea d er R e for m a t i on wa s o f t h e sa m e bi t t er a n d a bu sive st y l e L u t her s wi t wa s n ot or i o u sl y n a st y and e ven t he gen t l e M e l a n ch t h on wa s c a pa bl e of i n d u l gi n g i n a st r a i n O f sa r ca sm which a n y cul t i va t ed m a n of t o d a y w o uld re pro b a t e a s e x t re m e l y vulga r I t m ust be r em em bere d howeve r t ha t t his c oa r sen ess wa s a ch a r a cter i st ic Of t he a ge a n d i s n o t t o b e r e ga r d e d a s a m a r k O f i n t r i n sic vile I t wa s som et hi n g n e ss or i n d i vid u a l d e pr a vi ty who ll y e xte r n a l a m ode of ex pr ession by n o m ea n s i n con si st en t wi t h a r ob u st vi r t ue a s fa r In r e m ove d fro m pr udi sh n e ss a s fr om pr u r i en cy wou ld ou r t i m e t h e ﬁ e r c est t h eo l ogica l po l e m ic h a r dly ven t u r e t o l a m poon a n d ca r ica t u re hi s O ppon en t s a s t he r e for m ers O f t he si x teen t h cen t u r y did the see o f R om e n or wou ld t he m ost r a bid see k t o pr opa ga t e h i s a post l e o f A n t i S e m i t i sm vi ews b y a d or n in g Ch r ist i a n chu r ch es a n d ot her public e diﬁces wit h ﬁl t hy scul pt u r es d er i sive O f t he J ew s I n t he vol u m e n ow O ffer ed to t he public t he a u t hor ha s e n d ea vou r ed t o S h ow t he r i se a n d e volut i on of t hi s sy m boli sm a n d i t s t r a n sit i on t o sa t i r e a s seen i n t

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S y m b ol i sm

A n i m al

20

Chr ist ia n a r t a l t hou gh a s a l rea dy st a t ed he i s ve ry fa r fro m cl a i m i n g t o h a ve e xh a ust e d t h e subj e ct T he i l l u st r a t i on s a re d er ive d pa r t ly fr o m t he bes t i a r i es pr i n t e d by C a hier i n t he sec on d vo lu m e o f h i s M el a ng es d A r cheol og i e pa rt ly fr om a pa r ch m en t m a n u sc r i pt psa l t er o f I sa b ell a O f Fr a n ce i n t h e R oy a l L ib r a r y o f M u n ich a n d pa r t l y fr om e ccle T he a ppe n d e d bibli ogr a phy si a st i ca l ediﬁces t a ken i n c on n e c t i on wi t h th e r e fer en c es g iven i n t he b od y o f t he wor k w ill be fou n d t o c on t a i n t he pr i n cipa l sou r c es O f i n for m a t i on I n c on cl u si on I wi sh t o e x pr ess m y he a r ty th a n ks t o H r n D r L a ub m a n n D i r e ct or of t he K H o f u n d S t a a t sbibli ot he k i n M u n ich Ba va r i a a s w e ll a s t o t he ot h er cu st o di a n s O f t h a t lib r a r y for t he u n i for m ki n dn ess a n d cor dia lity shown i n a d m it t in g m e t o t he pr ivil eges a n d i n fa cili ta t i n g t he u se O f t h a t m a gn iﬁcen t c olle ct i on O f pr i n te d b oo ks a n d m a n u sc r i pts ,

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A n i m al

22

S y m b ol i sm

i c phil osopher was en a ble d t o e xt en d his r esea r ches bey on d t he c on ﬁ n es o f h i s o wn c ou n t r y fa n t a st ic n ot ion s a n d t o c or r e c t m a n y fa l se a n d t ha t ha d hit he r to pr eva il e d con c er n i n g e x ot ic a n d O f a un a a n d t hu s be c a m e—a t r i e n ta l e s e ci a lly p l e a st i n a r e l at ive a n d r est r icted sen se— t he fou n der o f sy st em a t ic z ool ogy i n t he m od er n sign iﬁc a t i o n H i s pr e d ec essors a s we ll as h i s o f t he t er m c on tem pora r ies ha d been won t t o spe cu l a te a bou t a n i m a l s chi e ﬂy fr o m m ora l r e ligi ou s poet ic a rti st ic did a ct ic h u m or ist ic sa t ir ica l sen t i m en t a l a n d su per st i t i ou s po i n t s of v i e w a n d t o pr iz e t he l esson s o f pr ud en c e a n d p iety a n d wi sd o m which t hey were suppose d t o in cul ca te ; but the S ta gi r ite wa s t he ﬁ r st t o st udy t h e m fr om a st r ict l y scien t iﬁc poi n t o f vi ew S t ill t he scien t iﬁc ﬁ e ld which A r i st ot l e cul t i v a t e d wi t h such assiduo u s c a r e a n d wi t h so frui tfu l r e sul ts for m e d on l y a sm a ll e ver gr een spot sta n d i n g oa si s lik e i n t he m id st o f a wid e wa ste o f w i ld con j ect u res a n d ster ile spe cul a t ion s T y r ta m u s o f L esbos su r n a m ed Theoph r a st u s hi s fa vo u r it e p u pil a n d chosen succ essor a s hea d o f t he peri pa t et i c school fo ll owe d i n t h e footst eps o f t h e grea t m a ste r i n t hi s ﬁ eld o f i n vest iga t i on a n d a i m e d a t t he a cqui sit i o n o f posi t ive k n owl e d ge by m ea n s o f e x a ct m et h od s i n t he st u d y of n a t u r e U n for t u ma t e ly howe ver t he fa bul ou s st or ies re l a te d by K t e si a s a n d M e ga sthen es i n t h ei r volu m in ou s d e scr i t i ons o f I n di a and Persi a a ppe a l ed m o r e p power full y t o t he i m a gi n a t i on a n d gr a t iﬁ ed i n a

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In

E ccl e s i ast i c al A r ch i t ec t u r e

2

3

highe r d egr ee t he popu l a r l ove o f t he m a r vello u s t h a n t h e sob er r e cor d s o f a ccu r a t e obser va t ion a n d t her e for e a cqui re d fa r gr ea t e r cu r r en cy T he R o m a n s b r ou gh t bea st s fr o m t he r em ot e st pr ovi n ces o f t he e m pi r e n ot be c a u se t hey fe l t a n y r a t i on a l o r sci e n t iﬁc i n t er est i n t he m b u t sol el y i n or d er t o i n c r ea se t he pom p a n d sp le n d ou r o f m i l i t a ry t r iu m ph s or t o m i n i st er t o t he ba r ba r ou s a n d bl oo dy spor t s o f t h e a m phi t h e a t r e A cc or di n g t o Pet r o n i u s t he M a r m a r i c d eser t s a n d t he M oo r i sh forests w er e sc o u re d for t he pu r pose o f pr o c u r i n g fer o ci o u s a n i m a l s t o ﬁgh t i n t he a r e n a wi t h ea ch o t h e r or wi t h t r a i n e d gl a di a t ors i n h o r r ibl e c o m ba t a re T he sh i ps fr o m fore i gn sh o r es he sa y s c r owd e d w i t h ﬁ e r c e t i ge r s c on ﬁ n e d i n g ild e d c a ge s a n d d est in e d t o d r i n k h u m a n bl ood t o t h e fra n t ic pl a u di t s o f t he popul a c e When Cicero wa s pr oc on sul i n Cilicia he r ece ived a n u rgen t l e tte r fr om t he a dil e C oel i u s i m pl o r i n g h i m t o sen d a s spee dil y a s possibl e a c a r go o f pa n t hers which were t o be u se d a s a ca m pa ign A s a m e a n s of fu n d for e l e ct i on ee r i n g pu r poses w i n n i n g t he suffr a ges o f t he r a bbl e t hi s so r t of e x p en d i t u r e wa s pr ob a bl y m or e e fﬁci en t a n d c er t a i n l y m or e ope n a n d ex ci t in g t h a n t he m o d er n sy st e m o f bu n che d ba ll ot s or of pu r cha si n g d i st r ibu t i n g ven a l vot ers i n blo cks of ﬁv e T o t hi s en t rea t y Cic er o r eplie d t ha t he would d o h i s best t o c om ply wi t h t he r e quest of hi s fr ien d a n d t hu s c on t r ibut e ess o f h i s c an did a cy b u t t h a t owi n g t o t o t he suc c t he en er gy a n d skill o f m a n y l over s of t he cha se ,

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S y m b ol i sm

A n i mal

2 4.

cia lly of a cert a in Pa t i scus t hese beasts o f ven ery we r e ve ry sc a r c e h a vi n g ﬂ ed for sa fet y I f we m a y fr om h i s c on sul a r pr ovi n ce i n to C a ri a b elieve t h ei r own sta tem en ts t he R om an s a ccom pl ished won d e rs i n t ra i n i n g bea sts a n d bi rd s fo r pr iva t e a m usem en t or for spect a cul a r en t e rt a in Thei r pa ssion for pet a n i m a l s wa s a m a tter m en ts a n d C a t o bi t ter ly c en su re d o f fa shi on a m er e fa d t he d egener a cy of t he t i m es wh en l a dies fre qu en t ed t he m a r ket pl a c e fon dlin g l a p d og s a n d d an dies st rutt e d a b ou t wit h pa rrot s per ch ed on th e i r wr i st s These bi rds w ere kept i n c a ges o f go ld a n d silve r a n d t or t o i se sh e ll a n d ta u ght t o sho u t t h e n a m e o f T he lio n l ea rn ed t o pl a y t he r ei gn i n g em per or wit h ha r es cat chin g t hem i n fro lic a n d lett i n g t he m go a n d ra bbi t s r a n a n d t ook r e fuge i n i t s j a ws a s i n t h ei r bu rrow M a rt i a l who d escribes th ese pe r fo rm an ces a dd s i n ob sequi ou s ﬂ a tt ery o f D om i t i a n t h a t t hi s gen t l eness an d d o cili t y o f sa va ge b easts a r e d u e l ess t o t he a rt of t he t a m e r d oma t or ( ) t han t o a we o f t he e m per or for the lion s kn ow whom t hey ser ve T he sa m e poet i n form s u s t h a t ea gl es w ere m a d e t o a ct on t he sta ge t a ki n g a b oy u p i n t o t he a i r wi t h ou t d oi n g hi m a n y h a rm i n r ea li st ic r e r esen t a t i on o f t he r a e o f p p G a n y m e d e on M ou n t I d a a nd

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E cc l es i a st i c al A r ch i t ec t u re

25

utter ly b r uta lizin g r el a t i on of the R om a n s to t he a n i m a l wor ld i t i s n ot su r pr i si n g t o ﬁn d i n t he N a t u r a l Hi st ory of Pli n y a n en cy cl ope dic c om p i l at ion of cu rr en t t ra dit ion s a n d popul a r superst i t i on s i n ste a d of a re cor d o f a ct ua l obse rva t ion s a n d sci en t iﬁc c on clusi on s I n sho rt t he R om a ns d o n ot a ppea r t o h a ve m a d e a n y c on tribu t ion s wha t ever t o n a t ura l sci e n ce a lt hou g h t he va st e x ten t o f t h ei r d om in ion s a ffor d e d t h em a n e xcell en t op or p t un i ty for su ch i n vest iga t i on s N ot e ven i n t he great did a ctic poem of the keen witt ed L uc ret iu s D e R em m N a tu r a d o we d i sc over a n y di st in ct t ra ces of the A r i stotel ia n m et ho d of i n qui ry T he a chi evem en t s o f R om a n t h ough t were i n politic s an d t he c ogn a t e d e pa rt m en t o f j u r i spr ud en c e D u r in g t he r e i gn o f t he P t o l em ies as we ll a s u n d er the r ul e of R o m a n pr e fect s A l exa n dr ia wa s celebr a ted n ot on ly a s t he chie f co m m er cia l cen tre of th e wor ld b u t a l so a s a c osm opolit a n sea t o f l ea rn i n g a n d t he pr in cipa l a ve n u e of i n telle ctu a l com m un ica t i on bet ween th e E a st a n d the West I n deed E gy pt ia n m on a rchs—a t least fr om the a c c ession of t he N in eteen t h D y n asty sixteen cen t u r i es be fore the C hr i st ia n era — see m t o ha ve ha d a pe culia r passion for esta blishi n g m useu m s of cu r i osi t i es m en a ger i es o f e x o t ic be a st s a n d bi r d s a n d oth er coll ecti on s o f r a re an d a bn or m a l pro duct i on s T he n i n t h P t o l em y E uer get es I I su r of n a ture n a m e d Phy skon ( Go r be lly ) wr ot e a b ook full o f curi ou s i n form a ti on a bo ut such t hi n gs H i s grea t a i m h owever wa s n ot t o di sc over a n d r ec or d fa ct s and

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Sy m b ol i sm

A n i mal

6

c u n t won ders a n d he i s t h erefore we ll cha r a cter ized by Pit r a i n h i s s a l eg i u m S ol e: “ m ense as a r eru m m i ra b il i u m cu r i osi ssi m u s i n v es or m a r ve ls o f n a t u r e I t wa s t he t i ga t or t h at a tt ra ct ed h i s a tt en t ion a n d st i m ul a t ed h i s t e This sovere ign wa s so zea l ou s i n pr o sea r ches cu r i n g wor ks for t he A le xan d r i a n libra r ies ( t he B r u chi u m M useu m a n d t he S er a pe u m ) t ha t he n o t o n l y sen t speci a l e m i ssa r i e s i n t o for eign c o u n t r i es t o pu r cha se t hem a t hi gh pr ic es b ut was a l so a c custom ed t o ta ke a wa y fr om t r a ve ller s a n y va l u a ble m a n u scr i pts i n t h e i r po ssession a n d a d d t he m t o t h e public coll e ct i on s g iv i n g i n r et urn a c opy o f t he b ook t hu s a rbit ra r ily a ppr opr i a t ed A l ex a n d r i a n l ea r n i n g e m b r a c ed u n qu estion a bl y a wid e ra n e o f t o ics a m o n g which m e dici n e g p a n a t om y m a t h em a t i c s a st r on o m y a n d geogra ph y held a pr om i nen t pl a ce b u t t he st ud y o f bot a n y m i n er a l ogy a n d z ool ogy w er e c a r r ie d on i n a n e x t r em ely su pe r ﬁci a l a n d d esu l t o r y m a n n er a n d chie ﬂy for t he purpose o f discover i n g i n pl a n ts st on es a n d an i m a ls t he o ccul t a n d m a gic a l pr oper t i es a n d st ra n ge a n d vi gor ous fa cul t ies wi t h which t hey wer e su ppose d t o be en d owed Of th e c a ut iou s a n d c r it ic a l st udy a n d scr ut i n y of n at u r e a n d t he essen t i a ll y sci en t i ﬁc sp i r i t which ch a r a ct er i z ed t he A r i stot eli a n m e t ho d o f r esea r ch t h ese sch ol a rs a ppea r t o h a ve ha d li t t l e or n o con cept i on I t was a l so i n t he G r ecoJ ud a i c schools o f A l e xa n d r i a t ha t Ch r i st ia n t h eo lo g wa s d eve l o e d y p a s t he r esul t an t o f t he c on t a c t a n d c on ﬂic t o f t he but to

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E cc l e s i a st i c al A r ch i t ec t u r e

27

H eb re w wit h t he H ellen ic i n tell ect From t he Ch r i st ia n poin t o f V iew t he B ible wa s r ecogn iz ed a s t h e on l y t r u e sou r c e o f k n owl e dge T he sa c red volu m e wa s a ssu m ed t o con t a in u n er r in g i n for m a t i on on a l l subj e ct s wh at soever pr o vid e d on e c ould a sc e r t a i n i t s r ea l m e a n i n g which wa s o ft en w r a ppe d u p a n d hidd en i n a ll e go r i es a n d ob sc u r e si m ili t ud es a nd sy m b oli sm s like pr e ci o u s t r ea su r es k e pt i n ca sket s u n d er i n t r ica t e l ock s a n d con cea led i n H en ce t he supre m e i m por ta n ce o f d a r k pl a c e s h er m en eu t ic s a s t he scie n ce of scien ces t he m a st e r key which o pen s a l l t h e se c r et s o f t he u n iver se a n d r e ve a l s a l l t he m y st e r i es o f n a t u r e I t i s sa id o f S ol om on t h a t “ he spa ke o f t r ees fr o m t he c ed a r t ha t i s i n L eba n on e ven u n t o t he hy ssop t ha t spr i n get h ou t of t he wa ll h e spa ke a l so of bea st s a n d of fowl a n d o f c r ee pi n g t hi n gs a n d o f ﬁ shes W e ar e n ot j ust iﬁ e d h owe ver i n a ssu m in g t ha t he di scou r se d o f n a t u r a l hi st or y i n t h e m od er n sen se of t h e t e r m o r t h a t he wa s fa m ili a r wi t h b ot a n y z oology or n i t hol ogy en t om ol ogy a n d H is i ch t hy ol ogy a s we u n d er st a n d t h ese sci en c es kn o wl ed ge of pl a n t s a n d of a n i m a l s did n ot differ i n ki n d fr om t h a t of hi s c on t em por a r i es a n d o f t he a ge i n which he live d ; h e wa s su pe r i o r t o o t he r s com m on sen se a n d o n l y i n posse ssi n g a st u r di e r i n a ppl y i n g t hi s cu r r en t l ore t o sh r e wd e r skill h um a n life a n d con duct i n a pot heg m a t ic illu st r a t ion Wha t we ca ll o f t h e foll y or wi sd o m o f m a n ki n d t he b ook Of n a t u r e wa s t o h i m a va st a n d m a n y volu m ed t rea t ise on a l l ph a ses a n d fea t u r es of .

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2

A n i m al

8

S y m b ol i sm

h u m a n n a t u r e i n wh i ch t he w or ld o f lower c r ea t u r es was h eld u p t o m a n a s a m ora l m i r r or i n o r der t h a t he m i gh t see t h e re i n t he re ﬂ e c t i on s o f hi s o wn v i c esa n d vi rt u es I n t he d e ve l opm en t a n d e n for c em e n t of t hi s id ea pa t r i st ic t heo l ogia n s su r pa ssed t he pr ophets a n d sa ges o f t he Old T est a m en t a n d e ve n t h e su bt l e sc r ib es a n d quibbli n g r a bbi s r eso lvi n g t he e x t e r n a l u n iverse i n t o a m e r e b od y o f divi n i t y o r sy st e m o f Ch r istia n d oct r i n e wr it ten i n cipher which i t w a s t he fu n ct ion o f t he e x e get ist t o i n t er pr et so a s t o b r i n g i t i n to ha r m on y wit h divi n e r e vel a t ion a n d m a ke i t ill u st ra t ive a n d c on ﬁ r m a t ory o f H o l y W r i t A cc or di n g t o O r i ge n t he vi sibl e wor ld t ea ch es u s con cern i n g t he in vi sible t he ea rt h con t a in s i m a ges o f he a ve n l y t hi n gs i n or d e r t h a t b y m ea n s o f t h ese l owe r o bj e c ts we m a y m ou n t u p t o t ha t w h i ch i s a b ove A s G od m a d e m a n i n H i s ow n i m a ge a n d a ft e r H i s o wn like n ess so H e c re a t e d t he l owe r a n i m a l s a ft er t he liken ess o f h ea ven l y ,

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S y m b ol i sm

A n i m al

30

con sequ en t rel ea se fr om t he d egra di n g pen a lt ies of hum a n t ra n sgr ession I n deed on e of t he m ost con spicuo us sign s of the suc cessful i ssue a n d pe rfe c t con su m m a t ion o f t he A t one m en t i s t o b e t he di sa ppe a ra n ce o f a l l a n t i pa t hi es be t ween sa va ge beast s a n d t he i r n a tu r a l prey : t he lion wi ll l a y a sid e hi s ﬁ e r ce a n i m osi t ies ca rn ivorous a ppet i tes ly i n g d o wn wi th t he and l a m b a n d eat in g str a w li ke t he bullock i n token a n d u n ive rsa l pea ce will be o f h i s regen era t i on r est or e d S a ta n wi ll b e d e t hr on ed a s t he pr i n c e o f t hi s wor ld a n d t h e ea rt h r esu m e i ts pr i st i n e st a t e of E d e n ic i n n oc e n c e a n d pa ra di sea n p u r i t y Thus t he presen t c on di t i on a n d ul t i m a te d est i ny o f m a n ki n d wer e su ppose d t o b e r eﬂ e c ted fra g m en t a r i l y i n t he l ower a n i m a l s a s i n a sha t t ere d m i r r or ; a n d i t wa s fr o m t h i s sou r ce t ha t t he ea r l y Chr ist ia n eva n ge li sts a n d pa t r i st ic t he ol ogia n s we r e espe ci a ll y fon d o f d r a w i n g ill u st ra t i o n s o f spi r i t u a l t r u th s a n d e lucid a t i on s o f sc r i pt u r a l t e x t s T he wor d s of Job : A sk t he bea st a n d i t will t ea ch thee a n d t he bi r d s o f hea ve n a n d t hey will t ell wer e a ssum e d to fu rn ish su fﬁ cien t gro un d t hee for r ega r di n g t he en t i re a n i m a l ki n gdo m as a m e re coll ec t ion of t y pes an d sy m bols of re ligio us d ogm as T h e a poca l y pt ic m onst ers an d Ch r i st ian vi rt ues of S t J ohn t he D i vi n e we re a l so ci t e d a s a pre ceden t wa rran t in g t he wildest va ga r ies o f zool ogica l .

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het or ica l m et a phor ica l a n d an d t o h o ld the m up t o t he r e li g io u s m a n as m od e l s for i m i t a t i on Com pa r i son s a n d c orr espo n d en ci es o f th i s ki n d were n a t u r a lly suggest ed b y th e d o ct r i n e of m ete m psy chosi s i n which t h ey h a ve a psy cho l og ic a l b asis an d fr o m which t hey der ive a pe cu li a r for ce a n d cogen cy wholl y foreign to Occide n t a l h a bit s of thought a n d fee l i n g Thu s th e Buddhi st a scet ic i s t old t o pattern i n a u st er i t y a n d hu m ili ty a ft er th e a ss which i s con t en t t o sl eep by the r oa d sid e i n t he o u t sk i rt s o f t he villa ge on a du st h ea p a bed o f cha ff or a l a y e r of l ea ves H e i s a lso en j o in e d t o t a ke hee d t o t he sq u i rr e l which wh en a ssa il e d u ses i t s t a il a s a cu d ge l a ga i n st i t s en e m i es a n d t o wa r d o ff ca r n a l a ffe ction s a n d sp i r i t u a l foes wi t h t he st a ff When he goes o f st ea d y a n d ea r n est m e di t a t i on fort h w i t h hi s b eggin g b o wl he shou ld w ra p him self i n the vest u re o f m ee kn ess a n d m or a l r est ra i n t t h a t h e m a y be free from fea r a n d fr om wor ldl y con ta m in a t ion a s t he white an t covers itse lf wit h a l ea f wh en i t goes i n quest of food T he sc orpi on h as a st i n g i n i t s t a il which i t b e a r s e r e c t ; i n like m an n er t he rel i gi ou s m an should wi eld t h e swor d of k nowl edge a n d t her e by r en d er hi m se lf i n vin cibl e I n the bu rn in g hea t of su m m er t he b k i se lf t o a pon d ; so t he d evot ee wh en t a es t i e pg h i s so ul i s scor ch ed a n d i n ﬂa m ed by evil passion s sh o uld h a ve r e c ou r se t o the c ool r e fr eshi n g a n d A ga i n a m b r osi a l e x erci se o f u n ive rsa l kin dli n ess

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h w ig r u h h li h r i gi h uld bu b ugh i d by m ea n s o f pr ofou n d a n d passion l ess m ed ita t i on T he owl i s t he m orta l enem y of c r ows a n d i s won t to r epa ir t o t hei r n ests a t n ight a n d kill the ir y oun g ; i n like m a n n er t he r e li giou s m en dic a n t i s t he foe of i gn ora n ce a n d plucks i t ou t of hi s m in d a n d d estroy s it be fore i t ha s be c om e i n vete ra te L ike t he owl t oo he l oves seclusi on an d t he qui et T he l ee ch sucks fa vou ra ble t o c a l m r eﬂe ct ion it self fa st t o wh a tever i t t ouches a n d gor ges itsel f w it h bl ood ; so t he y ogi ho lds ﬁ r m ly t o wh a t e ver h e ﬁ xes h i s t h ou ghts u pon a n d d r in ks i n t he fuln ess o f N irvan a T he spide r n ever clo i n g y s pin s i ts web t o ca t ch ﬂi e s ; t h e y og i s r e a d s t h e p n et o f u n br oken con tem plat ion be fo re t he si x se n ses a nd a ven ues of t he t a kes c a ptive an d d est r oy s every lu st t ha t seeks to en t er i n to t he m in d Those who h a ve be com e the sl a ves of the pa ssion s live wh oll y i n t hem m ovi n g a b ou t i n a world o f ill usion s the c rea t ion o f t hei r own desi r es a s t he spid er ru n s t o a n d fr o on th e ﬁl a m en t s o f t he web which i t ha s spu n ou t o f i t s own b o wel s T he pr o cess of regen er a t i on a n d e m a n cipa t ion fr om t he a llu r em en t s o f t he sen ses a n d the t r a m m e l s of t he ﬂ esh i s com pa re d t o t he a c t i on of th e sn a ke i n c a st i n g i ts ski n H e who i s c on t en t wit h sen su al pleasu r es i s like a hog wa ll owi n g i n t he m i r e a n d T he e l epha n t is t he t y pe of g l u t te d wit h wa sh Buddh a hi m self pa t ien t en du r a n c e self rest r a i n t s a or s a m p, d on e t o a m a rs t he hog, a n es t e e n ; so t he y o i n t he ea rt a n d t o g of h i s m n o d y i n the t r o ry h i s s o .

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E cc l e si a st i c al A r ch i t ec t u r e

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liken ed t o a we ll t a m e d (su d d n ta ) e le pha n t a n d i s o ften spo ken o f a s t he gr ea t e l eph a n t ( m a kd n dg a ) A n ot he r sy m b o l o f t he pi ou s r e cl u se who ha s re n ou n ce d t he wo r ld i s t he r hi n o ceros be c a u se i t loves t o dwe ll a l on e a n d r e m ot e fr om i t s kin d E ve n i n a n i m a t e t h i n gs a re m ora l i z e d a n d m a d e t o re presen t spi r i t u a l st a t es Th u s t he ju g (ka m é/zo) wh i ch e m it s n o so u n d wh en i t i s fu ll e m b l e m a t i z es t h e m a n wh o i s fu ll o f kn ow l e d ge a n d w a lks h u m bl y a n d sob e r l y i n t he pa t h (ti /ta r m a pa t/ta ) avo idi n g v a i n b oa st in gs a n d ga r r u l ou sn ess a n d n oi sy o st en t a t i on This i d ea i s e x pressed i n t he foll owi n g li n es fr om t h e S u t mmjmta is

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S ym b ol i sm

Th i s com i ca l d i sr e ga r d of t he pr o m i n en t poi n t s o f wh i ch w ou ld b e m o st n a t u r a l l y su g rese m b l a n c e e d b y t h e si m i l e i s n ot c on ﬁ n e d t o Bu ddhi sti c e s t g w i t i n gs b u t a s we sh a l l see he r ea ft e r c on st a n t ly o cc u r s i n Ch r i st i a n he r m e n e u t i c a l a n d h om i l e t i c a l l i t er a t u r e a n d o ft en e n d e r s i t ver y fu n n y r ea d i n g I t w a s a l so i n t he O r i en t t h a t a so rt o f m i n e r a l o gi ca l sy m b o l i sm b a se d u po n c e rt a i n m a gi c a l a n d m a gn e t i c qu a l i t i e s su ppose d t o b e pe c u l i a r to p e c i o u s st on es wa s ﬁ r st a n d m ost fu l l y d e ve l o pe d J e we l s we r e w orn o r i gi n a lly a n d a r e st i l l w orn i n E a st ern c ou n t r ies a s pr o phy l a c t i c s a n d t a l i sm a n s r a t her t h a n a s m e r e o r n a m en t s The i r pu r p ose w a s n ot so m u ch t o a d or n a s t o pr o t e ct t he pe r son pre ve n t i n g d i sea se a n d w a r d i n g o ff m a l i gn i n ﬂ u e n ces a n d t h ey wer e t h er e fo r e pr ize d m o r e fo r t he i o cc u l t v i r t u e t h a n fo t h e i r b r i ll i a n c y a n d bea u ty I n E u r o pe t o o t hey con st i t u te d a n i m p o t a n t pa r t o f m e d i e va l ph a r m a c opoei a s a n d w e e t o b e fou n d si d e b y si d e w i t h m u m m y d u st ey e o f n e w t a n d t o e o f fr o and m a n y n a st y a n d g n a u seou s c o m pou n d s i n e ve r y we ll r e gu l a t e d a pot he c a r y s sh op Popu la r su perst it i o n h a s n o t y et cea sed t o en d ow b u fon i te o r t oa d st on e w i t h w o n d e r fu l m e d i ca l a n d n e c r o m a n t i c pr ope r t i e s T he u r i m a n d t h u m m i m ( l i gh t a n d pe r fe c t i on ) i n t he b r ea st pl a t e o f t he J e w i sh h i gh pr i e st w e re p e ci ou s st o n e s r e m a r ka bl e for t he i r l u m i n ou sn ess a n d pu r i t y a n d l i ke t he sa c r e d sc a r a b ae u s w or n by t he E gy pt i a n h i e r o ph a n t h a d a m st ic a l m e a n i n y g a n d we re c on su l t e d a s or a cl es I n wh a t m a n n er ,

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ivi n e will wa s com m u n ica te d t hrough t hem i s n o t kn o wn ; i t i s pr oba bl e t ha t t he pr i est by st ea d fa st l y ga zi n g on t hem w a s t hr own i n t o a n e cst a t ic or h y pn ot ic st a t e i n w h i ch he sa w vi si on s a n d u t t e r e d w or d s t h a t we r e i n t erpreted a s divi n e i n spi r a t i on s a n d su per n a t u r a l ill u m in a t ion s I t i s cu r i ou s t o n o t e t o wh a t e xt en t t he on ce u n i ver sa l b e li e f i n t he a m u l e t ic e fﬁc a c y of gem s st i l l su r viv es i n m od e r n l i fe a n d li t e ra t u r e Thu s t he a m et h y st a s i t s n a m e i m pl ies n e ut r a lize d t h e i n t o xica t i n g pr opert ies o f a lc ohol a n d wa s t here for e wr ou ght i n t o cu ps fr om which on e could qu a ff the d ra ught s wit ho ut st r on gest liq u or s i n t h e l a r gest I t wa s a l so su pposed per h a ps i n gett i n g d r u n k c on sequ en ce of t hi s a n t i i n ebr i a n t qu a lity to r e n d er a m a n en e r get ic a n d d i l i gen t i n bu si n ess a n d t o T he a ga t e d i sen v en om ed i n su r e pea ce of m i n d t h e st i n g o f ser pe n t s a n d sc or pi on s a n d when wor n o n t h e l e ft h a n d m a d e i t s possessor wi n som e a n d wi se ; if pl a ced un der t he pill ow i t pr od u ce d p l ea sa n t d r ea m s t he Bocc a cci o sa y s i n t he D am m er au t h a t h e li ot r ope i s a st on e of su ch st ra n ge virt u e t h a t i t c a u ses t he bea r er o f i t t o be com pl et ely con cea led Thi s powe r was fr o m t he sigh t of a l l pr ese n t of t he sa m e n a m e a l so a sc r ib ed t o t he pl a n t D a n t e d esc r ib es t he spi r it s o f t he d a m n e d i n t h e se ve n t h ci r cl e of h e ll a s r u n n i n g t o a n d fr o n a ke d a n d a ffright ed wi t h ou t h ope of h ol e or he li ot rope t he d

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whe r e i n Chr i st dwe l l s wh ose pr esen ce pr ote ct s i t a ga i n st a l l a ppr o a che s a n d a ssa u l ts o f t he d evil I t i s sa i d o f t he pea r l — ﬁ she r s t h a t t h e y a tt a ch a n a ga t e t o a c o r d a n d l e t i t d ow n i n t o t h e se a whe r e i t i s d r a w n t owa r d s t he pea r l s b y a m y st e r i ou s a t t r a c t i on so t ha t b y fo l l ow i n g t he c o r d t he ﬁ shers d i sco ve r t he m a n d r e m ove t he m f om t he i r she lls H e r e t he a ga t e t y pi ﬁ es J oh n t h e Ba pt i st who po i n t e d t h e wa y t o t h e pe a r l o f gr ea t pr i ce sa y i n g Be h o ld t h e L a m b o f G o d wh i ch t a k et h a wa y t he si n o f t he w or l d T h e a u t h o r t h e n t e l l s h o w t he T he sea c r e a t u r e w h i ch co n pea r l i s pr od u ce d t a i n s t hi s pr e ci ou s su bst a n c e i s d e sc r i be d a s h a v i n g t w o a ppe n d a ges like wi n gs a n d h a s t h e r e for e b een m i st a ken fo r a b i r d ; i t i s e vid en t h owe ver t h a t a bi va lve i s m e a n t J u st b efor e t he d a w n t hi s oy st er c om es ou t o f t he d ee p w a t er t o t h e sh o r e and d r o p o f d ew ope n i n g i t s she l l r e c e i ves a fr o m h e a ven wh i ch t he r a y s o f t he r i si n g su n cha n ge i n t o a pea r l T he r ea d e r wou ld n a t u r a lly e x e c t t h i s st or y t o b e a sy m b o l i sm o f t he I n c a r n a p t i o n or t he I m m a cu l a t e C o n c ept i o n ; b u t t he w r i t e r in d u l ges i n a n e l a bor a t e t he ol ogi c a l o r r a t her e ccle i n t e r pr et a t i on i n w hich t he se a i s t he si a st i ca l w o r ld t he ﬁshe r s a r e t he sa i n t s a n d d o ct o r s o f t he Chu r ch a n d t h e biva lve st a n d s for t he Old a n d N e w T est a m e n t s j o i n e d t oget h er i n t o o n e Bi ble o r B oo k of R e ve l a t i on a n d c on t a i n i n g t he pu r e pea r l s A s we sh a l l h a ve o cca si o n t o o f d ivi ne t r u t h a re n ot t he si m ilitud es of t he o b serve ,

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illu st r a t i on o f hi s t h em e Pr uden t ius i s a l so the a u t ho r o f or t he Ba tt l e o f t he S ou l which i s one of t he ﬁ r st e xa m ples of a pu re ly a ll e go r i ca l poe m i n Occid e n t a l l i t e r a t u re a n d t he m od e l o f a l l si m il a r pr o duc t i on s i n t he m i ddle a ge s I n t h e pr oe m we h a ve a ch a r a ct e r i st i c spe c i m en of t y pol ogic a l h e r m en e u t i c s i n which A b ra ha m r e pr esen t s Fa i t h hi s t h r ee h u n d r e d a n d e i gh t een se r va n t s sign i f y Ch r i st ( t he G ree k n u m e r ica l l e tt ers T ( 300) I ( 1 0) H ( 8) we r e for t h i s r ea son a m on o gr a m m a t ic e x pr essi on fo r Ch r i st ) t he h ea t he n k i n gs o f S o d o m a n d G o m or r a h a re t y pe s o f c a r n a l vic es i s t he sou l o f t he a n d L ot a soj o u r n e r i n S od om p i ou s m a n beset b y t he se duc t i on s o f t he ﬂ esh This i n ter pr eta t ion w a s n ot o r i gin a l wit h t he S pa n i sh L a t i n poet b u t b or r owe d fr om t h e su pposi t i t i ou s E pi st l e o f Ba r n a ba s whe r e i n t he n i n t h ch a pt er t he fo l l o wi n g pa ssa ge o cc u r s : T he sc r i pt u r e sa it h A b r a h a m ci r cu m ci se d t h ree h u n d r e d a n d e ighteen H ea r t he m ea n in g ﬁ r st m en o f h i s h ou se ho ld T he t he n o f t he t h r ee h u n d r e d o f t h e e ight e e n t en a n d e i ght a r e r e pr ese n t e d t he t e n by I a n d Ther e t hou ha st t he begin n i n g t h e e i gh t b y H B u t be c a u se t he C r oss i n o f t h e n a m e I H E OT E t h e for m o f t he l et t e r T wa s t o c a r r y t he gr a c e o f sa lv a t i o n t here for e he a dd s t h ree h u n d r e d which S o he shows i s r e pr ese n t e d by T i n G ree k for t h J esu s i n t h e ﬁ rst t wo l e tt e r s a n d t he C r oss i n E vi d e n t ly t he J ewi sh pat r i a r ch did n ot t he t hi r d .

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x ta n t bea rs the da te 1 7 1 7 I t h a s been pr i n te d wi t h a n I t a li a n t ra n sl a t i on by Ga ster (A r e/zz v zo Gl ottol og zco l ta l za u o L a u cher t m en t io n s a Wa ld e n si a n P /zy szol ogu s e xist i n g i n a s i n gl e D ubli n m a n u sc r i pt a n d e n t i t l e d D e [as P r opr i etas de l a s A u zm a n ga s T he a u t hor c a ll s hi m se lf J a co a n d st a tes i n t he i n t r o d u ct i on t ha t t he b oo k i s d esign ed for u se a s a m a n u a l o f i n str u c t i on a n d i n a cc or d a n c e w i t h t hi s p u r ose t he p e x posi t i on i s e t hic a l r a t h e r t h a n t h eol ogi c a l and a i m s t o i n c u lc a t e n o t so m uch so u n d n e ss o f d o c t r i n e a s c or r e c t m or a l c on duc t i n t h e c o m m on r e l a t i on s o f life Ba rt h ha s e di t ed fr o m a Pa r is m a n u sc r i pt i n hi s C/zr estom a t/zi e P r oven ga l e som e e x ce r pt s o f a P r o ven ga l P /zy szol og us u n der t he t i t l e A zso son l a s N a t u r a s d a l cu s A uz el s e d a l a m as B est za s t r ea t i n g bea sts b u t w it h n o o f t he n a t u re o f bi r d s a n d There i s a lso a t t e m pt a t e x posit i on o f a n y ki n d r e c en t l y a b est i a r y i n t h e T u sco Ven et i a n di a l ec t pu bli she d a n d a n n ot a t e d b y M a x G o ld st a u b a n d R icha r d W e n d r i n er ( H a ll e 1 892 ) fr om a m a nu It s c r i pt i n th e B ibli ot e c a C om m u n a l e o f Pa du a di scu sses som e forty bea st s sever a l of which ( a s t h e h or se) a re n ot m en t ion e d i n t he P ky szol og us a n d e x p l a i n s t he i r qu a li t i e s i n a m o ra l r a t h e r t h a n Thus the u n icorn i s a sy m bol i n a d ogm a ti c sen se o f vi o l e n t a n d c r u e l pe r son s wh o c a n b e su bdue d re n d e re d ge n t l e on ly by t he g r a c e o f G od an d S a ul i s a dduce d a s a n ex a m p l e o f t hi s sor t o f a nd t he ibli i B ot e c a R cci a r d i a n a T h e n r so e p on

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h og s fe r r et s ichn e u m on s l i za rd s se r pen t s t ort oises wha l es elepha n t s ibises c rocodil es un ic or n s sa la m a n d er s a n d ot her r ea l a n d m y t hic a l an i m a ls or t o conj e ct u r e wh a t c on ce iva bl e r e l a t i on t hey co uld bea r t o Ch r ist ia n t h eol ogy or Chr i st ia n wor shi p T he sa c red e d i ﬁce a s a wh ol e wa s r ega r d e d a s a n em bl em of t he hu m a n soul o f which t he c r ea t u res ca r ve d on t he pill a r s a n d port a l s wer e t he desi ra bl e or u n d esi ra bl e a t t r ibut es a n d a ffe ct ion s Thu s a n ox ty piﬁ ed pa t ien ce an d gen t len e ss a li on st er n ne ss a n d m aj esty a t urt le d o ve c onst a n cy a n d ch a st ity a r am spi r it u a l l ea dershi p a lily pu r ity W e ha ve a m od er n su r a n d a r ose m a r ty r d om viva i of t hi s sy m bolism i n Ga br ie l M a x s ce lebra t ed p a in t i n g T l ze L ast G r eet i ng i n which a r ose fa ll s t o t he feet o f a y ou n g w om a n a s sh e st an d s e x posed t o w i ld b ea st s i n t he a m phi t h ea tr e S o t oo t he r a ven a n d t he d ove a re n ot m e re r em i n i sc en c es o f t he D eluge bu t e m bl em s—t he form e r of t he ca r n a l m in d ed J ews who live on t he c a r r ion of t he L a w t he l a t t er o f the n ew pr i n ci pl e o f Ch r i st i a n i t y t ha t ﬁ n d s n o a bidin g pl a ce o u t sid e o f t he a r k o f sa fety b u t ret u rn s t o i t br in gi n g t he olive b ra n ch of pea ce a n d r econ cilia t ion Ther e i s a l so a di st in ct ion bet ween t he d ove o f N oa h t he cl ove of D a vid a n d t h e d ove of Chri st ; t he ﬁ r st sign iﬁ es r est t he sec on d pea c e a n d t he t hi r d sa lva t i on A s t h e d ove se pa ra t es wit h i t s bea k t he ch oicest kern el s of whea t fr om t he cha ff so i t i s t he oﬂi ce of t he pr ea ch er t o sepa r a t e t he pu r e gr a i n of Ch r i st i a n d oc t r i ne fr o m t he hu sks of ,

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begi n s wi t h t he li on a n d a dduces Fi rst t hr ee ch a r a c t er i st i cs o f t he ki n g of be a st s w h en he per c e ives t h a t t he hu n t er s a re pu rsui n g h i m h e e r a ses hi s foot pr i n t s wi t h hi s t a il so t h a t I n like m a n n er h e c a n n o t be t r a c e d t o hi s l a i r t h e li on o f t h e t r ibe o f Jud a h con ou r S a vi o u r ce a l e d a l l t r a c e s of H i s G o dhea d whe n H e d esc en d e d t o t he ea rt h a n d en t e re d i n t o t he wom b o f t he Vir gin M a ry S e con dly t he li on a l wa y s sle eps wi t h hi s ey es open ; so ou r L or d sl ept w ith H i s bo dy on t he Cr oss b u t a wo ke a t t he r ight h a n d Thi r dly t he li on ess br i n gs for t h of t h e Fa t he r her wh el ps d ea d a n d wa t ches over t h e m u n t i l a ft e r t h r ee d a y s t he li on c om es a n d b owl s ove r t h e m a n d v i v i ﬁes t he m by h i s b r ea t h ; so t h e A l m ight y Fa t her r e ca ll e d t o li fe H i s o n l y bego tt en S o n o u r L or d J esu s Ch r i st who on t he t hi r d d a y wa s t hu s r a i se d fr om t he d ea d a n d wil l likewise r a i se u s a l l u p t o eter n a l life T H E P /iy si ol og u s

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c r uciﬁx i n S t N ich ol a s o f S t r a lsu n d i n t he Wu r t e m b er g cl oi ster s M a u lb r on n a n d Beben ha u sen a n d i n a l a r e r e lie f which d a t es fr om t he l a tt er g h a lf of t he t hi r teen t h cen t u ry a n d d oubt l ess be l on ged or i gin a ll y t o so m e ch u r ch or cl o ister pr o ba bl y t o t he ol d cha pel a n d h ospit a l of t he H oly Gh ost ( b u il t 1 2 5 1 66 a n d bu r n ed b u t which n ow a d or n s t he fa a d e o f a h o u se I m Tha l n e a r c t he M a r i en pl a t z i n M u n i ch a n d t h e or i gi n a n d si gn iﬁc a t i o n o f which h a ve e x ci t e d n o li tt l e d i s cu ssi on a m on g Ba va r i a n a n t iqu a r i a n s a n d e ccl esi o l ogi st s S o t oo a st a i n e d w i n d o w o f t he m i n st er o f Fr e ib u r g i n t he B r e i sga u c on t a i n s a pa i n t i n g o f t h e C r u ciﬁxi on a t t h e t op o f which i s a pe lic a n fe edi n g i t s y o u n g wit h i t s own bl ood ; a bove t he pe lic a n st a n d s a li on b rea t hi n g u pon t h r ee wh el p s w h i ch a r e j u st b eg in n i n g t o sh o w si gn s of l i fe U n d e r n ea t h t he li on i s t h e i n scr ipt i on : H i [c] L eo For m a S [ a l oa t or i s] sh o wi n g i t t o b e a t y pe o f t he q u icke n i n g po wer o f t h e voic e of Ch r i st A st a i n e d wi n d ow o f t he t hi r t een t h c en t u r y i n t he c a t hed r a l o f S t E t ien n e a t Bou r ges r epr esen t s t he pe l i c a n b el ow o n t he l e ft a n d t h e l i o n a n d whel ps on t h e r i gh t o f t h e C r u ci ﬁed ; a b ove on t he c or r espon d i n g sid es a r e J on a h d e li ver e d fr om t he wh a l e a n d E l i j a h r est or i n g t o l i fe t he son o f t he w i d ow o f Z e r epha t h ( see Fr on t ispie ce ) I n t he c en t r a l l a n c et wi n d o w of t he cha pel s d edic a ted t o t he Vi r gin i n t he c a t h e d r a l s o f L e M a n s a n d T o u r s a r e si m il a r sy m b ol s o f t he d e a t h a n d r esu rr e c t i on of Ch r i st i n which t he ph oen ix r i si n g fr om i t s a shes t a kes .

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l a c e of t he pelica n A l so t he c en t ra l l an cet win d ow i n t he a psi s o f t he ca t he d ra l of L y on s ha s a b or d e r o f m ed a lli on pa i n t in gs r eferri n g t o t he sa m e subj e c t a m on g whi ch a r e a lion a n d h is whelp r u n n in g a t fu ll speed t he la tter ha vin g eviden tly been ju st r esu scita t e d I t was often ca r ved on sa cra m en ta l vessels a s for e xa m pl e on a cibor iu m be l on gi n g t o t he m on a st er y K l ost er n eubu r g n ea r Vien n a a ﬁn e speci m en of gold sm i t h s wor k d a t i n g fro m t he be gi n n i n g o f t he fou rt een t h cen t u ry A li on h owli n g o ver t h ree wh el ps i s on e o f t he ser i es o f r e li e fs r e resen t i n g p b i bl i ca l a n d m y t hica l sub ject s t h a t or n a m en t a fr ie ze on t he ex t e r i or o f S t ra s b u r g M i n st e r B esid es sc e n e s fro m t he J ewish Li h wli g hi wh l p S c r i pt u res such a s A b r a ha m pr epa r in g t o sa c r iﬁc e I sa a c b u t a rr est ed by a n a n gel who po i n t s t o a r a m en t a n gl e d i n a bu sh J on ah ca st u p by t he wha l e n ea r on e o f t he t owers of N i n eveh t he b ra z en ser pe n t et c w e m a y m en t ion i n t his con n ec t ion se vera l r e lie fs which ar e b a se d upon the l egen d s of the P i zy si ol ogus a n d the m ean i n g of which will b e e x pl a i n e d h erea ft e r : a phoen ix i n t he ﬂ a m es a pe lic a n pi er ci n g her brea st a n d feed i n g her y oun g wit h her bl ood a n ea gle t a kin g ea gl et s fr om t he n e st t o m a ke t h em l ook a t t he sun a n d a u n icorn wi t h i t s h ea d i n t he l a p of a vi rgin whil e a m a n i s t h r u st i n g a spea r i n to i t s t he p

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1 s o rse on s i n hi s en es s hi b li di c u G i m s sy m o of t I n dee d t he a llusion s to t his z ool ogica l m y t h i n h om i l et ic a l a n d h er m en e utica l litera t u r e a r e so nu m er ous a n d u n equivoca l a n d the sy m bolica l i n t er pr eta t i on o f i t so o bviou s a n d u n i for m t h a t on e m a r ve l s t h a t Ba va r i a n a r ch e ol ogi sts sh ould ha ve expen ded so m uch r a re a n d r econ dite er udi t i on a n d i n gen ui t y of c onj ec t u r e a n d h a ve gon e so fa r a ﬁ e ld hi st or i c a ll y i n sea r ch o f t he or igi n a n d m ean i n g o f t he M u n ich has r eli e f a l rea d y m en t i on ed A sl eepi n g li on i s oft en b r ou gh t i n t o t y po l o gica l r e l a t i on t o t he i n fa n t J esu s a s for e x a m pl e on t h e west ern por ta l of N ot re D a m e d e Pa r i s a n d i n a fresco i n t he ch u r ch of t he con ven t Ph i l otheos on M o u n t A t h os wh er e t he c on n e c t ion i s m a de cl ea r by t h e w o rd s of J a c ob c on c er n i n g J u d a h : He st oope d d own he c o uche d a s a li on a n d a s a n o l d lion ; who sh a ll r o use hi m u p — Gen xl i x 9 .

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This ty pe o f S pi r it u a l vigila n ce i s fou n d m ost freq ue n tl y i n R om a n ic an d earl y G othic a rchi t ec t u re from t he begi n n i n g o f t he n i n t h t o the en d o f t he t hi r teen t h c en t ury U su a ll y t he li ons repose on e i t he r sid e o f t he pr i n ci pa l en t ra n c e or sta n d on pill a rs i n t he por t ic o of t he ediﬁce or ser ve e spe ci a ll y i n I t a li a n chu r ches a s ped esta l s t o su p E x a m pl es of port t he c o lu m n s o f t he d oor wa y t hi s ki n d m a y b e seen i n t he c a t h ed ra l o f M a y en ce t he o ld est chu r ches of C o l og n e t he so c a ll ed S ch ot t e n ki rche ( for m e r chu r ch o f S c ot ch B en edic t i nes) i n R a t i sbon S t S t ephen s i n Vien n a a n d i n va r i ou s st r uc t u r es of a n e ccl esi a st ic a l ch a r a c t e r a t A n c on a M on z a Pa dua Pa r m a R a ve n n a R o m e S i pon t o a n d o t her I t a li a n ci t i es I n so m e i nst a n c es t he sa m e b ea st m ay sy m b ol i z e u t ter l y o pposi n g pr i n ci pl es si n c e i t em b odies 1 T he li on for e x a m pl e i s a n ta gon i st ic qu a li t i es n ot on l y t y pic a l of Ch r i st t r iu m phi n g o ve r d ea th a n d he ll a n d l oosi n g t he se ven sea l s fr om t he bo o k o f life ( R ev v but a l so sig n iﬁes t he grea t “ a s a r oa r i n g li o n a dversa r y t he d evil which wa lketh a bout seeki n g whom he m ay d evo u r Thi s i s the lion from wh ose m ou th ( 1 Peter v and t he Psa l m i st pr a y s t o be sa ved ( Ps xxii t o which S t A ugu st i n e r e fer s wh en he e xcl a i m s i n “ h i s S er m o de T empor e who wo uld n ot “ Et S ecu du m eg m go C h i sto d i m i l ta s t l i m l t s nt i e tu i habe t i d pl i em i tel l tu m li e i tu p b i l i a ; et d i ﬂ li ne d m l a ud a bi l i a ,

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u sh i n t o t he j a ws o f t hi s lion i f t he lion o f t he t r ibe o f J u d a h sh o uld not pre va il ! I t i s li o n T he lion o f a ga i nst li on a n d l a m b a ga i n st w ol f t he t r ibe o f J u d a h i s o ppose d t o t he d evo u r i n g lion a n d t he l a m b a s t he t y pe o f t he m ee k a n d l owl y S a vi ou r i s oppose d t o t he ﬁ er ce a n d i n sa t ia bl e “ wolf a s t he t y pe o f S a t a n C hr i st h e a dds i s a li on i n for t i t u d e a l a m b i n i n n o c en c e ; a li on b e ca use H e i s in vi n cibl e a l a m b be ca u se H e i s m ee k a n d gen t l e I n a n o t he r di sc ou r se ( H o m x x x iv ) S t A u gu st in e sa y s t he d e vil i s i m pet u ou s a s t he l i on a n d i n sidi ou s a s t he d ra gon r a gi n g o pen l y like t he fo r m e r a n d ly i n g i n wa i t se c r et l y like t he l a t t er I n fo r m e r t i m es t h e Chu r ch fo u gh t a ga i n st t he lion a s i t n ow ﬁ ght s a ga i n st t h e d r a g on In S er m o clxxix t he l i on a n d t he bea r t y p ify t h e dev il who i s ﬁ gu red i n t hese t wo bea sts be ca use t he bea r s st ren gt h i s i n i t s p a w a n d t h e l i o n s i n i t s m on t h I n S er m o c x cv i i h e sa y s t h a t a s D a vid t h rott l e d t he l i o n a n d t h e b ea r which t oo k a l a m b ou t o f t he ﬂ o ck so J e su s Ch r i st whom D a vid pr eﬁgu r ed t hr ot t l e d t h e li o n a n d t he hea r when H e d esc en d ed i n t o he ll a n d d elive r ed t he ca pt ive spi r i ts ou t of t hei r j a ws Thu s b ot h t h ese a n i m a l s a r e diffe ren t e m b odi m e n t s o f t he P r ot e a n O n t he b r on ze d oors o f th e pr i n ce o f d a r k n ess ca t hed ra l i n Hild eshei m a r e r el i e fs which d a t e fr om 1 0 1 5 a n d r epr esen t t he h i st ory o f si n a n d r e d e m t i on ; i n o n e o f t he m a bea r st a n d s b e hi n d p P il a t e whi sper i n g i n to hi s ea r a n d ﬁlli n g hi s m i n d wi th di a b olica l suggest ion s T he bea r a s the ty pe r

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d ogs h a ve pa sse d i n to t he c om m on speech o f t o Wh en E lish a for et ells t he c r uel con duct of d ay H a za e l t he l a tt er e xcl a i m s : I s t hy ser va n t a d og t h a t he sh o uld d o t hi s grea t t hin g ? Job e x pr esses t h e sa m e scom fu l fe e li n g wh en he sa y s : “ N ow t h ey t h a t a r e y oun ger t h a n I h a ve m e i n d er i si on wh ose fa t h er s I wo uld h a ve d i sd a i ned t o h a ve set wit h t he d ogs of m y ﬂo ck O n ly i n t he a po c r y ph a l T obi t (v 1 6 ; x 1 4 ) i s t h e d og t rea t e d i n so m e d egr ee a s t he fr i en d a n d a sso ci a t e of m a n Thu s when Tobia s a n d hi s c om pa n i on set ou t on t h e i r j ou rn ey t o M e di a t o c oll e c t a d ebt i t i s sa i d “ S o t hey wen t fo r t h b ot h a n d t h e y ou n g m a n s d og wit h t hem — a si m pl e t ou ch t h a t a dd s i m m en sel y t o t h e b ea u ty a n d r ea l i sm o f t he pi c t u r e I n t he N ew T est a m en t d ogs a r e pa r i a h b east s com plet ely ou t o f t he pa l e of h u m a n i n t erest a n d Th er e i s a n ol d l egen d t h a t J esu s on ce sy m pa t hy sa w a c rowd o f person s ga t h e r e d r ou n d t he c a r c a ss o f a d og a n d givi n g u t ter a n ce t o t h e i r d i sgu st a t B u t a s J e su s t he si gh t of such a l oa t h so m e b ea st “ l ooked u pon i t H e sa id : H ow whi te i ts t eet h T he story i s i n t e n d e d t o illust ra t e n ot H i s a re ! hi gher a n d t ruer est i m a t i on o f t he wo rt h o f t he a n i m a l b u t H i s own n obili t y o f ch a ra c t e r a n d t he gen er ous o pt i m i sm which a vo id ed e vil spea ki n g a n d c o uld di sc o ver a d m i r a bl e qu a li t i es e ven i n so I n de ed t her e i s h i d eou s a c rea t u r e a s a d ea d d og n ot hi n g i n H ebr ew o r e a r l y Ch r i st i a n li ter a t u r e t o b e c o m pa r ed wi t h H om er s sy m pa t het ic d esc r i pt ion o f U l y sses d og A r gu s or A r r i a n s ch a r a c t e r iz a t ion .

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gr ey h oun d H or m e( dppm i m pet u ou s “ the swifte st sa gest and d ivi n est of bea sts Wi th wh a t ﬁn e a ppre ci a t i on he dwell s u pon her cun n in g a n d cl evern ess a n d ot he r e x c e ll en t t r a i ts ! ZE l i a n re l a t es ( D e N a t A n i m a l v i i 38) t h a t a M a gn esi a n wa r h ou n d which di st i n gu i sh ed i t se lf a t M a ra t h on wa s h on ou re d wi t h a n cﬂi gy on t he sa m e t a bl et t h a t r e cor d e d t he va l ou r o f i ts m a st er T he A vest a a n d ot h e r sa c r e d boo ks o f t h e P a r si s en j oi n t he grea test ki n d n ess a n d r ever ence t owa r d s t he d og wh ose sa ga city vigil a n ce a n d ﬁde li ty a r e regar de d a s t he pill a r s o f pa st or a l soc i e t y ; a n d i n t he I n di a n zd r a ta t he h er o Y u d h i shthi r a r e e pic t he M a bd b/ “ fu ses t o en ter I n d r a s h ea ven u n l ess hi s fa ithfu l d og sh a ll b ea r hi m c om pa n y I n t he por ch of Fr e i b u r g M i n ster a re d e li n ea t i on s of t he d eed s of S a m son i n c a rry i n g off t he ga tes of G a z a t ea r i n g open t he lion s j a ws a n d pe r form i n g ot h er ex pl oi t s su ppose d t o foresh a d o w I n t hi s wor k t he t he r ed eem i n g powe r o f Ch r ist a rt i st e m b odi es t he id e a s o f pa t r i stic e x egeti sts who sho w a va st a m o un t o f m i sa pplied i n gen ui ty i n t ra ci n g a na lo gies bet wee n t he ca reer o f t he H eb rew sol a r her o a n d t h a t of t he S u n of r ight eou sness ( Cf S t A u gu st in e s D e S a m soue S er m o I ) T he c olu m n su st a i n in g li on s so o ften pl a c e d a t t he en t r a n c e o f t he chu r ch es or u sed t o su pport si an d ul it s as in P i sa i en na ucc Chiu S L a p p Ita l y an d espe cia lly i n Tu scan y e l se wh er e i n re presen t S a ta n su bdu ed a n d subj ected to t h e o f t he

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ﬁ gu res t he l o ve o f J esus which pu r iﬁ es a n d r en ews T he t h i r d ch a r a c ter i st ic i s a pplie d i n a t he sou l a r o u ba d o u r B e r t ol o m e or g i Z b t ay w r e ue y q eben u n a L q o te d b y L a uche rt p 1 86 fro m D i e z u ( Wer ke a er T r ou ba d ou r s) who sa y s of h i s l a d y l ove t h a t l i ke t h e ser pe n t she ﬂ ees fr o m h i m when he i s n a ked a n d i s fea r less i n hi s pr esen ce o n l y w hen he i s c l o t hed su re l y n o u n u su a l displ a y o f t i m idi ty I t i s a l so r e l a t e d i n t he P oem a i n a m o dest d a m e t h a t a s t he a r m y o f a e A l exa n d r a a l re a d y cit e d t he M a ce d o n i a n m o n a r ch wa s pa ssi n g t h r ou gh a d eser t a n d su ffe r in g in t en se ly fr om t h i r st t he so ld i er s fo u n d a spr i n g which ho we ve r w a s so su r r ou n d ed b y ser pen t s t h a t a l l who a ppr o a che d i t we re i n d a n ger o f bein g bit t en Bu t A l exa n d e r who wa s n ot l e ss d i st i n gu i she d for w i sd o m t h a n for va lou r or d ere d t he m en t o st r i p so t ha t t he y wen t t o t he wa te r u n h a r m e d b y t he se r pen t s which ﬂe d from t he m a s from m ovin g pi ll a r s of ﬁre T he a u t h or t e ll s m a n y ot h er m a r v e ll ou s st or i es o f a n i m a l s a n d a ssu r es t he r e a d e r t h a t t hey a r e a l l t ru e “ T he ser pen t wa s like w i se e st o e s c osa ve r a r e ve r ed by t he E gy pt i a n s a s a sy m bo l o f r e ge n er a t i on a n d t h e r e n e w a l o f l i fe T he P /zy szol ogu s sta tes t h a t w h en t he ea gle ha s g rown ol d a n d i t s ey es h a ve be c o m e d i m a n d d a r ken e d i t ﬂi es u pwa r d t o w a r d s t he su n u n t il i t h a s scor che d i ts w i n gs a n d pu r ge d a w a y t he ﬁ l m fr om i t s ey es ; t hen i t descen d s t o t he e a r th a n d pl u n ges t h ree t i m e s i n t o a spr i n g o f pu re w a t er Thu s i t re cover s i t s sight a n d ren e ws i t s y ou th I n ,

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chite ct u r e som et i m es o n l y t he shi p i s r e pr esen t e d a n d t he wha le le ft t o t h e i m a g i n a t i on o f t h e be ho ld e r a s fo r e xa m pl e i n t he o l d N o r m a n chu r ch a t A l n e or t he wha le i s gi ven a n d t he shi p be i n g dee m e d su ﬂi cien t t o on e o bj e c t o m i tt e d I n t he m i n i a t u r es of t he best i su ggest t he ot he r a r i es t he whol e scen e i s u sua ll y d ep ic t e d i n su ch a m a n n e r a s t o ill u st r a t e bot h cha ra cte r i st i cs t he t he sh i p l i e s a t a n cho r c oo k i n g a re m a r i n ers t he i r d i n n e r u n d er t he sh a d ow o f t r ee s on t h e b a ck o f t he wha l e i n t o wh ose ext en d e d j a ws shoa l s o f li t t l e ﬁsh a r e swi m m i n g A pa r ch m en t c od ex o f zy szol ogu s d a t i n g fr om t he Ice l a n d i c ve r si on o f t he P / t h e t h i r t een t h c en t u ry a n d n o w pr ese r ve d i n t he A m a M a gn e a n c o ll e c t i on o f t he U n i versi t y L i b r a ry o f C open h a en h a s t wo c r u d e d r a wi n gs i n w h i ch g t hese ch a r a ct e r i st ic s o f t he wh a l e a r e po rt ra y e d T he re m o r a c a l l e d essi n u s ( éx mji s) i n t he best ia r ies a n d c on fo u n d e d w i t h t he sea u r ch i n i s a ﬁsh a b ou t a foot l on g a n d a n a t ive o f t h e I n di a n Ocea n bu t so st r on g t h a t i t ca n kee p a sh i p from m ovi n g b y fa st en i n g i t se lf t o t he kee l I n st or m s i t h old s t he vesse l st ea d y a n d pr even t s i t fr om c a psi z i n g when t ossed by t he t e m pest a n d i s t h ere for e a t y pe of t he S a v i ou r t he sea sy m b olizi n g t he w or ld a n d t he shi p m a n bu ffet e d b t h e wa ves y o f t e m t a t i on which t h r ea ten t o e n gul ph hi m p In

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which see k t o b e cu r ed of t he i r a il m en ts T he a t t r a c t i on i s n ot so m uch e st het ic a n d sen t i m en t a l a s m ed i c a l o r ve t er i n a r T he hy gien ic i n ﬂ u en ce y o f t h e pa n t h er i s pro hy l a c t ic a s we ll a s re m edi a l p so t h a t if on e wer e di sposed t o ca r ry t he qu ib bli n g spi r it o f pa t r i st ic t heo l ogi a n s i n t o t he pro vi n ce o f pa r a n om a sia t he bea st m i ght b e ca lled an ou n ce o f p r e ve n t i on T he b r ea t h o f t he pa n t her i s o ft en l i ke n e d t o t he vi r t u e w hich wen t ou t of Ch r i st a n d h e a l e d t h e w om a n w h o t o u che d .

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i n t er prete d i n a m y st ica l sen se as sy m b ol i z i n g t he wi sd o m l o ve hu m i li ty m e r cy ju st ice a n d ot her a tt r ibu t es of t h e R e d e e m e r a b ou t t wen ty L a uche rt gives of which a r e spe cia lly m en t i on e d n u m e r o u s e xa m ples o f r h et or ic a l a n d m et a phor ica l Thus a llu si on s t o t hi s fa ble i n pr o fa n e li t e r a t u r e a n a n on y m ou s t r o uba d o u r o f t he t hi rt een t h c en t u ry com pa res the power o f A m or t o t ha t o f t he pa n t her whose sweet brea th a n d bea u t ifu l co l ou r a tt ra ct a l l bea sts with so i r r esist ibl e for ce t ha t t hey would T he r a t h er d i e t h a n n ot t o fo ll ow i n i t s footst eps S icili a n l y r ic poet I n ghi l fre d i a l r ea d y m en t i on ed e x pr esses t he fa sci n a t i on he fee l s by t he sa m e si m il e Guid o d elle Co lon n e a n d M esser P ol o celebrate the m odest y of t he i r m ist r esses who a re a s u n c on sci ous o f t he i r swee t n ess a n d b ea u t y a s T he sa m e i m a ge ry i s em pl oy ed by the pa n t her Fra u en l ob poet l a u reat es a n d r oy a l pa n e gy r i st s liken s t he persua sive vo ice o f C ou n t L udwig of O etti n gen t o t he swee t b r ea t h o f t he pan t her ; a n d an ot her M e i ssen poe t u ses t hi s com pa r i son wi t h r eferen ce t o A lbr e cht I I o f B r a n d en bu r g t he foun der of Ber li n M a st er R u m el a n d o f S a xon y a wa n d er i n g m i n st re l wh o sa n g t h e pra ises o f m a n y pr i n ces ex t ol s D uke L udwig of Ba va r ia a s a n ea gle a l e 0pa r d a pa n t h er a n d i n d eed a wh ol e m en a ger ie of ty p ica l beasts a n d bi r d s K on ra d v on W ii rz bu r g t u r n s t he po i n t o f t he t ro e a ga i n st p l ow m i n d ed sove r ei gn s a n d sa y s t h a t a m ea n pr i n c e shu n s t he socie t y o f t he pu re a n d nobl e a s t he d r a gon ﬂe e s fr om t he pa n t h er ,

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ks t o ga t her t o hi m se l f t he child r e n b u t w hen t h ey gro w i n wi sd om a n d a r e of m e n c om e t o a kn owl ed ge o f t he t r ut h t hey forsa ke t h e d evil a n d h i s wor ks a n d ﬂ ee t o t he i r n a t u r a l m o t h e r t h e Ch u r ch T he ha bi t h e re a sc r ibe d t o t he pa rt r id ge d oes G r e e k or n ot se em t o h a ve been k n own t o a n y R o m a n n a t u ra li st ; b u t i n t he I n st i tu tes o f M a n u i t i s sa id t ha t person s who st ea l r a i m en t a r e d est in ed t o b e r eborn a s grey o r speckl e d p a r t r i d ges a ccor di n g t o t he c o l ou r o f t he vest m en t s T he pen a l ty t h u s i n ﬂic t e d b y t h e st r ic t l y st ol en r et r ibu t ive l a ws o f m e t e m psy ch osi s would i m ply cert a in pilfer in g pr open sit ies on t he pa rt of t he bi r d a n d m a y b e b a se d u pon a su ppose d t en d en c y t o st ea l eggs or i gi n a t i n g i n a d esi r e for n u m e ro u s o ffspr i n g T he pa rt r id ge i s m on oga m ou s i n i t s d o m est i c h a bits a n d ha s t he fee lin g of con j u ga l a tt a chm en t and pa r en t a l a ffect i on ver y st r on gl y d eve l ope d I t posse sses a r e m a r ka bl y b en e vol en t di sposit i on a n d i s di st i n u i sh e d i n a hi gh g d egr ee for t he sen t i m en t cor r e spon d i n g to or phil a n t h r o py a l t r u i sm i n m a n a do pt i n g t he or ph a n s o f ot h er pa r t r idges a n d t rea t i n g t h em wi t h t he sa m e t en d er n ess as i t s own y o u n g ; b u t t h er e i s n o evid en c e t h a t i ts phil o pro gen i t iven ess e ver m a n ifest s it self i n t hieve ry o f a n y sort Th a t such a n except ion a lly n oble a n d vi r tu o us fowl who

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whe ther her fa c e i s t u rn ed from or t owa r d s hi m A n ot h er poet wi sh es t h a t he possessed t hi s fa ta l fa cul ty i n or der t h a t h e m ight t u rn hi s ey es from m e a n a n d sor did m or ta l s a n d t hu s d est r oy t he m a n d i n su r e l on g life t o t he n o bl e a n d liber a l m i n d e d by l oo ki n g ben ign a n t l y u po n t he m B o t h t he c ro w a n d t he t u r t l e d ove a re ty pic a l o f Ch r i st i a n c o n st a n cy a n d d evot i o n I f e i t he r o f t h ese bi r d s l ose s i t s m a t e i t n e ve r t a kes a n ot h e r A s ou r L or d wen t b u t lives a life o f soli t ud e wi t h on l y t h ree di sci pl es t o t he M o u n t o f Olives whe r e H e wa s t r a n sﬁgu r ed be fo re t he m a n d h ea r d a n a ppr ovi n g vo ic e fr om h ea ven so H i s foll o wers sh ou ld wi t hd r a w from t he wor l d a n d d e vot e t h e m se lve s t o r e l i gi ou s m e di t a t i o n T he t u r t l e d o ve i s o ft en r e fe r red t o i n poet r y a s a sy m b ol o f ﬁd e l i t y ; t hu s G ot t fr i ed v on S t r a sbu r g c a l l s t he Vi r gi n M a r y a t u r t l e do ve i n fa it hful n ess When i t l oses i ts m a t e i t ren ou n ces a l l t he plea su r es o f life n e ve r a ga i n per ches on a gr een b ough b u t si t s di sc on sol a t e o n a d r y b r a n ch a n d n eve r d r i n ks cl ea r wa t er b u t ﬁ rst m uddi es t he st rea m wit h i ts feet a n d d r i n ks t he foul wa t er a s e viden ce o f i t s sor r ow A c e l eb r a t ed S pa n i sh l y r ic poet a n d d oc to r o f t h eol ogy o f t he six t een t h c en t u ry Fra y L ui s Pon ce d e L eon i n h i s fa m ous ver si on o f S o l om on s S on g which ca u sed hi m t o be i m pr i son ed for ﬁve y ea r s i n t h e d u n geon s o f t he I n qui si t ion t r a n sl a t es t he W e will e l e ve n t h ve r se o f t he ﬁ r st ch a pt e r t hu s : m a ke t h ee t u r t l e d oves of gold wi t h t i ps o f silver .

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c en su re wit h deser ved sever ity t he gree d a nd gl u tt on y a n d gen er a l dissolu t en ess of t he m on a st ic or d er s D u r i n g t he t hi r teen t h a n d fou r t een t h cen tu r ies t h e r e li gi ou s fra t e r n i t i es we re i n a gr ea t d egr ee su ppl a n t e d a s b u ild e rs b y a sso ci a t i on s o f se cula r a r chi t e ct s a n d a s t he i n ﬂu en ce o f t he l a i ty b e c a m e pre d o m i n a n t i n chu r ch o r n a m e n ta t i on a n d t he r esul te d i n t he R e for m a t i o n gre w spi r i t which bolder a n d m ore a ggressive t his sa t i r ic a l t en den cy i n c r ea se d a n d did n o t c on ﬁ n e i t se l f t o t he e x po su r e o f re ligi ou s hy poc r i sy a n d pseu d o sa n c t i t y b u t soon d el i ghte d i n r i dic u l i n g a n d c a r ic a t u r i n g sa c r a m e n t a l r it es a n d sa c re d O b ser va n c es A pes i n cho r ist e r s r obes sw i n e i n m on ks h oods a sses i n c owl s ch an t i n g a n d pl a y i n g t h e or ga n si ren s i n t he c ost u m e o f n u n s w i t h t he i r fa ces ca re fu ll y veil ed a n d t he r est o f t he i r per son s exposed sta gs i n cha su bl es m i n i st er i n g a t t h e a l t a r a n d wolves i n t he c on fe ssi on a l givi n g a bsolu t ion t o l a m b s wer e som e o f t he m ea n s e m pl oy ed t o bu r l esqu e t h e pr i n ci pa l cer e m on i es a n d fu n d a m e n t a l i n st i t u t ion s of t he Chu r ch a n d t o t u rn t h em i n t o r idicul e O n on e o f t he pa i n t e d wi n d ows o f S t M a rt in s Chu r ch i n L eicester wa s t he pict u r e o f a fox i n su r plic e pr ea chi n g t o a ﬂ o ck o f geese fro m t he Test is est m i hi D e us qu a m cu pi a m v os t ext : o m n es vi sce r ibu s m e i s God i s m y wi t ness how I l on g for y ou a l l i n m y O n e o f t he wood ca rvin gs i n E l y C a thed r a l r epr esen ts t he fox a r r a ed i n epi sc opa l rob es wi t h a l m u c e a n d st ol e y and

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i m ila r a udien ce from t h e sa m e pa ssa ge of S cr i t r e ; i n t h e n e xt sce n e h e ha s m a d e a pr a ct ic a l a pplic a t i on o f t he t e xt b y t h r owi n g o ff hi s h ol y vest m en t s a n d hu r r i n g a wa y y wit h a goose p u r su ed b y a n ol d wom a n wit h a 1 s a t ff di H e r e we h a ve n ot m erel y a n ex posu r e of t he b e ggi n g fr i a r s b u t a h a r d hi t a t t h e hi gh est di gn i t a r ies o f t he Ch u r ch T he ob sc e n it y o f m a n y o f t h ese d e l i n e a ti on s r esu l t e d n a t u r a ll y a n d i n e vi t a b l y fr o m t he fa c t sa t i r iz e d t ha t t he y o b sc e n e t hi n gs Thus t he a bb ot G r a n d i d i er i n d esc r ibi n g t he gr ot esq u e ﬁ gu r es scul pt u re d on t he pu l pi t st a i r ca se i n S t r a s bu r g M in st er sa y s : On y r em a r qu a i t en t r a ut r es ce lle d u n m oi n e c ouché a u dessous et a u x pie d s d u n e bé gui n e d on t i l soul e va i t l es j This u ppes pul pi t wa s c o n st r uct e d i n 1 4 86 u n d er t he su pe r vi si on of t he fa m ou s pr ea che r J oha n n es Ge i ler v on K a i ser sb er g i n wh ose se r m on s t he lic en t i ou s n e ss o f t he m o n k s a n d pa r t icul a r l y t h e u n ch a st i t y o f t h e va ga b on d bé gui n es w er e se ve r e ly sc ou r ge d I n d eed bégu i n a ge ca m e t o be sy n on y m ou s wi t h sp u r i ou s pi e t y or l u st i n t h e di sgui se of sa n c t i t y B u t h ow eve r c oa r se l y such sce n es m a y h a ve been d e pic t e d t he y or igi n a te d i n a hi gh m or a l pu r pose a n d h a d a pu re a i m which a s t he ol d pl a t meu tsck and

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l ett e r o f Ju n e 3 1 5 4 5 t o N ichola s v on A m sd or f ﬁ r st P r ot est a n t bi sh o p of R a u m b u r g t he R e fo r m er wr i t es You r n ephe w Geor ge showed m e a pic tu r e o f t he pope a ddi n g b y wa y o f co m m e n t a n d e vid en t l y w i t h a ch u ckl e o f d e li ght b u t M a st er L u c a s i s e i n g r ober M a l er ; and in a l ette r o f J u n e 1 5 t o t he sa m e fr i en d he re m a r ks I sha ll e n d ea vou r t o h a ve L uca s t he pa i n te r e xcha n ge t hi s fou l pic t u r e for a m ore pr oper o n e T he re fe re n c e h e re i s n ot t o t he Pa pst ese l b u t t o P l a t e I en t i t l ed Or t us et or i go P apa R ise a n d O r i gi n o f the a n d re prese n t i n g hi s H o li n ess a s t he e xc r e m en t s o f a gha st l y gr i n n i n g m on st er T he i n fa n t pon t i ff t hu s b or n i n cor ru pt i o n i s r e a r e d b y t he Fu r i es A le c to r o cki n g h i s c r a dl e M e gae r a a c t i n g a s h i s we t n u r se a n d Ti si phon e h o ldi n g hi m i n l ea d i n g st r i n gs I t i s evi d en t fr om t he d esc r i pt ive r h y m es a cco m pan y i n g t hese d r a wi n gs t h a t L u t her full y en te re d in t o t he spi r i t o f t he a r t ist s con ce pt i on s a n d h ea r t ily e n j oy e d t he i r c oa r se h u m o u r “ n H i s seem i n g c e su r e o f t he and gross pa i n t er t he fou l pi ct u r e a n d t he e x pre ssi on o f h i s i n t en t i o n o f ha vi n g a m o r e d e ce n t d e li n ea t i on su bst i t u t e d fo r i t m u st b e t a ken i r o n ic a ll y a n d m a y h a ve be en c a l l e d fort h by so m e c r it ic i sm o f hi s cor r e spon d en t T he M ii n chka l b ( m on k c a lf) t he se c o n d o f t he m on st e r s d e l i n ea t e d a n d di scu sse d i n t he I n terpr et a t i on o f t w o g r ewsom e Figu r es a l r ea d y ci t e d w a s r e port e d t o h a v e b ee n t a k en fr o m a co w i n a pu bl i c sl a u h t e r hou se a t Fre ib u r g D e c e m b e r g a n d m i s sh a pen a n d t o h a ve h a d a r ou n d ﬂ a bby ve r ses

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hou gh i t h a d been l on g d ea d Then t he r a ven s a n d ot h e r r a pa ci ou s bi r d s c om e t o d evou r i t wh e n i t sudd en l y l ea ps u p a n d t ea r s t h em i n Th us t he de vi l de ceives t hose who l ove pi e ces t h e c or r u pt t hi n gs of t hi s wor ld a n d obey t h e l usts o f t he ﬂesh a n d e n t ic es t he m t o t he i r o w n d e str u c “ H e wh o t e ll s idl e t a l es a n d i n d u lges i n t i on c a rn a l plea su res a dd s a n ol d E n gl i sh besti a ry peeks a t t he ski n o f t he fo x a n d t ea r s i t s ﬂesh b u t t he d evil r e qu i t es t he si n n e r by sei zi n g hi m a n d d r a ggi n g hi m d own t o m u r ky he ll T he de vil a n d t h e r e proba t e a r e cr a ft y like t he fo x a n d d eser ve sh a m e H e wh o spea ks fa i r wor d s a n d m e dita tes e v i l i s a fox ; such a on e w a s H e r od for he sa i d t h a t he w ou ld be l i ev e o n Ch r i st when h e r ea ll y m ea n t t o ki ll H i m I n t he chur ch o f S t Fi a cr e n ea r L e Fa ouet i n t he d epa r t m en t o f M or bih a n fo r m e r l y a por t i on of Br it ta n y a r e woo d c a r vi n gs on th e r i ch l y orn a m en t e d r oo d l o ft por t r a y i n g t he se w il e s o f t he fo x which i n t he ﬁ r st scen e i s l y i n g on i t s ba ck wit h pr ot r u di n g t on gue a n d a ppa ren t l y d ea d ; in st ea d o f c a r r i on c r ows a s e l sewhere a cock a n d sever a l i n q u i si t i v e h en s a re pe cki n g a t differen t pa r t s o f i ts b ody I n t he se con d sce n e t he fox ha s spr un g u p a n d c a u ght on e o f t h e m by t he n e ck The re a r e si m il a r r e l i e fs on t he a ba cu s of a co lu m n i n t he ca t hed ra l of Ta rr a gon a i n S pa in O n t he opposite si d e o f t he a ba cu s a r e sc u l pt ures of wh a t M eissn er ( H er r i g s A r c/zi t) lxv 2 1 4 ) ca l ls t he bu r i a l of t he ea t b u t which would seem ra ther e a rt

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de t he m t he obj e ct s o f ha t red an d t he su bj ect s o f sa t i re T he foll o wi n g m a y se rv e a s fa i r speci m en s of t he m a n n e r i n wh i ch t he e x pl oi t s o f t he fox a r e d e li n ea t e d i n va r iou s E u r opea n chu r ches, a n d t he 1 spi r i t u a l or sa t i r ic a l u ses t o wh i ch t h e r u a e t y p I n t h e M a i son d es T e m pl i er s for m er l y co n n e ct ed wit h t he n ei ghb ou r i n g chu r ch of t he Te m pla rs i n M et z a n d p ro b a bl y u se d a s a re fe c t o r y a re t ra c es of a pa in t i n g o f t he t hi rt ee n t h c en t u r y por t r a y i n g a bou t t hi rt y a n i m a l s to w hich t he fox i s pr ea chi n g fr om a pu l pi t A m on g R e y n a r d s a u d i t or s a re t he b ea r t he a pe t he he goa t t he gr i fﬁ n t he co ck t he h a r e t he st or k t he so w a n d t he ca t which a re e i t h er h o ld i n g pr a y e r b oo k s or psa l t e r s or si n gi n g hy m n s fr o m she et s o f m u sic while t he u n icor n pl a y s t he ba gpipe a n d t he a ss A l i t t l e a pa r t w i t h i t s pe r fo r m s on t he h a r p ba ck t u r n e d t owa r ds t hese wor shi pper s i s a n ot her fo x i n t he a ct o f r e ce ivi n g t he ch a l i ce fr o m a st a g wh i le a t hi r d fox d ressed a s a pi lgr i m gr eets a leo pa r d i n pa ssi n g I n the ba ckgrou n d st a n ds a t en t i n which a d e a d a n i m a l pr oba bl y a c a l f i s ly in g I n t he c hu r ch o f S t D en i s a t A m bo i se t wo fo xes wi t h pil gr i m s st a ff a n d sc r i p a r e w i t n essi n g t he sl a ught er o f t he i n n o cen t s d ou bt l ess i n a ll usion T he t ha t fox t o H er od wh o m Ch r i st c a ll e d fr e quen cy wi t h which t he fox a ppea r s i n t he ga rb c t i b t i o s t o H e i g s A r c/1 l x et C f M ei s n e ma

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i n ster t he m isere r es o f the sta lls i n t he ch o i r a r e a d o rn e d w i t h c a r vi n gs o f a n i m a l s i n wh i ch t he a dven t u res o f t he fox a s a n i t i n era n t p r ea che r a r e m o r e fu l ly d e li n ea t e d t h a n i n a n y ot h er e diﬁce e ccl esi ast ic a l D u r i n g t he m iddle a s i t was o r i i n a ll a ge s Be ve r l y o r I n d e ra w ood g y ca ll ed w a s a po pu l a r pl a ce o f pil gr i m a ge w her e t he b on es o f S t J oh n o f Beve r ly w ho w a s A r ch b i shop o f Yor k i n t he e i ght h ce n tu ry a n d c a n on ized by Be n e d i ct I X i n 1 0 37 were r evere d b y pi ou s m u l t i t u des o f a l l cl a sses t ha t t h r on ge d t o t h i s sh r i n e fro m e ver E ve n a ft er y pa rt o f E n gl a n d t he R e fo r m a t i o n Be ver l y re m a i n e d a str on gho ld o f Ca t holici sm a n d t he ch i e f cen t re of rea ct i on a r y m o ve m e n t s T he c a r vi n gs i n q u est i on w e r e t he w or k of J oha n n e s Wa ke cle r icu s wh ose e scut cheo n wa s a c r ow i n g co ck ( Wa k e !) t h i s C ha n t icl ee r m a y ha ve bee n ho weve r a pi ct or i a l pu n or her a l dic r ebus a m e r e c a n t i n g d e vice an d n ot n ecessa r il y a fa m i ly of a r m s c oa t— They w ere m a de i n t he very y ea r ( 1 5 2 0) i n which L u t h er bu rn e d t he pa pa l bull at W i t ten be r g a n d were dir e cted n ot a ga in st the se c u la r cler gy t o which Wa ke hi m se lf b e l on ged b u t a ga i n st t he m en d i ca n t or d er s a n d espe c i a lly a gai n st t he B la ck Fr i a rs ( D om i n ica n s) an d Gra y Fr i a r s ( Fr a n cisc a n s) t hen e xcee di n gly a ct i ve as The se r e st l ess an d i rr ita t in g pr e dic a n t s i n Be ver l y e l e m e n t s i n t he sl ee k a n d com for t ab le sa cer d ot a l body we r e per pet u a l t horn s i n t he ﬂesh t o t he co n ser va t ive dign it a r ies of t he Chu r ch who r ega rded M

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cked u p a n d t hr o wn on t he c a rt wher e t he ﬁsh w h wh i ch i t i s l a d en ca n b e ea t en a t leisu r e Be si des t hese e pi so d es fr o m t he bea st e pos t here are m an y pu r e l y gr o t esqu e c a r vi n gs o r scen e s i n t en d e d t o en for ce m or a l l e sson s o r t o i l l u st r a t e t h e w i sd om o f h o m e ly pro ve r bs ; a ca t pl a y i n g t he ﬁddle fo r d a n cin g m ice which she sports wit h a n d ﬁ n a ll y ea t s ; a n e l e pha n t wi t h a howd a h ; a da n ce of d ea t h wi t h t wo m en i n m ot ley ; a m a n pu tt i n g hi s ca r t be fo re t he hor se a n d a n ot he r t h r esh i n g eggs w i t h a Ha i l ; a wom a n pu ll i n g a m a n by t he ha i r ; n e cke d vessel i n a n a n i m a l ea t i n g ou t o f a n a r r ow — wh i ch i ts hea d i s st u ck fa st ; a boa r hu n t ; a sta g hu n t ; a n owl su r rou n de d by sm a l l b i r d s ; a l ion w i th i t s pa w on a wom a n s hea d ; a bo a r pl a y in g t he ba gpi pe a n d a n ot h e r t he h a r p y ou n g pi gs d a n ci n g a n d a n a pe on ho r seba ck l ea d i n g t h ree m u zzl e d bea r s by ch a i n s ; a pedl a r pl u n d er ed by a pes ; a n a pe a s d o c t or e x a m i n i n g a ﬂa sk o f u r in e ; a n a pe d a n dl i n g a n i n fa n t ; a m i se r h o a d i n g hi s m on ey whil e t he d e vil se i z e s hi m fr o m beh i n d ; a d r u n ka r d hol di n g a go bl e t a n d cl u t ched b y a d e m on a n d ﬁ n a l l y se ve r a l c a n t i n g a r m s o f c a n on s su ch as cocks ﬁ ght in g on a t u n ( C ockt on ) per son s pl a c i n g we i ght s on sc a l es ( W i tt o n i e We i g ht on ) a cr o wi n g c ock ( Wa ke ) a n d o t he r e q u a ll y fa r fet ched e b uses I n t he ch u r ch o f S t M a ry i n Beve r l y a r e st il l o l d e r c a r v i n gs o f a l i ke ch a r a c t e r : t w o ca poched foxes a t a l e c tern r ea din g sc r i pt u r e l esson s a fox i n a m edica l a s fr i a r pr ea ch i n g ; a fox en ga ge d pi it

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dia gn osis a s a b ove ; foxes wit h cr osiers a n d ea ch with a goose i n i t s h oo d ; a n d a m an r idin g a goat with a ra bbit u n d er hi s a r m T he d r ess of the foxes shows t hem t o be Ciste r cia n s O n t he st a lls o f t he ch o ir i n L i n col n C a t hedra l a r e so m ew h a t si m il a r woo d ca r vi n gs d a t i n g fr om t he fou r t een t h cen t u r y : t wo a pes bea r i n g a y ou n g a pe on a bi er a n d st o pp i n g t o pr a y b e for e a ch a pe l or sh r i n e ; a c r a n e d r o pp i n g st on e s i n t o a b ot t le i n or d er t o m a ke t h e wa t e r r i se wi t hi n r ea ch a n d th e d evil bl owi n g a ﬁ r e w it h a b ell ows a n d b oili n g a kett l e ou t o f which e m e r ges a m a n wea r i n g a t ia r a This i s pr ob a bl y a sa t i r e on t he e l ect ion of a pope I n E l y C a t h ed r a l w e ﬁ n d a fox pr ea chi n g t o geese ; t he vu l pi n e d i vi n e wea r s a n a l m uce a n d st ol e a n d h old s a bi sh op s c r o o k i n t he l e ft h an d ; i n t he r ight h a n d i s a sc r oll w i t h t he w or d s a l r ea dy q u ot e d fr om a si m i l a r r epr esen t a t i on on t he wi n d ow “ M a rt i n s Chu r ch i n L e icest e r : Test is est of S t " m ihi D e u s q u a m cu pi a m v os vi sce r ibu s m eis A n o t her fox i s r u n n i n g o ﬂ w i t h a goose an d i s Ther e pu r su e d by a n o l d w o m a n wit h a di st a ff a r e a l so c a r vi n gs o f squ i r r e l s sy m b ol s of t he con st a n t st r ivi n gs o f t he H o l y S pi r i t ; a pe s ; a hu n t ; se r pen t ty pify i n g Ch r i st a h a rt t ra m pli n g on a subdui n g S a t a n by t h e wa t er s of sa lva t i on ; t wo m en p l a y i n g dice a n d d r i n ki n g a n d a wom an st an d i n g n ea r a n d wee pi n g o ve r a b r o ken bee hive fa llen t o t he g r ou n d a m o r a l d isc ou r se on d r u n ken n ess a s subver sive o f d om est ic h a pp i n e ss a n d t h r ift C a rvi n gs of a l i ke cha r a ct e r d ec orate the ,

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ca the dr a ls of Gl oucest er a n d Win cheste r a n d I n d eed sa t i r i z e t he sa m e r eli g i ou s frat ern i t ies t he y e xist e d for m er ly i n n ea r l y a l l t he pr i n cipa l E n glish chu r ches a n d pr ior ies a d or n i n g usu a ll y t he st a ll s o f t he ch oi r t he l e ct e rn or t he or ga n loft A t a l a t e r per io d when t he R e form a t ion began to be a n ea r n est m ovem en t i n ten sive l y a n d ex t e n sive ly a n d i n t e r pr et ed these w o r k s a s d e r idi n g t he o fﬁ c es o f t he Chu r ch a n d sco fﬁ n g a t t he cl er gy t he ve ry pe rson s t o wh om t h ey o w ed t h ei r or igi n t hey were i n m a n y ca ses d est roy e d a s fo r e x a m pl e i n t he ﬁ n e ol d Got hic c a t he d ra l a t Che ste r I n the c ollegi a te chu r ch o f S t Vic t or a t Xa n ten on th e R hi n e a re c a r vi n gs on t he b a ck s of t he sta ll s of t he ch oi r i n which t he b eggi n g fr i a r s a r e ﬁ gu red a s a m on ster wit h t he bo d y a n d feet o f a pi g t he It t a i l of a fox an d t he h ea d o f a c owl ed m on k i s a pie ce o f sy m b oli sm r e c a lli n g t he port en t ous f ar m sa cer d os m en t i on e d by L y costhen es ( p a n d e m b o dy i n g i n pl a st ic for m t he Op i n ion e x presse d by I n n o cen t I I I who as a m a n o f lea m i n g a n d l over of t he n i c er e le ga n cies o f life a t ﬁ rst r e fu se d t o c on ﬁ r m t h e r ul es o f t he or d e r o f S t Fr a n cis sa y i n g t ha t th ey we r e m ore ﬁt for swine t h a n for hu m a n be in gs T he Ben edic t in e O d o o f S her i n gt on who lived i n t h e t wel fth c en t u ry i n hi s fa bl e o f t he w olf i n sh ee p s clot hi n g d e n o u n ce s t he ra pa ci ty a n d hypo cr i sy of the C ist e r ci a n s st i gm a t izi n g t he m a s r ene ga d es a n d l ega cy hu n t er s a n d de cla r i n g t h a t he wou ld r ather a ssoci ate wi t h a pa ga n or a Jew than ,

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cen t ury a n d r epr esen t in g a bea r n ea r a beehive i n sea r ch o f hon e y ; a fo x st r a n gli n g a c ock ; a wo m a n r idi n g on a m u l e t o m a r ke t wi t h t wo geese i n a ba sket a n d a fox cr ee pi n g u p behi n d her i n order t o st ea l t he m ; a n a pe fee din g a duck wit h a spoon a n d a y o u n g a pe c a t ch i n g h o ld of t he ol d one a n d e vid en t l y solici t i n g a sh ar e o f t he food ; a pi g wi t h a gi r dle a n d a kn i fe (t he p i g t u rn ed but cher) ; the st ory of A r i st ot l e a s r e l a t e d i n t h e L a i d A r tlrtote; a m a n i n m ot l ey a ppr oa chi n g a t en t wher e he is r e c e ived b y a n a ke d wo m a n who d ra ws a sid e the cu rt a i n i n ord e r t o a d m it hi m T he L ay of A r i stotl e i s a sa t ir e on t he power o f l ove a n d t he i rr esi st ibl e fa sci n a t i on o f fe m a le bea uty a ga in st wh i ch n e it her phi l osophic wisd om T he poe m ba sed upon a n n or ol d a ge i s pr oof wa s w r i t ten b y H en r i d A n d el y a ol d t r a di t i on ca n on of the ca thed ra l o f N ot re D a m e of R ouen a t t he en d o f t he t w e l ft h ce n t u ry a n d i s c on t a i n ed i n E t ien ne Ba r b a z a n s colle c t i on o f Fa bl i a ux cl Can ter Fr a n goi : el e: X[I t —X V S iécl e: ( Pa r is T he fa bl e i s b r i e ﬂy a s fo ll o ws 17 Whilst A l ex an d er wa s pu r su in g hi s ca r ee r o f co n qu e st i n t he O r ien t he be c a m e so d eeply en a m ou r e d of a n E a st I n di a n gi r l a s i n t he o pin ion o f hi s soldiers t o i m pe r il t he su cc ess o f t he ca m pa ign by givi ng t o d a lli a n ce t oo m u ch r e i n A r i st ot l e wa s th ere u pon d epu t ed b y t he a r m y t o re m onst ra t e wi th t he y ou n g m on a r ch wh o c o n fessed h i s fa ul t a nd ,

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h a ve n o fu rt her i n ter cou rse with the d an ger ou s bea uty N a t u ra lly the y oun g la dy was quick t o obse r ve t he chan ge a n d on reproa chin g her l over wit h n egl e ct a n d l ea r n in g t he c a u se of i t vowe d t o a ven ge her se l f on the oﬁi ci ous phi lo sopher A ccor d i n gly t he n e xt d a y she wen t in to the or cha r d we a r in g on ly a l on g ch em ise of fi n est m u slin a n d wa lke d t o a n d fro u n de r A r i st ot l e s win d ows sin gin g t o her se l f a n d cullin g ﬂ ower s A r ist ot l e l oo ked ou t a n d a t ﬁ r st fe ign ed i n d i ffer en c e bu t soon h a d hi s wi se h ea d tu r n e d a n d d escen din g t o t h e o r cha r d m a d e a n a r den t decl a r a t i on of l ove a n d e x presse d h i s willi n gness t o d o a n y t hi n g t o w i n he r fa vou r A s a test o f t he si n cer i t y of hi s a ffe c t i on she d e m an d e d t h a t he sh ould c on d e sce n d t o b e he r pa lfrey A fter so m e hesita t i on he a cced e d t o t his hu m ilia t i n g proposa l per m i tted hi m self t o be sa ddl ed a n d b r idl ed a n d bega n to cr ee p over t he gra ss on a l l fou r s with t he e xul t a n t gi r l sea te d on h i s b a ck holdi n g the rein s i n on e ha n d a n d a r idin g whi p i n t he other A l ex a n d er wh o ha d wa t ch e d the pr o gr ess of t his ga ll a n t a dven t u r e fro m a wi n d ow of t he pa la ce n ow drew n e a r a n d d e r id e d t he a bsu r d i n fa t u a t i on o f hi s g r a ve pr e c e pt or wh o c a n didl y c on fe sse d hi s folly b ut could n ot r e fra in fr om t he ped a gogica l ha bi t of d r a wi n g a m ora l l e sson fr om i t for t he “ s B e a r er e h e ﬁ t o f o th w e sa id for if l ove b en ca n m a ke such a fool o f a n ol d m a n h ow m uch m or e d a n ger ou s m u st i t b e t o y ou t h ! T he L ay of A r i stotl e seem s t o ha ve b een often .

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chu r ch e d i ﬁces or h a ve se r ved to de cor a te if t he P hy si ol og us ha d ec cl e si a st ic a l a r chi t e c t u r e n o t fu r n i she d a pr e ce d en t a n d t hu s ju st i ﬁe d t he I n t he foot st eps o f t he fa bul o u s fau n a i n t r usi on e a n d m y t hic a l m on st r osi t i e s of t he P / y si ol og u s a n d t he be st i a r i es a s t hey we r e l e d a l o n g by e xeget ic a l t hr ea d s o f t he sl en d erest a n d ﬂ i m si est sor t i n t o t he in n er m ost sa n ct ua ry foll owed t he wh o le lively a n d n oi sy pa ck o f R ey n a r d a n d h i s c o m a n i on s who p so on t oo k possessi on o f t he ch a n c e l t he ch a pe ls a n d t he pu l pi t a n d ﬁ n a ll y ove r r a n the en t i re build i n g n est li n g i n c a pi ta l s c reepi n g a l on g c o r n ices sq u a tt i n g on b a lu st r a d es pee pi n g ou t o f i llu m i n a t ed wi n d ows peer i n g o ve r por t a ls a n d gr i m a cin g a s ga rgoy l es fr om t he roof T he bea st s which ga in ed a d m i t t a n c e a s sy m b ol s o f divi n e m y st e r i es a n d illust ra t ion s of t heo logica l d ogm a s wer e succee ded a n d su per sed e d by which were a t ot h e r be a st s ﬁ rst i nt en de d to ca r ica t u re t he prea chin g fr ia r s a n d t o c e n su re t he i r vices b u t a t l ast c a m e t o be rega r ded a s a pa rody o f t he sa c red r i t es t hem selves a n d a sa t i re on t hose wh o c e l e b r a t e t he m T he R oma n ce of R ey n a r d wa s diver ted t o po lem ica l pu r poses j ust a s t he V i si on of P i er s P l ow m a n wa s a t t he t i m e o f t he R efo r m a t i on Willi a m L an gla nd did n ot wr i te hi s poe m with i n ten t ion o f a ssa ili n g t he C a t ho lic r eli gion a ny a l t hough he did n ot he si t a t e t o e x pose e ccl esi a st i ca l a b u ses a n d t hu s su ppli ed t he R e for m er s of t he six teen t h c en t u r y wit h a full quiver fr om s on

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which t he y d rew m a n y keen poi n ted d a r ts t o hur l a ga i n st t he h a t e d hi er a r ch A s i s we ll k n own y t he w r i t i n gs o f Ch a u c er a n d Pet ra r ch we re u se d ver y e ffe ct ivel y i n t he sa m e wa y T he a u thor o f P i er s P l ow m a n i s e xt r em e ly se ve re i n hi s st r i e fou re or d r es o f beggin g fr i a rs t u r e s o n t he n a m ely Fr a n ci sca n s D om i n ic a n s C a r m e l i t e s a n d A ug u st i n es ; espe ci a ll y t he ﬁ r st t wo see m t o ha ve been t he pe cu lia r o bj e ct s o f hi s a ve r si on T he B en e dic t i n es ha t e d t he se or d ers a n d n ot on l y wa r n e d t he people a ga i n st t he m i n ser m on s b u t a l so bu r l esqu e d t he m i n t he c a r vi n gs pa i n t i n gs a nd sc u l pt u r e s o f t he i r cl o isters a n d chu r ches po rt r a y i n g t he m a s wil y foxes r a ve n ou s w o lves a sse s h ogs a n d st i n ki n g a n d sa l a ci ou s goa t s ; a n d t h er e i s n o d oubt t h a t t he o bn oxi o u s f r er es how e ve r w or t h y m a y h a ve b ee n t he or igin a l obj e cts o f t he b r ot he r ho o d s soon d egen er a t e d i n t o pe r son s w ho m a d e a pr ofessi on o f pove r ty b u t pra ct i se d a l l so rt s o f fra u d t o en r ich t he i r c o n ven t s which b e c a m e i n a sh or t t i m e t he gra n d est a n d wea lt hiest i n E n gl a n d They succeeded i n a cquir in g i m m en se i n flu en c e o ver t he m a sses a n d t her eby e xci te d t he e n vy a n d j e a l ou sy of t he se cul a r cl er gy a n d m a d e t he m se lves o di ous t o t he bet te r cl a sses by r ea son o f t h e i r i n t r ig ues a n d a rr oga n c e a n d t he i r su cc ess They i n e xt or t i n g r ich be qu ests fro m t he d y i n g we re t he sen sa t ion a l prea che rs of t hei r d a y a n d so u g ht t o a t t r a c t c r owd s by n ove l d o ct r i nes e cce n t r ic m a n n ers c oa rse wi t fu n n y st or ies r he t or ica l t e chn ics a n d ot her a st ou n di n g fea ts of pu l pi t ro y p -

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x ploi t of som e S ca n din a via n god or he ro M ore pr oba bl y h ow e ver i t i m m or t a liz es t he m a r ve ll o u s fea t o f so m e L i n c o l n shi r e che va li er a n d ha s on l y a l o c a l i m po rt a n ce O n t he o l d ch u r ch o f M a r i en ha fe n i n E a st Fr ies l a n d we re n u m er ou s a n i m a l s cu t i n ston e which a d orn e d t he po r t a l a n d e x t e n d e d on t he fr ie ze e n t i re l y r ou n d t he bu ildi n g T he e diﬁc e was d e m o l i shed i n 1 82 9 b u t t he c i ty a r chi t ec t of E m de n M a rt e n m a d e d r a wi n gs o f t he sc u l pt u r es a s t he y l a y sc a tt er e d a bou t i n t he ch u r chy a r d a n d t hey wer e su bse quen t ly publi shed by t he Gesell scha ft fur bild en d e K u n st un d v a ter l an d i sche A l t er t h ii m e r z u E m d en O n e ser i es o f t hese w or ks o f a r t te ll s t he st o ry o f t he wo lf a t sch oo l a n d d oes n o t di ffer fr om t he r e l i e fs a t Fr e i bu r g a l rea dy e sse n t i a ll y d esc r ibe d A n other ser i es por t r a y s t he b u r i a l o f t he fo x a n d fo ll ows q u i t e cl ose l y t he t e x t o f t he l a st b r a n ch of th e R om a n a o R ena r t A n a n i m a l i n a c ow l i s rea di n g t he G ospe l a n ot h er i s c e l e b r a t i n g m a ss a t a n a l ta r w h i le a n a pe a s a co l y te r i n gs t he sa c r i n g b e ll ; a fou r t h a n i m a l i s st a n di n g o n i t s h i n d l e gs a n d r e a di n g t he l e c t i on s T he n e x t scen e i s a fu n e r a l b a n qu et : on e o f t he a n i m a l s i s swee pi n g t he d i n i n g ha ll a n ot he r d ra w i n g wi n e a t hi r d c a rr y i n g a b owl or pi t cher a n d o t h e rs b r i n gi n g food i n t o t he h a ll whe r e n u m e r ou s A t t he t a bl e th r ee a pes a re a n i m a l s a r e fea st i n g ca r vi n g a j oi n t a fo u r t h i s e a t i n g a pi e c e o f b r ea d

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ha t i n com m on pa rl a n ce i s sa id t o be pu t t in g t he c a rt be fo r e the horse si n ce t h e c r oss t oo k thi s sh a pe b e c a u se a s a n i n st ru m e n t of h u m an pu n i sh m e n t a n d t or t u r e i t wa s m a d e t o ﬁ t t he m an A ga i n a s a pr i m i t ive phy sico psy cho logy resol ved m a n i n to se ve n e l e m en t s fou r of t he b ody a n d t h r ee o f t he sou l so t he c r oss i s com pose d o f fou r Th ree m ul t iplied n ot ches a n d t h ree p i e ces o f wood b y fo u r m a kes t we lve a n d t hi s n u m be r correspon ds t o t he su m of t he com m a n d m en ts o f t he Old ( ten ) Fou r a n d t h ree form a n d N e w ( t wo) T e st a m en t s re spe c t ive l y t he b a si s o f t he qu a d r ivi u m a n d the t r ivi u m wh i ch t oge t her c on st it u t e t he seven l i be ral an d com pr ise t he whole cy cl e of hu m an a rts kn owle d ge T he cross wa s m a de of wood be ca use i t wa s t h r ou gh a t r ee t h a t m a n fell a n d by a t ree I n d eed som e he m u st be r a i sed u p a n d r edee m ed t y po lo gi st s a re su fﬁci en t ly st re n u o u s t o m a in t a i n t ha t t he c r o ss wa s or igi n a ll y a t r ee i n t he G a r d en o f E den whe re i t gre w i n t he fo r m o f t he H ebrew letter T a u (T ) t h a t A d a m a n d E ve hid t hem se l ves behi n d i t a ft er t hey ha d sin n e d a n d when t hey hea r d t he voice of God a n d tha t t he bl ood o f the m u r d e red A b el c r i e d ou t fr om u n d e r i t t hus I t was pr eﬁgur i n g th e ex pi a t ory bl ood o f Ch r ist a bra n ch o f t hi s t ree t h a t M oses c a st i n t o the wa t e rs of M a ra h t o m a ke t hem sweet a n d the great l a wgiver s won der wor ki n g wa n d was a pi e ce of t he sa m e wood T he wor ld i t self i s c on st ruct ed i n t he sh a pe o f a c ross whose fo u r poi n t s c orrespon d t o t he fou r ca r di n a l po in t s or i n t erse ct ion s of the or

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qu est i on s he r l i ke a n i n qu i si to r wi t h t he boot a n d t h e t h u m bki n can ea si l y e x t o rt fr om he r a c on fessi o n of t he t r u t h o f a n y whi m sey he m a y ch oose t o en t er t a i n W i l l i a m D u r a n d i n hi s R a ti on a l e D i v i n or u m Oﬁ i ci or u m pr i n te d i n 1 4 5 9 by Gu te n be r g a n d Fust at M a y en ce m a k es e ve ry po rt i on o f t he chu r ch e d i ﬁc e fu ll o f sy m b olic si gn iﬁc a n c e T he eru d i te a n d i n gen i ou s e ccl e si ol ogi st gives fr e e r e i n t o hi s fa n cy a n d di sc ove r s m y st i c m ea n i n gs i n t he struc t u r e o f wh i ch t h e a r ch i t e ct h a d n ot t he fa i n test T he l a tt er see m s t here for e t o ha ve pr e sen t i m en t bu i l de d be tt er t ha n he kn e w a n d t o ha ve put u n c on sci ou sl y i n t o h i s w o r k m o r e t hi n gs th a n he e ve r d r ea m e d of i n d ra u ght i n g hi s d esi gn s j u st a s t he gr ea t poet s D a n t e S h a kespea re a n d G oet he ha ve e m bod i ed i n t he i r wr i t in gs m a n y d eep t ho u gh t s of wh i ch t h ey t he m se lves we r e u tt er ly ign ora n t a n d whi ch wou ld h a ve been who ll y l ost t o t he wo r ld i f so m e l e a r n e d a n d a c u te co m m en t a t or ha d n ot t a ke n pa i n s t o po i n t t he m ou t Th us a cc o r d i n g t o D u ra n d t he st on es r epresen t t he fa i t h fu l ; t he l i m e wh i ch b i n d s t he st on es t o ge th er i s fe r ven t l ove a n d ch a r i ty ; i t s m i xt u r e w i t h sa n d r e fe r s t o a c t i on s pe r fo r m e d fo r t he t e m pora l good o f ou r b r e t h r en ; t he wa t e r t h a t ser ve s t o m i x t he li m e a n d sa n d i s a n e m ble m of t he H ol y S pi r it and a s st on es c a n n ot a dh ere wi t h ou t m o r t a r so m a n wi t ho u t ch a r it y c a n n ot en t er a s a n e l em en t i n t o t he c on st ru c t i on o f t he hea ven l y J eru sa l e m A l so be ll s b ei n g m a d e of b r a ss a re sh r ill er a n d t he

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l ou d er t h a n t he t r u m pet s of t he l a w a n d d en ot e t h a t G od who u n d e r t he o l d di spen sa t i on wa s kn o wn on ly t o t he J e w s i s n ow pr ocla i m ed t o t he who l e wor ld ; t he d u ra ble m a t er i a l ou t of whi ch t he y a r e for m e d i n dica t e s t h a t t he t r u t h s o f t he G ospe l a r e n ot t o b e su pe r se d ed b u t wi ll en d u r e t o t he e n d o f t i m e ; t he h a r d n e ss o f t h i s m a t e r i a l sign iﬁ es t he for t i t ud e o f t he Ch r i st i a n a ost l e t o p w h o m i t i s sa i d : I ha ve gi ve n t hee a for ehea d m o r e h a r d t h a n t he i r for e hea d Pa u l s a sse r t i on : I a m be c om e a s sou n di n g b r a ss pr oves t h a t t he bell t y pi ﬁ es t he m o u t h of t he pr ea cher wh ose t on gu e l i k e t h a t o f t h e b e ll st r i kes b ot h si d es e x pou n di n g a n d pr o cl a i m i n g b ot h T est a m en t s ; i t sh o ws a l so t h a t t h e pr ea cher sh ou ld on on e side cor r e ct vi ce i n hi m se l f a n d on t he ot her sid e r e T he wood en fr a m e o n pr o ve i t i n h i s hea rer s which t he be ll i s su spe n d ed st a n d s for t he cr oss ; t he i r on fa st en i n g i t t o t he wood i s t he bi n di n g for ce o f m or a l d u t y which i s i n se pa r a bl e fr o m t he c r oss T he w he el by w hich t he bell i s r u n g i s t he pr ea ch e r s m i n d t h r ou gh w hich t he kn owl e d ge o f t he divi n e l a w pa sses i n t o t h e u n d er st a n di n g o f t he pe op l e a n d t he t h r ee co r d s or st r a n d s o f t he be l l ch a r a ct er of S c r i pt u re r o pe d en ot e t he t h ree fold c on si st i n g of h i story a ll e gor y a n d m ora lity A s t he r ope d e sc e n d s fr o m t he w ood e n t r est l e t o t he h a n d so t he m y ste ry of t he cr oss d escen d s t o t he h a n d a n d pr od u ces good wor ks whil e t he u pwa r d d own wa r d m ot i on of t he r ope shows t h a t an d S c r i pt u r e spea ks o f high t hi n gs a n d l ow t hi n gs o r ,

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A n i m al

56

he r wor ds i s t o be i n t er prete d l i t era l l y a n d m y st i ca ll y C u r i ou sl y e n ou gh th er e a r e st ill ed u ca te d per son s w ho e a r n est l y pu r sue resea r ches a n d fo n dl y i n d u l ge i n spe cu l a t i on s o f t h i s sort a n d seem t o be e d i ﬁed I n a b oo k o n Sy m bol i sm s i n tke Cl mr e/zes t h e r eby o f t/ze M id d l e A g es w r i tt en by J M a son N ea bl e a n d Ben j a m i n We bb a n d t r a n sl a t e d i n t o Fr en ch w i t h a n i n t r od u ct i on b y t he A bbé Bo u ra ssée t he a u t h or s a s st a u n ch C a t h ol i cs r e ( T ou rs ga r d t he u se o f t he o gi ve i n P r ot e st a n t ch u r ches a s a d ese c ra t i o n o f t hi s sy m b ol o f t h e H o l y T r i n i ty N 0 C a t h o l i c a r chi t e c t t he y d e cl a r e sh o uld d esi gn a t r i pl e w i n d ow fo r a d i sse n t i n g o r h e r e t ica l sect ( i n cl u d i n g t he E st a bl i she d Chu r ch of E n gla n d ) or i n t r o d u ce t he t r e foi l i n t o su ch bu i ld i n g si n ce thi s sa c r i l e i ou s u se o f t he m w ou l d b e a g pr ost i t u t i on w h i ch i s t h e vo ice o f t he o f sa c r e d a r ch i t e c t u r e Chu r ch T he on l y won de r i s fr om t hi s poi n t of vi ew t ha t t he C r e a t o r sho u ld pe r m i t clover a n d o t h e r t r i fo li a t e pl a n t s t o gr o w i n Pr ot est a n t ce m e t e r i e s o r t r i c u spi d m ol a r s i n a h e r e t i c s m ou t h a n d t h a t a n a n gr y a n d ou t r a ge d D e i t y d oe s n ot st r i ke t he i m pi ou s U n i t a r i a n d ea d w ho d a r es t o si t o n a t h r e e l egge d st oo l or pr esu m es t o st ee p h i s t e a on a t r i po d T ou chin g t he si gn i ﬁca t i on o f or i en ta t i on i n cc cl e si a st i ca l a r chi t e c t u r e G r e go r y t he G r ea t i n hi s e x posi t i on o f E z e k i e l x l 6 sa y s t he ea st ga te o f t he t e m pl e i n t h e pr o ph e t s vi si on d e si gn a t es J e su s “ Chr ist W ho el se ca n b e m ea n t b y t his gate in

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Ch r i st who i n the ea r liest chu r ches was se a t e d over t he west e rn en t r a n ce t o re ce ive A ft e r t h e t wel ft h c en t u r y wh en t h e d rea d t he m l a st j u dgm en t which i t wa s su pposed o f t he would t a ke pla ce a t t he en d of t he el eventh c en t ury a n d in t roduce t he m illen n i u m h a d com pl et el y pa sse d a wa y t he spa ce a b ove t he d oor wa y wa s u su a ll y o ccupi e d by t he i m ag e o f t he wa s d e d i c a t ed t hus sa i n t t o whom t he chu r ch m a r ki n g a t r a n sit i on fro m chr ist ol a t ry t o hagi T he scul pt u r es o f t he d o o r wa y pl an e ol a t r y a n d t he pa i n t i n gs of t he C a t h a r i n e whee l wi n d ows ver y fre qu en t ly repr esen te d t he r evo lt of the a n ge l s a s m a y be seen i n Fr e ibu r g M i n st e r an d i n t he c at hed ra l o f S t J oh n i n L y on s T he N ort h i s t he r egi on o f m et eor o l ogi c a l devils which u n d e r t he d om i n i on a n d lea de r sh i p of the Pr i n ce o f t he power o f t he a i r pr o d u ce st or m s and co n vu lsion s i n n a t u re a n d fost er un r uly T he evil pa ssi on s a n d d eed s o f vio l en c e i n m a n pri n ci pl e a s e m b odi e d i n u n cl ea n be a st s a n d e xhibi t e d i n obscen e a n d l a scivious a ct ion s was proper l y por t r a y ed i n t he sc u l pt u r es a n d pa in t i n gs on t he n o r t h sid e of t he chu r ch which was assign ed t o S a t a n a n d hi s sa t e ll i t e s a n d kn o wn as the bl a ck side On t he ot he r h an d t he S o u th sha red t he sa c r e d ch a r a c t e r o f t he E ast a n d wa s con secra t e d t o sa i n t s a n d m a r t y r s a n d t he fa m ous d oc tor s of t heol ogy a n d st u r dy d efen de r s of t he fa it h On t he wa lls a n d i n t he win d ows t oward t he sou t h a r e d epic te d t he t r i u m phs of Ch r i st ia n ity n a t on s

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ill en n ia l r eign of Ch r ist the worship of the L a m b a n d si m il a r sc en es D oes n ot t he pr ophet H a ba kku k sa y th a t God ca m e fr om Tem a n a n d d oes n ot Te m a n m ea n S ou t h ? Wha t m ore con e lu sive pr oof co uld a n y r a t i on a l a n d n ot u tt er ly c a r n a l m i n d desi re ? I n t he ﬁ r st h a lf of t he ﬁft h c en t ur y E u cher i us Bi sh op o f L y on s w r o t e a boo k o f for m u l a s o f sp i r i t u a l kn o wle dge (L i ber For m ul a r a m Spi r i t u a l zs m od e ll e d a ft er t he Cl ov i s o f M eli to i n which t h i s sy m boli sm of t he poi n t s of t he co m T he pa ss i s e l a bor a te l y a m pl i ﬁ e d a n d e x p l a i n ed “ fer vou r of fa i t h t he sou t h sign iﬁ e s t he s o ken of b st r e a m s i n t he sou t h p y t he Psa l m i st r e fe r t o t h e e ﬁl ue n ce of t he H ol y S pi r i t ; ( cxxvi t h e a r d en t l y er ot ic a n d highl y poet i c pa ssa ge i n A w a ke 0 n or t h wi n d ; S o l o m on s S on g ( iv i s i n t e rpr ete d as e quiva len t a n d c o m e t h ou so u t h Get t hee b ehi n d m e S a t a n ; a n d t o t h e w or d s d r a w n ea r t o m e O divi n e S pir i t D u ran d ﬁ n d s som e esot eric m ea n i n g kn o wn; on ly t o e ccl esi o l ogi sts i n e ve r y pa rt a n d propor t i o n “ s re t r uct u I ts len gt h i n dic a t es of t he sa c re d l on g suffe r i n g which pat ien t l y en d u res a dver si ty a n d a fﬂic t i on w a i t i n g t o r ea ch t he h e a ven l y hom e I t s b rea d t h i s t he l a r gen ess of Ch r i st i a n ch a r i t y which em br a ces fr ien d s a n d foes I ts height is t he m ea su r e o f th e l o fty h0pe o f et ern a l ha ppi n ess E ver y j oi st a n d but t ress e very st on e a n d t i m ber fr om t he c r y pt t o t he cor on a of the cor n ice every a r ch a n d pi n n a cl e t he l a n t e rn of t he d o m e a n d t he

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bse r va n ce o f t he S a bb a t h by severe pen a lt i es R a bbi S i m on Ben Jocha i wen t t o R o m e a n d sue h a vi n g t he prohibi t i on r e m oved usi n g ce e d e d i n t h i s fa bl e i n hi s i n t e r vie w wi t h t he e m pero r i n or d e r t o e n for c e t he cl a i m s o f t he S a bb a t h a s a d i vi n e i n st itu t i on in dispen sa ble t o t he wel fa r e of I sr a e l There i s a n a pol ogu e by R a bb i Jehu d a B a r S h a l om i n which t he r i t e o f ci r c u m cision i s t he chief a ctor a n d t he S a bba t h pla y s a subor di na te a n d le ss c om m e n d a bl e pa r t b e i n g t oo m uch given u p t o c on vivi a l pl ea su res T he R a bbi s m y t ho l ogize d e ven wi t h t he l etter s of t he a l ph a bet a l l o f wh i ch fr om A l e ph t o T au a ppea r i n per son b e for e J ehova h t o pr esen t t hei r r e spe c t ive cl a i m s t o c on sid era t i on and i n d u l ge i n t he m ost wea r i so me a n d n on sen sic a l h a r a n gues This sort of a polo gue a r ose fr o m t he pecu lia r sa c r e d n ess a t ta che d t o t he t e x t o f t he l a w or Thor a wh i ch wa s iden t iﬁe d wit h t he wisd om person i ﬁ ed i n t he e i ght h cha pt e r of Pr o ve r bs a n d wi th the u n c r e a t ed W or d which wa s wi th God be fore t he crea t ion o f t he wor ld a n d a ft er wa r ds beca m e t he i n ca r n a te L og os o f t he G n ost ics a n d t he sy n on y m 1 o f Ch r i st This su per st i t i o u s re ve re n ce for t he l et ter of t he l a w wa s t r a n sm i tted t o t he e a r l y Ch r i st ia n s who n a t u r a ll y a ppli e d i t t o t h e i r o wn sa c re d r e c or ds d e cla r i n g t he m t o be t he opn eu st ic or given by t he

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i n spi r a t ion of God Ou t of t hi s feeli n g d ogm a t ic t h eo l o gy e a sily d eve l ope d t he d o ct r i n e of pl en a ry i n spi ra t ion which t he R efor m e rs a n d la ter Pr o t est a n t s u se d a s a n e ffe ct ive wea pon o pposi n g t he i n fa llible a u t hor i ty o f H o ly W r it t o t he i n fa llible a u t h or i t y o f t h e H o l y S ee a n d which wa s ﬁ n a ll y ca rr i e d t o t h a t e x t re m e o f fe t ichi st ic bibli o l a t r y t ha t ha s b een su ch a ser i ous obst a cl e t o t he sprea d o f kn o wle d ge a n d t o t he pr ogress o f t he ra c e a n d i s n o w j u st be gi n n i n g t o b e se t a sid e b y scien t iﬁc r esea r ch a n d so u n d c r i t ici sm A t t he b egi n n i n g o f t he Ch r i st i a n e ra t he t hea t r e h a d fa ll e n i n t o d e c a y a n d h a r dl y a n y t hi n g r e m a i n e d o f i t e x ce pt t he b r u t a l bu t cher i es o f t he a m phi t hea t re a n d t he n oi sy a n d t u r bu l en t dive r I t w a s n a t u ra l en ough t h a t si o n s o f t he ci r c u s t he e a r l y Ch r ist i a n s shou ld h a v e de teste d a n d d e A c t or s a s a cl a ss were n ou n ce d such per for m a n c e s de cl a red a ccu rsed by eccl esi a n a t he m a t iz e d a n d A c a pi t ul a r y o f Ch a r l em a gn e a st i ca l a u t h or i t i es i n spi r e d a n d dict a ted by t he Chu r ch de cl a r e d a l l l a y e rs ( i z zlr t n on es) t o be i n fa m ou s a n d i n c o m pe te n t p T he Pr ovi n ci a l t o t est ify i n c o u r t s o f ju st ic e C o u n cils o f M a y en ce T ou rs a n d Ch a l on s i n 8 1 3 d e c r ee d t h e hi st r i on ic professi on i gn om i n i ou s a n d e xc om m u n ic a t e d a l l cl er gy m e n wh o c ou n t en a n c e d Phil i ppe 1 1 86 In r e p r ese n t a t i o n s t hea t r ic a l A u gu ste i ssu e d a n edic t b a n i shi n g a c tors fr om hi s r ea lm Bu t the pa ssi o n for t he t hea t r e i s t o o d ee pl y r oo t e d i n hu m a n n a t u re to be e a sil y era dic a ted ; .

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vere t he m y ste r y o f t h e d i vi n e I n ca r n a t ion They re fu se t o d o so a n d i n or d e r t o c on vi n c e t h e m of t he t r u t h t he pr i n c i pa l pe r son a ges of t he B i bl e a r e m a d e t o a ppea r : M oses wi t h l on g bea r d a n d h orn s t he gr e a t e r a n d l esser prophe t s B a l a a m on h i s a ss w i t h t he m essen gers of Ba l a k a n d t he a n ge l st a n d i n g i n t he wa y S h a d r a ch M e sh a ch a n d A be d n ego i n t he ﬁ er y fu rn a ce a post l es siby l s a n d Ver gi l w h o ha d fo re t old t he a dven t o f Ch r i st a n d m an y Thi s ove rwhel m o t h er wi t n esse s of t he t r ue G o d i n g t est i m on y a d m it s o f n o con t ra d ict i on a n d t he st u bb or n J e w s a n d i gn ora n t G e n t i l es a re c o n ve rt ed fr om t he er ror of t he i r wa y s Whe t he r t he bu rn i n g py r e wa s r ese r ved a s a n u l t z m a r a t i o i n c a se of ﬁ n a l obd u r a cy i s n ot st a t ed b u t wou ld see m t o be su ggest e d These spec t a cles we re ﬁ r st given i n t he n a ve o f t he ch u r ch b u t a s t he t h ron g i n cr eased t hey we r e t r a n sfer r e d t o t he o pe n a i r a n d sca ffold i n gs we r e er e c ted for t he pu r pose i n fr on t of t he ca t he d r a l I n 1 2 1 2 t he C ou n cil o f Pa r i s fo r ba d e t he n u n s t o ce l eb r a t e t he Fea st o f Fool s on a cc ou n t o f t he In e x c esses a n d sca n d a l s which i t o cc a si on e d 1 24 5 A r chbi sh op Od on fou n d i t n e cessa ry to su ppr ess t he lic en t i ou s a m use m e n t s o f t he n un s i n t he c on ven t s o f R ou e n a n d m en t i on s e spe ci a lly t he i r a cc u st o m e d d i sso l u t e spor t s ( l u d i br i a con a n d t h e i r d a n c es e i t h e r a m on g t h e m se lves wit h secu l a r pr iests ( a u t i n ter v os seu cu m or se cu l a r i b us ch o r ea s d u cen d o The se d a n ces whi ch we re per for m ed on t he grea t e ccl esi a st ica l feast re

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d a y s we re a ccompa n ie d by com ica l a n d scu r r ilou s son gs a n d ot he r u n see m l T he ch a pte r y e xhibi t i on s o f t he c a t he d r a l o f S en li s i ssu e d i n 1 4 97 a n or d e r er m i t t i n t h e l owe r cl er gy t o en j oy t he i r div e r g p si on s b e fore t he pr i n ci pa l po r t a l o f t he chu r ch on t he e ve o f t he E pi ph a n y pr ovid e d t hey d o n ot sin g i n fa m ou s son gs wit h r iba ld a n d obsce n e wor d s or d a n ce i n a l e wd m a n n e r a l l o f which t hi n gs t h ey t oo k pl a c e on l a st I n n o ce n t s D a y I n an add o l d c o ll e c t i on o f fo r t y se r m on s on t he d e st r uct i on o f N i n e ve h ( S er m on es gua a m g zn ta d e d est m ct zon e N i n a /w Pa r i s t he a u t h o r a sse rt s t h a t pr i est s a n d m on k s we r e w on t t o vi si t n u n n e r ies b ot h b y n ight a n d b y d a y a n d t o pe r for m i n d e c en t d a n c es wit h t he i n m a t es ; a s to t he rest he c on cl u des “ I kee p sil en t lest pe r cha n ce I m a y offe n d pi ou s ,

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d egen era t e scion of a n oble st ock There i s a lso r ea son t o b e li ev e t h a t t h i s c r e a t u r e was a n obj e ct o f pe c u l i a r r e ver e n ce t o t h e e a r ly Chr i st i an s owi n g b e fa ct t ha t Ch r ist m a d e H i s t r i u m pha l a bl t o t h o r p y en t r y in t o J er u sa l e m si tt i n g u pon a n ass an d t ha t t he a n i m a l st ill bear s t he si gn o f t he cross for m ed b y a bl a ck ba r a c ross t he sh ou ld er s i n t er se ct i n g the li n e of t he ba ck Pl u t a r ch ( Sy mpos lib i v 5 ) lib v ) a ssert t ha t t he ass was a n d T a ci t u s (H i st a d ore d by t he J ews be c a u se i t di sc overed spr i n gs of wa t er i n t he d e sert du r i n g t h e e xo d u s an d t his t ra dit i on m igh t ha ve ea sily bee n a ccept e d by t he Chr i st i a n s a s ty pica l o f th e S a vi o u r t he well spr in g Tert u ll i a n sa y s : There a r e som e of e t ern a l life wh o i m a gi n e t ha t ou r G o d h a s t he hea d of a n ass a n d i n d i gna n t l y d en i e s t he t r u t h o f t hi s st a t e m en t wh i ch n ever theless seem s t o ha ve been qu ite I n d eed t his a r den t a n d gen era lly en t er t a i n e d e l oqu en t a po l ogi st hi m se l f d e cl a res t ha t t h e en e m i es of t he G ospe l e x pose d pu blicl y a pict u re re pre sen t i n g a per son wi t h a book i n hi s ha n d an d wea r in g a l on g r obe b u t wi t h t he ea rs a n d legs of a n a ss a n d u n d e r i t t he i n sc r i pti on : T he Ch r i sti a n G o d wit h t he a ss s h oo f A ga i n C e ciliu s Fe l ix r e m a r k s i n t h e D i a l og u e o f M i n u t i us F I e li x : hea r t ha t t his ba sest o f c rea t u res i s worshippe d by t h e Ch r i st i an s t h ou gh I k n ow n ot u pon wh a t in a n e per sua sion I n a r u d e d ra wi n g sc r a w l e d on t h e wa lls o f t he b a r ra cks or gu a r d room o n t he Pa l a t i n e i s a m a n kn ee l i n g be for e a cr u c i ﬁx on w h i ch i s a hu m an be i n g wi t h a n ass s he a d a n d a .

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l di f t h a t t hi s pe rson i s A n a xo m en os wor shi ppi n g hi s God E pi pha n i u s a fﬁ r m s t h a t t he G n ost ic s be lie ve d t h a t t he L or d of S a ba ot h ha d a n a ss s h e a d I n t he chu r ch o f S a i n t E spr it a su bu r b o f Ba y on n e i s t he wo od en e fﬁ gy o f a n a ss bea r i n g t he Vi r gi n a n d t he i n fa n t J e su s ; t he l a tte r i s ho ld i n g a b i r d i n H i s ha n d I t w a s or i gin a lly i n t he con ven t of S t Be rn a r d b u il t i n t he t h i r te e n t h c en t u r y a n d n o w d e m o li sh e d a n d i s st i ll k n ow n a s t he a ss o f S t Ber n a r d O n e be l o n ge d t o e a ch o f t he c a t h e d ra l s o f R h e i m s a n d Pa r i s ; t h e r e i s on e i n S a n t a M a r i a i n O r ga n o a t V er on a a n d fo r m e r l y n e a r l y eve ry ch u r ch w a s pr ovid e d wi t h such a n i m a ge o f which a go o d spe ci m en i s n ow pr e se r ve d i n t he G e r m a n i c M u se u m a t N u r e m ber g I t wa s n ot a n o bj e c t o f wor sh i p bu t w a s used so m et i m es i n st ea d o f t he livi n g a n i m a l i n ce le b ra t in g t he Fea st of t he A S S w hich t oo k pl a c e a t Ch r i st m a s i n h on o u r o f Ch r i st s en t r y i n t o J e r u sa l e m a n d l i ke w i se on t he fou r t een t h o f J a n u a r y a s a m e m or i a l o f t he ﬂ i ght i n t o E gy pt a n d wa s on e o f t he m ost po pul a r o f Ch u r ch fest iva l s Th e r e i s a n ol d t r a di t i on t ha t t he a ss on w h i ch Ch r i st m a d e H i s e n t r y i n t o J e r u sa le m l e ft J u dea i m m ed i a t e ly a ft er t he C r u ciﬁx i on a n d pa ssi n g over t h e sea d r y sh o d t o R h o d es C y pr u s M a l t a S ici l y a n d A q u il e i a ﬁ n a ll y r ea ch e d V e r o n a wh er e i t live d A fte r i ts d e a t h i t s b on es we r e t o a ve r y o l d a ge co ll e cte d a n d d eposit e d i n t he be ll y of t he wood en a ss of S a n t a M a r i a i n O r gan o which wa s m a d e a s “

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ct i m a ge I t wa s on ce a popu l a r b e l i e f w hich m a y y e t li n ger a m on g t he l owe r cl a ss o f Ve r on ese t h a t a l l t he asses o f t h a t r e gi on a r e sc i o n s o f t h i s sa c r e d st o ck ; b u t t hei r su ppose d o r i gi n d oe s n ot a ppea r t o i n su re t he m l ess c r uel t re a t m en t t ha n l o w b or n d on key s a re su b jecte d t o i n a l l pa r ts o f I t a ly A n a ss c a pa r i son ed w i t h a c o pe a n d ot he r sa cer d ot a l a ppa re l a n d so m et i m es r i dd en by a y ou n g gi r l w i t h a n i n fa n t i n he r a r m s wa s m e t a t t he pr i n ci pa l en t r a n c e o f t he chu r ch by t h e c a n on s a n d o t he r cle r gy a n d c on d u c t e d u p t he n a ve i n t o t he cha n ce l T he o fﬁc i a t i n g pr i ests h e ld i n t hei r ha n ds a n d gobl e t s o f gl a ss u r n s o r pi t che r s fu l l o f w i n e o r pewt e r T he c en se r c on t a i n e d i n st e a d o f t he u su a l fra gr a n t gu m s a n d sp i ces fa t bl a ck pu dd i n g a n d sa u sa ge w h i ch i n b u r n i n g e x h a l e d a n y thi n g b u t a pl ea sa n t pe r fu m e T h e I n t r o i t t he K y r i e t he Glo r i a a n d t he C red o wer e sun g i n a ha rsh br a y i n g t on e a ft e r w h i ch t he fo ll o w i n g a ss s l i t a n y i n L a t i n w a s ch a n t e d t he wh ol e b o d y o f t h e cl e r gy a n d t he c on gre ga t ion j o i n i n g voc i fe r ously as a ch oru s i n the r e fra i n wh i ch w a s Fre n ch a

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f qu en t ly t his fest iva l bega n i n t he m o rn i n g a n d con t i n u ed w i t h ou t i n t er ru pt ion a l l T he n i ght t i ll t he e ven i n g o f t he fo llowi n g d a y o f t he a n t he m Con d u ot us a d P oa d u m si n gi n g wa s t he sign a l for t he d i s B r ou gh t t o t he Cu p t r i b u t i on of wi ne a m on g t he ch or ist ers who d ra n k ver y fr eel y a n d often got fuddl ed While t hey wer e t hu s refreshin g t hem se lves wit h bott les o f win e t he a ss wa s r ega led w it h wh a t the t ra n s m ogr i ﬁe d Bott om so grea t ly d esi re d a b ot t l e o f h a y an d a bucket of wa t er Wit h t he i n t on a t ion “ o f t he se con d a n t hem Con d u et u s a d L u do: ( Brou ht g t o t he the a ss wa s l ed i n t o t he n a ve of t he chu r ch a n d d a n ced r ou n d by t he pr ie sts a n d the A fter the d a n ce peopl e who i m i t a t ed i t s b r a y t he a ss wa s recon duct e d i n t o t he ch an cel a n d pr o v i d ed wi t h fresh r a t i on s o f pr oven d er T he fe ast e n d ed wi t h t he a n t he m Con d u et us a d P r a n d i u m Br o ught t o the which wa s sun g a fter vesper s on the secon d d a y a n d was a n in vitat ion t o t he ﬁ n a l repast 1 A t t h e cl ose o f the se r vi ce the pr i est in stea d of u tte r i n g the usua l for m u l a o f d i s b r oke fort h i n to a loud m issa l “ I t e m i ssa est H ee ha w which he r epea ted t h ree t im es a s a pa r t in g ben edict i on t o t he w o rshi pper s a n d a t r i n a l t r ibu t e t o t he a n i m a l w hich for m ed t he cen t r e of i n ter est a n d of hom a ge i n t h is st ra n ge r e l igi ou s cerem on y Ther e wa s a l so a pr epa r a tory m eet in g or con N ot

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ch a ff w i t h u n qu e n cha bl e ﬁ r e A sper n a r e veter a i m plies t ha t o l d t hi n gs h a ve pa ssed a wa y a n d t ha t t h e S y n a go g u e ha s been su ppl a n t e d b t h e Ch u r ch y E ve n t he r e fra i n o f t he hy m n H ez si r e a sn e i s i n t e r pr et e d a s a n a bb re vi a t i on o f H a t e z v os a s p divi n M essi e a n d a n ea r n est i n j un ct i on t o t he L o r d J esu s t o c o m e q u ickl y a n d c om p l et e t he w or k o f h u m a n r e d e m pt i on N e ve r t he l ess M Clé m en t d oes n ot seem t o h a ve fu ll con ﬁd en ce i n t he cor r e ct n e ss o f t h i s e x l a n a t i on si n ce he a ft e r w a r d s p p r op ose s a n ot h er t h eo ry b y wh i ch t he a ss fr o m t h e E a st so fu ll of st r en gt h a n d c ou ra ge b e c o m es a t y pe o f t he J e wi sh pe opl e d eposi ta r y a n d t he t r a n sm i t t er o f t he b e li e f i n t he t ru e G o d B u t wh a t e ve r sy m b o li sm t he r e m a y ha ve be e n o r i g i n a ll y or i s st ill di sc er n ibl e t o t he e ccl esi o l ogica l ey e i n t h i s fea st wa s soon swa ll owe d u p l ost si ght o f i n gross bu ffoon e ry a n d t he an d r e l i g i o u s se r vic e d e ge n e r a t e d i n t o a so r t o f S a t u r n a l i a n a m u se m en t wh i ch su ite d t he coa r se t a stes of t he t i m e a n d i s n ot t o b e j u d ge d b y o u r m o d e r n se n se o f t he sa c r e d n ess of t h i n gs or by t he st a n d a r d s o f d e lic a t e a n d e ven fa st id i ou s fe e li n g d e ve l o pe d b y ce n t u r i e s o f i n te lle c tu a l c u l t u r e a n d i n he r i te d re ﬁn e T he a ge o f fa i t h a s i t i s c a ll e d wa s n o t m en t an d did n ot su ffe r i t se l f t o b e a t a l l sq ue a m i sh sh o cke d i n t he slight est d egre e b y gr ot esq u e a n d fa r c i c a l e x hib i t i on s i n sa cr e d pl a ces M edie va l m on ks a n d e ccl esi a st ic s we r e n e i t h er t hi n ski n n e d a n d like t he l o we r cl a sse s o f n o r d a i n t y m in d e d t he peopl e fr o m which t he gr e a t m a j o r i t y o f t hem t he

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c oa r sest j o kes a ppre ci a t i n g a n d e n j oy i n g t h e m a l l t he m ore w hen t hey T he Ch u r ch we r e a t t he e x pen se o f t he i r cl o t h a i m e d t o t a ke e ve r y t h i n g u n d er he r c on t r ol a n d t o d i r ec t t h e pl ea su res a s wel l a s t o d i ct a t e t he pen a n ces o f t he m a sses T he bishops a s V i o l l et l e D u c ob ser ves pre fer re d t o t h r o w o pen t he i r c a t he d r a l s t o t he c r owd a n d t o per m i t such j o ll i t i es w i t hi n t he c on se c ra t ed wa ll s r a t h er t ha n t o r u n t he r i sk o f d a n gerou s fer m en t a t i on s o f popu l a r id eas I t wa s especia l l y n ece ssa ry t o m a i n ta in ou t sid e a n d n ot e ccl esi a st ic a l j u r i sd i c t i o n a n d su pre m a cy l et m en get t he fa ta l n ot i on i n t o t he i r hea d s t ha t t h ey c ou ld even i n d u l ge i n m e r r i m a kes a n d pa s t i m e s ot h e r w i se t ha n u n d e r t he a uspices o f t he i n d u l gen t M ot h er Ch u r ch S u ch a pr e su m pt i on a n d pr e ce d en t w o u ld h a ve b ee n a s per il o u s t o h i er a r ch i c a l a u t h or i t y a s i t w ou ld b e prejudic i a l t o m ed i ca l pr est i ge t o l et a m a n d i e w i t h ou t t he pr escr i pt i on o f a d o ct or Wha te ver con ce r n e d t he m ora l or m a t e r i a l i n t er est s o f t he c o m m u n i ty whet her i t w a s t o r e bu ke t he vici ou s h a bi t s o f m en dica n t m on ks a n d wa n d e r i n g m i n st re l s o r t o e x t er m i n a t e l oc usts weevi l s a n d ot he r de st r u ct ive ver m i n by a n a t he m a t i sm s t he Ch u r ch did n ot d ee m i t a li en t o her o fﬁc e or i nj u r i ou s t o h e r sa n ct it y t o d r a w within her pa le a n d t o m a ke c on t r ibu t ory t o her power a n d gl ory T he c a pi t a l s o f t he c o lu m n s on t h e d oorwa y l ea din g t o t he sou t h a i sle o f S t S eba l d s Chu r ch i n N u r em ber g a r e a d or n ed wi t h qu a i n t for m s of spr u n g,

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ve ry ea r ly pe r i od I n t he cen t r e of t he ce i l i n g o f a c u bic u l u m i n t he c a t a c o m b o f S t D om i t i ll a n ea r R o m e we see h i m se a t e d on a ro ck a n d pl a y i n g on h i s l y re su r r ou n d e d b y bea st s a n d bi r d s wh i ch h i s m u sic h a s a tt r a c t e d t o t he spot H e ﬁ gu re s fr e q u en t l y o n Ch r i st i a n sa r co ph a gi a n d i n t he fr esc oes o f o l d ch u r che s T he B a cch a n a l sce n e s wh i ch a d o r n e d t he t e m pl es o f t h e son o f S e m e l e w e r e c o p i e d o r i m i t a t e d b y t h e e a r l y Ch r i st i a n s i n or d e r t o i ll u st r a t e t he co n ce pt i o n o f t he Ch u r ch a s a vi n ey a r d wh i ch i s e x pr esse d i n t h e pa r a bl es o f t he h o u se h o l d e r a n d h i s h u sb a n d m en a n d o f t he l a b ou re rs A n i n t e r est i n g e x a m ple o f t hi s a d a pt a t i on i s se e n i n t he m o sa i c s o f t he fou r t h c en t u r y i n t he cu po l a o f S t C ost a n z a i n R o m e r e pr esen t i n g t h e gen n o f t h e vi n t a ge I n t h e G ot h i c ch o i r o f t he m i n ste r a t A i x l a Ch a pe ll e i s a n a m bo d a t i n g fr o m t he e a r l y pa r t of t h e e l e ve n t h ce n t u r y w i t h i v or y re l i e fs o f a si m i l a r b u t st i ll m o r e e l a b ora t e ch a r a c t e r : B a cch u s w i t h t he t he sy m b o l s o f h i s c u l t t he V i n e t he l i on an and h e sa t y r s t he P t a n d t he d o g a n t he r p tr i u m ph of G a l a t e a ce n t a u rs si r en s t r i t on s n e re i d s d o l ph i n s t he sea b or n Ven us C u pi d s bl ow i n g shel l s a s t r u m pe t s a n d t he m y t hs o f D e m e t e r a n d I si s a n d H o r u s i n t he i r a ssu m e d p re ﬁ gu r a t i v e r e l a t i o n t o t he Vi r gi n M a r y S ce n es fr o m t he pa ga n poet s we re o cc a sion a ll y r t r a y e d a s for e x a m pl e i n t he c u r i ou s sc u l pt u r es o p o f t he t w e lft h c en t u r y on a c olu m n i n t he ch oi r o f at a

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fr om L i n z i s a st a t ue of I sis m a de o f bl a ck b a sa l t t o which pi ou s C a t ho lics pa y t he i r d evot i on s rega r din g i t a s a n i m a ge o f t he Vi r gin M a ry A st a t u e o f t he sa m e go dde ss wa s w or shi ppe d i n t he ch u r ch o f S t Ge r m a i n d es Pr es i n Pa r i s for n ea r l y t e n cen t u r i es Th i s ch u r ch wa s o r i g i n a ll y b u i l t b y Ch il d eb ert I a b ou t t he m i ddl e o f t he six t h c en t u ry on t he r u i n s o f a t e m pl e of I si s whose i m a ge w a s t r a n sfe r r ed to t he n e w e d i ﬁce where i t wa s a n obj e ct o f a d or a t ion t i ll 1 5 1 4 when i t wa s d e st r oy e d Thr ee gi lde d b ron ze st a t u es of A l e m a n n i c go d s we r e re ve re d i n t he ch a pe l o f S t A u r e l i a a t B r e gen z u n t il S t G a ll u s i n h i s pr ose l y t ic zea l b r o ke t he m i n pie ces a n d t h r e w t hem i n t o t h e l a ke i n or der t o pu t a n en d t o t h i s idol a t ry U n d e r n ea t h t h e ch u r ch o f t he Ben e dic t in e cl o i ste r o f S t M a rt i n n ea r T r i er w a s fou n d a t t he t i m e of i t s d e m oli t i on i n 1 802 a n a l t a r wit h r e l i e fs of Be ll on a M i n er va M e r cu ry a n d H er c u l es A s la te a m a r bl e st a t ue o f as t he si x t een t h c en t u r y H er cu le s sl a y in g t he N em ea n l i on st ood i n t he vest ibu l e of S t A m b r osiu s i n M il a n ; a n d i n S t P ie t r o i n C ora t he m a r bl e a l t a r o f a t e m pl e o f H e r cu les ser ve d a s a fon t on t he fr on t of w hich w a s c a r ved t h e he a d of A po ll o en c i r cl e d w i t h a h a l o a s a sol a r d e i t y A n t iqu e sa r c opha gi a n d cin er a ry u rn s wer e o ft en u se d a s Ch r i st ia n fon t s Thi s or igin a ccoun t s for the r e lie fs a n d st ou ps r e pre sen t i n g t he m y t h o f H i ppol y t u s on t he fon t or wh a t wa s fo r m er l y t he fon t i n t he c a t he d r a l o f Gir gen t i a n d for t he scen es fr om the i n fa n cy of n ot

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ve sse l which on ce ser ve d a s a ba pt i sm a l e we r i n t he ca t he d r a l of G a e t a bu t i s n ow i n t he N e a pol i t a n M u seu m Ca m eo s a n d ot he r ca r ve d st on e s re presen t in g m y t h ol o gi c a l pe r son a ge s o r n a r r a t i on s were pr ized m er e l y a s j ewe l s a n d set a s or n a m en ts i n c r osiers c rosses a n d t he sh r i n es of sa in ts wi t hout r ega rd I n t he so t o t he su bj e c t s e n gr a ve d u pon t he m c a lle d c r oss o f L ot ha i r i n t he m i n ste r o f A i x l a Ch a pelle i s a n a m e t hy st on wh i ch t he t hr ee Gra ces a r e c a r ved i n r e l i e f ; t he st or y o f L e d a a n d t he swa n i s cu t on a c a n on i c a l sea l o f t he t we l ft h cen t u ry ; a n d a n i vory re liqu a r y i n t he S chl oss k i r che o f Q uedl i n b u r g i s st udde d w i t h preciou s st o n es a m on g which i s a n a m e t h y st w rou ght i n t o t he hea d o f Ba cch u s 1 T he e a r li est Ch r i st i a n a r t wa s pu re l y sy m bolic a l r u d el y i n d i c a t i n g i n stea d o f fu ll y e x pressi n g t he ide a i t wa s i n te n d e d t o c on ve y Thus a sim ple c r oss sy m b ol i zed t he d o ct r in e o f t he A t on e m en t a n d i t wa s n ot u n t i l a l a t e r pe r i o d t h a t t he ﬁ gu r e which t h us of Ch r i st wa s a fﬁ x e d t o t he c r oss beca m e a c ru ciﬁ x a n d gr a d u a lly a cq u i red a n a r t i st ic cha ra c t e r S o t o o t he c r oss bea r i n g l a m b t he G ood S he pher d a n d si m i la r or A gn u s D e i e m bl e m s ha ve n o cl a i m t o b e r e ga r d e d a s wor k s o f a r t b u t were n ot h i n g m o r e t h a n hi e r ogl y phic s or This wa s d u e n ot so m u ch t o the m on ogra m s i n wa r d n e ss or spi r i t u a lit y o f t he n e w re ligi on on

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fu n er a l l a m ps Fr om pa ga n m on u m en t s o f t he d ea d t hey pa sse d t o Ch r i st i a n se pu lch res on wh i ch t he y si n i ﬁ e d t he Ch r i st i a n s g c on ce pt i on of a pot heosi s t he a scen si on o f t he sa n c t iﬁ e d so ul a n d i t s u n i on wi t h G o d Owin g t o t he b e lie f t h a t t he ﬂesh of t he pea c ock wa s i n corr u pt ible t hi s fowl wa s m a de a n e m bl em o f t he r esu r re ct i on o f t he d e a d sow n i n cor r u pt i on b u t r a i se d i n i n co rr u pt i o n O n t h i s po i n t A u gu st i n e sa y s ( D e Ci v D ei x x i Q u i s en i m n i si D eu s c r ea t o r o m n iu m d e di t ca r n i pa von i s m or t u i n e For who e xce pt G od t he C r ea t or pu t r esce r e n t o f a l l t hi n gs e n d owe d t h e ﬂ esh o f t h e d e a d pe a c o ck w it h t h e powe r o i n e ver de ca y i n g ? The r e i s a t r a di t i on t h a t t he a c u te a n d i n qui si t ive su ffr a ga n o f H i ppo e x pe r i m en t e d w i t h t he ﬂ e sh o f t hi s fo w l a n d fou n d t he po pu l a r su pe rst i t i on t o b e c o r r e ct T he spl en d o u r o f i t s plu m a ge m a d e i t a l so a n e m bl e m o f t he gl o r ie s o f h ea ve n I n m any m e di e va l pa i n t i n gs for e x a m pl e i n H a n s M e m l i n g s pi c t u r e o f P k ) (P l f I b ll f F t he L as t J u d gm en t i n t he D o r ot hy Ch a pe l o f S t M a r y s Ch u r ch i n D a n t zi g t he a n gel s h a ve pea co ck s fea t he rs i n t he i r win gs T he Chr ist i a n m or a l i st howe ve r i n h i s con d e m n a t i on o f a l l se n su a l bea u ty a s d i a b olic a l i n i t s or igi n a n d i n ﬂ u e n ce pr e fers i n ge n e ra l t o i n d i c a t e a n d e m ph a siz e t he i m per fe c t i on s a n d l ess a tt r a c t ive a pot

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lion s a n d of m en ﬁ gh t in g w i t h dive r s wild bea st s illu st r a t i n g t h e con ﬂict of ﬁ e r ce pa ssi on s or m en con ten din g a ga in st t he i r own l ower n a t u res a n d t r y i n g t o su bd u e t h em I n t he cl o i ste r of Z u r i ch M i n st er a r e t w o fe m a l e c en t a u rs on e sh oot i n g an a r ro w a t a d r a gon a n d t he o t h er t h r u st i n g a s ea r d ow n i t s t h r oa t ; i n t he fo r m e r c l oi st er p chu rch a t I b ben sta d t i n We tt e r a u on t he ba se of a pi ll a r su r m ou n t e d b y a c r oss i s a c e n t a u r d i s ch a r gi n g a n a r r ow in t o t he e x ten d e d j a w s o f a d r a gon ; i n t he L i e bfr a u en ki r che ( Chu r ch of ou r d ea r L a d y ) a t H a lber st a d t a r e r e l i e fs on t he f i eze o f t h e st on e en cl osu re o f t h e ch a n c e l r e pr e sen t i n g fe m a le c en t a u r s n u r si n g t he i r y ou n g a n d m a l e ce n t a u r s t ea r i n g ea ch ot her s h a i r ; a n d i n Fr e i b u r g M i n st e r a m a n ﬁ gh t i n g a w i n ged c en ta u r w i t h swo r d a n d shi e ld a n d a c ou pl e o f fe m a l e c e n t a u r s c on t en d i n g w it h si m i l a r wea pon s I t i s n ot e a sy i n e ve ry c a se t o d ete r m i n e t he pr e c i se spi r it u a l si gn iﬁc a n c e o f su ch sc en es a n d i n so m e i n st a n c es t h ey a r e d ou b t l ess pu r e l y d e c o r a t ive a l t h ou gh a l i n ger i n g t r a d i t ion o f t he or i gi n a l sy m bol i sm o f t he c en t a u r u n d e r l i e s t he m a l l a n d a cc ou n t s for t he i n t ro d u ct i on o f t hese fa bu lou s m on ste r s even a s m e r e l y o r n a m en t a l for m s x i i ) c o n d e m n s t hose who h a ve D a n t e (I nf been gu i l ty o f d ee d s o f vi o len ce a ga i n st l i fe a n d l A tt il a a n d ot he r gr e a t co n e x a n d er e rt y A r o p p qu er o r s a n d r a va ge r s o f t he e a r t h t o su ffe r for t he i r c r i m e s i n a t u r bul en t st rea m o f b o ili n g bl ood gu a r d ed by cen ta u r s a r m e d wit h d a rts a n d r u n n in g ,

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Ch r ist ia n i t y i t m u st be r em em b ere d wa s for c e d u pon t he N or we gi a n s b y so ve r e i gn s wh o l i ke K i n g Ol a f Try ggva son h a d been con vert e d i n for e i gn l a n d s a n d en d ea vou r e d t o i n t ro duc e t he n e w r e li g i on i n a su m m a ry m a n n er by r oy a l d e cree The r e wa s n o cha n ge h ow e ver i n t he r e ligi o u s b el i e fs o f t he m a sses o f t he pe opl e who con t i n ue d t o worshi p t he a n ce st r a l go d s a n d t o r e ve r e t he m y t h i c a l a n d se m i m y t h i c a l he r o es whose d ee d s a s ce l ebr a te d i n a n cien t son gs a n d sa a s w er e a n y t hi n g g but i ll u st ra t i on s o f Ch r i st i a n v i r t ue s Chie f o f t hese popul a r dem i go d s wa s S igu r d t he m o st pe r fe ct e m bo di m en t o f t he N o r se m a n s c on ce pt i on o f m a n l y for c e a n d fear l ess n e ss E ven Ch r i st i a n pr ie st s t he m selves wer e n ot wh o ll y fr ee fr o m t his fee li n g a n d ,

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J u d ge i s seen d ete r m in in g we i ght a n d con de m n in g r e i m b od i e d i n t he a n i m a l for m to e a ch t o b e wh i ch t he ha bi t s of life cul t iva t e d i n a pr evious Thus a gl u tton i s e x i st e n ce r e n d ere d i t b est su i t e d who a re r e sc ou r ge d w i t h r o d s b y c y n o ce ph a li c on d u ct in g hi s spi r it t o t he ea rt h wher e i t i s d oom ed t o pa ss i t s n ex t pe r i od of in ca rn at ion M ost proba bl y howe ver t he m e die va l a s a h og a r t i st k n e w n ot hi n g of t he E gy pt i a n m e t h od o f pr o ce d u re i n d et er m i n i n g t he d est i n y o f sou l s b u t si m pl y i n t e n d e d t o illu st r a t e t h e w o r d s o f D a n i e l Thou a rt we igh ed i n t he t o K i n g Be l sh a zz a r : ba la n ces a n d a rt fou n d wa n t in g a l t hou gh t hi s m et a ph or ic a l ph ra se i s evid e n t l y b ase d u pon t he O r i en t a l con cept ion of t he m et ho d by wh i ch r etr i b u t i v e j u st ice i s m e te d ou t i n a cc or d a n ce wi t h t he t h eo ry o f m e t em psy ch osi s I n a b as r e li e f on a ch u r ch a t Ve l a y a n a n gel i s en ga ge d i n w e i gh i n g sou l s ; t he d e vil i n t he sha pe of a pi g i s c a r ry i n g o ff a w o m a n wh ose vi rt u es ha ve been fou n d o f t oo l i ght a qu a l ity a n d keepi n g o n e e y e on t he sc a l e s t o se e t h a t t he a n ge l d oes n ot chea t hi m ou t o f t he rest of t he pon der a bl e wa r es I t i s a com pet i t i on i n w h i ch n e it her w ill ba t e t he o t h e r e ve n on e poo r sc r u p l e I n a scul pt u re of t he t h i rt een t h c en t u ry on t he port a l o f t he ch u r ch a t L ou ques i n t he pr ovi n c e o f A vey r on the d evil i s sly ly t ouch i n g t he bea m w it h hi s ﬁ n ger i n or d er t o m a ke i t i n cli n e i n hi s fa vo u r ; a n d i n a st a in ed w i n d ow o f t he c a t h e d ra l of B ou r ges w e see the m on u m en ts t he S u pr em e t he wo rt h of sou l s b y

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S o m et i m e s t he sc a le s a r e he ld b y t he ha n d of God r ea ch i n g ou t o f t he cl oud s, a s, fo r e x a m pl e, on t he a r ch o f t h e pr i n ci pa l d oo r wa y of t he c a t hed ra l o f A u tu n , a n d on a ca pit a l i n t he ch u r ch o f S a i n t C roix -

usua ll y howe ver i t i s S t M ichael wh o su per i n t en d s t hi s we ight y b u si n ess a n d pre ven t s a n y ch ea t i n g on t he pa rt of t he gr ea t d ece iver Ther e i s a vivid r epr esen ta t ion of t hi s scen e on t he po r t a l o f S t T r o phi n e i n A r l es su r R hon e ( e l even t h c en t u ry ) wher e t he good soul s u n der t he ca r e of t h e t u t el a r a r cha n ge l m oun t u pw a r d s a n d j oi n t he a sse m bl y o f t he e l ec t i n he a ve n whil e t he b a d on es a r e se iz e d b y a g i ga n t ic d e m on who a l r ea dy ha s t wo i n h i s clu t ch h o ldi n g t he m wit h t he i r hea d s d own wa r d E ssen t ia lly si m ila r scen es a r e scu l p t u re d on t he por t a l s o f t he c a t h e d ra l S t N i ch ol a s a t Fr ib ou r g i n S w i t z e r l a n d t he m e t r o pol i t a n chu r ch N ot re D a m e d e Pa r i s t he ol d ca t he d r a l chu r ch o f B a z a s i n Gi r on d e a n d i n m a n y ot her e ccl esia sti ca l e d i ﬁce s O n t he por t a l of t he m i n ste r a t Bon n a r e sc u l p t u r ed a n a n ge l a n d a d evil ea ch d i l i gen t l y wr it in g i n a sc r ol l h e ld on t he k n ee ; a n d c ower i n g bet ween t he r i b s o f t he a r ch o f t he fa m ou s p ul pi t i n Bal e M i n st er ( he wn i n 1 4 86 i n t he for m o f a Got hic cha l i ce ou t o f a si n gl e st on e) i s a devil busi ly en ga ge d i n t a ki n g n ot es n o t pr oba bl y of t he ser m on b u t o f t he c on d u ct o f th e c on grega t i on ; u n d ern ea th i s t he i n sc r i pt i on P r ope est d i es D om i n i ( t he d a y o f t he L or d i s I n a fr esc o pa i n t i n g o f t he t h i rt ee n t h c en t u r y i n t he c a t h e d ra l o f Fr e isin g in

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door wa y s a n d pedi m en ts of chu r ches fre qu en t l y a s hu m a n m on sters wit h j a gged w i n gs a n d for ke d t a i l or t ha t hideous a bort ion of T he obj ect a n a ff r i ght e d i m a gi n a t i on t he d r a gon o f su ch c r ea t i on s wa s t o e x e r t a r e li gi o us i n ﬂuen ce B u t a ft e r t he pe r i od so pa i n b y i n spi r i n g t e r r or fu ll y l ooked for wa r d t o ha d pa sse d a n d t he d a y o f ven gea n ce see m e d t o b e i n d e ﬁ n i t el y postponed a r ea c t i on o f fee li n g se t i n a n d m en b e a n t o t r e a t g t h e d e vi l a s a b u ga b oo t o b e r i d i c u l e d r a t her t h a n T he i m ps w hich a r e scul pt u red i n t o be d rea d e d h a s r e l i e f on t he chu r ch es o f t he ﬁ ft een t h cen t u ry They a re fa r m or e c o m i c a l t h a n t e r r ibl e for m s a r e d e vi l s who a r e fa ll en i n t o d ot a ge a n d vi sibl e d e ca y a n d wit h whom t he a r t ist ca n t a ke a l l sort s o f l i be r t i es t u r n i n g t h e m i n t o cl own s a n d bu ffoon s for t he a m u se m en t o f t he po pu l a ce Th i s t en den cy wa s i n ten siﬁe d by t he scept icism which a t t en de d t he R en a i ssa n ce m o ve m en t a n d l ed t o t he R e for m a t i on a n d wa s n a t u r a ll y a n d i n evit a bl y fostered by t he su ccess of t hese i n tell e ctu a l a n d e ccl esi a st ic a l r e vo l t s L u t her s d evil wa s a poor d i scrown ed poten ta t e whom i t wa s pe r fectly sa fe t o d er id e a n d v i li fy N o h u r li n g of i n ksta n ds w ou ld h a ve su fﬁce d t o d i scom ﬁt the d e vil s of t he t e n t h a n d e l e ve n t h c en t u r i es n or wou ld a n y good Ch r ist i a n o f t ha t d a y h a ve ven t u red t o a dd ress t he m i n such off en si ve t e r m s a s L u t her em pl oy s i n h i s T a bl e T a l k l est t h ey sh ou ld t a ke hi m a t hi s wor d a n d e ffe ct a n a n a l possession of hi s person t ha t w ould d e fy t he m ost vigor ou s c r epi t u s as a and

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xpulsi on L u t her s at t it ude t owa r d s t he pr i n c e of d a r kn ess h o we ver bold a n d r e ckle ss i t m a y see m wa s i n r ea lit y n ot hi n g b u t t he chea pest a n d c o a r sest sor t of swa gger T he grea t d evil i n t he pedi m en t o ver t he por t a l o f t he c a t he d r a l of A u t u n be l on gi n g t o t he t wel ft h cen t u r y wou ld h a ve gr in n e d hor r ibl y a gh a st l y sm il e a t t he sc ur r ile scofﬁ n s a n d ob sc e n e j o c u l a r i t ies i n which g t h e Witt en be r g R e for m er wa s so fon d of i n dul gin g a t t he e x pen se o f t he a r ch ﬁ en d A s M a u pe r t ui s wa s pa ssi n g t h ro u gh a ce m eter y “ s i s o ea o f s a f i d i i h kull d Wha t n n a a r en p po t g t A t u s w h o a r e l i vi n g a r e t h e y gr i n n i n g a t ? This i s t he m or a l of t he D a n c e o f w a s t h e r ep l y A T y r ol ese pr iest pr ea chi n g t o a c on gr e D e at h A l l m en ga t i o n of pea sa n t s n a i ve l y r e m a r ke d T he gr i m ske l et on i s n o m u st d i e e ven I m y sel f r e spe c t e r o f pe r son s so fa r a s r iches a n d r a n k a r e t he t he m it re t he t i a r a con ce r n e d ; t he c ro wn a n d t h e st o l e d o n ot a va il t o wa r d o ff su r plic e D ea t h s t ouch pa r a l y z es t he t h e i n e vit a bl e fa t e st r on gest a r m a n d h i s sc y t h e st r i kes t h r ou gh t he h e aviest hel m et a n d pier ces t he n et wor k of t he T h e a r t i st s wh o m o st i m pen et r a bl e c oa t of m a il de li n ea t e d such scen e s en for ce d i n t he m ost e m h ic n n e r t he d oc t r i n e o f hu m a n e qu a li t y so m a a t p i m pr essive l y t a ught b y H a m l et i n h i s chu r chy a r d “ lil q : N ow get y ou t o m y l a d y s ch a m ber o uy so l et h er pa i n t a n i n ch t hick t o t hi s a n d t e ll h e r hi s T h e l a wy er wit h fa vou r m u st she c om e quiddit s hi s quille t s hi s c a ses hi s t en u res a n d ’

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336 hi s t r ick s,

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j est e r wit h hi s gibes h i s ga m bol s hi s son gs h i s ﬂ a shes o f m er r i m e n t t ha t we r e w on t t o set t he t a bl e on a r oa r po pe em per or cou rt i er be gga r m i ser spe n dt h r i ft kn i ght pea sa n t sol dier j u d ge a n d c r i m in a l—a l l j oi n i n t he m ea su r ed m ove m e n t d i r e cte d b y t he u n t i r in g a n d u n re l en t i n g c ory pheus T he o ld est D an ce o f D ea t h o f which we h a ve a n y k n owl e d ge d a t e s fr o m 1 3 1 2 a n d w a s a fresco pa i n t i n g i n t he cl o i st er o f K l i n gen t h a l a t L i tt le B ale c on si st i n g o f for ty r epr esen t a t i on s o f t he m a n n er i n w hich d ea t h a r r est s t h e a ct ivity a n d cu t s short t he ca r ee r o f a l l cl a sses a n d con dit ion s o f m en a n d a ccom pan i e d wit h e x pl a n a t o ry ve r ses M ore t h a n a hu n d r e d y ea rs l a te r t he chu r chy a r d o f t he M i n or i t e cl o i st e r o f t he I n n o cen t s a t Pa r i s begun a s a wa s a d orn ed wi t h si m il a r scen es con t em por a ry r e cor d st a t es i n t he m on t h of A u gu st 1 4 2 4 a n d ﬁ n i she d i n t he fo ll o wi n g L en t I t wa s c a ll e d L a D a n ce M a ca b r e a n d woodcut s o f i t wer e pu bli she d i n a vo l u m e pr i n t e d a t Pa r i s i n 1 4 85 a n d b ea r i n g t he t i t l e : Chor ea a b exi m i o M a ca br o v er si bn s a l em a n i oi s ed i ta et c fro m which i t a ppea r s t h a t t he wor d M a c a b r e wa s t hen su p pose d t o b e d er ive d fro m a d i st i n gui she d Ger m a n Um poet M a ca b r u s wh o c om posed t he r hy m es for t un a t e l y for t h i s t he ory n o poe t of t hi s n a m e a l t hou gh he m a y h a ve ever e x i st e d i n Ge r m a n y owe d h i s or i gi n t o a c on fu si on w i t h M a r ca b r u s a P r oven ca l poet of t he fou r t een t h cen t u r y wh o how e v er sa n g wh oll y di ffe r en t t he m e s N ea r l y a d ozen t he

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xe cu t ion wh i l e ot hers a re cru de i n fo r m b u t n ot wi t hou t a cer t a i n vigo u r o f m ove m en t a n d vi vid ness o f expressi on By fa r t he ﬁ n e st d elin ea t ion of t his su bj ect i s H a n s H olbein s I m ag o M or t i s t he or igi n a l d r a wi n gs o f wh i ch n ow i n S t Pet er sbu r g a re a r t ist ica ll y a s su per ior t o a l l for m er pr od u ct i on s o f t he k i n d a s G oet he s Fa u st i s t o t he fo lk boo ks a n d puppet pl a y s t h a t d escr ibe t he u n ca n n y c a reer o f t he m e di e va l m ast er of t he bl a ck a rt H olbei n s d r a win gs wer e en gra ved on wood b y H a n s L ii t z e l b u r ger These cuts t he pr oo f i m pr ession s o f w hich publi shed a t L y on s a n d B al e r esem bl e t he b est wor k of t he a rt i st s pen c i l a n d t o which se ver a l post h u m ou s sheets wer e a dded i n t he ea r l y pa rt of t he pr esen t cen t u ry h a ve pa ssed t hrou gh m or e t h a n a hu n d r ed edi t io n s t o sa y n ot h i n g o f copi es on c opper a n d li t hogr a phic re prod u ct ion s I n t he B ooh of H ou r s o f G eoffr oy T o ry a re m i n i a t u res o f a like cha r a c t er : t he gr i m skelet on i s m ou n t e d on a bl a ck h orse wit h a scy th e on hi s shou ld e r a fold e d l ett e r i n h i s ha n d a ra ven t he om i n ou s bi r d o f O d i n ﬂ i n y g o ve r h i s h ea d a n d hi s I n a c oppe r pl a te pa t hwa y st rewn w i t h c o r pses by t he N u re m b er ge r H a n s S eba st i a n Be ha m d a ted 1 5 4 1 a n d bea r i n g t he i n sc r i pt i on Ovn n em i n hom i ne v en vsta tem M or s o bol et ( D e a t h d oes a wa y with all bea u ty i n D ea t h i n t he gu i se of a cou rt fool su r pr ises a r ichly — d r essed m a id en of pa t ri ci a n bi r t h while ga t her in g a bouquet of ﬂowers Beha m wa s a gen ia l a rt i st but a lewd fell ow In r ea

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li n M useu m i s a n e n gra vin g of D ea t h l ook i n g wi t h lu st ful em ot i on s on a l a sciviou s pa i r o n t h e m a r gin of which a re w r itt en t hese wor d s : ect us est pr opt er qu a m pi ct u r a m e x civit a t e ej H i s fe ll ow bu r gh er s were so o ut r a ge d by t his su per ﬁ u i t y o f o bscen en ess t h a t t h ey com pe lle d h i m t o quit t he city A fter hi s ex ile he wen t ra pidly fr om b a d t o w orse kept a b r o t he l i n Fra n kfort a n d i n Well pre ser ved 1 5 5 0 wa s d rown e d i n t he M a i n r e prese n t a t i on s of D ea t h s t r iu m phs pa i n te d by M egl i n ger i n t he sixt e en t h cen t ury m a y st ill b e see n i n t he pe di m en ts u n d er t he roo f of t h e l on g woo d e n bridge ( S pr euer B rii cke) over the R euss a t t he Be r

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A l br echt won B r a n d en bu r g, 1 36 A l ces, o r el ks, d escri b ed by ul i us C e sa r , 1 1 2 A l d hel m , hi s para bl es, 66 A l em a n m cgods, r ever ed a t Bregen z , 307 ; d estr oy ed by S t G a l l us, 307 A l exa n d er the Gr ea t , e m b a l m ed wi t h h on ey , 4 ; ser vi ces to sci en ce , 2 1 wi sd om , 1 1 6 l over ’ i n L a i d A ri stot e, ’ 2 2 6 2 2 8 A l exa n d er TI L , Pope, hi s sa l am an d er tu n i c, 1 4 2 A l exa n d er VI , Pope , hi s coa t-of a r m s, 2 01 scan d a l ou s l i fe, 2 02 A l exa n d r i a , school s of, 1 1 , 1 6, 2 6 ; com m er ce a n d cu l t u r e u n d er th e Ptol em i es, 1 1 , 2 5 l i bra ri es a n d l ea rn i n g, 2 6 ’ l l S ou l s D ay , paga n feast of the d ead , 2 64 A l mon d , sy m b ol i sm of the ﬂ ower i n g, 1 66, 1 67 A l n e, scu l pt ur es on t he d oorw a y of ch ur ch a t , 5 0 , 5 1 ; ea gl e, 1 1 8 1 24 ; 1 35 wha l e, pan ther , hy en a , 1 4 2 ; ch a ra d r i u s, 1 4 6 ; an tel ope, 1 74 A m hoi se, chu r ch of S t D en i s, foxes as pil gr i m s wi tn essi n g th e sl a u hter of the n nocen t s, 2 1 1 g ” “ m e l li ﬂuous, 3 ; m br osi u s, the a l l egor i ca l exegesi s, 4 0 ; on the L ati n v i per an d l a m pr e , 5 5 ; y ’ Phy si ol ogus a ttri buted to, 64

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l ocusts a s G en ti l es, 1 67 ; sym b ol i sm of an i m a l s, 1 85 A m et hy st , an ti -i n eb r i an t v i r tu e of, 35 ; associ a ted wi th Febr ua ry , 37 i n t h e N ew erusal em , 39 A m i an t hus, supposed t o b e sa l a ' m an d er s ski n , 1 4 2 A m i en s Ca thedr al , V i r tues an d V i ces person i ed , 1 5 3 ; S am son , 1 92 ; fox pr eachi n g t o fowl s, 2 1 2 A m or , hi s d uel wi th an d l i k en ess to a b ee, 2 ; A m or an d Psy che a s C hr i st i a n em bl em s, 309 A m or az z o d o Fi r en ze, l a d y -l ove l i k en ed t o a l i on , 93 A mphi t hea tr e, spor ts of, 2 3 A m sdorf , [Vi chol as w n , l ett er t o L u th er , 203 A na cr eon , E r os compared t o a b ee, I A n astasi us S i na i t a, his an agogi ca l con te m pl a ti on s, 6 1 ’ A nel a m , si r ens i n S t N i chol as , on

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—

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Ape, ri d d en by A var i ce, 1 63 ; in 1 86, 1 89, sacred archi tecture ,

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35 4

B asi l i sk, sym b ol ism o f the, 1 63 1 66 ; repre sen t s A n t i chr i st, 1 67 ; m ethod of ki l l i n g i t , 1 64 , 1 68 ; i n the abb ey of V éz el a i , 1 66 , 1 68 B asta r d , M de, on the sna il , 2 1 8 B a t r a ehi tzans, hereti cal sect, 2 38 B ay on ne, wood en ass i n S ai n t ’ E spri t s at , 2 71 B az as Cathedr a l , weighi n g soul s, 33° B ea r , type of S a ta n , 88 ; i n the b east -epos, 1 89, 2 1 4 , 2 1 5 B east -epas i n ar chi tectu re, 1 85 ; used for pol em i cal pu rposes, 1 93; scen es from , 2 1 3—2 2 2 , 2 35 , 2 36 B easts o f i l l -omen , i n chur ches an d cl oi sters, 1 79, 1 80 ’ B ea u vai s, ass s feast i n , 2 77

tru m pets of the L aw, 2 5 5 t error t o d em ons, 2 5 7

an d

a

B el l er ophon , 30 1 B el l i , Va l er i a, his phmn i x i n en a m el , 1 30 B ell on a , r el i ef i n a church at T ri er ,

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h1s sym b ohsms, 1 85 , 2 4 7 ; on t he b raz en serpen t, 2 5 0 ; on S t I , si gn i ﬁca ti on of, 6 7 I bbenstad t, cen ta u rs i n the cl oi ster A n thony a n d the cen tau r , 31 7 chur ch of, 31 9 jer u sal em , stori es of the H ea venl y , I bex, sym b ol of a spi r a ti on , 1 5 3 38 swi n e ove r the gates of, 294 I ch n eu mon , E gypti an i d eogra ph, jesu i t, d e ni ti on of theol ogy , 269 1 32 ; ki l l er of m onsters, 1 32 , jesus, H is r em a rk concern i n g a d ead d og. 90 32 1 I conocl asm i n N etherl an d churches, jewel s, a s t al i sm ans, 34 ; b l essin g, ’ n e d f r h a s eyes, form om e 24 5 4 3 ; y ’ ‘ l l o f D ea t h 14 1 I e, hi s D an ce , 34 2 f a ns, coarse ca r i ca tures of, 2 89 I nd i a n st one, type of C hr i st, 4 8 2 99 ; sel f sa cr i ﬁce of two, 2 99, I nghi lf r edi , canvoni ci ted , 1 31 300 I n nocen t I I I , con rms m en di ca n t job, con tem pt of d ogs, 90 o r d ers, 2 1 0 ; censur e s r u l es of joh n o f H er se, hi s obser va ti on of S t Fran ci s, 2 24 the un i cor n , 1 05 I o, m y th of A rgu s an d , 31 3 john the B apti st, hi s six heads, 2 86 I sabel l a of Fr a n ce, h er psa l ter , john the E va n gel i st reachi ng 2 1 0 1 4 6, 1 5 3 ; i l l u str a t i on s from i t , joh n 1 1 ( the Go b hs d ecree 1 2 4 , 1 33, 1 4 8, 1 62 , 1 74 , concern i n g the e ws, 2 93 31 4 joseph, rel i c of hi s b reath, 2 88 I si d or e, ci ted , 4 3. 4 8 ; h i s jov e, na m e a ppl i ed t o God a n d to E ty m ol ogi es, 5 9, 1 09 ; hi s sy m C hr i st, 309, 3 1 0 h ol i sm of a n i m a l s, 1 85 jug, symb ol i sm o f the, 33 .

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L i thi a ha , on pr eci ou s stones i n th e, 4 5 ’ ’ L i vr e d c r es, m i n i a tur e of sn ai l an d i ts m ean i n g, 2 1 7, 2 1 8 L i z a r d , sy m b ol i sm of, 94 , 95 gh ti n g wi th scorpi on , 1 5 4 L ocu sts si gn i fy G en ti l es, 1 66 1 68 ’ L or en co d A va l os, l i ken ed t o a ’ l i on s whel p, 93 L or en z o d e S eg ur a , jua n , hi s ’ P oem a d e A l exan d r o, 113; m ethod of ca tu ri n g el eph a n ts, p fea r of n u d e 1 13 serpen t s ’

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L ictz el bu rga , H a n s, hi s cuts of H ol b ei n s ‘ m ago M ort is, ’ 338 Ly costhen es, h i s work on prodigi es ci ted , 1 97, 1 9 8, 2 2 4 Ly dd a , ost ensi bl e b i r thpl a ce of S t G e orge, 1 5 Ly on s Ca thed r a l , l i on a n d whel p, 84 ; un i corn , 96 ; M S i n C i ty L i b ra r y of, 204 S a i n t ea n ’ a d r a l L i h a c t e d A r i stote, 2 2 8 ( ), r evol t of t he an gel s, 2 5 8 ‘

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Or cagm , A n d r ea a n d B erna r do, thei r fr escoes, 31 0, 320 Gr en del , poem on H ol y C oa t, 287 Ori en ta ti on , i ts si gni cance i n sacre d archi tecture, 2 7 5 Ori gen , hi s threefol d sense of S cr i ptu r e , 1 6 ; spir i tuali za ti on of H eb re w cosmogony, 1 7 ; ada m an ti n e exegesi s an d ascet i c zeal , osi ti on, 5 7, 5 8 sy m boli ca l er crea 5 8 on the li on and

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Od i u m theol ogi cu m , parod o f, 1 s4 Od o, Abbot of C l u n y , 67 ; of S h er i n ton , hi s cen su r es of the g C i ster ci an s, 2 2 4 ; hi s fabl es, 2 2 5 Od on , A r chbi sh op, on the d i ssol u te sports of n un s, 2 66 Ogi ve, n ot perm issibl e to her et i cs, 2 56 Oly mpi odor us, scrupl es a bou t a n i m al s i n chur ches, 1 82 Onh, i ts si gn i can ce a n d sur vi va l i n th e cr oss, 1 2 Ony x, associ ated wi th A ugust , 37 Opal , associ ated wi th Octobe r , 37 Opd al , S i gurd saga , 324 Oppen hei m , a uri cul ar con cept i on of C hr ist, 99 Oppia nus, hi s poem on shi ng ci ted , 1 2 5

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P ad er bom , scen es from fa bl es i n the ca thed ra l of, 2 37 ; scul pture of thr ee h ar es, 2 39 P ad ua , scul ptur e of l i on , 87 Pa l l as as E ve , 6 P a l m S u n day , cel ebra ti on of, 265 P an , reli ef i n Ai x-l a -C hapel l e M i n st er , 303 P a nt her , on d o or way a t Al n e, 5 1 , 1 35 sweet b rea th d ue to i ts di et,

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P /zi l o, foun d er of the A l exa n dr i an school , 1 6 P l z i l otl zeos, fr esco of sl eepi n g l i on i n the conven t of, 86 I 4 P ast /a l l a m b, sym b ol i cal of th e P hoen i x, l arva of, 1 5 ; L a cta n ti u s C ru ci xi on , 2 5 1 poem on’, 68 ; on coi n s, 69 ; -S a xon f s A n l o n w l e u C r 2 h n t e s u f a m ou u s a y g pa r a 4 P a ti sc , , d escr i b ed an d 69 ; phr a se, P a u l , on t he v i ce sy m b ol i z ed by a ppl i ed , 1 26 ; on exeget i ca l l y th e hy en a , 1 39 o n l i on s, 1 4 2 ; ci n er a ry u rn s, 1 2 7 ; i n a r ch i tec t oi l i n g a t th e gospel -m i l l , 1 60 — 2 1 31 in r 8 8 1 t u e i z d b e l m b o n s , m a , 4 , 9 3 h i s n a tural y y poetry, 1 30, 1 3 1 ; on th e shi el d t h e cen t a u r , 1 92 ; on the pascha , of D evoti on , 1 5 3 2 5 1 ; th e H er m i t , 31 7 ’ P hy si ol ogu s (t he ), on the n d i a n P a vi a , T h eseus sl a y i ng th e M i n o st on e, 1 3 ; i m por t a n ce of i t as a t a u r , 309 k ey t o th e m y sti ca l m ean i n g of P eacock, sy m b ol i sm of th e, 31 0 18 ; ci t ed , 38, n a t ur a l t hi n gs, 2 1 3 on th e t utel ar v i r tu e of t he 45 P ea r l -ﬁsh ng, form a ti on a n d syru a r - fetche d si m il i f a m on d , 4 6 di 8 b ol i sm of, 4 7, 4 v i v i pa r o u s a cci pi t u d es of, 4 7 P egasu s as C hr i sti an pr ot otype , au thor of, 5 4 ; pl ur a l ter s, 4 9 0 1 0 ’ r ’ 3 9 i a n i us h 6 E exposi f or m of, 5 r ecl use, l h o h e p p t o f e t z ea n y Pe , yp wor ks m od el l ed t i on of, 8 t r e i n s ; M 9 r 5 i b u ; F r e 3 n , i 66 ; g ’ h o b a l d s v ersi on of, e a fter , 60 ; T t e 8 r n s t e i M b u ; r y p r a s , 4 in St g 6 1 , 62 ; i ts popu l a ri ty , 62 , 63 ; i ar c h i n 1 2 8 t n m e n e o f th e A to ,

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P ica r d s, 1 1 4 31 5 P i ct u r es, b ooks of the i gn oran t , 75 P r ov er bs, i l l ustra ted i n church P i er r e d e Gr osn et, poem on gossi ps a r chi t ectur e , 2 2 2 , 2 39, 2 4 5 i n chu r ch r epor ted by t he d evi l , P r ud en ti us, A u r el i us Cl em ens, hi s al l egori ca l poem s, 66, 67 332 P i er r e E spagn ol , on ostri ch ey es, P sa l ter S ee I sabel l a i f Fr a nce Py r a m u s a n d T ai sl e i n Bal e Cathe 94 P i er s P l ow m a n ’ S ee L a ngl a nd d r al , 304 , 305 .

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S t B a r ba r a , i n C ob l en ce, rel i c of ’ esus for e ski n , 2 88 S e e B asi l the Gr ea t S t B asi l ’ S a i n ts b on es, qu eer a n om a l i es i n , H y rtl , r ecti ed by P r o f 2 84 2 85 ; power of m u l ti pl i ca t i on , 2 86 ’ h B o t o lp s, un i corn , 96 m usi ca l St pi gs, 2 32 S t C eci l i a , i n T rast ev er e, ph oen ix,

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i n R om e, gen n of the v i n t a g e, 303 S t ( r ace i n Ger u sa l em m e, r el i cs i n , 28 S t Cr oi x, i n S a i n t- L 6, wei ghi n g sou l s, 330 S t Cy pr i a n S ee Cypr i a n S t D en i s, abb ey o f, A ssum pti on V i r gi n a s V en u s, 7 ; of t h e gospel m i l l , 1 60 ; i n A m boi se, fo xes a s pi l gr i m s, 2 1 1 S t D om i ti l l a , ca ta co m b , C hr i st O rpheu s, 303 wi t h n i m b u s, 30 1 ' S t E spr i t , S t B ern a r d s a ss, 2 71 S t E t i en n e, i n Bour ges, l i on a n d pe l i can , 83 ; gospel m il l , 1 60 ; i n L i m oges, foxes a s b eggi n g fr i a r s, 2 2 5 S t Fia cr e, w i l es of fox, 2 06, 2 08 ” “ r i ck th e fo x, 2 0 8, 2 09 p ’ S t Fr a n ci s, G i ot to s cen t a ur on t he t om b of, 32 0 S t Ga l /u s, i m ages b r oken by , 307 S t George, hi s comb a t wi th d r ag on b or r owe d fr om H oru s sl a y i n g S e th T y phon , 1 3 C opt i c r el i ef of, 14 hi s an n i v ersary , 1 5 pa tr on of C r u sad er s, 1 5 a n a l o gou s t o S igu r d , 32 7 S t Germ a i n d es P r es, sta tue of si s, 30 7 si r en , 3 1 6 S t Gi l l es, cen ta urs i n, 31 8 St

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S t I si dor e S ee I si d or e S t ja cqu es-l a -B ou cher i e, V i rgi n i n the for m of V en us, 7 S t ja u r i n , i n E vreux, foxes as fr i a r s, 2 2 5 S t jea n , i n L y ons, ‘L a y of A ri s ’ t ot l e, 228 r evol t of a n el s g , .

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L y on s, see S t jea n ), feast of, 69, 2 64 ; i n G mii n d, cen ta u r s, 3 1 8 S t L a u r ence, i n N urem berg, l i on , 82 ; phoen i x, un i corn , pel i ca n , a n d l i on , 1 30 S t 116, wei ghin g soul s, 330 S t L u cia , U l y sses an d si rens i n t he crypt of, 31 5 S t M a r i a , i n C a pu a, eag l e ca tchi n g ﬁ sh , 1 1 8 ; i n Or ga n o, i m age of i n D an tz i g, a n gel s wi th as , 2 71 ’ k a coc fea ther s, 31 1 s e p S t M a r i a N ov el l a , C ha ron , 31 0 ; cen t a ur s pur sui n g t he d am n ed, 32 0 M a r t i n , i n L ei cester, fox St pr eachi n g, 1 86, 2 2 3 n ear T ri er, pag an a l t a r , 30 7 St M a ry , i n Bev er l y, foxes as i n D a n tz i g, M em fr i a r s, 2 2 2 ' ’ l i n g s a n gel s wi th peacocks fea t her s, 3 1 1 S t M axi m us S ee M axi m us S t [Vi c/met, i n Pforz hei m , wol f as fr i a r , 1 93 i n Bru ges, exe cut i on of t h e fox, 2 1 2 , 2 1 3 ; a r chan gel a n a l ogous t o S i gu r d , 32 7 ; wei gh i n g sou l s, 32 9, 330 ; (M i chel e ) i n Pa vi a , T heseus sl ay in g M i n o tau r , 309 S t N i chol a s, i n S t ra l sun d , l i on , 83 ; i n G ott i n gen , gospel mi l l , 1 5 7 ; i n C a l ca r, ca rv in gs of a n i m a l s, e ws su cki n g 2 4 4 ; i n Z er b st, i n A n el a m , si rens, sow, 2 92 ; i n Fr i bourg, wei ghin g 31 7 ; sou l s, 330 St

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N i z zer , 1 n T r oyes, apocal y pti c S appl zzr e, worn i n A pr i 1, 37 5 b ea st , 1 5 6 sym bol i sm of, 38 S t P et er , hi s two sku l l s, 2 86 S a r d i us, sy mbol i sm of, 9 S t Pi err e, i n A ul na ass as pri est, S a r d ony x, sym b ol i sm ‘ 22 5 , 2 77 ; i n L a y of aen , wom an a satel l i te of, 331 , ’ A ri stotl e, 2 28 ; i n Poi ti er s, 333 S ee a l so D evi l m u si cal ho an d d og, 2 32 sym b ol i sm supersed ed by , on fri a rs a s foxes 1 85 sqq ( Pi etro) , i n ora, hal oed head of A pol l o on a fon t, 307 an d oth er r ea l or fa bul ous a n i ’ S t P or cka i r e, li on s j m al s, 1 86 1 95 , 204 , 2 08 2 26, a ws typi cal o f hel l , 92 on S t Berna rd , 2 2 5 ; 2 32 —2 4 5 S t P r assede, h ceni x, 1 2 7 l i st of on on Ca l v i n an d L u th er , 1 94 r el i cs 1 n , a fo i bl es, 2 1 9 ; on the Pope, 1 95 , St RM 2 03, 2 2 3 on h ol r el i cs, 2 81 , un i corn an d V i rgi n , y 1 04 2 84 , 289 on t1 th es of eggs, on t h e D om i n i can s, 24 3 ; S t S a uveu r d e-N eor es, S a m son , 24 0 on ews, 2 89 2 on wom en , 1 92 —333 ; on a i cl asses an d S t S ebal d, i n N urem b er g, phoen i x, 33 1 2 con di t i on s of m en , 335 , 339 un i cor n , pel i can , an d l i o , 1 30 ; 4 3 n b easts as m i n i steri ng spi r i ts, 2 80 S a ta m a l i a , C arn i va l St

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2 64 S t S er n i n , sati r e on C a l v i n , 1 94 S t S ophi a , i n N ovgor od , r el i ef of S a ty r , a s goo d she her d , 30 1 ' tr asbu rg scul p S cl za a , Osca r , on cen taur s, 31 8 t u r es, 1 88 S t Spi r e, d ev i l over-r ea ch ed b y ’ ose h s S c/zaﬁ l za n sen , r el i c of wom an , 333 1 00 b i ea th i n the gl ove of S t S tep/zen , i n V i enn a , S a m son , d em us, 2 88 1 92 S chel l en sa u , a n ti -S emi ti c gam e of S ee l eopﬁ zl us S t n eopﬁi l u s ca r d s, 2 99 n ote S t T r ap/zi ne, i n A r l es, cen tau rs, S cl z emi z a mp/zor as, m ean i ng a n d u se 31 8 ; wei gh i n g soul s, 330 of, 2 90 S t U r si n , 1 n Bru ges, execut i on of S cl zongr a oer n , r el i ef of S am son , 1 92 fox, 2 1 2 , 2 1 3 S t Vi ctor , i n Xan ten , sa t i r e on S ci i ot t, on th e sea -b i shop an d other m ar vel s, 1 99 ca rvi n g of m onst er L u th er , 1 94 i e i n R a tisb on , si rens, S chot ten ki r c/ i cal of fr i ars, 2 24 l 7 l e taki ng a ﬁsh , 1 1 8 e S c a ber t , G H , his vi ews of the S t Vi tus, h i s our h an d s, 2 m i n era l ki n gd om , 4 5 S a l a ma n er , n a ture a n d sym bol i sm S ea -bi sl z op d escri bed , 1 98, 1 99 of S ega ra S ee L or enz o de S egur a wy Cathed r al , car vi n g S al i so S ei nshei m , A da m Fn ed n cl z won , eagl e an d chil d , 2 34 hi s epi sco l escu tcheon , 2 94 S al z bur g, sati re on ews, 2 97 ’ ‘ S a mi r , na tur e of i ts bl ood u til iz ed S ei tz , Ot to, i s D a n ce of D ea th , by S ol om on , 4 2 S a m son , hi s expl oi ts i n Frei b urg S en l i s, ch apt er of the cath ed ral cen sur es t h e el e , 2 67 M i nster , 9 1 , 1 9 1 , 1 92 , a n d can ] , S eptuagi n t, tra n sl ati on of D el i l a h, 2 2 8 .

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66 ; “ l i ke the phm n i x, 1 2 7 ; as “ l a i r of the 1 34 a pa n th er , ” o l e u pon a p 1 39 ; hy ena , , 2 5 0 ; si r en s, 31 4 S er pen t , cha ra cter i sti cs an d sy m b ol i sm of, 1 1 4 —1 1 6 , k i n g of, 1 63 ; t ra m pl ed b y har t , 2 2 3 r el i ef of, 8 S er a , n a tu r e an d sy m b ol i sm of, 1 2 2 ; a sea -d ra gon , 1 2 5 S even , si gn i can ce of, 4 0, 4 1 S ha kespea r e, ci ted , 1 98, 2 5 4 , 305 S her bor ne M i n ster , fox on the ga ll ows, 2 1 2 S i by l s, scul ptures of, 309 S i chem , i n ass s l i ta n y , 2 74 , 2 78 S i egfr i ed (S ig u r d ) , hi s qui ver of ’ pan t her s ski n , 1 37 saga , 32 1 32 7 r el i c of S t V i t us, S i en n a , l i on , 9 1 2 86 ; r el i efs of cr ea t i on , 320 S ipon to, l i on , 87 S i r en , sy m b ol i sm of, 1 5 4 , 24 3, 31 4 —31 7 ; i n a r t, 31 5 —31 7 S n a i l , i n a poca l ypt i c b east, 1 5 7 ; a s gon fal on i er , 2 1 7 ; as v i ne-d e st r oy er , 2 1 8 S na ke, Bu d d hi st i c sy m b ol of t e S ee S erpen t gen era ti on , 32 S od om , sy m b ol of ca rn a l sed u cti on ,

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S tag, i n ch asubl e, 1 86 ; chan ti ng a t th e a l tar , 1 89, 2 35 ; r ea di n g S ee a l so H a r t br ev i a ry , 2 4 4 S t a n l ey , r el i efs r eferri n g to the fa m i l y of, 2 34 S tol l e, M ei ster , on the li on an d ostr i ch , 94 S tor k, type of l i a l pi ety, 5 5 S t r a bo, on t he i chn eum on , 1 32 S t r asbu rg, r el i ef of l i on an d whel ps, 84 ; m on k an d bégu i n e, 1 87 ; buri a l of fox, 1 89 S tn cher (der ) , hi s r i di cu l e o f super ’ sti ti on , 4 4 S tr obe] , ci t ed , 2 99 note ’ S tr om a t eus, ci ted , 1 6 S tut tga r t , rel i ef of S a m son , 1 92 S u eton i u s, on t he r em ora , 1 2 5 S ager , A bbot , d e s cr i pti on of gospel m il l , 1 60 ; an i m al s i n churches pr i z ed , 1 81 S a n -wor ship, surv i v al s of i t i n C hri sti an feasts, 69 S uper sti t i on , con cer ni n g an i m al s, 8 — 1 1 , 22 pr eci ous stones, 34 — 4 0, 4’ 4 4 9 con cern in g the un i com s h orn , 1 05 , 1 07 ’ ‘ S u tt a n zpa ta , ci ted , 33 67 S wa l l ow, sym b ol i sm of the, 5 5 ; S ol omon , hi s wi sd om , 2 7 ; hi s L u ther on t he, 1 4 9 m agi cal constr uct i on of the S wa n , sym b ol of C hr i st i an r esi g T em pl e, 4 1 —4 3 n ati on , 1 5 3 S oma d ez/a , hi s al l egory of human S wi n e, d a isi es b efor e, 24 2 ; pl ayi n g l ife, 5 b agpi pe, 2 4 2 S ee al so H og S ophocl es, sy m bol i z ed b y si r en , 31 5 an d S ow S out h, sacr ed ch ara cter of the, 2 5 8, Sy m bol i sm , b ee an d owers as 2 59 sym b ol s of l ove 2 , 3 ; Ori en ta l 2 S ow , a s b i er bear er , 1 89 su ckl i n g sour ce of, 5 ; of h um an l ife, ews, 2 90. 2 9 2 , 2 95 —2 97 i ts evol u ti on out of m etem psy S phi n x , sym bol i sm of, 1 68 h yb r i ds an d m on sters chosi s, 7 Spid er , Bu d dhi sti c sy mb ol of sel f i n E gypti a n , 1 0 survi val of the i l l u si on , 32 ttest i n G reek, 1 1 ; i ts d egen era cy i n to con ven ti ona l forms, s r e or i gi n of the n am e Pr otestan t , l éé 15 gra d ua ll y su persed ed by S qu i rr el , Bu d d hi sti c suc sy m b ol i sm sa t i re, 1 8, 1 9, 1 85 — 1 9 1 .

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85 , 95 —1 1 0 ; i n a r t, 96 - 1 05 , 1 30 ; su persti t i ous n ot i on s con cern i n g i ts horn , 1 05 —1 07 ; si g n i ﬁes a l so S a ta n , 1 09 ; m oun t ed b y C hasti ty, 1 5 3 ; i n poetry , 99, 1 07, 1 08, 1 1 0 ; e n m i ty t o the el eph a n t an d l i ken ess t o th e he goa t, 1 09 d escri pti on of, 1 1 0 U r i m a n d T hu mm i m , si gn i cati on a n d use of, 34

P r a nfois, on pi ctur es for i nstru ctmg the i gn oran t , 1 83 Vi n cen t d e B ea u va is, hi s ‘ S peen ’ l um N a tura l e, 74 ; on Pope ’ A l exa n d er s tun i c of sal a m an d er ski ns, 1 4 2 Vi ol l el -l e D uc, on jol l i ti es i n ch urch es, 2 80 Viper , copul a ti on wi th the l a mpr ey, 5 5 sy m b ol of si n , 66 ; horn of A fr i can vi per, 1 09 Vi rgi n of t he S even S wor ds d e Va l ky r ia s, con d uctors of soul s, 31 5 r i ved from sta r , 6 i mi tati on of V en us, 7 ; C opti c V i rgi n a n d i n the S igu r d saga, 32 1 , 32 5 Vasi shtha , i n voca ti on of fr ogs i n C hi l d an i m i t at i on of si s an d t he V ed a , 2 38 H orus, 1 3 V i rgi n an d u ni cor n , Va t0ped i , t etr am orph i n the m onas 95 1 05 ; as a cry sta l vessel , t ery of, 1 5 5 1 64 ; rel i cs o f her t hree a r m s, Va ugha n, R ev S , hi s d i scovery 2 86 of vesti ges of the T r i n i ty i n the Vi r t ues, person i ﬁca ti on of the seven , m a ter i a l wor l d , 2 5 2 —2 5 4 1 63 Vegu sda l , S i gur d saga, 32 4 Vi scher , P uer , rel i efs of bi r dl i ke Vel ay , person i ca ti on of sci en ces, v i r gi ns on hi s can d el ab ra, 31 7 1 54 wei ghi ng soul s i n a chur ch Vi shn u as Kr i shn a, 4 a t , 32 8 Vogel weid e S ee Wa l ther von der V Ven us, ﬁsh sa cr ed t o, 1 2 1 Vor agi n e, jacobu s d e, hi s G ol d en Ver gi l , as a pr oph et o f C hri st, 2 66 ; L egen d , 5 ; on the cr oss i n l egen d of hi s l ove a d ven tur e i n n a t ure, 2 4 7 scul pt u r e, 2 2 9 ; m et b y cen tau rs Vul ga te, ca pi t al s an d i n i ti a l s i n i n t h e l ower wor l d , 320 ve rsi on of cod ex o f the, 1 5 2 ; Ver on a , i m age an d tr a di ti on of the Prov erb s xxx 2 7 a nd E ccl xi i ” “ true ass, 2 71 5 , 1 66 ; ci ted , 1 92 ; versi on of Vez el a i , gospel -m il l , 1 5 8 ; gh ti n g Z ech v i 1 2 , 2 5 7 n ote t he basi l i sk, 1 65 , 1 66, 1 68 ; Vu l tu r e, eu to ki os used by , 4 8 wei ghi n g sou l s, 32 8 E gypt i an ty pe of compassi on , 1 2 8 ’ Vi en na , gr i fﬁn s cl a w a t, 1 06 ; un i corn an d V i rgi n sy mb ol i z i ng Wa chsm u t van M uhl hau sen , i m ag t he t ri um ph of chast i ty , 1 05 ; er y fr om t he sel f r en ewa l of t he S a mson , 1 92 eagl e, 1 2 0 Vi l l egas, E steva n M a n u el d e, h i s Wa ke, joha n nes, rebus of cr owi ng d escri pti on of a d uel between cock , 2 20, 2 2 2 A m or a n d a bee, 2 Wal ther von d er Wgel weid e, on Vi l l en eu ve, Ch htea u d e, d evi l s an d auri cu l a r con cept i on , 99 a n gel s forgi n g the head s of Wat er -snake, con foun d ed wi th the wom a n a n d ma n , 333 otter , 1 32 Vi l l ette, Cl a ud e, hi s sy m bol ism of Weasel , a s sl ay er of serpen ts, 5 5 chur ch wi n d ows, 2 60 n ote -

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Animal Symbolism - Forgotten Books

CON T E N T S I N T R OD U C T I O N C HA PT E R I AL L E GOR I C AL I m pul se gi A N AGOGI C AL N AT U R E t dy f at AND t o th e I N T E R P...

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Animal Symbolism - Forgotten Books

Animal Symbolism - Forgotten Books

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