Volume 5, Issue 11(1), November 2016
International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-43-7/1, Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email:
[email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Prof. S.Mahendra Dev
Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco
Vice Chancellor Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai
Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru
Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Former Director Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University
Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan
Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam
Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam
Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam
Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Austria
Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Russian Philosophical Society Moscow, Russia
Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia
Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A
Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram
Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Delhi
I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Indonesia
Prof. Roger Wiemers Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA
Dr. N.S. Dhanam Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Dr.B.S.N.Murthy
Dr.Ton Quang Cuong
Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University Visakhapatnam
Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education University of Education, VNU, Hanoi
Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Coordinator A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam
Prof. Chanakya Kumar Department of Computer Science University of Pune,Pune
Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic
Dr.S.Kannan Department of History Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram
Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India
Department for Production Engineering University of Novi Sad, Serbia
Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur
Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar
Dr.E. Ashok Kumar
Department of English GITAM University Hyderabad
Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong
Prof.Francesco Massoni
Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China
Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam
Department of Public Health Sciences University of Sapienza, Rome
Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Al-Mustansiriyah University College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq
Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado
Dr. Bipasha Sinha
Department of Mathematics University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines
S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta
Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V
Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir
Dr.T.V.Ramana Department of Economics, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada
Librarian Kalasalingam University Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Assistant Professor Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati Prof. R. Siva Prasadh Institute of Advanced Studies in Education Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.
CONTENTS Volume 5 S. No 1.
2.
Issue 11(1)
November 2016
Cartoon Visualization as Social Representation in BogBogbali Cartoon Magazine 2011/2012 Edition I Wayan Swandi
Page No 1
Educational Values According to Driyarkara Maemonah Influence of Emotional Intelligence on Pre-Service Teacher Education Programmes Pusarla.V.V.S.S.Kumar and R.S.S.Nehru
22
4.
How the Indian Magazines Framing the Image of Muslims I. Tarakeswara Rao, S. Venkateswarlu and J. Manjunath
50
5.
Human Rights Under Buddhism’s Views Tran Thi Dieu Huong
74
6.
St. Francis De Sales: A Gentile Man Saint A.V.Krishna Rao
83
7.
An Investigation into the English Language Needs of Hotel and Tourism Management Students: Hawassa University in Focus Aman Tirkaso Abute
94
8.
DeHeeefCeveer³eJ³eekeÀjCeeveeb He´eogYee&Jeë
143
3.
39
osJeueervee Iees
Educational Status of Females in India D. Asha Latha and G.Sumathi
155
10. A Study of Amul Preferred Outlet (APO) in Gujarat State K. Makwana and M. D. Gurjar
165
11.
178
Re-Viewing Eco-Feminism – Looking Through The Prism Madhumita Chatterjee
12.
The Point of View in Khushwant Singh’s “KARMA” N. Madhu
192
13.
Elder Exploitation in India
205 Rama Rao Dharmana
14.
ఆ ేశ సంధుల
221
నడపన ంకటశ ర ావ 15.
Marginalization of the Bedekeh Akit Tribal Ritual on Rupat Island in the Bengkalis Regency of Riau Province Suroyo
237
16.
A Study on Customer Satisfaction in Oscar PVC Pipes Works, Illampillai, Salem District R.Meenakshi and T.A.Tamilselvi
254
17.
Empowering Tribal Women in India
265 K.Manjulamma
18.
Study on Attitude of Parents towards Child Marriage in Agaram Village S. Sumathi
275
19.
Revenue Experiments in Prakasm District of Andhra Pradesh during British Rule G.Somasekhara
285
20.
Images of Women in T. S. Eliot’s Prufrock and Other Observations Dhavaleswarapu Ratna Hasanthi
294
21.
Drought Tolerance in Cowpea Cultivars in Telangana A.Srujana
313
22.
Kandukuri Veeresalingam: The Pioneer of Translation Studies in Telugu Noojilla. Srinivas and T. Ashok
324
Dr. K. VICTOR BABU M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion
ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Impact Factor :4.527(2016) Index Copernicus Value: 5.16
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
Editorial…… You will be happy to know that we have entered the fifth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it. We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharitha Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor –in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW
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CARTOON VISUALIZATION AS SOCIAL REPRESENTATION IN BOG-BOGBALI CARTOON MAGAZINE 2011/2012 EDITION I Wayan Swandi Doctoral Program in Cultural Studies Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia Abstract: Bog-Bog cartoon was a mass media production which was rich in strong artistic and Balinese cultural values. Social changes cannot be avoided since Bali became a global tourist destination. On one hand, Bali cannot be avoided from being attracted by the global strength; on the other hand, attempts are perpetually made to maintain its cultural identity. The descriptive method was used in the present study, which was intended to explain how the Bog-Bog cartoon was visualized and what meanings were hidden in it. Keywords:
Visualization,
Cartoon,
Bog-Bog
Magazine,
Social
Representation INTRODUCTION As far as the Balinese culture is concerned, cartoon is not a strange thing as it cannot be separated from the traditional art of painting in general and the puppetry art in particular. Traditionally, in Bali cartoon is better known as prasi. The prasipictures are painted on the palm leaf using a sharp knife referred to as pengerupak. In Bali the prasi art has been developed in Karangasem, exactly at TengananPegeringsingan Village with the themes adopted from the Ramayana and Mahabrata epics. Klungkung has been popular for its Kamasan puppet since 17th century. The technique used to paint the Kamasan puppet is similar to that used to paint the modern cartoon pictures. There were several reasons why the Bog-Bog Cartoon Magazine was used as the object of the study. First, it is a magazine which uses www.ijmer.in
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cartoon as the medium for illustrating the messages transmitted to the readers. Second, it is the only carton magazine which uses the Balinese characters within the local scope and national scope. The fact that it has acquired the Muri Award proves this. It has attracted the cartoon observers from the other countries as the image of Bali is so strong to the academicians and international cultural researchers that it has a relatively high selling value and bargaining position. This opportunity was used by the Bog-Bog cartoonists to work together with the global cartoonists in 2003. It has been the first cartoon magazine with the Balinese cultural nuance. The other reason why the Bog-Bog Cartoon Magazine was chosen as the object of the study was that, ideologically, it activated, persuaded and informed things to people in a subtle and humorous way or using satires. In addition, the pictures it contained also represented the social phenomena in Bali. Every theme contained meaningful, real and complex massages. The concepts which the Bog-Bog cartoon contained had been well planned before. Then such concepts were visually presented and read by the public. Visually, the cartoon, as social representation in the Bog-Bog magazine, was the final result of the deconstruction of the form of the cartoon made by the cartoonists to carry the flag of the Bog-Bog Bali Cartoon Magazine. The Balinese traditional nuance concept consistently became the icon of the cartoon form every time the magazine was published, meaning that the attempt made to realize the image of the art work produced by the cartoonists that supported the Bog-Bog magazine showed the specific characteristic of the magazine. Therefore, this present study was intended to reveal the concepts related to the form and meaning of cartoon through the study which explored the whole process of creation, the contextualization of creation, the internal and external impacts and so forth.
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METHODOLOGY This present study which explored the Bog-Bog Magazine is an interpretative and descriptive study. This method was used to explain the visual aspects and meanings of the Bog-Bog cartoon as the Balinese social/cultural representation. The drawings which were published in the Bog-Bog magazine published in 2011/2012 were used as the data source. The data were also obtained by interviewing three cartoonists and the founder the Bog-Bog Magazine. In addition, the data needed were also obtained by interviewing several social observers who understood the function of the Bog-Bog magazine as the social representation. The study was conducted in Denpasar City where the magazine was circulated. The study was also conducted in the secretariat of the Bog-Bog Magazine. The data were analyzed using the postmodern aesthetic theory and the theory of semiotics. From the analysis, it could be identified that ideologically the visual aspect played a role as a medium which could reconstruct realities. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Overview of the Bog-Bog Bali Cartoon Magazine In Bali the cartoon world has been felt since 1977; it was initiated by a group of cartoonists who worked for the local newspaper “the Bali Post”. The themes dominantly presented social criticisms with strongly humorous nuance on the Opinion page (the editorial cartoon). The Bali Post newspaper is the foster father of most of the current Balinese cartoonists. At least it, as the biggest newspaper in Bali, has created the cartoonists. In addition, it has also raised them in such a way that they, including the Bog-Bog ones, have become independent. The Bog-Bog cartoon magazine was firstly published in 2001 by a cartoonist who was born in Denpasar. His full name is Made GedeParamaArtha; therefore, he is often called JangoPramartha. At www.ijmer.in
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that time he did not work by himself; he was assisted by two cofounders named I GustiPutuAdiSupardhia who is better known as PutuEbo and CeceRiberu. They worked as cartoonists. Since the BogBog cartoon magazine was firstly published, the sales of the magazine have exceeded what was expected by the founder. Its national and international circulation has proved this. The readers of the magazine can be grouped based on their ages, educational background, and economic status. According to Jango, the magazine is published not to be consumed by children, although it can be enjoyed by every family member. It contains social, political, cultural and art issues. The magazine is also read by different layers of society, starting from the common people, academicians, politicians, those who are involved in the non-government organizations and so forth. The Bog-Bog cartoon is strongly characterized by the Balinese cultural characteristics which include the fashion system. As an illustration, most of the male characters wear head cover ‘udeng’, sarong, and frangipani ‘bungakamboja’, and the female ones wear blouse ‘kebaya’, cloth ‘kamben’, and hair bun ‘sanggul’, In addition, their names are also adopted from the common Balinese idioms such as Made Bogler, KetutCenik and KaplerKaplug. (See the attached pictures). The character Made Bogler was painted by CeceRibero. The name Bogler is derived from the word “bogler”, meaning ‘tengil’ or ‘pecicilan’. According to CeceRibero, the character Made Bogler depicts the characteristics of the Balinese people who are funny, talk as they like, always show their teeth, and are naïve. KetutCenik in “KetutCenik Learning to Dance” was painted by Putu Eco and represented the Balinese young people who care about the traditional Balinese culture in general and the traditional Balinese dances in particular. The name Cenik is derived from an anonymous song which
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was popular in the past. The content of such a song predicted the changes which would take place in Bali, resulting from the arrival of the white people. KaplerKaplugwas painted by PutuEbo depicting a specific young naughty man. Kapler was painted with the make-up which was similar to the make-up worn by Elvis Presly. However, Kaplug depicted a wise young man who was often involved in the naughtiness in which Kapler was involved. They were young men who cared about the matters pertaining to the social environment where they lived. Great Theme of Globalization The discourse on globalization has been used as the great theme in the Bog-Bog cartoon. According to the informants, globalization has become the endless inspiration. It should be explored within the globalization context. Foreign culture is interfering and will interfere with the Balinese people’s life. In an interview Jango told the social changes which were taking place in Bali as a consequence of globalization as follows. “The theme and general target of the Bog-Bog Magazine can be found in the word Glo-Bali-sasi which contains the word Bali. Basically, the theme which is understood by the common people is how we adopt the social changes taking place in Bali. From such social changes we search out what is unique which is then transferred through cartoon. As an illustration, golf can destruct us as it is played by a few players but it needs a lot of land”. (Interview:Jango, 24 September 2012)” It cannot be denied that globalization in Bali is enthusiastically welcome by people. In Picture 1 the word “globalization” was intentionally written in red, indicating a condition in which we should be on the alert. It also indicated a danger and reminded us that Bali had been exploited within the discourse on globalization. Under the
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word ‘globalization’ two people were seen to represent the local people who enthusiastically said “Yes” (the dollar currency was the character). They were bringing subjugated commodities, implicitly meaning that they enthusiastically went up the economic ladder or the economic improvement. Picture 1. Globalization. Globalization in Bali was used as the theme of one of the Bog-Bog works exhibited at Freemantle Art Center in Perth, Australia. Such a great theme was used by the BogBog cartoonists in Bali to respond to the socio-cultural phenomena in Bali. It was agreed by the Bog-Bog founders. Source: Film Dokumenter Return Economic. The Bog-Bog Bali Cartoon Magazine used “Globalization” as its great theme as anticipation to the social changes which had taken place rapidly and massively in Bali. The reason was that globalization had changed the socio-cultural landscapes in Bali. According to Jango, Bali could not avoid the ideology of globalization, and the Bog-Bog cartoon should also be able to take the opportunity offered by globalization. As already known that the trap of the globalization ideology works through the changes taking place in the landscapes of the world referred to as the Ethnoscapes, Mediascapes, Technoscapes, Finanscapes, and Ideoscapes (Appadurai, 1990: 329-331).
As anticipation to the cultural change, the Balinese people welcome and adopt changes flexibly and selectively (Geriya, 2000). www.ijmer.in
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Drawing 2 showed two priests “mangku” who were reading holy books. One was reading the palm leaf manuscript and the other was using a tablet. Such a phenomenon showed that the Balinese people were in the transformational process; the traditional mechanical tool was being replaced by the modern mechanical tool. Drawing 2 Tablet Vs. Palm-leaf Manuscript (Theme Globalization). A social phenomenon of how a technology interfered with a spiritual activity which is generally conservative and traditional in nature. Source: the Bog-Bog Cartoon Magazine No. 5 Vol. 10 of 2011.
Drawing 3. Milk-Coffee (Theme Globalization). Tourism was the entrance to traditional crimes in Bali; the black spot was the entrance to the airport. Source: Bog-Bog Cartoon Magazine No. 6 Vol. 10 of 2011 The globalized Bali attracts and motivates tourists to come. According to the Board of the Center of Statistics, the number of tourists coming to Bali in general and to Denpasar in particular has increased by four percent annually. The study undertaken by Amminulah showed that there was a correlation between the increase in the number of population and the number of crimes in Bali. Drawing 3 showed the checkpoint at the airport. An immigration officer was exploring what is referred to as Barong. Within the barong www.ijmer.in
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two criminals were found wearing the costume with black lines as worn by prisoners. In 2013 the crimes taking place in Bali totaled 8,420, in 78 of which 83 foreigners were involved. The criminals in Bali are not only Indonesians but also foreigners. The black spots were the gates through which they could enter and leave Bali, meaning that they were trapped at the airport. One of the cases which was spotlighted by both the national and foreign mass media was the Bali Nine, namely the narcotic Australian syndicate that was caught smuggling narcotics. The fact that there was an international syndicate that had broken into the Automatic Teller Machines in Bali for the last ten years leading to a loss totaling quintillions of rupiahs was another big case. Apart from that, Bali has also been the target of the international terrorism. Many studies have been undertaken to explore the correlation between terrorism and globalization. It was stated in the global research that the terrorism attack at LegianKuta, Bali, in October 2002, was made by the international terrorism. Globalization has also become the access to the international spread of crimes and narcotics. According to Findlay (1999:103), social changes result from globalization. As an illustration, particular groups of people are getting marginalized and this may lead to crimes. The same thing is stated by Harvey et al. (in Findlay, 1999) that “globalization creates new and favorable contexts of crime”. Globalization leads to the climate which can support crimes. The Visual Presentation of Cartoon in the Bog-Bog Bali Cartoon Magazine Edition 2011/2012 The visual presentation of cartoon in the Bog-Bog Bali Cartoon Magazine showed that the norms of the modern and classical arts had been ignored. The aesthetic elements which were offered were vulgar, resulting from the impact of the postmodern style. Baudrillard (in
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Piliang, 2011) stated that the postmodern art was vulgar and had lost its secret dimensions. In the graphic art, the visual presentation of a graphic work can be viewed from several elements such as the form, character, color, and layout. According to Lester (2003), as far as the cartoon characteristics are concerned, the important signs which are importantly needed to know cartoon are the frame, background, setting, characters, motion lines, typography and balloons. Such visual signs distinguish the classical art works from the modern ones. Visualization is the most accurate way in which something which is abstract can be made to be clearer. The visual presentation can always attract the reader’s emotion and can help someone analyze, plan and decide a problem before comprehending it (Kusmiati, 1999: 85-86). Visually, the postmodern art works such as cartoon have made themselves different from the modern and classical art ones, as can be seen from the shape, color, frame, and different visual elements used in cartoon such as motionlines, typography, and word balloon. Humors in cartoon can be transmitted through drawings and verbal language. Although picture can present stories, the supporting factors such as the drawing panel and text cannot be ignored (Hidayat, 1998: 183). From the perspective of shape, the Bog-Bog cartoon can be classified as the cartoon shapewhich imitates the original shape such as human being as can be seen in the cartoon “Made Bogler”, “KaplerKaplug”, “Salon Celuluk”, “Multitasking”, PolengNomor 1” and so forth. In addition, an animal was drawn in the cartoon “Multiasking”, a tree in the cartoon “PohonIklan” (Tree of Advertisements), and inanimate objects such as cars drawn in the cartoon “Kemacetan” (Traffic Jam). (Refer to the attached drawings!). The art cartoon is stated to be the postmodern work which is characterized as the work of imitation imitating the original objects (Baudrillard, 2002). According to Rose (1993: 29—30), cartoon is a parody using the imitating technique. As in the other postmodern www.ijmer.in
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works, quality is not determined by originality, complexity, subtleness, and the formal expression which is proportional to the content (Barker, 2005:57). Similarly, in cartoon quality is not determined by originality, complexity and subtleness either. The drawings of the original objects are distorted in order to give humorous and parody effects.The distorted drawings visually criticize characters. According to Low (1984:728), such a distortion is representative and symbolic, and shows satires, smartness, and humors. It is intentionally made especially if cartoon has political content. The imitated objects in cartoon are not only distorted but they are also completed with the line actions. Motion lines are the imaginary lines which depict the traces of the physical movements made by the characters. As an illustration, the motion lines in the drawing of “Salon Celuluk” gave trembling effects that expressed the feeling of being frightened as can be seen in the traces of the foot movements in the cartoon “Multiasking”, and so forth. Such motion lines were intentionally made in cartoon in order to give the exaggerated effect: “Notice how the eyes jump from the face of the character and how the body is stiff. This is an exaggerated representation of a natural reaction we have in real life” (Cabral, 2013). Such distorting techniques are parts of the parody elements which are not known in the fine arts such as the art of painting. The drawing “Radio Made Bogler” with the theme “Radio” was a work with asymmetric multi frames. The same thing can be seen in the drawing “multi-tasking”, and “pohoniklan” (trees of advertisements). In the classical and modern arts the single frame is the norm. The panel is used to maintain continuity and explain what is expected or what the following sequence (McCloud, 2002) is. Modernism trusts regularity and rational formalism. In the
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postmodern art work, nothing regulates the number of frames. Postmodernism neglects the social cultural construction or order which is rationally constructed by the postmodern way of thinking. The drawings of cartoon in the Bog-Bog Cartoon Magazine, except those in the “KaplerKaplug”, used minimal texts with a ratio of 90 percent visual to 10 percent textual. In the fine art, a text is only an addition; the strength of an idea is in the drawing (Gumelar, 2013: 72—74). The text in cartoon is written using the word balloons as can be seen from the drawings “Radio Made Bogler” and “KaplerKaplug”. Such a text usually constructs a dialogue between the characters in the cartoon. However, there are several texts which are not written using the word balloons as can be seen in the images “Multiasking” and “PohonIklan”. Such texts are present to inform, express images or messages visually (Kusrianto, 2007:191). A text is used to show a dialogue between the characters. Some words are sometimes stressed or printed in bold or using specific typographic forms. The presence of a text using typographic forms causes the cartoon art to be difficult to be differentiated from the press. As already known that press is a mass cultural product. Postmodernism causes the boundaries between the great art and the popular art (mass culture) to be vague. According to Featherstone (1993), the permissive eclecticism and the mixture of parody, irony, the appreciation of what is seen in the surface without identifying the meaning and the decrease in originality are responsible for such vagueness. If categorized, the Bog-Bog cartoon can be classified as strip cartoon, namely the loose (short) cartoon which is put within one box (panel, pen). The single frame cartoon can be seen in the caricature cartoon, humorous cartoon, and editorial cartoon. And the multi frame cartoon can be seen in the strip comic work. Unlike the classical art
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works which strongly maintain the structure, the postmodern works highly appreciate diversity, emphasize humorousness or parody. In addition, the latter is not a serious thing; it tends to present something which is broken rather than something which is neat and clean; it gives more emphasis on picturesque with slightly geometrically regularity. Simple coloring technique was applied to most of the Bog-Bog cartoons. The cartoonist only used the technique of degrading black and white, the cover was excluded. Black and white are known to be simple, causing the message which is intended to be transmitted to be clearer. In this way, the reader can easily understand the massage which the drawings contain; the heavy display is tranquilized and minimum touch is added. The principle in cartoon is that the content is more important; therefore, it has to help the readers find what they want to know. The use of black and white is intended to show that the focus is the function which is based on what is aimed at by the political, social and moral criticisms (Hidayat, 1999). In this case, the aesthetic element is not a priority. Therefore, according to Berger, cartoon cannot be classified as a high art product (Berger, 2005). The media and printing technological development has caused the aesthetic elements to be reduced; as a result, taste and imagination are determined by machines and software. One of the sociological criticisms against postmodernism is that it does not offer any solution; it offers nothing new. From the aesthetical point of view, this can be understood from the fact that there are almost no measurements; moreover, it still owes to the classical and modern art theories. In addition, technologies make it possible for the cartoon works to be massively produced. The aim of the art works using repeated
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technologies of production and reproduction is the economic benefit (Featherstone, 1993). The Parody Idiom in the Bog-Bog Cartoon Edition 2011/2012 From the aspect of its presentation, the Bog-Bog Bali Cartoon Magazine was more dominated by humorous drawings than the elements of words, phrases or sentences, indicating that the Bog-Bog magazine can be classified as verbal cartoon; however, the verbal element was not dominant, meaning that drawings were dominantly used to express messages and illicit laughter from the reader. In cartoon, the verbal elements represent speeches, and the humorous drawings serve as the extra lingual context of the speeches which usually show who the speaker is, who the addressee is (if present), the word spoken of, and the spatio-temporal setting which is related to where and when the speeches are uttered (Wijana, 2003: 10). The Indonesian and English words used to express messages in the BogBog Bali Cartoon Magazine were short and simple. As an art work, cartoon should also be assessed from the shape value and content value (Sumardjo, 2000:115). Although from the aspect of shape, cartoon shows a strong phenomenon of postmodernism, the content value appears more clearly than the shape value, meaning that the art of cartoon gives more emphasis on the significant shape than on the object of beauty. According to Bell (in Sumardjo, 2000:59), cartoon is the art of representation. The ‘shape’ in the art of representation is intended to evoke a particular emotion towards the information which is represented. According to Ajidarma (2012:18), the motion which is evoked in cartoon is the sense of humor (laughter) as the response to the parody element represented. Parody specifically characterizes the style of the postmodern art (Rose, 1993:2). According to Hutcheon (2002:2—6), parody is defined as an inter-art discourse which is imitative and contains opposition or
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contrast. In general, the parody art expresses dissatisfaction, unhappiness, and discomfort which are related to the intensity of the past style or work which is referred to. In the graphic art such as cartoon, parody or humor is made through distorted shape, controversial value and the meaning of humor. Basically, the Bog-Bog cartoon relies on the parody virtue. The form of parody presented in the drawing “Salon Celuluk” of the theme ‘salon’ combined several humorous elements such as contradictive and emotional effects. The contradictive element was made to be present through the creature ‘celuluk’ or ‘pung’ as the salon’s customer who came for manicure and pedicure. The element of being frightened was affirmed by the motionlines expressed from the faces of the mothers as the characters in the drawing. According to Freud (in Ajidarma: 2012), the elements of being frightened, tendentious, innocence, hostility, and sexual driveare the sources of humor. The relationship between the astral creature and human being shown is not unsual. In the theory of superiority and degradation proposed by Pluto, it is stated that the object which causes us to laugh is a funny, strange and digressing thing. The parody in the drawing “Radio Made Bogler” was a topic of radio which emphasized the character’s aspect of innocence. This drawing was designed with a plot narrating the character’s growth (from childhood to adulthood) with a vague perception of radio and television. In this case, the plot starting from the phase of orientation, crisis and climax gave the reader’s mentality to absorb the humor. The character Made Bogler was drawn with wide laughter using the distorted drawing technique. The cartoon “Layang-Layang” (Kite) in the theme “Topi” (Hat) was originally adopted from a habit of the Balinese people, namely flying kite. According to Ajidarma (2012:25), a humor will be well
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accepted if it emphasizes the elements of originality and simplicity or if it is deeply rooted in the community which supports it; it should implicitly rather than explicitly satires something. As far as the cartoon “Layang-Layang” is concerned, it was a satire on impractical education. A humor can be made to be present from the domestic areas such as daily life. In the drawing “Multitasking” of the theme “Waktu” (Time), a humor was made to be present by presenting the habit of the Balinese people who have multiple lives in their professions. The familiar domestic areas which include cow, sickle, grass, and art studio represent the current Balinese culture in which the traditional life is mixed with the context of modernity. In the cartoon “Poleng No. 1” of the theme “Piala” the humor was made to be present in the form of a joke. The drawing connected the Balinese people’s belief with the sacred symbols expressed in their daily life. The conflicts resulting from the harassment of sacred symbols by particular people often occurred. However, in this humor the cartoonist still showed appropriateness to avoid the narrator’s internal inhibition as to something which was forbidden in society. According to Wijana (2003: 12), a humor is a cultural code as well as a linguistic code which is only understood and can be defined by the society which supports it. According to the non-Balinese people, such a cartoon is confusing; however, the Balinese people, who are familiar with the philosophy “skalaniskala” (tangible and intangible), can see the sense of humor the cartoon contains. According to Freud (in Ajidarma, 2012:10), a humor indicates the unconscious material repression and sublimation. This cannot be separated from the mechanism of internal sensor resulting from being frightened of the reaction of the others who are surprised at hearing or viewing a joke. Apart from that, every character is drawn with serious
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expressions leading to the atmosphere which is full of prejudices and tensions. According to Kostler (in Ajidarma, 2012: 14), the dramatic elements such as prejudice and tension can multiply laughers. A humor can appear from a daily thing whichis very close and familiar to society. In the drawing ‘staples versus lidi (palm leaf rid) of the theme ‘globalization’ was a slight but serious joke as far as the pragmatism in Bali is concerned. The humor in this drawing was the situational humor in which there was a talk quoted from an event. The activity of ‘mebanten’ (offering things to Gods, ancestors and other spirits) is a daily activity of the Balinese women. The comparison of the staples to the palm leaf rid ‘lidi’ was the vocal point of the message of the joke which was intended to create. In the theory of dissociation proposed by Koestler, it is stated that the source of a humor the incongruity between a concept and a reality. This can be seen from the drawing ‘layangan’ (kite) of the theme ‘topi’ (hat). The parody which is adopted from the existing works is intended to make fun of things (Pramayoza, 2013: 201). The social context can be developed using the value of a humor. The talk taking place at a food stall, and the gossip made by the housewives and so forth can give endless inspirations. The social context which was presented at the cartoon “Kapler-Kapluk” represented the people’s intimacy referred to as the ‘banjar’ environment. The humor in the cartoon “KaplerKapluk” focused on the exchange for ideas among leaders. The drawing was supported by a dialogue in which HIV/AIDS was discussed as a serious issue. A humor can come from a conflict between what is expected and what is real (Ajidarma, 2012: 31). The parody “Burger BabiGuling” (Roasted Pig Burger) showed a surprise; the reader felt something strange that there was a very big burger with a roasted pig in it. Koestler and Schopenheur (in Ajidarma, 2012: 32) state that the sense
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of humor can appear when what is caught by the five senses is not connected with the abstract knowledge of it. An irony can lead to laughter. This can be seen from the theme ‘pohon’ (tree) in the cartoon “PohonIklan” (Tree of Advertisement). A tree symbolizes a fresh natural life; therefore, the advertisement which was installed on the treewas an irony. This cartoon was a real social criticism. As far as the Balinese context is concerned, such an irony was a paradox. The reason is that Trihitakarana, one of the Balinese local wisdoms, teaches that we should maintain the harmonious relation between man and his fellow-creatures, including trees. The essence of the sense of humor which this cartoon contained was situated on the ironic sidethat such an advertisement was not installed by a corporation but by those who probably lived close to the tree. The reason was that it contained common domestic issues. In the events which describe tensions such as the political tensions, the cartoonist uses this material as the material for creating humors (humors which can calm tensions). According to Kritchtafovitch (2005) and Ajidarma (2012), the element of tensions in politics is the source of humors, as illustrated by the revelation of the conflict within oneself. The humor in the cartoon “SuasanaPemilu” (the Atmosphere of General Election) of the theme “RumahSakit” (Hospital) was an attempt made to calm tensions and pressures through laughter. According to Kant in his book entitled “Critique of Judgment” (1892), laughter can appear from the tension which is transformed into nothing: “… laughter is affection arising from the sudden transformation of a strained expectation into nothing” (Ajidarma, 2012: 36). The urban problems can be the sources of actual humors and are frequently talked about. One of such problems is the traffic jam. The recent traffic jams taking place in South Bali was presented as the
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centers of traffic jams. The parody which was presented in the drawing “Kemacetan” (Traffic Jam) of the theme “Mobil” (Car) was a tragedy. A tragedy is an impulse which inspires the sense of humor. In the drawing the character was seen to show being under pressure, worried and confused. The logic was that “daripadapusingmarikitametertawakannya” (Laughing at it is better than being confused). “When people feel shock, horror, or disgusted, it is difficult to laugh”. Gerald Coffee, a researcher, investigated the Americans whom were detained in the Vietnamese camps. He stated that they laughed at themselves to maintain their mental and physical health. “Laughter sets the spirit free through even the most tragic circumstances. It helps us shake our heads clear, get our feet back under us and restore our sense of balance. Humor is integral to our peace of mind and our ability to go beyond survival” (Association for Applied and Therapeutic Humor, 2001). The narsistic nature of the modern society was used as the parody in the cartoon “CCTV” of the theme “Camera”. Life style and actual phenomena attract the public attention. The cartoon caught the euphoria the people’s “coquettishness” to appear on the television media and other social media. According to Martin and Shiota (in Ajidarma, 2012:39), such a social humor is enjoyed by people as they can currently feel such a mental experience. The phenomenon of selfie, namely taking pictures of one’s self to be uploaded on the social media is a social happiness in the framework of celebrating a new era, namely the era of the media technological development. Conclusions The attention paid by the Bog-Bog Cartoon Magazine to the impact of globalization on the Balinese social order and culture made it a social representation. Globalization was used by the Bog-Bog
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cartoonists to inspire their works. Ideologically, globalization changed the Balinese landscape, indicated by the spread of technologies and foreign cultures. Visually, the Bog-Bog cartoon presented a new art style, namely the postmodern style, indicated by degradation of meaning, imitated works, emphasis on the content rather than on the structure, being vulgar and so forth. Specifically, cartoon could package massages in the form of humors. The Bog-Bog cartoon was the work which was characterized by the Balinese cultural value and express critical criticisms using parodies and satires. References
Ajidarma, Seno Gumira. 2011. Panji Tengkorak; Kebudayaan dalam Perbincangan. Jakarta: KPG 9 kepustakaan Populer Gramedia
Appadurai, Arjun. 1990. Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Barker, Chris. 2008. Cultural Studies: Teori dan Praktik. Yogyakarta: KreasiWacana.
Berger, Arthur Asa. 2005. Tanda-Tanda Dalam Kebudayaan Kontemporer. Yogyakarta: Tiara Wacana Yogya.
Featherstone, 1993. Consumers Culture and Postmodern. London: Sage.
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Gumelar, MS. 2013. Art & Design Principles. Yogyakarta: Deepublish.
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Hutcheon, Linda. 2000. A Theory of Parody: The Teachings of Twentieth-Century Art Forms. Chicago: University of Illinois.
Kusmiati, R. Artini. 1999. Teori Dasar Disain Komunikasi Visual. Jakarta: Penerbit Djambatan.
Kusrianto, Ari. 2007. Pengantar Desain Komunikasi Visual. Yogyakarta: CV Andi Offset
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Rose, Margaret A. 1993. Parody: Ancient, Modern and Postmodern. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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Sumardjo, Jacob. 2000. Filsafat Seni. Bandung: Penerbit ITB.
Wijana, I Dewa Putu. 2003. Kartun: Studi Tentang Permainan Bahasa. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak.
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Association for Appliedand Therapeutic Humor, 2001, Tragedy, Laughter and Survival. Sumber: http://www.aath.org/tragedylaughter-and-survival Diakses 20 July 2016
Cabral, Carlos Gomes. 2013, Cartoon Fundamentals: How to Create Movement and Action. Sumber:htt p://design .tutplus.c om/ tutorials/cartoon-fundamentals-how-to-create=movement-a nd -action--vector-199904 Diakses 3 Agustus 2016.
Krichtafovitch, Igor. 2005. Humor Theory. Sumber:http;// le bed.com/ HumorTheory/H umorTh eoryf inal l.htm . Diakses 20Juli 2016
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EDUCATIONAL VALUES ACCORDING TO DRIYARKARA Maemonah Lecturer Fakultas Ilmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta Abstract Discussing the value of education presupposes the existence of a strong impetus to the ideals of education that is recently started to fade because of the proliferation of pragmatic interests promoted by both users and providers of education in Indonesia. Among the observers of education that have always concentrated on the formulation and development of the idealistic values of modern education in Indonesia is Driyarkara. This article tries to analyze more deeply the factors that encourage and underlie Driyarkara’s educational thinking and explore further the exact position to spread the seeds of educational values deliberately formulated by Driyarkara. Keywords: Driyarkara, Axiology, Values, and Education A. Background One of educational thinking dimensions, according to Driyarkara,1 is dimensional values in education. In philosophy,
1
Driyarkara is now better known as the name of the College of Philosophy (STF) of Driyarkara. As a leader who has served as Rector of the University of Sanata Dharma, Driyarkara (d. 1986) is one of the leading educational figures in modern Indonesia. His thoughts about education have always stressed on strengthening unity between the dimensions of religiosity (a Catholic perspective), nationality and humanity. His works are comprehensively collected in Karya Lengkap Driyarkara published by Gramedia Pustaka in 2006. www.ijmer.in
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these values may be understood as axiology of education,2 but in order to avoid misunderstandings, the theme of values in education is more precisely used in this paper. The concept of value here is also different with ethics because ethics emphasize the issue of good and bad, while value emphasizes the right and wrong of a value concept for the good and the bad. Value is much broader than the ethics.3 Values, in addition to examining the ethical question, are also examining the issue of idealism aspects of society, including education. Therefore, the focus of the study of the value is not merely the study of good and bad of an education, but more importantly it is the study of the reality of an understanding of the values that have always colored patterns carried in education in terms of rationale, formulation, process, or educational practice.4 An understanding of the concept of value on the one hand and education on the other hand that then bring up the concept of the value 2
Axiology is derived from the Greek word Axios meaning value and logos meaning science. Thus, literally, axiology is the science of value. The terminology axiology is the philosophical study concerned about the theory of value, about means and ends, and of the goodness and truth and vice versa. There are two basic categories of axiology: objectivism and subjectivism. Both objectivism and subjectivism are departing from the question, whether the value is dependent or not dependent on humans. This question is answered by; (1) The value of the intuitive theory, this theory holds that it is quite difficult to define a set of values that are ultimate or absolute. (2) rational theory, this theory views that the value is the result of human reasoning. (3) The theory of nature, this theory holds that value is created by humans in conjunction with the needs and desires of nature. (4) the theory of emotive value; this theory holds that it is an expression of emotion or behavior. The first two are categories of objectivism and the rest are the categories of subjectivism. Besides objectivism and subjectivism, pragmatism is also known. It is, as stated by Lorens Bagus in the Dictionary of Philosophy, (Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka, 1996), p. 33-34. 3 This is as explained by Barry Smith in “Axiology” in Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (London: Routledge, 2003), p., 71. 4 George R. Knight, Filsafat Pendidikan, pent. Mahmud Arif, (Yogyakarta: Gama Media, 2007), p. 58-59. www.ijmer.in
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of education need an explanation because education is always loaded with interest. At the same time, values are always manifested in the development process of understanding. In fact, according to Babita Tomar, aiming at values is also important in the context of education and public relations as well as its relation with politics and education policies that are part of the urgency of the link between values and education. Thus, the value of education is the exploration of the values that exist in the thinking, process, and educational actions.5 With the above explanation, the value of education is a basic framework or point of view that gives birth to the formulation, process and educational purposes. Therefore, it is correct that George R. Knight illustrates that education is the development of self-preferences or self-tendencies, and the classrooms are Axiological Theater.6 In fact, John Dewey clearly suggests an inseparable relationship between the dimensions of educational values and issues in the formulation, process, and educational purposes. Dewey writes:7 The considerations involved in a discussion of educational values have already been brought out in the discussed in educational theories coincide with aims which are usually urged. They are such things as utility, culture, information, preparation for social efficiency, mental discipline or power, and so on. The aspect of these aims in virtue of which they are valuable has been treated in our analysis of the nature of interest, and there is no difference between speaking of art as an interest or concern and referring to it as a values. It happens, however, that discussion of values has usually been centered about a consideration of the various ends sub served by specific subjects of the 5
Babita Tomar, “Axiology in Teacher Education: Implementations and Challenges”, Journal or Research and Method in Education, vol. 4, Issues 2, (2014), p. 51-43. 6 Ibid., p. 49. 7 John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (New York: Dover Publications, 2004), p. 222. www.ijmer.in
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curriculum. An explicit discussion of educational values thus affords an opportunity for reviewing the prior discussion of aims and interests on one hand and of the curriculum on the other, by bringing them into connection with another. Dewey’s outlook indicates that a value promoted and included in education covers various aspects of education, such as in terms of theories of education, the process of education in the curriculum, and in terms of its goals and interests pursued. At the same time, as written by Ahmad Janan, wide educational goals (Islam) as a discourse or practice allow the understanding of differences, but all of them are not contradictory because the goals of education are essentially an elaboration of the goals of human life.8 Because of the close relationship between values and education as mentioned above, Sudarminta asserts that education is the process of establishing the personal disposition of learners and instilling values in axiology area above is an essential part of education itself. Further, Sudarminta writes: 9 Because the value implantation is an essential part of education itself, and then for those preparing to become educators, it is an obligation to explore axiology or the science of values, in terms of aesthetics, moral values (ethics) as well as the spiritual value (theology). Principal questions that arise here are which values are supposed to be or at least should be embedded in the educational process? The answer to this question, of course, is variable in accordance with the philosophy of life adopted by the institution concerned.
8
Ahmad Janan Asifudin, Mengungkit Pilar-pilar Pendidikan Islam: Tinjauan Filosofis, (Yogyakarta: Suka Press, 2009), p. 89. 9 J. Sudarminta, ”Filsafat Pendidikan”, Diktat Mata Kuliah Filsafat Pendidikan Universitas Sanata Dharma, 1998, p. 44. www.ijmer.in
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Not only in the context of personal interests of learners, John Halliday positions the education process as part of the development and cultivation of morality in society more broadly because education is substantially the form of planting and the application of morality. Therefore, according to Halliday, planting should be scrutinized and analyzed continuously in the form of educational research on an ongoing basis.10 The author is aware of the various aspects of education that contain a certain value. At the same time, these values are applied directly or indirectly to the target. The same thing is also present in Driyarkara’s thinking. To that end, the study of dimensional values in educational thought of Driyarkara always considers a framework for understanding on the object of his study or thoughts. With these considerations, the author believes that the study of the meaning and goals of education and the educational curriculum is the object of study most closely related to values in education. B. Giving a meaning to education as a life value As one of the leading educational thinkers in modern Indonesia, Driyarkara with his educational thoughts has inspired subsequent generations who diligently examine education in Indonesia. Driyarkara was inspired in terms of educational ideas when he learned a lot in Europe, precisely in Rome. Therefore, it is not surprising that his educational thinking is also motivated by an idea of existentialism. At the same time, as an introduction written by the editor of his Complete Works, there is an explanation that existentialism is actually the ‘child’ of personalism. Therefore, it is natural that Driyarkara often uses traditional concepts of existentialism to decipher his various phylosophical analyses about education. Nevertheless, Driyarkara 10
John Halliday, “Researching Values in Education”, British Educational Research Journal, vol. 28, no. 1, (2002), p. 49-62. www.ijmer.in
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emphasizes more on his dimensional personalism. Driyarkara gives the reason that personalism is a doctrine of human and humanitarian that always emphasizes the importance of the meaning of human nature that can never be separated from the theistic line or an acknowledgment of man’s relationship with God.11 However, it should also be understood that the educational thoughts of Driyarkara are not entirely departed from the problems in education. His educational thoughts are much inspired by the development of philosophy and theology in Europe in the era of the 1950s. Therefore, Driyarkara ideas about education are focused on the perspective of the general nature or dimension.12 The implication of each idea would needs to be given the interpretation and application in the world of education in concrete. One of Driyarkara’s ideas, in the opinion of the author, that needs further explanation is his dimensional conception of values in education. Exploration of this dimension can be taken from the conception of the formulation or the meaning of education, What is intended with the meaning of education here is the understandings on education formulated by Driyarkara. These understandings are important to be studied further because an understanding with any tendency and substance will always affect the understanding of other dimensions that exist in the great concept of education. For the reasons, the understanding of education formulated by education reviewers is not necessarily uniform. It means that an understanding of education taken from a particular source will be different with the understanding taken from other sources. The possibilities are deliberately presented for granted, or without having to 11
Ibid., p. 11-12. Such review is also stated by J. Sudarminta in his article titled “Relevansi dan Keterbatasan Gagasan Driyarkara tentang Pendidikan” in Journal of Discourses, vol 6 no. October 2, 2007. p. 158-160.
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formulate it into a certain understanding to show that any meaning promoted education will give special value that does not necessarily exist in another space of meaning. This of course includes what is carried by Driyarkara about the meaning of education. According to Driyarkara, education should be interpreted as a “fundamental or basic phenomena in human life”. Therefore, Driyarkara continues that “where there is life there however is education”.13 For Diryarkara, meaning of education is not other than the meaning of life itself. Therefore, the early life of man brings meaning when people know and realize about life itself. This is because Driyarkara asserts that “to educate is to form young man so that he (the man) is an integrated whole”. 14 The whole intent is integrated from various aspects of life. The whole intent could also mean people who have a full awareness of their existence. Human existence itself, according to Driyarkara, as written by Banin Diar Sukomo, has distinctive characteristics that are in the world (in der welt sein) in a unity that cannot separated but at once can be separated, a paradoxical man.15 Therefore, for Driyarkara the education is a solution to the various problems of human existence. In addition, Driyarkara also stresses that education is a process of hominisasi towards the humanization process, meaning that humans cannot be separated as individual beings in the sense of human existence itself and humanization which is a manifestation of man as a social being. 16
13
A Sudiarja dkk, (peny.), Karya Lengkap Driyarkara, (Jakarta: Gramedia, 2006), p. 270. 14 Driyarkara, Driyarkara tentang Pendidikan, (Yogyakarta: kanisius, 1980), p. 16. 15 Banin Diar Sukomo, “Etika Driyarkara dan Relevansinya di Era Postmodern”, Jurnal Filsafat, Vol 23, No. 1 (2013), p. 79. 16 Asep Rifki Abdul Aziz, “Konsep Hominisasi dan Humanisasi Menurut Driyarkara”, dalam, Al-A’raf; Jurnal Pemikiran Islam dan Filsafat, Vol. I, No. 1, (2016), p. 128-148 www.ijmer.in
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Theoretically, Driyarkara distinguishes between education and pedagogy. Education, as noted above, emphasizes more on the ontological-anthropocentric human being as subject and object of education, and pedagogy (theoretical) is “the view that is accounted methodically and systematically for phenomena or human phenomenon we call education”.17 Thus, it can be understood that the pedagogy, or in the language now it can be called with education science, emphasizes more on aspects of the methods and systems of education rather than the practice of education, because educational practice is actually much broader and more primitive than the pedagogy. Educational practices begin to appear along with outstanding awareness of intellectual potential and geist held by humans. Furthermore, Driyarkara explains that human dimension should be understood in a more realistic context, but not too idealistic. In other words, even though education is a fundamental element for humans, but because of certain interests, young man dimension is an area that is the most important in the context of education. The explanation, as understood by Supratikno, is that education is a young man humanization, ie, assistance to the young man in the process of passing the disintegration of the biological properties towards integration of the human properties. Furthermore, education is also a forum for young man civilizing process, ie, assistance to the young man to be able to pass the disintegration of the old feudal culture towards integration of the new modern rational culture.18 The interpretation is felt too far away from what is understood simply by Driyarkara. For him, the young man is a transition from children to becoming an adult. In this transition process if not guided well by the educational process,
17
Ibid., p. 61. Supratikno, “Menbaca Pemikiran Driyarkara tentang Pendidikan Di Jaman Sekarang”, Makalah, presented in Pendampingan Prajabatan Dosen-dosen Baru FKIP, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 10 May 2014. 18
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a society may be losing a generation as the successful generation is the generation that is able to develop what it is inherited from its predecessor and also able to bequeath to the next generation. In addition, education is the assistance in the implementation of values, ie, the disintegration of the old feudalistic values towards integration with the new democratic and fair values. In other words, efforts to shape a young man indicate that the aim of education should focus on our responsibility to prepare the future generation. It is written by Driyarkara as follows: Human life is always an ‘ambivalence’ or fluctuation in values. To expose our minds and to direct to the questions that we are talking now, well argued, that what the ambivalence is, and in unstable condition, is mainly the young generation of each community. 19 C. Education goals and nation’s identity Education is built and developed for its goals to be achieved. The intended destination can mean personal and can also be communal. However, for human life cannot be left alone, the collective dimension must also be entered into in the context of educational goals. Personal human dimension should be parallel with the social dimension of man. Both should be equally honed early on, through various processes of teaching and learning, in order to create personality or character as a whole. It is also formulated by Driyarkara. For hm, education at primary and secondary level is the best time in the process of establishing the identity of the learner. According to Driyarkara, education in secondary schools is very important. It is because the secondary education is education for generations of humans who are in the process of psychological growth and maturation. In the context of the process of growth and
19
Ibid., p. 12.
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maturation, according to Driyarakara, there are other elements that are also included in the educational process so that it becomes a concrete form of the act of education. The element in question is the intent and effect of the educator. According to Driyarkara, it is important to know what is meant by educators. Influence and intent of educators basically reflect the concept of educational objectives. In essence, Driyarakara views that the purpose of education is to create human actions as an act of existence in the context into education or that education is contained in the way we are. To that end, our existence reflects the outcome of the educational process itself. 20 Our language expressed by Driyarkara above shows that the purpose of education is not only more personal goals such as personal intelligence, or personal glory. The essential purpose lies more in a collective nature. According to Driyarkara, “education is an aspect of the general acculturation, and national identity is the root of basis and destination of education”. Therefore, education has a collective goal of building human ideals in the context as a national personality.21 Of course, there is no such thing as a national personality, but there is a human personality; the national identity is collective human beings of Indonesian nation that has a personality, ie, that has identity. Having 20
These views are in fact not so much different from the meaning of goal according to Driyarkara. According to him, “the goal is not a goal that is created. That goal is the goal of human nature itself, the purpose of all the goals is the purpose of man himself. Anyone who does not recognize this purpose, as a consequence, must be said that the whole culture is in principle that has no meaning and that human life is essentially non-sense. Driyarkara, Karya Lengkap, p. 323-324. 21 To that end, according to the researcher, Driyarkara’s intention on national personality is not in the sense of nationalism or nationality in relation to the discourse of the nation-state. But more to the formation of the nation’s identity that should be used as a handle for the Indonesian people. The identity of this nation is the character values used as a benchmark. The value of most principal characters are, diety, mutual help, and humane (humanitarianism).
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an identity is having a noble character in accordance with the noble values that are collectively believed to be true. The human personality is not merely as a self but human personality in its simplified context that for Driyarkara the purpose of education is of interest in the dynamics of human life and sociality. This dynamics and human sociality is then later so-called emerging education by Driyarkara as teaching. Teaching is formed naturally from the awareness of the importance of education. Therefore, teaching by Driyarkara is distinguished from education. Teaching is a derivative of education, so that education is clearly more extensive than teaching, but teaching cannot be separated from education. For that, Driyarkara asserts that educating is the right and duty of parents. The Nation is obliged to recognize, protect and assist the implementation of those rights and obligations and also carries out its duties to promote education about teaching.22 According to Driyarkara, in teaching, there are two aspects: education and development of the capable teachers. Educational aspect is the substance of education itself, while aspects of teacher development is the infrastructure of education held. Therefore, teaching is more inclined to be interpreted as formal education, while education has a wider scope. The purpose of education according to Jacques Maritian, as written by Sudarminta, is human, spiritual and personal freedom.23 Freedom in question is the perfection of the existence of every human being. Therefore, according to Sudarminta; “Speaking of freedom, in the sense of perfection of existence, as the ultimate goal of education, presupposes that real education is not just about the transfer or transmission of knowledge and skills training, but first of all the establishment of attitude to life”.24 The formation of this attitude is 22
Driyarkara, Karya Lengkap, p. 422-423. J. Sudarminta, Filsafat Pendidikan, p. 31. 24 Ibid.
23
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nothing but the formation of a collective identity, national identity, or the identity of the nation. At the same time, what is initiated by Sudarminta about the perfection of the existence and formation of attitude to life is a common thread that can be drawn from the thought of Driyarkara, because for Driyarkara the main one is the strengthening of human existence so up on what is termed by him with hominisasi and humanization as described beforehand.25 Therefore, for Driyarkara, education should emphasize on the dimensions of the human subject or the actors/doers, so that education is a human phenomenon. Driyarkara emphasizes people as the subject of education in its existential dimension. The dimensions of human existence are not focused on the duality of human reality but rather on the reality of making it as a phenomenal unity. Emphasis on dimension of human existence does not mean leaving the question of human spirituality. Dimensions of human existence precisely place the dimension of human spirituality in the unity of human existence that is always in processes towards human self authenticity. Therefore, for Driyarkara, education is fundamental. The reason is that education is to change, determine, and shape a human attitude not only outwardly, but also inwardly. D. Establishing humane education curriculum Education curriculum cannot be separated from the meaning and goals of education. When the meaning and goals of education conceives education, the curriculum is essentially translating the conception in the concrete, real, and applied form. With another explanation, curriculum always translates as well as reflects the concept of education. 25
In Education phenomenon, Driyarkara underlines that hominisasi is humanization process in general while humanization is a continuing process of hominisasi, a process that leads man to the high level or dignity as a human being. Driyarkara, Karya Lengkap, p. 366.
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The educational curriculum includes a variety of dimensions of education. To that end, the concept of curriculum in the context of this discussion, as defined by a curriculum expert Peter F. Olivia, is explained that the curriculum can be interpreted in thirteen meanings that include, one of which, the curriculum as learning content or what is often referred to as subjects, the study program, the object of study, and others. 26 Thus, curriculum is a plan or program for the implementation of learning in which students are exposed to the rules of the school.27 The aforementioned views on curriculum give a preliminary understanding that the concept of the curriculum proposed by Driyarkara is not in the form of rigid boundaries but rather as the general views or ideas about curriculum. For Driyarkara, curriculum is one manifestation of education. This means that the reality of education is simply a picture of the reality of curriculum. Curriculum becomes part of the concrete embodiment of the values of the concept of education. Thus, it can be understood that curriculum is a reflection as well as evidence of the application of values in education. At the same time, the facts on curriculum are the embodiment of the idea of the vision and foundation or epistemee of education. In the realm of curriculum, evidence of the strength or weakness of the concept of education as a reference in the form of vision, mission, or others will appear. It is most emphasized on the issues raised by Driyarkara about determination of the shape or pattern of teaching, as reflected in the curriculum to always prioritize the inculturated and progressive values in the broadest sense. The Driyarkara’s views are contained in the fifth proposition in the Education Selecta Capita. According to Driyarkara, to form the 26
Peter F. Olivia, Developing the Curriculum, (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1982), p. 6. 27 “A plan or program for the learning experiences that the learner encounters under the direction of the school”. Ibid., p. 21. www.ijmer.in
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construction of teaching, “our view should not be pragmatic, but should be inculturated-progressive, in the broadest sense”.28 Construction of teaching can be interpreted as part of the competence and the issue of the educational curriculum, while construction is a teaching construction according to Driyarakara is a systemic and collective education that is different from more general education and is individual character. Therefore, for Driyarkara, education precedes teaching. In the development of the human race today, education cannot be accompanied by teaching.29 This means, according to Driyarkaran, teaching process can be done by anyone and in any context, but the correct teaching process is the process based on correct understanding of education as well. Driyarkara emphasis on avoidance to pragmatic teaching system for learning with such systems is geared to the artificial interests, not intact, narrow, and temporary or ad hoc in nature. The learning process in education must be built with progressive and inculturated patterns in the sense that the process is directed to the context of efforts to change from ignorance to enlightment of mankind by sticking to cultural values. In other words, the learning process should be directed at efforts to get to know the surrounding cultural dimension, because essentially newborns are immediately faced with the reality of the culture in the surrounding areas. The progressive pattern in question, according to Driyarkara, is the enthusiasm dynamically by Geist (spirit or soul) capital in a civilized and cultured man.30 Thus, the rejection of Driyarkara on pragmatic-based teaching and education curriculum is more interpreted as a form of rejection of the teaching process which is more pragmatic due to fears of the emergence of instant attitude of the education community. What is 28
Driyarkara, Karya Lengkap, p. 425. Ibid., p. 423. 30 Ibid., p. 428. 29
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clear for Driyarkara is that teaching process must produce skilled workers both mechanically and technically, practically and in multi-use for social purposes. Driyarkara writes the ninth argument as follows: “Teaching should pay more attention in terms of practical sides and stand in the midst of people’s daily lives.31 In addition to the inculturated-progressive vision, curriculum, according to Driyarkara, must reflect the functional values both for self as a person and for society as a human community. To that end, the subjects should have the educative function for the students in addition to cognitive function as well. Driyarakara explains: “in the content as very important elements contained subjects, so this has to be didactic”.32 Driyarkara also stresses the importance of spreading the subjects to give birth to the various dimensions of viewing patterns created on students so that students are not set up with one point of view. It is important because education is not making man a robot, but education makes man into himself as a man of culture. Therefore, it is important for a subject, according to Driyarkara, “is how one subject helps in the acculturation of the child and thus helps in being human”.33 The emphasis on cultural dimensions then push Driyarkara to emphasize the value and significance of the social sciences or humanities in education, particularly at secondary school level. Driyarkara gives reasons that: A group of social subjects help a young
31
Ibid., p. 432. Ibid., p. 439. 33 Ibid., p. 448. 32
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man to see his world in his growth as a mit-welt and himself as mitsein”.34 From the above explanation, it is clear that in formulating and understanding the curriculum, Driyarkara emphasizes dimensional learners rather than teaching materials or science. Driyarakra also indicates that humanitarian or perspective dimension should be the benchmark of the formulation of a curriculum. These views show the values in the curriculum promoted by Driyarkara. The values in the curriculum are more focused again, ie, the values in the context of the interests of mankind and humanity, while the other dimensions are practical. Driyakara is fully devolved to scientists who focus their studies on education. E. Conclusion At the end of this article, it can be concluded that Driyarkara formulates educational values from three-dimensions: dimensional meaning of education, educational goals, and educational instruments in the form of educational curriculum. These three areas have to be a marker for alignments and proving the value of education to be carried out. Driyarkara proposes that educational values should always be consistent efforts on humanizing human both in the context of the development of human individual identity and the identity of the human collectivity as national identity. Both the visions of this value should be actually implemented in the formulation of education, the goals and application of education through the educational curriculum. References
Asifudin, Ahmad Janan. Mengungkit Pilar-pilar Pendidikan Islam: Tinjauan Filosofis, Yogyakarta: Suka Press, 2009.
34
Ibid., p. 453. Driyarkara interprets mit-welt as the world together and mitsein as exising together. www.ijmer.in
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Aziz, Asep Rifki Abdul. “Konsep Hominisasi dan Humanisasi Menurut Driyarkara”, dalam, Al-A’raf; Jurnal Pemikiran Islam dan Filsafat, Vol. I, 2016, hlm. 128-148.
Bagus, Lorens. Kamus Filsafat, Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka, 1996.
Dewey, John. Democracy and Education, New York: Dover Publications, 2004.
Driyarkara, Driyarkara tentang Pendidikan, Yogyakarta: kanisius, 1980
Halliday, John. “Researching Values in Education”, Educational Research Journal, vol. 28, no. 1, (2002).
Knight, George R. . Filsafat Pendidikan, pent. Mahmud Arif, Yogyakarta: Gama Media, 2007.
Olivia, Peter F. Developing the Curriculum, (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1982 .
Sudiarja, A. (ed.), Karya Lengkap Driyarkara, Jakarta: Gramedia, 2006.
Smith, Barry. “Axiology”, Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, London: Routledge, 2003.
Sudarminta, J. ”Filsafat Pendidikan”, Diktat Mata Kuliah Filsafat Pendidikan Universitas Sanata Dharma, 1998.
----------, “Relevansi dan Keterbatasan Gagasan Driyarkara tentang Pendidikan”, Jurnal Diskursus, vol 6. no. 2 Oktober 2007.
Sukomo, Banin Diar. “Etika Driyarkara dan Relevansinya di Era Postmodern”, Jurnal Filsafat, Vol 23, No. 1 (2013).
Supratikno, “Menbaca Pemikiran Driyarkara tentang Pendidikan Di Jaman Sekarang”, Makalah, disajikan dalam Pendampingan Prajabatan Dosen-dosen Baru FKIP, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 10 Mei 2014.
Tomar, Babita. “Axiology in Teacher Education: Implementations and Challenges”, Journal or Research and Method in Education, vol. 4, Issues 2, (2014).
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INFLUNCE OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ON PRESERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES Pusarla.V.V.S.S.Kumar Research Scholar in Education (PhD-Part-time-B-, Category) Bharathiar University Coimbatore –Tamil Nadu
Dr.R.S.S.Nehru Research Guide Bharathiar University Coimbatore
Abstract Emotional Intelligence (EI) was popularized in by Daniel Goldman’s (1990),book of the same name published by Golemanin 1996. EI has been criticized by scholars after clear definition or empirical evidence that it is anything more than a combination of known cognitive and personality factors. Despite this there are many proponents of EI in education and teacher education who highlight the folly of trying to separate the cognitive from the emotional. The number of practical applications to improve the student teacher experience, increase academic and professional achievement and develop well-rounded graduates with the skills desired by communities. Keywords: Emotional Intelligence, Student Engagement, Teaching Practice, Employability, Curriculum The emotion Emotions are universal and intrinsic to human beings - as shown by common body language and facial expressions to the basic emotions demonstrated in cross cultural studies (Yiend& Mackintosh 2005). These expressions are not learned as they are also exhibited by people who have been since birth. However, as Humphrey et al (2007) point out, reasons has been studied separately from the emotions. In the resulting rationalist-emotional in which has looked at the two as polar opposites, teacher education has traditionally followed the
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rationalist doctrine. Becauseof psychology says cognition as separate from emotion and the major theories such as Vygotsky have proposed that the separation of the intellectual from the affective domain is one of the fundamental flaws of traditional psychology. What is Emotional Intelligence (EI)? There have been several terms used to describe emotional intelligence, such as emotional competence, literacy, etc.A problem with EI, like general intelligence is that there is no clear definition of what emotional intelligence. EI model comprising four abilities (Mayer et al 2004): (a) Perceiving emotion; (b) Use of emotion to facilitate thought; (c) Understanding emotions; and (d) Managing emotion, i.e. “to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth”. Dwyer (2002), proposed that instead of intelligence being a single phenomenon, there are multiple intelligences. These include linguistic, logic-mathematical, spatial, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences. EI is the same thing as the intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions of intelligence.Lewis et al (2005) suggest that EI may be unmeasurable due to this lack of definition. They ask whether it is “a single quality” or “a set of skills”. They also note the problem of the construct of EI being defined by what is measured. The Bar-On and MSCEIT (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test) tests of EI have been criticized for being self-report assessments which are prone to various errors such as fundamental attribution error, actor observer effects, self-serving, cognitive and motivational biases. These image-management strategies, which are not necessarily conscious, are confounding factors in EI measurement.
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Characteristics of Emotions Emotional experiences are associated with some instincts or biological drives.Every emotional experience is associated with one or the other innate instinct. An emotion is aroused under the current or influence of an instinctive excitement. One can experience emotion of anger only after riding on the instinctive waves of pugnacity or combat. Emotions
bring
physiological
changes.
Every
emotional
experience involves many physical and physiological changes in the organism. Some of the changes which express themselves as overt behavior which are easily observable like reddened eyes, flushed cheeks, beating of the heart, choke in the voice, or an attack on an emotion aroused stimulus. In addition to these easily observable changes, there are internal physiological changes like changes in the circulation of blood, impact on the digestive system and changes in the functioning of some glands like adrenal glands. Need and Importance of the study In a world increasingly centered on the unrestrained satisfaction of individual needs, many people feel entitled to let free their emotions without paying the slightest care to the impact on those around them. Educational scenario is also not an exception. Both teachers and students often experience the difficulties caused by the poor management of emotions. The education that schools and colleges impart today focuses much on the cognitive aspect and seldom give importance to the affective aspects. Feelings are as important as ideas and knowledge .Most social scientists who study intelligence estimate that intelligence quotient accounts for only 25 to 35 percent of a person’s overall success in life. It is a fact that many people with high academic intelligence fail to deal successfully with the emotional turmoil of life. At this juncture comes in the importance of Emotional Intelligence, which adds the qualities that make man more human.
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Today teachers and parents think that the purpose of their lives is fulfilled when they have completed their education and settled in a job, but nobody seems to be concerned about their psychological behavior. In India, the malady is common among young and youth. The neglect of emotional problems of the children affects their mental health status and thus, results in serious consequences. Therefore, it is essential to understand the dynamics of emotions related aspects and make planned efforts to promote their positive behavior by meeting their emotional needs in addition to their intellectual needs. Teachers play a crucial role in moulding and shaping the elastic period of life, students are easily influenced by their teachers. So teachers with higher degree of Emotional Intelligence, in turn, can produce emotionally intelligent citizens. Again Emotional Intelligence is the fundamental dimension of leadership and as the emotional balance they got in their pre-service teacher education and they are became best leaders in society. They should possess high Emotional Intelligence at their pre-service training programme can understand children well and do a better teaching. More and more the teachers understand children; the less difficult it is to deal with them in their professional life. Emotional Intelligence and Teacher Education There has been a growing interest in the application of EI to Teacher Education. In his book teaching with Emotional Intelligence, Alan Mortiboys (2005) explores the relevance and application of EI to teaching practice. Include Emotional Intelligence as an essential component of employability attributes, in their Careermodelfor experience, degree, generic skills and emotional intelligence. The people with Emotional Intelligence motivate themselves and others to achieve more. The qualities of acceptance unconditional positive regard, genuineness congruence and empathy understanding the feelings of the
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other, drawing from Humanistic counselling psychology developed by Carl Rogers. The processes may be regarded as entailing a transformative journey (Clayton et al 2009) where the student gains knowledge and learns practical and reasoning skills which help them function better. Studies have shown that people who score highly on tests of Emotional Intelligence have better interpersonal skills and are more positively evaluated by their peers - which should translate to better social interaction in the schools and colleges. Then counselling deals with pathological and emotional difficulties thatshould be dealt with separately when they become a problem (Clayton et al 2009).The Teacher Education sees emotions as private or pathological rather than part of the social context of the learning environment. The dominance of stoical, masculine influences on notions of teachereducation should bethe perspective of social constructionism. Allemotional beings and emotions play a role in shaping our understanding and actionsare not cease to have emotions when we walk into a classroom or lecturetheatre. Silver (1999) stresses the importance of emotions in the learning process andbelieves that not including Emotional Intelligence in teaching is to fail the students. Even in her discipline,Law, where critical reasoning is vital, she says it is folly to try and eliminate theemotional aspects of the subject. The teaching process mixinginner emotions and that educators must be willing to acknowledge theirresponsibility for the feelings they arouse. How does emotions influence on student teachers There is evidence demonstrating positive outcomes from the applications of concepts of Emotional Intelligence. The cognitive psychology for some time, that attention is necessary for learning of student teachers. They suggest attention isfacilitated by positive emotional engagement. This was impeded by sessions whichwere dull, boring, not challenging, by poor explanations and communication and bynot feeling able to ask questions. Teaching staff can promote student www.ijmer.in
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engagement by makingtheir sessions interesting, communicating well and allowing time for questions. The sense of awareness of the interpersonal and intrapersonal factorsto help manage emotions. The
teachers/teacher
educators
and
co-student
teacher
relationships have also been shown to have a positive impact onstudent performance and retention. The caring relationships can have a positive effect onaspirations and achievement, helping to nurture the intellect as well as the affectiveaspects of learning and teaching. The negative emotional states can have a detrimental effect on the learningexperience. Stress has been shown to have a negative effect on student engagement andachievement. This is because when in a state of stress,the fight or flight behavior is activated so all the brain is concerned about is survival.The stress include heavy workloads and assessment loads,negative feedback from teacher educators can also be demotivating and mood reducing. Lecturersneed to be aware of these impacts when developing modules, designing assessmentsand giving feedback, to ensure they get the balance right.There is social anxiety due to the fear of negative response.Among a range of suggestions as to how toreduce this anxiety, they include: helping students through the transition of coming to university; promotion of social integration; showing sensitivity to student’sreactions; creation of a safe, respectful environment to allow students to air theirfears and providing lots of constructive feedback to make them open to evaluation.The caution us not to treat students as unduly fragile.Theyadvocate balancing challenge with support. Influence of Emotional IntelligenceonPre-Service Teacher Education The
Pre-Service
Teacher
Educationprogrammes
where
Emotional Intelligence is important is in ensuring a psychologically safe environment for students to learn. This can be difficult when dealing
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with highlyemotive subjects when teaches in school subjects like science, math’s, social sciences like history etc. In Pre-Service Teacher Educationprogram having practical class room sessions with internship and community associated programs also all are associated with different learning environments associated with emotions also. This emotions, as it limits discussion and narrows the learning opportunities adopted by the different situations. Theemotional is intrinsically linked with the cognitive and exclusion of this aspectconstrains the development of a community of critical beings. Theteaching methods and material should be presented sensitively and in an appropriate manner. One way todo this is to use the deluge technique of students are forewarnedthat they will be presented with images they may find shocking, which allows themto prepare themselves and excuse themselves if necessary.When designing a module or curriculum, attention should be paid, to theemotional impact of the material and careful consideration given to the optimumway to present in it. Communication of things and course designating should beconveyed in the lesson itself.Also, the order ofclass room lesson presentation should be considered so student teacheris not thrown in at the deep endand twisted off from the module at the start,so material can be presentedfirst to stimulate interest and prepare students for the difficult material to come insubsequent lecture classes.These suggestions are particularly relevant in the area of professional ethics these arenumerous factors of school subject teaching. Due tothe diverse ethnic, cultural and religious nature of the student population, there willbe many differing opinions on these ethical issues held with differing degrees ofpassion in class room teaching. This expression highlights the issue of language in generating emotions. Teachers need to ensure they donot intellectualize such subjects without acknowledging their emotional aspects.This may make the learning environment seemthreatening and have a demotivating effect.
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In recognition of the complexity of the area of ethics, the IndianPre-Service Teacher Education,associated with the Higher and School Education,a toolfor use in developing a curriculum. This contains many references to the emotional aspects of learning. These questions shows that the affective aspects of pedagogy are taken very seriouslyand should be carefully considered when designing curriculum. That respect for students is important as well as promotingrespect there are other strategies to manage emotional impact. Students need this challenge if they are to become criticalthinkers able to look at different sides. They also need to bechallenged to keep them engaged (Turner & Curran 2006). These approaches being consideration of emotional factors has often beencriticized or as seeing students as fragile or vulnerable. Thepoint of taking emotions into account is to optimize the learning experience, not toprotect students from everything which may make them uncomfortable. As we discussed earlier, excessive stress has a detrimental impact on students learning,and there are many ways to ensure there is as little unnecessary stress as may be possible. The goal is not the elimination of stress but striking a balance between challengingand overwhelming students.Trainee teachers need to be sensitive to their students’ and their own emotions and howthese impinge on the educational process. Reflection-in-actions is part of aneducator’s skill set, and should include being responsive to students’ emotionalreactions. This highlights the dynamic, reciprocal role that emotions play in shaping the learning environment. Finally according to Aristotle “to become angry is easy, but to be angry with the right person, to the right degree, at the right way is not easy”. It is the prime duty of the parents and teachers to coach children, when they have difficulty in expressing emotions. Life is a big school that teaches us to develop Emotional Intelligence.
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References 1. Brina, C. (2003). ‘Not Crying but Laughing: the ethics of horrifying students.’ Teaching inHigher Education. Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 517-528. 2. Clayton, B. Beard, C. Humberstone, B and Wolstenholme, C. (2009). ‘The jouissance of learning: evolutionary musings on the pleasures of learning in higher education.’ Teaching inHigher Education, Vol 14, No 2, pp. 375-386. 3. Dacre Pool, L. and Sewell, P. (2007) ‘The Key to Employability: Developing a practicalmodel of graduate employability.’ Centre for Employability, University of CentralLancashire, Preston, UK. 4. Dwyer, B.M. (2002). ‘Training Strategies for the 21st Century: Using recent Research onLearning to Enhance Training.’ Innovations in Education and Teaching International. Vol. 39,No. 4, pp. 5. Gardiner, H. (1993) Multiple Intelligence: The theory in Practice. Basic Books New York. 6. Gleaves, A. and Walker, C. (2006). ‘How does digital caring differ from physical caring?’ In J. Fanghanel and D. Warren (eds) International Conference on the Scholarship of Teaching andLearning: proceedings 2005 and 2006. London, Centre for Educational and Academic Practices. City University 7. Goleman,
D.
(1996).
Emotional
Intelligence.
Bloomsbury
Publishing. 8. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why it can atter more than IQ?. New York; Bantam Books.
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9. Humphrey, N, Curran, A, Morris, E, Farrell, P and Woods, K. (2007). ‘Emotional Intelligence and Education: A critical review. Educational Psychology, Vol. 27, No. 2. 10. Jaeger, A.J. (2003) ‘Job Competencies and the Curriculum: An Inquiry into Emotional Intelligence in Graduate professional Education.’ Research in Higher Education. Vol. 44, No. 6,pp. 615-639. 11. Leathwood, C. and Hey, V. (2009) ‘Gender/ed discourses and emotional subtexts:theorizing emotion in UK higher education.’ Teaching in Higher Education. Vol. 14, No. 4, pp.429-440. 12. Lewis, N.J. Rees, C.E. Hudson, J.N. and Bleakley, A. (2005). ‘Emotional Intelligence inMedical Education: Measuring the Unmeasurable. Advances in Health Sciences Education. Vol.10, pp. 339-355. 13. Mangal, S.K. and Mangal, S.(2004). Mangal Emotional Intelligence Inventory. Agra: National Psychological Carporation. 14. Mayer, J.D. Caruso, D.R. Salovey, P. and Sitarenois, G (2003). ‘Measuring EmotionalIntelligence with the MSCEIT V2.0.’ Emotion, Vol 3, No 1, pp 97-105 15. Mayer, J.D. Salovey, P and Caruso, D.R. (2004). ‘Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Findingsand Implications.’ Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 15, No 3, pp.197-215 16. Mortiboys, A. (2005) Teaching with Emotional Intelligence. London: RoutledgeRhodes, C. and Nevill, A. (2004). ‘Academic and social integration in higher education: a survey of satisfaction and dissatisfaction within a first year education studies cohort at anew university.’ Journal of Further and Higher Education. Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 179-193.
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17. Silver, M.A. (1999). ‘Emotional Intelligence and Legal Education.’ Psychology, Public Policy and Law. Vol.5, No. 4, pp. 1173-1203. 18. Thomas, L. (2002). ‘Student retention in higher education: The role of institutional habitus’. Journal of Educational Policy. Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 423-442. 19. Topham, P and Russell, G. (2012). ‘Social anxiety in Higher Education.’ The Psychologist Vol.25, No. 4. British Psychological Society (BPS). 20. Turner, P. and Curran, A. (2006). ‘Correlates between PreService Teacher Education student’s experiences ofhigher education and the neurobiology of learning.’ BEE-j Vol. 7. No.5, May 2006. 21. Waterhouse, L. (2006). ‘Multiple Intelligences, the Mozart Effect and Emotional Intelligence:A Critical Review.’ Educational Psychologist, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 207-225. 22. www.Pre-Service Teacher Education.hea cademy.ac.uk/ resource es/au dit.aspx Ethics Audit Tool (2011). 23. Yiend, J.&Mackintosh,B. (2005) CognitionandEmotion,In N.R. Braisby& A.R.H. Gallatly (Eds) Cognitive Psychology, OUP, pp. 463-506
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HOW THE INDIAN MAGAZINES FRAMING THE IMAGE OF MUSLIMS
I. Tarakeswara Rao Research Scholar Dept. of Journalism & Mass Communication Acharya Nagarjuna University Guntur
S. Venkateswarlu Research Scholar Dept. of Journalism & Mass Communication Acharya Nagarjuna University Guntur
J. Manjunath Research Scholar Dept. of Journalism & Mass Communication Acharya Nagarjuna University Guntur Abstract Magazines seek to educate as well as entertain and to portrayal real people close to the readers. Although this weekly supplements is an integral part of the newspapers. It is reflecting the society. Magazine writing lies between a work of fiction and hard news reporting. At the same time, the magazine journalist’s presents interesting, topical information-hard facts gained from research and interviews. In India, Islam is the second most dominant religion with 14.2 % Muslim population. The representation of Muslims in Magazine journalism purposefully neglect by Indian Magazines not only quantitatively but also qualitatively. Media play a significant role in pluralistic society like India in constructing the image of Muslims. This paper is an attempt to find out the Muslim representation in magazine journalism in India. Keywords: Social Responsibility, Challenges, Muslims, Media.
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Introduction Media play an important role in the portrayal of image of any community, political leaders or people. Navasky said that: “It is based largely on journalism that we make up our national mind” (Navasky cited in Zelizer& Allen, 2002). Magazines seek to educate as well as entertain and to portray real people close to the readers. Although this weekly supplements is an integral part of the newspapers. It is reflecting the society. Magazine writing lies between a work of fiction and hard news reporting. At the same time, the magazine journalist’s presents interesting, topical information-hard facts gained from research and interviews. In India, Islam is the second most dominant religion with 14.2 % Muslim population. The representation of Muslims in Magazine journalism purposefully neglect by Indian Magazines not only quantitatively but also qualitatively. Media play a significant role in pluralistic society like India in constructing the image of Muslims. Communal Violence in Post-Independence India After the great massacre of 1947–1948, communal riots continued in post-independence India through all these decades from the 1950s up to the present times. In the 1950s, bloody riots took place in Eastern India and East Pakistan. 14 Except for these riots, in the 1950s, there was comparatively a peaceful environment. During this time Muslim elites and middle class people were preoccupied in transferring their movable assets to Pakistan. But the relative peace of the 1950s was shattered by the riots of 1961 and 1964 in Jamshedpur, Rourkela and Jabalpur. 15 Major bloody riots took place in Ranchi, Bihar in 1967 and in Ahmadabad, in Gujarat, in 1969. In the 1970s and 1980s, several major communal riots took place. Mention should be made of the Turkman Gate massacre of 1976, riots in Moradabad in 1980, Nellie, Nowgong, Assam in 1983, Bombay Bhiwandi in 1984 and Meerut in 1987 and the militant Hindu agitation over the issue of Babri Masjid in
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1989. In many of these riots, nearly 1,000 Muslims were killed each time. 16 Communal conflicts leading to communal violence and genocide in the 1990s began in November 1990 with the rathyatra (chariot procession) by L. K. Advani, who was a prominent leader of BJP, Bharatiya Janata Party, and later Deputy Prime Minister of India. These eventually led to the destruction of the Babri Masjid on 6 December 1992. In this, thousands of Muslims were killed from Ahmadabad and Surat in the West to Bengal in the East. 17 In 1993, dreadful riots took place in Bombay in which over 3,000 Muslims perished. From 1993 to 2003, the Muslim community in India faced a series of communal riots and communal violence. It is not possible to cover the details of all the communal conflict that has taken place in India, through its history of more than half a century of independence, in a single paper. Hence, we shall shed some light on the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya in 1992, and the Muslim genocide in Gujarat in 2002. Muzaffarnagar riots Muzaffarnagar riots are an example of what happens when minority appeasement in the name of secularism reaches a disgusting level. So the whole unfortunate incident started with a simple case of eveteasing. Days after the horrible Muzaffarnagar riot, which left 44 people dead and many injured, people in the affected area started revealing real incident which had triggered violence in the region. The National Commission for Minorities has submitted its report into the communal violence in Muzaffarnagar to the Union government. "The Commission has submitted its report and recommendations to the Union government into the Muzaffarnagar riots while the reports into the Shamli riots would be submitted soon," National Commission for Minorities Chairman Habibullah said that the Commission had visited Lank, Bahawadi and Lisadh, the worst affected villages where rioters
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had burnt houses and damaged properties. About 2200 people were displaced from Lisadh village alone due to the riots, he added. Role of Media As in some other places, here too the vernacular media and one major national electronic news channel seem to have played a key role in inciting violence against the Muslims. There seems to be deliberate and mischievous spreadingof hate through false and unfounded stories. The representatives of BJP used social media and CDs to incite violence. Facebook, MMS etc were all tools of inciting hatred before and during these riots. Several Hindi newspapers and a certain national Hindi news channel distorted the news about the happenings on a daily basis. There was an attempt to create a picture of Muslims being the slaughterers of Hindus and various false stories to this effect were published. Although according to local activists, the leaders at the Friday gathering had called upon the community to maintain peace and not react to violence by violence, the channel reported distorted versions. The result was rumors and rising of passions based on false stories. Need of the Study Media play an important role in the portrayal of any community. The treatment of Muslims—the largest minority group—in a pluralistic society like India has been the subject of debates and discussions.Muslim population in India has grown by 24% between 2001 and 2011 against the national average of 18% with the community's representation rising to 14.2% from 13.4% of total population. India, the largest democracy in the world, has a free press and the constitution has guaranteed freedom of speech and expression (Article 19(1) a) to its citizens. Media social responsibility portrayal in the Muslims as the consideration of minorities in India. So that, this
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paper attempts to “How the Indian Magazines framing the Image of Muslims”. Literature Review The Indian press has portrayed a mix of favorable and unfavorable slants of the Muslims. However, contrary to popular belief, favorable slant is comparatively higher than unfavorable ones. Some of the English newspapers have framed Muslims progressively in early and mid 2000 when both the state of Gujarat and the central government were ruled by the right-wing Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) political party professing Hindutva. Confronting the ruling political party both at the state and nation level by the English press to defend the minorities in the fourth estate. This is reflective of secular tendencies in the media though it may not reflect the opinion of the majority of Hindus in India who still harbor a stereotypical image of Muslims (Narayana Usharani&Kapur, 2009). Muslims and media have generated lot of interest among researchers across different countries. Post 9/11 has seen a spate of studies on media treatment of Muslim community contributing to the literature. Peter manning says that the words “Arab” or “Muslim” were associated with terrorism in 89 percent of articles that appeared in Sydney’s two major newspapers in the post 9/11. He further states that, by and large, the Australian media’s coverage of Muslims and Arabs is tainted with a racism that portrays the community negatively. (Ian Munro, 2006). Mass media play a crucial role in building the image of any society. Traditionally the people of India and Pakistan have grown in an environment where an ‘enemy image’ lurks in the minds of citizenry in both the countries. The partition of India in 1947 as well as wars and constant border clashes between two countries have led to distrust of Hindus and Muslims of each other. Some studies have blamed the
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textbooks and the education system in India and Pakistan for projecting “highly slanted and prejudiced view” of minorities, particularly Muslims in India and Hindus in Pakistan. “These textbooks feed the minds and imagination of millions of children in both countries. They play a major role in generating hatred and animosity between the two countries” (Zahid & Michelle, 2007). Objectives of the study 1. To understand different dimensions of Muslims related coverage. 2. To study how the magazines framing the Muslim developed issues. 3. To find out magazines publish different types of categories in unit analysis related to Muslims. 4. To study how the Indian magazines give priority reporting of Muslims. 5. To analyze magazines given importance welfare of Muslims. 6. To compare Muslim related stories with non-Muslim stories. Research Methodology The use of the content analysis method to analyze the news reports provides the frame work and ability to address questions that are critical for answering the research questions. Content analysis is the systematic, replicable technique for compressing many words of text into fewer content categories based on explicit rules of coding (Berelson, 1952: Krippondorff, 1980 and Weaber, 1990). Content analysis can ables one to look beyond the physicality of text for example, to what text tell them, the conceptions and actions the text encourage (Krippondorff,
2004), and influences made are more
systematic, explicit informed and (ideally) verifiable (Krippondorff, 2004).
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The Sample Frame Work A purposive sample consisting of three leading English weeklies. The magazines were India Today, The Week and Tehelka. The prime consideration in the selection of these magazines was the prominence as reflected in their circulation. 1. India Today Living
Media (India
Today
Group)
is
an Indian media
conglomerate based in New Delhi, India. It has interests in magazines, newspapers, books, radio, television, printing and the Internet.India Todaywas started in the year of 1975. It has 3,20,000 circulation and 6,20,000 readership in India. 2.The Week The Week is an Indian weekly newsmagazine published by The MalayalaManorama Co. Ltd. The magazine is published from Kochin. It was launched in December, 1982. According to the Audit Bureau of Circulations, it has 2,06,500 circulation and 6,19,500 readership. 3.Tehelka Tehelkais an Indian news magazine known for its investigative journalism and sting operations in its beginning years. It was founded by TarunTejpal and AniruddhaBahal in 2000 as a website. It switched to magazine in 2007. It has 3,50,500 circulation and 10,51,500 readership in India. Sampling Procedure The universe for the study comprises all the issues of the three selected magazines published during the calendar years January 1,2012 to December 31, 2014. This study was based on the complete census during the 3 years’ time span.
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Units of Analysis The units of analysis for this study consisted of Cover stories, photos and number of pages published in the three selected magazines. Procedures of measurement The unit of analysis coded into various subject categories, were measured in terms of their frequencies and number of pages. Directional Analysis The purpose of using the directional analysis is to find out how the magazines accorded treatment to Muslims. The subject categories analyzed to find out the treatment given by the three magazines on a 2 point scale: positive and negative. Data Analysis Figure-1 Total Number of Muslim and Non-Muslim Cover Stories published in three years in three magazines This bar chart reveals that total number of cover stories published on Muslim and non-Muslims in three years period by India Today, The Week and Tehelka. Tehelka gave 4 Muslim and 152 non-Muslim cover stories, India Today gave 3 Muslim and 153 non-Muslim, and The Week gave 2 Muslim and 154 non-Muslim cover stories during 2012-2014.
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200 150
Non-… Muslim
100 50 0 India Today The Week
Tehelka
Table-1 shows that distribution of three magazines India Today, The Week and Tehelka cover stories. First Muslim related cover stories gave importance by Tehelka 4 stories with 2.2 as well as India Today 3 stories with 1.9 and The Week 2 stories with 1.3. These three magazines gave importance to political, India Today 63 (40.4), Tehelka 55 (35.3) The Week 30 (19.2).
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Table-1:Total Number of Cover stories allocated in three magazines subject category wise Name of The Weeklies S.No
Subject Category
India Today fr %
The Week fr %
fr
Tehelka %
fr
Total %
1
Political
63
40.4
30
19.2
55
35.3
148
31.6
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Religious Crime & Scandals Youth & Life Style Terrorism &Naxalism Health Women Education & Corporate education Development, Science & Technology Disasters & Accidents Historical Background Sports Cinema International Relations Economy & Business Others Muslims Total
7 9 4 5 4 5 5
4.5 5.8 2.6 3.2 2.6 3.2 3.2
4 14 9 12 5 13 5
2.6 9 5.8 7.7 3.2 8.3 3.2
2 27 5 4 7 6 1
1.3 17.3 3.2 2.6 4.5 3.8 0.6
13 50 18 21 16 24 11
2.7 10.6 3.8 4.4 3.4 5.1 2.3
12
7.7
13
8.3
6
3.8
31
6.6
1 2 9 4 8 15 3 156
0.6 1.2 5.8 2.6 5.1 9.6 1.9 100%
1 7 12 1 15 11 2 2 156
0.6 4.5 7.7 0.6 9.6 7.1 1.3 1.3 100%
7 6 4 3 8 9 2 4 156
4.5 3.8 2.6 1.9 5.1 5.8 1.3 2.3 100%
9 15 25 8 31 35 4 9 468
1.9 3.2 5.3 1.7 6.6 7.4 0.8 1.9 100%
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 11(1), NOVEMBER 2016 Table -2a:Distribution of cover stories in different categories in three magazines in year wise S.No Subject 2012 2013 Categories India The India The Today Week Tehelka Today Week Tehelka fr fr fr fr fr fr 1 Political 23 9 17 12 9 21 2 Religious 1 1 1 1 3 Crime & 1 7 13 7 6 7 Scandals 4 Youth & Life 1 3 2 3 3 1 Style 5 Terrorism 2 3 1 1 6 1 &Naxalism 6 Health 1 2 2 5 7 Women 2 6 2 2 4 3 8 Education & 2 2 2 2 1 Corporate education 9 Development, 2 3 2 6 5 1 Science & Technology 10 Disasters & 1 1 3 Accidents 11 Historical 3 1 3 Background 12 Sports 3 6 4 3 1 13 Cinema 2 1 1 2 14 International 5 3 1 2 7 3 Relations 15 Economy & 6 5 6 6 2 3 Business 16 Others 2 17 Muslims 1 1 1 1 2 Total 52 52 52 52 52 52
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India Today fr 28 5 1
2014 The Week fr 12 3 1
Total Tehelka fr 17 1 7
fr 148 13 50
-
3
2
18
2
3
2
21
1 1 1
3 3 1
2 1 -
16 24 11
4
5
3
31
1
-
3
9
1
4
3
15
2 1
3 5
3 2 4
25 8 31
3
4
-
35
1 52
2 52
2 52
4 9 468
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Findings in the Table 2a and 2b reveal that distribution of three magazines India Today, The Week and Tehelka cover stories year wise. In 2012 Muslim cover stories published by each 1 (1.9) by India Today and The Week. There is no coverage in Tehelka. Highest coverage gave these three magazines for political, India Today 23 (44.2), Tehelka 17 (32.6) and The Week 9 (17.3). In 2013 magazines gave priority to Muslim stories by Tehelka with 2 (3.8), India Today and The Week each 1 (1.9). In this year also these three magazines gave importance to political, Tehelka 21 (40.3), India Today 12(23.0) and The Week 9 (17.3). In 2014 the magazines published Muslim stories by Tehelka 2 (3.8),India Today 1 (1.9) and The Week covered no stories. In this year these magazines gave most priority to political, India Today 28 (53.8), Tehelka 17 (32.6) and The Week 12 (23.0). Finally these three magazines did not report for Muslims and the magazines gave importance to political propaganda.
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Table -2b:Distribution of cover stories in different categories in three magazines in year wise S.No
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
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Subject Categories
Political Religious Crime & Scandals Youth & Life Style Terrorism &Naxalism Health Women Education & Corporate education Development, Science & Technology Disasters & Accidents Historical Background Sports Cinema International Relations Economy & Business Others Muslims Total
India Today % 44.2 1.9 1.9
2012 The Week % 17.3 1.9 13.4
Tehelka % 32.6 1.9 25
India Today % 23 1.9 13.4
2013 The Week % 17.3 11.5
Tehelka % 40.3 13.4
India Today % 53.8 9.6 1.9
2014 The Week % 23 5.7 1.9
Tehelka % 32.6 1.9 13.4
Total % 31.6 2.7 10.6
1.9
5.7
3.8
5.7
5.7
1.9
-
5.7
3.8
3.8
3.8
5.7
1.9
1.9
11.5
1.9
3.8
5.7
3.8
4.4
1.9 3.8 3.8
3.8 11.5 3.8
3.8 -
3.8 3.8 3.8
7.6 3.8
9.6 5.7 1.9
1.9 1.9 1.9
5.7 5.7 1.9
3.8 1.9 -
3.4 5.1 2.3
3.8
5.7
3.8
11.5
9.6
1.9
7.6
9.6
5.7
6.6
-
-
1.9
-
1.9
5.7
1.9
-
5.7
1.9
-
-
5.7
1.9
5.7
-
1.9
7.6
5.7
3.2
5.7 3.8 9.6
11.5 1.9 5.7
1.9 1.9
7.6 3.8 3.8
5.7 13.4
1.9 5.7
3.8 1.9
5.7 9.6
5.7 3.8 7.6
5.3 1.7 6.6
11.5
9.6
11.5
11.5
3.8
5.7
5.7
7.6
-
7.4
1.9 100
1.9 100
3.8 100
1.9 100
1.9 100
3.8 100
1.9 100
3.8 100
3.8 100
0.8 1.9 100
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Table-3 shows that distribution of three magazines Muslim cover stories. In this table Tehelka gave importance to Muslim 4 cover stories, India Today 3 and The Week 2 stories. These magazines gave importance to attacks on Muslims and Problems and Challenges of Muslims but there is no coverage of development issues of Muslims. Table-3:Total Muslim cover stories allocated in three magazines subject category wise S.No
a. b. c. d.
Subject Categories Development Women harassment & Prostitution Attacks on Muslims Problems & Challenges Total
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Name of The Weeklies India Today
The Week
Tehelka
Total
-
1
-
1
2
1
1
4
1
-
3
4
3
2
4
9
63
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 11(1), NOVEMBER 2016
Table-4: Total Muslim cover stories allocated in three magazines year wise S.N o a. b.
c. d.
Subject Categories Development Women harassment & Prostitution Attacks on Muslims Problems & Challenges Total
India Today -
2012 The Week -
-
India Today -
2013 The Week 1
1
1
-
1
-
-
-
1
1
-
Tehelka
-
India Today -
2014 The Week -
-
1
-
-
-
1
1
1
2
Tehelka
Tehelka
Total
-
1
-
-
4
1
-
2
4
1
-
2
9
Table-4 explains that distribution of three magazines India Today, The Week and Tehelka Muslim Cover stories year wise. In 2012 India Today and The Week each 1 story and there is no coverage in Tehelka. In 2013 Tehelka gave 2 stores, India Today and The Week gave each 1 story. In 2014 Tehelka published 2 stores, India Today gave 1 story and The Week covered no story.
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Table-5: Total number of pages allocated in three magazines category wise S.No
1 2 3 4 5
Subject Categories
Political Religious Crime & Scandals Youth & Life Style Terrorism &Naxalism
India Today
Name of weeklies The week Tehalka
Total
fr 317 35 47
% 35.1 3.8 5.1
fr 316 41 105
% 16.2 2.1 5.4
fr 281 11 143
% 35.2 1.3 17.9
fr 914 87 295
% 25.06 2.3 8.1
22
2.4
183
9.4
26
3.2
231
6.3
27
2.9
100
5.1
19
2.3
146
4.0
6
Health
21
2.3
42
2.1
37
4.6
100
2.7
7
Women
27
2.9
105
5.4
34
4.2
166
4.5
8
Education & Corporate education
60
6.6
95
4.8
5
0.6
160
4.3
9
Development, Science & Technology
97
10.7
161
8.2
29
3.6
287
7.04
10
Disasters & Accidents
5
0.5
20
1.02
34
4.2
59
1.6
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Historical Background
16
1.7
178
9.1
30
3.7
224
6.1
12
Sports
49
5.4
193
9.9
20
2.5
262
7.1
13
Cinema
20
2.2
8
0.4
14
1.7
42
1.1
14
International Relations
42
4.6
117
6
39
4.8
198
5.4
15
Economy & Business
103
11.3
241
12.3
47
5.8
391
10.7
16
Others
-
-
23
1.1
10
1.2
33
0.9
17
Muslims
16
1.7
16
0.8
19
2.3
51
1.3
Total
904
100
1944
100
798
100
3646
100
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Table-6: Total numbers of pages allocated in three magazines Year wise S.No Subject Categories
2012
2013
2014
Total
India The Tehelka India The Tehelka India The Tehelka Today Week Today Week Today Week
1
Political
115
76
99
61
99
105
141
141
77
914
2
Religious
5
11
6
5
-
-
25
30
5
87
3
Crime & Scandals
6
49
70
36
47
40
5
9
33
295
4
Youth & Life
6
98
11
16
38
5
-
47
10
231
Style 5
Terrorism &Naxalism
11
23
5
5
52
5
11
25
9
146
6
Health
5
14
-
11
-
28
5
28
9
100
7
Women
11
43
12
10
35
17
6
27
5
166
8
Education & Corporate education
24
37
-
11
42
5
25
16
Development,
11
9
160 -
24
10
50
86
6
36
51
13
287
Science & Technology
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10
Disasters & Accidents
-
-
5
-
20
16
5
-
13
59
11
Historical Background
-
-
16
10
72
-
6
106
14
224
12
Sports
16
59
-
21
69
5
12
65
15
262
13
Cinema
9
8
5
11
-
-
-
-
9
42
14
International Relations
26
20
6
11
50
16
5
47
17
198
15
Economy & Business
31
109
32
56
68
15
16
64
-
391
16
Others
-
-
10
-
-
-
-
23
-
33
17
Muslims
5
8
-
6
8
10
5
-
9
51
281
579
287
320
686
273
303
679
238
3646
Total
Table-5 shows that distribution of three magazines total number of pages. Tehelka gave first priority with 19 pages, India Today and The Week gave equal number of pages 16 respectively. These three magazines gave importance to political 914 pages followed by economy and business 295, crime 289 pages. Table-6 reveals that India Today, the Week and Tehelka gave less priority to Muslims in their coverage overall three years. Tehelka gave more priority with 10 pages in 2013 followed by The Week with 8 pages and India Today with 6 pages. In 2014 Tehelka gave 9 pages for Muslims at the same time India Today had
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given 5 pages and The Week gave no Muslim stories. As well as in 2012, The Week gave more priority to Muslim with 8 pages, India Today 5 pages and Tehelkacovered no stories. Overall in three years duration these three magazines gave 51 pages for Muslim. Table-7: Total number of pages allocated to Muslim Stories in three magazines year wise S.No Subject Categories
2012
2013
2014
17
Muslims
a. b.
Development Women harassment
-
-
-
-
8
-
-
-
-
8
c.
& Prostitution Attacks on Muslims Problems & Challenges
5
8
-
6
-
5
-
-
4
28
-
-
-
-
-
5
5
-
5
15
Total
5
8
0
6
8
10
5
0
9
51
d.
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India The Tehelka India The Tehelka India The Tehelka Total Today Week Today Week Today Week
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Table- 8: Total number of Muslim cover stories photos in three magazines S. N o 17
Subject Categories
India Today
Muslims
Positiv e
Negativ e
a.
Developme nt
-
The Week
Positiv e
Negativ e
-
Tota l fr -
-
-
-
-
c.
Women harassment & Prostitutio n
-
5
d.
Attacks on Muslims
8
Problems & Challenges Total
8
b.
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Tehelka Gran d Total
Positiv e
Negativ e
-
Tota l fr -
-
-
Tota l fr -
9
0
9
-
-
-
9
5
4
2
6
-
5
16
0
8
-
-
-
-
14
14
22
5
13
13
2
15
-
19
19
47
5
-
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Table-7 explains that distribution of three magazines India Today, The Week and Tehelka total number of pages gave to Muslim stories year wise. In 2012, The Week gave importance on attacks on Muslims with 8 pages, India Today published with 5 pages on same category, and there is no coverage in Tehelka. In 2013, Tehelka gave importance with 10 pages on attacks on Muslims and problems and challenges of Muslims respectively. The Week gave women and prostitution story with 8 pages and India Today published 5 pages story on attacks on Muslims. In 2014, Tehelka gave importance with 9 pages and India Today 5 pages and there is no coverage in The Week. These three magazines neglected the welfare and empowerment of Muslims. Table-8 shows that Tehelka magazine published 19 photos on Muslims in three years. In those 14 photos published on problems and challenges, 5 were published on attacks on Muslims. Those all were treated as negative photos. Thereafter, The Week published 15 photos, from those 9 on women harassment and prostitution treated as positive, 6 photos published on attacks on Muslims, in those 6 photos 4 treated as positive remaining 2 as negative. India Today published overall 13 photos on problems and challenges (8), attacks on Muslims (5) photos. From those 8 photos were treated as positive remaining 5 treated as negative. Findings The research felt that cover stories published in the magazines are not maintaining the balance on the terms of equal proportion, as it was proved that the cover stories published during the analysis period were mostly belonging to political. For instance, stories on Muslims gave less priority. There is no representation of Muslims development issues in these magazines.
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These magazines gave only 9 cover stories to Muslims in total number of 468 cover stories in the duration of three years. These three magazines gave less priority to reporting of Muslims, and only 51 pages stories published on Muslims in total number of 3646 pages of three years duration. Suggestions The magazine should always maintain the balance of publishing stories based on development and importance according to the happenings. Conclusion Media play an important role in the portrayal of any community. It links those who have limited chances of interaction with each other. Unfortunately, the Indian mainstream media including the India Today, The Week and Tehelka magazines have primarily failed to do this obligation of promoting the Muslims. On the other hand, the magazines have been deliberately engaged in the propaganda campaign of building misconception distorting images and creating hatred in the minds of Indian citizens about Islam and Muslim world. References 1. Ahmed, Zahid Shahab and Baxter, Michelle Antonette (2007). Attitude of Teachers in India and Pakistan: Texts and Contexts, Women in Security, Conflict Management and Peace. 2. Berelson, B (1952), Content Analysis in Communications Research, Glencoe: Free Press 3. Krippendorff, K. (1980) Content Analysis: An introduction to its methodology, California: Sage 4. Krippendorff, Klaus. (2004) analysis: An introduction to
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Conceptual
Foundation’.Content
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5. Its methodology, 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 18-25, 40-43. 6. Kerlinger, F.N (1973). Foundations of Behavioral Research (Second edition), New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston 7. Munro I. (2006). Portrayal of Muslims ‘tainted by racism’. The Age, 18 March 2006. Retrieved From www.theage.com au on 19 December 2010. 8. Narayana U. R., &Kapur P. (2010).Media, public attitude and Mumbai Terror of 26/11. Media Asia, 37(2) 9. Narayana U. R., &Kapur P. (2011).Indian Media Framing of the Image of Muslims. Media Asia, 38(3) 10. ZeenathKausar, (2007). Communal Riots in India: Hindu–Muslim Conflict and Resolution. 11. http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cjmm20 12. Zelizer, B., & Allan, S. (2002). Journalism after September 11. London: Routledge.
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HUMAN RIGHTS UNDER BUDDHISM’S VIEWS Tran Thi Dieu Huong Ph.D Scholar Gautam Buddha University Gautam Budh Nagar, G. Noida U.P, India We can understand that human rights are natural rights of human, and of course it is not stripped by anyone or any regime. However, awareness of human rights and the implementation of human rights is a process of development of human history, in which there is class struggle lasting from generation to generation. Through that human rights become the common values of all mankind. The concept of human rights derived from the ancient Greeks as the natural rights human as the right to life, right to protected right to speech, freedom of religion and so on... However, with the view of Buddhism, depending on blessing of each living beings, so there are private life in general life. In the world there are many countries and societies, but in each country and society, where people have many different lives with different views, ideologies, cultures, so each nation has different life and interest. Under slavery, the slaves are not considered as human, and they are not recognized the human rights. For example, in India, for long time ago, society was divided into four classes clearly, people in the lower classes suffered from more disadvantaged… Since the Buddha was born, with wisdom and vast love, Buddha used his life and teachings to remove that four classes. He loudly announced, “No class is in the same red blood and salty tears alike”. This statement is a very human message of Buddhism on human rights, not only for India but also for all mankind. However, human rights of Buddhism are always protected by
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commandment. Buddhists are equal in enlightenment ability, the practice . ability and the ability of reaching the upward life, it is not the equal in careless of relationship, free to follow the thoughts and unethical behavior, and tormenting others. That is truly freedom and liberation. Buddha always guides us not only not to harm living beings but also nurture compassion in the spirit of selfless. Because killing or harming any other living beings are also inequalities and is the root of all suffering, is the primary cause of the disaster, disease, war. In the Dhammapada, the Buddha says: Feud kills feud This life cannot get. No feud, kill the feud Is the eternal rule. (Dp.5) On that spirit, the meaning of human rights in Buddhism is raised as a Buddha view, helping people to live truly human, full dignity and morality, full wisdom and love, not only with fellow but also with all species. Aware of the transcendent value of that equality, Buddhist disciples constantly strive to improve themselves, and then from that generation after generation bringing the essence of wisdom and love to the life, saving sufferings and giving happiness, making all living beings become happiness. That is the meaning and the best value of human rights in Buddhism. There is a very emotional story when the Buddha was alive, when he helped the Angulimala (finger garland wearer), a notorious murderer. One day, Angulimala was on his way to find the last person to kill to make enough of a thousand fingers, to make the neck garland, then he met the Buddha coming, and he immediately decided to kill the Buddha. He took his knife and chased the Buddha. But strangely, the Buddha still normally move ahead of him, but Angulimala could not www.ijmer.in
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catch up with him. Finally, he shouted that “Hey, the mendicant, stop! Stop!” And the Buddha replied: “I have stopped for a long time; it is you who does not stop!” Angulimala could not understand the meaning of those words. So he asked again: “Hey, the mendicant, why do you say that you had stopped while I have not stopped?” The Buddha replied: “I say that I stopped because I gave up the killing of living beings. I gave up violence, massacred every species and have been residing in compassion toward all living beings, the patience and wisdom by way of observation. And you have not given up the killing and cruel treatment of others, as well as have not resided in compassion and patience towards all living beings. Therefore, you still have not stopped”. Angulimala heard unusual teachings from the Buddha, he was recalled back to reality and think, here are the words of a wise man. This monk is very wise and brave so surely he is a leader of the Buddhist. Indeed, he himself must be the Enlightened One. He must have come here only for the purpose of helping me see the light. Think so, he threw the knife to the ground and kowtowed the Enlightened One and asked him to admit to be the Buddhist, the Buddha had approved petitions. Stories on the Buddha helped Angulimala express the power of compassion and selfless. Yes, only the compassion can resolve the feud but feud never defeat feud. Human Rights in Buddhism’s view based on the foundation of compassion and wisdom. Buddha nature and human rights A further highlight of Buddhism on the human rights issue is Buddha nature. Buddha Nirvana Sutra declared that “All living beings have Buddha nature”, means every human being has the same ability of teaching awareness. Buddha always identify themselves as people finding out the truth, as the Master pointing the way to reach www.ijmer.in
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enlightenment, liberation, and transmit the experience to future generation. From the perspective of mathematics, Buddhism does not have the view of relationship by helicopters from a powerful supreme beings powerful, but recognized that there is absolute equality under horizontal relationships between people, it is very close to the concept of democracy. So, Buddhism has contributed a solid moral foundation for building a progressive and moral society for everyone. Buddha-nature doctrine is described as a doctrine of true equality. People have ability of self-liberation, self-torch on the go; do not accept the darkness of slave life, regardless of slaves for tyranny or for the greed of themselves. Suttanipata book said “Man who was born was not vile, or was not the Brahmin. Due to their actions, they became vile, and due to their behavior, they become Brahmin”. In this sense, the doctrine of Buddha-nature has many common points with the concept of human rights; it is all human beings are born freely and equally. Freedom and equality is understood that it includes both compassion and wisdom; it is the basic foundation, which can help us to develop the potential maximize, and reach to sublimation of honest, nice and beauty. Dependent Origin and human rights Doctrine of Dependent Origin is presented with twelvecorrelated causal chain. Doctrine of twelve causal relations gives a logical progress from ignorance to enlightenment. In the Agama book, it describes a logical structure as “When this one has, the other one has. When this one arises, the other one arises. When this one is absent, the other one is absent. When this one is ended, the other one is ended”. Pursuant to that, we can divide into two concepts: we see that this connection mean that the things are not fixed but always changing.
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Through that, we see that the doctrine of Dependent Origin of Buddhism, first, showing the interactive relationship between this one and the other one, between man and man, between man and the world. Second, the people’s life depend on several support factors, therefore, everyone is aware that every word, act, and our thoughts are affecting others and vice versa. Clearly aware of this principle we practice the mutual respect that is essential for life. One thing should be noted here is the doctrine of Dependent Origin always describes every status in a unified body but they are always moving. Based on this principle, we can believe that everything can change from negative to positive and benefits for humanity and society, but never closed or framed in any ideology. On the other hand, this doctrine clearly shows about selfselflessness of people and things, because there is no fixed entity, exists independently and invariantly, so there is no ego, or the ultimate subject, no powerful one who giving happiness or punish for anyone, but happiness or suffering is depended on ourselves. Governance, appropriation and exploitation are an irrational and inhuman act. Karma and human rights As I have discussed, if Doctrine of Dependent Origin is spatial relation, according to horizontal aspects, besides, the doctrine of karma in Buddhism also has the connected relations vertically by time. Karma literally means “volitional action”. In the Aṅguttra Nikāya, Buddha says: “I am the owner of the karma, the heirs of karma, karma is the womb, karma is the relatives, karma is the fulcrum. Normally, which karma you do, good or bad, you will receive that karma”. (Aṅguttra Nikāya II, p.77) It is divided into three categories: body Karma, verbal Karma and view Karma. Body Karma is the Karma related to the body, verbal
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Karma is the use of verbal language as a means of expression, and view Karma lies in our mind. So, what is the relationship between these three Karmas? It’s extremely simple; it can be expressed by the familiar sentence “you will reap what you have sown”. In other words, when you perform good acts, you will reap good results, and it is also applied for the reverse situation, an evil act will reap an evil result. This causal relationship is considered as principle in the nature of equality that nobody can deny. Thereby, it advises us to create the right acts, perform the right acts to have an uplifting result in real life. The Karma of Buddhist doctrine shows two issues that are you are happy with what you currently have about yourself as well as circumstances; and Karma is an uncertain - it means we can change our Karma in the present life. If we understand the Karma doctrine, we have a new vision, which is empathy and sharing. There is no distinction and discrimination between people, because each person has a different condition and circumstance, therefore, we should not impose our notions on others. For example, when we see a street child - living by robbery, instead of we despised or abandoned the child, we should have sympathy and sharing more. We understand that this child is an unhappy child. Maybe they due to the lack of teaching from the parents, or by a difficult situation that the child did not educate carefully, illiteracy and abandoned by social leading a bad situation in present, etc. Essence of Karma doctrine is the positive thinking that a living person can pass their past and is not tied or guilty or inferiority by himself or herself, to find the future and live a creative life. Karma doctrine in Buddhism refers to individual karma and common karma. Individual Karma is own Karma of each person. www.ijmer.in
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Common Karma is Karma of whole social and community. Individual Karma and Common Karma always have relation to each other closely, each individual action will affect the entire community, and vice versa. This makes us aware and responsible in terms of more macro. Such as, the ethical issues and social security, the environment, natural resources cannot be solved by an individual, it requires common sense of social and community. This Common system is created by individual Karma, and precisely, because this is in accordance with the discretion and responsibility of each individual. We should take the proper action to bring a change in social perception and social system under good direction in future. In short, the views of Buddhism from some fundamental doctrine that we presented above are to clarify a consistent issue of Buddhism with human rights. Buddhism is the religion of compassion and respects the life, so Buddhism always uphold human dignity to the forefront. Today, in the world is still happening much injustice, hatred, terrorism, war, violence toward women, child sexual abuse, human trafficking... still are issues and challenges with us. More than ever, we jointly establish and build a society - a world of peace, happiness based on the foundation of loving, tolerance, and selflessness. Let’s commit to implement and respect the human rights of equality - as a world civilization, ethics, and human right. Reference: 1. The Dīgha Nikāya, Maurice Walshe (trans.), (2012) The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications, Boston; And T.W. Rhys Davids (trans.), (2007) Dialogues of the Buddha, 3 vols, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.
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2. The Majjhima Nikāya, Bhikkhu Nāṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (trans.), (2009) The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications, Boston. 3. The Aṅguttara-Nikāya, Bhikkhu Bodhi (trans.), (2012) The Numerical Length Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom Publications, Boston. 4. E.M hare, (2006) The Book of the Gradual Sayings, vol. 2, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 5. The Dhammapāda, F. Max Muller (trans.), (1992) A Collection of Verses, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 6. Bhikkhu Bodhi (ed.), (2005) In the Buddha’s words An Anthology of Discourses from the Pāli Canon, Wisdom Publication, Boston. 7. Narada, (1988) The Buddha and His teaching, Buddhist Missionary Society, Malaysia. 8. Galtung, Johan, (1993) Buddhism: A Quest for Unity and Peace, Dae Won Sa Buddhist Temple, Honolulu. 9. Freeman, Michael, (2002) Human rights: an interdisciplinary approach, Polity Press Cambridge. 10. Curtis F. J. Doebbler, (2006) Introduction to international human rights law, Cd. Publishing, ISBN 0974357022, 9780974357027. 11. Fagan,
Andrew,
(2005)
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O.P.,
(2004)
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13. Landman, (2006) Studying Human Rights, Routledge, Oxford and London. 14. Suzuki, D. T., (2001) Outlines of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 15. Brian Edward Brown, (2010) The Buddha Nature, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 16. Ramchandra Pandeya, (2010) Nāgārjuna’s Philoshophy of Noidentity, East Book Linker, Delhi. 17. Reginald S. Copleston, (2009) Theravada Buddhism, (ed. Harchanran Singh Sobti), East Book Linker, Delhi. 18. Mitchell, Donald W., (2002) Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience, Oxford University Press, New York. 19. Varma,V.P.,
(2003)
Early
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its
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Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi. 20. Williams, Paul, (2000) Buddhist Thought, Routledge, London and New York. 21. Shama, T.R., (2007) An introduction of Buddhist philosophy, East Book Linker, Delhi. 22. Janjiro Takakusu, (2001) The essentials of Buddhist philosophy, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi. 23. Yamakami Sogen, (2009) Systems of Buddhist Thought, East Book Linker, Delhi.
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ST. FRANCIS DE SALES: A GENTILE MAN SAINT A.V.Krishna Rao Director MSFS Dhyanashram A Center for Spirituality and Renewal Visakhapatnam Abstract In this article , I would like to explain about the works and spiritual conference of Francis de Sales was born of a noble family on 21st August 1567 at the Castle of Sales at Thorens, in a mountainous region between Geneva and Annecy. He was a Bishop of Geneva and is honored as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church. He became noted for his deep faith and his gentle approach to the religious divisions in his land resulting from the Protestant Reformation. He is known also for his writings on the topic of spiritual direction and spiritual formation, particularly the Introduction to the Devout Life and the Treatise on the Love of God. Francis is then entrusted with a very difficult and sensitive mission. He is asked to work in the region of the Chablais on the southern shores of the Lake of Geneva, to bring back the people converted to Calvinism into the Catholic fold. Even though his father is opposed to it, Francis accepts the hazardous mission and leaves Annecy, along with his cousin, Fr. Louis de Sales, to undertake this enormous work of the conversion of the people of the Chablais. Francis spends four years as a missionary working relentlessly and heroically against many odds to convince the people about the purity and authenticity of the Catholic faith. He spends his time in study, prayer, fasting and preaching the Word of God. Neither the obstinacy of the hardened Protestants, nor the hardships, nor dangers of his life made him abandon the mission. When he found that people refused to come to listen to his sermons and conferences, he wrote small tracts and slipped them under the doors of the houses. These were later on put
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together and published under the title of THE CONTROVERSIES. It took much labour and toil, patience and understanding, goodness of heart, serenity of mind, and gentleness of being to sow the seeds of the truth of Catholic faith. Ultimately, the harvest was reaped in abundance. By the end of 1598 practically the whole of Chablais had come back to the Catholic Church. Key Words : Francis de Sales, Spiritual Conference , Christianity , Roman Catholic, Church. Introduction : Francis de Sales was given private lessons at home and later went to school at La Roche and Annecy. At the age of twelve he was sent along with his tutor Fr. Deage to Paris where he pursued his studies in Arts and Humanities at the College of Clermont, run by the Jesuits. There he studied Rhetoric, Philosophy, Latin, Greek, Hebrew and also, privately, Theology. As was the custom in those days, Francis underwent training in music, fencing, horse riding and dancing. These exercises would help him to become physically as well as mentally fit and give him a suppleness of movement, an ease, a grace which later on would add to his personal charm and power of persuasion. Francis spent ten years at the College of Clermont, during which time he received a sound spiritual and human formation under the guidance of the Jesuit Fathers. During his stay in Paris, Francis had the opportunity to attend some lectures at the renowned University of Sorbonne and also to visit occasionally the court of the King of France, Henry III. On finishing his studies in Paris, Francis returned home but he soon left for Italy to pursue higher studies at the University of Padua. At the end of three years he returned to Annecy with the degree of Doctor in Civil and Church Law obtained on 5th September 1591 at the young age of twenty – five.
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Francis’ father had great ambitions for him. He wanted him to become a Senator of Savoy. But Francis chooses to become a priest and after much persuasion his father gives in to his son’s desire. Francis is at first made the Provost of the Cathedral, the most prestigious post after that of the Bishop. He is ordained Priest on the 18th December 1593, at the age of twenty – seven. Francis was made coadjutor to the Bishop of Geneva, Mgr. Granier in 1599. In this capacity he was asked to undertake several extremely delicate diplomatic missions in Paris and elsewhere at the courts of Kings and Princes. These missions furnished him with opportunities to preach, confess, conciliate and meet some of the most renowned people of his time. After the death of Mgr. Granier, Francis de Sales was consecrated Bishop on 8th December 1602. Throughout his life Francis will keep a vivid and heart-warming memory of this day. He would say later on: “When I was consecrated Bishop, God took me out of myself in order to take me entirely to himself and then to give me back to my people. He changed my heart in such a way that instead of living for myself, I would live only and completely for others”. In 1534, Geneva had turned over to the Calvinists and the Bishop had been forced to abandon his Episcopal see of Geneva and seek refuge in Annecy. Francis de Sales was the Prince-Bishop of Geneva but living in exile in Annecy. As Bishop, Francis serves his difficult and scattered diocese during the remaining twenty years of his life in a spirit of love and devotion. He is assiduous in visiting his people in remote, far-flung villages and hamlets, in the mountains and plains and valleys; he takes to heart the formation of his priests whom he visits individually and whom he assembles regularly in synods; he undertakes the reforms of monasteries and the renewal of religious life; he helps lay-people to live their faith and Christian vocation to the full. One is simply amazed at the enormous work undertaken by Francis de Sales in his apostolate. He preaches, hears confessions, teaches www.ijmer.in
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catechism, opens schools, colleges and academies, infuses the desperate with new hope. He makes himself readily available to all, to people in the world as well as in the cloisters, to the learned, the cultured and the rich as well as the humble peasants and artisans, the poor, the little ones of this world. According to the testimony of his close friends, Francis de Sales “was blessed with a jovial and gracious nature and shunned sadness and melancholy; he had a humble, grave and majestic personality, a serene look fusing into a face that was noble and greatly unassuming. He was in no way extravagant nor showy in his bearing, nor given to manifesting extreme raptures of joy. However much he was disturbed or harassed, he never put on a gloomy, sullen and scowling face”. Saint Jeanne de Chantal said of him in her testimony; “His whole manner and his way of speaking had great dignity and discretion but was at the same time humble, quiet and candid. He never posed, he was completely unaffected and lacked any stiffness. He was never heard to say anything unsuitable or merely flippant, or to speak in any way which might have proved offensive. He did not raise his voice unduly and he spoke in a serious, deliberate, calm and unhurried way, always conveying his meaning effectively but without fine phrases or any other speech affection – he was all for straight forwardness and simplicity. I myself often noticed, and others had the same impression, that he said neither too much nor too little but just what was right; and his use of terms was so apt that it could not have been bettered. He often used to impress on us that many things should be conveyed by silence, by reticence and by a calm and dispassionate attitude. This is certainly something he himself demonstrated admirably well in practice”. “He was most approached and very easy of access to anyone who wanted to talk to him. He received all comers with the same expression of quiet friendliness and never turned anyone away whatever his
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station in life; he always listened with unhurried calmness and for as long as people felt they needed to talk. He was so patient and attentive that you would have thought that this was all he had to do, and everybody felt so happy and satisfied when they left him that people were really very pleased to have an excuse to call on him. They longed to have a taste of that great sweetness and serenity of heart which he invariably gave them and which helped people to open out to him with great confidence especially when they wanted to talk about spiritual things. It was his great joy to talk about the things of the spirit and to encourage everybody, as far as he was able, to be devout according to their calling. It would not be possible to count the number of people he helped along the road to Christian perfection. Unless you actually saw it, as I did, you coiuld never have believed how very many there were whom he inspired with ardent longing to change their attitude to life, or to live more perfectly. In short, everybody who talked to him with due confidence profited immensely for their spiritual life and longed to see him again; and people used to encourage and stimulate one another to take his counsel.” Spiritual Conferences The works of Francis de Sales are phenomenal. The COMPLETE WORKS in French, known as the ANNECY EDITION, number 26 volumes. They contain more than two thousand LETTERS, and his two masterpieces; INTRODUCTION TO THE DEVOUT LIFE (Philothea) and TREATISE ON THE LOVE OF GOD (Theotimus), not forgetting his SERMONS and his SPIRITUAL CONFERENCES. Francis de Sales met Jeanne Francoise de CHANTAL on 5th March 1604 at Dijon. Together with her, he founded the Order of the Visitation of Saint Mary in 1610. To this day the Visitation is an enclosed Order living and witnessing in many countries of the world, and keeping alive in the world today the spirit of gentleness and
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compassion, the flame of Love for God and man which consumed the heart of Francis de Sales. It is in the setting of the Order of the Visitation that we have to read the marvelous SPIRITUAL CONFERENCES which Francis de Sales gave to his Sisters of the Visitation in the course of his frequent visits to them. Through these Conferences he undertook their human and spiritual formation. Many people rightly see in these homely talks the quintessence of the salesian spirit, the highest peak of salesian devotion, the secret of a very special way of loving God and man. In these pages, there burns brightly even today a brilliant and glorious flame beckoning us to experience in the intimate depth of our hearts the warmth and the tenderness of Love’s gentle persuasion. Readers of these CONFERENCES will be overwhelmed by their remarkable simplicity, their amazing riches, and their vision of life which is beyond compare and surpassing all we can say. The “Spiritual Conferences” are indeed a compendium of the spiritual, religious, and interior life and a precious aid to build up strong, solid and down-to-earth convictions and attitudes of mind and heart as we make our way gently, peacefully and serenely to the heart of God. In the desert of our life we need the gentle rain from heaven; the sympathy, kindness and understanding of the heart of Christ which Saint Francis de Sales reveals to us in these “Spiritual Conferences”. Our whole life, he tells us, is to be an expression and fulfillment of the sympathy and understanding of the heart of Christ. The whole world ought to be able to look into our hearts and see in us the gentle Christ who called himself meek and humble of heart. The “Spiritual Conferences” present to us the real image of Francis’ life, his feelings, his deep convictions, his humane approach and his apostolic zeal. They are the fruit of an experience of life. However much we may admire the text we are now going to start reading, we should in no way consider it merely as an elaborate theory conceived in the privacy of the study, far www.ijmer.in
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removed from the daily cares and anxieties, fears and apprehensions, doubts and moments of discouragement, aversions and antipathies, abhorrence of corrections, lack of trust in one another, experienced in the life of a community and the family of man. Venturing into the religious life is, in the mind of Saint Francis de Sales, a tremendous and fascinating adventure. Much is at stake. At stake is not only the personal and collective salvation of the religious themselves but the collective salvation of the whole world. No one has perceived so well the fact that no society, whether civil or religious, no people can attain peace, justice, reconciliation without the presence, at every level of human society, of men and women who devote their lives to the pursuit of the ideal of evangelical perfection and who act as ferments among their fellowmen. The Visitation Sisters and all the men and women of our times who seek after Christian perfection are not the type of Christians who live in an ivory tower nor in an enclosed and exclusive world of their own, enjoying their spiritual privileges, jealously guarding their mystical gifts. They are people who are free as the wind, beings on fire, whether they live in the enclosure of the cloister or in the heart of the family, amidst the cares and anxieties of their daily activities and in the midst of all the torments and vicissitudes of life. They are people who set the world ablaze with the bright and shining light of God’s love burning deep inside them. The greatest enlightenment which the “Spiritual Conferences” bring to us, I believe, is the revelation that all over the world today there are the fires glowing and the flames leaping up because all over the world there are the hidden lives, the devout lives, the humble, ordinary lives, consecrated in love and service of God and man, who generate and radiate the light and power to draw men to Christ and to renew the face of the earth. That, I believe is the message that Saint Francis gives to his religious and to all of us in inviting us to follow LOVE’S GENTLE PERSUASION. www.ijmer.in
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Francis was completely exhausted by the work he had to put in at the service of God’s people. “When I look back at my soul”, he would write to Jeanne de Chantal, “It fills me with pity, for it appears to be so emaciated and worn out that it resembles death”. He died at the young age of 55 while on a visit to the Visitation Convent of Lyons, on the 28th December 1622. According to the testimony of Saint Jeanne de Chantal, Francis de Sales celebrated Mass on the feast-day of St. John the Evangelist, on the 27th December, in the Visitation church at Lyons. After dinner he sat down to write a letter of direction to an Abbess, and he was already so ill and giddy that he could hardly see to write. Then he suddenly had a stroke which resulted in paralysis, and of this he died the next day which was the feast of the Holy Innocents. His death was gentle and peaceful and he breathed his last just as the “Agnus Dei” of the litany was being said. He received the last anointing with great devotion and did everything a true Christian should do when it comes to this pass. People who were at his bedside were overcome with grief when they saw he was near the end and they begged him to say something to them. “keep peace with one another”, he said “and live in fear of God”. Francis de Sales was beautified in 1661, canonized in 1665, and proclaimed Doctor of the Church in 1877. He is known as the “Doctor of Love” and is the Patron Saint of writers and journalists. Just before his last illness and death, as he took leave of his Sisters of the Visitation of Lyons, Lyons, Francis de Sales said to them: “Farewell, my dear Daughters! I carry you in my heart and as a pledge of my love I leave you my heart”. Those were the last words he pronounced to the Sisters to whom he left his heart as a legacy. It is this heart of Saint Francis de Sales that we shall discover in these pages. Let us read them prayerfully, let us meditate on them and let us allow this gentle Doctor of Love and Devotion to teach us, to captivate us, and to guide us with LOVE’S GENTLE PERSUASION into the eternal today of a heart to
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heart intimacy with God and man. May the divine fire of the Holy Spirit which burned in the gentle heart of Francis de Sales, inspire us with compassion and love. All the writings of St. Francis are full of unction and common sense. Some commentators say that he was the Saint who most perfectly imitated our Lord in His communications with men.Many make this mistake: they invent chimeras in their minds, and fancy that the road to heaven is strangely difficult. In this they are very wrong and much mistaken. Take great care to increase your love and your fidelity toward the divine goodness, keeping yourselves as near to Him as possible, and all will turn to your good.You will not be asked by God whether you have reaped much, but whether you have taken great care to sow. Attend diligently to your affairs: but know that you have no affairs of greater importance than those of your salvation, and the paving of the way to a true and solid devotion. Our imperfections ought neither to astonish us nor take away our courage. We ought to derive from them submission, humility, distrust of self, but not affliction of heart, much less mistrust of the love of God toward us; for God indeed loves not our imperfections but He loves us well, notwithstanding them. It often happens that our passions lie dormant. If, during that time, we do not lay up provision of strength with which to combat when they wake up, we shall be vanquished. With other vices the sinner can repent and obtain pardon, but the proud soul holds in itself the principles of all vices, and never does penance, because it judges itself to be in security, and despises all good advice. Humility makes us distrust ourselves; and generosity makes us trust God. That humility which does not produce generosity, is
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undoubtedly false. Let us do good while we have time for that night draws near when we can no longer work. (His own motto). Think often of the great sweetness and mercy with which our Saviour receives souls at their death, when they have placed their confidence in Him during their life, and have endeavored to serve and love Him.If you are distracted a hundred times, drive them away a hundred times and you have made an excellent prayer. I prefer a simple resolution made four times to four resolutions made once. Spiritual reading is to prayer what oil is to a lamp.We already have contrition by the very fact that we sincerely desire to have it.I pray you, do not fall into the fault of considering the imperfections of others, for it will retard your perfection very much and will injure your soul.Let us in our manner of speaking be mild, open, sincere, simple, upright: beware of duplicity, dissimulation, and artifice. Let us never consent to be of the number of those who, out of their own house, appear like angles, but are more like devils at home. To be perfect in our calling is nothing else than to fulfill the duties and offices which our condition and state of life oblige us to perform; and to accomplish them well, all to His glory. He who of God, referring them all to His glory. He who acts thus may be said to be perfect in his state of life, and a man according to the heart and will of God. Agreeableness in conversation is of great importance. We must be humble, patient, respectful, and condescending to the humor of others, as far as we lawfully can. Let us beware of ever contradicting another’s opinion without an evident necessity; and even when obliged to do so, we ought to use great gentleness and skill. By these means we shall avoid debates and disputes, which produce nothing but bitterness, and, for the most part, spring more from an attachment to our own opinions than from the love of truth. Believe me, as, on the one hand,
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there is no spirit more destructive of harmony in society than that which is fond of contradiction, so, on the other, there is none that more secures it than that which never contradicts any one. References : 1. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the devout life [known as "Philothea"], London, 2012. limovia.net ISBN 978-1-78336-023-9 2. Francis de Sales, Treatise on the love of God [known as "Theotimus"], London, 2012. limovia.net ISBN 978-1-78336-024-6 3. Introduction to the Devout Life (Translated and Edited by John K. Ryan), Doubleday, 1972. ISBN 978-0-385-03009-0 4. Treatise on the Love of God, TAN Books, 1997. ISBN 978-0-89555526-7 5. Francis de Sales, Jane de Chantal: Letters of Spiritual Direction. Paulist Press. 1988. ISBN 978-0-8091-2990-4. 6. The Catholic Controversy: St. Francis de Sales' Defense of the Faith, TAN Books, 1989. ISBN 978-0-89555-387-4 7. Set Your Heart Free (Edited by John Kirvan), Ave Maria Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-59471-153-4 8. Sermons of St. Francis de Sales On Prayer, TAN Books, 1985. ISBN 978-0-89555-258-7 9. Sermons of St. Francis de Sales on Our Lady, TAN Books, 1985. ISBN 978-0-89555-259-4 10. Sermons of St. Francis de Sales For Lent, TAN Books, 2009. ISBN 978-0-89555-260-0 11. Sermons of St. Francis de Sales for Advent and Christmas, TAN Books, 1987. ISBN 978-0-89555-261-7
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AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE NEEDS OF HOTEL AND TOURSIM MANAGEMENT STUDENTS: HAWASSA UNIVERSITY IN FOCUS Aman Tirkaso Abute PhD Scholar Andhra University,Visakhapatnam, A.P.India Formar Lecture in Wachemo University Department of English Language and Literature Hossana, Ethiopia Abstract The main aim of this study was to investigate the English language needs of Hotel and Tourism Management students with especial focus on Hawassa University with the view of giving an input for designing an appropriate English course. To achieve this, questionnaires were designed and distributed to students, subject area teachers, English teachers, Graduates of Hotel and Tourism Management and Employer. Interviews were conducted with English Language Instructors and subject area Instructors. Moreover, the existing English course material was also analyzed. The result of the study indicated that students need to listen to course lectures, listen to class discussion, listen to instructors questions, read lecture notes, read reference books, read summaries, charts & tables, writing down notes from lectures, write notes from books, write dictation, write course assignment, ask and answer questions, participate in class discussion, participate in dialogue and present oral report. Therefore, all the language skills are needed with relatively more emphasis on speaking, listening and reading. In occupational setting, the graduates (employees) need to listen to meetings, seminars and conference; listen to customers inquires, listen to managers explanations on Hotel facilities,listen to foreigners, read regulations and rules of the organizations, read articles, journals and news paper, read work /business report, write sales or daily report, write report on work performance, describe and explain menus for foreigners, speak to customers. Here, all the language skills are important with relative emphasis to reading, listening and speaking. The study
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has also identified that the students have difficulties in writing field report, presenting oral report, writing answer to essay type exams, presenting project report, participating in class discussing, taking lecture notes, asking and answering questions. Relatively, the students are better in receptive skills than productive skill. Similarly, the graduates have difficulties in writing report in sales or progress report, writing office memos, budget information, presenting oral report, asking and answering during meeting, listening to video and listening to discussions at meetings. The finding of the study has indicated there is a substantial gap between the Hotel and Tourism Management students English language needs and the current English course offered in the university. Thus, it has been recommended that syllabus designers and material developers need to design an appropriate English syllabus and course materials for Hotel and Tourism Management students considering the students’ English language needs for academic and occupation purpose, and English language difficulties. Key Words: English for Academic purposes , English for specific purposes, Need analysis,Target Situation Analysis 1. Introduction Background of the Study Language teaching has been widely influenced by the technological and social changes of the 20th century. An important body of literature suggests that the focus of language teaching has shifted from the nature of language to the learner, and increasingly the learner is seen at the center of the learning and teaching process (Brown, 1995 and Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), development in areas such as technology, commerce, science and the use of English for communication have created a new generation of English learners who know specifically why they are learning English. If we acknowledge that language learners have different purposes for learning the language, the importance of identifying the needs of language learners can be understood. The needs of language learners can be identified by needs assessment. Brown (1995) defines needs assessment as a process of gathering information through various activities and from different groups
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of informants to determine the learning needs of a particular group of students. After analyzing these needs, an appropriate syllabus can be developed. In recent decades, people have generally attempted to learn English for either professional or educational purposes as opposed to learning English for pleasure or prestige. Specifications of learners’ purposes for learning English have necessitated the development of new approaches and techniques in ELT. English for specific purposes (ESP) is one of these approaches and uses needs analysis as the basis of curriculum development. Munby (1978) defines ESP as “A course where the syllabus and materials are determined in all essentials by the . prior analysis of communication needs of the learners.” Dudley Evans and St. John (1998) point out that needs analysis can be considered as the corner stone of ESP. A needs analysis is generally used to define the objectives and goals of a course, which is the first step of developing a curriculum. This step is followed by material selection, syllabus design and assessment. A needs assessment offers useful sources of data when designing a course syllabus and is therefore beneficial to learners in understanding the type of courses that suit for them. However, there may be a gap in understanding what type of English courses is important for academic and occupational purposes in different colleges and universities. This also holds true in Ethiopian universities. There are different general English courses that have been offered as common courses in Ethiopian universities. Some of the courses are communicative skills and basic writing skills (sophomore English) .Hawassa University is one of the known universities in Ethiopia that offered general English courses to different departments. From these departments, Hotel and Tourism is one. It started giving the courses for students nine years ago. Sophomore English is one of the English courses offered to students. However, this course doesn’t satisfy the English language needs of Hotel and Tourism Management students in general. [[ 1.3. Objective of the Study 1.3.1. General Objective The general objective of this study is to analyze the English
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language needs of Hotel and Tourism management Students who were learning (taking the English Language Course) in Hawassa University. 1.3.2. Specific Objective The study is intended to: a) Identify the target and learning needs of Hotel and Tourism students b) Investigate the extent to which the existing English course addresses the English language needs of Hotel and Tourism management students. c) Identify the language difficulties that the students face while learning other courses 1.4. Research Question In order to achieve the above objectives, the researcher formulated the following basic research questions: a) What are the target and learning needs of Hotel and Tourism students? b) To what extent does the existing English course address the English language needs of Hotel and Tourism students? c) What are the language activities that are difficult for the students to learn other courses? 1.5. Scope of the Study The study mainly focuses on investigating the English language needs of Hotel and Tourism major degree program students of Hawassa University. The study is delimited to Hawassa University because it wouldn’t be manageable if other universities were included in the study in terms of time and finance the study requires. 2. Methodology and Procedures This part of the study deals with the description of the sampling procedures and data collection instruments. It also deals with data collection procedures, methods of data organization and analysis 2.1. Sampling Procedures Because of both the need for more reliable information and the nature of the study, information was collected from many sources. These are: students, English Instructors, Subject Area Instructors, Employees (Graduates) of Hotel and Tourism Management, employers and text (material) analysis.
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2.1.1. Students The first groups of respondents were hotel and Tourism Management students. Here, the Hotel and Tourism Management students were selected using simple random sampling technique and purposive sampling technique. Thus, of the total 110 students 50 from third year (100%) selected purposely and 30 from second year (50%) selected using simple random sampling; totally 80 students were taken to fill the questionnaire. First year students were not included in the study for the reason that their experience to evaluate the English language needs of Hotel and Tourism Management students assumed to be relatively less than the selected groups (second and Third year students). 2.1.2. Instructors The second groups of respondents were subject area instructors and English Language Instructors. With regard to the subject area instructors, available sampling was used for the reason that the smaller the number of population the greater the sample population should proportionally be (Gay and Airasian, 2000). And this was also manageable to the researcher to collect the information from this group. Thus, all of the six subject area instructors teaching in the department of Hotel and Tourism Management were used in this study. Of the eighteen English language instructors teaching in the department, ten instructors who gave Sophomore English course to Hotel and Tourism Management Students were selected by using purposive sampling techniques. The reason for using purposive sampling techniques was that English Instructors who have teaching experience for Hotel and Tourism Management students in the University were thought to have good knowledge of students’ English language needs and in evaluating the English course (sophomore) from the student language needs of view. 2.1.3.Employees (Graduates) of Hotel and Tourism Management The third group of respondents in this study was employees of Hotel and Tourism Management (on the job graduates). From these group of respondents sixteen employees were selected using purposive sampling techniques from eight Institutions
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(Two from Haile resort, Two from LewI International Hotel, Two from Lewi resort, Two from Osis International Hotel, Two from Pinna Hotel, Two from Haroni International Hotel, Two from Hawassa University Teaching Hotel and Two from Central Hotel) to fill the questionnaire. Here, the researcher thought that relevant information would be obtained from employees purposely chosen. 2.1.4. Employers The fourth groups of respondents in the study were employers of Hotel and Tourism Management graduates. To collect information about students’ target needs, the researcher selected eight employers from different international Hotels that are found in Hawassa town. 2.2. Data Collection Instruments 2.2.1. Questionnaire In this study, close ended questionnaire was used. However, the respondents were given chances to include whatever they thought were needed in the study. According to Robinson (1991), with questionnaire, one may seek information on a large number of points. Questionnaires are generally wide ranging because they are used for quantitative information and can also be sent easily to a large number of people. The students, instructors, employees and employers questionnaire were adapted from the questionnaire employed by Munby (1978), Dudley Evans and St. John (1998), Birhane Demeke (2007), Habtamu Desta (2008) and Beyene Wako (2007). These questionnaires were borrowed because they were believed to help in achieving the intended goal. However, some slight changes were made where necessary. The questionnaire was distributed to 80 students, six subject area instructors, ten English Instructors, sixteen employees (graduates) and eight employers. 2.2.1.1. Students Questionnaire The students’ questionnaire consisted of 10 items with sub sections. The questionnaire was made up of different close ended items .However; students were given opportunity to include what ever they thought were needed in the study. The items in the questionnaire were aimed at eliciting information on students’ background information, information about students’ language
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abilities (proficiency), the difficult language areas, attitude toward the current English course, information about the language needs of their academic and future career and the type of English students need for academic purpose. Eighty copies of the questionnaire were distributed to Hotel and Tourism Management students. Of these, 75 copies were filled properly and returned. 2.2.1.2. Instructors’ Questionnaire The instructors’ questionnaire consisted of three questions each with sub questions for English instructors and seven questions for subject area course instructors. The English instructors’questionnaire consists of questions about students’ English language abilities, the degree of satisfaction they have about the course material they have been teaching in addition to the questions included in the subject area instructors and the students. The instructors’ questionnaires were similar in content with students’ questionnaire. All the selected instructors filled thequestionnaire and returned the copies of the questionnaire. 2.2.1.3. Employees of Hotel and Tourism Management Questionnaire The employees’ questionnaire consisted of 4 items. The items in the questionnaire were aimed at gathering personal information, their difficulty in using English, the importance of the language skills for performing their duties and their English Language needs. Sixteen copies of the questionnaire were distributed to them and all of them filled and returned. 2.2.1.4. Employers Questionnaire The employers’ questionnaire consisted of 3 items. The employers’ questionnaire was distributed and administered at their organizations. The items in the questionnaire focused on obtaining information with regard to the importance of English language skills, knowledge area (aspects) and sub skills for Hotel and Tourism management graduates (employees) to carry out their duties successfully. Eight copies of the questionnaire were distributed to the employers in their working environment and all of them filled the questionnaire and returned. 2.2.2. Interview Semi structured interview questions were used. The purpose of
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the interview was to validate the data gathered through the questionnaire and further explore students English language needs and difficulties. Therefore, the content of the interview was similar to that of questionnaire. The interview questions were adapted and used for this research from Munby (1978), Birhane Demeke (2007) and Beyene Wako (2007). The semi-structured interview was conducted on two English Instructors and three subject area Instructors. These groups of respondents were selected using simple random sampling method. 2.2.3. Text Analysis The English course material (Sophomore English) was analyzed to see whether or not it meets the students’ English language needs for their academic and professional purposes. ESP text evaluation checklist prepared by Cunningworth (1995) was employed. 2.3. Data Collection Procedures To gather data for this study, first the objectives of the study were explained to all subjects and asked their willingness to participate in filling the questionnaire and answering the interview questions. The questionnaire filling took about 45 minutes for students and was conducted in class under the supervision of the researcher. But the questionnaire for subject teachers, English instructors, employees and employers were distributed and collected within the researcher’s time schedule. 2.4. Methods of Data Organization and Analysis Data gathered through questionnaire were tallied and then calculated using percentage and analyzed quantitatively. The response of the students and teachers and employees and employers were compared and contrasted to arrive at sound conclusion. Data gathered through semi structured interview and text analysis were analyzed qualitatively. Both quantitative and qualitative data were presented and analyzed separately. However, cross references were made to different piece of information gathered through questionnaire, interview and text analysis. 3. Results and Discussion In this chapter, data gathered through the questionnaire, interview and text analysis are presented.
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3.1 Data from the Questionnaire 3.1.1 Students Background Information Indicating background information about the students is one part of setting the framework for any course design (McDonough and Shaw 2005:7). For this purpose, information about students’ age, students’ academic level (before entering the university), average grade point in EGSLE /ESLCE, English grade point in EGSLE/ ESLCE were presented in the following table. Table 4.1 Background Information of the Students No Background f % Information A Age 18-24 57 76 25-30 18 24 More than 30 B Academic level (before 10+2 (preparatory 75 100 entering University) complete) 10+3 complete 10+1 Average grade point in 3.57-4.00 7 9.3 EGSLCE 2.85-3.56 28 37.3 2.43-2.84 40 53.4 English grade point in A 6 8% EGSLCE B 27 36 C 42 56 D As we can see from the above table, the majority of the students are under 25 year.. With regard to academic level, all the students (100%) joined the university after completing (10+2) the preparatory classes. As regards the students’ general academic performance 53.4% of the students had between 2.43-2.84 and 37.3% of the students were between 2.85-3.56. Only 9.3% of the students were between 3.51-4.00. It can be inferred from the students’ result that the majority of the students have average performance before entering the university. When we see the previous English performance, 56% of the students scored ‘C’ in EGSECE and 36% of the students scored ‘B’ in EGSECE. Very few number of the students (8%) scored A. The analysis of the students’ result in English shows that they were almost an average level of performance before they entered the University. www.ijmer.in
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3.1.2 The Students’ Proficiency in language skills and Language Aspects The students were asked to rate their proficiency level of English skills, ‘speaking’, ‘writing’, ‘listening’, ‘reading’, ‘grammar’ and ‘vocabulary’ using likert scale as ‘very good’, ‘good’, ‘average’, ‘weak’ and ‘very weak’. Thus, the percentage of the response of the students to each sentence was calculated in order to assess their level of competence. In this respect, the researcher used English teachers and subject area teachers’ questionnaire as a supplementary data to assess the students’ proficiency level in each skill and language aspects. The information obtained from the instructors is used to evaluate students’ response if they under rate or over rate themselves. Table 4.2: The students’ ability in the language skills and language area (aspect) as perceived by the students and instructors Language skills and language aspects Speaking Writing Listening Reading Grammar Vocabulary
Key: S= Students
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S I S I S I S I S I S I
Very good F %
Good F %
Average F %
Weak F %
Very weak F %
7
9.3
6
8
12
16
16
21.3
5
6.7
10 1 10 1 30 6 29 3 8
13.3 6.25 13.3 6.25 40 37.5 38.7 18.75 10.7
8
10.7
6 1
8 6.25
12 2 26 3 20 2 22 7 17 2 20 2
40 9 18 7 8 3 6 3 42 8 36 8
6 4 15 5 5 5 2 3 3 6 8 5
16 12.5 34.7 18.75 26.6 12.5 29.3 43.75 22.7 12.5 26.6 12.5
53.3 56.25 24 43.5 10.7 18.75 8 18.75 56 50 48 50
8 25 20 31.25 6.6 31.25 2.7 18.75 4 37.5 10.7 31.25
I= Instructors
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The data in the above table shows, majority of the students said that they were weak in speaking skill. The response of the instructors (English language instructors and subject area instructors) was almost the same with that of students’ response. Most of the instructors reported that their students were weak at speaking skill When we see the writing skills, most of the students claimed that their writing skill was average and below average. The instructor’s response was not different from this. Most of the instructors said that students’ ability was below average. Concerning the listening skill, table 3 shows that 56% of the students indicated that their proficiency in English was good. Moreover, 26.6% of the students said that they were average at listening skill 10.7% of the students said that they were weak and 6.6% of them claimed that their ability in English was very weak. The response of the instructors almost agrees with that of the students. With regard to reading skill, most of the students felt positive about their reading proficiency. For example, 21.3% of them indicated that they were very good at reading, 38.7% of them said that they were good at reading, and 29.3% of the students said that they were average ability of reading. In general, table 3 reveals that the students’ proficiency level in receptive skills is better than their proficiency in productive skills. That is, the students faced more difficulties in productive skills than in receptive skills. If we put them in order, the students’ proficiency level starts from high to low level as reading, listening, writing, speaking, vocabulary and grammar. 3.1.3 The Students’ Difficulties in Sub Skills Under each of the four macro skills, some sub skills which are common to the study area were identified and provided to the students to help them indicate in which have faced difficulties. Moreover, instructors were asked about their students difficulties in each of the sub skills. For this purpose Likert scale was used to help learners rate their difficulties. The scale of rating was worded as very great difficulty, great difficulty, some difficulty, little difficulty and no difficulty. The following table summarizes the data.
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Table 4.3: Analysis of students’ difficulty in sub skills as perceived by students and instructors Very great Great Some Little No difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty Rank No Items F % F % F % F % F % A Asking question S 15 20 23 30.7 19 25.3 11 14.7 7 9.3 8 in class I 2 33.3 2 33.3 1 16.7 1 16.7 B Taking lecture S 13 17.3 17 22.7 29 38.7 13 17.3 3 4 6 notes I 1 16.7 2 3.3 2 33.3 1 16.7 C Participating in S 17 22.7 16 21.3 28 37.3 10 13.3 24 5.3 5 class discussion I 1 16.7 2 33.3 2 33.3 1 16.7 D Understanding S 16 21.3 29 38.7 22 29.3 8 10.7 11 lecture I 2 33.3 2 33.3 1 16.7 1 16.7 E Presenting S 20 26.7 13 17.3 25 33.3 12 16 5 6.7 4 project report I 2 33.3 3 50 1 16.7 /term paper F Making notes S 8 10.7 15 20 20 26.7 26 34.6 6 8 13 from books I 1 16.7 2 33.3 2 33.3 1 16.7 G Summarizing S 6 8 18 24 28 37.3 20 26.7 3 4 9 some thing to I 1 16.7 3 50 1 16.7 1 16.7 read H Understanding S 9 12 8 10.7 27 36 20 32 7 9.3 12 exam questions I 2 33.3 2 33.3 1 16.7 1 16.7 I Writing answers S 16 21.3 20 26.7 30 40 6 8 3 4 3 to essay type I 2 33.3 2 33.3 1 16.7 1 16.7 exams
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J K L
M N
Reading formats /notice Reading different instruction Writing field report (attachment) Presenting oral report Understanding diagrams, charts tables
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S I S I S I
8 1 10 1 21 2
10.7 16.7 13.3 16.7 28 33.3
14 1 14 1 18 3
18.7 16.7 18.7 16.7 24 50
19 2 22 2 26 1
25 33.3 29.3 33.3 34.7 16.7
32 2 23 2 833.3
42.7 33.3 30.7
2
2.7
14
6
8
10
10.7
2
2.7
1
S
22
29.3
19
25.3
25
33.3
9
12
I S I
2 14 1
33.3 18.7 16.7
3 20 2
50 26.7 33.3
1 23 3
6.7 30.7 50
12
16
2 6
8
7
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As can be seen from the table, very great difficulty and great difficulty column has been considered to put the sub skills in their order of difficulty based on the students’ response 1 is being the most difficult and 14 is for the least difficult. Accordingly, 86.7% of the students said that writing field report (attachment) is the most difficult one for hotel and tourism management students. Similarly, other difficulty areas that follow writing field report are: presenting oral report , writing an answer to essay type exam , presenting project report /term paper , participation in class discussion , taking lecture notes , understanding diagrams, charts and tables , asking questions in class , summarizing something to read , reading different instructions , understanding lecture , understanding exam questions , making notes from books and reading formats /notices. For the instructors the order of the sub skills according to their difficulty are presenting project report /term paper (83.3%) presenting oral report (83.3%), writing field report (83.3%) presenting oral report (83.3%), writing field report (83.3%), writing an answer to essay type exam (66.6%), understanding diagrams, charts, tables (50%), understanding exam questions (50%) etc… In conclusion, the student have difficulties in writing field report, presenting oral report, writing answers to essay type exam, presenting project report /term paper, participating in class discussion, taking lecture notes, understanding diagrams, tables, charts, asking questions in class, summarizing something to read, reading different instructions and reading formats /notices in this order of priority. Generally, the responses of the instructors and the students revealed that the productive skills are more difficult than the receptive skills. 3.1.4 Students’ English Language Needs Item 6 to 7.4 in the students’ questionnaire and item 4 in the subject area instructors’ questionnaire were designed to gather data about the language needs of the students. In these items, the instructors and the students were asked to report the relative importance of the four language skills and the language activities needed for the students’ academic success.
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Table 4.4: Analysis of the frequency of the language skills used for the study of major courses as indicated by subject area instructors and students Very Frequentl Sometim Seldom Never frequentl y needed es needed needed needed N Major y needed o skills F % F % F % F % F % A Speakin S 36 48 17 22.7 16 21.3 6 8 g I 1 16.6 2 33.3 3 50 B Listenin S 31 41.3 16 21.3 12 16 1 13. 6 8 g 0 3 I 2 33.3 3 50 1 16.6 C Writing S 22 29.3 14 18.7 18 24 1 17. 8 10. 3 3 7 I 1 16.6 2 33.3 2 33.3 1 16. 6 D Reading S 26 34.6 13 17.3 17 22.7 1 17. 6 8 3 3 I 1 16.6 3 50 1 16.6 1 16. 6 Key: S= Students I= Instructors The above table shows that the majority of the students, 70.7% reported that speaking skill was the most frequently needed skill for their academic purposes. Listening was the second most frequently needed skill as reported by 62.6% of the total students. Reading and writing were the third and fourth frequently needed skill which scored 51.6% and 38% of the total students respectively. We can see that there is a difference between the instructors and the students’ response. The majority of the teachers 5 teachers i.e. 83.3% said that listening is the most frequently needed skill. Reading was the second 66.6% of the total teachers selected. Speaking and writing skills were the third and fourth most frequently needed as reported by the subject area instructors for the study of subject area courses (Hotel and Tourism Management Courses). Here, the difference between the instructors and the students’ response might be because of the difference in their level of understanding the demands of the learning situation.
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3.1.4.1 Activities Students Need to Carryout in English for Academic Purpose The researcher sorted some activities that are expected to be carried out in English by hotel and tourism management students. The students were asked to rate the importance level of the activities by using the rating scale ‘very frequently’, ‘frequently’, ‘some times’, ‘seldom’ and ‘never’ needed. The level of importance was determined by percentage computed from the frequency of responses. The students’ rating of the importance level was cross checked against the response of the instructors’ from their questionnaire. The activities were categorized under four macro skills (listening, reading, writing and speaking). Moreover, the students were invited to add any other activities they think important for their academic study. Note that the sum of very frequently needed and frequently needed and the sum of Seldom needed and never needed are used for the analysis. The response ‘sometimes’ is also considered as necessary. 3.1.4.1.1 Listening Activities
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Table 4.5: Analysis of listening activities the Students need for their academic study Very Frequently Sometimes Seldom Never frequently needed needed needed needed No Activities needed F % F % F % F % F % A Listening to course S 26 34.7 29 38.7 15 20 5 6.6 lectures I 2 33.3 3 50 1 16.7 B Listening to foreigners S 17 22.7 20 26.7 26 34.6 8 10.6 4 5.3 I 1 16.7 3 50 1 16.7 1 16.7 C Listening to recordings S 10 13.3 12 16 20 26.7 20 26.7 13 17.3 I 1 16.7 2 33.3 2 33.3 1 16.7 D Listening to video /film S 11 14.7 13 17.3 22 29.3 18 24 11 14.7 I 1 16.7 1 16.7 3 50 1 16.7 E Listening to S 23 30.6 22 29.3 18 24 12 16 instructor’s questions I 2 33.3 2 33.3 2 33.3 F Listening to class S 21 28 25 33.3 14 18.7 13 17.3 2 2.7 discussion
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Students were asked to answer whether the listening activities indicated in table 4.6 are ‘very frequently’, ‘frequently’, ‘sometimes’, ‘seldom’ and ‘never’ needed for their academic study. As the table shows, listening to course lectures (72.4%) is the most frequently needed activity for students’ academic purposes. Listening to class discussion (61.3%) was the second most frequently needed listening activity for the students’ academic success, listening to instructors’ questions (59.9%), listening to foreigners (49.4%) and listening to videos /films (32%) are the third, the fourth and the fifth most frequently needed listening activities for hotel an tourism management students. However, the table reveals that the activity of listening to recordings was not needed for the students’ academic study. The instructors’ responses confirm the response of the students in that almost all instructors reported that the listening skill was very essential for the teaching learning process. In this regard, the instructors said that listening to course lectures followed by listening to instructors’ questions were the most frequently listening activities for the students’ academic study. Listening to class discussion and listening to foreigners were the third and the fourth most frequently needed activities for students’ academic success. The researcher also tried to interview the subject area instructors about the dominant listening activities which are needed for the study of subject area courses. Almost all the instructors said that listening to course lectures, listening to instructors’ questions, listening to class discussion, listening to foreigners and listening to video /films were the most frequently needed activities for their students to study the subject area courses. In conclusion, on the bases of the students’ and instructors’ response, listening to course lecture, listening to class discussion, listening to instructors’ questions, listening to foreigners, listening to video /films and listening to recordings are the most important activities in this order of priority.
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3.1.4.1.2 Reading Activities Table 4.6: Analysis of reading activities students need in their study Very Frequently Sometimes frequently needed needed No Activities needed F % F % F % A Reading articles, S 9 12 17 22.7 31 41.3 news paper, I 2 33.3 3 50 journals on hotel and tourism B Reading S 15 20 28 37.3 17 22.7 summaries, I 1 16.7 2 33.3 3 50 charts, diagrams C Reading reference S 17 22.7 30 40 19 25.3 books I 1 16.7 3 50 2 33.3 D Reading English S 10 13.3 23 30.7 26 34.7 websites related to I 1 16.7 2 33.3 3 50 hotel and tourism E Reading lecture S 19 25.3 33 44 18 42 notes I 3 50 3 50 Key: S= Students
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Seldom needed
Never needed
F 12 1
% 16 16.7
F 6
% 8
9
12
4
5.3
9
12
12
16
4
5.3
5
6.6
I= Instructors
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As the above table shows, the majority of the students reported that reading lecture notes was the most frequently needed reading activity. Similarly, we can see from the table, reading reference books (62.7%), reading summaries, charts and tables (57.3%), reading English websites related to hotel and tourism were frequently needed reading activities for hotel and tourism students. However, 34.7% of the students reported that the activity of reading articles, newspaper, journals on hotel and tourism were seldom needed for the students’ academic purposes. As regards the instructors’ response all of the instructors (100%) said that reading lecture notes was very frequently and frequently needed reading activity for the students’ academic issues. Four instructors said that reading reference books was also frequently needed reading activity that followed by reading summaries, charts, tables, reading English websites related to hotel and tourism and reading articles, newspaper, journals were frequently needed activities in order of priority. To sum up, according to the above discussion, reading activities which are important for the students’ academic studies are: reading lecture notes, reading reference books, reading summaries, charts, tables, diagrams, reading English websites related to hotel and tourism and reading articles, journals, news papers in this rank order. 3.1.4.1.3 Writing Activities The following table summarizes the responses of the students regarding the different writing activities needed
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Table 4.7: Writing activities students need in their study Very Frequent Sometim Seldo Never frequentl ly needed es needed m neede N Activities y needed needed d o F % F % F % F % F % A Writing S 14 18. 24 32 30 40 7 9.3 report on 7 field trips I 1 16. 1 16.7 3 5 1 16. 7 7 B Writing S 23 30. 25 33.3 24 32 3 4 down 6 notes I 2 33. 2 33.3 1 16.7 1 16. from 3 7 lectures C Writing S 16 21. 21 28 32 42.7 6 8 course 3 assignmen I 1 16. 3 50 1 16.7 1 16. ts /term 7 7 paper on hotel and tourism D Writing S 19 25. 24 32 25 33.3 7 9.3 dictations 3 I 1 16. 2 33.3 2 33.3 1 16. 7 7 E Writing S 21 28 25 33.3 22 29.3 7 9.3 notes I 3 50 2 33.3 1 16.7 from books /reference Key: S= Students I= Instructors The above table shows that the greater number of the students (more than 64%) reported that the activity of writing down notes from the lecture was the most frequently needed writing activity followed by writing notes from books (61.3%), writing dictations (57.3%) and writing course assignments, term papers on hotel and tourism (50.7%) were the most frequently needed activities for the students academic study. However, 49.3% of the students reported that writing report on field trip was the least frequently needed activity. www.ijmer.in
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When we see the responses of Instructors, almost all teachers (83.3%) reported that writing notes from books or reference was the most frequently needed activity which is followed by writing notes from lectures (66.6%), writing course assignments /term papers (66.6%), writing dictations (50%) and writing report on field trips (33.3%). Generally, with regard to the students’ response and the findings from subject area instructors’ questionnaire, the following can be summarized. Writing down notes from lectures, writing notes from books or reference, writing dictations, writing course assignment, term papers on hotel and tourism and writing report on field trip were all the writing activities needed for the students’ academic study as listed from the most important to the least important in a ranking order. Speaking Activities The responses of the students with regard to their needs in different speaking activities in their academic studies are summarized in the table below.
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Table 4.8: Analysis of speaking activities students need in their study No Activities Very Frequently Sometimes frequently needed needed needed F % F % F % A Presenting oral report S 14 18.7 25 33.3 28 37.3 I 1 16.7 2 33.3 2 33.3 B Responding to an S 10 13.3 20 26.7 30 40 interviewer I 1 16.7 1 16.7 3 50 C Talking to foreigners S 9 12 18 24 33 44 I 1 16.7 2 33.3 3 50 D Asking and answering S 20 26.7 31 41.3 15 20 questions (in classroom, I 2 33.3 2 33.3 1 16.7 field practice) E Participating in S 15 20 27 36 26 34.7 dialogues I 2 33.3 1 16.7 2 33.3 F Participating in class S 16 21.3 28 37.3 24 32 discussions I 2 33.3 2 33.3 1 16.7
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Seldom needed
Never needed
F 5 1 11 1 12
% 6.7 16.7 14.7 16.7 16
F 3
% 4
4
5.3
3
4
9 1
12 16.7
7 1 7 1
9.3 16.7 9.3 16.7
1
16.7
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As table 4.9 shows, the students rated to what extent speaking activities listed in the table are important for their academic studies. Based on this, 68% of the respondents said that asking and answering questions (in classroom or field practice) was frequently needed speaking activity. Similarly, 59% of the students reported that participating in class discussion was frequently needed activity followed by participating in dialogue (56%) for the students’ academic performance. In addition to this, 52% of the students indicated that the activity of presenting oral report was frequently needed speaking activities. However, the above table shows that talking to a foreigner (50%) and responding to an interviewer (40%) were almost not needed for the students’ academic study. When we come to the analysis of the instructors’ questionnaire and interview, the two instruments disclosed that participating in class discussion and asking and answering questions were very frequently needed speaking activities. As regards responding to an interviewer and talking to foreigners, however the result of the teachers’ questionnaire and interview support the idea of the students who said that the activities of talking to foreigners and responding to an interviewer were Seldom needed. To conclude, asking and answering questions, participating in class discussion, participating in dialogue, presenting oral report, talking to foreigners and responding to an interviewer are the important speaking activities for hotel and tourism management students in this rank order. 3.1.5 Students’ Attitude toward the Current English Course The students were asked to show their attitudes toward the current English language course which is being given in Hawassa University for hotel and tourism management students. The students’ responses are presented in the following table.
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Table 4.9: The students’ attitude toward the current English course No Activities Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree agree F % F % F % F % A The course is 42 56 24 32 6 8 3 4 irrelevant to my studies B I do not like the 22 29.3 23 30.7 8 10.6 14 18.7 course because it doesn’t help me C The contents of the 23 30.6 28 37.4 18 24 4 5.5 course do not include my ‘wants’ D The course is 7 9.3 10 13.3 12 16 29 38.7 important for hotel and management students E I like content of the 2 2.7 4 5.3 16 21.4 31 4.3 course F The course is an 6 8 3 4 15 20 36 48 appropriate for my study
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Strongly disagree F %
8
10.6
2
2.7
17
22.7
22
29.3
15
20
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As we can see from the above table, the majority of the students (88%) said the course is irrelevant to their subject area of study and future occupation. Moreover, 60% of the students said that they do not like the course because it does not help for them. However, 10.6% of the students do not want to say anything about the course.[ Concerning the content of the course, 67.4% of the respondents reported that the content of current English course do not include their ‘wants’. However, a considerable number of students, 24% could not determine whether the content of the course includes their want or not. Furthermore; 61.4% of the students said that the current English course which is being given for hotel and tourism students is not important for them as a future career. In addition to this, the majority of the students said that they do not like the content of the course. With regards to appropriateness of the course, 68% of the students said that the course is not an appropriate one for academic and future purpose. However, 20% of them reported that they do not want to say anything about an appropriateness of the course. In this regard, the response of English language instructors to the interview questions confirmed that the present course does not satisfy the ‘communicative’ needs of the students. 3.1.6 Assessment of the type of English Course Students need for their academic study and future career (ESP) Item 8 in students’ questionnaire and item 6 in subject area instructors’ questionnaire were designed to elicit information about the type of English course needed for students’ academic and future career. The response of the students and subject area teachers is analyzed in the following table.
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Table 4.10: Ranking of the kind of English students need for their academic study and future job as indicated by instructors and the students The most Second Third preferred preferred preferred No Type of English F % F % F % A Genera English S 8 10.6 19 25.4 48 64 I 1 16.7 2 33.3 3 50 B English for hotel S 50 66.7 18 24 7 9.3 and Tourism I 4 66.7 2 33.3 C A balance between S 17 22.7 43 57.3 15 20 the two I 1 16.7 4 66.7 1 16.7 Key: S= Students I= Instructors As the table above shows, more than 65% of the students preferred English for Hotel and Tourism management. A balance between the two is the second preferred, and general English is the third preferred. The subject area instructors also felt that English for hotel and tourism management is the most preferred kind of English for the students’ academic and professional success. 3.1.7 Assessment of Importance of Topics (Themes) in Students’ Academic Study Item 9 in students’ questionnaire, item 3.2 in English instructors’ questionnaire and item 7 in subject area instructors’ questionnaire were designed to produce information about the importance of topics (themes) in students’ academic study. The responses of the students and instructors are summarized in the following table.
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Table 4.11: Importance of themes /topics needed in students’ academic study as indicated by students and instructors No Item Very highly Highly Important Less Not important important important important at all F % F % F % F % F % A Topics /themes that S 55 73.3 10 13.3 6 8 4 5.3 are related to hotel I 9 56.25 7 43.75 and tourism management B Any topic /theme S 3 4 13 17.3 36 48 23 30.6 I 3 18.75 8 50 3 18.75 2 12.5 C A balance between S 19 34 45.4 15 20 5 6.6 2 2.7 the two I 3 18.75 5 31.25 6 37.5 2 12.5 Key:
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S= students
I= Instructors
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As it is clearly indicated in the above table, almost all the respondents gave priority to topic related to hotel and tourism management than any topic/themes. More than 85% of the students claimed that topics /themes related to hotel and tourism management are very highly important. However, 70% of the respondents agreed that a balance between topics /themes related with hotel and tourism management and a general topic /themes is the second for the students’ field of study. The instructors’ response is almost the same with the students’ response. In summary, the above discussion shows that English language course with topics (themes) which are related with hotel and tourism management have greater acceptance than English course with general topics or themes for hotel and tourism management students’ academic studies. 3.1.8 Assessment of Students’ Target Needs 3.1.8.1 Evaluation of the Importance of English Language Skills for Hotel and Tourism Management Students’ Future Job The importance of English language skills in occupational setting was evaluated by both the on-the-job graduates and their employers. As a result, on-the-job graduates were requested to rate the degree of importance of English language skills to judge whether they help them to accomplish their duties successfully. This of course was not the only source of information. Their responses were cross checked with the responses collected from their employers. The summary of the responses of graduates and employers are presented in the table below.
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Table 4.12: Evaluation of the importance of the language aspects for occupational settings Very Important important No Language skills F % F % A Speaking Gr 5 31.25 6 37.5 Em 3 37.5 3 37.5 B Writing Gr 5 31.25 5 31.25 Em 3 37.5 2 25 C Listening Gr 6 37.5 7 43.75 Em 3 37.5 4 50 D Reading Gr 8 50 7 43.75 Em 4 50 3 37.5 E Grammar Gr 4 25 4 25 Em 3 37.5 1 12.5 F Vocabulary Gr 4 25 5 31.25 Em 3 37.5 1 12.5
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four English language skills and area of Not sure
F 1 1 1
1
% 6.25 12.5 6.25
Almost not Not important important at all F % F % 4 25 1 12.5 4 25 1 6.25 3 37.5 2 12.5 1 6.25
Rank
3 4 2
12.5
2
12.5
1
6.25
1 1 4 3 4 2
6.25 12.5 25 37.5 25 25
1 2 1 2 2
12.5 12.5 12.5 25
6 5
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On the basis of the above table, we can say both the graduates and the employers reported that reading is the most important of the four macro skill and other language aspects for occupational purposes with the percentage score of 94.75% and 87.5% respectively. 81.25% of the graduates and 87.5% of the employers said that listening was the second most important skill to discharge different duties in the working environment. Furthermore, 68.75% of the graduates and 75% of the employers reported that speaking is the third most important skill followed by writing which accounted 62.5% of the graduate and 61.5% of the employers’ response. When we see the area of language aspects, both respondents indicated that vocabulary and grammar are less important than that of the four major skills with the percentage score of 56.25% and 50% respectively. To sum up, both graduates and employers ranked the skills from the highest important to lowest important for the graduates in carrying out duties as reading, listening, speaking, writing, vocabularies related to hotel and tourism field . This shows that the graduates need the receptive skills more than the productive skills for their jobs. 3.1.8.2 Evaluation of Hotel and Tourism Graduates’ Major Difficulties in the Sub Skills Specific sub skills common to the hotel and tourism graduates’ professional area under each of the four macro skills were identified and supplied to the subject population to enable them to indicate areas in which they face difficulties. The respondents used the rating scale worded as ‘very great difficulty’, ‘great difficulty’, ‘some difficulty’, ‘little difficulty’ and ‘no difficulty’. The responses of the hotel and tourism graduates (employees) are summarized in the table below.
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Table 4.13: Evaluation of Hotel and Tourism management graduates’ difficulties in the micro skills No
Activities
A
Reading articles news papers, journals on Hotel and Tourism Reading letters /office regulations, hotel financial policies Listening to videos /films
B
C
Very great difficulty F % 3 18.75
Great difficulty F % 4 25
Some difficulty F % 3 18.75
Little difficulty F % 4 25
No difficulty
Rank
F 2
% 12.5
7
3
18.75
3
18.75
3
18.75
5
31.25
2
12.5
8
3
18.75
5
31.25
3
18.75
3
18.75
2
12.5
6
1
6.25
5
D
Listening to discussion at meetings
4
25
4
25
5
31.25
2
12.5
E
Presenting oral report
4
25
6
37.5
4
25
2
12.5
F
Asking and answering during meetings
4
25
5
31.25
5
31.25
1
6.25
G
Writing report on (sales report, progress report) Writing meetings minutes office memos, budget information
6
37.5
7
43.75
2
12.5
3
18.75
1
5
31.25
7
43.75
3
18.75
1
6.25
2
H
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3
1
6.25
4
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The sum of very great difficulty and great difficulty was considered in order to arrange the sub skills in their order of difficulties. Based on this, 81.25% the hotel and tourism management graduate said that the sub skill writing report on sales /progress report was the most difficult activity. For hotel and tourism management graduates, the next most difficulty activities were, writing meeting minutes, office memos, budget information (75%), presenting oral report (62.5%) asking and answering during meetings (56.25%), listening to videos (films (50%), listening to discussion at meetings (50%), reading articles, newspaper or journals (43.75%) and reading letters/office regulation, hotel financial policies. In conclusion, the response of the graduates revealed that they faced great difficulty in productive skills than the receptive skills. 3.1.8.3 An Assessment of Activities that Hotel and Tourism Management Graduates Need To Carry Out in English in Occupational Context Regarding this, the graduates of hotel and tourism management were provided with different activities that are common to job context in general and related to hotel and tourism management activities in general under each of the four macro skills. Here, hotel and tourism management students’ target needs were seen from the point of view of graduates (employees) in order to identify their target needs. The graduates were asked to report how frequently they need them in the working environment (professional setting). The sum of very frequently and frequently was taken into consideration to see which of the activities the hotel and tourism management graduates (employees) need to carry out more than other activities in the occupational context. In addition to the graduates (employees), employers were also asked about the language needs of their employees. This was meant to substantiate the responses which are given by the graduates. 3.1.8.3.1 Listening Activities The following table presents the responses of hotel and tourism graduates with reference to their needs in different listening activities.
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Table 4.14: Listening activities that hotel and tourism management graduates need in their job as perceived by graduates and employers No Activities Very Frequently Sometime Seldom Never frequently need s needed F % F % F % F % F % A Listening to Gr 6 37.5 6 37.5 3 18.75 1 6.25 meetings, Em 3 37.5 4 50 1 12.5 seminars, conference and workshop B Listening to Gr 5 31.25 6 37.5 3 18.75 2 12.5 customers Em 3 37.5 3 37.5 2 25 /guest inquires C Listening to Gr 4 25 4 25 5 31.25 3 18.75 video /films Em 2 25 2 25 3 37.5 1 12.5 D Listening to Gr 4 25 5 31.25 5 31.25 2 12.5 foreigners Em 3 37.5 2 25 3 37.5 1 12.5 E Listening to Gr 4 25 6 37.5 5 31.25 1 6.25 managers Em 3 37.5 3 37.5 1 12.5 1 12.5 explanation on hotel policies Key: Gr= Graduates Em= Employers
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With regard to listening activities, the hotel and tourism management graduates (employees) agreed that the most frequently needed activities were listening to meetings, seminars, conference (75%) followed by listening to customers or guest inquires (68.75%) ,listening to managers explanation on hotel facilities (62.5%), listening to foreigners (56.25%) and listening to video /films (50%). When we see the response of the employers, it is almost the same with the response of the graduates with few differences in order of importance. With regard to employers, the most frequently needed listening activities were listening to meetings, seminars and conference followed by listening to mangers explanation on hotel facilities, listening to customers’ inquires, listening to foreigners and listening to video /films. To sum up, based on the responses of graduates and employers, frequently needed listening activity to carryout different duties in the occupational setting are: listening to meetings, seminars and conference, listening to customers inquires, listening to managers explanation on hotel facilities (policies), listening to foreigners and listening to video/films in this order of importance.
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Table 4.15: Analysis of speaking activities hotel and tourism management students need to carry as perceived by graduates and employers Activities Very Frequently Sometime Seldom Never frequently No F % F % F % F % F % A Speaking to a Gr 6 37.5 6 37.5 3 18.75 1 6.25 customer Em 3 37.5 3 37.5 2 25 B Speaking in Gr 4 25 4 25 5 31.25 3 18.25 workshops Em 3 37.5 2 25 3 37.5 1 12.5 /meetings C Presenting Gr 3 18.75 4 25 6 37.5 2 12.5 1 6.25 report /paper Em 2 25 2 25 3 37.5 1 12.5 D Describing and Gr 5 31.25 6 37.5 3 18.75 2 12.5 explaining of Em 3 37.5 4 50 1 12.5 menus for foreigners E Conducting Gr 3 18.75 4 25 6 37.5 3 18.75 tour on hotel Em 2 25 2 25 3 37.5 1 12.5 facilities F Answering Gr 4 25 6 37.5 5 31.25 1 6.25 telephone calls Em 3 37.5 3 37.5 1 12.5 1 12.5 for reservation
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As the above table shows, the majority of the employees (graduates) reported that speaking to a customer was the most frequently carried out speaking activity. Moreover, 68.75% of the employees reported that describing and explaining of menus for foreigners was the second most frequently carried out activities that was followed by answering telephone calls, speaking in work shops or meetings, presenting report or paper and conducting tour on hotel facilities . As regards the employers’ response, it is different from that of the graduates (employees). 87.5% of the employers reported that describing and explaining of menus for foreigners was the most frequently needed activities followed by answering telephone calls for reservation, speaking to an interviewer or a customer, speaking in work shops /meetings, conducting tour on hotel facilities and presenting report/ paper were the most frequently needed activities in a rank order for occupational context. However, taking the employees response in to consideration the importance of the speaking activities can be arranged as speaking to a customer, describing and explaining of menus for foreigners, answering telephone calls for reservation, speaking in workshops, presenting report and conducting tour on hotel facilities from most important to least important. 3.1.8.3.2 Reading Activities The responses of hotel and tourism graduates and their employers concerning the needs of different reading activities are presented in the following table
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Table 4.16: Reading activities the hotel and tourism management graduates need in their job as perceived by graduates and employers Very frequent Frequently Sometimes Seldom Never No Activities F % F % F % F % A Reading articles, Gr 6 37.5 6 37.5 2 12.5 2 12.5 newspapers, Em 3 37.5 3 37.5 2 25 magazines, journals related to hotel and tourism B Reading work Gr 5 31.25 6 37.5 3 18.75 2 12.5 /business report Em 3 37.5 4 50 1 12.5 C Reading manual Gr 5 31.25 5 31.25 4 25 2 12.5 /directives Em 3 37.5 2 25 2 25 1 12.5 D Reading letter of Gr 5 31.25 4 25 5 31.25 2 12.5 reservation Em 2 25 3 37.5 1 12.5 1 12.5 1 12.5 E Reading regulation Gr 6 37.5 7 43.75 2 12.5 1 6.25 /rules of the Em 3 37.5 3 37.5 1 12.5 1 12.5 organization F Reading complaint Gr 4 25 4 25 6 37.5 2 12.5 letters from Em 2 25 2 25 2 25 1 12.5 1 12.5 customers Key: Gr- Graduates
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Em- Employers
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When we come to the reading activities to be carried out by the hotel and tourism management graduates, the respondents were agreed that reading regulation or rules of the organizations was the most frequently needed activity followed by reading articles, newspapers, journals related to hotel and tourism management, reading work or business report, reading manuals or directives, reading letter of reservation and reading compliant letter from customers in order of importance. If we see the responses of the employers, there were a few differences in the order of importance. 87.5% of the employers reported that reading work or business report was the most frequently carried activities in occupational context followed by reading articles, journals related to hotel and tourism management, reading regulations of the organization, reading manuals or directives , reading letter of reservation and reading complaints letter from customers. In conclusion, the most frequently needed reading activities can be arranged as reading regulation or rules of the organization, reading articles or journals related to hotel and tourism, reading work or business report, reading manuals or directives, reading letter of reservation, and reading letter of complaints from customer are the orders from most important to least important.
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3.1.8.3.3 Writing Activities Table 4.17: Writing activities the hotel perceived by graduates and employers Very frequent No Language skills F % A Writing business Gr 4 25 letters to Em 2 25 institutions B Writing report on Gr 5 31.25 work performance Em 3 37.5 C Writing office Gr 5 31.25 memos /minutes in Em 3 37.5 meeting D Writing sales /daily Gr 5 31.25 report Em 3 37.5 E Writing notes from Gr 4 25 seminar Em 2 25 F Writing different Gr 4 25 information on Em 3 37.5 reservation form
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and tourism management graduates need to carry as Frequently
Sometimes
Seldom
Never
F 5 2
% 31.25 25
F 3 2
% 18.75 25
F 2 1
% 12.5 12.5
F 2 1
% 12.5 12.5
7 3 5 2
43.75 37.5 31.25 25
2 2 2 2
12.5 25 12.2 25
1
6.25
1
6.25
3 1
18.75 12.5
1
6.25
8 4 4 2 7 3
50 50 25 25 43.75 37.5
1 1 5 1 3 1
6.25 12.5 31.25 12.5 18.75 12.5
2
12.5
2 2 1 1
12.5 25 6.25 12.5
1 1 1
6.25 12.5 6.25
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As the above table shows, hotel and tourism graduates rated to what extent writing activities listed in the table are important for their occupational setting (purposes). Based on this, 81.5% of the graduates said that writing sales or daily report was the most frequently needed writing activity followed by writing report on work performance, writing different information on reservation form, writing office memos, writing business letters to institutions and writing notes from seminars. When we see the responses that were given by the employers, it is the same with the responses given by the graduates. To sum up, based on the responses of both the graduates and employers, the most frequently needed writing activities are: writing different information on reservation form, writing office memos, writing business letters to institutions and writing notes from seminars in this order of importance. 3.2 Data from the Interview 3.2.1 Semi-Structured Interview with Subject Area Instructors Three subject area instructors were interviewed with regard to the students’ English language proficiency level, the degree of the importance of the English macro skills and other related English language activities for teaching the subject area courses (see Appendix). The first question the instructors were asked was to report how they judge their students proficiency level as regards the four macro skills. The instructors believed that the hotel and tourism management students are listening and reading very well but when we see their speaking ability, they face a big difficulty in speaking. One of the teacher said that the students thought that they will be ashamed if they make mistake when they speak. Only few students can speak English without any problems. However, most of the students do not want to speak, instead they want to communicate in local language (Amharic). The instructors indicated that the students faced a big difficult in writing too. One of the teachers said that they do not know what they want to write. Furthermore, the instructors also reported that the students were not good at grammar and vocabulary. However, the subject area instructors reported that even though the students showed lower performance level in productive skills (Speaking and writing), they were eager to improve these skills. It can be concluded from the discussion the hotel and tourism management students were better at receptive skills than at productive skills.
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Regarding the relative importance of the English language skills, the instructors gave the first place to the listening, reading, speaking and writing skills in order of importance. Concerning the needs of various English language activities (sub skills), subject area instructors were interviewed to report to what extent the students need to carryout the activities in relation to English. Thus, as regard the listening activities listening to course lectures, listening to videos/ films, listening to instructors’ questions, listening to class discussion, listening to recordings and listening to foreigners, the instructors were asked to rate the degree of importance of each activities. In this way, all the three instructors believed that listening to course lecture was the most dominant activity followed by listening to instructors’ questions, listening to class discussion, listening to foreigners and listening to video /film. The interviewees were also asked to what extent the speaking activities where needed in the area of the course they teach. Thus, participating in class discussion, all the instructors said that it was the most dominant speaking activity. Regarding asking and answering question in class and participating in dialogue almost all the instructors reported that the activities were frequently needed. When we come to the activity of talking to foreigners and responding to an interview, all the teachers felt it was seldom needed for the students’ academic study. When we see the reading activities, instructors were asked to report to what extent activities such as reading articles, journals on hotel and tourism, reading summaries, charts and diagrams, reading reference books, reading English websites related to hotel and tourism and reading lecture notes were needed for the learners academic study. Based on this, all the instructors said that reading lecture notes and reading reference books were needed very frequently. However, most of the instructors indicated that reading articles, journal on hotel and tourism, reading summaries, charts and tables, and reading English websites related to hotel and tourism were sometimes needed. The Instructors reported that reading journals, news papers and articles on hotel and tourism do not assist much for students’ academic study. Regarding the needed writing activities, all the subject area instructors said that writing notes from books /references, writing notes from lectures, writing course assignment /term paper and writing report on field trip were very frequently needed activities in their rank order.
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When we see the response of the students’ questionnaire it was almost the same with that of instructors’ response (see table 4.8). 3.2.2 Semi-structured Interview with English Language Instructors Two English teachers who had taught the sophomore course for hotel and tourism management students were interviewed. Their responses to the interview are presented as follows: The first question the English language instructors were asked was to tell how they judge the proficiency levels as regard the four macro skills and the sub skills. Regarding listening and reading the two teachers said that the students were very good at these skills but they are poor at speaking and writing skills. Moreover, the instructors reported that the students are poor at grammar and vocabulary. The next question directed to the instructors was the importance of the four skills for the students’ subject area study. Regarding this, both teachers said that listening, speaking, reading and writing should be in their order of importance. They also asked about whether or not the course that they are giving relevance to the subject area of study. Both of them felt that the activities, tasks ad examples did not relate to the students field of study. The response of the teachers was in line with the result of course book evaluation. Regarding, whether the course help to enhance the students’ communication abilities in their academic life and future profession, both of them said that the courses do not help to enhance the students communication abilities but they said that there should be another additional English course that will equip the students with different communicative activities. The teachers were also asked about the students’ interest in English course that is being given in the University. They indicated that the students have low interest in the course. The sixth question that the instructors asked were the measures should be taken to bridge the gap between the course title and the contents in order to satisfy the needs of the students. Both the instructors said that taking the objectives of the courses that is being given and taking different activities, exercises and tasks from the students’ area of study are some possible solutions for bridging the gap. The instructors were also asked about the whether the course should be changed or modified. They reported that it should be changed because
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the course is only focus on one skill that is writing. Including different skills based on the needs of the students were very important. Furthermore, the teachers were asked what should be considered in designing new course for students. They indicated that the students’ area of study should be given high priority. They said that the context should be based on hotel and tourism management. Finally the instructors were asked whether the course had the capacity to prepare the students for their academic studies and future profession. They said that the course is not enough to make the students to equip with the communicative activities. Thus, they concluded that the current course could not help the students for the aforementioned purposes. They indicated that there should be another course that goes with the needs of the students. 3.3 Analysis of the English Course Material being in use An attempt was made to analyze the English course material (Sophomore English) using an evaluation checklist developed by Cunningworth (1995) containing 10 questions (see appendix 8). These checklists were employed to evaluate whether or not the material satisfies adequately the English language needs of hotel and tourism management students. The first question in the checklist was if the material was based on a careful analysis of the learners’ needs or not. It was found out that it was not Even though the department of Hotel and tourism management demands a focused course responding to the students’ need; the material (Sophomore English) which was designed in 1991 was not designed on the analysis of the learners needs. The English department without studying the needs of the students decided to use the course material for hotel and tourism management students. Therefore, I can say that the material was not designed based on the needs of the students. When assessing whether or not there was a body of ‘core’ specialist language related to the subject area, it can be said that there is no ‘core’ specialist language related to hotel and tourism management. The next question in the checklist was whether the learners were equipped with the skills and strategies that would allow them to operate efficiently in English in professional situation. The quantitative analysis reveals that the students’ priorities English for their professional purpose as compared to General English. Moreover, the English language sub skills (activities) that the hotel and tourism
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management students wanted were identified. Thus, it seems that the course book is unlikely to equip the students with the skills, sub skills, strategies and situation which reflect students’ future profession. Further more, the course material was prepared based on skill based syllabus; but hotel and tourism management students need the material to be based on content or task (Dudley Evans and St. John, 1998). Another question was whether there was a balance between subject specific language items and operational skills and strategies. Here, it could be said that there did not appear to exist a balance of this kind as no needs analysis was conducted when the course was designed and the contents could not be based on subject specific language items from hotel and tourism management. It is possible to say that only general non-field specific operational skills, sub skills and strategies are mainly considered. The contents appear supportive for students from varieties of discipline demanding general purpose English to use in their corresponding academic studies rather than only for Hotel and Tourism Management. Hence, only general strategies and skills might be learned from this course. When we look at the material whether or not it considered the relationship between teacher and students, and whether collaborative approach was encouraged, the material was found not to have a clear account of the relationship between teachers and students and no collaborative approach treatment was encouraged in the text. According to Robinson (1991), Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) and Strevens (1980), the essence collaboration in ESP as that learners and teachers has to collaboratively work: the students are believed to have more knowledge in their subject areas while the teacher is an expert in the language. Thus, in an ESP context, the students are believed to be co-workers; input provides (content area) in general, collaborative trainees. However, since the course book does not seem to involve students’ subject area contents sufficiently, the teachers seem to act as only as input and feedback providers, organizers and monitors. In short, the essence of collaboration in ESP does not seem to exist. Evaluation was made to see if the material was sufficiently flexible to meet the constraints often found in ESP work, for example by having a modular structure of non-sequential units, it was found out that course material was not fully believed to be sufficiently flexible to need constraints, like when students miss classes; not all units had a
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modular structure of non-sequential, self contained units; it seems that a student who did not learn section one of the unit could not easily learn the other parts /sections as the latter assumed the contents and technical terms in the former. Another question in the checklist was whether the material could be used for individual study and whether teachers are given guidance on how to use the material in this way. The material did not fully serve individual study purpose, and both learners and teachers were not given guidance on how to use the material. There existed no guidance in the body of the course material too. In addition, an attempt was made to investigated what extent the learning activities mirror real life situations, for example throughout task based activities. It was found that the learning activities did not mirror real-life situations, through task based. The course material for example, did not include activities like letter writing, business proposal office memos and so on replicating real-life situations in order to help the learner to develop the skills and strategies they use in learning their subject area and for work place after graduation. The last question was if the learning activities had out comes or products that would help learners to evaluate their performance. It seems that many of the activities like writing paragraphs, writing essay, making notes from the reading passages etc. would help the students to evaluate their performance. Generally, the course material does not seem to respond to the real needs of the students since it does not satisfy many of the elements an ESP material should treat. This would suggest that the course material did not consider the specific language needs of Hotel and Tourism Management students. In other words, the English course (sophomore) appears to be a failure as an ESP course as it does not satisfy some of the absolute characteristics used by Dudley Evans and St. John (1998). That is, it is not designed to meet the specific language needs of Hotel and Tourism management students; it does not use underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves; and it does not use in specific situations a different methodology (the nature of interaction between the ESP teacher and the learner) from that of general English. 4. Recommendations Based on the above findings, the following recommendations have been made:
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1) The current existing course of the University should be revised and an appropriate course should be designed for Hotel and Tourism Management students by taking into account the English language needs of the students in both the academic and future occupational settings. The contents or topics (themes) should also be related to the subject area of study (content based). 2) Course designers and material developers should use a variety of activities which have relevance or similar to activities which may be performed in the students’ academic study or future jobs. 3) In designing English course, syllabus and developing course material; students’ language difficulties in studying major area courses should be carefully considered and addressed in the material. Moreover, the language skills should be taught in context with the students’ field of study. 4) English language instructors should consider students’ language difficulties and plan different mechanism when they teach English course to reduce the current problem. 5) Subject area instructors should use the language of instruction in teaching the major courses and motivate the students to use the instructional language for asking and answering questions, participating in class discussion, describing events in field trip (attachment). 6) Course designer and English instructor of Hawassa University should work together with the department of Hotel and Tourism Management to evaluate, assess or identify the ever changing language needs of the students when and where necessary. Bibliography 1. Abebe Tilahun (2009). “Assessment of the Writing Needs of Business Management Students in Relation to Sophomore English Course Offered: Dilla University in Focus” (Unpublished M.A. Thesis) AAU. 2. Berhan Demeke (2007). “Assessment of English Language Needs of the Students and Compatibility of English Course with the Language Needs of the Learners: CLTE Natural Science Stream Teachers Training in Focus.” (Unpublished M.A. Thesis) Addis Ababa: AAU 3. Berwick, R (1987). Needs Assessment in Language Programming from theory to Practice Cambridge. CUP. 4. Beyene Waka (2007). “Developing Criteria for Designing an Appropriate English Course for Accounting Students. Africa Beza College Nekemte Campus in Focus (Unpublished MA Thesis). AAU. 5. Brindely,G (1989) The role of needs in adult ESL program design. In. R.K. Johnson. ed www.ijmer.in
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6. Brown, G and Yule,G(1983).Discourse Analysis :English and Academic and Research Setting. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. 7. Brown, I (1995). “Internet Treasure Hunts. A Treasure of an Activity for Studnets learning English.” The Internet TESL Journal 5/3 http://iteslj. Org/lessons/Brown-Treasure/html. 8. Chan, V. (2001). “Determining Students Language needs in a Tertiary Setting”. ELT Forum volume 39 July, 2001. 9. CunningWorth. A. (1995). Choosing Your Course Book Oxford: Heinemann Publishers Ltd 10. . Dudley Evans J. and John, St. (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes. A Multidisciplinary Approach. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 11. Ephrem Tessema (2004). “Government Nursing Schools English Course Needs Analysis: Menelik II and Assela Nursing Schools and the Respective Hospitals in Focus” (MA Thesis unpublished) AAU. 12. Fisseha Abadi (2004). “Determining the English Language Needs of the Students of Agriculture. Mekele University in Focus: (M.A Thesis unpublished). AAU 13. Gay, L. R. and Airasian, P. (2000).Educational Research :Competencies for analysis and Application .New Jersey :Printice Hall 14. Hailemariam Kekeba (1993). “Establishing Criteria for Designing an Appropriate English Course for Yared Music School.”( Unpublished MA Thesis). AAU. 15. Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 16. Harmmer, J. (1991). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP. 17. Hutchinson, T. and Waters (1987). English for Specific Purpose. Cambredig. Cup. 18. Holmes, J. (1981). ‘Needs analysis: A rational for course design’ in theESP specialist,No3http://ntrserver.niyazaki-need.acjp/2cue/ pcanthony. htlm 19. Howatt, A.P.R. (1984). A history of English language teaching .oxford: Oxford university press. 20. Hutchinson, T. and Water (1987). English for Specific Purpose. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press 21. Johnson, K. (1990).The Second Language Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 22. Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes: A guide and course book for Teachers. United Kingdom: Cambridge university press. 23. Kennedy, C. and Bolitho,R(1984).English for specific purposes London: Macmilan.
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24. Littlewood, W.T. (1981). Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP. 25. Maritu, B. (1995) .’Techniques of needs assessment in university Teaching’ in B. Maritu Mwaggi and R. Shlette (eds)Teach Your Best. Germany: Germany foundation for international center (DSE). 26. Mekasha Kassaye (1994). “A Study of the Syllabus of Unity Private Language Schools in Relation to the Needs of the Learners” (Unpublished MA Thesis). AAU. 27. Munby, J. (1978). Communicative Syllabus Design. Cambridge. CUP. 28. Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge. CUP. 29. Robinson, P. (1980). ESP (English for Specific Purposes). Oxford: Pergamon press. 30. Robinson, P. (1991). ESP Today: A Practioner’s Guide New York: Prentice Hall International UK. Ltd. 31. West, R. (1998) “.ESP-state of the Art” at http://www.camblang.com/art o11 html.11/19 2002 32. Widdowson, H.G. (1983). Learning Purpose and Language Use. Oxford: Oxford university press 33. Wright, C. (1992) ‘the benefit of ESP’ at http://www.camblang.com/art 011.html. 34. Wright, C. (2001).The Benefits of ESP at http//www. Camblang. Com/art 011.html 35. Yalden, J. (1987). The Communicative Syllabus: Evaluation Design and Implementation. Great Britain: Prentice hall International.
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EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF FEMALES IN INDIA Dr. D. Asha Latha Assistant Professor Department of Economics Andhra University Visakhapatnam
G.Sumathi Research Scholar Department of Economics Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Abstract “Education an organized and sustained instruction to communicate a combination of knowledge and skill valuable for all activities of life.” - UNESCO Education is a fundamental means to bring any desired change in society, which is an accepted fact throughout the world. Education not only helps in the development of personality of child but also determines his future. Education plays a vital role in giving human beings proper equipment to lead a gracious and harmonious life. Hence, an attempt has been made in this paper to observe the educational status of females in India Keywords: Female, Education, Enrolment, Gap, Literacy Dropout. “Educate one man, you educate one person; but educate a woman and you educate a whole civilization”- Mahatma Gandhi Education plays an important role in the development process of any society. Infact education is considered as the most important means to empower people with knowledge, skills and self-confidence that enable them to participate in the development process. In view of this,
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an attempt is made in this paper to analyze the status of female education in India. As observed by LISE GRANDE, UN Resident Coordinator, India has achieved a tremendous progress in the field of education during the last six decades. From the census data (Table.1) it may be observed that the total literacy has increased from a mere 18.33 percent in 1951to 74.04 percent by 2011. However, the growth of literacy across gender is found to be not uniform. While the male literacy significantly increased from 27.16 percent in 1951 to 82.14 percent by 2011, female literacy increased from 8.86 percent to 65.46 percent. Male –female gap in literacy has marginally decreased from 18.30 percent in 1951 to 16.68 percent by 2011 indicating the decline in gender inequality in education in India. Further, female literacy is found to be very low among Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes in India. According to 2001 census about 42 percent of Scheduled Caste woman and about Scheduled Tribes 35 percent of women are found to be literates. This clearly shows that there is not only gender bias in education but also social inequalities in female education. Table-1 Literacy levels in India-1951-2011 (in %) Census Year
Persons
Males
1951 18.33 27.16 1961 28.30 40.40 1971 34.45 45.96 1981 43.57 56.38 1991 52.21 64.13 2001 65.38 75.85 2011 74.04 82.14 Source: Census of India.2011
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Females 8.86 15.35 21.97 29.76 39.29 54.16 65.46
Male female gap in Literacy rate 18.30 25.05 23.98 26.62 24.84 21.70 16.68
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ENROLMENT LEVELS AMONG GIRLS: Enrolment is one of the important indicators of educational status among girls. The enrolment level of both boys and girls in Primary and secondary levels has significantly increased from 1950-51 to 2011-12. (Table.2)For example the total enrolment at primary level has increased from 192 lakhs in 1950-51 to 1,399 lakhs by 2011-12. While the total enrolment at primary level shows, slight declining 1321 lakhs in 2012-13 and still reduced to 1300 lakhs in the period 2013-14. While the enrolment level among boys increased from 138 lakhs to 726 lakhs and declined to 672 in the period 2013-14, whereas enrolment among girls increased from 54 lakhs to 672 lakhs and reduced to 628 lakhs in the corresponding period. The same picture is evident at the secondary level of education. However, total enrolment increased from 15 lakhs in 1950-51 to 370 lakhs by 2013-14, while the enrolment levels among boys increased from13 lakhs in 1950-51 to195 lakhs in the period 201314. Where the enrolment levels among girls in secondary level education increased from 2 lakhs in the year 1950-51 to 175 lakhs in the corresponding period 2013-14. The picture shows clearly the gap between boys and girls with respect to enrolment at secondary level of education continued over the years. However the the enrolment levels of girls in higher education 0.5 lakhs in the period 1950-51 which drastically increased to104 lakhs in the corresponding period 2013-14 but the gap between boys and girls still continues.
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Year/ level
Table-II Level wise enrolment All categories of Student. (in lakhs) Secondary/senior Primary Upper primary secondary Higher education (I-V) (VI-VIII) (IX-XII) Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 138 54 192 26 5 31 13 2 15 3.5 0.5 4.0 236 114 350 51 16 67 27 7 34 8 2 10 357 213 570 94 39 133 57 19 76 26 7 33 453 285 738 139 68 207 76 34 110 35 13 48 570 404 974 215 125 340 128 63 191 34 15 49 640 498 1138 253 175 428 169 107 276 54 32 86 705 648 1353 328 292 620 283 229 512 115 120 275 726 672 1399 331 299 630 186 155 341 116 94 210 681 639 1321 329 314 643 181 162 343 106 92 198
1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 (p) 2013672 628 1300 337 320 657 195 175 370 117 104 222 14(p) Source: Educational Statistics of India 2013-14, Ministry of Human Resource, Government of India. P-provisional NA-Not Available
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DROP-OUT RATES: Drop–out rates in school education is another indicator of educational status among the boys as well as girls. The total dropout rate at primary level has declined from 64.9 percent in 1960-61 to 19.8 percent by 2013-14. However, the dropout rate in primary education varied between boys and girls. While, the dropout rate among girls declined from 70.9 percent in 160-61 to 18.3 percent by 2013-14, the dropout rate among boys declined from 61.7 percent to 21.2 percent during same period. Similar variations in the dropout rates may be observed (see Table.3) in the secondary education levels also. This shows that, the dropout rate among girls is relatively low compared to dropout rate among boys is the recent years. This may be attributed to several programmes specifically launched for promoting female education in India Government of India has launched major programmes such as Universal Elementary Education, Balika Samridhi Yojana, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan ,National Programme of Midday Meals in School, Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalays, National Programme for education of girls at Elementary level etc. The Right to education Act, 2009 also providing impetus to female education in India.
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Table-III Drop- Out Rates in School Education All Categories of Students (in %) Year/ Classes Classes Classes Census (I-V) (I-V) (I-VII) Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1960-61 61.7 70.9 64.9 75.0 85.0 78.3 NA NA NA 1970-71 64.5 70.9 67.0 74.6 83.4 77.9 NA NA NA 1980-81 56.2 62.5 58.7 68.0 79.4 72.7 79.8 86.6 82.5 1990-91 40.1 46.0 42.6 59.1 65.1 60.9 67.5 76.6 71.3 2000-01 39.7 41.9 40.7 50.3 57.7 53.7 66.4 71.5 68.6 2010-11 29.0 25.4 27.4 40.6 41.2 40.8 50.2 47.7 49.2 2011-12 23.4 21.0 22.3 41.5 40.0 40.8 48.6 52.2 50.3 2012-13(P) 23.0 19.4 21.3 41.8 35.7 39.0 50.4 50.3 50.4 2013-14(P) 21.2 18.3 19.8 39.2 32.9 36.3 48.1 46.7 47.4 Source: Government of India Educational Statistics of India 2013-14. Ministry of Human Resource. P-provisional NA-Not Available
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However, the overall picture of female education is found to be very bleak even today .As revealed in Census 2011, more than 1/3rd of females (34.54%) in India are found to be illiterate. Further female literacy is found to be significantly different among states in India. For Example female literacy in Kerala is found to be 92 percent followed by Mizoram (89.4%), Lakshadweep (82.69%) while Bihar is at the bottom with 53.3% of female literacy. It is of interest to note that female literacy in Andhra Pradesh (with 59.7%) is lower than the all India level (65.46%).From the above analysis it is clear that the goal of 100 percent literacy among females is still a distant dream. There are several factors that are responsible for low female literacy in India. Table-IV Ranking of States by Literacy Rates in India-2011 State
Literacy
Male
Female
rate
literacy
literacy
Rate
Rate
India
74.04
82.14
65.46
Kerala
93.9
96.0
92.0
Lakshadweep
92.3
96.1
82.69
Mizoram
91.06
93.7
89.4
Bihar
63.08
73.05
53.3
Andhra
67.7
75.6
59.7
Pradesh Source: Census of India.2011
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CAUSES FOR SCHOOL DROPOUTS: They Include: 1. Poverty at the household level that forces the girl child to work as domestic helper to take care of the sibling, cooking at home and to attend out side work as labourer. 2. Lack of adequate sanitary, drinking water and transport facilities etc force the girls to drop out from school education 3. Social taboos and conservative attitude among the parents particularly belonging to Schedule Caste, Schedule Tribes and other weaker sections force the girl child to discontinue her education. 4. Early marriages of girls are another factor responsible for the dropouts of girls. 5. As observed in recent time’s sexual harassment of girls is also considered as the major factor forcing girls to drop out from school education. 6. Inability to bear educational expenses, particularly of girls on uniform, notebooks, private tuition fee, shoes, stationary etc., also effect the school education of girls 7. Educational attainments of parents also influence their children education. Illiterate parents may not motivate their study. REMIDIES To achieve the targeted goals regarding female education hundred percent in India several remedial measures should be adopted by the government they include:
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1. Creating community awareness for girls education at all levels. 2. Brining up an attitudinal change in the society towards girls and their education. 3. Avoiding traditional beliefs about girls child. 4. Improving the infrastructure like availability of water, sanitation and toilets in schools should be done priority 5. Educating the people about the importance of gender equality and the discrimination.
need
for
elimination
of
gender
6. Improving the infrastructural in social welfare hostels, residential system, model schools, centrally sponsored Navodaya schools and Kenddriya Vidyalayas will greatly help in reducing dropouts. In view of the above there is an urgent need to recast our strategies towards female education in India. There is need for bringing a change in attitude of parents towards girl child by developing awareness among parents about the importance of education. Government has to provide basic amenities such as toilets, drinking water and other necessary facilities in each and every school across the country. The Non-Governmental Organizations and Civil Society should also play a major role in promoting education among girls Finally there should be deterrent punishments for those who try to disturb the modesty and dignity of girls.
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References: 1. Government of India Educational Statistics of India 2013-14. Ministry of Human Resource. 2. www.mhrd.govt.in 2013-14 3. Statistical School Education 2013-14. 4. Dr. Jitendra Kumar* & Ms. Sangeetha, “Status of women education in India,” vol. 2, no.4 April 2013. 5. Rupon Basumatary (2012), “School Dropouts Across Indian States and UT: An Econometric Study,” International Research Journal of Social sciences, Vol. 1(4), 28-35, December (2012).
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A STUDY OF AMUL PREFERRED OUTLET (APO) IN GUJARAT STATE A. K. Makwana Associate Professor SMC College of Dairy Science Anand Agricultural University Anand ,Gujarat
M. D. Gurjar Assistant Professor SMC College of Dairy Science Anand Agricultural University Anand,Gujarat
Abstract Amul products are available in every nook and corner of the country beginning from the corner mom-n-pop stores to the fashionable trendy malls. It has been possible due to its robust and largest distribution network for which FMCG company can be proud of. It has 60 sales offices spread all over the country, more than 10,000 wholesale dealers and more than 1,000,000 retailers, all of whom contribute to the making AMUL The Taste of India The present study was conducted to evaluate the status of Amul Preferred Outlets (APOs) in Gujarat state. The study covered all districts of the state and information was collected by using questionnaire. After analyzing the collected data it could be it can be concluded that the strengths of APOs were - Recent increase in number of APO, Easy norms for establishing APO, Advantage of Brand and entire product range is available and ability to earn Sufficient profits and major weaknesses were Majority do not have FSSAI License, No major advantage gained from promotional schemes, Less presence in rural areas Keywords: Milk retailers, Gujarat dairy, cooperative dairies, dairy business, Amul Preferred Outlets.
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1. Introduction Indian Dairy Sector The Indian Dairy cooperatives structure has a huge contribution in raising the milk production in the country upto approximately 146 million tonnes in the year 2014-15 from a meagre milk production 17 million tonnes in the year 1951. The per capita availability of milk in the country has increased to 340 g /day (GCMMF Annual Report 201516). Further, milk is the largest agricultural crop in India with market value exceeding Rs 4 lakh crore per annum and the milk group contributes the highest to the total output of our agricultural sector, surpassing the output value of wheat, rice and oilseeds. Amul products are available in every nook and corner of the country beginning from the corner mom-n-pop stores to the fashionable trendy malls. It has been possible due to its robust and largest distribution network for which FMCG company can be proud of. It has 60 sales offices spread all over the country, more than 10,000 wholesale dealers and more than 1,000,000 retailers, all of whom contribute to the making AMUL The Taste of India. GCMMF’s Retail Initiatives include: APO
These retail outlets exclusively stock and sell the entire range of Amul Products.
Scooping
It is India’s longest a chain of Ice Parlours.
Parlours Cafe Amul
These are casual dine- in format cafes.
In year 2011 the number of APOs was 5350 which grew by 20% and reached 6315 in the year 2012. GCMMF aims at touching the mark of 10,000 APOs. www.ijmer.in
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2. Methodology The study was be spread over the entire state and primary data was collected by way of a Questionnaire. The study covered all 26 Districts of Gujarat state, 227 talukas and further, three villages were selected from each taluka. AmulPreferred Outlets were selected from city places. 3. Results and Findings a. FSSAI Registration/ License No. of Selected Respondents Sr. No.
License
N
Percentage
1
Yes
4
7%
2
No
56
93%
Total
60
100%
Around 93% of respondent Registration/License.
APO
did
not
have
FSSAI
b. Type of Ownership of Selected Respondents Sr. No
License
N
Percentage
1
Sole Proprietor
55
92%
2
Partnership
5
8%
3
Private ltd.
0
0%
Total
60
100%
Around 92% of respondent APO had business under “Sole Proprietor”.
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c. Years in Business of Selected Respondents Sr. No
Business Year
N
Percentage
1
<5
22
37%
2
5 - 10
28
47%
3
11 - 15
10
17%
4
> 15
0
0%
Total
60
100%
Around 84% of the respondent APO were in the business for Less than 10 years. d. Educational Qualification wise Distribution of Selected Respondents Educational Qualification
Sr. No.
N
Percentage
1
Illiterate
0
0%
2
1-9
11
18%
3
10th
21
35%
4
11th
0
0%
5
12 th
15
25%
6
UG
12
20%
7
PG
1
2%
Total
60
100%
Around 92% of the respondents APO owners had their education qualification of ‘HSC to Post graduation’
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e. Business Time Per Day of Selected Respondents Sr. No
Business time Per day
N
Percentage
1
<5
0
0%
2
5 - 10
4
7%
3
11 - 15
36
60%
4
> 15
20
33%
Total
60
100%
Around 93% of the respondents APO owners were in the business for more than 11 years. f. Total Employee/Worker of Selected Respondents Sr. No
Employee/Worker
N
Percentage
1
1-2
56
93%
2
3-4
2
3%
3
>4
2
3%
Total
60
100%
Around 93% of the respondents APO owners carried out their business with 1 or 2 employees. g. Total Investment in Business of Selected Respondents Sr. No.
Investment in Business
N
Percentage
1
< 10,000
0
0%
2
10,000 - 30,000
4
7%
3
31,000 - 65,000
10
17%
4
66,000 - 1,00,000
24
40%
5
> 1,00,000
22
37%
Total
60
100%
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Around 40% of the respondents APO owners had invested money in the ranges of Rs. 66,000 to Rs.1,00,000 and another 37% had invested ‘more than 1 lakh’ in their business. h. Own fund or Borrowed Fund Investments of Selected Respondents Sr. No.
Investment
N
Percentage
1
Own fund
56
93%
2
Borrowed Fund
4
7%
Total
60
100%
Around 93% of the respondents used own fund for investing in the APO business. i. Milk Sales (Daily) of Selected Respondents Sr. No.
Daily Sales (litres)
N
Percentage
1
Less than 120
0
0%
2
121 - 240
5
8%
3
241 -360
18
30%
4
361 -480
16
27%
5
481-600
17
28%
6
600 -800
4
7%
7
>800
0
0%
Total
60
100%
Around 62% of the respondent APO sold milk in the range of 361 litres to 800 litres. www.ijmer.in
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j. Monthly Products Sales Sr.
Monthly Products Sales
No.
(Rs.)
N
Percentage
1
< 50, 000
1
2%
2
50, 000- 1,00,000
9
15%
3
1,00,001 to 1,50,000
26
43%
4
150,001 to 200000
22
37%
5
Above 200000
2
3%
Total
60
100%
Around 43 % of the respondent APO sold milk products in the range of “Rs. 1 lakh to 1.5 lakhs” and another 37% sold milk products in the range of “Rs. 1.5 lakh to 2 lakhs” k. Main
Cost
Components
described
by
the
Selected
Respondents Sr. No
Cost
No. of respondents describing this as the major cost
Percentage
Purchase cost of Milk 32 18% & Milk Products 2 31 17% Labour 3 50 27% Electricity 4 35 19% Transportation 5 14 8% Rent 6 20 11% Repair & Maintenance Total 182 100% The main Cost Components described by the Selected APO Respondents were -Electricity, transportation and labour. 1
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l. Total Monthly Income of Selected Respondents Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Income N Percentage 2 11% < 10000 17% 10,001 - 20,000 3 39% 20,001 - 30,000 7 17% 30,001 - 60,000 3 6% 60,001 - 70,000 1 2 11% Above 70,000 Total 18 100%
Around 39% of the respondent APO owners earned monthly income of Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 30,000 and another 17% earned income in the range of Rs 30,000 to Rs. 60,000. m. Problems faced by APO due to dealer 1
2
Sr. No.
Late delivery
N
Percentage
1
Less
22
69%
2
Normal
10
31%
3
Frequent
0
0%
Total
32
100%
Leakage
N
Percentage
1
Less
19
50%
2
Normal
12
32%
3
Frequent
7
18%
Total
38
100%
Sr. No.
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3
Sr. No.
Other
N
Percentage
1
Less
7
58%
2
Normal
3
25%
3
Frequent
2
17%
Total
12
100%
With respect to liquid milk dealers, majority of the respondents indicated that there were no major problems related to late delivery or leakage of pouches. n. Dealers for Milk Products of Selected Respondents 1
2
Sr. No.
Late delivery
N
Percentage
1
Less
26
76%
2
Normal
7
21%
3
Frequent
1
3%
Total
34
100%
Damaged products
N
Percentage
1
Less
23
74%
2
Normal
8
26%
3
Frequent
0
0%
Total
31
100%
Sr. No.
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3
4
Inability of dealer to supply all items indented in purchase order
N
1
Less
16
48%
2
Normal
13
39%
3
Frequent
4
12%
Total
33
100%
Other
N
Percentage
1
Less
7
78%
2
Normal
2
22%
3
Frequent
0
0%
Total
9
100%
Sr. No.
Sr. No.
Percentage
With respect to milk product dealers, there were no major problems related to late delivery or damaged products. However 12% of the respondents indicated “Inability of dealer to supply all items indented in purchase order” was a major problem.
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o. Perception related to other business related issues of Selected Respondents 1
2
3
4
Sr. No
norms for establishing an APO
N
Percenta ge
1
Very liberal
8
18%
2
Liberal
12
27%
3
Normal
19
42%
4
Strict
6
13%
5
Very Strict
0
0%
Total
45
100%
Problems faced while running APO in a rented premises
N
Percenta ge
1
Very less
7
19%
2
Few
5
14%
3
Normal
9
24%
4
Many
9
24%
5
Too Many
7
19%
Total
37
100%
Timely information related promotional schemes
N
Percenta ge
1
Always Delayed
13
31%
2
Sometimes delayed
5
12%
3
Normal
8
19%
4
Sometimes on time
5
12%
5
Always on time
11
26%
Total
42
100%
Benefits/Incentives derived from Promotional schemes
N
Percenta ge
1
Negligible benefits
20
45%
2
Low benefits
7
16%
Sr .No
Sr. No
Sr. No
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3
Average
17
39%
4
High benefits
0
0%
5
Extremely beneficial
0
0%
Total
44
100%
Around 87% of the respondent indicated that the norms for establishing an APO were “normal to very liberal’. Around 81 % of the respondent indicated that the problems of running an APO in rented premises were “normal to very less’. Around 43 % of the respondent indicated that information related promotional schemes was “delayed’ and around 100% of the respondent indicated that the Benefits/Incentives derived from Promotional schemes were in the range of “Normal to negligible”. p. Perception for profitability of APO business of Selected Respondents Sr. No
Type of problem
N
Percentage
1
Highly loss making
0
0%
2
Loss making
0
0%
3
Average profits
15
63%
4
Somewhat profitable
9
37%
5
Highly profitable
0
0%
Total
24
100%
Around 100% of the respondent indicated that the profitability of APO business was in the range of “Average to Above Average Profits”.
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4. Conclusion From the above analysis is can be concluded that the strengths of APOs were - Recent increase in number of APO, Easy norms for establishing APO, Advantage of Brand and entire product range is available and ability to earn Sufficient profits and major weaknesses were Majority do not have FSSAI License, No major advantage gained from promotional schemes, Less presence in rural areas. Acknowledgement This research article has been prepared from the work carried out under the Research Project entitled “Challenges, Opportunities and Expectations of Stakeholders of Dairy Industry of Gujarat and its Implication for Strategy and Policy Formulation: An In-depth study” which was sponsored by Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New-Delhi-11006. The authors acknowledge the support extended by ICSSR. 5. References and websites: http://www.amul.com/ http://www.nddb.coop/
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RE-VIEWING ECO-FEMINISM – LOOKING THROUGH THE PRISM Dr. Madhumita Chatterjee Assistant Professor Barasat Govt. College Barasat Abstract:Presently humanity is entrapped within a number of significant yet crucial crises. A major factor which has contributed towards these crises is man’s thought of himself as the sovereign of the nature. Inspite of Copernican revolution and Darwin’s theory of evolution, man continues to think himself to be superior to nature and exploits her indiscriminately at random. To resolve the aforesaid crises a new shade of ethics coined as ‘environmental ethics’ have emerged to widen our so long confined moral community from humans to include the entire nature. Within the broad spectrum of environmental ethics, radical ecologists –offshoot of the, aforesaid discipline have called for a fundamental re-orientation in the manner we think and act forwards nature. Moreover amidst the feminists, groups known as eco- feminists have also made a significant contribution to the radical ecology and have tried to relate man’s exploitation of women with the issue of dominating nature by man. Instead of individualistic approach, such feminists advocate a holistic philosophy and symbiotic relationship which does not discriminate between man, woman and nature. The primary objective of the paper is to focus that unlike other feminists, eco-feminist come, closer to modern ecology which observes that all life on nature are deeply inter – related. Contribution of significant ecofeminists in voicing their protests against evil effects of patriarchy will constitute a major section of the paper. Finally this aforesaid holistic ecological vision is different from post – modern social thinking, where
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man in a separate and uncertain path tries to build his own tradition, and culture will be focused. Keywords : Eco-feminism, Human, Nature, Patriarchy, Ecology. Introduction:Historically speaking, starting from the Biblical age man particularly, western man declared that God has conferred him authority to exercise dominion over all living beings on the Earth. This aforesaid claim of superiority which primarily had a spiritual bent was further reclaimed with much emphasis, in later periods of cultural history of man emphasizing human rationality, autonomy and linguistic ability. In spite of Copernican revolution and Darwin’s theory of evolution which put a great challenge to the notion of intrinsic value ascribed to the humans, man still continues to justify his speciesist arrogance, exploiting ‘others’ – including the entire nature and her entitles at random. The continuous phenomena of subjugating ‘others” has left man amidst a crisis, which has multi-farious dimensions. This profound crisis, namely ecological crisis, on the positive side has fostered growing awareness and anxiety for future catastrophe amidst some thinkers, philosophers and activists. Their invaluable observations and efforts to re-orient man’s consciousness from destruction and exploitation, towards developing a new holistic and comprehensive world view where creativity, spontaneity and worth of every being is recognized has led to the emergence of a new ethical discipline, which is coined as ‘environmental ethics’. This new ethics, tries to answer the question, how to live a truly virtuous life, not only in relation to other human beings, but with regard to the entire Nature as well. Environmental ethics, therefore attempts to widen our so-long confined moral community from man to ‘others’ where ‘others’ embrace all humans including men and women, living beings of the world as well as inanimate natural entities of the entire nature.
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Ascription of ‘value’ namely intrinsic value to ’all’ is the fundamental and one of the major concerns of this new enlightened vision. Within the broad spectrum of environmental ethics, radical ecologists – one of the major offshoots of the aforesaid discipline, have called for a major re-orientation, in the manner, we think and act towards nature Another quite significant movement which harps on relating man’s exploitation on nature with the issue of dominating women by man has emerged with great force and energy. Such a perspective which thinks that man’s domination on woman as an extension of man’s exploitation on nature is termed as eco-feminism. Eco-feminism unlike other feminists comes closer to the observations of modern ecology, which observes that all life on nature are deeply inter-related and on the other hand it has made a significant contribution to radical ecology, thereby enriching the discipline of environmental ethics. Section – 1 The following paper with a brief introduction has indicated a close linkage between ecology and feminism, quite different from the mainstream feminist movements, all of which have a long history to trace back. To begin with the term “feminism’ we may say that broadly speaking it is a theory or a multitude of theories which challenges the basic pre-suppositions on which patriarchy rests-namely gender inequality, and power relations based on the concept of gender hierarchy. On the other hand feminism can also be described as movements aimed at establishing gender equality for women in all possible spheres, voicing women’s rights and interests and ending different forms of discrimination that women encounter in their everyday life ranging from private sphere to public realm. The history of feminism has been classified by Maggie Human and Rebecca Walker into three waves.1 The first wave of movement took place during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century in the united kingdom
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and the united states. The second phase of feminism is predominantly a period of activity, which started in the early 1960’S and lasted till late 1980’S. The last wave of feminism began in the early 1990’S and still continues to the present. Various sub-movements, based on the basic feminist ideologies, were also organized through a considerable span of time, and different feminist thinkers identified themselves with different types of feminist thoughts. Significant sub-movements which deserve mention are – anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism where struggle against patriarchy is based on the philosophy that challenges the hierarchy which determines the power relationship;2 Socialist feminism which relates the suppression of women with the Marxist ideology of exploitation and every attempt of a male –dominated social set up which devalues women and the labour they contribute to the society are opposed in this type of feminism;3 Radical feminism believe that the male-based social structure which again determines the logic of power – relations should be criticized and finally replaced since it nurtures oppression and inequality, in the existing society, and some of these group of feminists are even in favour of complete reconstruction of society, which will eradicate the evils of oppression.4 Liberal feminism puts emphasis on the principle of equality and respects the endeavor of women to establish equality through their actions, but that too without altering the existing pattern of society;5 Post – colonial feminism, is a sharp critique of oppression of women relating to the colonial experiences which has marginalized them in post-colonial societies.6 Other important forms of feminism include, post – structural and post – modern feminism, multi-racial feminism and finally eco-feminism, which in particular has been addressed in the introductory section Section – 2
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The paper intends to focus specifically on eco-feminism and place it as a significant from, within radical feminism, which tries to free women from the oppressive and exploitative system inherent in patriarchal ideologies. The idea of connecting, the domination of the earth and her beings with the cause of feminist exploitation is a comprehensive and inclusive world- view which can be considered as a point of convergence between ecology and – feminism. However, ecofeminists differ in their opinion regarding the nature of connections, between earth and women, and inquire about the plausibility and justifiability of their theory, still all eco-feminists unanimously agree that the goals of two disciplines – ecology and feminism are mutually reinforcing , to each other, which is best expressed in the words of Rosemary Ruether who comments, ‘ Women must see that there can be no liberation for them and no solution to the ecological crisis within a society whose fundamental model of relationship continues to be one of domination. They must unite the demands of the women’s movement with those of the ecological movement to envision a radical reshaping of the basis-socio economic relations and underlying values of this (modern - industrial) society.7 Patriarchal ideology, which encourages hierarchy and domination ascribing higher status to masculinity compared to that of feminity, is challenged by feminists, in general, as well as specifically by eco-feminists. However, similar to feminisms which differ from each other regarding their points of emphasis, eco-feminism also differ depending on the nature of connection they discover between nature and women. In other words, the task of divergent eco-feminisms is to make visible difference in connections between nature and women. Follow Karen J. Warren eight types of connections between women and nature have been identified by eco-feminists, some of which provide competing, while some are mutually complementary and supportive analyses of the nature of the dominations of women and nature.
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Historical – Typically causal connections: Some eco-feminist thinkers have tried to interpret the relation between women and nature from historical point of view. Such historical connection is so significant that Ariel Salleh defines eco-feminism in terms of it. Moreover some eco-feminists trace the aforesaid relation, since the invasion of Indo-European societies by nomadic tribes from Eurasia about 4500 B.C while other like Griffin and Plumwood trace the connections between the two, since the time of Greek Thought which put great emphasis on human rationality. Some others like Carolyn Merchant tried to highlight the origin of the relation between women and nature, during the scientific revolution that occurred in the sixteenth and seventeenth century which justified exploitation of nature and subjugation of women.8 Conceptual connections: Some thinkers, try to locate a conceptual connection between dominations of women and nature by upholding the concept of value dualisms, and value hierarchies where reason was separated from emotion, mind from body, culture from nature, humans from nature and man from women, and value hierarchies which assumed reason, mind culture, human, man to be superior and more powerful to emotion body, nature and women authenticated domination which was considered much inferior. Such a socially built set of beliefs and values, forms the basis of a particular conceptual framework, where domination on nature and women is justified.9 Another significant conceptual claim to relate oppression of women with nature, is based on female bodily experiences which place women differently with respect to nature than men. This difference develops a special relation of women with nature than men, and ecofeminism as a theory tries to dismantle the conceptual relation of domination, particularly, the dominations of women and nature.10
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Empirical and Experiential connections: Many eco-feminists try to provide empirical data linking the miserable condition which women constantly experience with the phenomena of environmental destruction. Such connections reveal important cultural and spiritual ties between the earth which is honoured by at least some women and indigenous people. Symbolic connections: This connection between women and nature have been established by some eco-feminists who attempt to discover such relation in religion, theology, art and literature. Deciphering such connection is often taken to be eco-feminism’s one of the significant contribution towards resolving patriarchal domination. Language is here considered to be a significant medium through which both women and nature are observed to be inferior to men. Women are often described in animal terms, while nature in turn is also explained in female and sexual terms. Epistemological
connections:
Various
connections,
discussed
previously have inspired the need for new eco-feminist epistemology, which will stand as a sharp critique of mainstream views on rationality, knowledge and the subject who acquires knowledge.13 Political connections: Some eco-feminists have argued for a political movement, which shows definite pragmatic concerns starting from women’s and environmental health to science, treatment of animals as well as anti-militarist activism.14 Ethical connections: Most of the literature on women and nature relation has been dealt in environmental ethics as mentioned previously in the following paper. Such as feminist trend tries to interpret women and nature relation on an ethical analysis and response. They intend to develop theories of environmental ethics which are free from mate-bias. Such a new vision it is thought will help to develop a feminist ethic based on of care, reciprocity, and symbiosis.15
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Theoretical connections: different varieties of women nature connections have given rise to different theoretical position in all areas of feminist and environmental philosophy.16 The aforesaid brief yet comprehensive discussion reveal that different types of connections between women and nature as has been deciphered by different eco-feminists, in turn has given birth to divergent shades of eco-feminism. Amidst these divergent shades the conceptual connection seems the most significant one. To put it differently the domination of women and nature is more significantly grounded in ideology from which historical empirical, symbolic, epistemological, political, ethical and theoretical connections between women and nature can be derived. It is however to be admitted that human culture has contributed towards the aforesaid conceptual association between women and nature which forms a fundamental feature of our culture’s world – view. The dichotomy between reason and emotion, mind and body culture and nature man and woman is ingrained the conceptual frame work which lies at the root of beliefs about ourselves and the world around us. Eco-feminism has therefore emerged to put an end to all forms of discrimination that originate from nature- culture and man – women dualism, and aims at developing a mutually respectful relationship between humans and ‘others’ – which include women and the rest of nature. So, breaking down the conceptual framework where man is portrayed as rational, strong, and superior, while women and nature are defined as emotional, passive, caring and inferior would liberate both nature and women. To quote Lori Gruen eco-feminism is “analysing the connections between women and nature and offering alternative conceptions of how we should live in the world”.17 This conceptual framework which is the manifestation of a patriarchal culture, can be well related to the process where nature is symbolized as feminine and women are naturalized, through language., in religion, theology, and art all of which are
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manifestations of a pre-dominant male culture, Traditional Epistemology which has put great stress on human rationality more specially male rationality and male subject who is able to attain knowledge. Other forms of association, like political and theoretical connections between women and nature which have been treated with separate significance by different shades of eco-feminists – all try to free our thought from male – bias and offer an alternative for survival of all. Moreover eco-feminist trend, which tries to analysis women and nature relation from an ethical perspective, tries to show the importance of an interconnectedness and symbiotic relationship which does not discriminate between man, woman and nature. Such a change in ideology will take place only when an ardent desire to develop an entirely different ideology will replace the earlier ones. Section – 3 Works by feminists namely Carolyn Merchant, Susan Griffin, Karren, J. Warren, Val Plum hood focus that oppression of women and the oppression of nature are deeply inter – related. Disagreements about the nature and type of relations have given rise to different shades of eco-feminism, still every eco feminist theory includes an ecological perspective. Carolyn Merchant argued from the historical point of view that nature prior to the scientific revolution, was observed as a benevolent female and a nurturing mother18. But after the revolution, the concept of Earth as an organic whole was replaced by a mechanistic model as a machine which is inert and dead. On both models nature or Earth is regarded as female. Merchant, is of the opinion that shift in perspectives from organic to mechanistic view about nature authenticated and justified exploitation of nature followed by unrestrained commercial expansion and developing and nourishing socio-economic conditions that fostered exploitation of women.
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Another contemporary feminist poet Susan Griffin in her famous book ‘Woman and nature’ vividly gave an exposition of how woman and nature are intimately connected to each other. Both women and nature are thought to be “other” to the rational man and oppressed by men.19. She in her investigation to the cause of the aforesaid maltreatment showed that men are terrified by the power of nature over them. So to maintain his existence, he took the help of torture and domination. Western men has forgotten their inner nature and think that they possess an immortal soul. Moreover they also relate women closer to nature, since women value life, produce relationships and peace. Karren, I Warren, a contemporary eco-feminist in her article, ‘The power and promises of the ecological feminism’, emphasise on different types of connection between domination of woman and the domination of non-human nature. In her opinion, there is a necessity to develop an ethics free from patriarchal framework, which will nurture values of care, trust, kindness and friendship – all of which are often absent in mainstream ethics20. She gives central place to a woman’s voice and concludes feminism, and environmental ethics must relate important woman nature connections in order to be complete and adequate. In ‘Nature self and Gender- Feminism, environmental Philosophy and the critique of Rationalism’, Plumhood argues that to the westerners, woman – nature connection is grounded in rationalism, which itself depend upon human and nature dichotomy, which gives prominence to masculine rationality excluding the feminine as irrational21. She also reminds us that a proper historical analysis and understanding are necessary to trace the reasons which have caused inferiorization of women and nature.
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The historical connection traced by Merchant, tries to causally relate the scientific and cultural revolution which occurred in the sixteenth and seventeenth century with the deterioration of the condition of women and nature. Griffin’s argument however draws us near the conceptual ideology which rests in value dualisms where disjuncts stand in opposition to each other as well as on valuehierarchies, where certain disjuncts are accorded higher place than the other. Moreover Griffin’s analysis has a psychological bent which reflects man’s fear and anxiety in his encounter with nature, which he thinks would overpower him – such a tension has caused rampant exploitation on nature and women by men Warren’s observations are also rooted in the conceptual connections between dominations of women and nature, which brings her close to Griffin and Plumwood who also upheld to man / nature dichotomy of women and nature. Moreover while Warren suggests the necessity of developing an ethics of care, trust and friendship, Plumwood insists on the necessity of making an adequate historical analysis which can detect the ways in which inferiorization of women and nature is made. This point of view seems to bring her quite close to Marchant who also provide us with a historical analysis of the exploitation of women and nature. Section – 4 All eco-feminists in spite of their difference in points of emphasis, agree in the logic of domination which authenticates domination of nature and women. Now, question arises as to how eco-feminism in its different shades, will function in a post – modern social fabric, which is characterized by relativist and anti foundational perspectives and attitudes standing in sharp contrast to ‘modernism’, which upheld, universal objective and absolute truths, and belief – system based on reason. Post – modernists denounced the use of reason and thought that language the medium of expressing reason, often creates distinctions by distorting reality. Marxists have thought that reason www.ijmer.in
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has rationalized power and justified domination, leading to the development of consumerist society. Moreover, post – modernism, states that there is no universal reality which transcends the limitations of culture and history Reality, is to be constructed depending on interpretations as detailed by particular individuals. Eco – feminism can be described as a variant of post – modernism, which rejects rationality and concept of ‘power’ supported by modernist approaches. Eco-feminism quite alike the central doctrines of Post- modernism, denounces power and reason which are the chief operative device of patriarchal set up responsible for the oppression of women and exploitation of nature. Such a form of feminism tries to bring a reversal of traits, e.g feminist traits which have been under-valued in the masculine model. Post – modernism, when puts emphasis on interpretations and stories depicted by different individuals, comes to a point of agreement with eco-feminism, where Grace Paley reminds us of an intimate relation which women feel with other creatures and living beings and think their stories of struggle and survival as their own. Stories act as a medium through which women participate in deep a relation with other beings of nature, who are subjugated by men. Eco-feminism, however seems to differ from postmodernism where it advocates a holistic world view showing the significance of inter- connectedness of all life processes, which perhaps Post-modernism would deny it since it rests on relative and partial truths based on different interpretations. Eco- feminism which focuses an closeness between nature and women, comes quite close to Post – modernism where both want to change the existential structure of society and the dominant pattern, which polarizes the society, into two binary sections which upheld reason and inferionizes women. Two conclude, we may say that the different ‘relations’ interpreted by eco-feminists regarding connections between women and nature, rests on a particulars patriarchal set-up What we need is to www.ijmer.in
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revalue and rethink the underlying social structure and also to aim to foster non-violence, denying any rest of hierarchy, realizing mutual reciprocity, symbiosis and intimate relation between all life processes. Integration not polarization between feminism and masculinity should be encouraged which will withdraw the sense of power, the spirit of domination and notion of and hierarchy embedded within patriarchy. Notes and references :1. History and theory of feminism from http/www.gender/cawater – info.net/ knowledge_based/rubricator/feminism-e htm. 2. History and theory of feminism, Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid. 7. Ruether, Rosemary Radford. New Woman/New Earth (New York) The Seabury Press, 1975 P, 204. 8. Waren Karren. J, Introduction to Feminism, Zimmerman, J. Baird Callicott, George Sessions, Karren. J. Warren and Jhon clark (Eds) Environmental Philosophy : From Animal Rights to Radical ecology. Englewood cliffs, Prentice Hall, pp 253-267. 9. Warren, Ibid, pp 253 – 267 10. Warren, Ibid, 11. Warren, Ibid, 12. Warren, Ibid, 13. Warren, Ibid, 14. Warren, Ibid, 15. Warren, Ibid, 16. Warren, Ibid,
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17. Gruen Lori, Dismantling oppression: An analysis of god of the connection between women and animals” in Gaard Eco-feminism: Women, Animals nature, P 60 18. Warren, op cit pp253 – 267 19. Griffin, Susan, Woman and nature in Christ and Rountree. P 193 20. Warren, Karren, I The power and promises of the Ecological Feminism in Environmental Ethics 12, 1990, pp 125 – 146 21. Warren, op cit
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THE POINT OF VIEW IN KHUSHWANT SINGH’S “KARMA”
N. Madhu Research Scholar Department of English Acharya Nagarjuna University Guntur Abstract: This paper is concerned with the analysis of Point of view in Khushwant Singh’s Short story “Karma”. It makes an attempt to investigate how Khushwant Singh achieves his spatio-temporal, ideological and psychological perspectives through his language. He continuously interferes with the comprehension of the readers by guiding them in terms of locating the places and time through his spatio-temporal perspective. He also influences the feelings of the readers by communicating his ideas through his psychological perspective. He also presents the mindset of his characters by describing the commonly accepted social practices in the society through his ideological perspective. Point of view on spatio-temporal, ideological and psychological planes helps the narrator achieve his purpose effectively. Introduction: This paper presents the stylistic analysis of the short stories “Karma” and written by Khushwant Singh. Khushwant Singh is a well-known Indian English Writer and a famous essayist. He got well equipped by background, education, exposure and experience to view the Indian scene from a wider angle without any sentimental attachment. He is known more for his books of jokes and his column With Malice Towards All. He has penned books on religion, Sikhism, and history of Sikhs and Delhi. He is a man who loves life fully and deeply as is evident in his
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books. The ironic mode that he adopted also enabled him to look at the human scene with detachment. The analysis of “Karma” is done in the light of one of the stylistic features ‘Point of view’. Khushwant Singh, in this story, skillfully brings out the fate of the anglicized Sir Mohan Lal. The title ‘Karma’ is symbolical. The author ridicules the slavish imitation of English manners, which has led to snobbery in a class of people in our country. The irony of Sir Mohan’s fate was that while he lay prostrate and humiliated on the platform, his wife Lady Mohan Lal, traveled in comfort in her interclass compartment. And the last lines of the story, “As the train sped past the lighted part of the platform, Lady Lal spat and sent a jet of red dribble flying across like a dart” are very symbolic and ironic that the last action of Lady Lal indicated her unconsciously gained triumph over her husband, who was terribly humiliated by aggressive English soldiers. It is also ironic that Sir Mohan Lal, the inveterate admirer of everything English, should suffer at the hands of Englishmen themselves. Sir Mohan Lal is individualized, but he also represents a social segment of the upper-class Indian during the heyday of the British Raj, who took pride in blindly imitating the English way of life and consequently mocked at everything native. He deliberately dissociated himself from his native soil and cultural roots. However he is not English at all, except in his dress. He pays the price for this artificially contrived exclusiveness from his native setting by being flung out of the railway compartment. “He reeled backwards, tripping on his bedding, and landed on the suitcase” which is an act of nemesis. Point of view is a much discussed and rigorously explored area in fiction studies, whether in the stylistics framework or any other framework of literary criticism and theory. Point of view basically
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refers to the way a story is told, the mode of its narration. Point of view concerns, produces, results in, perspectives on, evaluations of, events and characters. It is about influencing readers to form certain opinions, or not to form certain opinions. Planes of point of view in narrative fiction In an influential publication on prose composition, the narratologist Boris Uspensky proposed a four-way model for the study of point of view in fiction (Uspensky, 1973). This model was later revised and refined by Roger Fowler. So it is probably referred as the ‘Fowler – Uspensky model’. The four components indentified by the Fowler – Uspensky model of point of view are as follows: i.
Point of view on the ideological plane
ii. Point of view on the temporal plane iii. Point of view on the spatial plane iv. Point of view on the psychological plane The broad compass of the model has proved significant in shaping much stylistic work on point of view because it helps sort out different components in narrative organization. Point of view on the ideological plane: The term ideology has a wide scope of reference. It refers to the matrix of beliefs we use to comprehend the world and to the value systems through and by which we interact in society. It follows then that the concept of point of view on the ideological plane refers to the way in which a text mediates a set of particular ideological beliefs through either character, narrator or author. Indeed, the domain of ideology is so broad that just about any aspect of narrative can be brought within its compass, whether it be a facet of narrative voice like author, narrator, character or person, or an element of narrative ‘preoccupation’ like emblem, theme, motif, and most important of all, characterization. www.ijmer.in
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Point of view on the temporal plane: Point of view on the temporal plane, in terms of the Fowler – Uspensky model, is about the way relationships are signalled in narrative. Temporal point of view envelops a whole series of stylistic techniques such as repetition, analepsis (flashback) and prolepsis (prevision or flash forward). It basically covers any kind of manipulation of time sequence in narrative, explaining how certain events might be relayed as remote or distant, others as immediate or imminent. Temporal point of view is certainly an important narrative category. It seems to be less about focalisation and viewpoint and rather more about narrative structure; it does after all encompass the structural segments and sequential progression of the time-line of a narrative. Point of view on the spatial plane: Spatial point of view is about the narrative ‘camera angle’ and is a device which has palpable grammatical exponents in deixis and in locative expressions. This is often communicated through adverbs like this, that, here, there and so on. Point of view on the Psychological plane Psychological or perceptual view point refers to the way in which narrative events are mediated through the consciousness of the ‘teller’ of the story. It will encompass the means by which a fictional world is slanted in a particular way or the means by which narrators construct, in linguistic terms, their own view of the story they tell (Simpson: 1993). In this paper, I would like to apply this stylistic method ‘Point of View’ to Khushwant Singh’s short story “Karma”. In this paper, groups of indicators are linked together interpretatively, namely in terms of ‘Spatio-temporal’ ‘Psychological’
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and ‘ideological’ view point. Spatio-temporal viewpoint ‘refers to the impression which a reader gains of events moving rapidly or slowly, in a continuous chain or isolated segments (Fowler, 1986: 127). It is the viewing position – as in the visual arts – that the readers feel themselves to occupy; the position from which their chain of perceptions seems to move. Such perspective is often communicated through adverbs (such as ‘here’ and ‘there’) demonstrative pronouns in noun phrases (such as ‘this week’ and ‘that room’) and so on. Psychological or perceptual viewpoint refers to the way in which narrative events are mediated through the consciousness of the ‘teller’ of the story. “It will encompass the means by which a fictional world is slanted in a particular way or the means by which narrators construct, in linguistic terms, their own view of the story they tell” (Simpson, 1993:11-12). Finally, ideological viewpoint, or world view, refers to the set of values, or belief system communicated by the language of the text and shared by people from similar backgrounds to the speaker. In this case, viewpoint has less to do with an individual’s Spatio-temporal location in some particular sense, but with a generalized mind-set or outlook on the world that a person, often as a representative of a group of people, might have (Short, 1996:277). To illustrate this distinction, three passages from the short story “Karma” are stylistically analyzed below. The following Stylistic analyses of the passages from the story “Karma” give a very clear picture of the ‘Point of view’. Passage – 1 The arrival of the train did not disturb Sir Mohan Lal's sang-froid. He continued to sip his scotch and ordered the bearer to tell him when he had moved the luggage to a first class compartment. Excitement, bustle and hurry were exhibitions of bad breeding, and Sir Mohan was www.ijmer.in
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eminently well-bred. He wanted everything 'tickety-boo' and orderly. In his five years abroad, Sir Mohan had acquired the manners and attitudes of the upper classes. He rarely spoke Hindustani. When he did, it was like an Englishman's - only the very necessary words and properly anglicised. But he fancied his English, finished and refined at no less a place than the University of Oxford. He was fond of conversation, and like a cultured Englishman, he could talk on almost any subject - books, politics, people. How frequently had he heard English people say that he spoke like an Englishman!(Singh, 1989: 10). The narrator’s Spatio-temporal perspective is communicated through the time and place adverbials and an adverb in the following lines which indicate the time and place of the events of the story.
He continued to sip his scotch and ordered the bearer to tell him when he had moved the luggage to a first class compartment.
In his five years abroad, Sir Mohan had acquired the manners and attitudes of the upper classes.
When he did, it was like an Englishman's - only the very necessary words and properly anglicized.
The place adverbial to a first class compartment and the time adverbial in his five years abroad make us understand the time and place of the incidents occurring in the story. Through the adverb when, which also acts like a conjunct, the narrator makes the readers understand the time of the events of the story. The narrator’s ideological perspective is communicated through the following lines through which we can understand the ideology and the perceptions of the character Sir Mohan Lal. Sir Mohan Lal’s opinions about the well-mannered are shown clearly in the following lines.
Excitement, bustle and hurry were exhibitions of bad breeding, and Sir Mohan was eminently well-bred.
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Sir Mohan had acquired the manners and attitudes of the upper classes.
According to Sir Mohan Lal, feeling excited is the exhibition of bad breeding. His beliefs, impressions and perceptions with regard to the body language and mannerisms of the people are clearly shown through the above lines which reveal the ideological perspective of the narrator. The psychological perspective of the narrator is communicated through a verb inert cognition and abstract nouns in the following lines.
The arrival of the train did not disturb Sir Mohan Lal's sangfroid
Excitement, bustle and hurry were exhibitions of bad breeding, and Sir Mohan was eminently well-bred.
The verb of inert cognition disturb paradoxically indicates the calm and composed psychological condition of Sir Mohan Lal. Through the above lines it can be inferred that Sri Mohan Lal was not disturbed by the arrival of the train. It also reveals his composure. Through the abstract nouns excitement, bustle and hurry the narrator indicates the feelings of the character Sir Mohan Lal. Passage – 2 Sir Mohan wondered if he would be travelling alone. It was a Cantonment and some English officers might be on the train. His heart warmed at the prospect of an impressive conversation. He never showed any sign of eagerness to talk to the English as most Indians did. Nor was he loud, aggressive and opinionated like them. He went about his business with an expressionless matter-of-factness. He would retire to his corner by the window and get out a copy of The Times. He would fold it in a way in which the name of the paper was visible to others while he did the crossword puzzle. The Times always attracted www.ijmer.in
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attention. Someone would like to borrow it when he put it aside with a gesture signifying 'I've finished with it.' Perhaps someone would recognize his Balliol tie which he always wore while travelling. That would open a vista leading to a fairy-land of Oxford colleges, masters, dons, tutors, boat-races and rugger matches. If both The Times and the tie failed, Sir Mohan would 'Koi Hai' his bearer to get the Scotch out. Whiskey never failed with Englishmen. Then followed Sir Mohan's handsome gold cigarette case filled with English cigarettes. English cigarettes in India ? How on earth did he get them ? Sure he didn't mind ? And Sir Mohan's understanding smile - of course he didn't. But could he use the Englishman as a medium to commune with his dear old England ? Those five years of grey bags and gowns, of sports blazers and mixed doubles, of dinners at the inns of Court and nights with Piccadilly prostitutes. Five years of a crowded glorious life. Worth far more than the forty-five in India with his dirty, vulgar countrymen, with sordid details of the road to success, of nocturnal visits to the upper storey and all-too-brief sexual acts with obese old Lachmi, smelling of sweat and raw onions (Singh, 1989: 10). The narrator’s spatio-temporal perspective is communicated through the place adverbials, deictic determiners, a time adverbial and a time-duration adverbial, and an adverb. We see the events of the story from the narrator’s point of view with the help of the following expressions of Spatio-temporal perspective.
It was a Cantonment and some English officers might be on the train.
He would retire to his corner by the window and get out a copy of The Times.
The Times always attracted attention.
Someone would like to borrow it when he put it aside with a gesture signifying 'I've finished with it.
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That would open a vista leading to a fairy-land of Oxford colleges, masters, dons, tutors, boat-races and rugger matches.
Then followed Sir Mohan's handsome gold cigarette case filled with English cigarettes.
Those five years of grey bags and gowns, of sports blazers and mixed doubles, of dinners at the inns of Court and nights with Piccadilly prostitutes.
The place adverbials on the train and by the window help us look at the place of the incidents. They show us the narrator’s perspective of space. The deictic determiners that and it reveal the remoteness and closeness of the incidents to the narrator. The time adverbial always denotes the frequency of the action in the story. The adjunct then helps the narrator achieve the cohesion. The time-duration adverbial those five years gives us the period of the time of the action in the story. The narrator’s ideological perspective is communicated through the following lines which helps us understand the uncertainty of the events and the ideology of Sir Mohan Lal.
It was a Cantonment and some English officers might be on the train.
He never showed any sign of eagerness to talk to the English as most Indians did.
Nor was he loud, aggressive and opinionated like them.
Sir Mohan Lal’s ideological perceptions of his own country people are put forth clearly by the above mentioned lines. Sir Mohan Lal thinks that being loud, aggressive and opinionated are the qualities of his own countrymen which he did not adopt. By saying ‘He never showed any sign of eagerness to talk to the English as most Indians did’, the narrator reveals the opinions of Sir Mohan Lal.
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The psychological perspective of the narrator is communicated through the verbs of inert cognition and perception, an abstract noun and an adjective in the following lines. We, the readers can get into the mindset of the character Sir Mohan Lal with the help of these expressions.
Sir Mohan wondered if he would be travelling alone.
His
heart
warmed
at
the
prospect
of
an
impressive
conversation.
He never showed any sign of eagerness to talk to the English as most Indians did.
Nor was he loud, aggressive and opinionated like them.
He went about his business with an expressionless matter-offactness.
The Times always attracted attention.
Through the verbs of inert cognition and perception like wondered, warmed, attracted we get into the consciousness of Sir Mohan Lal. The abstract noun eagerness and an adjective opinionated also reveal the thinking tendencies of Sir Mohan Lal. Sir Mohan Lal’s mindset is revealed through the above lines in which he thinks of his travelling with Englishmen and having an impressive conversation with them. Passage –3 Sir Mohan's feet were glued to the earth and he lost his speech. He stared at the lighted windows of the train going past him in quickening tempo. The tail-end of the train appeared with a red light and the guard standing in the open doorway with the flags in his hands. In the inter-class Zenana compartment was Lachmi, fair and fat, on whose nose the diamond nose-ring glistened against the station lights. Her mouth was bloated with betel saliva which she had been www.ijmer.in
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storing up to spit as soon as the train had cleared the station. As the train sped past the lighted part of the platform, Lady Lal spat and sent a jet of red dribble flying across like a dart (Singh,1989: 12). The narrator’s spatio-temporal perspective is communicated through the following sentences. We see and experience the action of the story from Sir Mohan Lal’s view position from the following lines.
Sir Mohan's feet were glued to the earth and he lost his speech.
He stared at the lighted windows of the train going past him in quickening tempo.
The tail-end of the train appeared with a red light and the guard standing in the open doorway hands.
with the flags in his
As the train sped past the lighted part of the platform, Lady Lal spat and sent a jet of red dribble flying across like a dart.
The above lines have time adverbials, manner adverbials, adverbial clauses and verbs of motion through which the narrator takes the readers with him along with the incidents. We, the readers, tend to look at the happenings of the story as the narrator shows them to us. We view the whole incident from the narrator’s side. Sir Mohan Lal gets thrown out of the train and is glued to the earth. We look at him from the narrator’s side. As the train moves from the station, we also look at it from the narrator’s side. The guard stands at the tail end of the train in the open door way with the flags in his hands. Mrs. Lady Lal spits and sends a jet of red dribble flying across like a dart. All the above incidents can be seen by us from narrator’s side. The viewing position is from the narrator’s angle in the above lines. The place adverbials to the earth, at the lighted windows, the tail end of the train, in the open door way, in his hands denote the locations of the action of the story. The manner adverbials in quickening tempo and across like a dart
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describe the manner in which the train moves. The deictic progressive verb going and flying also indicate the movement in the action. The adverbial clause as the train sped past makes us look at the train from Mohan Lal’s angle. The narrator’s ideological perspective is communicated through the following lines through which we can get into the mindset of Mrs. Mohan Lal. Mrs. Mohan Lal, though she was an illiterate, waits to spit till the train had cleared the station. It shows her well- mannered personality and her thoughts.
Her mouth was bloated with betel saliva which she had been storing up to spit as soon as the train had cleared the station.
As the train sped past the lighted part of the platform, Lady Lal spat and sent a jet of red dribble flying across like a dart.
The psychological perspective of the narrator is communicated through the verbs of activity and inert perception in the following lines through which we can understand the psychological position of Sir Mohan Lal.
Sir Mohan's feet were glued to the earth and he lost his speech.
He stared at the lighted windows of the train going past him in quickening tempo.
The verbs lost and stared, which have psychological connotations, are used in the above lines to reveal the psychological condition of Sir Mahan Lal. Sir Mohan Lal becomes dumb as he is thrown out of the moving train. He stares at the moving train in a shocked mood because his expectations are overturned as he was humiliated terribly. We can get into his psychological position from the above two sentences. Sir Mohan Lal identifies himself with the English people and culture and tries to make friendship with them but ironically he gets humiliated by the English soldiers though he tries to be nice to them. The narrator www.ijmer.in
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effectively achieves his psychological perspective with the two verbs lost and stared to express Sir Mohan Lal’s anguish. Conclusion: From the above analysis, we can see that Khushwant Singh achieves his intended perspective by the effective use of Point of view in his story “Karma”. One can easily get into the mind of the author or the character by following the ‘Point of View’ meticulously. The successful use of point of view and their desired results on different planes of narration help the reader feel stylistically sensitive to the language. References 1. Singh, Khushwant. 1989. A collected Short Stories of Khushwant Singh. South Asian books, Ravivi Dayal publishers. 2. Dietrich, R.F. 1967. The Art of Fiction. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winstan. 3. Fowler, Roger. (ed.). 1986. Essays on Style and Language . London: Routlede and Keganpaul. 4. Simpson, Paul. (ed.) 1993. Language, Discourse and Literature. London: Unwin Hyman Ltd. 5. Short, Mick. 1996. Exploring the languages of poems, plays and prose. Edinburgh gate: Harlow, Addison Wesley. Longman.
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ELDER EXPLOITATION IN INDIA Dr.Rama Rao Dharmana Head Department of Sociology Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Abstract: Civilized society has always wanted to reduce human mortality rates and once it successfully accomplished this, the population began to grow from the low-level of stationery population, helping in industrialization and economic growth. This was followed by the belief that population growth precedes economic development. However the problem of rapid population growth soon began to upset human prosperity and civilized society needed intervention in the area of human fertility. The reduction in fertility level, reinforced by a steady increase in life expectancy has produced fundamental changes in the age structure of the population, leading to the aging of the population. This phenomenon was experienced by the more developed countries, but the process recently became more apparent in much of the developing world as well. For the near future, virtually all countries will face population aging, although at varying levels of intensity. The magnitude of population aging and its manifestations are not the same everywhere. But what is common is the fact that extended longevitydue to decline in death rates- and falling fertility rate is the universal cause of rise of the ageing population Introduction. Civilized society has always wanted to reduce human mortality rates and once it successfully accomplished this, the population began to grow from the low-level of stationery population, helping in industrialization and economic growth. This was followed by the belief that population growth precedes economic development. However the
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problem of rapid population growth soon began to upset human prosperity and civilized society needed intervention in the area of human fertility. (Chakraboti, 2004) . The reduction in fertility level, reinforced by a steady increase in life expectancy has produced fundamental changes in the age structure of the population, leading to the aging of the population. This brings into question the definition of Population aging. Population aging is the process by which older individuals become a proportionately larger share of the total population. (World Population Aging United Nations (2002). The problem of population ageing is a global problem in the sense that it is experienced by all societies. This phenomenon was experienced by the more developed countries, but the process recently became more apparent in much of the developing world as well. For the near future, virtually all countries will face population aging, although at varying levels of intensity. The magnitude of population aging and its manifestations are not the same everywhere. But what is common is the fact that extended longevitydue to decline in death rates- and falling fertility rate is the universal cause of rise of the ageing population. The rise affects the demography of the labour market, patterns of consumption and productivity, trends of savings and investment priorities in public spending and delivery of social services. But the similarity ends there. Just how each of these areas will be affected differ from society to society. The United Nations Dept of Economic and Social Affairs (Population Division) in a report named World Population Aging (1950-2050) states that the shift in age structure associated with population aging has profound impact on a broad range of economic, political and social conditions. One of the impacts socially are the growing concerns about the long term viability of intergenerational social support systems, which are crucial for the well being of both the older and younger generations. As more people live longer, retirement, pensions and other social www.ijmer.in
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benefits tend to extend over longer periods of time. This makes it necessary for social security systems to change substantially in order to remain effective. Increasing longevity can also result in rising medical costs and increasing demands for health services, since older people are typically vulnerable to chronic diseases.Thus even if the process of aging may differ culturally, certain implications of this process are seen globally. AGEING IN INDIA: The ageing problem has already begun in India. The analysis of historical patterns of mortality and fertility decline in India indicates that the process of population aging intensified only in the 1990’s. The older population of India, which was 56.7 million in 1991, is 76.6 million in 2001 and is expected to grow to 324 million by 2050. Today India is home to one out of every ten senior citizens of the world. India accounts for 7.41 % of elderly population. Both the absolute and relative size of the population of the elderly in India will gain strength in future. In fact some states are depicting the trend in population ageing at a much faster rate than anticipated. As of 2011, the highest proportion of elderly among the states and Union territories was observed in Kerala (10.5%) and lowest in Dadra Nagar Haveli (4%). According to 2011 census, Uttar Pradesh has 11.6 million elderly people (highest) followed by Maharashtra has 804 million and Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal has 5.8 and 5.7 million respectively. The lowest number of elderly population lives in Lakshadeep (1.4 lakh). SEX RATIOS OF THE INDIAN ELDERLY: A sex ratio is a common measure used to portray a population sex composition. A sex ratio is conventionally defined as number of women for 1000 men in a given population or age category. Sex ratio greater than 1000 indicate more women than men and sex ratio under 1000 indicate the reverse. In most countries in the world, sex ratio of older www.ijmer.in
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ages is above 1000. In some cases it is much higher too. Women are expected to make up majority of the elderly population in future. On examining the data on sex ratios for the elderly in India and its major states it is observed a similar pattern will emerge. The old age dependency ratio refers to the ratio of population of age 60 and above to the population in the working ages (15-59 years).Though the aging of population varies in intensity from state to state, one can delineate several demographic aspects. The enormous increase in the absolute numbers and relative weight to those living beyond the age of 60. Second since the sex ratio tends to be lower at older ages, there will be an increase in the number of elderly women than men. Sex ratio in elderly population is projected to become 1031 by the year 2016 as compared to 935 in the total population. Third since fertility is declining sharply, as a result, the population of non-working age relative to working population will rise in all states. It is from these massive changes, including projected changes in the composition of the population that there has been a growing concern for the aged. ELDER ABUSE: Family violence is not a new phenomenon. Spouse abuse, perhaps the oldest and most pervasive of all the different types of domestic violence, caught scientific attention first. Child abuse, followed suit, gaining recognition as a problem to be addressed. Now abuse and maltreatment of older persons by others, either in the family setting or in the institutional setting, is emerging as an issue for public debate, research inquiry as well as professional intervention. Violence has become a daily part of our lives. We read about it in newspapers, see it on TV, and experience it on streets of our cities and towns. However behind closed doors of many Indian homes, violence occurs more than we would care to admit- parents abusing children, husbands abusing wives and older persons being abused and neglected by spouses, daughter in laws, sons, brothers and other members of the family and relatives. www.ijmer.in
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Violence in the home and the abuse of family members who are less capable of defending themselves such as children, women, handicapped and the elderly has existed in India. Elder abuse is a disturbing reality in today's society. The risk of being abused, neglected or exploited is real for many older people. Family members or other caregivers are most often the abusers. The problem crosses all geographic, socioeconomic, racial, and ethnic barriers. Traditionally such treatment towards the elderly was rare, because of the conservative Indian ethos emphasizing reciprocity and interdependence at an inter generational level. Age was venerated; the elderly were treated with certain amount of respect and thus not consciously singled out for direct abuse. Since the family and the community fulfilled everyone’s needs of sustenance, there was no felt need for a formal social security. This built in system of ancient and medieval India is now fast eroding in modern times due to demographic transition, gradual disappearance of traditional family support system and changing priorities of younger generation. Also this conservatism is undergoing a metamorphosis in both urban and rural settings; technological innovations and modernization have brought about a materialistic, individualized and impersonalized life-style. (Mallick, 2001). As compared to Western societies an overwhelming majority of the old still live with their family members. Thus what becomes important is how qualitatively they live. The major threats to the quality of life of elderly are (a) Migration of the care providers (b) women’s work force demanding change in their role from being care giver to resource earner of the family (c) disintegration of values related to elderly care (d) structural and functional change of the family Elder abuse as a social problem remains largely hidden within the domain of family privacy. Older
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persons who are victims of abuse are either too weak to voice their agony or do not dare disclose the extent of abuses because of their dependency on abusers for physical and financial support. ELDER ABUSE: THE PROBLEMS IN CONCEPTUALISATION. According to Prakash (2003) elder abuse presents a complex and sensitive area that is difficult to investigate. First, there are problems in the conceptualization of elder abuse. There appears to be no standard definition that is acceptable to everyone that is involved. There are arguments about what should be included and excluded. The definition given by Council of Europe (1992) says ‘a non accidental act or omission which undermines the life, the physical and psychological integrity of an older person or harms the development of his/her personality and/or undermines or damages his/her financial security.’ Action on Elder Abuse, a voluntary group based in the UK, defines elder abuse as a single or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older person. Some definitions like that of Eastman (1984) defines it as systematic maltreatment, physical, emotional or financial of an elderly person by a care-giving relative while Hugman (1994) defines it as 'harming, exploitation or intimidation of an elderly in which the old age of the victim is a key element of the harm which is perpetrated. Macro abuse refers to the issues at the societal level such as lack of access to health care, poor social security and institutional abuse. Mezzo level abuse refers to the injustice heaped on older people at the community level such as ageism, anti-social activities against older people like that of murders/ thefts and marginalizing them. Micro level abuse definitions usually deal with the conflicts and interactions between two people. It may be between an elder person and an adult family member or a caregiver in an institution. ‘Elder abuse can be
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seen as including the infliction of physical pain or injury, physical coercion, infliction of mental anguish, illegal or improper exploitation of financial or other resources of the elderly and deprivation of services which are necessary to maintain mental and physical health of the elderly. Thus the term abuse comprises of various dimensions such as physical neglect, sexual abuse, verbal assault, neglect of the environment and violation of rights and material abuse.’ TYPES OF ABUSE: Wolf and Pillemer (1989) give a typology of elder abuse that covers a wide range of behaviors.
Physical abuse: Infliction of injury or physical harm includes sexual abuse. Psychological abuse: infliction of mental anguish, verbal and emotional abuse.
Material abuse: illegal or improper exploitation of funds or materials including property. Also called financial abuse.
Active Neglect: The refusal or failure to undertake a care-giving obligation. Usually, this is a conscious or an intentional attempt to harm the other.
Passive neglect: The refusal or failure to fulfill a care-taking obligation. Usually this is not conscious or intentional.
The 1988 U. S. National Elder Abuse Incidence Survey (NEAIS) (citation) uses the phrase ‘elder maltreatment’ to cover seven general types of behaviors: physical abuse, emotional or psychological abuse, financial or material exploitation, abandonment, neglect and selfneglect. Physical abuse may range from slapping or shoving to severe beating or restraining. Emotional abuse can range from name calling, giving the silent treatment to insulting and threatening. There may be neglect of the person by withholding appropriate care giving or failure to provide the appropriate assistance. Sexual abuse may range from www.ijmer.in
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sexual exhibition to rape. Financial exploitation can range from misuse of an elder’s fund to embezzlement. It also includes improper use of legal guardianship arrangements also. REVIEW ON ELDER ABUSE. Reviewing literature in the area of elder abuse, Desai, Bharat and Veedon (1993) had commented on the absence of research in this area. Shah, Veedon and Vasi (1995) are of the opinion that in India since age is venerated, the elderly are still treated with a certain amount of respect. However, this respect is slowly but surely eroding as seen in the review of studies below. Desai (1982) reported an increase in abuse in India too as the number of elderly increased. Two researchers who have documented abuse of the
elderly
in
Indian
families
are
Mahajan
(1987)
and
Madhurima(1989). Mahajan studied 749 destitute elderly from all districts of Haryana state, of which 369 were men over 60 years of age and 380 women, above the age of 55 years. He reported that the majority of them 530(70.07%) were abandoned or had no kin people to depend on. The remaining 219(29.5%) had some support from their kin people. When further probed, 68% of these 219 dependent elderly reported that they were humiliated and maltreated. Another 18% did not give either a positive or a negative response. This reluctance for disclosure suggests that they may have experienced some abuse, but for a number of reasons chose not to be explicit about it. Mahajan states that the elderly family member’s inability to work, economic dependency and deteriorating physical health were the main instigators of maltreatment and abuse by their kinfolk. Iswar (2001) conducted a qualitative study of inmates of a state managed old age home at Chandigarh. Of the ten cases studied, she found that in five cases, economic dependency of the kinsfolk on the elderly led to their harassment. The elderly who owned property were www.ijmer.in
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coerced to transfer property to their children to win over their affections and hope that they would be well looked after. Danie (2010) conducted a study to dispel certain myths. One of them was that in the Indian conditions, the elderly are taken good care of because they are typically not institutionalized. Another myth, which she sought to negate, was that because the elderly are respected in Indian society, therefore they are well taken care of within the family. ELDER ABUSE ATTEMPTS AT EXPLANATION: THEORIES OF ELDER ABUSE. Why do some people hurt family members and/or those they provide care for? How the problem is defined determines where resources are committed for services and interventions. Practitioners who believe stress is the primary cause of abuse will focus on stress reduction methods. Social workers who think abuse is part of poor family dynamics will create strategies to improve communication. Those who believe that in an imbalance of power and control are central to abuse will work on empowerment strategies and methods that hold abusers responsible. There appears to be some similarities between domestic violence and elder abuse. In both cases, individuals involved are adults linked through family relationship of emotional ties. Attempts have been made to apply the models proposed for other forms of familial violence to elder abuse. The common frameworks include such theories such as family dynamics; trans-generational violence; stress theories; theories which present individual psychotherapy (usually of the abuser); theories which look at the dependency and powerlessness of the victim and a feminist analysis of violence. The first theory is the one that tries to delineate the characteristics of the abuser. It attributes elder abuse to the psychopathology of the abuser. Breckman (1988) says that it appears that abusers are more likely to have alcohol or drug related and
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mental health problems. Abusers may also engage in substance use and abuse. Thus the abusers may have psychological pathologies and/or mood disturbances. Abusers may experience low impulse control and engage in rash acts. Abusers often lack the problem solving skills needed to deal with the care requirements of an elder adult. The second theory is that of Dependency. This theory was a part of the early efforts to determine the dynamics of elder abuse in which the focus was mainly on the victims. The social exchange theory states that the inequitable relationship between the abuser and the elderly victim results in the abuser inflicting punitive cost on the elder. The abuser feels that they get little in return for the care they provide. The elder accepts the abuse recognizing their dependent position in the relationship. Dependency theory has also another aspect to it. This is the physical and mental impairment of the older person. Physical and mental impairment appear to play an indirect role in elder abuse, decreasing seniors’ ability to defend themselves or to escape, thus increasing vulnerability. Initial studies settled on the ‘typical victim’ as being frail, dependent female of 75+ years who was physically or mentally impaired and was living with an adult child. Malmedal et.al (2015) consider physical frailty and cognitive impairment of the elderly as risk factors for elder abuse. The degree of frailty was supposed to put the victim in a position of high vulnerability. Soornarayana (2013) reported that victims are more likely to be women impoverished, living alone, uneducated, physically or mentally frail and socially, psychologically and economically dependent on others. The third theory is that of ‘Intergenerational Transmission of Violence’. The social learning theory states that individuals learn violent behaviour as a result of their culture and environment. While no formal empirical data are presented, researchers believe that the use
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of violence to resolve conflicts runs in families and this use of violence is passed on from generation to generation. (Seleby 1982; Vaswani: 2001; Estes 2001; US Congress, Select Committee on Aging, SubCommittee on Human Services: 1980). The idea that violence begets violence is illustrated by dysfunctional family histories across generations. Individuals who are abused as children are hypothesized to become part of a cycle of violence. Thus, when these feeling arise during care giving, the caregiver is at risk for becoming a perpetrator of elder abuse or neglect. Stress is one of the major factors contributing to the abuse of the elderly. According to Srinivas (2001), one of the major stressors is when the elderly is highly dependent on the child for emotional, financial, physical and mental support resulting in what is referred to as ‘generational inverse families’. Here not only are the roles reversed, but a complex set of generational invoked rights, responsibilities, obligations and ways of viewing oneself and others are reversed. The change from in the role from being cared by the parent, to that of being the care-giver of one’s parent may build feelings of resentment and anxiety in both generations. At times conflicts between parents and children remain unresolved throughout the life cycle resulting in affecting the quality of care received by the elderly parent. The elderly may be cared for out of a sense of duty, obligation, responsibility or guilt rather than love or concern for him/her. Thus this can be called Carer stress as the caregiver is negatively impacted by the requirements of providing care to the elderly victim. Pedrick-Cornell.C & Gelles.R (1982) frequently note that the responsibility for caring for a dependent, aging parent can lead to a stressful situation for the caregiver as well as the entire family. They are often unprepared to meet the challenge and become physically and mentally overworked as they attempt to meet the victims’ needs. This issue can be complicated further by economic and/or health concerns as well as the length of
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time that care has to be provided. Harries, et al. (2014) notes that persons who found the care taking role most stressful were often those who were trying to meet the needs of both their spouses and children, while at the same time trying to meet the needs of an older relative. Another type of stress is that which relates to the environment. Veedon.R (2001) says that stressful situations such as illness of the breadwinner or loss of job and the inability to get another job put a severe strain on the family members. Some among them express their anger in violent ways and older persons and children become easy targets. Abuse, whether spousal abuse, child abuse or elder abuse occurs most often in families characterized by Social isolation. This may be both an indicator of potential abuse as well as a potential contributing cause of abuse. Thus it brings us to the theory of Social Isolation. According to Joan (2016) social isolation experienced by the caretakers is an additional factor that increases the possibility of abuse. This is especially true, if an extensive amount of direct physical and mental effort is demanded in providing care for the elderly. On the other hand the abuser can limit access to friends and family of the elder victim, decreasing the chance of early detection. At the sociological level, the socialization of individuals in families is created by the wider social structures and cultural factors. All these interact to produce individual experiences and behaviour, some of which are neither condoned nor proscribed and some of which are perpetuated within the existing social fabric. Individuals who then add to the maintenance and development of a gendered and unequal society often internalize this.
( Dalia, 2014)
Thus the first areas where a professional can intervene is in the stages of detection, assessment and intervention. There are many barriers to the detection of elder abuse. These include victim’s denial of abuse, www.ijmer.in
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shame or fear of retaliation, victim isolation and lack of knowledge on the part of the professionals. Since a few victims come forward and make clear statements about mistreatment/abuse, professionals need to be methodical and observant in their interviews in order to detect mistreatment situations. Very often during the assessment stage when a professional tries to interact with the victim, a younger relative or caregiver is present. It is not unusual for a professional to speak to the accompanying younger individual excluding the older person entirely. (This is based on the assumption that the older person is accessing the health care services). Therefore workers should first interview the older person privately and then immediately interview the accompanying relative separately. (Wu, L et al, 2012). It is important to observe how the older person and relative relate, the dynamics of their communication and their individual roles in relation to each other, with an eye to the possible existence of abuse. However before these interviews and assessments arise the question of awareness. In order to identify elder abuse victims, professionals need to be educated in the issues surrounding aging and elder abuse. At present most Sociologists, health care providers and criminal justice personnel have not been suitably trained on these topics. Some of these workers expect abuse and neglect to be apparent or that a person being abused will simply mention this should it be serious enough to warrant attention. They are unaware that most elder abuse victims are too ashamed or humiliated to talk about their problem, might fear retaliation if they did summon help and often minimize the seriousness of their situation. (Yan .e, 2015) Thus the key elements here are: Educate Enforce Intervene www.ijmer.in
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There thus needs to be more awareness and media campaigns not only among the health professionals but also in the general public about the enormity of this problem. Also an elder abuse investigation-multi-disciplinary team should be created in communities, that will be able to identify investigate and address all suspected cases of elder abuse. This team should include professionals from various fields like the health, law, social organizations as well as older persons from the community who can comprehensibly deal with cases and provide non biased alternatives ( Chowdary, 1992). There is a lack of understanding of what constitutes elder abuse. There is a dearth of comprehensive data available to determine the magnitude of elder abuse. Thus research in this area must be undertaken and encouraged to delve into the various factors associated with abuse in the Indian scenario. Thus interventions have to be made at all levels. This begins from working directly with victims, to creating communities that promise a dignified life to older people and to making policy changes like that of creating a Commission. Only a holistic approach can help prevent elder abuse and improve the lives of the elderly in our country. References:
Breckman. R and Adelman .R; 1988; Strategies for Helping Victims of Elder Mistreatment; Sage Publications; California.
Chakroborti. R.; 2004; The Greying of India-Population Aging in the context of Asia; Sage Publications; New Delhi
Chowdhry .D; 1992; Aging and Aged; Inter-India Publications: New Delhi.
Daliya, Sebastian, (2014) Contesting Elder Neglect,RAWAT PUBLICATION, New Delhi
Desai. K.G; 1982; Aging in India; TISS; Mumbai.
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Abuse
and
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Desoza. A; 1982; Aging in South Asia: Indian Social Institute: New Delhi.
Estes. C; 2001; Social Policy and Aging; Sage Publication; New Delhi
http:/www.elderabusecenter.org; Domestic Abuse in Later lifeCausation Theories; Retrieved on January 17th 2007.
Ishwar. M; 2001; Ageing and Human Development; Rawat Publications; New Delhi.
Joan R. Harbison (2016), Contesting Elder Abuse And Neglect, University of Washington Press ,USA
Danie, S. Sandle, (2010) Ending Elder Abuse: A Family Guide, Cypress House, New Delhi
Harries, P., Davies, M., Gilhooly, K., Gilhooly, M. and Tomlinson, C. (2014) Educating Novice Practitioners to Detect Elder Financial Abuse: A Randomised Controlled Trial. BMC Medical Education, 14, 21.
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (2015) Survey Results for Elder Abuse in 2013 Based on the Law of “Act on the Prevention of Elder Abuse, Support for Caregivers of Elderly Persons and Other Related Matters”. http://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/04-Houdouhappyou12304500-Roukenkyoku-Ninchishougyakutaiboushit aisakusuishi n s hit su /0 00 0073579.pdf
Mallik. A; 2001; Elder Abuse and Neglect; Helpage India-Research and development Journal; 7(1); pp27-30.
Malmedal, W., Iversen, M.H. and Kilvik, A. (2015) Sexual Abuse of Older Nursing Home Residents: A Literature Review. Nursing Research and Practice, 2015, Article ID: 902515. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/902515
Pedrick-Cornell .C and Gelles. R; 1982; Elder Abuse- The status of Current Knowledge from http:/www.jstor.org/view/0197664; Retrieved on January 17th 2007.
Prakash.I; 2001; Elder Abuse: Global Response and Indian Initiatives; The Indian Journal of Social Work;62(3);pp 446-463.
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Selby. P and Scheshter; 1982; Aging 2000: A challenge for Society; MTP Press Ltd; London.
Srinivas.S and Vijayalakshmi. B; 2001; Abuse and Neglect of Elderly in Families; The Indain Journal of Social Work; 62(3); pp464-479.
Sooryanarayana, R., Choo, W.Y. and Hairi, N.N. (2013) A Review on the Prevalence and Measurement of Elder Abuse in the Community. Trauma Violence Abuse, 14, 316-325. http://dx. Doi .org/10.1177/1524838013495963
United Nations; 1997; Source book On Aging-Vol II; United Nations; New York.
Vaswani. T; 2001; Family Care of the Elderly: Abuse and Neglect; The Indian Journal of Social Work; 62(3); pp492-503.
Veddon. R; 2001; Elder Abuse in the Urban Context; The Indian Journal Of Social Work; 62(3); pp480-491.
Wolf, Rosalie S. and Karl A. Pillemer (1989) Helping Elderly Victims: The Reality of Elder Abuse, Columbia University Press, New York.
Wu, L., Chen, H., Hu, Y., Xiang, H., Yu, X., Zhang, T., et al. (2012) Prevalence and Associated Factors of Elder Mistreatment in a Rural Community in People’s Republic of China: A Cross-Sectional Study. PLoS One, 7, e33857. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1371/journal .pone.0 033 857
Yan, E., Chan, K.L. and Tiwari, A. (2015) A Systematic Review of Prevalence and Risk Factors for Elder Abuse in Asia. Trauma Violence Abuse, 16, 199-219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1 177/1524838 01455 5033
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ఆ ేశ సంధుల . నడపన ంకటశ ర ావ డ ఇ అ ేప సత
ాయణ మ
ెల గ
పభ త క
ాల
ాల ల , ప. . ల . ‘ఒక వరం ానంల వ ా వత ా
నవ ా క
ా కరణంల ప గణం ల ంచబ ం .3
ఈ సంజ ఉప
ఆ ేశం’.1 ాణ
“ఒక వ ా
అల ంట వ ా
ఉప ేశం.2
ా
ాఖ ల క డ
మ ర ా ఇం క వ ా
ఉంచడం
ారమ , అ క వర ార మ శ ే మ ”4 ఆ ిశ యమతం. మ కవ ల ‘శత వ ఇ
ఆయ ేశః,
క
సంద ా ల
తవ గమః అ
ా
ఈ
ాస సంజ
మనంద
సుప
ా
ా ఉప
ా ం ర.
తం.
శ ే సం :‘సమ ాల
ేత,
డ, వలన అ
అంట
ాట
వ
ఇ
ే ా
మ ందు దుతం ల ిసుం .6
ె
వల
,
సూ వలన’ అ వలన’ అ
అ ా ా
ఆ ేశం ా ఇ ారం వసుంద
భయమ ’ అ ‘ ే
గ
భ
ంచడ
ఇ ారం ఔప భ
ాలౖన ‘ఇ, ట,
భక ాల పకృ
పత య ల
www.ijmer.in
’అ
ే
అ
ే ఈ
ప,
.
ప
పత య ల ా అత
అరం.
అప డ ‘
ాల ఏర డ
డ , వలను’ అ
,
అనడంవల, ాట
ర
ఇత ం వసుం .5
భ పత య ల
గ డ
ఉ ేశ మ ాటల ఉన
ంచక ం
ాడబడ త న ెప వచు . ే ా
మధ , సమ ాల ప ర
‘ ేత,
డ,
‘ త ే ,
డ,
ట
దవ ే
ర ాదు. ఈ ఔప పర ప ల
మధ 221
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ఉన సంబం వ ా
ల ె
వలన అ
ాట
‘ ’ అ
ద ఈ ‘ఇ’ ారం వ
అ
ే
‘
సంబం
డ +
పర ప ల
ె
ర
ే
‘ ే
‘ ’ అ
మధ ఉన
సంబం వ ఉ ారం ల ిం
ాల ఏర డ
ేత,
డ,
శబం
ద
ద ‘ఇ’
ారం
ప’అ
ఔప
య ండ ా ఆ
భకకం
ా ా ‘
’
‘* , *ఇ ’8
ఈ‘ ’అ
రం.
వలను + భయమ ’ అ
,
న
’ అ
శబ ల +
ర పం ఏర డ త ం .
ాల సమ
‘ డ , వలను’ లల అ
ెల త
ప’అ
ండ ఔప భ
‘
రకమ అ
ందనడం క
ెప డం య కం ా ఉంట ం .7 ‘
మధ ఉన
ల ిం
భ పత య ల మ ందు
ఔప భ క పత యం, ‘ డ , వలను’ అ
య
ంట
. ఇ
ాబట కరణ రకమ , స రకమ , అ ా
.
వ
వసూ ఉంట
య ండ ా సమ సంల ప ర
ెల త
‘ఇ’ అ
‘
ె
ఔప భ కం ,
వల
ా ా
భయమ ’
.
ర క ట ా ా ేశ సం :‘అచు పరం ా ఉన ప డ క ఱు, నడ , తర ర
డ శబ లల
డ
ాత ఉత సం జ ాల ఈ ం
ఱు శబ లల
ర క ట ారం ఆ ేశం ా వసుం ’9.
ా ా
ధం ా ఏర డ
ఱు + ఎల క >
కడ , ఆ
.
ఉ + ఉసుర > క ట సుర ఉ + ఎల క > టల క
కడ + ఎదుర
> క ఉ + ఎదుర > కటదుర
నడ + ఇల
> న ఉ + ఇల > నటల
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ా ా
‘క ట సుర , టల క, కటడ ర , నటల , ట ర ’ అ
క ఱు + ఉసుర > క
డ + ఊర
‘ఱ’
>
ఉ + ఊర
> ట ర
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మ ల దంతమ
డంల క ఱు,
యత ా ా
ఱు అ
ల ె గ ల ‘ఱ’ ా
అ
ట ా ాం ల . ఈ శబ ల
*క
(DED 1851), *
ర కమవ
అ
మ . .ల 11
ర కం ా మ ర త ం .
ఈ ం
హస ం
ఉంట ం
- ఉసుర > క
ద
రం
ల ె గల.
– ఎల క >
*
డంల
డ’
ౖ ప లను
కరణం), *క (DED ంచవచు .
య త ార
(*ఱ > ట). అల మ న ర కం ా
ద అ
ఇప డ
ధం ా ప ణ మం ెం య *క
‘కడ , నడ ,
ధం ా ప న దంతమ
త ట ారం క డ
ర కం ా
ా ాం ల .
మ ల
యత ారం అన ా ‘ఱ’ ారం, ట ారం అచు పరం ా ఉండ ా
.
డంల
ర .10
(DED 1594)( ల
> *
త ట ారం ా మ ర త ం అ
ాసు
యత
హలం ల . మ ల
1135), *న (DED 3584), * డంల దంతమ
దంతమ
త ం
ెల గ ల
ర కట ారం రం ఉంట ం .
ద
మ ల
ర కం ా మ ర ా హస ం ౖర
ాల మ ల
ద
డం నుం
ఊ ంచవచు . -ఉసుర > క ట సుర
-ఉసుర >క -ఎల క >
-ఎల క >
-ఎల క > టల క
*క -ఎదుర > క -ఎదుర > కటదుర *న -ఇల > న -ఇల > నటల *
-ఊర
>
-ఊర
‘ ఱు’ శబ ెల గ ఉ :
ా త ంల క 1.
> ట ర .
షం ా ప
ం.
‘ ఱు’ ప ర ర పం ‘ ఱు’ ా
స ి ుం .
నూఁ ార
దల
నుల డ
రక
ౖ
‘ ఱుక ఁత డ
ల ంపలదు. 2.
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ంద
ాఁక
ఁ ఱునవ
ఱయ.12
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‘ ఱు’ ప ర ర పం ‘ ఱు’ అ ‘ ఱు’
ప ర ర పం మ ల
ా ‘*
డంల ‘*
ల కరణం జ
ఆ
ల ాలం వరక ‘ ఱు’ మనక క
సమ ాల క
ాలను బట ఈ ‘*
’.
ెల సుం . ఈ
ిసుం .
ాట
న తర ల ె గల
ఉ :
ారణం
అ
ేమ ల
‘ ఱు’ అ
పదం
ాడబ ం . ఈ ‘ ఱు’ సమ ాల
ఱు ా ,
అచు ల మ ందు ‘ ఱు’ల
ాత క
ల
’
’ ా మ ం . అ ే ెల గ ల ‘ ఱు’ ా మ ం .
డంల క
ౖప
ఱుగజల
దలగ న .
‘ఱ’ ారం
రక ట
ల
ారం ా(ట)
స ి ుం .
ఉ :
1. టడ గ = న అడ గ
2. టల క = న అల క
3. ట
4. ట డ = తప టడ గ ల
= న అడ
5. ట మ దమ = న ఆమ దప
య
ంజల చమ ర
6. టల క > టల > న ఎల క 7. టల = న జ
ఏల
8. ట డ క = ం ెం ా ఉడ క
ౖ సమ ాలను గమ ం అను త
గం
ాటల
ప ర ప
ే ి హలం ల మ ందు క
ట ళమ = న
ప
‘ ట’ అ సూ ం
ాలను గమ ం ఢ
ఉంట ర .
ం ఉ : 1.
ళమ ,
2. టమట క ( ట + మట + ఆక ) = న ౖప
ం
‘ ట’ ా
ా కర
ౖ సమ ాలను
ట మట
ౖ సమ ాల
ం ర.
కనుక
ా ం ర.
ఈ
క ఆక .
ప ర పదమ ‘ ఱు’ ాదు. ‘ ట
ఁ ట’13 అ
ట శబమ తర
ాత
ఆయన ాలంల
‘ ట’ ా మ ం . ఉ : ట ళమ . ౖ చర ను బట ‘ ట’ శబ బల
ా కర
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ే ినట
ర ప ాధన
ే
బదుల ‘ ఱు’ శబ
గ
ం
తకం ాను, సహజం ాను ఉంట ం . 224
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ట-వ ా శ ే సం :అత ం రంల ఒక మ ట ండ పదమ
ండ
ార ఉచ
ద ఉన
వ ాల
నటనడ మ ’
ళం
కన డం ెల గ కన డం ెల గ కన డం ెల గ
అల ఒక
ంచబ న ప దలౖన అచు ల
ర క ట ారం ఆ ేశం ా వసుం .15
ంట
ర
భృ ారంల ెల గ
ా ఉచ
తం పరం ా ఉన ప డ కడ
‘ఆ
యచు
నట నడ మ ’ అ షల క
ండవ
ంచబడ త ం .14
‘కటకడ,
దలౖన ఉ హరణల . ‘కడ + కడ, నడ మ + నడ మ ’ అ
య ండ ా
త
ంచబ నప డ
తమ ’ అంట ర .
‘ఆ
ార ఉచ
క
వ ాల ాల ఏర డ
ప ల
ర
ర కట ారం ఆ శ ే ం ా
ా ా ‘కట కడ,
. ావడం అన ా ఆ
తమవడం
డ
స ి ుం . కటకడ DED 1109- -the very end
కడ + కడ
నట ట DED 3584-the very middle
ట +
నటనడ DED 3584-the very middle
నడ + నడ
నటనడ మ DED 3584-the very middle
నడ మ + నడ మ
ట
DED 2174-the extreme end
+
point ట న DED 2174-the extreme end point త టత
ట
న+ న
DED 3314-the very end త
+త
point త టత ద DED 3314-the very end త ద + త ద
ళం
point పటప క
DED 3867-broad day light
పక
+ పక
మలయ ళం
పట పక
DED 3867-broad day light
పక
+ పక
త
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ెల గ
పటపగల DED 3867-broad day light
ెల గ
బటబయల
ెల గ
outside ిట డ ి గ
ెల గ
thunder bolt ెట ర ె వ DED 3422-the open way ౖ ర
క దుల
ాలను
4150-the
ఉంచు
,
ాలను ా ం ర
ర క’ట’(ట) దట పదంల
బదుల యచు
ిడ గ + ిడ గ
strong
ఆ
ెర వ + ెర వ తంబ
వరంబ ల ల నదంతంబగ
ౖ ెల గ ర
షల క
very బయల + బయల
3940-the
DED
దృ ల ి
యచు
సూ ం
DED
పగల + పగల
పరంబగ నప డ
ర క ట ారంబగ అ
న యసూ .
ర క ‘త’(త)క డ
ర
త
వ ాలక అర దు ా ఆ ేశం ావడం
దల
కన డం
త తత కన డంల
ర పం క
ఉ
డ
దల
DED 4950-at the very
దల అ
ాడబడ త ం . అ
ల ె గల ‘ .
ెల గ ల ఉ
www.ijmer.in
ఈ
త
DED 3314-the very end point త
ందు
ి ం ట
ర
ఇ
ా
ద
షల
భృ ారంల
డ
బలపర సుం .
దల ’ ‘త టత ద’ అ
+త
బదుల ా
కన డ ధం ా
ర క’త’ ారం అన ా ‘త’ ఆ శ ే ం ా వ .
+
దల
beginning
ప ల
ాలల
స ి ుం .
కన డం
ర
ర
దల అ ప ల షల
ర క ‘ట’(ట) న ర
ాల క
ఉ :
1. త మ ర + త మ ర > త త మ ర
2. త
యల + త
యల > త త
ౖ
యల 226
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అన ా ర
ర క ‘త’ ారం(త)క
ర క’ట’(ట) ఆ ేశం ా వ
న
ాల ఎక వ. ఈ భృ ారంల యచు
ర
ం న ర
ాలల
ద వ ే ఆ ే ాల రకర ాల ా క
ఉ
:
2. ౦క ల > ఱు
: ఇంక ల + ఇంక ల > ఇఱంక ల
3. దుక > ౦దు
: అదుక + అదుక > అందదుక
4. గ > ల
: ఇగ ల + ఇగ ల > ఇ గ ల
5. దుర > ల
: ద ె ుర + ెదుర > ెల ెదుర
దుర > ల
: ద ె ుర + ెదుర > ెల ెదుర :త
యల + త
ట >
.
1. ట > ఱు
6. యల >
ట +
దట ప లల
ఱు
ట
యల > త త
యల
7. యల > ట క: బయల + బయల > బట కబయల యల > ట 8. ల > న
: బయల + బయల > బట బయల : ల + ల > న ల
9. డ క > ౦దు : దుడ క + దుడ క > దుందుడ క ఇల వలన అ
ౖర
ప
ావడం
గంబ గ ాహ ంబ ల ’16
ాలను ా ం ర .
ేశ సం :కర
వ ా
వ ాలక రకర ాల వ ాల ఆ ేశం ా
న యసూ ‘అందదుక పభృత ల య
సూ ం
పం ా
యచు
రయ సమ సంల
‘మ ’ అ
వర ా
ప , oప అ
ఆ శ ే ం ా
.17
ఉ :- సరసమ + మ ట > సరసప మ ట, సరసంప మ ట. రసమ + వచనమ > రసప వచనమ , రసంప వచనమ . www.ijmer.in
227
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ౖ ఉ హరణల సరసమ , మ ట అ అ
ప ల
అ
కర
రయ సమ సం
ఆ శ ే ం ా
రసంప
త ల త కం ాను వ ా
క
సు
మ
మ
వరమ
అ
ాల
ాం.
వ ా
ప ాయర ాలంల .
రసప వచనమ , తకం ాను,
.
ాస ల ‘మ ’
ంద
డ వ సం ా ప ాబట సూ ాట
ఈ ‘ప , oప ’ అ
ాల ా ాడబడ త న
ల ౖ
ా
‘ప , oప ’ అ
ల ,
ాట
వరణను బట
ానంల
ల ె సుం .
ంచ వల న ి ప డ ‘సరసమ ,
ఈ ట వ వ రంల ఉన ఆ శ ే ం ా ే ి ౖర ఒక
తత ర ష సమ ాల క డ వసు
ౖ వ ాల ,
తత మ ప ల ౖ అమహ క ే వచనంల
అందు త ే ‘మ ’ వర ా
ాలంల వ
ాట ‘ప , oప ’ అ
ఏర డ
‘ప , oప ’
ాల ా ప , ‘ప ’, oప , oబ , మ , మ , వ ’ అ
ాడబ
అనంతర
వ ా
నన యక ప ర మ న
ాలద , ‘ప , oప ’ అ
వ వ రంల ప
ర
అనంతర
పత య ల ా ఆ ేశం ా
అ
షను ప
ప ర ర .
ే ినప డ ‘మ ’ అ
ా ా ‘సరసప మ ట, సరసంప మ ట,
వచనమ ’
అ
ప ల , ‘ రసమ , వచనమ ’
కర
‘మ ’ అ
ే
రసమ ’ అ
ఈ ప లను గ
ం
ాలను ా ం ర .
రయ సమ సంల
ాక
ష ీ
. ఉ హరణల :-
1. ఉతమ ంగప మ ంసమ (హర.2-127) 2. క బ సంప ఁబ రల ( ా .3-22) 3.
డంప బ ం ల (హర.6-55)
పఙ వ ా శ ే సం :ట ‘ మ’ దలౖన శబ ల ‘మ ’ వ ా ఉ :www.ijmer.in
దలౖన శబ ల మ వ ా
‘(ప’ వరమ
‘ప’ వరమ ఆ శ ే ం ావ ా
కనుమ
.18
ఁప న ే ు, ాఁపఱడ , కనుపప ల , జనుప ార. 228
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 11(1), NOVEMBER 2016
మ + న ే ు>
ఁప న ే ు;
కనుమ + ప ల > కనుపప ల
ామ + ఱఁడ > ాఁప ఱఁడ ; ‘ మ అ
క
ా ామ
అ ే
న ే ు’ అ
జనుమ +
య ండ ా సమ సం
ేయ ా ‘కనుమ ప ల ’ అ ర పం ఏర డ త ం .
‘కనుమ ా ా ‘మ ’ అ ే
‘ప’ ఆ శ ే ం ావ
‘కనుపప ల ’ అ
ధం ా ‘జనుప
వ ా
ం డ . ఇప డ “ఙత
ార ందువ ల
లదు”20 అ ా ం డ.
సూతం ౖర
ఉ
‘ప ’
ందు ప ర ంబగ ”19 అ
సూతం
ందువ రణ
ర పం క డ ‘మ ’
ండూ వసూండ ా “ రమ ా ప ర
ాత
ర’ అ ా ంచ
ాల (ప, ప అ వ ాల ఎల వ
ష
ర పం ఏర డ త ం . య ండ ా సమ సం
మ ందున అ ాను ా ా
ఆ శ ే ం ా
న ే ు’
+
క పల’ అ
ఏర డ త ం . ‘ప’ ేత ప
ేయ ా ‘ మ
‘(ప’ వరం ఆ శ ే ం ా ా ా, ‘ ఁప ేను’ అ
ధం ా ‘ ాఁపఱడ ’.
ర > జనుప ర
ద ం
ాధ
ప రమ
అ ాను ా ా ప
ం.
అరం
ల సంఖ
త
ళం
మ
మ
3649
మలయ ళం
మ
మ
3649
మ
మ
3649
ళం
ామ
ామ
4085
మలయ ళం
ామ
ామ
4085
కన డం
ావ
ావ
4085
ెల గ
ామ
ామ
4085
వ
వ
4085
ెల గ త
త ళ
www.ijmer.in
229
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 11(1), NOVEMBER 2016
త
ళం
మలయ ళం
కన డం ెల గ
ిరమ
ిరమ
4175
రమ ,
రమ ,
4175
ప రమ ,
ప రమ ,
ప నమ
ప నమ
పబ
పబ
, హబ
మ, మ పబ , పబ
త
, హబ
4175
మ, మ
4175
పబ , పబ
ళం
మ
మ
5531
మలయ ళం
మ
మ
5531
కన డం ెల గ త ళ
బవ మ
బవ
5531
మ
5531
బవ
బవ
5531
ప
ప
5531
ళం
అమ
అమ
178
మలయ ళం
అమ
అమ
178
కన డం
అమ
అమ
178
అమ ,
అమ , అమ
178
క త
ెల గ
అమ త
ళం
ఎల మ
ఎల మ
839
మలయ ళం
ఎల మ
ఎల మ
839
కన డం
ఎల , ఎల వ ,
ఎల , ఎల వ ,
839
ఎల బ ,
ఎల బ , ఎ
www.ijmer.in
,
230
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 11(1), NOVEMBER 2016
ఎ
, ఎమ ,
ఎమ , ఎల
ఎల ెల గ
ఎమ ,
ఎమ ,
ఎమ క,
ఎమ క,
ఎమ క
ఎమ క
ఎల
ఎల
839
ఇర మ
ఇర మ
486
ఇర మ ,
ఇర మ ,
486
ఇ మ
ఇ మ
డగ
ఇ
ఇ
486
ెల గ
ఇనుమ
ఇనుమ
486
ళం
ఉట మ
ఉడ మ
592
మలయ ళం
ఉట మ
ఉడ మ
592
కన డం
ఉడ, ఉడ
ఉడ, ఉడ
592
ెల గ
ఉడ మ
ఉడ మ
592
డగ
ఉడ
ఉడ
592
త ళ త
ళం
మలయ ళం
త
డ
షలల
ప ా యమ ా త అ
వరమ క
౦బ , వ అ సహజ
.
ప ా యమ ా
అనంతర ా
ెల గ ల
లల ౦ప , ౦బ అ అన ా మ వ ా
వ ాలను గ ంచవచు .
న .ే
www.ijmer.in
ౖ ప లను ప
ళ, మలయ స ి ు
839
వ ాల , కన డంల వ
ప ాయ ర
ఈ మ వరమ పత యమ
ాలంల ౦ప , ౦బ , మ , మ అ
ంధంల
క
ిసు
.
మవ ా
౦బ
ాల ా ౦ప , ాదు.
శబ
మవ ా వర స
కరణం 231
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 11(1), NOVEMBER 2016
ారణం ా మ
ా సుశకం 9వ శ బ
ా మ ం .21 అ
మ
ాంప + ఱడ ,
ే ా నర
ంప +
ేను,
మ
ం .
ాల సమ ాలల
ంప + పండ ,
ా లక మధ నున సంబం ా ా సం
జ
ల ె పత
ాంపఱడ ,
ంప ేను,
ర
ాలల
అరం ప
మ అ
స ే ు
ా ).
నప డ అ ా ి ఉంట ర . 1.
ఓ ా ను రం
ి ా
ద, ను
అ
ౖర
ాలను
ద మ
ి ా
తకం ా ఈ ం
ాల
ాను ా రం
హస మ
ల ించ ా, ల ిం న అను
య ండ ా
షణ,
ంప ట ె , అంప
ర
బదుల ప
,
ఔప భ క పత యం
ంపపండ ,
ఎంపమ క , ఇనుంపగ ళ , ఉడ ంపక క
.
ట ె , అంప +
అ
అ అ
ాత అ
ఉ
ంప +
ఎంప + మ క , ఇనుంప + గ ళ , ఉడ ంప + క క
తర
,
ఏర డ
( ౖ
ాయబ ంద ా ా
ే
గ ర ా అ ాను ా
ా
ధం ా ఉ ంచవచు .
ాంప + ఱడ > ాంప + అ + ఱడ > ాంప + ఱడ > ాఁపఱడ
2.
ంప +
ేను >
ంప + అ + న ే ు>
3.
ంప + పండ > ంప + అ + పండ >
4.
ంప +
ంప +
ంప + పండ >
ెట > ంప + అ + ట ె > ంప +
5. అంప +
> అంప + అ +
ేను >
ఁప ేను ఁపపండ
ెట > ఁప ట ె
> అంప
6. ఎంప + మ క > ఎంప + అ + మ క > ఎంపమ క 7. ఇనుంప + గ ళ
> ఇనుంప + అ + గ ళ
> ఇనుంప + గ ళ
>
> ఉడ ంప + అ + క క
> ఉడ ంప + క క
>
ఇనుఁపగ ళ 8. ఉడ ంప + క క ఉడ ఁపక క న యసూ
ప ారం
ఇనుమ ,
మ దుల ప తగణం. ఈ గణంల www.ijmer.in
ఉడ మ శబ ల
మ దులల ే అవ ాశం లదు.
ేరవ . ా
ౖ 232
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 4.527; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 11(1), NOVEMBER 2016
త ల త క చర నుబట ఇనుమ , ఉడ మ ల అనడంల సం ేహంలదు. అ ాను ా రప ర క అ ాను ా రర
ఇ ప
సమ స ప ((ప)
ఉం ఇక డ
ప డ అనడంల సం ేహం లదు. అ ాను ా ర అ
అన
వరమ లగ ామ
అ అ
ా ణమ . మ ా ర. ా ి
ల
ామ
అ
ఉచ
ాప
ా క
4085.
-
సమ స ప ా వయవమ ల ా ఉన ప డ – ఇల –
–
( ామ ,
షలల వ సం ా ప
స ి ుం .
–
మ , అమ
ిసు
మ , అమ
ెల గ ల అ
ఉం .
త
ామ
మ
,
ళంల సమ స
ాప ప
ప , అప ల ా క
ంచబడ త ండ ా, అ
ప ా వయ ాల ా క ఇ
పఙ
– అమ
ల
స ి ు
.
5531, అప క ట –
178.
ౖ చర ను బట
ామ ,
)
ాత ఈ
అ ే ధం ా
ంత
ప పఙ రమ లగ
క
ార .
ాట
న యసూ
తర
క
ా
న యసూ సం గంల
షయంల
లనుబట
ఇక డ ఇం
ప ా వయవమ ా ఉన ప డ
ఉ :
.
బ ల ా కరణ పథమ మ దణల
సూ ంచడ
ర ే
ా వయవమ ల ా ఉన ప డ
వరం
ల ా చూ ిం డ సూ .
సం గత ఉం
మ దులల
ా
. అ
కనుక
అ
ప ల త షలల అ
ాప ,
ళ, మళయ ళ ప ల సమ స
ప , అప
అ
ప లకంట ప ర ర పమ ల
లౖన ర
ాలౖ ే ర ప ప యను ఈ
ప ల ంచవచు .
ం
ధం ా
ంచవచు . ాప + ఱడ > ాప + అ + ఱడ > ాప + ఱడ > ాపఱడ ప + మ ను > ప + అ + మ ను > ప + మ ను > పమ ను
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అప + కట > అప + అ + కట > *అప + కట > *అపకట (అప కట, అపకట ప
ాల ెల ప త
ల ె గ ల మృగ మ ).
ౖ సమ ాల
అ అ
ంద
కనుమ
ఔప భ కం వ
మ ందు
ర పం
జనుప
ష సంబం
“కనుప ”
ెల త
ర’ అ
ర
ాల ఏర
జనుప ర’ అ
ర
ాల
‘మ ’ వరం
‘జనుమ ’
ఉ
య
ప ె
ర’ అ
ఔప భ కం ా ా ‘కనుప ప ల ,
త ా త
త ం ల ించ ా ‘కనుపప ల , య ండవచు న
ాల
న ‘ప , మ ’ అ
ర
ాల
న
మ
ెల సుం .
ప ర
య
ర
న
మ
స త
ెప డం జ
ాల , మ వ ా ప వరం
నుం
ఏర
ాల అ ాను ా ర స త ర
ెప డంల సం ేహం లదు.
. కనుక అల
ఇం ా సమ ాల
అ ాను ా ర స త
ర ప
అ ాను ా ర ర త ర
అ ాను ా ర మ
వ
వ ా
ా నమ లౖనవ ఉంట
ప నుం
ఊ ంచవచు .
ాల ఆ రం.
ౖ చర నుబట అ ాను ా ర ర త ప వరం ప ర ర ప
అ
‘అ’ అ ఏర
ౖర
‘జనుప ’
య ండ ా సమ సంల
షల
క ప ర ర
ష సంబం
ఊ ంచవచు .
ఊ ంచవచు . ‘కనుప + ప ల , జనుప + షణ
షణ,
సమ ాల
య ాలకంట
ా న ర
ాల
ం .
ప వరం
ర
ాల
క
న
ప లను
గణంల ను, అ ాను ా ర ర త
ప వరం
ర
ాల క
న ప లను కనుమ
ర త స త ప వరం
ర
ాల క
ర ప ప యను ా ంచు
ాల
ౖ చర
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గణంల ను, అ ాను ా ర
న ప లను ఉభయగణంల ను ిం
ే
రం.
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ాదసూ కల 1. సూర ాయ ంధ 2. “ ా వ
ఘంట వ – సంప టం ప ట
ే 2న
ౌ” ాణ యమ 1-1-56
3. AP 1-63 (M.Cr.); T.T. of SKT.Gr. P.273 బ డ ప ‘ ెనుఁగ
పర
తమ ,
ా కరణ ాసమ ’ ప ట 429
4. “ఏక వర ార ం
ారః , అ క వర ార మ శ ే ః, ఇ
(T.T. of SKT.Gr.) బ డ ప 429 5. బ ల
పర
తమ , ‘ ెనుఁగ
ా కరణమ – సం ప
ా కరణ
ి ా య మత
”
ాసమ ’ ప ట
ే దమ . సూతం. 43
6. Ibid 20 7. ాడ ామకృషయ . సం . ప టల 201-204 8.
ి.య .సుబహ ణ ం, ‘
9. బ ల 10.
ా కరణమ – సం ప
ి.య .సుబహ ణ ం, ‘
11. Ibid – “
ఢ
ే దమ . సూతం. 12 డ
ా కరణమ – సం ప – శబ ప
15. బ ల
ా కరణమ – సం ప
16.
-
18. బ ల www.ijmer.in
-
షల ’ – ప ట 149
ఘంట వ
14.
17.
షల ’ – ప ట 273
“ ప ట 165
12. సూర ాయ ంధ 13.
డ
ే దమ . సూతం. 4
ే దమ . సూతం. 112 ే దమ . సూతం. 40
సూతం 42 సూతం 32
ా కరణమ – సమ స ప
ే దమ . సూతం. 19 235
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19. Ibid - తత మ ప 20.Ibid – సంజ ప 21.
ే దమ . సూతం. 19 ే దమ . సూతం. 15
ెల గ బ ా చ త – ప టల 67, 68
ఉపయ క గంధ సూ క ెల గ ప స ాల : 1. అనంత ామ
ా ి
థ
– 1982–
షణమ , గ ంట ర – 6, అర ణ ప 2. కృషమ
భ
ఆంధ ప ే 3. మ ప 4.
ా
ా త అ ాడ
ేవ ా ి ష
(సం ా) – 1979 –
ల ె గ
ా చ త,
ా కరణ
ిక,
ద ాబ ,
జయ ాడ-2, గం ాధర
ాడ – 1935, సం , మ సు,
సుబహ ణ ం
ా త అ ాడ
.ి య .
మలౖనగ , సత వ
సుబహ ణ ం
ణప ష .
.ి య . – 1984, ఆధు క
ద ాబ దు, ఆంధ ప ే
7.
ష
.
ామ కృషయ
అ
లన – వర త క
.
ాడ – 1987,
5. సుబహ ణ ం 6.
ా ప
– ప
ర
ి ం ల,
డ
షల
(ప.మ .),
.
ి.య . – 1961, ‘ఆధు క
ా కరణ రచన’,
ాస
.
1977, ష
ా
ా
ాసమ – వర త క
38(9), ప టల 75-84.
8. BURROW T and EMENEAU, MB, 1984, A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary (Second Edition) OXFORD, Clarendom Press.
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MARGINALIZATION OF THE BEDEKEH AKIT TRIBAL RITUAL ON RUPAT ISLAND IN THE BENGKALIS REGENCY OF RIAU PROVINCE Suroyo PhD Candidate Udayana University Denpasar Bali Indonesia This study outlines the empirical evidence concerning the problems associated with the globalization of culture. The Bedekeh ritual is closely associated with the traditions and customs of the Akit tribal community. The Akit use a system of knowledge, belief and perception as a part of their culture and traditions, and this system allows them to distinguish the concepts of healthy and sick as well as the cause of the pain. The Akit community have localized knowledge and accumulated wisdom that is brought to bear in addressing health problems. The Bedekeh ritual contains much symbolism and represents the wisdom of the bomoh and the values of the community. The data in this study was collected through observational techniques, in-depth interviews, literature studies, and documentation. The existence of the bedekeh ritual has recently been impacted by marginalization due to a number of internal and external factors. The existence of the bedekeh ritual in the Akit is viewed as essential to public service in scientific research as a form of defence of a group of local traditions and the preservation of the culture of the nation. There is conflict between the values of local and global culture. Community support is changing due to the influence of global cultural values that lead to cultural homogenization. There are a number of factors affecting the growing marginalization of ritual treatment by bomoh of the Akit tribe situated in the Desa Hutan Panjang District on Rupat island. Firstly, the effect of religious conversions of same members of the Akit. Secondly, there is the
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negative stigma that people from other communities associate with witchcraft. And thirdly, the development of science and technology in the treatment of health issues; including the influence of formal and informal education on the Akit community and those they come into contact with. Keywords: Ritual, Bedekeh, Marginalization, Akit, Globalization INTRODUCTION Bedekeh treatment is a tradition that stems from the teachings of the ancestors implemented for when the Akit community was and need of treatment for diseases. This ritual contains various elements of the mystical the community is convinced of the existence of a healing connection done directly by satyrs or certain ancestral spirits, in accordance with the accumulated knowledge of the community. British sociologist Anthony Giddens (2002:39) has argued that the term “tradition” as it used today actually a product of the past two hundred years in Europe. ‘Tradition are needed, and will always persist, because they give continuity and form to life…Without intellectual tradition, ideas would have no focus or direction’. (Giddens , 2002:36--50) The bedekeh ritual is not merely an emotional reaction to the illness it is treating, but rather it is designed to keep the harmony of humans with the cosmos. In maintaining the harmony of human nature, its adherents will be reminded that there are other forces beyond the range of the human mind. The ritual of bedekeh contains ideology which became central to the cultural values of the Akit tribe. The ideology is divided into two parts: the ideology of religion and of cosmology. The ideology of the cosmology of the bedekeh ritual is associated with the Akit’s belief about the process of creating the macrocosm (the universe) and microcosm (humans), whereas religious ideology is associated with ethnic conceptions about the relationship of humans with Akit ancestors and with God. www.ijmer.in
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All diseases according to the Akit are, caused by the interference of supernatural spirits or antu (ghosts), a disorder of the ancestral Akit and treatment of others, and a curse. "The perception of pain of past experience in addition to the cultural and social elements are subjective”. (Sarwono,1993) Foster and Anderson (1986:82-83) have also undertaken earlier research on the place of the other states of suffering: pain caused by the presence of agents (middlemen), both in the form of supernatural creatures (supernatural beings or gods), nonhuman beings (ghosts, ancestral spirits or demons), as well as humans (witches or sorcery). The influence of globalization and Islam in Riau Province have affected the rituals and traditions practiced by the Akit communities. Modern medicine with modern (Western) epistemology equates treatment via the health service program of the Department of Health as equitable development. This then implicates and ultimately affects traditional community life and traditional community values. Globalization brings the principles of cultural modernity that give rise to various social problems in human civilization. This threatens the existence of local culture, and in the worse instances leads to the extinction of local culture. Bedekeh ritual is important for researchers seeking to uncover the basis of the magic contained in these rituals and in understanding why it is useful or important to people who seek alternative treatments. In addition, it is beneficial to the understanding of the development of culture. Traditional treatment through the bedekeh ritual still survives and is practiced in public life despite the Akit knowing about the positive effects of modern medicine. RESEARCH METHODS This research is qualitative research using participation, observation and in-depth interview. Next, snowballing technique as www.ijmer.in
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discovered and applied by Spradley (1997:61) and Benard (1994:61) is applied. In this technique research can be terminated if the data has been repeated and the data is sufficient or if perceived saturation values have been reached (where there is no new information available). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bedekeh, bedikie or berdeker is one of the treatments used by the Akit tribe. Bedekeh is known as a great treatment, or ritual treatment of the sacred. There are two types of bedekeh: the ceremonial treatment (bedekekh = bedekie, beobat) and ritual sacrifice of health recovery or of prevention of illness (bedekeh bebedak). The ritual bedekeh used by then Akit tribe is estimated to have been in use in the community that inhabits the Rupat Akit territories for so many years. Bedekeh treatment is a tradition that stems from the teachings of the ancestors and it is implemented when the community was in need of treatment services. This ritual contains various elements of mystical, and the Akit are convinced of the existence of a healing connection with satyrs or certain ancestral spirits. With this belief widely held by community members, it is no wonder that this tradition is still preserved. Culture has a reciprocal relationship with religion or other belief systems. The culture of a society or nation often gives birth to a particular religion or belief system. Once a certain belief system is espoused by the majority of a population in a place, it becomes a manifestation of the cultural systems that apply there or at least have a conformity with the system of values embraced by the population concerned (Florus, 1994:18). The Ritual Treatment of the Akit Tribe The bedekeh ritual of the Akit tribe has four important components:(1) merancang is the design of the ritual, the key element of which is the determination of a suitable place in which to hold the www.ijmer.in
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ritual; (2) ensuring that the confidence of spirits and of the ancestors is gained with the assistance of drugs; (3) selection of the bomoh as master of ceremonies and rituals; and (4) the ceremony of bedekeh by the bomoh in the treatment of patients. The bedekeh ritual is an activity that is full of meaning, has a certain power, involves religion, and reflects the identity of the Akit tribe. It is in every sense, a very complex ritual. Hamidy (2009:21-22) says that in every tradition rites and other rituals are often encountered develop area. Each ceremony will include space, time, and place of execution, texts (messages of the ceremony), and participants of the ceremony. Marginalization the Bedekeh Ritual Vision 2020 Riau is the realization of Riau as a center of economy and culture for the Malay religious community. It envisages a healthy environment, physically and mentally healthy inhabitants and a prosperous economy in Southeast Asia in 2020 (Perda Nomor 36, Tahun 2001). The central goal of this vision statement is the positioning of Riau Province to become a center of activity, maintenance, and creativity in the fields of art and culture by 2020. It also seeks to promote events in the regions and to export art and cultural products within the Malay Archipelago. The vision includes the maintenance of Riau provincial culture through increasing production of Malay culture, Malay cultural heritage art and artifacts in the form of traditional or cultural objects, language, fine arts, and the performing arts (including customs, ceremonies treatment), as well as modern art and culture.
and
religious
Thus, Riau Province has a database of art and culture of the Malay Archipelago with complete documentation and as a result is wellplaced to promote itself as the center of research and development of Malay culture in Southeast Asia and possibly on the world at large. www.ijmer.in
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Global culture has impacted almost all types of traditional social and cultural norms. In addition, it has also resulted in cultural similarities or patterns homogeneity of culture that may conflict with the values and identity of a specific group. This concept emphasizes that the alleged similarities and growth will result in the loss of cultural autonomy, which is usually conceived as a form of cultural imperialism. This argument revolves around a culture of dominance among other cultures, which in the context of national culture are usually referred to as the agent synchronization principle, and often perpetrated by transnational corporations (Hamelink, 1983:21). Local ingenuity can be characterized as local ideas that are wise, full of wisdom, contain good values, and are created within and followed by a society. Local ingenuity is also a local wisdom. It stands apart from culture that has been imported, but also accommodates and integrates outside culture influences in and doing so, it modifies them to give them a localized version of the cultural impact. Local ingenuity emerges into values, norms, faith, customs, etc. The flipside of this is that these values, norms, faith and customs change because of crossculture fertilization and globalization. It presents local groups such as the Akit a challenge and how to explore and criticize customary practices. Globalization is moving to bring the principles of a culture of modernity that gives rise to various social problems and threatens human civilization. Through the cultural ideology of consumerism, religious ideology that globalization has brought leads to conflicts, gaps, and new forms of stratification in society. In Indonesia, the culture of globalization has brought two major conflicting currents in the social structure. One exciting current is exposure of Indonesia to the world, while the other current is the strengthening of ethnic groups.
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The phenomena presented above would threaten the existence of local culture, even driving it to extinction. Globalization is by virtue of the economic forces that drive it, and the power of the dominant country or countries leads to the ideology associated with the dominant country or countries being disseminated either through the media and information technology and through education. To be able to survive in this era of globalization, any given individual, group, or nation needs to have its own identity (Tilaar, 2007:1-2). Religion became a founding element of the national identity because some nations including Indonesia have utilized Hindu religious texts over a long period of time. As a result, our community has, either consciously or sub- consciously, built a national identity that has as one of its central tenets interfaith tolerance. Pluralism in religion is a gift from God to the people of Indonesia that must be preserved and is essential to peace. To prevent the risk of a conflict between religions, efforts need to be made to mutually recognize the existence of other religions and accord mutual respect for their adherents. Discrimination against the Akit is not justified and is contrary to article 28I paragraph (2) of the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia (pasal 28I ayat (2) Undang-Undang Dasar 1945, i.e. every person has the right to be free from discriminatory treatment and is entitled to protection from it. From the explanation above it can be concluded that the State must respect all forms of indigenous peoples, because it has been legally recognized in the Constitution of Indonesia. By reason of majority hegemony, the Akit tribe did not get the guarantees of religious freedom because it doesn't follow one of the "official religion". Regulations issued by the Government bring a complicated impact to the survival of the Akit tribe on Rupat island in the Bengkalis Regency of Riau Province. Various religious figures officially recognized by the Government are attempting to target to the
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Akit through missionary activity or preaching. When a citizen applies for a compulsory identity card, he or she must specify one of the six religions permitted by the Government. The Akit cannot determine his or her religious identity, one that is of the region from where he or she originates. This show that the country is still treating them as second class citizens Government sanctioned discrimination, stems from was the enacting of law No.1/PNPS that says that the religions recognized by the State are Islamic, Christian, Catholic, Hindu, Buddhism, and Confucianism. The impact is that none of the laws that provide back-up for local tribal religions such as Akit are recognized in Indonesia. In order for the tribe's survival in the country and to be recognized as part of Indonesia, the Akit are forced to join (whether through conversion or just in name) one of the religions that have been recognized in the country. Geertz has written on religion as a pattern or template for behavior. In the case religion provides the guidelines which serve as the framework for the interpretation of human action. In addition, religion is also a pattern of actions, i.e., something that lives in the human being in our daily lives. Here religion is considered part of systemic culture (Geertz, 1992:8-9). Religion provides a pattern for the actions associated with the value system or evaluative system; and even for actions related to cognitive systems or systems of human knowledge. The relationship between religion and the pattern of the action provides for systems that determine the actions of people (Kleiden). Before Islam came to Malays being the peoples predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula eastern Sumatra and coastal Borneo, Malay community life was dominated by a set of beliefs that were based on myths and mysticism. Islam presented the Malays with the concepts and values from the mystical towards rational thought. This is
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important given the religion is at the core of a culture (the covert culture) and, some would believe, is theoretically impossible to change. However, Malays have been doing mass conversions to Islam, and in doing so, often assume Islam as their identity. Islamic groups seeking to promote mainstream Islamic ideology which is based on a single truth and which rejects local tradition, seek to marginalize the bedekeh ritual because it contains the teachings of animism. This animism is regarded as idolatrous, polytheistic and misguided. The process of hegemony and dominance of mainstream Islamic ideology as well as modernization have impacted the local traditions of the ethnic Akit bedekeh ritual As a community with various religious issues, the Akit suffered locally as a result of the unbalanced treatment of the Government. It could also be argued that this unbalanced treatment has led the general public to assume a bias against religious minorities. The meaning of the minority here rather than simply quantitative, should be seen in the context of the stereotypes of backwardness that people attach to the Akit. This is exacerbated by the power relationship evident in the religious conversion of the Akit, and in the expression of the relationship between the State and the power elite theologians and the Akit tribal community in. The phenomenon of religious conversion that occurs in the Akit tribe can be as analyzed using the power relationship theory as posited by Michael Foucalt. According to Foucault, power is something abstract, but it has a real impact in shaping the behavior of a person. The relationship of power for Foucault not only sets out relations between individuals and between groups, but also defines relationships involving a diverse range of parties with different interests. Power will only be real when the relationships are between parties that have a difference of interests and goals. Foucault's concept of power relationship of diverse parties who assume mutual use of power can be seen to emphasize this point. www.ijmer.in
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Religion as defined by the State must contain three elements: (1) have the scriptures, (2) have a prophet, and (3) belief in God Almighty. If the definition of this type of religion is the benchmark, then the existence of local religions such as that of the Akit tribe do not have a space in which to express their beliefs legally. This is a form of discriminatory treatment against local religions such as Akit and tribal religions like that exist elsewhere in Indonesia. The Akit gave freedom to their children to embrace any religion and in choosing a partner, either from people within the tribe or settlers. Akit people perceive that conflicts between them are not influenced by religion, but by people’s private beliefs. The stereotyping of the Akit tribe means that they are often positioned as on the periphery and put in a low position in the social hierarchy of the lowest 'Malay' world. They are not part of what is called by the Malay hierarchy as 'the people' (nation of Islam), a term that is used to refer to the Malay people who are 'homogeneous'. They are not the people charged with protecting the Malay customs, nor Islam, nor even speaking in Malay dialect, even though they look like the Malay people. The construction of the social structures that still affect the Malay people until now will damage the important symbols in the image of the life of the Malays. Practical manifestations of those things, for example, include religious rituals, the procedures for marriage, naming, food preferences, funeral rites, etc. The Akit are considered and branded as a group of people who are not religious according to the rules. However, they are seen as still practicing sorcery and magic. They also never worship (as in Islam). For the Malays being a Muslim must meet several conditions, such as circumcision (for men), not eating pork or drinking alcoholic drinks, obeying ordinances of Islam in the cemetery, giving marrying and divorced in Islam, praying five times a day, building a mosque in the neighborhood of the kampung/village, prayers at two Islamic feasts (Eid www.ijmer.in
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ul-Fitr and Eid al-Adha), Friday prayers, undergoing fasting in Ramadhan, giving zakat (alms-giving) for those who can afford to, and undertaking a Hajj, Thus, if people do not believed, in and live, by these conditions, then they are not really Malays. In addition to the negative stigma given to tribal people, the Government, especially the Department of Social Services, has arranged projects with a view to try to “civilize” the Akit. One such project involves establishing a permanent home, replacing the existing housing with permanent houses made of brick and tin roofs or roof tiles. There is also a tendency for Expat residents to believe that people from the Akit tribe are less acceptable to form relationship with. This has occurred because people believe that Akit sorcery and drugs that can be dangerous. Akit forces were also known for their traditional weapons in the form of poisonous arrows and blowpipes. The biased view of people against the Akit is based on the belief that the Akit have supernatural powers that can affect other people and could result in attacks, either through black magic or weaponry. In addition, it was also believed that they kept pigs, which for Muslims is considered unlawful. The negative assumptions against the Akit that is part of Malay attitude would appear to run contrary to religious tolerance. The influx of modern medicine to Indonesia along with the expansion of the West to the East, has impacted countries including Indonesia in general and the Akit in particular. The world of modern medicine rationally reduces the need for and the presence of the nonrational shaman or bomoh. Modern health institutions and treatments such as doctors, hospitals, health centers, clinics, modern medicine and others slowly diminish the impact of traditional medicine. Modern education also teaches that modern medicine is best. Rules and policies of the government legitimize modern medicine as a recognized
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treatment method. As a result, the existence of the bomoh/shaman and traditional healing practices will be increasingly marginalized. Education and knowledge, information technology and modernity that have impacted the ethnic Akit also are the cause of the marginalization of the bedekeh ritual. Formal education can transform habits and behavior, in particular the community customs of the Akit in treating mythical things or the supernatural. The development of modern science and technology that puts economic value in rational logic tends to shift the existence of tradition in the community. Advances in technology and science have not been able to simply eliminate the use of traditional medicine. Adult treatment with traditional ways are increasingly popular, both within the country and abroad. The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes the importance of traditional medicine to the inhabitants of the world in general. And as a society, we are developing the increased use of alternative medical treatment safely and effectively (Akerele, 1993:1). The tradition of treatment rituals done by the Akit tribes’ bomoh took place in that society from ancient times right through to the present. The community shares perceived benefits of tradition, and according to the theory of acculturation, the cultural elements have an important benefit and are infused from the beginning of life. The community finds it difficult when these are modified or replaced with other elements. The old elements dealing with health issues, for example, the handling of pain through bomoh services, are very useful and as a result carry implications or corroborate the tradition in the life of the Akit tribal society. The Akit tribe lives in a particular territorial area, complete with socio-cultural systems, institutions, habits, and customary law. The provisions of the applicable customs are a guide for life that does not contain sanctions. Violating the customs will result in a community member being ostracized or even excluded from society, but not www.ijmer.in
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actually sanctioned. The indigenous tribal communities of the Akit believe that your behaviour is a reflection of your personality, and the (re)incarnation of the soul of one’s hereditary ancestors. Instead of involving sanctions, the law is one of norms of decency, morality, to the norms of beliefs associated with the supernatural and to God the creator. Control of these socio-cultural systems, institutions, habits, and customary law is taken over by the Batin of the village with all his officers at Desa Hutan Panjang, District Rupat, Bengkalis District, Riau Province. The Batin is the center of power and authority in the local rankings because he has various skills that are seen as desirable. This is very different to the village head. He may not necessarily be the center of power and does not have the authority. Structural changes in the tribe may occur due to various factors, among which are changes in government policy, education, the environment and changing interests. In some cases national government policy has brought changes to the Batin’s relationship with the tribe, and the overlaying of national law on village administration has led clashes between traditional norms and national norms. Thus the elimination of customary norms, rituals treatment means that the Batin loses his legitimacy to lead society. The country also has taken part in the process of marginalization of native people including the Akit tribe. The Akit perbatinan system of Government has become a source of the management of their culture, and provides a structure to the Akit’s political and social life. People are known to be very firm in holding onto the customs and traditions of their ancestors. This rigid desire to preserve their traditional practices is often far more authoritative than that of the formal leadership of the country. Akit bomoh devote their lives to the life of the tribe trying to avoid interruption, disorder, disease or disaster that would otherwise
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disrupt people's lives. The job as a bomoh is to solely devote oneself to the village. For the younger generation now, however, success is measured by money so the profession of bomoh has precisely no interest to them. The profession of bomoh has no clear wage standards, and indeed is not related to money, but rather is related to the satisfaction of the individual. The extent of that satisfaction is, of course, purely subjective. Rewards are one of the indicators of satisfaction in our work. The only compensation received by a bomoh is social compensation in the form of interaction with a community of supporters and the associated power of a position that is respected within the community. Social compensation obtained by the bomoh is not considered sufficient by the younger generation. Changing times, lifestyles and consumption patterns are starting to affect the younger generation’s expectations. A low income means that a profession as a bomoh is not enticing. And the nonfinancial compensation, for example, food given by the patient, is not of interest to the younger generation. The development of lifestyle and modernity are being impacted by a number of reasons: the openness of the social life of the present, various authorities, the choice of lifestyle, and how we see ourselves and determine our own identity. To support the lifestyles of young people in the material world, the income of a bomoh would never be enough. The condition of the younger generation reflects the condition of attraction between the local culture, challenges, and impact of globalization. On the one hand globalization is an opportunity for the development of potential, while the other side of globalization is seen as a threat to the existence of unique cultures (Piliang, 2005:1).
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CONCLUSION The process of globalization is, in fact, the globalization of the economy and refers to a set of economic activities as the practices of capitalism. However, it impacts cultural significance by the virtue of the existence of global cultural processes (Barker, 2006:150-151). The implementation of bedekeh rituals contain an enormous amount of local wisdom, symbols and values and all this impacts the public life of the bomoh and his supporters. Tribal life practices of the Akit that blend the customs and culture provide the belief systems that are inherited for safekeeping for future generations. The ritual bedekeh of the Akit tribe, besides being a treatment for medical issues, is an integral part of the social structure of the culture of Akit ethnic communities and it should be recognized that these contain religious values. Globalization, either directly or indirectly will shift the old value, merging them with the new values. The influence of modernization, capitalism, technology and rationality gives an intense influence to the society. Increasingly intense cultural transformation of a local community can have an impact on identity, values, and traditions that will affect and change the paradigm of thinking, attitude, motivation and action. Globalization can strengthen and reinforce the local culture, but can also an impact in nullifying local culture. Local culture must be maintained as part of cosmology, a system of rituals, and magical beliefs. The existence of the bedekeh ritual by bomoh has become increasingly marginalized by modernization. In the life of ethnic communities in the villages of the Hutan Panjang district Akit, Bengkalis Regency, each phase of the life cycle of their community is influenced by a bomoh. In practice, the bomoh is dominant in all aspects of their lives. Globalization and Government policies have resulted in the marginalization of the bedekeh ritual by Akit bomoh.
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Therefore, there is a need to protect and preserve community cultural rituals such as bedekeh by the Akit bomoh for the sake of continuity. Bibliography
Akerele, O. 1993. Summary of WHO Guidelines for The Assessment of Herbal Medicines Herbal Gram, 28, 13--19.
Barker, Chris. 2006. Cultural Studies: Teori dan Praktik. (Tim KUNCI Cultural Studies Centre, Pentj). Yogyakarta: Bentang Budaya.
Benard, R, H. 1994. Methods in Anthropology. London-New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Foucault. 2002. Power/Knowledge Wacana Kuasa/Pengetahuan (Penerjemah Yudi Santosa). Yogyakarta: Benteng Budaya.
Foster,G.M. & Anderson. 1986. Antropologi Kesehatan. Jakarta :UI Press.
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Andasputra., (ed). Kebudayaan Dayak: Aktualisasi dan Transformasi. 1994. Jakarta: LP3S-Institute of Dayakologi Research and Development-Penerbit Gramedia Widiasarana Indonesia.
Geertz, Clifford. 1992. Kebudayaan dan Agama. Yogyakarta: Kanisius.
Giddens, Anthony. 2002. Tradition dalam Runaway World: How Globslization is Reshaping Our Lives, London: Profile Books.
Hamidy, U.U. 2009. Kebudayaan sebagai Amanah Tuhan, Pekan Baru: UIR Press.
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Hamelink.Cess J. 1983. Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications: Planning National Information Policy, London: Longman.
Kleiden, Paul Budi. 2015. “Ambivalensi para Leluhur: Menafsir Ritus Tu Dhe’U di Palu’é Berdasarkan Teori Kambing Hitam René Girard”. Dalam: Julian C.H. Lea & John M. Prior., (ed). Pemburu yang Cekatan: Anjangsana Bersama Karya-Karya E. Douglas Lewis. (Yosef Maria Florisan, Pentj). Yogyakarta: Ledalero.
Piliang, Yasraf Amir. 2004. Pos-Realistas : Realitas Kebudayaan di dalam Era Pos-metafisika. Yogyakarta : Penerbit Jalasutra.
Sarwono, Solita. 1993. Sosiologi Kesehatan: beberapa konsep deserta aplikasinya Yogyakarta : Gadjah Mada University Press.
Spradley, J. P. 1997. Metode Etnografi. Yogyakarta: PT Tiara Wacana.
Tilaar, H.A.R. 2007. Mengindonesiakan Etnisitas dan Identitas Bangsa Indonesia. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.
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A STUDY ON CUSTOMER SATISFACTION IN OSCAR PVC PIPES WORKS, ILLAMPILLAI, SALEM DISTRICT R.Meenakshi Assistant Professor Department of Commerce Vivekanandha College of Arts & Science for Women(Autonomous) Elaympalayam Tiruchengode,Tamilnadu
Dr.T.A.Tamilselvi Principal and Director Shri Business School of Management Mettupatti
Abstract: Customer satisfaction is important to the organization and the primary goals of marketing activities and may lead to increased purchases by customers and increased profits for the firm. Customer satisfaction is equivalent to making sure that product and Service performance meets customer expectations. Customer satisfaction is the perception of the customer that the outcome of a business transaction is equal to or greater than his/her expectation. The main aim of the study is to know whether the customers are satisfied with PVC pipes and their level of satisfaction. Various factors are considered to determine the satisfaction level like Price, Color, Size, Service etc. This study tries to give suggestions and recommendation to increase the satisfaction level of the product. Keywords: - Customer, Customer satisfaction, Competitors, Price, Quality I.
INTRODUCTION
Customer satisfaction is equivalent to making sure that product and Service
performance
meets
customer
expectations.
Customer
satisfaction is the perception of the customer that the outcome of a business transaction is equal to or greater than his/her expectation. www.ijmer.in
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This study is undertaken in order to find out the customer satisfaction of Oscar PVC pipes – PVC Pipes, which is in illampillai in Salem District, Tamilnadu state in India with the help of research techniques and data collection tools from which suggestion and recommendation for the study is framed. II.
ABOUT THE COMPANY:
The Oscar Group of companies came into existence by R.Nedunchezhiyan, founder of Oscar group in the beginning of 2002. The company manufactures the PVC Pipes & supplies in & around the domestic market near by the areas, Salem, Erode, Namakkal, Dharmapuri, and Circles. The Oscar PVC group of companies was started at the year 2000 with the initial investment of 5lakhs and merely it expanded its capacity of production, quality and investment to the business. In the 2005 OSCAR group of companies started their Second Unit – Oscar PVC Pipes with the minimal level of 50 employees’ in Salem District in Tamilnadu State in India. Oscar PVC Pipes Works is currently one of the leading Pipe Manufacturer in Salem district in Tamilnadu in India. III.
OBJECTIVES: To study the Customer Satisfaction level about Oscar PVC Pipes Works (Oscar Group of Companies) PVC products. To find out the factors that influencing the customers to buy the product. To find the level of service provided by the company. To analyze the nearest competitors. To suggest some ways to improve the satisfaction level.
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IV.
SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE The main aim of the study is to know whether the customers
are satisfied with PVC pipes and there level of satisfaction. Various factors are considered to determine the satisfaction level like Price, Colour, Size, Service etc. This study tries to give suggestions and recommendation to increase the satisfaction level of the product. V.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Time factor can be considered as a main limitation. The findings of the study are solely based on the information provided by the respondents. The accuracy of findings is limited by the accuracy of statistical tools used for analysis. Findings of the research may change due to area, demography, age condition of economy etc.
VI.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
6.1 RESEARCH DESIGN: The analysis is done with the help of statistical tools. Hence this is a descriptive research which tries to analyze the views of respondents using, the information collected from them. 6.2 NATURE OF DATA This report was formulated on the basis of both primary as well as secondary data. 6.2.1 Primary Data: This refers to data collected by the researcher from their original sources. This study is based on primary data. The primary data collected through personal interview with the structured questionnaire.
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6.2.2 Secondary Data: Company Profile Journals Magazines Internet 6.3 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION The data were collected through structured questionnaire. 6.4 SAMPLING METHOD Sampling is a tool, which helps to know characteristics of the universe (or) population by examining only a small part of it. Convenience sampling technique is used. 6.5 TOOLS USED FOR ANALYSIS The data collected was analyzed by using statistical tools. The following tools were used for this study Percentage Analysis Chi- square test. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA TABLE 1 AGE WISE CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE RESPONDENT Age group No of Respondents Under 25 20 Between 26-30 15 Between 30-40 39 Above 40 26 Total 100 Source: Primary Data
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Percentage 20 15 39 26 100
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Inference: From the above table it is inferred that nearly 39% of respondents are belonging to the age group of 39-40, and 26% of respondents are belonging to age group of 26-30. TABLE 2 OPINION OF THE RESPONDENTS FOREMOST REASON TO BUY THE PRODUCT PARTICULARS NO OF RESPONDENTS Color 17 Quality 50 Life time 18 Thickness 15 Total 100 Source: Primary Data
PERCENTAGE 17% 50% 18% 15% 100%
INFERENCE: From the table it is inferred that nearly 54% of the respondents are buying the product only for the reason- Quality and 20% of the respondents are buying for the thickness of the product TABLE 3 THE OPINION ON SATISFACTION LEVEL OF THE RESPONDENTS PARTICULARS NO OF RESPONDENTS Highly Satisfied 15 Satisfied 57 Neithersatisfied NorDissatisfied 10 Dissatisfied 10 Highly Dissatisfied 8 Total 100 Source: Primary Data www.ijmer.in
PERCENTAGE 15% 57% 10% 10% 8% 100%
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INFERENCE From the table it is inferred that nearly 56% of the respondents are satisfied with the product and 16% of the respondents are Highly Satisfied.
TABLE 4 THE OPINION OF THE RESPONDENTS REGARDING QUALITY SATISFACTION PARTICULARS Highly Satisfied Satisfied Neithersatisfied Nor Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Highly Dissatisfied Total Source: Primary Data
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NO RESPONDENTS 15 40 30 10 5 100
OF PERCENTAG E 15% 40% 30% 10% 5% 100%
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INFERENCE: From the table it is inferred that nearly 40% of the respondents are satisfied with the quality and 30% of the respondents are neither satisfied nor dissatisfied THE OPINION THICKNESS
OF
THE
TABLE 5 RESPONDENTS
NO OF RESPONDENTS 20 40
PARTICULARS Highly Satisfied Satisfied Neither satisfied Nor Dissatisfied 10 Dissatisfied 15 Highly Dissatisfied 15 TOTAL 100 Source: Primary Data INFERENCE:
REGARDING PERCENTAG E 20% 40% 10% 15% 15% 100%
From the table it is inferred that nearly 35% of the respondents are satisfied with the thickness of the product and 25% of the respondents highly satisfied with the thickness of the product. CHART 1 THE OPINION OF THE RESPONDENTS REGARDING PRICE
Source: Primarydata
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INFERENCE: From the chart it is inferred that nearly 45% of the respondents are satisfied with the Price of the product and 25% of the respondents highly satisfied with the Price of the product. Figure no 1 OPINION OF THE RESPONDENTS COMPARING WITH COMPETITORS PRODUCTS
Source: Primary data Inference: From the figure it is inferred that nearly 45% of the respondents are satisfied with the product comparing with competitive products and 20% of the respondents neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. 7.1 CHI- SQUARE TEST H0 There is no significant relationship between color and quality of the pipes H1 There is a significant relationship between color and quality of the pipes www.ijmer.in
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7.1.1 Observed frequencies: COLOR SATISFIED Grey 24 Dark Grey 22 White 14 Blue 08 TOTAL 68 7.1.2Expected frequencies:
DISSATISFIED 14 10 04 04 32
TOTAL 36 34 18 12 100
COLOR
SATISFIED
DISSATISFIED
TOTAL
Grey
40 * 68/ 100 = 13.6
20 * 32 / 100 = 6.4
36
Dark Grey
32 * 68/ 100 = 21.76
32 * 32 / 100=10.24
34
White
16 * 68/ 100 = 10.88
16 * 32 / 100 = 5.12
18
Blue
12 * 68/ 100 = 8.16
12 * 32 / 100 = 3.84
12
TOTAL
68
32
100
(Oi-Ei)^2 / Ei
Oi
Ei
28
13.6
14.4
15.24
12
6.4
5.6
4.9
20
10.88
9.12
7.64
12
5.12
6.88
9.245
12
5.44
6.56
7.910
04
2.56
-0.56
0.81
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Oi-Ei
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08
04 100
4.08
3.92
3.766
1.92
2.08
1.083 50.594
50
number of degree of freedom
= (c-1) * (R—T) = (2-1) * (4-1) =
1*3
=
3
Table value for 3 different at 5% level = 5.991 7.2 Result: H1 is accepted since the calculated value > the table value Hence is a significant relationship between color and quality of the pipe. VII. FINDINGS
Nearly 54% of the respondents are buying the product only for the reason- Quality and 20% of the respondents are buying for the thickness of the product. Nearly 40% of the respondents are satisfied with the quality and 30% of the respondents are neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. Nearly 35% of the respondents are satisfied with the thickness of the product and 25% of the respondents highly satisfied with the thickness of the product. Nearly 45% of the respondents are satisfied with the Price of the product and 25% of the respondents highly satisfied with the Price of the product.. Nearly 45% of the respondents are satisfied with the product comparing with competitive products and 20% of the respondents neither satisfied nor dissatisfied.
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VIII.SUGGESTIONS Price of the pipes should be reduced to make it still more competitive in the lights of Trubore and Salem Pipes. Efforts must be made to improve the thickness of the pipes. Efforts must be made to improve the quality of pipes and make 100% satisfaction level. Many new product in pipes are coming up and to meet the competition company needs to improve its promotional strategy. Need to increase more 20mm-350gm wiring pipes because of majority in purchase level. IX.CONCLUSION Increasing competition is forcing businesses to pay much more attention to satisfying customers. Customer satisfaction can help your business achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. It about understands the way a customer feels after purchasing a product or service and, in particular, whether or not that product or service met the customer's expectations. It has been found that Oscar PVC pipes is one of the most preferred pipes in a segment and got a stiff competition from the Salem Pipes, Trubore, which is still the market leader. To meet the competition more awareness about the brand needs to be created and advertising strategies has to be adopted. References [1] Marketing Management, 11th Edition – Philip Kotler Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi [2] Research Methodology, 2nd Edition– C.R. Kothari New Age International, New Delhi [3] Customer Relationship – H. Peeru Mohmed & Sagadevan [4] Consumer Behaviour– Charls Marshal [5] Marketing Research – Hari, Bush Ortiinao
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EMPOWERING TRIBAL WOMEN IN INDIA Dr.K.Manjulamma PDF Scholar Dept. of Political Science & Public Administration S V University, Tirupati Introduction Women’s empowerment in India is heavily dependent on many different variables that include geographical location (urban/rural), educational status, social status (caste and class), and age. Policies on women’s empowerment exist at the national, state, and local (Panchayat) levels in many sectors, including health, education, economic opportunities, gender-based violence, and political participation. However, there are significant gaps between policy advancements and actual practice at the community level. One key factor for the gap in implementation of laws and policies to address discrimination, economic disadvantages, and violence against women at the community level is the largely patriarchal structure that governs the community and households in much of India. As such, women and girls have restricted mobility, access to education, access to health facilities, and lower decision-making power, and experience higher rates of violence. Political participation is also hindered at the Panchayat (local governing bodies) level and at the state and national levels, despite existing reservations for women. Women are an integral part of society. They play an important role in determining the dusting of a nation. Therefore, due recognition to them in the society and their greater involvement in socio-economic and political affairs becomes all the more impartment. However, history reveals that women have not been given their due statues in the society.
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Scheduled Tribes Article 366 (25) of the Constitution of India refers to Scheduled Tribes as those communities, who are scheduled in accordance with Article 342 of the Constitution. This Article says that only those communities who have been declared as such by the President through an initial public notification or through a subsequent amending Act of Parliament will be considered Scheduled Tribes. Article 342 provides for specification of tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within tribes or tribal communities, which are deemed to be for the purposes of the Constitution the Scheduled Tribes in relation to that State or Union Territory. In pursuance of these provisions, the list of Scheduled Tribes are notified for each State or Union Territory and are valid only within the jurisdiction of that State or Union Territory and not outside. The list of Scheduled Tribes is State/UT specific and a community declared as a Scheduled Tribe in a State need not be so in another State. The inclusion of a community as a Scheduled Tribe is an ongoing process. The essential characteristics, first laid down by the Lokur Committee, for a community to be identified as Scheduled Tribes are — a) indications of primitive traits; b) distinctive culture; c) shyness of contact with the community at large; d) geographical isolation; and e) backwardness. Tribal communities live, in various ecological and geo-climatic conditions ranging from plains and forests to hills and inaccessible areas. Tribal groups are at different stages of social, economic and educational development. While some tribal communities have adopted a mainstream way of life, at the other end of the spectrum, there are certain Scheduled Tribes. 75 in number known as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), who are characterized by:- a) pre-agriculture level of technology; b) stagnant or declining population; c) extremely low literacy; and d) subsistence level of economy.
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Empowerment of women is one of the concepts that have developed in connection with improving their status. Empowerment includes higher literacy levels, education, better healthcare, equal ownership of productive resources, increased participation in economic and commercial sectors, awareness of rights and responsibilities, improved standards of living, self-reliance, self-esteem and self confidence. STATUS OF TRIBAL WOMEN Generally, the status of Women has two dimensions – (l) The extent of control enjoyed by women over their live, and (II) The extent who which they have access to the decision- making process and are effectively in position of power and authority. Status of women in generally measured using three indicators – education employment status and intra – household decision-making power. In general, women with higher education tend to have a better position. In some cases, however, education alone may not be sufficient to enhance status unless it engages employment as well In addition, women s ability to communicate with and convince their spouses or other members of the family indicates their decision-making autonomy. Women with great decision-making power are supposed to have a higher status in the house-hold. However, a single measure cannot be used to assess the status of women; rather a multi-dimensional cluster of variables is required to indicate the status. Status is not a. fixed rigid concept, it changes over time. Women occupy different positions in the social structure as they pass through the life cycle and the very basis upon which the community ascribes power, privilege and prestige also changes. The popular image and perception of the tribal women is that of being better off than their non-tribal counterparts. There is no child marriage, no stigma on widowhood. Instead of dowry there is bride price indicating high social status of the tribal women. She earns and is, economically independent. A higher social status of women was www.ijmer.in
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reported by Furer - Haimendorf (1943), Hutton (1921), Hunter (1973) and Firth (1946) among Tharus of U.P. and Nagas & Garos of the North East. However, there are many facts which indicate a low status for the tribal woman. For example, she does not have property rights except in a matrilineal society which is a smaller proportion of the tribal population. She is paid less as wages than her male counterpart for the same work. Several taboos discriminating against tribal women exist in certain tribal groups implying impurity and low status. In certain tribes only the males can participate in ancestor worship (Satyanarayana & Behera 1986). The Toda & Kota women in Southern India cannot cross the threshold of a temple. The Santhal women cannot attend communal worship. Rivers (1973) and Grigson (1938) have reported low status of women among Todas, Kharies and Mariya Gonds with reference to certain taboos during certain periods and ceremonies. Though tribal women are pivot of tribal agriculture, performing many household and agriculture job, they also play a major role in the co-management of their natural, social. economic, resources of agricultural development including crop-production, livestock production, horticulture and post-harvest operations but they remain backward due to illiteracy, superstitions, dominant male roles in decision-making, social evils and many other cultural factors.
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S.N o
India/State
30
West Bengal
31
A & N Islands
32
Chandigarh
33
Total Population
ST Population
% STs in % STs in India/ the State State to total to total population of populatio India/ State n in India ST 5.8 5.1
9,12,76,115
52,96,953
3,80,581
28,530
7.5
0.0
10,55,450
NST
NA
NA
D & N Haveli
3,43,709
1,78,564
52.0
0.2
34
Daman & Diu.
2,43,247
15,363
6.3
0.0
35
Delhi
1,67,87,941
NST
NA
NA
36
Lakshadweep
64,473
61,120
94.8
0.1
37
Puducherry
12,47,953
NST
NA
NA
Source: Census 2011, Office of the General,India
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The population of the Scheduled Tribes in the country is 10.45 crore as per Census 2011 constituting 8.6% of the total population of the country. Scheduled Tribe (ST) male population is 5.25 crore and ST female population is 5.20 crore. The population of Scheduled Tribes has been increasing since 1961. The decadal growth of ST population is 24 percent as per Census 2011 as compared to 2001. Educational Status among STs Year 1961
Scheduled Tribes Male Female Total 13.83 3.16 8.53
1971
17.63 4.85
11.30
1981
24.52 8.04
16.35
1991
40.65 18.19
29.60
2001
59.17 34.76
47.10
2011
68.50 49.40
59.00
Source: Census 2011, Office of the General,India According to the Census figures, the literacy rate for the STs in India increased from 47.1% in 2001 to 59% in 2011. Among ST males, literacy rate increased from 59.2% to 68.5% and among ST females, literacy rate increased from 34.8% to 49.4% during the same period. The literacy rate for the total population has increased from 64.8% in 2001 to 73% in 2011. Thus, there is a gap of about 14 percentage points in literacy rate of STs as compared to the all India literacy rate.The ST female literacy rate is lower by 15 percentage points as compared to the overall female literacy rate in 2011.
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Employment Status of Tribal Women A very large majority of the tribals (almost 90%) are engaged in agriculture; their other economic activities being food gathering (including hunting and fishing), pastoral, handicrafts, trade and commerce, and industrial labour. Rarely are they engaged in only one occupation. The employment status of tribal women may be considered in terms of their work participation, agriculture, forests, nonagricultural activities and impact of development programmes. Problems of Tribal Women Tribal women still face problems and challenges in getting a sustainable livelihood and a decent life. Undoubtedly,the programmes. Oriented towards the empowerment of tribals, particularly women, have improved their socio-economic conditions and status; but still it is important to know about problems faced by tribal women at one or the other level which makes the target of inclusive development incomplete. Though tribals have been residing in forest areas for generations, cultivating land collecting non-timber forest produce, but when outsiders exploit the tribe's land and its resources the natural life cycle of tribal ecology and the tribal life is greatly disturbed. The history of land alienation among the tribes began during British colonialism in India. Coupled with this, tribal lands were occupied by money-lenders and Zamindars by advancing them loans etc. The resultant impact is I at them live under abject poverty and are in debt in the hands of local money-lenders. In order to repay the debt they often mortgage or sell their land to them and exploitation of tribal women takes place. After the British came to power, the forest policy of the British Government was more inclined towards commercial considerations rather than human. Some
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forests were declared as reserved ones where only authorized contractors were allowed to cut the timber. Opening of mines in the heart of tribal habitat and even a few factories provided wage labor as well as opportunities for factory employment. But this brought increasing destitution and displacement. Many tribal women work as laborers in industries, households and construction at low wages. Tribal women are used for immoral trafficking in collieries and mines by labour contractors and managers. The low educational status of tribal women is reflected in their lower literacy rate, lower enrolment rate and higher dropouts in the school. The educational schedule - the study year, daily classes and holidays - is organized with little understanding of tribal cultures. Tribal festivals and celebrations and the seasonal pursuit agriculture and gathering are not taken into consideration in planning educational timetable. All too often teachers hold classes as they would in cities or towns, ignoring the daily or seasonal habits of tribal pupils. Most tribal institutions do not blend well into the tribal environment. They are alien and shortly after schools are opened, they acquire the look of neglected buildings. Recommendations to Empower Tribal Women
It is important to impart practical knowledge and training of techniques to all tribal women regularly so that their work becomes easier and crop production increases. It is required to create better linkage with mainline departments (veterinary, agriculture, banking and so on) and other collaborating training institutes to impart training to them.
Educational status of tribal women is very low with high dropout ratio. It is a matter of great concern and needs to be addressed properly. It is the root cause of low autonomy among tribal women.
To increase the female participation at the community level and to give more decision-making power, it is needed to understand the
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existing traditional pattern of tribal community in more details which would help in formulation of more effective developmental policies and it will also help to bring out the lacunae lying within present policies.
Formulation of development policies for tribal women is not so important, as that of implementation. The main stress should be given to create awareness and to inbuilt self-reliance among tribal females.
For economic empowerment, ensure provision of training, employment and income Generation activities with both forward and backward linkages ultimate objective of making them economically independent and self – reliant.
Conclusion Thus, it is very clear that though tribal women are pivot of tribal life but still they are lacking behind on many factors. It is essential to keep in mind that tribal women are not mere individuals but belong to a sociological and dialectical system. Therefore, more tribal women in their population proportion should be given chance to enter in the system like judiciary, education, health and politics. Participation and empowerment is necessary for development of women in general and tribal women in particular. References 1. Hunter, W.W. (1973); "Orissa", London: Smith Elder. 2. Hutton, J.H. (1921); "The Sema Naga". London: Macmillan. 3. Majumdar D.N. (1958); "Caste and Communication in Indian Village", Bombay Asia Publishing House. 4. Rivers, H.H. (1973); "The Todas", London: Macmillan. 5. Satyanarayan, R. & Behera, D.K. (1986); "Socio-Economic Responsibility of Tribal Women: A Micro-Study of the Kissan of Western Orissa", Tribal Women and Development. Agenda Papers. 6. Sawin M. (1994); "Globalization and Transportation Tribal Health: Special Reference to .Iharkhand", India. Health Action. 13.WHO (1989); "Preventing Maternal Deaths", Geneva: World Health Organization. www.ijmer.in
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STUDY ON ATTITUDE OF PARENTS TOWARDS CHILD MARRIAGE IN AGARAM VILLAGE S. Sumathi Principal Investigator, [MRP-5437/14 (SERO/UGC)] Assistant Professor & Head Department of Social Work Thanthai Hans Roever College (Autonomous) Perambalur Abstract Child marriage has been an issue in India especially in rural communities. Many parents marry their daughters after puberty. The causes and consequences of child marriage has a negative impact on the girl children in their physical, social and health aspects.The practice has been rooted in the traditions of many communities and to understand the attitude of parents is the key to meet this challenge. So, the present study was undertaken and it adopted Descriptive research design to describe the awareness, cultural aspect and attitude of parents towards child marriage. Simple Random Sampling was used to collect primary data from 117 parents in Agaram village, Perambalur district by administering a self prepared Questionnaire. The major findings of this study revealed that there is significant difference in the gender of respondents and parents support for child marriage. Also it showed that there exists significant relationship between age of the respondents and parents support for child marriage. Key Words: Parents, Child Marriage, Attitude. Introduction Child marriage is defined as a formal marriage or informal union before the age of 18. It is defined by UN Women as a forced marriage before 18 years of age because they believe children under 18 are www.ijmer.in
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incapable of giving their consent . The girls are most affected worldwide by child marriage than boys. Early female marriage is associated with poor social, and physical outcomes for young girls. The girls who marry as adolescents have lower education, social status in their husbands’ families is low, reproductive control is less and suffer from maternal mortality and domestic violence. The practice of child marriage has been seen as the traditions of many communities. Inspite of no religion endorsing child marriage, it happens across religious groups. It is a common practice in many countries around the world and it is especially prevalent in India, where more than one third of all child brides exist. UNICEF states that 47% of girls get married by the age of 18 and 18% are married by the age of 15. Because of traditional, cultural and religious practices, child marriage has been an issue in India for a long time. It is also associated with problems like dowry, malnutrition, poor health, high fertility and over population. Many parents in rural communities marry their daughters after puberty and to understand the attitude of parents is the key to meet this challenge. Review of Literature Thomas Robert Malthus in 1798 advocated postponement of marriage as a preventive check to high fertility. Davis & Blake in 1956 treated age at marriage as a prominent variable in the context of reproductive control. Mc Donald (1981) wrote that in demography age at marriage occupies a predominant place as one of the proximate determinants of fertility and any respective discussion of fertility. Bartz and Nye in 1970 found that age at marriage is also a key intervening variable in the status attainment process.
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Call and Otto in 1977 revealed that Age at marriage is a subject of great practical importance as it is related to both socio-economic antecedents and attainments, though its importance is recognized mostly by demographers than scholars of others disciplines. Population Reports in 1979, is based on the assumption that, other things remaining constant, later marriage will help to give opportunities for increase in educational attainment and obtain better occupation and better income-all of which are regarded as status indicators. "All these opportunities, which are virtually closed to a girl who marriages at 15 or 16, will not only help women understand the value of spacing children and limiting family size later, but also will enable them to play more active roles in family, community, and national development". The study of Niranjana in 2000 on status of women and family welfare at the village Sungra of Kinnaur revealed that 63.5% of the women got married at age of 15 to 20 years. It indicated that 55.3% of the respondents had their first conception when they were of less than 20 years of age. The data also revealed that more girls got married at the age less the age of 18 years than boys. This in the context of fertility behavior implies that the women getting married at an early age may have more children than women marrying at a later age. A study conducted by ICRW in two states in India found that girls who were married before 18 were twice as likely to report being beaten, slapped or threatened by their husbands than girls who married later. Methods and Materials The research study is descriptive in nature. The universe of the study was a definite universe of Agaram village in Perambalur district which consisted of 350 parents. Here the data was collected from 117 www.ijmer.in
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parents using simple random sampling. A self prepared questionnaire with socio-demographic details, parents awareness, cultural aspect and parents attitude was administered to the respondents. Objectives To understand the socio demographic status of the parents To know the cultural aspects of the parents To find out parental attitude in regard to early marriage of girl children To study the association of socio demographic variables and parental attitude in early marriage of girl children. Research Hypotheses 1. There is a significant difference between respondents’ gender and parents support for child marriage 2. There is a significant difference between the gender of the respondents with regard to prefer marriage for girl children before 18 years 3. There is a significant difference between the respondents’ gender with regard to the reasons given for early marriage of girl children 4. There is a significant difference between the gender of the respondents and parents attitude about girl children learning cooking and house hold activities before puberty 5. There is a significant association between the number of children and parents attitude towards considering girl children as burden to care after puberty 6. There is a significant variance among the community of the respondents with regard to
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child marriage in their family 7. There is a significant difference among the respondents’ education with regard to parents awareness about legal age for marriage of girl children 8. There is a significant difference between type of family of the respondents with regard to the parents awareness about the reasons for child marriage 9. There is a significant relationship between respondents’ age and parents support for child marriage Results and Discussion Table: 1 variables
Distribution of Respondents by their Socio-Demographic
Socio-Demographic Variables
Frequenc y 74 43
Percent age 63.2 36.8
20 - 30 30 - 40 40 – 50 50 – 60 60 – 70 70 – 80
39 21 27 19 10 1
33.3 17.9 23.1 16.2 8.6 0.9
Age at marriage
13 – 18 18 – 23 23 – 28 28 – 33
21 60 28 8
17.9 51.3 23.9 6.9
Age of spouse at marriage
12 – 18 18 – 24 24 – 30 30 – 36
12 38 47 20
10.3 32.5 40.2 17.1
No. of children
1–3 4–6
94 12
80.3 10.3
Gender
Age (in years)
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Details of children
Son Daughter Both No Children
25 25 56 11
21.4 21.4 47.9 9.4
Education
Illiterate Elementary School Middle School High School Higher Secondary School Undergraduate Postgraduate Professional
24 10 15 10 16 30 12 1
20.5 8.5 12.8 8.5 13.7 25.6 10.3 0.9
Occupation
Farmer Coolie Government Private Self employed Unemployed
23 27 3 39 5 20
19.7 23.1 2.6 33.3 4.3 17.1
Monthly Family Income
Below 5000 5000 – 10000 10000 – 15000 15000 – 20000 Above 20000
30 55 24 5 3
25.6 47.0 20.5 4.3 2.6
Religion
Hindu Christian
108 9
92.3 7.7
SC/ST BC MBC
17 61 39
14.5 52.1 33.3
Joint Nuclear
34 83
29.1 70.9
Community
Type of family
Findings based on parents awareness, culture and attitude The findings regarding parents awareness revealed that 66.7 percentage of the respondents have heard about child marriage, 53.8 percentage of them have given family and society trend as reason for child marriage, and 71.8 percentage of the respondents have not
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noticed oral/ written reports about child marriage. Moreover 41.9 percentage of the respondents are aware that the legal age for marriage of girl children is 18 years, 56.4 percentage and 51.3 percentage of them do not know about the rights of children regarding marriage and legal protection of girl children in regard to marriage. With regard to their culture, the study showed that 50.4 percentage of the respondents’ family members did not get married in childhood, 2 or 3 family members of 23.1 percentage of the respondents got married at childhood, 14.5 percentage of the respondents have revealed that it is normal in their family culture and 12 percentage of the respondents family members got married at childhood, but now it has stopped. 93.2 percentage of them have said that their culture does not allow child marriage and 81.2 percentage of the respondents culture solemnize marriage for girls after 18 years. In regard to the parents attitude, the study revealed that 72.6 percentage of the respondents do not support child marriage, 89.7 percentage of them do not prefer marriage for girl children before the age of 18 years. In the 10.3 percentage of the respondents who prefer marriage for girl children before 18 years, 5.1 percentage have given societal pressure as reason for it. 81.2 percentage of the respondents do not think girl children as a burden to take care after puberty. In the 18.8 percentage of the respondents who think girl children as a burden, 33.3 percentage have given development of unwanted friendship and 31.6 percentage of them have given fear of rape or tease or any other disturbance as reasons for it. 90.6 percentage of the respondents agreed for educating girl children after puberty. 50.4 percentage of the respondents believe that people should be educated as affirmative action to stop child marriage, 46.2 percentage of them think that parents are responsible to eradicate child marriage and 41.9 percentage of them think that effective parenting will be the role of parents in preventing child marriage. www.ijmer.in
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Hypotheses findings
There is significant difference among the gender of the respondents with regard to parents support for child marriage (t =3.878, P < 0.05).
There is no significant difference between the gender of the respondents with regard to prefer marriage for girl children before 18 years.
There is no significant difference between the gender of the respondents with regard to the reasons given for early marriage of girl children.
There is a significant difference between the gender of the respondents and parents attitude about girl children learning cooking and household activities before puberty (t = 8.168, P < 0.01) .
There is a significant association between the number of children of the respondents and their attitude towards considering girl children as a burden to care after puberty (x2= 11.348, P < 0.05 ).
There is no significant variance among the community of the respondents with regard to child marriage in their family.
There is no significant difference among the education of the respondents with regard to parents awareness about legal age for marriage of girl children.
There is a significant relationship between age of the respondents and parents support for child marriage(value = 0.297, P < 0.01). Conclusion Of all child marriages in the world over 40% take place in India. It is at number 11 among 68 nations where child marriages are reported. In South India, with 49% Andhra Pradesh is first in respect of child marriages, Karnataka with 29.6%, Tamilnadu with 19.5% and then Kerala with 11.8%. Child marriage especially early marriage of girl children in the Perambalur district is a reality. This study carried out in Agaram
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village of Perambalur district examined the socio-economic conditions, provided insight into the awareness, culture and attitude of the parents to understand the parental attitude toward early marriage of girl children. The research revealed that there is significant difference between the gender of the respondents with regard to parents support for child marriage and also opinion about girl children learning cooking and household activities before puberty. There is significant variance between number of children of the respondents and their attitude towards considering girl children as burden to care after puberty. The study also indicated that there is significant relationship between the age of the respondents and parents support for child marriage. Therefore the future researchers, government and other welfare agencies may draft policies and programmes focussing on the parents to protect the girl children from early marriage. References 1. Alan Guttmacher Institute (AGI), (1995). Women, Families and the Future: Sexual relationships and marriage worldwide, New York : AGI 2. Bruce, J. and Clark, S. (2004). The implications of early marriage for HIV/AIDS Policy, brief based on background paper published for the WHO/UNFPA/Population Council Technical Consultation on Married Adolescents Population. 3. Clark, S. (2004). Early Marriage and HIV Risks in Sub-Saharan Africa”. Studies in Family Planning, Vol.35 (3): 149-160 4. Clark, S., Bruce, J. and Dude, A. (2006). Protecting Young Women from HIV/AIDS: The case against child and adolescent marriage, International Family Planning Perspectives, 32 (2): 79-88. 5. International Center for Research on Women (ICRW). (2003). Too Young to Wed, The Lives, rights and health of young married girls, Washington DC: ICRW.
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6. International Center for Research on Women (ICRW), (2007). New insights on preventing child marriage: A Global Analysis of factors and programs, Washington DC: ICRW. 7. Jaya Sahade, (2005). Child Marriage in India: Socio-Legal and Human Rights Dimension, India: OUP. 8. Kakkar, A. K. (2009). Child Marriage in India Issues and Challenges, Delhi: Neha Publishers 9. Malhotra Anju, (2010), The Causes, Consequences and Solutions to Forced Child Marriage in the Developing World, Washington D.C: International Centre for Research on Women 10. Niranjana,(2000). Status of women and family welfare, New Delhi:Kanishka Publishers. 11. Quentin Wodon, (2015) , Child marriage: A persistent hurdle to health and prosperity, Investing in Health, News and Views in healthy development 12. Sarkar Sukanta, (2015), Violation of Women Rights, Delhi: Mangalam Publications. 13. Dr.(Mrs.) Sujatha, A. S. (2013). Domestic Violence, New Delhi: ALP Books. 14. UNICEF (2007). The State of the World’s Children 2007: Women and Children, the Double Dividend of Gender Equality, New York: UNICEF. 15. UNICEF (2009). Child protection from violence, exploitation and abuse, New York: UNICEF.
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REVENUE EXPERIMENTS IN PRAKASM DISTRICT OF ANDHRAPRADESH DURING BRITISH RULE Dr.G.Somasekhara Assistant Professor Department of History ANU Ongole Campus, Ongole Abstract The Revenue Department is the oldest section of the Governments existing from times immemorial in the country. The history of mankind is closely associated with land relationship. The Land Administration/Revenue Administration centered on collection of tax/land revenue, which were the main sources of revenue to rulers from the beginning. The village was the basic unit of administration and has remained so throughout the centuries. Land and its people identify basic from work of any civilization. The resources, their ownership and accessibility of land are some of the fundamental constituents of any system which is considered an essential aspect of human societies over the centuries. Introduction The historical study of ancient Indian works note down that tax on land played a pivotal part in the development and maintenance of the systems of governance. The history of Land Administration dates back olden days of kings and kingdoms. From times immemorial, land considered as prime domain of the State. According to classical doctrine, all lands belong to the king/state which can alienate it fore cultivation and other purposes to individuals. Right from the time of Manu, the Land Revenue has been major sources of income of the Sovereign. During the Mauryan and Gupta periods the state revenue was collected by the paid office which
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resembles the present day proclaim art system. During the post Mauryan and Gupta periods the state revenue was collected donees of Brahmadeya, Devadana and Agrahara. The donees were feudal intermediaries who passed on a part of the revenue they collected to the king. Later, in place of the above Revenue Collectors, the Jagirdars, Subedars and Inamdars who were intermediaries passed on the revenue to the kings during the rule of Sultan which extended for more than 300 years. During their rule the source of the Revenue was two fold religious and secular. The former called Zaker was due from the Muslims and Jigya which the non-Muslims had to pay. The process of Revenue administration was started Sher Shah Suri (1540-45). It was continued and improved upon under the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar (1556-1605). Todar Mal greatest revenue expert who started his career under Sher Sah Suri joined in the service of Akbar is remembered even to this day for evolving a system of revenue assessment and survey, a system which drew a balance between the demands of the state and needs of the subjects. The Revenue Administration during the regime of Mughals consisted of a heterogeneous class of persons, which included direct officials of the imperial administration like the provincial governors, amils, or the qanungos, jagirdars (revenue-assignees) and their officials and agents and representatives of the peasants like the village head men (Muqaddams) and the Chaudhris. With the advent of the British in India, the political and economic scenario under went for reaching changes. The Revenue Administration was systematized scientifically during British rule by introducing permanent settlement (by Corn Wallis-1793) and Ryotwari system by Sir Thomas Marro-1802). The Colonial Government out of its interest to administer the country effectively did not make any substantial changes in the land-revenue systems but promoted the class of non-cultivator intermediaries. The British inherited the institutions www.ijmer.in
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forms of agrarian system from the Mughals. During the British times the Revenue Department was the pivot of Administration. The collector was the virtual monarch at the district, around whom the entire administration revolved. Study area: The district of Ongole was formed on February 2, 1970. The area of Ongole district, before it came into existence as a district on 2nd February 1970, had parts of Nellore, Kurnool, Guntur districts of Andhra Pradesh. It was renamed as Prakasm district in 1972 in memory of the eminent freedom fighter, later Chief Minister of Andhra state, Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu, who was born at Vinodarayanipalem a hamlet of Kanuparthi village of this district. The district lies between 15, 30’ and 16 north latitudes, and between 79 and 80 east longitudes. It is bounded on the north by Guntur and Mahabubnagar districts, on the south by Kadapah and Nellore districts, on the east by the Bay of Bengal and on the west by Kurnool district. Among the coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh the district is the largest in geographical area. It occupies the fourth place in the state with an extent of 17,626 square kilometers which account for 6.41 percent of the total area of the state. Over all, it has 56 Revenue Mandals with 1081 villages and 11 towns. Objectives 1. To examine the different types of Revenue Administration in the study area. Methodology The present research work has been carried by based on secondary data. The data had been collected books, articles related on Parkasam district of Andhra Pradesh. The data has been collected mainly from the Prakasam district Gazetteer.
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Revenue Administration under the pre-British rule: The district came under the rule of different dynasties such as the Mauryas,the Satavahanas, the Chalukyas, the Cholas, the Kakatiyas the Rayas of Vijayanagar, the Qutb Shahis, the Mughals and the Asaf Jahis, all of whom had a highly developed the revenue administration to a considerable extent. The collection of land revenue was entrusted to local persons on a payment of a fixed commission. This practice widely followed by the Hindu rulers was adopted by the Muslim rulers has well for political reasons. They formed our the collection of land revenue to their vassals the displaced and dispossessed aristocracy an feudal land lords in the process of an appearing consolidating political power. These re-enters retained one tenth of the revenue they collected and remitted the remaining ninetenths to the royal treasury. The Vijayanagara kings particularly during their later days followed this system rigorously and farmed out the revenue to Military Chiefs. When the central power became weak, these revenue farmers usurped the right to collect land revenue on a hereditary basis and assumed the role of Zamindars and Palegars which process led to the growth of big zamindars. The Venkatagiri zamindari (Nellore Dt.) had among other extensive estates in the erstwhile Darsi, Podili and Ongole taluks of Prakasam District of the 1081 villages in the District as many as 531 villages were Zamindari villages of Venkatagiri, Chundi, Kalahasti etc. estates. They were spread over the erstwhile taluks of Ongole, Addanki, Kandukur, Kanigiri, Podili, Darsi, Markapur and Giddalur. Land Revenue Administration under the British government: Prakasam District was constituted out of Nellore, Kurnool and Guntur districts, land revenue administration in this district varied slightly from one track to another. When the British
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permanently occupied Nellore district in 1801 they were anxious to introduce the system of permanent settlement which was introduced early in Bengal in 1973. J.B.Travers, the collector of the district was asked to make an estimation of its resources. He made a rough survey and classification according to the village. He fixed the extent of land the inhabitants of each village agreed to cultivate, estimated the produce and commuted the share of the government into money. The rates of assessment were very high, ranging from Rs.27 and 3 annas to Rs 2 and 4 annas per acre in wet and from Rs. 9 to 4 annas in dry lands. In regard to garden crops and cash crops like turmeric, betel, tobacco and vegetables raised in whatever kind of land were charged a special rate, on account of this many cultivators hope to obtain land on better terms, preferred to migrate to the ceded districts. In 1809, a triennial lease to renters was introduced under which villages were rented out for three years on ground of facility collection of revenue. It was replaced in 1812 by a decennial lease. Bothe the systems were disastrous to the renters and the ryots, the former finding themselves unable to pay the lease a month and the later deserting the village unable to bare tyranny and oppression. On the expiry of the lease period 1822 a combination of Ryotwari and rent systems called the ‘Putcut Ryotwari” system was introduced by the collector Mr. Fraser. Under this new system ryots were allowed to apportion the same over different holdings and the ryots were also allowed to classify the lands in their own way. Accordingly substantial reductions in the rates of assessment were effected and subsequently the experiments made by several collectors were not successful in this period. New Revenue Settlements under the Crown: Prakasam District was taken up for resettlement of the expiry of 30year period. General reclassification of soils and changes in standard crop selected for calculating the commutation rates were not
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made in the resettlement. The commutation rates however showed an increase of 34 percent in the price of paddy for the entire district even after allowing the usual deductions such as expenses of cultivation and a higher rate of 15 percent for profits. The prices of other crops also showed an increase ranging from 50 percent in the case of Sajja and 25 percent in early Jonna. Increase in the rate with a maximum of 25 percent was recommended. The Government however, felt that the maximum increase should not be more than 121/2 percent on dry and 18 ¼ percent on wetlands. They also ordered the introduction of an additional dry group and additional class under irrigation sources to distribute equitable. The sources to distribute equitable the increase in the incidence of assessment consequently there was no revision in the rates of assessment on dry lands in Kanigiri taluk and 22 villages of Kandukur taluk. Twenty eight rates in dry and 22 in wet were introduced in 1316F (1906-07) and they ranged from 4 rupees 8 annas to 4 annas and from 8 rupees 14 annas to .2 respectively. The deltaic portion of Bapatla and Narasaraopet came up for complete reclassified and consolidated rates of wet assessment were changed on lands under ayacut channels the lands under sonas, which were included in the permanently improved and regar series in initial settlement were relegated to the arenaceous series. The sonas were placed in the II, III and IV classes of irrigation sources and corresponding delta rates were imposed on the wet lands under them. As the government did not agree with the pattern of social classification devised by paddison, the officer entrusted with the task of drawing the resettlement scheme, lands were reclassified with 53 percent of the soils being placed in the alluvial series, 85 in arenaceous and 22 in regar. The standard grains adopted were white paddy for wet lands and black paddy and Jonna for dry. Prices of 20 no-famine years
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ending with 1311 F (1901-1902) were taken into account in computing the commutation rates. For calculating the rates of white paddy, prices prevailing in wet taluks including Bapatla alone were taken in account. Villages were divided into two groups, those situated on the sea board, which were ill-served by the means of communications and away from trade centers, and those containing dry lands which suffered in quality due to saline efflorescence having been reduced to the lower group. After the usual deductions of 15 percent for cartage and merchants profits, 10 percent for wet and 15 percent for dry due to vagaries of monsoon and unprofitable areas and expenses (ranging from Rs. 4 to Rs14) per acre of wet and Rs.3 to 8-8-0 per acre dry) for cultivation, the money rates were rounded off in a lenient way to half the value of the net produce so that the assessment rates arrived at ranged from Rs.2 toRs.12-8-0 wet and 4 annas to Rs. 6 on dry land. Resettlement (1905to1909&1935) The former talukas of Cumbam and Markapur came up for resettlement during the period 1905 to 1909. In this resettlement no change was made except transforming the dry lands. Which were classified at the time of initial settlements as “permanently improved’ to appropriate classes and sorts. Lands left unclassified or registered poramboke were also classified in the resettlement. The irrigation sources were classified in to five classes according to their condition and capacity. Taking the economic conditions prevailing in Markapur and Cumbam taluks into account, no increase was made in dry rates. The second resettlement of those taluks was undertaken by start in 1935. Except in the case of lands transferred to assessed waste since the resettlement, no general reclassification of soils was done. The irrigation sources of III and IV classes were reclassified according to their capacity. An enhancement was contemplated in the wet assessment rate by 64 percent and dry assessment rate by 121/2
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percent but it was not given effect to as the resettlement operations did not find favour with the ryots. Lands registered as dry which were regularly cultivated with wet crops for five years in Cumbum and Markapur taluks, were transferred to wet lands registered as wet but without continuous cultivation for five years were transferred to dry. Subsequently,
the
system
of
conducting
resettlement
operations were discontinued in the ryotwari villages and periodical increase in dry and water cess on flat rate system was resorted to. In the estate villages taken over under the Andhar Pradesh (Andhra area) Estates (Abolition and Conversion into Ryotwari) Act of1948, settlement operations were conducted but the elaborate process adopted during the initial and resettlements were dispensed with. The rates prevailing in the neighbouring government taluk were adopted. The limited of concern of the Government of the day in the agricultural sector could reduce the burden on the peasant in general. They, however, continued to face problems due to the faulty implementation of the Government policies by the revenue officials who quite often indulged in the arbitrary collections such as water-rate and double-crop assessment even on the lands irrigated under private water sources, which had in fact been remitted by the government earlier. Interestingly enough, the district collectors and the Board of Revenue more often justified such collections on one ground or the other. The problems of royts were further vitiated by the ill-fed activities of the local officials who often indulged in unauthorized collections. What hurt the ryots most was the consistent efforts by the Government to collect arrears of revenue even during the times famine by resorting even to distrait of property of the helpless ryots whenever they failed to pay the arrears.
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Conclusion: Throughout
the
history
of
the
country,
land
tax
constituted a principal source of revenue to the state. The pattern and process of assessment and collection of revenue from one political era to another is different. The ‘Jatakas’ (Stories of previous incarnations of the lord Buddha) and the ancient text book known as the laws of Manu state that the king being, ‘Prithvipathi’ had undisputed right to a portion of the produce of land. The ruler’s share was actually one-sixth of the gross produce except in times of war when it was raised to onefourth. These shares which formed the early system of land assessment were, however, subject to revision in subsequent periods. Lack of proper concern and care from agricultural officers and government, peasants are suffering and developing feeling of hatred towards them. Their feelings are much natured by the media and the local leaders both at the local level and at the national level. A series of land reforms introduced in Andhra Pradesh and left their impress on the pattern of agrarian relationship in this district. Ryots also should accept certain suggestions given by the officers and government. References: 1. Prakasam District Samachara Darsini 1995 2. Government District Gazetteer, Prakasam, A.P. Government, Hyderabad 2011, 3. Dr.A.V.Raman Rao, Economic Development of Andhra Pradesh 17661957 4. C.Umamaheswara Rao, IAS, A Paper on Land Revenue Administration –A Historical Look 5.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryotwari
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IMAGES OF WOMEN IN T. S. ELIOT’S PRUFROCK AND OTHER OBSERVATIONS Miss. Dhavaleswarapu Ratna Hasanthi Research Scholar Dept. of English Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Abstract Nobel Laureate Thomas Stearns Eliot (1888-1965) was one of the greatest poets and prominent playwrights of the twentieth century, who has indispensably influenced and shaped modern literature. Along with other poets like Ezra Pound, W. B. Yeats, Maria Rilke, Amy Lowell, Hilda Doolittle, Williams Carlos Williams, and few other poets and writers, T. S. Eliot ushered in a new trend in literature, quiet different form the earlier romantic poets and writers. The early part of the twentieth century was a witness to the changes in times. Women of the era came forward seeking egalitarianism on par with men, in many aspects of life. This paper concentrates on Eliot’s perception and depiction of women and the various images of women in Prufrock and Other Observations (1917). It showcases how these images depict the values and norms of his contemporary society. The different images, of women showcased in the poems, talk about the uneventful lives of women young and old, of Eliot’s times. The women showcased in the poems are all victims of patriarchal control that pays no heed to their wants, likes, feelings and desires. Patriarchal gender norms thrusting performativity on to women ignore their individuality. The women are shorn of self-reliance on the physical, emotional and psychological planes due to patriarchal dominance, disparity and societal pressure.
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Nobel Laureate Thomas Stearns Eliot (1888-1965) was one of the greatest poets and prominent playwrights of the twentieth century, who has indispensably influenced and shaped modern literature. Be it the use of Symbolism, Imagism or the significant use of Eastern philosophy in his works, they stand as a unique whole, sighting his contribution to modern literature. Along with other poets like Ezra Pound, W. B. Yeats, Maria Rilke, Amy Lowell, Hilda Doolittle, Williams Carlos Williams and few others poets and writers, T. S. Eliot ushered in a new trend in literature, quiet different form the earlier romantic poets and writers. The aforesaid writers ushered in an Avant-grade trend in writing poetry. Eliot’s poetry or poetic dramas have unique subjects, styles and modes of presentation. The early part of the twentieth century was a witness to the changes in times. With the death of Queen Victoria in 1901, and the advent of Edward I’s reign, English society observed a laxity in ways of life and life styles. Furthermore, important events of the era like World War I, Darwin’s theory of Evolution, advancement in scientific temper, rampant industrialization, Freudian psychology, women’s suffrage movement, all led to the questioning of religious beliefs and the advancement towards a freer society in terms of morals and manners. Women of the era came forward seeking egalitarianism on par with men, in many aspects of life. Arresting, baffling, surprising, juxtaposing humour and truth, Eliot lays bare the psyche of human beings. The odd, the obscure, the beautiful and the grotesque all find a place in his works. Mundane language and situations are part of his poetry, yet their representation sets his poetry apart from his contemporaries. The tragic, the comic, and the very ridiculous all find a place in his poetry. Pessimistic language and portrayal of the unpleasant are balanced by comic language and delight offered by his poems. Contrary, un-related ideas are blended together in his poetry into coherent wholes, and new www.ijmer.in
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images. Normal logical order in his poetry is often convoluted. Despite the use of simple language; allusions, quotations, historical events and figures, and references to works of literature make it a challenge for readers, to easily comprehend his poetry. The significant contribution of Eliot’s poetry is clearly seen in collections like Prufrock and Other Observations (1917), Poems (1920) The Waste Land (1922) The Hollow Men (1925) Ariel Poems (1927-1954) Ash Wednesday (1930) Coriolan (1931) and Four Quartets (1945).
A clear
distinction is clearly seen in his early and late poetry. The year 1927 marks a clear distinction between his early and late poetry. Eliot in 1927 took British citizenship and was baptised into the Anglican Church. This marked a change in his personal life, the subject matter and style of his poetry. The poetry written by him after 1927 tended to become religious. It reflects his Unitarian and Anglo-Catholic belief. The term gender is entirely different from sex, as the sex of an individual is the biological experience of being male or female, while gender is about social performativity in society based on sex. Culture of a society limits the magnitude to which certain behaviours and tasks are reserved for a gender. Gender of an individual is a pivotal aspect in influencing an individual’s predilections, comprehensions, and values. Furthermore, gender roles are ever demanding, and are in a constant state of mutability based on milieu and time. The gender disparity of Eliot’s times and the subservient position given to women finds an indispensible place in his works even in his poems, the very short ones. Women in America and England were fighting for their rights, during the last and early decades of the nineteenth and twentieth century. They were fighting for equality and the right to vote. Women started questioning authority and the thrust upon gender roles that put them far behind men, with no rights and ownership of their own. Women were only considered as wombs and sex toys with no individuality. They had no specific pronounced right in terms of property, education,
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income or individual propriety as they were mere appendages to their men. Women of Eliot’s times were asking for inclusion on par with men in religious, political, economic and academic fields. The advent and stay of the feminist movement brought about a great difference between men’s expectation of women, and how women really were during Eliot’s times, and this is clearly mirrored in his poetry. The society in which Eliot lived was the epicentre of fashion, culture and the changing times. Men who were dandies and women who were fashionable butterflies were ubiquitous in America and England. The times were a witness to the exploitation of girls sexually and otherwise. “The code of speech of Eliot's upper-class Protestant milieu was almost inhumanly restrained in what it allowed by way of permissible conversation between the sexes. Women especially were in general confined to a virginal modesty
coupled
with
acceptably
superficial
"cultural"
interests" (Vendler Helen 86). Women of the times sought education and employment as a means to achieve freedom. Values and norms too changed from earlier times, which made women seek a liberal outlook towards life. Through his poetry, Eliot displayed “an understanding of gender as performative and the anxiety of his modernism rests partially on the instability of performativity produces” (Pondrom 324).
identity
such
The main poems of Eliot’s first volume of poetry appeared in various literary magazines till they were compiled into a whole and titled as Prufrock and Other Observations and published in the year 1917. The volume catches and showcases the perplexity of his times, the decadent times to which he has been a witness to. The times that he has seen and lived as a youngster, find not an honourable or revered reference, but a satiric mention in his works. As adroitly proposed by Frances Dickey “Prufrock and Other Observations appears now so quintessentially modern not because it bears www.ijmer.in
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the stamp of upheavals but because it profoundly shaped literary modernism” (120).
The moral chaos of his times, the
hypocrisy in societal values, mores and sentiments all find a satiric mention in Prufrock and Other Observations (1917). The poems in Prufrock are a “sociolect of his own generation." They talk about how much of anything, an individual "wishes to take aboard, individualize and make his own.” (Vendler Helen 85).
They
depict Eliot’s sexual, psychological and spiritual conflict, and sway. George Williamson commenting on Eliot’s early poetry has deftly observed that his: “satiric observation of life, which includes most of his early poetry, is less important than the feelings which support it, or find expression in it. Here the shortcomings are less momentous than the things they come short of. And we shall be well advised to seek in this world of appearance the hidden reality that matters. In general the objects of his satiric observation all his most sensitive points; he does not write of things about which he does not care or has not cared.” (77-78) Eliot at the same time does not advocate moral policing, yet talks of making a better humane society where there is fair chance to live and let live. The poetry of urbanite Eliot depicts the mores and manners of city life. Raised in downtown St. Louis and educated in Cambridge, and having had wandered on the streets in Boston and Paris, Eliot’s poetry is replete with urban imagery. The main thematic concerns of Prufrock and Other Observations (1917) are an individual and his/her relationship to conventions and society, with fellow human beings, man versus woman interactions, human feelings for each other, power dynamics, sexual politics of the times, despair of loss, feelings of fear associated with the tumult of World War I, love and the
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uncertainty attached to it, conflicting views on gender and women, concealment and search for the self. This paper concentrates on Eliot’s perception and depiction of women and the various images of women in Prufrock and Other Observations (1917). It depicts how these images depict the values and norms of his contemporary society. C. Day Lewis in The Poetic Image has rightly said that an image “is a picture made out of words,” (17) and has hinted at the possibility that “a poem may itself be an image composed from a multiplicity of images (18). Eliot’s poetry is replete with imagery. The most intriguing and perplexing images in his poetry are that of women. The twelve pomes of the volume taken for analysis are “The Love Song of Alfred J Prufrock,” “Preludes,” “Portrait of a Lady,” “Rhapsody on a Windy Night,” “ Morning at the Window,” “The Boston Evening Transcript,” “Aunt Helen,” “Cousin Nancy,” “Mr. Apollinax,” “Hysteria,” “La Figla Che Piange.” All the poems present different images of women of different age groups and classes of his contemporary times. The first poem of the collection Prufrock and Other Observations (1917) concentrates on a male speaker who is a male chauvinist than a good lover. The speaker of the poem “The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock” talks of a woman as a mute consort, rather than an individual with a mind of her own. Further, the speaker expects the woman to groom and doll up herself, to meet people, at a place he would take her. It seems as if he treats her more like a colourful appendage, rather than a living woman with her own wants, desires and mind.
“The synechdocal description of bodies,”
(Query 352) reflects lust, rather than love of Prufrock for his female companions. The women of the urban world whose company he seeks are not “integrated wholes to Prufrock” (Eliot Complete Poems 4). The representation of women as pleasure givers and companions alone is clearly visible in the poem. The poem is more like a recollection www.ijmer.in
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of the romantic escapades of the speaker into a sublime world of his own. The speaker’s need to escape into the surreal world is clearly visible in the poem and he wants to take his female companion along with him, to his world of fantasy. He does not consider her as one with a mind of her own, but desires togetherness with her. “The speaker wonders whether he can “force the moment to its crisis” with his female companion” (Cooper 2). He talks of destroying, and creating, which he would like to do, with the lady addressed in the poem. How far she would agree to all that he wants, is the question that quivers him. He is in doubt about his visions and revision of togetherness with her, but he certainly wants her to be by his side, till he turns old and bald, without knowing whether she is interested in him. Women addressed or talked about in the poem, are reduced to non-entities decked up to entertain men. They are projected as voluptuous, sexually enticing bodies, and nothing beyond it. “The love song of Alfred J Prufrock” lyrically expresses the dilemmas, doubts and uncertainties that are part of Prufrock’s personality rather than depicting his love for a woman. The poem encompasses a misogynist view of women. “Portrait of a Lady” is less poetically intense than the first poem of the volume Prufrock and Other Observations (1917). It evokes many cultural images and connotations about women, during Eliot’s era. The word ‘lady’ used in the poem evocates the image of a woman who is an epitome of beauty and grace, and sticks to decorum. The lady in the poem is put forth in the image of a woman who is knowledgeable, elitist in outlook, with overflowing wealth and prestige. The epigraph of the poem taken from the play The Jew of Malta by Christopher Marlow, talks about a woman who is a fornicating wench. The terms ‘Lady’ and ‘fornicating wench’ are contradictory terms which perplex the reader at the onset of the poem. The beginning of the www.ijmer.in
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poem evokes two different images of women, one appreciated by patriarchal standards and the other derided and misunderstood. It talks about the choices available to women. The poem talks about intimate, personal intimacies between men and women, and how they influence each other. The lady seems to be going through an emotional crisis with unfulfilled emotional needs. Perhaps friendship alone is the solacer to the woman. Life is uninteresting to the lady without friends, who are her lone solace. The following lines express her perspective of life. “ ‘You do not know how much they mean to me, my friends, And how, how rare and strange it is, to find In a life composed of so much, so much of odds and ends, .” (Lines 1921) Further, the poem brings into focus the conformed sexuality of women under patriarchal dictates during Eliot’s era. The sexual frustration of the lady is well shown in the image of the lady crushing flowers in her hands, and her pining for the friendship of a much younger man. The sexual feelings are buried by the woman to maintain patriarchal decorum despite dissatisfaction. The poem juxtaposes the weakness of the woman with the invulnerability of the man. The invulnerability of the young man is brought into focus in a line of the third section which hints at the misogynist attitude of Eliot that reads as: “You are invulnerable, you have no Achilles’s heel” (Line 61). Further the invulnerability of the young man is contrasted with vulnerability of the lady cast in the image of a “broken violin” (Line 57) which hints at Eliot’s gender biased thinking exposed through the poem. The poem “Portrait of a Lady” projects the hypocrisy and double standards in Eliot’s society towards women. It warns women against futile, unsuccessful relationships that take them nowhere. The aged lady is presented through a man’s
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perspective who fails to understand the angst and frustration pent up in women against patriarchal dictates and conformities. The portrayal of the lady and through her, the depiction of women of the times, is not a positive one. It is insensitive towards the emotions and needs of women. The sexual politics displayed in the poem give priority to patriarchal propriety, which is a death knell to women’s needs and aspirations. First published in the year 1915 in Wyndham Lewis Blast “Preludes” was later on included in the volume Other Observations
Prufrock and
(1917). Divided into four sections the poem
presents vignettes of city life. The sordid living conditions of modern, urbane life of Eliot’s times are criticized in the poem. The third section of the poem finds the speaker observing an urban woman who is far away from the ideal woman to be sought after. The speaker observes the psyche of an urban woman and reports: You tossed the blanket from the bed, You lay upon your back, and waited; You dozed and watched the night revealing The thousand sordid images Of which your soul was constituted. . . . (Lines 24-28) Above all, the poem depicts the speaker’s longing for a selfeffacing, pure woman, who is difficult to be found in the real world. The lines in section IV of the poem hint at Eliot’s longing for the ideal woman akin to a goddess, yet is an infinitely suffering thing: I am moved by fancies that are curled Around these images, and cling: The notion of some infinitely gentle Infinitely suffering thing. (Lines 48-51) www.ijmer.in
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The poem reflects Eliot’s longing for the ideal woman who is nearly unattainable in the real world. Than the other poems in the volume, this poem reflects Eliot’s penchant for the ideal woman who is lovable and desirable to the core. Published in the July 1915 issue of Wyndham Lewis Blast “Rhapsody on a Windy Night,” was later on included in Prufrock and Other Observations (1917). The poem is more about the urbanite man structured by the moorings of city life. As an observer roaming on the streets of the city during early hours, much before dawn, the speaker describes a prostitute on the road. The woman persona of the poem is in a mess, wearing a tattered dress, stained by sand. She is in a sad brooding mood waiting for someone, who least cares for her. The lines “ . . . you see the corner of her eye/twists like a crooked pin” (Lines 21-22) give us the image of a crying woman. The poem paints the image of a crying, melancholic woman undone by men and the odd circumstances of life. The poem does not present a positive image of women, but showcases them as frail and gullible. “Morning at the Window,” describes the observation of the speaker on a morning at the window, watching people pass by. The poem paints the image of working class women waiting at the gates of their places of work in muddled dresses, to join daily chores. The poem depicts the new inclusion of women in the work force making a living on their own, on par with men during Eliot’s era. “The Boston Evening Transcript”
along with
“Aunt
Helen,” “ Cousin Nancy,” are based on the lifestyle of the former ruling class Bostonians also known as Boston Brahmins with whom, Eliot was at close quarters with. The Boston Brahmins were a rich, highly educated, cultured, and socially exclusive community. They were the direct descendants of English families who settled down at the
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Massachusetts Bay colony in the early seventeenth century. They were famous for their puritan rigorousness, Yankee ingenuity, American idealism and progressive free thinking. With the advent of modernism, the Bostonian high society saw cracks in its high held culture, as it was becoming more urbane. As pointed out by Mattheissen, Eliot: “sets out to make his characters actual by confining perceived
his description of them to fully significant
detail
or
characteristic
gesture. . . . what ‘happens’ in Eliot’s shorter poems is frequently no more than a single observed impression. . . .
Yet, as also in James
there is something both pictorial and dramatic in this
single
impression,
something
acutely
revelatory of the people described” (68-69). “The Boston Evening Transcript” was first published in the year 1915 in Poetry Magazine and later on collected in Prufrock and Other Observations (1917). The woman persona of the poem Harriet cousin to the speaker is shown eagerly waiting for the Boston Evening Transcript to keep herself abreast of the happenings in Boston society. The speaker of the poem admits that the readers of the paper sway like a ripe corn field in the wind, after reading it. Women like Harriet eagerly wait for it, as the paper bids good bye to the pessimism of the day through the news in it. The poem hints at the monotonous daily life of high society. Bostonian women like Harriet who are home bound have nothing much to do. Women are shown eagerly waiting to taste the zing of life, through papers like The Boston Evening Transcript. The poem succinctly hints at the monotonous lives of high society women who search for the essence of life through material ways. The poem “Aunt Helen” was published in Poetry magazine in October 1915 much before being compiled into Prufrock and Other
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Observations (1917).
The persona of the poem “Aunt Helen” is
about a female relative of the speaker.
The poem describes the
tediously stifling rituals of Eliot’s elite, polite society. The poem brings into focus the rituals and Bostonian assumptions that are at the brink of extinction. It criticizes Bostonian code of absolute decorum. The focus of the poem is a female relative who is unmarried, single and is no more. The woman Aunt Helen is a rich heiress, with no marriage or issues. The poem depicts that the woman spinster was rich, well educated, cultured and amply provided for, when alive. She lived in a fashionable posh building, with servants at her beck and call. The poem brings into focus how the life of a spinster was during Eliot’s times. Unmarried women were looked down upon during Eliot’s times. They were mostly seen as burdens on the family. The fortunate few spinsters who had access to wealth could get on with life, and could have their stance at least at home. The poem harps on the point that unmarried women, who inherited property, had none to bequeath it to, than to their pets and servants. Women during the times were trying to get the right to property and sustenance, and this poem questions and contradicts such a need in the case of spinsters. It talks about the frailty, whims and caprices of human nature. It talks about how unmarried elderly spinsters of Eliot’s times were saddened by their own uneventful lives. With nothing eventful in her life when alive, Aunt Helen has none to bequeath her cultural and monetary legacy to. The dalliance of the footman and the housemaid showcased in the poem depict the rise of undercurrent modernity and sexual pervasiveness against New England culture. The poem reflects upon the snobbishness of unmarried older women. The poem reflects on the idea that had Aunt Helen lived, she would have never allowed the frivolity between the footman and the maid. Saying so, the poet indirectly comments on the strict decorum tinted by jealousy under spinster women like Aunt Helen. The overall view of women projected by Eliot through the poem, especially unmarried women like Aunt Helen, is unflattering and www.ijmer.in
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misogynistic. It projects as if marriage alone would confer wholeness on women. Another poem in the Boston Series titled “Cousin Nancy” is about another unmarried female persona named Nancy Ellicot, who belongs to the elite ruling class of Bostonians. The young woman showcased in the poem is a wilful, un-submitting woman who has her own mind, and way of living. The poem showcases that the energy of the young energetic woman is aimless and wandering. She does what she wants, the way she wants to, least caring about the laws of the gentry. The poem showcases the fickleness associated with fortune and riches. It shows how human opinions, values, ethics and evaluations change with money and time. Nancy is a woman who sticks to the aristocratic ways of life, yet does things that she likes, the way she wants to. Yet, the poem puts forth the view that, Nancy is not true to the genteel ruling class, ways of life. The poem showcases the encroachment of modern urban culture. The poem states that Nancy smokes and dances to the surprise of the older women around her. They know not what the outcome of all this would be, but enjoy her company. The rise of a counterculture that is modern and free, showcased in the poem hints at the unseating of hegemonic New England culture, during Eliot’s times. The older generation of women are at awe and bewilderment at the new women like Nancy around them. The poem is a testimony to the changing times of Eliot’s era. “Mr. Apollinax” was published in Poetry Magazine in September 1916, and later on included in Prufrock and Other Observations (1917).
The poem behind the exotic image of Mr.
Apollinax presents images of decadent women of the early decades of the twentieth century. The women personae of the poem Mrs. Phlaccus and Mrs. Cheetah belong to the upper ruling class and they are depicted entertaining guests, and doing nothing significant. They stick
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to gender performativity by rote without any particular like or dislike for it. “Hysteria” though a very short poem depicts the changes in man woman relationships, social conventions and perceptions of late Victorian and early Edwardian society. The poem is modelled in the form of the speaker’s observation of a woman before him. The lady and the gentleman showcased in the poem are at the tea table, and the lady erupts into a hysterical state laughing unstoppably, shaking her whole body, much to the bewilderment of the waiter, and the surprise filled amusement of the gentleman. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary describes hysteria as “a state of excitement, fear or anger in which a person, or a group of people loses control of their emotions and starts to cry, laugh, etc.,” (766). Hysterical behaviour is often seen as an outcome of certain psychological afflictions or trauma, but during Eliot’s time, hysteria in women was seen as an offset of anxiety brought on account of sexual dissatisfaction, rather than trauma. The poem depicts the woman persona in the poem in the aforesaid light. The speaker sees the woman more as a satiator of his lust, rather than as an individual with an individuality of her own. As pointed out by Frances Dickey: “ “Hysteria” . . . identifies sexuality, rather than social convention, as the primary challenge to the integrity of the self. Between “Conversation Galante” of 1909 and “Hysteria” of 1915, each representing a conversation between a man and a woman, Eliot’s first book “observes” the changing meaning of “love” from the end of the Victorian ear to the beginning of the modern, Freudian, post war world.” (131) The penultimate poem in the volume “Conversation Galante” was earlier titled as “Short Romance”. It was later on published in
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its present form in the year 1917 in the volume Prufrock and Other Observations (1917). The poem is like a romantic dialogue between a man and a woman. The poem reflects adopted conventions, interactions, and feelings, scripted by societal conventions between men and women. It depicts struggle of the sexes for an upper hand. The speaker of the poem aims at gaining the lady’s undivided attention through his love talk. The male persona depicted in the poem is in a camouflaged argument with the woman. The woman’s limited conversation in the poem showcases her dilemmas and unresolved conflicts. The poem is more like a conflict of the sexes amidst conflict of wits and attitudes. The poem projects women as reticent listeners to patriarchal conformities, be it their love life or societal life. The final poem of the volume “La Figlia Che Pinage” which means “the daughter/young girl who is crying” when translated into English was composed by Eliot in the year 1911 while he was in Cambridge Massachusetts, after his return from Paris. It was later on included in the volume Prufrock and Other Observations (1917). The epigraph of the poem in Latin from Virgil’s Aeneid when translated into English means “How shall I remember you, maiden?” The woman persona of the poem is described from the point of view of the speaker. She has left an indispensible impression on his mind. The speaker asks the female persona of the poem to weave sunlight into her hair like an angel with a halo. The male persona of the poem has left the female persona of the poem as the soul leaves the body it has used. The young woman is left speechless and sad, after separation from her loved one. The young woman of the poem who ever she is, be it Aphrodite/Venus according to the epigraph, or any modern woman, when the allusions in the poem are not considered, has been showcased as a person with fugitive anger and unhappiness in her eyes. She is not in control of her life, love life, lover or situations around her. She is torn inside out on account of grief, due to emotional apathy from both
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the men talked of in the poem. The female persona of the poem is shown as a “sculptured libation-bearer in a posture of sorrow” (Smith 27). Appreciated for her beauty, the beautiful maiden evokes the interest of the men around her. Furthermore, she cogitates their mind and amazes them, but is not free. The image of the woman projected through the poem is that of a beautiful, meek, weak woman whose life is conformed and deflated by men. The poem projects the patriarchal view that women are frail and weak. The
whole
volume
of
poems
Prufrock
and
Other
Observations (1917) is in search of a woman figure, who can be a source of fulfillment. A woman is talked of as a person who would offer wholeness to his life and be his better half or companion. Yet, Eliot’s view of the ideal woman reflected in this poem is that of a subordinate to man, rather than a woman who has her own mind and is self-intact as she wants to be. Eliot tends to measure the ideal woman and real women, against the modern women of his times. The volume presents the poet’s search for a self-effacing, modest, loving, caring woman figure like mother Mary. In his penchant and search for the ideal woman, Eliot finds women of his generation not up to the mark. The poems in the volume Prufrock and Other Observations (1917) showcase images of different kinds of women, of different classes, and different age groups. “The love song of Alfred J. Prufrock” is less a love song and more a social commentary on Eliot’s times. The poem depicts the image of a young woman as a mute consort, decked up doll, colourful appendage and pleasure giver for the romantic escapades of the speaker. “Portrait of a Lady” showcases a woman who is facing mid-life crisis and has nothing significant to do, other than sticking to perfomrative gender norms of entertaining friends to tea. Further, the image of the woman is that of a seductress enticing a younger man, showing high society women of Eliot’s times in bad light. The poem "Preludes" puts forth the image of a woman who www.ijmer.in
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is infinitely gentle and suffering as highly desirable, when compared to a free urban woman. The poem reflects Eliot's longing for the ideal woman, who is not easily found in the real world. “Rhapsody on a Windy Night,” paints the image of a crying, lamenting woman disengaged by men, and the odd circumstances of life. “Morning at the Window,” presents the image of working class women ready to attend daily chores. “The Boston Evening Transcript” depicts the monotonous life of high society women, searching for the zing of life. “Cousin Nancy” showcases a young woman full of energy and verve, and is an enigma to even women around her. As a tom boy, Cousin Nancy is showcased as a self-willed woman, who evokes surprise than respect. The image of the old spinster in “Aunt Helen” is that of snobbish old woman who has had stay put people, ill-at-ease, when alive.
The poem “Mr. Apollinax”
unlike the exotic title depicts
women sticking to gender performativity. “Hysteria” projects the anxiety faced by women in a very bad light, by showcasing it as a result of sexual dissatisfaction, rather than trauma. “Conversation Galante” projects the image of women with unresolved conflicts. “La Figlia Che Pinage” paints the image of a crying woman, who is conformed by the men in her life. The different images, of women showcased in the poems, talk about the uneventful lives of women young and old, of Eliot’s times. Despite being educated, cultured they are not able to lead appreciable lives, as per societal standards. The society around them, asks them to conform to patriarchal expectations which the women are not ready to oblige to, but are finally forced to oblige. They lead unwholesome lives as they are not allowed to lead the lives they want to. They are show as insignificant halves without men in their lives. As pointed out by Pondrom “Eliot’s views of gender and struggles with his own are inextricably bound up with his views of women, and what some readers have seen as misogyny may be more accurately
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read as anguish over conflicted sexual feelings that the poet seeks to order and control” (325). The images of women depicted in the volume Prufrock and Other Observations (1917) project women as, wilful, selfish, snobbish in a negative light without fulfillment of any sort. They are a testimony to the gender biased vistas and low esteem conferred on women during Eliot’s younger days. The images of women in the poems show them as vulnerable, and men as invulnerable, but the societal pressure and gender performativity that make women vulnerable are not talked about. The poems project societal expectations of women, and how women who don’t conform to them are cast away as seductresses, snobbish bores and tomboys. The women showcased in the poems are all victims of patriarchal control that pays no heed to their wants, likes, feelings and desires. Patriarchal gender norms thrusting performativity on to women ignore their individuality. The women are shorn of self-reliance on the physical, emotional and psychological planes due to patriarchal dominance, gender disparity and societal pressure. References
Cooper, Xiros John. The Cambridge Introduction to T. S. Eliot. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2006. Print. Dickey, Frances. “Prufrock and Other Observations : A Walking Tour. ” A Companion to T. S. Eliot. Ed. David. E. Chinitz. USA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2009. 120-132. Print. Eliot. T. S. Collected Poems 1909-1962. New York: Harcourt, Brace. 1963. Print. Eliot. T. S. The Complete Poems and Plays 1909-1950. New York: Harcourt.1952. Print. “Hysteria” The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. 7 th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 766. Print. Query, Patrick. “ “The Pleasures of Higher vices”: Sexuality in Eliot’s Work.” A Companion to T. S. Eliot. Ed. David. E. Chinitz. USA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2009. 120- 132. Print. Lewis, C. Day. The Poetic Image. London: Jonathan Cape. 1947.Print.
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Mattheissen, F. O. The Achievement of T. S. Eliot. Boston: Huffington Mifflin Company 1935. Print. Murphy, R. Elliott. Critical Companion to T. S. Eliot: A Literary Reference to his Life and Work. New York: Facts on File. 2007. Print. Pondrom, Cyrena. “Conflict and Concealment: Eliot’s approach to Women and Gender.” A Companion to T. S. Eliot. Ed. David. E. Chinitz. USA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2009. 324-334. Print. Smith, Grover. T. S. Eliot's Poetry and Plays: A Study in Sources and Meaning. Chicago: Phoenix Books and The University Of Chicago Press.1956. Print. Vendler, Helen, Hennessey. "T. S. Eliot: Inventing Prufrock." Coming of Age as a Poet: Milton, Keats, Eliot, Plath. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England: Harvard University Press, 2003. Print. Williamson, George. A Reader’s Guide to T. S. Eliot. New York: The Noon Day Press 1966. Print.
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DROUGHT TOLERANCE IN COWPEA CULTIVARS IN TELANGANA A. Srujana PhD Research Scholar Dept of Botany University College of Sciences Osmania University, Hyderabad, India The contemporary global raises in food and fuel prices have brought stress on the agricultural construction programs and have caught the concentration of many scientists. Prior reports on the state of global meals insecurity have shown that about 800 million people in developing countries have inadequate food (FAO, 2000). In subSaharan India, meals crises are persistent although excessive proportions (i.E. 70 - eighty five%) of Indians are lively in agriculture (Borlaug, 1991). For example, India produced best 5.3% of the arena’s total cereal crop yield and plenty of experiences show that meals imports into India have elevated prior to now decade (World financial institution, 1989; von Braun and Paulino, 1990; FAO, 2000). Not too long ago, an international financial institution file estimated that the price of cereal yield develop in India through the years was once as little as zero.7% compared with progress rates of 1.2 - 2.Three% in other developing regions of the sector (AGRA, 2007). Explanations for the aforementioned tendencies nevertheless, were among other causes due to low soil fertility, low grain yield and N2 fixing cultivars, cultural practices as well as pests and sickness infestations (Boserup, 1981; Cooper et al., 1996; Sanchez et al., 1997). To reverse these developments and develop creation of those plants nevertheless, will require concerted efforts by way of more than a few key avid gamers so that you can beef up soil fertility; establish competencies excessive yielding and N2 fixing genotypes of vegetation similar to cowpea which can be predominantly customary in India, increase cultural practices www.ijmer.in
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which can confer insect pest resistance, and enhance yield steadiness with the aid of varying plant densities and cropping systems. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) is without doubt one of the indigenous Indian grain legumes grown greatly in the course of India. It is the fundamental food legume, fodder and cover crop (Padulosi and Ng, 1990; Jackai and Adalla, 1997). Furthermore, it mature early, has vast adaptation, drought tolerant, and has broad range of local genetic variety. Nutritionally, cowpea grain is wealthy in protein (20.5 - 31.7%), carbohydrates (56.Zero - sixty five.7%); fats (1.1 - 3.0%), fiber (1.7 four.5%) and moisture (6.2 - eight.9%) (Onwuliri and Obu, 2002). The fairway leaves and young pods of cowpea incorporate as much as 35% protein and are eaten as greens. Cowpea additionally involves different important vitamins and minerals, akin to Ca, Fe, nicotinic acid and thiamine (Platt, 1962). Just like different grain legumes, cowpea has been shown to incorporate a few different most important phytochemicals rich in wellbeing-associated homes (Anderson et al., 1999). Probably the most recognized wellness promoting phytochemicals in cowpea includes phytosterols, saponins, isoflavone, phenolic compounds and antioxidants (Narasinga, 1995; Warrington et al., 2002). Likewise, it has been said that compounds reminiscent of flavonoids, anthroquinones, anthocyanidins and xanthones almost always reward in these legumes, possess brilliant antioxidant undertaking (Siddhuraju et al., 2002). Diets wealthy in polyphenolic compounds were prompt to be associated with longer existence expectancy due to their richness in well being-related homes akin to anticancer, antiviral, antiinflammatory hobbies, results on capillary fragility, and ability to inhibit human platelet aggregation (Stampfer et al., 1993; Deshpande et al., 1996; Hertog and Hollman, 1996). In this regard, elevated dietary consumption of common flavonoids and anthocyanins through these legumes may correlate very well with multiplied health advantages www.ijmer.in
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stated above. Cowpea has a competencies for prime grain yields of up to 3,000 kg.Ha-1 (Rusoke and Rubaihago, 1994). Nonetheless, cowpea grain yields varies extensively, and, are in the average of 200 - 300 kg.Ha-1 in Nigeria (Alghali, 1992); 200 - four hundred kg.Ha-1 in Uganda (Sabiti et al., 1994); 50 - 300 kg.Ha-1 in Niger (Sivakumar et al., 1996); four hundred – 1,000 kg.Ha-1 in Cameroon (Langyintuo et al., 2003); and from 1100 – 1400 kg.Ha-1 in Ghana (Adjei-Nsiah et al., 2008). This means that farm yields of cowpea ranges between 1.7% and 46.7% of its expertise. This low yields is due to a few constraints including quite a lot of organic and environmental motives, corresponding to drought and salinity, low stage of symbiotic N2 fixation, high genotypic version and cultural practices (Onwuliri and Obu, 2002). So, to expand construction of cowpea more work is required on, among other reasons, resolution of high yielding genotypes and assessing them beneath unique plant densities and cropping programs. Because of lack of knowledge about genotypes which are high yielding and excessive N2 fixation, a task underneath the aid of McKnight foundation used to be launched in June 2003 in three Indian international locations i.E. Ghana, South India and Telangana aimed toward making improvements to cowpea yield competencies through enhancing N2 fixation. The essential events integrated progress of inbred excessive yielding cowpea populations and screening selected cowpea genotypes below subject conditions for accelerated N2 fixation and seed grain yield. Hundred and twenty six (126) cowpea cultivars obtained from farmers, village markets, countrywide programmes, gene banks, and international centres in Ghana, South India and Telangana have been selected from preliminary commentary trials of the germplasm as parental traces for use in breeding programmes, were initiated in Ghana, South India and Telangana. After knowledge assortment on quite a lot of parameters equivalent to plant growth, N2 www.ijmer.in
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fixation, flavonoids awareness, pest resistance, seed yield, nutritional value of cowpea leaves and farmer choice, the scan genotypes had been ranked. Of the 126 cowpea landraces, 27 had been chosen for additional subject evaluation. These parental traces incorporate 11 from Ghana, 7 from South India and 9 from Telangana. It is from these selections that the five cowpea genotypes had been picked and extra established towards agronomical practices equivalent to varying plant density and cropping procedure on a quantity of attributes including improvement of N2 fixation, insect pest resistance and grain yield when grown with sorghum as cereal to mimic farmer’s practices. Growing cowpea and cereals comparable to sorghum and maize as intercrops for food production is preferred among subsistence farmers in the tropics and sub-tropics, semi arid regions, humid tropics, Mediterranean areas and temperate climates (Francis, 1986). For illustration it was once estimated that 99% of cowpea and seventy five% of maize (Zea mays L.) in Nigeria are grown as combined tradition (Okigbo and Greenland, 1976). In Ethiopia, most of the beans creation is from combined tradition programs (Seyoum, 1990). Likewise, in Latin america 60% of maize and 80 - 90% of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are produced with the aid of small scale farmers from combined culture procedure (Francis et al., 1976). In Spain, forty% of the cultivated land is used for intercropping (MAPA, 1999). All these farmers have adopted this system for the reason that they want to maximise space and plant progress resources (Lie et al., 2003b); crop best and wide variety (Mpairwe et al., 2002). However, grain yields and N2 fixation because of farmers practices in India has until just lately been disappointing and commonly attributed to negative agronomic practices and low yielding cowpea genotypes used by farmers. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench.) is the fifth foremost small grain cereal crop after wheat, rice, maize and barley (FAO, 2005) produced in drier areas of the tropics, as a rule grown in blend with www.ijmer.in
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cowpea in low input cropping techniques. In India, well managed sorghum crop yield ranged from 1,700 - 4,800 kg.Ha-1 however current yields are suggested to be not up to 600 kg.Ha-1 (Rohrbach et al., 2005). Developing sorghum in combo or in succession with cowpea is one way of improving grain yield. For instance sorghum grain yield has been stated to arrive 1,620 kg.Ha-1 following legume crop compared with 420 kg.Ha-1 following sorghum (Ncube et al., 2007). In a similar way, growing sorghum in mixture with peanuts (Arachis hypogea L.) has been proven to be extra productive than monoculture crops combined (Azam-Ali et al., 1990). There is confined know-how on how different cowpea plant densities and cropping methods influences sorghum when grown with cowpea genotypes. Plant density defines the quantity of crops per unit subject, which in flip, determines the dimensions of the subject available to the character plant (Wiley, 1979). Plant population is likely one of the foremost cultural practices that impact on gentle regimes of the canopy as good as interplant competitors, as a consequence, affecting canopy constitution and light-weight conversion effectivity (Akunda, 2001). Larger strain on progress assets has been pronounced from higher plant densities when compared with slash plant densities (Wiley and Osiru, 1972). For instance, in soybean (Glycine max. L.), high plant density could affect the extent of the fibrous root method which contributes to more advantageous drought tolerance (Pantalone et al., 1999). Likewise, excessive plant density may just impact foliage association and multiplied gentle interception (Fisher and Wilson, 1976). In soybean-sorghum mixed culture, Akunda (2001) pronounced that varying plant density is also a conceivable replacement of manipulating the
productivity
of
crops
via
their
changes
in
physiological strategies. This assessment seeks to determine the influence of plant density and combined tradition on photosynthesis and chlorophyll content material, www.ijmer.in
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rhizosphere nutrients, phosphatase routine, yield, N2 fixation and flavonoids and anthocyanins concentration in cowpea genotypes grown with sorghum. 1.2 possible influence of varying plant densities, cropping programs and distinctive legume genotypes on photosynthetic hobbies, leaf chlorophyll contents, δ 13C and water-use efficiency. Photosynthetic premiums and the related parameters (i.E. Stomata conductance, intercellular CO2 concentration, and transpiration price), chlorophyll contents, δ 13C and water-use efficiency (WUE) are littered with several agronomical practices. It's postulated that alterations in plant populace within the discipline, plant arrangements and kind of plant species and genotypes involved in such cropping methods would have an impact on photosynthetic parameters (Lima Filho, 2000; Li et al., 2008). For the reason that high plant densities are related to each lower grain and dry subject yields as a result of decreased photosynthesis, it's evident that low plant density will in all probability increase such premiums (San-oh et al., 2004). For illustration, growing plant density has been proven to expand shading within the field, leading to problem in mild intensity, accordingly, decreasing the photosynthetic cost and the related parameters (Feigenbaum and Mengel, 1979; Hirose et al., 1988; Schieving et al., 1992a). In a similar way, the decline in leaf area ratio used to be involving improved plant density hence of competition for gentle (Pons et al., 1989). A few experiences have reported photosynthetic expense variability amongst a couple of plants reminiscent of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (Evans and Dunstone, 1970; Austin et al., 1982), maize (Heichel and Musgrave, 1969), faba bean (Vicia faba L.), pea (Pisum sativum L.) (Schulze et al., 1999) and soybean (Buttery et al., 1981). This suggests that the kind of crops worried in cropping systems have an important outcome on the fuel exchange parameters. For illustration, variant in C allotted to nodulated legumes and the amount of C respired has been mentioned to
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range with species (Herridge and Pate, 1977; Atkins et al., 1978). In a similar fashion, adaptation to greater C expenses throughout N2fixation varies with species (i.E. Faba bean, fashioned bean, cowpea and pea). For instance, faba bean has better photosynthetic capability in comparison with pea (Schulze et al., 1999). Competitions for plant growth causes equivalent to mineral factors below larger plant density and combined tradition have led to emphasize, differences in photosynthetic premiums and chlorophyll contents (Akunda, 2001; Ghosh et al., 2006). For illustration, N deficiency due to stress brought on via dense population of plants significantly diminished leaf chlorophyll attention leading to expanded leaf reflectance (Daughty et al., 2000; Zhao et al., 2003; Zhao et al., 2005), for that reason, affecting leaf photosynthetic rate (Muchow and Sinclair, 1994; Zhao et al., 2005). Similarly, ok deficiency has been reported to negatively affect cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) vegetation photosynthesis (Bednarz et al., 1998; Zhao et al., 2001). Enhancement of plant progress has been intently involving excessive leaf photosynthesis due to expanded CO2 attention which most often is dependent upon subject plant association and composition such as combinations (Miller, 1988; Nicolodi et al., 1988). That is on account that bigger CO2 awareness can suppress RuBP oxygenase activity; shrink photorespiration and expand carbon assimilates for plant development and development (Lawlor and Mitchell, 2000). Even though chlorophyll attention is an important physiological parameter for indicating plant photosynthesis popularity (Carter and Knapp, 2001), it has been stated that stress associated reasons may just influence in extended leaf reflectance due to lowered amount of chlorophyll content as a consequence affecting its operate, as a consequence, becoming an indicator for photosynthesis status in vegetation (Carter and Knapp, 2001).
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Plant progress (measured as biomass) is influenced via many causes, including water availability, C accumulation through photosynthesis, and the provide of mineral nutrients (Chiroma et al., 2006a, b). Photosynthetic CO2 discount by way of Rubisco in C3 crops comparable to cowpea and different legumes as well as in C4 vegetation equivalent to sorghum (i.E. After PEPC have delivered CO2 to Rubisco) is for this reason the key process driving progress and agronomic yields in such crop species (Chiroma et al., 2006a, b). Theoretically speakme, excessive 13C discrimination (i.E. Extra terrible δ 13C price) tends to denote low water-use effectivity, even as low 13C discrimination (i.E. Less poor δ 13C price) suggests excessive water-use effectivity (Farquhar and Richards, 1984). Therefore, the δ 13C values of crop plant species were located tocorrelate with photosynthetic water-use efficiency estimated from gas-trade experiences (Farquhar and Richards, 1984). However, very bad δ 13C values in younger legume leaves might also arise from the give of 13C-depleted C to shoots and different organs similar to nodules, roots and developing pods through the Rubisco-operated C3 pathway (Yoneyama and Ohtani, 1983). However due to the fact these organs additionally repair CO2 via phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) by way of C4 pathway (Lawrie and Wheller, 1975; Coker and Schubert, 1981), it will shift the very bad δ 13C value of organs to a much less poor δ 13C worth. So, it is principal to control agronomic practices by means of manipulating the cropping systems, plant densities and sorts such that constraints main to scale down photosynthetic expense and related parameters are minimized so that you could improve both biological and reasonable yields of extraordinary crop factor in mixtures. 1.Three Some rhizosphere chemical reactions and mineral elements awareness as affected by plant densities, blended tradition practices and different legume genotypes. A couple of reports have indicated that the rhizosphere pH is generally influenced via the relative proportions of cations and anions absorbed
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with the aid of the plant root (Marschner, 1986; Haynes, 1990); the corresponding variations in net excretion of H+ and HCO3- (or OH-); excretion of organic and amino acids (Marschner et al., 1987) and free up of CO2 from the roots (Laurent and Eric, 1994). Legumes similar to cowpea growing in blended tradition with cereals have the potential to modify soil pH in their rhizosphere (Muofhe and Dakora, 2000; Rao et al., 2002; Li et al., 2004b) by means of specific mechanisms such as response to emphasize involving plant growth in special cropping methods. These mechanisms include web positive extra cations over anions entering the roots of N2-fixing legumes with characteristic free up of protons (Romheld, 1986; Gahoonia et al., 1992). Different mechanisms involves alterations in redox capabilities precipitated by means of plant roots in the rhizosphere ensuing into the release of proton (Ahmad and Nye, 1990); more suitable liberate of H+ as response to P-deficiency localised behind the basis tip as these mentioned in maize and rape (Brassica napus L.) intercrops (Gregory and Hinsinger, 1999) and root excretion of carboxylic acids which can be able of mobilising P through ligand trade or dissolution and occupation of P-sorption sites (Fox and Comerford, 1990; Gerke, 1995). Outcome from a study with the aid of Rao et al. (2002) concluded that rhizosphere acidification used to be gentle precipitated and is regulated by way of photosynthetic undertaking as an alternative than extra cations uptake in the rhizosphere. These researchers arrived at this conclusion after a NO3-fed non-symbiotic cowpea vegetation was put under illumination and tremendously raised protons attention in their rhizosphere much like the aforementioned mechanisms. Therefore of these mechanisms, mineral factors which can be or else unavailable equivalent to P, okay, Ca, and Mg turn out to be on hand for plant diet (Vandermeer, 1989; Hauggaard-Nielsen and Jensen, 2005). So far, few reviews have stated on the chemistry of rhizosphere soil, involving
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difficult plant densities, cropping programs and genotypes. Extra understanding of such interactions is hence predominant. 1.Four Acid and alkaline phosphatase events in plant roots and soils as influenced by plantdensities, cropping methods and legume genotypes Phosphatase enzyme events have been most likely labeled as being acid or alkaline (Vincent et al., 1992). Acid phosphatase (AcPA) enzymes are the important factor of root exudates and occur greatly in plant organs (Duff et al., 1994). However, alkaline phosphatase (AlkPA) pastime is fungus and bacteria borne mostly discovered within the soil (Nakas et al., 1987; Tarafdar and Claassen, 1988). As a consequence, these enzymes are involved in the mobilisation of P inside the rhizosphere of many cropping programs (Marschner, 1995; Strom, 1997). For illustration, liberate of acid phosphatase from roots as root exudates has been implicated as a mechanism to enhance the availability of sparingly soluble mineral factors such as P, Zn, Fe, and Cu (Marschner, 1995; Jones et al., 1996a). There is proof that acid phosphatase play major roles in remobilising inside P from the plant organs (Duff et al., 1991; de Pozo et al., 1999; Baldwin et al., 2001); facilitate unencumber of P from natural P-esters with the aid of exudation of those enzymes into the rhizosphere (Lefebvre et al., 1990; Miller et al., 2001) and synthesises glycolate from Pglycolate (Christella and Tolbert, 1978) as well as glycerate from three-PGA for the duration of photorespiration (Randall et al., 1971). The P released is then available for plant nutrition. Such actions would be intricate and improvement the combined culture methods Phosphatase undertaking is widely littered with soil bio-bodily-chemical residences, management practices and cropping methods (Alvarez and Guerrero, 2000; Criquet et al., 2000). A couple of studies have proven that in one of a kind agronomical settings, plants compete with each and every different strongly for assets (Tilman, 1988; Vandermeer, 1989). In combined tradition methods for illustration, most beneficial intercrop yield www.ijmer.in
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expertise is achieved by maximising complementarity at the same time minimising competition between component plants (Willey, 1979; Vandermeer, 1989). The reduction in competitors has been instructed to be a fundamental intent for improved whole yields in blended culture procedure (Vandermeer, 1990). Apart from complementary useful resource use, facilitation has been steered as a mechanism of acquiring larger whole yields in intercrops as opposed to monoculture. Such beneficial interplay would be the outcomes of increased resource availability through root triggered changes within the rhizosphere together with phosphatases events (Ae et al., 1990; Vandermeer, 1990). There's proof that vegetation which are very good at getting access to sparingly to be had P can have a beneficial result on plants with which they're in mixture with (Horst and Waschkies, 1987; Li et al., 2003). Plant species and cultivars, nevertheless, possess various root morphological and physiological mechanisms for adapting to low P deliver, with various P mobilising methods (Gahoonia et al., 1997; Neumann et al., 1999). Although there may be titanic literature on acid and alkaline phosphatase pursuits, outcome of specific plant densities and cropping techniques on these activities when cowpea genotypes are grown in combo with sorghum are nonetheless lacking. Availability of such expertise will permit extra working out on the dynamics of acid and alkaline phosphatase events in blended cultures and set up their outcome on theavailability of plant nutrients in such agronomic programs.
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KANDUKURI VEERESALINGAM: THE PIONEER OF TRANSLATION STUDIES IN TELUGU Noojilla. Srinivas Lecturer in English Govt. College (A) Rajahmundry
Dr. T. Ashok Associate Professor Andhra University Campus Kakinada
Introduction: It is a known fact that no language or literature can survive for a long time or come into fame without looking at the area of translations. It is by welcoming the famous works of other languages into it, and allowing the translations of its own into other languages – a language or literature can prove its mettle and get laurels. Translation studies – as an important area of literature has gained its name and fame in the recent decades. However, the seeds of Translation studies in Telugu have been laid by almost a century ago – by Sri Kandukuri Veeresalingam Panthulu. The Two Yugakarthas: It is a well known fact that the present day modern Telugu literature –owes a lot to the contributions made by the two great personalities of modern era - who are called Yugakarthas – namely, Sri Kandukuri Veeresalingam Panthulu, and Sri Gurajada Apparao. Among these two, the former personality i.e., Kandukuri garu had made an indelible mark on the Modern Telugu literature particularly, the prose form – across the genres – novel, short stories, Prose dramas, Journal articles and social essays. Perhaps there was no variety of prose that was not touched by Sri Kandukuri. That was the reason why he was called ‘Gadya Tikkana’ in Telugu literature. A unique feature of Kandukuri was that – he was not a mute preacher of social reforms, but an active practitioner which adds value to his written works. www.ijmer.in
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Kandukuri: Modern Star of Telugu Renaissance: When the Telugu society was suffering from its superstitions, and innumerable social evils, Kandukuri became the pioneer of reforms – social as well as literary. Kandukuri effectively used his literary skill to spread awareness on social evils and reform the society. He used different mediums such as – News papers, journals, magazines, stories, dramas, novels, etc. For his pioneering service, Kandukuri was fondly called the ‘Modern Star of Telugu Renaissance’. He used his pen as a weapon to dispel the darkness of superstition and social vices. He heralded the dawn of a new era and marked a new awakening. Kandukuri’s Contributions to Telugu Literature: Kandukuri’s contribution to Telugu literature is two-fold. He was not only a great writer, but a reformer of the style. He can be considered as the bridge between the old ornate style and the common man’s language. Kandukuri was born in an age when simple and lucid style was anathema even for newspapers and periodicals. High-sounding language was considered the hallmark of the quality of writing. Veerasalingam proved that he was capable of performing all the timehonoured poetic feats and of exploding the bombast of prose. But, after establishing himself as a traditional writer, he slowly brought change in his style and demonstrated to the world the importance of simple, lucid, and straightforward language. He was the first to write a Telugu novel, Telugu drama, books on natural sciences and history in Telugu, and Telugu prose for women. Pioneer of Translations into Telugu: Kandukuri has influenced the modern Telugu Literature not only with his original works, but also with valuable and remarkable translations – mainly from Sanskrit and English. He brought the
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invaluable treasures of Sanskrit literature and English literature to the reach of the common Telugu reader with his translations. (i)
Contribution for Scientific Writing:
Unlike his contemporaries, Veeresalingam wrote on scientific subjects like Physiology, Zoology and Astronomy in a style intelligible to the common reader. With his translations from English, Veeresalingam gave Telugu an elevated status. At a time when English was predominant for scientific writings, he developed the latent power of Telugu for Scientific expression. He pioneered coining Technical terminology in Telugu. (ii)
Contribution for General Literature:
Kandukuri’s contribution to the general literature of Telugu is immense. Influenced by the English and other European litearatures, Kandukuri gifted different literary forms to the Telugu Literature. Essays, novels, biographies, dramas, farces and satires were all his gift to Telugu. His autobiography (Sweeyacharita) was the first autobiography in Telugu and his Rajasekhara Charita, the first novel in Telugu. This is said to have been influenced by the English novel ‘The Vikar of Wakefield’ written by Oliver Goldsmith. This novel was translated into English under the title, Fortune’s Wheel. He wrote a Telugu grammar on modern lines and a series of graded readers for school children influenced by the English Grammar books. Kandukuri explained that he had started translating Oliver Goldsmith's The Vicar of Wakefield but because he thought a foreign story may not interest Telugu readers, he adapted it instead for writing a novel he titled Rajasekhara Charitramu (The Story of Rajasekhara) (1878). Among other reasons, Kandukuri's objective was to counter superstitions in Telugu society. Rajasekhara Charitramu was once again translated into English as The Fortune's Wheel (1887) and published in London. www.ijmer.in
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Veeresalingam was the first person to introduce Journal writing into Telugu literature. Influenced by the English journals – on society and literature, and other essayists in Bengal, Veeresalingam edited and published many journals. With his journal articles, he used his pen as a weapon for striking hard at social evils. He started Vivekavardhini, a monthly journal. to point out and criticize the defects in the society. He also maintained several other journals like Chintamani, Sateehitabodha, Satyasavardhani, Satyavadi etc., and helped develop the Telugu literature and reformation of the society. Veeresalingam was perhaps the first pathfinder in the field of research. His History of Telugu Poets was a monumental work, which involved tremendous labour, patience and perseverance. This was influenced by the Biographies produced on English writers in 18th and 19th centuries. Veeresalingam was very much influenced by the satire dramas written by the English dramatists. He ridiculed the opponents of women's education in many satires, lampoons and drama like "Brahma Vivaham." Through his writings he criticized early marriages, Kanyasulkam (price of bride) and marriages of old men with young girls. Kandukuri’s Satyaraja Poorvadesayatralu (Satyaraja's Travel to the Distant Lands) was a satire on the contemporary male chauvinistic world. This novel pleads for a better treatment of uppercaste Indian women. He also translated Goldsmith's poem "The Traveller" into Telugu as "Pathtika Vilasam" (1892) and William Cowper's John Gilpin (1875). It is not only fiction, drama, and poetry that he brought from English to Telugu but also Thomas Henry Huxley's book on physiology. Kandukuri not only borrowed from the colonial literary tradition, for instance the genre of the novel, but also emphasized its importance.
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Similarly, he tried to create the image of a modern woman based on the model
of
British
women.
For
example,
his
autobiography
Satyasanjeevani (1887) (The Rejuvenator Called Truth) was meant for a women readership. Importantly, he published a number of texts from English literature in his journal Satihitabodhini (The One That Preaches Good to the Wives) (1883), a journal intended for women's awareness. He also published a collection of the life stories of "ideal women" such as Joan of Arc, Mary Carpenter, Elizabeth Frye, and others. And he borrowed from Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels for his Satyaraja Poorvadesayatralu (1891) (Satyaraja's Travel to the Distant Lands). Kandukuri’s Other famous Prose works: Kandukuri considered literature as a source of fighting against social evils and hence, instituted revolutionary activities in his writing. Some of his works include:
Vyavahara Dharmabodhini (A Primer of Legal Practice, 1880)
Brahma Vivaham (A Brahman Wedding, 1880).
He wrote many plays on the attitude of Brahmin priests and dubious ethics of people in power, such as
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o
Prahlada (1885),
o
Satya Harischandra (1886),
o
Tiryag-Vidwan Mahasabha Demented Scholars, 1889),
o
Maharanya Puradhipatyam (A Sovereign of the Forest Kingdom, 1889), and
o
Viveka Deepika (A Torch of Wisdom, 1880).
(The
Assembly
of
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He
translated
Malavikagnimitram
(1885),
Prabodhachandrodayam (1885-91), and Ratnavali (1880) from Sanskrit
His translations influenced by the English literature are: o
Many dramas of Shakespeare
o
and Chamatkara Ratnavali (Comedy of Errors, 1880),
o
Ragamanjari (Sheridan's Duenna, 1885), and
o
Kalyana Kalpavalli (Sheridan's The Rivals, 1894) from English.
As explained above, Kandukuri Veeresalingam, the morning star of Telugu Renaissance, played an instrumental role in enriching the Modern Telugu literature with his translations and original works influenced by the English and European literature. The later writers including poets took the inspiration from Kandukuri and followed the European styles and genres in creating an entirely new, modern Telugu literary resource. Therefore, Kandukuri Veeresalingam can be said as the pioneer of Translation studies in Telugu. References:
1. Kanakasabha Ramana, Post Colonial Socio-Cultural Reflections in Telugu Literature, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol:6 2012-07-23
2. Kuruganti
Seetharamaiah,
Navyandhra
Sahitya
Veedhulu,
Hyderabad: Telugu Viswavidyalayam, 1994.
3. Meruga Ramesh, Kandukuri, Kandukuri Veeresalingam – Pioneer Of Modern Andhr, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Inventio, www.ijhssi.org Volume 3 Issue 10 ǁ October. 2014 ǁ PP.46-47
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4. Pingali Lakshmi Kantham, Andhra Sahitya charitra (Telugu), Hyderabad: Vishalandhra Publishing House, 1991.
5. Suneetha Rani, Women's Worlds in the Novels of Kandukuri and Gilman, CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture, Volume 14 (2012) Issue 2, Purdue University Press.
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